REPORT
ON THE
ILLINOIS RIVER SYSTEM
WATER QUALITY CONDITIONS
Part I Text
January 1963
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control
Great Lakes-Illinois River Basins Project
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART ONE — TEXT
Chapter
I Introduction
II Water Resources and Uses
III Water Borne Wastes
IV Field Investigations
V Physical and Chemical Investigations
s? VI Biological Investigations
:.r~ VII Bacteriological Studies
;r
•~i VIII Special Studies
^ DC The Impact of Waste Loads on the Stream
5
X Summary of Existing Conditions
PART TWO — TABLES
Volume one - Tables for Chapters II and III
Volume two - Tables for Chapters IV through IX
PART THREE -- GRAPHS AND ILLUSTRATIONS
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I INTRODUCTION
This is a special report prepared by the Public Health Service,
United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, at the
request of the Department of Justice, The report presents the results
of comprehensive investigations of water quality in the Illinois River
System.
Following the entry of the United States into the latest liti-
gation concerning the diversion of Lake Michigan water at Chicago, the
Department of Justice requested the Public Health Service to furnish
such definitive data and information as would be helpful in advancing
testimony pertinent to the complex issues before the Court.
Background
The Public Health Service, oldest of the organizations which
comprise the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, is the
principal health agency of the Federal Government. Through the Public
Health Service, the Government works with the States and with other
agencies, both public and private, to discover and apply knowledge
that will help to prevent disease, improve health, and promote the
public welfare.
Public Health. Service studies in water pollution had their
beginnings around the turn of the century, following recognition that
water-borne diseases were occurring at an alarming rate. By 1910,
the first systematic, large-scale investigation of water quality on
an area-wide basis was undertaken by the Service. The ensuing half
century has brought tremendous strides in the acbrawomerib erf ksx
and in expansion of water quality aotivitiias in the Public Health
Service, leading to the formation in I960 of the largest and most
divweified task Tope* yet assembled to attack the problem in a
specific area — the Great Lakes and Illinois River Basins Project.
The Project, with headquarters at 1819 West Pershing Road,
Chicago, is part of the Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control
of the Public Health Service. Its permanent staff includes special-
ists covering a broad gamut of professional skills, including sanitary
and hydraulic engineers, chemists, biologists, bacteriologists, radio-
chemists, oceanographers, and economists. The Project has drawn
freelyi,on the resources, human and physical, of the Service's Robert
A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center at Cincinnati, Ohio. Valuable
counsel and advice have been received from a Technical Advisory
Cctomittee, appointed by the Surgeon General. Membership on this
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tributary to the Illinois River by construction of two diversion canals
at Chicago. One of these canals, the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal,
cuts through the divide to connect the Chicago River, naturally tribu-
tary to Lake Michigan, with the Des Plaines River, a tributary of the
Illinois River.
The other canal, the Calumet-Sag Canal, connects the Calumet
River, tributary to lake Michigan, with the Sanitary and Ship Canal a
short distance upstream from the confluence of that canal with the
Des Plaines River.
At the western terminus of the canal system, the Des Plaines
River is about 30 feet lower in elevation than the water surface of
Lake Michigan; Lockport Dam, at that point, serves both for containment
of Lake water and regulation of flows. The flow releases at Lockport
are made up of three components: l) waste water flows representing
water withdrawn by pumpage from Lake Michigan for municipal and
industrial use and returned to the canal system; 2) the runoff from
rainfall on the upstream drainage area; and 3) diversion from Lake
Michigan.
The canal system in the Chicago area has three existing inlets,
and a fourth potential future connection, from Lake Michigan. The most
northerly inlet, at Wilmette, has gated controls at the Lake inlet and
connects the Lake via the North Shore Channel with the North Branch of
the Chicago River. The central inlet, also gated for control, is at
the mouth of the Chicago River. The southernmost inlet is through the
Calumet River and Lake Calumet to the Calumet-Sag Canal. Flow control
for this inlet is currently provided by the Blue Island Locks at the
eastern terminus of the Calumet-Sag Canal. Future control will be
accomplished through the new Thomas J. O'Brien Locks, a part of the
enlarged navigation channel project now under construction by the Corps
of Engineers, Department of the Army. Future plans for navigation
facilities call for possible construction of a canal connecting the
Calumet-Sag with the Indiana Harbor Canal; such a connection, if made,
will constitute a fourth inlet from the Lake to the stream system.
From Lockport downstream to the mouth of the Illinois River,
the main stem is a succession of slack-water pools formed by the navi-
gation dams that make it a part of the inland waterway system. In-
cluding Lockport, there are seven locks and dams on the system, with
lifts ranging from 10 to 40 feet. The waterway was designed and is
maintained to provide for vessels having a maximum draft of 9 feet.
Heavy siltation has occurred in the pools, with the result that a
typical pool consists of shallow overbank areas on each side and a
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channel portion which is kept clear by a combination of river current,
barge traffic, and dredging.
Investigation
The scope of investigations carried out in connection with these
studies includes the following:
1. An appraisal of the water resources, presently used and
potentially developable, in the area.
2. An inventory of the present uses of the water resource,
with quantitative data on the amounts withdrawn for municipal
and industrial purposes and the extent of on-site use for
other purposes.
3. Identification of sources of pollution, with quantitative
data on the amount and nature of water-borne wastes, and the
points of discharge to receiving waters of waste residues.
4. Field surveys, including a program of water sample
collection in the Lake, in the Chicago area, and downriver;
measurement of stream flows associated with sampling; physical
observation of field conditions; biological field investiga-
tions; and several special field studies as subsequently
described herein.
5. Laboratory tests to define the physical, chemical,
radiochemical, biological, and bacterial quality of the
collected water samples.
Analysis
From the facts gathered in this investigation, the following
conclusions are reported herein:
1. The present degree of pollution of surface waters in the
area; and
2. The relative magnitude of effects of the several causes of
pollution. "*
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II WATER RESOURCES AND USES
Page Number
WATER RESOURCES 1
Surface Water
Ground Water
MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLIES 3
Surface Water Supplies
Ground Water
INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLIES 5
NAVIGATION 5
FISH AND WILDLIFE 6
Sport Fishing
Commercial Fishing
Wildlife
Fish Shocking Studies
RECREATION 9
IRRIGATION 10
"TOWER 11
REFERENCES 13
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II WATER RESOURCES AND USES
Water Resources
Water resources in the Chicago area and the Illinois
River Basin consist of Lake Michigan,, the eastern portion of the
Little Calumet River watershed tributary to Lake Michigan., the
Illinois River and its tributaries, and ground-water supplies.
Each of these resources is discussed in the following sections.
Surface Water
Lake Michigan has a surface area of 22,kOO square miles
and a volume of 1170 cubic miles. The average depth is 276
feet and the maximum depth is 923 feet. It is connected with
Lake Huron, which is at the same level; by the Straits of
Mackinac. The average flow from Lake Michigan into Lake Huron
has been estimated to be about 48.000 cubic feet per second (cfs),
(1)
Lake Michigan is replenished by the runoff from k5,500
square miles of land surface tributary to the lake and by an
average annual precipitation on the lake surface of about 30, ^
inches as estimated from rainfall on surrounding land areas, (2)
In addition to the outflow through the Straits of Mackinac, water
is diverted at Chicago. This diversion,including water supply
withdrawal; has averaged about 3250 cfs since January, 1939-
Evaporation from the lake surface is estimated from climatological
data to average about 28 inches per year. (3)
The average water surface elevation of Lake Michigan is
578.80 feet International Great Lakes Datum. The average
annual difference between lowest and highest monthly average
lake level is about one foot^ with the seasonal high usually
occurring in July and the seasonal low usually occurring in
February. (2)
The eastern portion of the Little Calumet River watershed,
amounting to about 335 square miles., was diverted into Lake
Michigan through Burns Ditch in 1926. The average annual
runoff of this area is 310 cfs.
The average annual precipitation in the Illinois River
Basin is about 3^-5 inches, increasing downstream from northeast
to southwest. Southeastern Wisconsin has an annual average of
32,7 inches, while at the southern extremity, the area around
Grafton has an annual average of 36.3 inches. About 60 per cent
of the annual total occurs in the 6-month period April through
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September, which includes nearly all of the growing season.
December, January, and February are usually the months of
lowest precipitation. Long-term records in the basin show
annual extremes for the basin of 23 inches and k$ inches of
precipitation.
Basin runoff is essentially equal to precipitation on the
basin plus diversion and water supply withdrawals at Chicago
minus evaporation and transpiration, plus or minus the change in
ground-water storage. Evaporation and transpiration are by far
the major losses. On the Illinois River Basin, annual evapora-
tion from lakes and reservoirs range from 30 to 3& inches, in-
creasing downstream, with a basin average of 33 inches. About
80 per cent of the evaporation occurs in the months May-October.
(3) Total evapotranspiration is about 70-80 per cent of evapor-
ation from free water surfaces. Thus, the average annual water
loss is about 25 inches. Runoff, the residual of precipitation
minus evapotranspiration, ranges from about 7«5 inches to 10
inches in the basin.
Stream flow increases downstream as augmented by tributary
inflow. Figure II-l shows the average discharge along the main
stem of the Illinois River from its origin at the junction of the
Dee Plaines and Kankakee Rivers to its mouth at Grafton, Illinois.
Tributary inflow is shown as a vertical line at the point where
a tributary enters the main stem. The average discharge is shown
with and without diversion at Chicago. Also shown on Figure II-l
are minimum recorded monthly flows, minimum recorded daily flows
on the main stem, and the contributions of the Des Plaines and
Kankakee Rivers at their junction.
The Basin is subject to drought and flood conditions.
Nearly all of the tributaries with drainage areas less than 1000
square miles have had minimum daily flows near aero. Low flows
generally occur in the months July through October.
Ground Water
Ground-water conditions, quality, and availability vary
widely over the Illinois River Basin. The Chicago area has
large supplies of good water from the deep sandstone artesian
aquifers. However, this is becoming inadequate, as general
water levels decline as much as 40 feet per year. (k) As a
result of this decline with associated increased pumping costs,
more use is being made of the shallow Silurian dolomite as an
aquifer. Water from the Silurian dolomite is generally hard
(100-1000 mg/l) and has more than 0.3 mg/1 iron in 80 per cent
of samples. (5)
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systems also serve many adjoining communities located farther
from the lake. All water from Lake Michigan is filtered and
disinfected, with exception of the north portion of the Chicago
System which is disinfected but not filtered. A new filtration
plant is under construction to provide Chicago's North Side
with filtered, water.
The Illinois River is not used as a source of municipal
water supply until it reaches Peoria, Illinois. At Peoria,
the supply comes from three sources; conventional ground-water
wells, an infiltration gallery with induced, recharge from the
Illinois River; and a new water plant drawing directly from the
River. Depending on river water elevations, Grafton can take
its water supply from the Illinois River, from the Mississippi
River, or from wells. Other surface water supply sources are
located away from the main stem on tributaries of the Illinois
River.
In this watershed 5,37^,000 persons, served by surface
water supplies use 1,179 ^KJD (million gallons daily) or about
220 gallons per capita-day. Surface water sources supply 87
per cent of the water used in the Illinois River Basin and serve
75 per cent of the population. lake Michigan accounts for 1,121
M3D or 95 per cent of the surface water supplied, serving
U,950,000 persons. Within the Illinois River Basin this accounts
for about 69 per cent of the population served from surface and
subsurface sources combined.
Ground Water
Almost all communities outside the Chicago Metropolitan
area use ground water as a source of municipal water. Several
communities in the Chicago area also use ground water sources
for water supply.
Ground water sources in the Illinois River Basin serve
1,761,000 persons with 169 M5D which amounts to about 96 gallons
per capita-day. • Ground water is used by 25 per cent of
the population served by municipal supplies, but accounts for
only 13 per cent of the volume of water supplied in the basin.
The next section of this chapter states that industrial
use of water, other than for power generation, is about 1500 MJD.
Total municipal and industrial water use in the basin, other
than for power generation, is therefore about 3900 M}D.
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Most of the wells in the Illinois River Basin outside
the Chicago area take water from the glacial drift or the first
few feet of bedrock below the glacial drift. Deeper drilling
into bedrock usually yields water too mineralized for use.
Large industrial and municipal supplies are often obtained
from buried bedrock valleys which have been filled with coarse
material and act either as water-table or artesian aquifers.
Deep bedrock wells in the downstream portion of the
Illinois River Basin would doubtless yield large quantities
of saline water} and may someday be important.(6) However,
at present the glacial drift and the upper bedrock units are
the only potential ground-water sources.
In the upstream part of the basin, a buried bedrock
valley., the Newark Valley in southeastern and southern Kane
and southern DeKalb Counties,appears to be a potential supply
of water. The limits and potentials of the valley have not
been fully mapped; but the valley may become important. (?)
The Chicago area faces a problem with declining water
levels and increasing pumping costs. More efficient use could
be made of existing ground-water supplies. For example; much
water is pumped to waste by dewatering of stone quarries. This
causes large cones of depression in areas of present shortage.(8)
Municipal Water Supplies
Municipal and semipublic water supply data in the Illinois
River Basin have been tabulated and summarized by subbasin in
Tables II-l through 11-17• The subbasin division of the Illinois
River Basin is shown in Figure II-2. Subbasin Ml6 of Lake Michigan
is included since some of the water used in this subbasin can
reach the Illinois River System as waste.
The inventory listings include incorporated and unincor-
porated communities, subdivisions having organized public water
systems, institutions, and commercial establishments such as
motels.
Surface Water Supplies
The largest single source of municipal water in the Illinois
River Basin is Lake Michigan that serves Chicago, Evanston, Wilmette,
Skokie, Winnetka, Glencoe, Highland Park, Hammond, Gary-Hobart,
Highwood, and the Great Lakes Naval Training Station. These
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Industrial Water Supplies
Industrial establishments in the Illinois River Basin
obtain their water from three sources: purchase from public
or private water supply, from wells, or from surface sources.
Surface sources provide most of the water used by industry.
In 1959, !.!*• billion gallons per day were used for manufacturing
and processing. Industries in the Basin that use surface waters
are steel and other metals, mining and quarrying, oil refining,
chemicals, cement, beverage and food processing;, paper and paper
products., and railroads. Use of water for power generation will
be discussed later.
About one billion gallons per day of surface water are
used for manufacturing and processing by industries located in
the Upper Illinois River Basin. The Chicago Sanitary and Ship
Canal provides 184 MGD to industry. Oil refineries located
along the Canal use 123 MGD; the balance is distributed among
manufacturing, steel and other metals, and chemical industries.
The Calumet River supplies 6?0 MGD to industry. About 98 per
cent of this water is used by the steel industry, and the remain-
ing water is used by manufacturing and chemical industries.
Table II-18 shows the average surface water pumpage from
private intakes for the year 1959 in the Illinois portion of the
Illinois River Basin.(9)
About 120 million gallons per day of ground water is used
by industries located in the Illinois portion of the Illinois
River Basin as shown in Table 11-19.
The principal water-using industries in the Calumet Area
of the Lake Michigan Basin are the steel, petroleum refining,
chemical, food processing, and paper products industries. About
2i«.00 MGD are used by 15 industrial plants (Table II-20) that
take their water directly or indirectly from Lake Michigan and
return it to Lake Michigan.
Navigation
The Illinois Waterway, together with the Chicago River
Channel for Deep-Draft Vessels and the Chicago Harbor, provides
a navigation channel from Lake Michigan to the Mississippi River.
The minimum depth is 21 feet from Chicago Harbor to the Chicago
at Lake Street, and 9 feet from Lake Street to the confluence with
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the Mississippi River at Grafton, Illinois. These channels are
controlled by a series of seven locks and dams operated by the
Corps of Engineers. Their navigation capacities are listed in
Table 11-21.
The Calumet Sag Channel provides a 9-foot depth navigation
channel between the Waterway at mile 303.5 above Grafton and Lake
Michigan at Calumet Harbor, on the so-uth side of Chicago.
The Illinois Waterway, in addition to serving Chicago and
nearby industrial areas in Indiana} also serves several important
manufacturing cities along its route including Joliet.. Ottawa,
LaSalle^and Peoria. It traverses a highly developed agricultural
area, and is adjacent to important coal fields. Freight commerce
on the waterway has increased since the improved channel to Chicago
was opened, from 1,695,000 tons in 1935 to 26,500,000 tons in 1961.
The principal commodities are coal, petroleum products, sand, gravel,
stone, grain, sulphur, and iron and steel products.
The Corps of Engineers has recommended the construction of
duplicate locks for the Illinois Waterway. (10) The proposed locks
would be 110 feet wide and 1,200 feet long, compared to the existing
lock dimensions of 110 feet by 600 feet. Also under consideration
is deepening of the waterway to provide a navigation depth of 12
feet instead of the present depth of 9 feet.
Studies by the Corps have indicated that, with the supplemen-
tary locks, the waterway could accommodate the predicted traffic
below Lockport of 55,000,000 tons annually by the year 2000. The
Corps estimates that an average annual flow of 1,826 cubic feet per
second (cfs) would provide the water requirements for the modified
waterway at such time as the contemplated traffic develops.
Fish and Wildlife
The following discussion is based on information obtained
from the Illinois Natural History Survey; the Illinois Department
of Conservation; the Bureau of Sport Fisheries, Department of the
Interior; and observations by C-LIRBP personnel during field activi-
ties during 1961 and 1962. In addition, Project biologists,
using electro-fishing gearj determined the kinds and abundance of
fishes in the Upper Illinois River System during April, 1961.
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Sport Fishing
There is practically no sport fishing in the Upper Illinois
River System from the Lake Michigan inlet structures to Dresden
Lock and Dam, except for the Kankakee and Des Plaines Rivers. The
Kankakee River is reported to support good populations of game
fish and is a favored stream of many anglers. The Des Plaines
River is not fished heavily.
Downstream from Dresden Lock and Dam only an occasional
angler is observed, but at Ottawa the numbers increase slightly.
The Pox River is fished much more heavily than the Illinois River.
More fisherman are noted below the Starved Rock dam; from this point
downstream many fishermen are observed, particularly on weekends.
Most of the fishing is from the bank, and the species taken
are channel catfish, carp, and buffalo. There is little boat
fishing in the Illinois River, probably because of the large numbers
of pleasure and commercial craft at all times of the day and night.
Lake Senachwine, near Henry, is the first of many large,
shallow (three to four feet deep),flood-plain lakes. Sport fish-
ing for crappies, drum, bluegills, bass, catfish, and carp can be
observed at almost any time. Local fishermen :sometimes report
sizable catches. The fishing pressure is high on the other lakes
also, but Rice Lake, downstream from Peoria;. and Lake Chautauqua
appear .to be the ones producing the larger catches. The latter is
connected with the Illinois River only during times of flooding.
;'
The Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Department of
Interior, manages the Lake Chautauqua wildlife refuge. Lake
fishing is monitored by that agency, and creel censuses have been
recorded for a number of years. Large catches of' game fish are
common and fishing pressure is heavy, particularly in the Spring
when more than a hundred boats can be seen on the lake at one time.
Commercial Fishing
Commercial fishing pressure parallels sport fishing in the
Illinois River. No commercial fishing is observed from the upper
river to Dresden Lock and Dam. The Starved Rock Park receives
small attention from the commercial fishermen. LaGrange Pool is
the most heavily fished stretch of the stream. Considerable
activity is observed also in many of the flood-plain lakes.
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The Illinois Natural History Survey (ll) reported the
following statistics on commercial fisheries of the Illinois
River Basin during 1950 and I960:
1950 I960
Stream Area Pounds of Fish Value Pounds of Fish Value
Starved Rock Pool 10,000 $ ' "TO 25,000 $4,500
Peoria Pool 2,790,000 106,000 4-71,000 33,500
LaGrange Pool 2,300,000 136,500 990,000 76,000
Alton Pool 528,000 48,500 636,000 60,000
Totals 5J6?e,0 .',291,7-00 2,122,000 $174,000
The marketed fish were carp, drum, buffalo, bullhead, and paddlefish.
In 1950, 106 persons earned their entire living by fishing
and 196 persons earned a part-time living. By I960, this decreased
to 69 full-time and 73 part-time fishermen. The lower level of
commercial fishing activity reflects a multiplicity of causes
including economic opportunities, available supply as influenced
by species, and market demands.
Wildlife
The many flood«plain lakes of the Illinois River have been
famed waterfowl shooting areas for many years. There are more
than 300 public and private shooting areas from LaSalle-Peru to
LaGrange Lock and Dam, and Chautauq.ua Wildlife Refuge is an
important stopover for thousands of the birds that use the Missis-
sippi Flyway in their migrations. The importance of this resource
is difficult to evaluate, but the economy of the area receives a
boost from the thousands of hunters who pay as much as $25 per day
for a blind at many of the private shooting areas.
There has been a decline in Mississippi Flyway duck popu-
lation in recent years attributed to the drying up of Canadian
potholes and consequent loss of breeding places. There has been
a further marked decline in duck population in the lower Illinois
River part of the Mississippi Flyway, particularly among the
diving ducks that feed on small snails and clams. The flood-plain
lakes once were very rich in these small molluscs, but since 1952
investigators have reported diminished population (12).
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Biological studies by GLIRBP revealed only sludgeworms and
bloodworms where molluscs were plentiful as recently as 1952.
This lack of molluscs undoubtedly is one reason that the once
plentiful scaup, and other species of diving ducks, avoid the
flood-plain lakes in their migrations. Paloumpis et al.believe
the lake changes have been caused by pollution and siltation. (12)
Investigations by GLIKBP indicate that silt is the pollutant
principally responsible for the degradation of these lakes.
Fish Shocking Studies
Although the biological investigations and measures of
water quality indicated that very few, if any, fish could exist
in most of the stream areas upstream from mile point 300 on the
Sanitary and Ship Canal, an effort was made to locate fish with
electro-fishing gear that was capable of raising fish nine feet
from the probe.
In the North Shore Channel., upstream from the MSB North
Side Sewage Treatment Plant, many carp and goldfish were collected
and a few shiners, smelts, and minnows. The populations diminished
sharply downstream from the sewage treatment plant, and from mile
point 322 in the Chicago River to mile point 304 in the Sanitary
and Ship Canal no fish were found. A few small carp were taken
in the Calumet Sag Channel immediately upstream from the Sanitary
and Ship Canal.
Recreation
Within the Illinois River System as previously defined are
well-developed water resources that attract millions of recreation-
ally- minded persons. Throughout this entire region are areas of
scenic beauty and localities of historic and general interest such as
State Parks, memorials, State and County conservation areas, and
forest preserves. Such areas are both a regional and a national
asset.
The basin provides approximately 60,000 acres of watejr in,
sloughs and shallow, flood-plain, backwater lakes flanking the
river channel between Spring Valley and Meredosia. These lakes
are used for public fishing, boating and swimming, and form the
heart of the duck habitat. The river valley provides some of
the best mallard shooting in the Nation.
In parts of the Cook County Forest Preserve District, and
in the numerous parks along tributary streams, are many water-
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oriented, recreational attractions which are used for picnicking
boating, water skiing, and angling. Some tributaries are fished,
the catch consisting of rough fish such as carp, bullheads, and
suckers. These areas are an indispensable part of the larger
complex including segments of the Mast lake frontage that serves
the water-oriented activities in the Metropolitan Region.
The waterway between the Chicago Harbor at Lake Michigan
and Joliet is used by pleasure craft principally for transit
between Lake Michigan and the Illinois River. Lockages of pleasure
craft during I960 for the seven locks along the Illinois River, as
reported to the Corps of Engineers. vere 7>$$9 upboxmd and 8,586 down-
bound. In spite of hazards attributable to "bargd traffic and
polluted waters, children have been observed swimming in the canal
and water skiers sporting in the waterway.
Many of the pleasures of water-oriented recreation come from
the natural beauty usually associated with the water courses. The
existence of these natural areas and the continuation of their use
for recreational purposes is directly related to the proper use of
stream waters and water areas. Water-oriented recreation in the
area benefits a large number of communities because the outdoor
recreation and tourist industries are important to many local
economies. It also enhances community land values by creating a
better place to live.
The demand for water-oriented recreation will increase as the
population throughout the study area increases.
Irrigation
Average annual precipitation in the Illinois River Basin
ranges from 32-7 inches in southeastern Wisconsin to 36.3 inches
in the area around Grafton. Localized areas in Indiana and
southwestern Illinois have annual averages up to 3$ inches.
About 60 per cent of the annual precipitation occurs during the
crop-growing season.
The sufficiency and timeliness of rainfall; the water-
holding capacity of most soils, and the cost of irrigation versus
crop returns are reasons why irrigation is not of great importance
in Illinois. In 1960 an estimated 5,000 acres were irrigated in
the Illinois portion of the Illinois River Basin, of which over
half of the acres were irrigated from wells. (13) (1*0 The greatest
density of irrigation is in the Chtcago-Kankakee area, including
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Cook, Will; and Kankakee Counties, Fields are generally small,
averaging about 15 acres. Flowers, nursery plants, and vegetables
are the main crops irrigated, and the water here is largely taken
from streams and ditches. (14) Some cash-crop and livestock
farmers irrigate in the western portion of the Illinois River Basin,
in Pike, Adams, Hancock, and Henderson counties. Field crops are
irrigated in an area along the Illinois River from Peoria southward,
specifically in Peoria, Tazewell, Fulton; and Mason counties. The
sandy soils in these areas have the largest potential for future
irrigation. (15)
Approximately 6,400 acres are irrigated within the Indiana
portion of the Illinois River Basin, primarily in the Kankakee
River subbasin. Over 80 per cent of this irrigation is from
wells. (13) Corn is the leading irrigated crop both in acreage
and dollar value, with hay and forage crops second.
Approximately 400 acres are irrigated in the Wisconsin
portion of the Illinois River Basin. (13) Corn is the leading
crop in both acreage and dollar value, while planted hay is the
second largest crop produced.
The amount of irrigation in the Illinois River Basin is
small and not expected to grow rapidly. However, such irrigation
as is practiced occurs during dry times when stream flows are
small and water tables are low. Some small streams in the Kankakee
area are pumped dry at times. (15)
Power
Use of the Illinois River System for hydroelectric pover
production is limited by the relatively flat topography of the
area. The river falls 118 feet in 85 miles from Chicago to Marseilles,
and 48 feet in 242 miles from Marseilles to Grafton, yielding few
productive sites for hydroelectric power. Two-tenths of one per
cent of the power produced in the basin is by hydroelectric plants.
Diverse types of power generation exist within the basin.
The Dresden nuclear power plant; at the confluence of the Des
Plaines and Kankakee Rivers, is the first full scale power plant
constructed for a private concern and financed completely by
private funds. In the city of Batavia, on the Fox River, a water
wheel produces 20 horsepower for an iron foundry.
Figure II-3, supported by Table 11-22, shows the location
of existing and proposed power plants.
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Most of the power in the basin is generated by thermo-
electric (fuel) plants. Plant operating reports are submitted
to the Federal Power Commission, but no water use figures are
reported. Only the minimum available supply is reported;
therefore the column titled, "Estimated Water Pumpage", in
Table 11-22, has been calculated by assuming condenser pumpage
to be one gallon per minute per kilowatt,, and considering other
uses negligible.
The fuel plants use water for condenser cooling and house
service. Condenser cooling uses 95 per cent of the total plant
pumpage. House service water is used for bearing cooling, trans-
portation of ash, and housekeeping. The condenser cooling water
is taken from the stream upon which the plant is located, given
periodic chlorinaticn, passed through the condenser, and returned
with a temperature increase of approximately 10 F. The combined
estimated pumpage of the 57 fuel plants is 11.3 billion gallons
per day or 75 per cent of the 1961 mean flow of the Illinois River
as recorded at Meredosia, Illinois.
The corbined water requirement of the 11 fuel plants
situated, along the Illinois River System in the Chicago Metropoli-
tan Area is such that the flow in the system must be used several
times. Their total pumpage is 4510 MGD, or 210 per cent of the
mean flow as recorded at Lockport. This use of river water in-
creases the stream's temperature significantly. Commonwealth
Edison Company reports that increased river temperatures limit the
output of the plants during the summer months of July, August and
September. The company's four power plants - Fisk, Crawford,
Ridgeland, end Will County - experience a total capacity loss of
85,000 kw during periods of high river temperatures. (Table 11-23)
Other fuel plents in the basin, such as those of the
Illinois Power Company, experience similar limiting conditions
during the months of April throj^ October.
Consumptive water uses by the power plants, such as boiler
feed-.rater rake-up and house service, are not reported as to quantity
or source, but the power companies are interested in holding such
uses to a minimum due to the cost of chemical treatment to make the
water acceptable for the designated uses.
The present five-year plans for changes for hydroelectric
and fuel plants are shown in tables 11-24, 11-25, H-26 and 11-27-
Nine propoced hydroelectric plants, if constructed, will increase
the hydroelectric g3r.~ratad power by 84,700 kw. Three new fuel
plants, and additions minus retirements for existing fuel plants,
will increase capacity by 2,870,000 kw and cooling water usage by
6000 MGD. (16)
-------
n-i3
References
1. Effect on Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River of an Increase
of 1000 Cubic Feet per Second in the Diversion at Chicago.
Division Engineer, North Central Division, Corps of Engineers,
U. S. Array (1957).
2. U. S. Lake Survey, Detroit, Michigan (1960).
3. Kohler, M. A., Nordenson, 1. S. and Baker, D. R. Evaporation
Maps for the United States. Weather Bureau Technical Paper
Ho. 37, (1959).
4. Sasman, R. T., Prickett, T. A. and Russell, R. R. Illinois
State Water Circular No. 83, (1961).
5. Suter, M., Bergstrom, R. E., Smith, H. F., Emrich, G. H., Walton,
W. C., and Larson, T. E. Illinois StateWater Survey— Illinois
State Geolpgical Survey Cooperative Ground-Water; ReportNo. 1.,
(1959).
6. Source and Occurrence of Brines for Water Flooding in Illinois.
Circulars 198, 207, 222, 225, 232 and 238; and Reprint N,
Illinois State Geological Survey.
7« Kempton, J. Illinois State Geological Survey, private
communication (1962).
8. Walton, William C, Potential Yield of Aquifers and Ground
Water Pumpage in the Chicago Region. Illinois State Water
Survey unpublished report. Fig. 5.
9. Roberts, W. J. Industrial Water Use in Illinois. Proceedings
of the American Power Conference, 22: 8l4 (1960).
10.- Interim Report on Illinois Waterway, Illinois and Indiana.
Corps of Engineers, Chicago District (1957j.
11. Starrett, W. C. Illinois Natural History Survey, private
communication, (1961).
12. Palounrpis, A. A. and Starrett, W. C. An Ecological Study of
the Benthic Organisms in Three Illinois River Flood Plain
Lakes. The American Midland Naturalist, 6k: b32 (i960).
13. United States Census of Agriculture, 1959. U. S. Department
of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.
-------
Ik. Davis, V.W. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Urbana, Illinois,
oral communication (1962).
15. Roberts, W. J. Illinois State Water Survey, oral communication
(1962).
16. Tower, Kenneth G. Federal Power Commission, Chicago Regional
Office, private communication (1962).
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- WATER-BORNE 'WASTES
Page Number
MUNICIPAL WASTES 1
INDUSTRIAL WASTES 3
MISCELLANEOUS SEWSR OUTFALLS 6
Chicago Area
Peoria-Pekin Area
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III-l
III WATER-BORNE WASTES
This chapter presents an inventory of known wastes dis-
charged to the Illinois River System and is divided into three
sections. The first section presents an inventory of municipal
wastes, which includes domestic and industrial wastes discharged
to municipal sewerage systems. The second section presents an
inventory of industrial wastes discharged directly to local water
courses. The third section discusses special investigations of
sewer outfalls.
The sewage and industrial waste loads discharged to the
Illinois River System are depicted in Figure Illnl. They are
summarized as follows:
Municipal Wastes 1,U6,000 PE*
Industrial Wastes 971,000 PE
Total 2,ia7,000 PE
Municipal Wastes
Sewered communities, institutions, and commercial estab-
lishments such as motels are included in the municipal sewage
inventory for the Illinois River Basin. Inventory data were
compiled from existing Federal, State, Local and Sanitary District
reports and supplemented "by field investigations. The reported
data are for the year 1960, except that data for Subbasin Ml6 are
for the year 1961. Subbasin Ml6, which is tributary to and at
the south end of Lake Michigan, has been included in a separate
tabulation but not added to the totals for the Illinois River
Basin. This Subbasin has been included because there Is no
physical divide on the Grand Calumet River between Ml6 and the
Illinois River Basin. Therefore, during and after intense rain-
fall the water surface in the Grand Calumet River can rise high
enough to induce flow out of Subbasin Ml6 into the Illinois River
Basin.
The Illinois River Basin was divided into 15 subbasins for
tabulation (See Figure II-2). Systems serving 1000 or more per-
sons are tabulated individually with identification of the
receiving stream, mileage from the mouth of the stream to the point
of discharge, degree of treatment, population connected to severs,
and population equivalents of the untreated and discharged waste.
Population equivalents (PE) are calculated on a 5-day
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) basis, using analytical data fur-
nished by the plant or control agency and assuming each pound of
BOD to be equivalent to six persons. Where industrial wastes of
Population Equivalent.
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III-2
consequence, from a BOD standpoint, contribute to municipal sewage,
the population equivalent of the combined waste can usually be
expected to exceed the population connected. The population equiva-
lent untreated was observed to be larger than the population
connected in communities where industrial contributions are large,
such as Chicago. In some communities with little or no industry,
the population connected figures exceed the computed population
equivalent. Investigations of a few such cases revealed the com-
munities to be predominantly residential areas on the fringe of
Chicago or other metropolitan areas.
Systems serving less than 1,000 persons are grouped in the
tables by degree of treatment. These are shown below the individual
listings of larger waste loads. Where analytical data were not
available, engineering estimates were made of the waste loading
based on 85 per cent reduction for secondary treatment and 35 per
cent for primary treatment.
Table III-l is a summary table showing waste loadings in the
entire Illinois River Basin. Figures III-2, III-3, and TLI-k}
show locations and individual loadings of municipal waste discharges.
Table III-2 is a tabulation of data for the North Branch
Chicago River Subbasin, Subbasin 1. All communities in this Sub-
basin provide secondary treatment except a trailer park which has
septic tanks. The municipal waste in Subbasin 1 is 1,128,000 PE
before treatment and 56,000 PE after treatment. This represents
an overall reduction of 95 per cent. About 87 per cent of the
discharged load is contributed by the North Side Treatment Plant
of the Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago (MSD).
Information regarding the main channel of the Illinois River
System, Subbasin 2, is shown in Table III-3. The municipal waste
in this Subbasin is 6,4l6,000 PE before treatment and 713,000 PE
after treatment. This represents an overall reduction of 89 per
cent. About 98 per cent of this load is contributed by the West-
Southwest Plant of the MSD and by the dity of Joliet, with the MSD
plant accounting for over 91 per cent of the total load.
Data on the Calumet Sag Channel and Tributaries, Subbasin 3>
are shown in Table Ill-k. The municipal waste in Subbasin 3 is
1,163,000 PE before treatment and 182,000 PE after treatment. This
represents an overall reduction of 85 per cent. The Calumet Sewage
Treatment Plant of the MSD contributes 53 per cent of the load,
and the c.ity of Hammond, Indiana contributes 23 per cent.
Subbasins k, 5> 6, and 7 are residental suburbs in the
Chicago Metropolitan area. The municipal wastes in these four Sub-
basins is 796,000 PE before treatment and 202,000 PE after treat-
ment. This represents an overall reduction of 75 per cent.
The waste load discharged to the Des Plaines River Subbasin,
Subbasin k, in Cook County is relatively small when the drainage
area and the population within the Subbasin are considered. This
-------
area Is served by an interceptor sewer, paralleling the Des Plalnes
River, which collects the municipal waste for treatment at the West-
Southwest Treatment Plant of the MSD. Therefore, a small part of
the population in Subbasin 4 contributes waste to the Des Plaines
River; most of the waste is contributed to Subbasin 2. The areas
served by the interceptor appear in a footnote" to the West-Southwest
Treatment Plant data shown in Table UI-3-
Subbasins 1 through 7, which include Chicago and the surround-
ing metropolitan area, account for 88 per cent of the sewered
population in the Illinois River Basin. The waste from these Sub-
basins amounts to 9,503,000 PE before treatment and 1,153,000 PE
after treatment, indicating ft reduction of 88 per cent. The other
Subbasins, 8 .through 15, arfj predominantly agricultural areas.
Waste sources in these Subbasins are primarily small rural communities,
and a relatively small number discharge waste to local watercourses.
Many communities in these Subbasins are served by septic tanks with
or without subsurface disposal facilities. However, in several
communities there are unofficial tile "sewer" systems that are
directly connected with septic tanks and discharge to local water-
courses.
The municipal waste load in Subbasins 8 through 15 is 1,058,000
PE before treatment and 293,000 PE after treatment, indicating a net
reduction of 75 per cent.
The data presented in Table III-l summarizes the 15 Subbasins
of the Illinois River System and shows that 078 communities, insti-
tutions, and commercial establishments are served by 573 sewage
works. The total waste load to these works is 10,561,000 PE and
the load discharged to the Illinois River System after treatment is
1,446,000 PE. Of the 573 sewage works included in this inventory,
32 per cent provide little or no'treatment, 5 P61" cent primary
treatment, and 63 per cent secondary treatment.
The three principal treatment plants of the MSD serve approx-
imately 69 per cent of the sewered population in the Basin and
receive 76 per cent of the connected PE. They account for approx-
imately 53 per cent of the total load discharged. These data indicate
that the MSD treats more waste than the rest of the Basin and
provides a greater degree of treatment.
In addition to sewered or partially sewered communities in-
cluded in this inventory, there are many unsewered areas served by
septic tanks which discharge septic tank effluent or raw sewage to
local watercourses. There may be some cases where the overall waste
contribution to a local watercourse is considerable, but in general
these are matters of local sanitation.
Industrial Wastes
The industrial waste inventory presented in this section
encompasses industrial establishments that discharge directly to the
-------
receiving waters of the area.
Initial waste loads were compiled from State, County, City,
and Sanitary District records, and supplemented by data received
from individual industries, regulatory agencies, and field inves-
tigation of known outfalls. For some industries, waste loads were
estimated from data obtained from similar industries.
Industries discharging waste loads of 1,000 PE or greater are
tabulated individually for each Subbasin in Table 111-19, and de-
picted in Figures III-5 and III-6. Industries that discharge waste
loads of less than 1,000 PE are grouped for each Subbasin.
The Public Health Service inspected 54 of the industries jointly
with representatives of the Illinois State Sanitary Water Board or
the Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago. The majority
of the industries inspected provided waste treatment facilities
and/or control measures (Table III-18).
The following industries are the principal sources of industrial
pollution in the Illinois Raver System: textile, food and kindred
products, petroleum, pulp and paper, and chemicals and allied products.
The industrial waste load discharged directly to the Illinois River
System is 971,000 PE (Table 111-19). The load for each Subbasin
is summarized as follows:
Population
Subbasin Mo. of Plants Equivalent
Worth Branch Chicago River 13
Illinois Eiver System & Minor
Tributaries - Lake Michigan
to Kankakee River 42
Calumet Sag Channel & Tributaries 35
Des Plaines River 14
Du Page River 12
Kankakee River 10
Fox River 21
Vermilion River 3
Mackinaw River 1
Spoon Rivev 2
Sangamon River 11
Illinois River System 8s Minor
Tributaries - Kankakee River
to Spoon River 19
Total 183
16,300
387,100
87,700
4,000
2,000
14,000
19,700
600
1,000
300
11,500
426,900
971,000
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III-5
The records of the MSD were studied to determine the amount
and type of industrial wastes discharged directly to the river
system within the "boundaries of the Sanitary District. The MSD has
studied industrial effluents for the past 30 years and has con-
ducted more than 900 separate investigations. Twenty-eight indus-
trial plants were inspected jointly by the Public Health Service and
the MSD. Manufacturing methods and estimated waste loads in all
but three plants were found to be essentially as reported by the MSD.
The information regarding manufacturing methods and waste control
facilities at these three plants was found to be out of date.
The Illinois River System was last studied comprehensively
by the Public Health Service in 1921-1922, and the industrial waste
load discharged directly was estimated to be 1,885,600 PE in the
Metropolitan Chicago area drained by the Illinois River and the North
Branch of the Chicago River, but excluding the Calumet and Des Plaines
Rivers. The estimated industrial waste load in 1960 to the same
section of the river system is 224,900 PE or only 12 per cent of the
1921-1922 load. This decrease has been accomplished principally by
collecting the waste in new interceptor sewers and by construction
of new and enlarged treatment works.
The total known industrial waste load discharged to the river
system in the Chicago area outside of the MSD is 25,300 PE. Indus-
tries located within the MSD discharge 5^00 PE directly to Lake
Michigan. These industries are included in Lake Michigan Subbasin Ml6.
Many industries discharge wastes that adversely affect the
waters of the Illinois River System-in ways other than depressing the
dissolved oxygen concentration. A partial list of these pollutants
is as follows: heat, inert solids, oil,and dissolved inorganic
chemicals.
The industrial waste load discharged to the Illinois River
System in the Peoria-Pekin area is estimated to be 386,000 PE. This
load was obtained from the examination of State, local, and indus-
trial records and was substantiated by field investigations. This
load is discharged principally from 13 plants and is equivalent to
approximately eight times the amount of the treated domestic sewage
from this area.
Downstream from the Peoria-Pekin area to the confluence of
the Illinois River with the Mississippi River there are no reported
industrial waste loads of any significance. State and local records
indicate there are approximately 500 minor industries that discharge
to streams. These industries are locker plants, coin laundries,
and metal fabricators. Sixty per cent of these industries do not
create a problem in the disposal of their wastes. The other
industries create minor local nuisances.
The Lake Michigan Subbasin Ml6 contains a concentration of
large, basic manufacturing industries that use large volumes of pro-
cess and cooling water. A summary of the wastes from these industries
is shown in Table 111-20.
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III-6
Miscellaneous Sewer Outfalls
There are numerous sewer outfalls visible along the banks of
the Illinois River System. Most of these outfalls are storm sewers
or storm relief sewers. A lesser number of outfalls are industrial
severs discharging liquid wastes to the river system. The outfalls
in the Chicago area and the Peoria-Pekin area were investigated in
two separate investigations to verify or supplement known industrial
waste loads.
Chicago Area
This study covered the North Shore Channel, North Branch
Chicago River, Chicago River, South Branch Chicago River, Calumet
River, Grand Calumet River, Little Calumet River, Calumet Sag Channel,
and the Sanitary and Ship Canal above Romeoville. Outfalls from
sewage treatment plants and electric generating stations were not
sampled. The existence of submerged outfalls was not determined during
this study.
A preliminary reconnaissance of the area was made and grab
samples were taken from all outfalls with an estimated flow of three
gallons per minute (gpm) or greater. The flow was estimated by
standard hydraulic field methods. In most instances it was possible
to trace the waste to its source.
More than kOO outfalls were observed during the preliminary
reconnaissance, of which 105 discharged BOD loads in excess of five
pounds per day and were considered significant. These latter were
sampled once daily on three different days and at different times
during an eight-hour period. The individual loadings were computed
from the analytical results and the flows observed during the eight-
hour period. These were extrapolated to 2k hours by considering
the type of industry anri operating hours.
The results of this study are recorded in Table 111-21 and are
grouped according to the river sampling stations as recorded in
Chapter IV. The column titled "Net Population Equivalent" (Wet PE)
shows the loading corrected for the quality of river water, if used
by the industry as a water supply. The column titled "Estimated PE,
2^-hour" shows the extrapolation of the eight-hour observations to
the 2^-hour loading.
The total extrapolated population equivalent discharged to the
river system from the 105 outfalls investigated is 370,000 PE.
Approximately 75 per cent of this load has been accounted for in the
industrial waste inventory. The remaining 25 per cent of this load
is in addition to the municipal and industrial waste inventory. This
additional waste load is primarily from storm relief sewers that were
observed to be flowing during dry weather and outfalls from unidenti-
fied sources.
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III-T
Peoria-Pekin Area
This portion of the outfall sewer study covered the Illinois
River from approximately Mile 143 to Mile 166, and includes the
industrial complex of the Peoria-Pekin area. Forty-three separate
outfalls were investigated during this study.
The outfalls were studied over a nine-day period, and each
outfall was investigated at least once each day. A grab sample was
collected and the rate of flow was estimated by standard hydraulic
field methods each time the outfall was observed. Outfalls which
were discharging larger flows were investigated twice on some days.
Table 111-22 presents a summary of this survey. Of the 43
outfalls only 27 were considered as contributing a significant BOD
load to the Illinois River in the Peoria-Pekin area. This survey
indicates that the estimated BOD load discharged to the Illinois River
from industrial sources is. 386,000 PE, and that approximately 50
cent of this load is contributed by one source.
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IV FIELD INVESTIGATIONS
Page Number
SAMPLING LOCATIONS AND TIMES 1
SAMPLE COLLECTION PROCEDURES 2
Bacteriological 2
Chemical, Physical, and Radiochemical 2
Biological 3
Sample Preservation 3
VERIFICATION OF SAMPLING PROCEDURES 3
CARBON FILTER STUDIES k
CONTINUOUS DO RECORDING U
PHYSICAL APPEARANCE OF WATERWAYS U
HYDROGRAPHY $
Daily Flows 6
Average Water Depths 7
Times of Water Travel 7
Hydraulic Measurements and Computations
for the Lower Illinois River 7
Tributary Flows 7
Main Stem Flows 8
Storage Capacity 8
Drainage Area 8
REFERENCES 10
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IV-1
FIELD INVESTIGATIONS
The numerous and varied techniques required to obtain suitable
samples for physical, chemical and biological laboratory studies are
discussed in this chapter.
Also considered are such related projects as: carbon filter
«s.tudies, continuous dissolved oxygen (DO) recording, the physical
appearances of waterways from which samples are obtained, and
hydrography.
Sampling Locations and Times
The sampling locations utilized in the study of the Illinois
River Basin system are presented in Figures IV-1, 2 and 3« Tables
IV-la, Ib, Ic, Id, le, If, Ig and Ih contain a complete description
of all the sampling stations.
The station designations consist of two capital letters as
abbreviations for the named streams and a numerical representation
of the river mileage to that point from Grafton, Illinois, the zero
mile point of the Illinois River system.
The sampling period began in April, 1961, and continued
through August, 1962. In this period, the Upper Illinois River
system was studied for five separate monthly periods, the Calumet-
Little Calumet system tributary to the Upper River system was
studied for one month and the Lower Illinois River and its major
tributaries for three months. The dates of sampling periods, and
the number of days sampled at each location are tabulated below.
Location Sampling Period Days Sampled
Upper Illinois River System
it it
ii it
it it
it it
Calumet-Little Calumet
Lower Illinois River System
ii it
ti M
April-May,
June,
July,
August,
Jan. -Feb.,
Feb. -March,
Nov.-»Dec.,
March-April,
July- August,
1961
1961
1961
1961
1962
1962
1961
1962
1962
26
22
18
16
2U
20
21
27
31
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Eighty-three stations were occupied along the entire river and
its tributaries. Stations were selected at closer intervals in the
upper river, the stretch above the Dresden Island Dam, to provide
a more intensive study of the effects of the many waste dischargee in
this region.
In the lower river, the stations were located at less frequent
intervals. Their location was chosen chiefly to study the effects of
the major tributaries and the navigational pools as well as major
sources of waste discharge on the main stream.
Sample Collection Procedures
A variety of sampling procedures were employed in order to
obtain suitable specimens for such diverse studies as: bacteriological
contentj biological content; chemical, physical and radiochemical
studies. These sampling procedures took into account such necessary
precautions as proper preservation of samples until such times as
laboratory experiments could be performed.
Bacteriological
Coliform and fe«»al streptococcus samples were collected in
sterile glass bottles at the surface of the stream.
Enterobacteria and virus samples were collected by the Mowe
gauze pad technique, which is described in Chapter VII under Spocia^
Investigations.
Chemical, Physical, and Radiochemical
Dissolved oxygen samples were collected with the sampler
described on p. 308 of Standard Methods (l). This sampler is neces-
sary to protect the collected sample from exposure to atmoaphwic
oxygen. These samples were collected at middepth and at midp«iirt in
th* main channel of the stream, unless otherwise noted.
Samples for other physical and chemical tests were collected
and transferred to separate polyethylene bottles under the same con-
ditions described for the dissolved oxygen sample. The temperature*
of the water was taken at the time of sample collection by iwm«rsi«n
6f a calibrated thermometer into the water collected by th» sampling
d«vioe. *
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IV-3
Biological
Samples for plankton and algae were collected from the surface
of the stream and preserved with L$ formalin. Attached algae were
collected from surfaces such as pilings, piers and other points of
attachment. Benthic samples were collected with the Eckman or
Petersen dredges, which are described in Standard Methods on p.
Sample Preservation
All bacteriological samples (as well as DO and BOD samples)
were delivered to the laboratory for analysis within four hours of
the time of collection. Preservation was accomplished by icing the
samples from the time they were collected until brought to the
laboratory.
Plankton samples were preserved with formalin (1$ formaldehyde).
The Moore gauze virus pads were preserved by icing.
Verification of Sampling Procedures
A number of special investigations were made to assure the
adequacy of sampling stations, sampling procedures and analytical
results, and to assist in the ultimate interpretation of data.
Stratification was one problem. The entrance of cool lake
water into the warmer canal waters led to the belief that the cooler
lake water might flow along the bottom of the river for significant
distances before mixing. Also, it was believed there might be
thermal stratification below points of discharge of cooling water
from steam power plants.
Therefore, temperatures were determined at various depths at
selected stations throughout the river system before routine sampling
was initiated. Mo significant thermal stratification was observed.
The possibility of diurnal DO variations had to be considered.
In many surface waters photosynthetic production of oxygen by algae
leads to considerable variation in DO; DO may be high in daylight
and relatively low during periods of darkness.
Nighttime determinations of dissolved oxygen were made at all
stations on the upper waterway on three separate occasionsj the
results were compared with DO data obtained during normal daytime
sampling periods. The comparisons indicated that variability in
DO, attributable to photosynthesis, was not significant during the
study period.
-------
The preservation of samples during the interval between field
collection and laboratory analysis required study. .These studies
led to the use of preservation techniques already discussed.
Carbon Filter Studies
Standard carbon filter installations (see Chapter V, Organics
Investigations) were made at the Wilmette Inlet and the Lockport
Dam. The filters were changed every seven days.
Continuous DO Recording
Continuous dissolved oxygen recordings were taken with Hays
DO analyzers at three locations. One was located at milepoint
NS 3U0.7 on the North Shore Channel in Wilmette, Illinois, a point
of diversion of Lake Michigan into the Illinois Waterway system.
The second was placed above the dam on the Chicago Sanitary and Ship
Canal at milepoint SS 291.2 in Lockport, Illinois. Lockport is the
main control point of the diverted flow in the canal and this station
monitors the oxygen content of the water as it leaves the Chicago
urban area. The third station is also in the Lower River. It was
situated at milepoint IR 157.7 above the dam at Peoria, the largest
city on the Lower River.
Physical Appearance of Waterways
During the routine collection of samples at the various
stations described, the sample collector observed the physical
appearance of the waterway at the time of sample collection. These
observations were recorded on appropriate forms provided for this
purpose. A copy of this form is presented as Figure IV-U.
The results of these observations are summarized in Tables
IV-2a, 2b, 2c and 2d. The tables summarize, under remarks, the
observations that were noted at more than £0 percent of the visits
to the station listed.
From the Wilmette Diversion Inlet at river mile 3^0 to the
entrance of the North Side Sewage Treatment Plant at river mile
336.6, the waterway appeared relatively clean. Beyond this point,
however, to the junction of the Sanitary and Ship Canal and the
Cal Sag Channel at river mile 303«Uj the condition of the river
changed drastically. Rubbish, garbage, oil slicks and other float-
ing debris were observed throughout this section of the river. Also,
gases of decomposition were seen bubbling to the surface.
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iv-5
The Calumet, Grand Calumet, and Little Calumet Rivers were
observed to be generously littered with rubbish and exhibited large
amounts of oil. This condition also existed throughout the Cal Sag
Channel to its junction with the Sanitary and Ship Canal.
The continuation of the Sanitary and Ship Canal below the
confluence with the Cal Sag Channel exhibited the characteristics
(gas bubbles, rubbish, garbage and oil slicks) of both the Cal Sag
and its own previous section. This condition extended downstream
to the confluence with the DesPlaines River, river mile 290. The
DesPlaines River, above the junction, exhibited a lesser amount of
floating debris. Foam covered many sections of the river, however,
Below the junction, the gas bubbles disappeared but rubbish and
garbage remained. At the confluence with the DuPage and Kankakee
River, river mile 277 and 273 respectively, the floating debris in-
creased sharply. From this point in the Illinois River to the con-
fluence of the Fox River at river mile 2U1.1, the oil slick and
debris decreased, but foam and aquatic vegetation began to appear.
Beyond this point, the foam and vegetation decreased and finally
disappeared about mile 210. The Vermillion River, entering UO mites
downstream, introduced a small amount of foam and rubbish to the
waterway.
The remainder of the Illinois River to the Mississippi River
was comparatively clean. Six tributaries - Kickapoo Creek (river
mile l£9)» the Mackinaw River (river mile 1^8), the Spoon River
(river mile 120), the Sangamon River (river mile 98), the LaMoine
River (river mile 810, and Macoupin Creek (river mile 23) were
the last major streams to enter the waterway and none introduced
more than a slight amount of rubbish.
Hydrography
Rather extensive measurements of stream flow were necessary
in the Chicago area because no regular gaging stations are operated
on the canal system. The United States Geological Survey maintains
gaging stations on several of the tributary streams, and publishes
daily flows for the Sanitary Canal at Lockport which are computed
and furnished by the Sanitary District.
Flow computations for the lower Illinois River were based
on flows derived from U, S. Geological Survey gaging stations on
the main stem and tributaries. High water during the March-April, 1962,
sampling period greatly complicated the flow calculations, because
of the large storage areas in the lower river valley.
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IV-6
Hydraulic Measurements and Computations for the Chicago Area
Hydraulic data required for each day of the sampling period in
the Chicago area were:
1. Average flow at each sampling point.
2, Average flow of each major tributary.
3, Average depth of each reach between sampling stations.
U. Average velocity of flow in each reach.
5. Time of water travel in each reach.
Daily Flows
Flow data normally available from the Sanitary District in-
clude daily flows at Lockport, inflows from Lake Michigan at Wilmette
(North Shore Channel), at mouth of Chicago River, and at Blue Island
Controlling Works on Calumet Sag Channelj discharges from the storm-
water pumping stations on the canals; and discharges from the three
major treatment works. During the sampling periods, the Sanitary
District furnished, in addition to the data listed above, daily
estimates of discharge for: North Shore Channel at Foster Avenue;
North Branch of Chicago River at Kinzie Street; South Branch of
Chicago River at Lake Street; Sanitary and Ship Canal at Harlem
Avenue; and Calumet Sag Channel at Sag Junction.
In order to obtain measured flows to augment the data furnished
by the Sanitary District, a contract was entered into with the United
States Geological Survey, Champaign, Illinois, for daily discharge
measurements during the first sampling period at each of the follow-
ing stations:
North Branch of Chicago River at Montrose Ave., Chicago, 111.
Sanitary and Ship Canal at Wentworth Ave., Willow Springs, 111.
Calumet Sag Channel at Harlem Aveej Palos Heights, 111.
Discharge measurements were made by Project personnel at the
same locations during subsequent sampling periods.
Daily flows at U. S. Geological Survey gaging stations on
nine tributaries were determined from gage readings obtained from
the Survey or by Project personnel in the field.
-------
IV-7
Daily flows at sampling points were based on routings of the
daily flows for the locations noted above.
In general, flow rates were fairly constant throughout the
sampling periods in the Chicago area, with only minor day to day
fluctuations due to changes in regulation by the Sanitary District.
An exception was the January 1962 sampling period when the District
made a number of operational changes which increased or decreased
the daily flow at Lockport as much as 1,000 cubic feet per second
(cfs). On three occasions excessive rainfall caused major increases
in rates of flow. These occurred on April 2lj, August 1, and August
ll, and in each instance resulted in a daily flow at Lockport of about
6,000 cfs, or almost twice the normal average discharge.
Average Water Depths
All available cross-sections for the reaches between sampling
points were assembled from the Corps of Engineers, Chicago District,
and from the Sanitary District. Average cross-sectional areas, top
widths and water depths were determined for each reach for a control
water elevation. From these data the average depth for each reach
for the water elevation occurring on each day was determined from
gage heights supplied by the Sanitary District.
Times of Water Travel
Several of the reactions involved in natural purification of
streams are functions of time. Full understanding and interpretation
of stream data are possible only if the times required for the water
to pass between pertinent points are known. Average discharges for
each reach were computed from the discharges at the sampling points.
Average velocity for each reach was computed from average discharge
and average cross-sectional area. Time of water travel was then
obtained by dividing length of reach by average velocity.
Hydraulic Measurements and Computations for the Lower Illinois River
Average monthly discharges were required at the sampling points
on the main stem, and on the major tributaries. During the March-April
1962 sampling period, the river was in flood and average discharges
were computed for two 16-day periods approximating the rising and
falling phases of the flood. During the November-December 1961 and
the July-August 1962 periods the river was at pool stage.
Tributary Flows
Daily flows of the tributaries were determined from once-
daily gage readings. These gage readings were obtained from the
Corps of Engineers, the U. S. Geological Survey, the Sanitary
District, and Project personnel in the field.
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17-8
Main Stem Flows
Daily flows were obtained at three points; Marseilles,
Kingston Mines, and Meredosia. These flows were obtained from
daily Corps of Engineers gage readings.
Storage Capacity
During the March-April 1962 period it was necessary to know
the storage capacity of the river and flood plain, inasmuch as the
river stage was considerably higher at the end of the sampling period
than at the start. This capacity was derived from topographic maps
contained in the Corps of Engineers' report on the Illinois River.
Drainage Area
The total drainage areas of the tributaries and local runoff
areas were taken from a drainage map of Illinois prepared by the
Division of Waterways, State of Illinois.
In computing the average daily flows for the March-April
sampling period the following method was used. The main stem was
divided into reaches. Each reach consisted of the length of river
between sampling points, or between a sampling point and the junction
of the Illinois River with a tributary.
In general, the daily flows for each sampling point were com-
puted downstream from a gaging station, starting with the observed
discharge and adding the local runoff and the change in storage, the
local runoff and storage being calculated according to the length of
the reach. This total was assumed to be the flow at the downstream
end of the reach. At the lower end of the river, it was also neces-
sary to work upstream from the gaging station. If the end of the
reach was just upstream from the junction of a tributary, the flow
of the tributary was added to make the total flow at the start of the
new reach. The average flow for a reach was assumed to be the average
of the flows at the beginning and ending of each reach.
In order to compute flow times between the sampling stations,
it was necessary to determine cross-sectional areas corresponding to
various river elevations. The Corps of Engineers furnished sounding
and contour maps of the Illinois River. • From this information, curves
could be drawn of area versus elevation. These area-elevation curves
were determined for cross-sections approximately two miles apart,
between Dresden Island Dam (mile 271.6) and mile 223.0. Below mile
223*0, the Corps of Engineers furnished area-elevation curves and
flow distribution curves for sections taken approximately every two
miles. The flow distribution curves show the channel flow as a
percent of the total flow at any river elevation.
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IV-9
The cross-sectional area used was the total of the channel
area and the overbank area, if any. An exception was the stretch
from mile 223,0 to Lake Peoria (mile 179.0). In this stretch, the
river flows through a number of small lakes and sloughs, so that the
channel is not well defined. The areas in this stretch were obtained
by dividing the channel area by the flow distribution. This gives an
area that can be used in conjunction with the total flow.
It was recognized that during flood stage (March-April 1962
sampling period) the overbank velocity would be lower than the channel
velocity. However, except for that portion upstream from Lake Peoria
mentioned above, it was not considered practicable to subdivide the
total area int© channel and overbank areas, which would have required
detailed water surface profile computations. Preliminary investiga-
tions indicated that the refinement of results obtained would not
justify the time and manpower required.
The final objective was to determine a curve of average stage
versus average cross-sectional area for each reach. This curve was
determined as a weighted average of the area-elevation curves de-
veloped at each cross-section. From these final curves the average
stage for each reach, obtained from profiles based on daily gage
heights, could be used to obtain the average cross-sectional area for
the reach.
Similar curves were determined for the reaches from the
sampling points on the tributary streams to the junction with the
Illinois River.
From these daily flows and cross-sections, velocities and
travel times were developed for the reaches and river as a whole»
For the November-December 1961 and the July-August 1962
periods, when the river was at pool stage, average travel times were
developed, based on mean monthly flows and channel areas at pool
stage.
A summary of the flow and travel time computations will be
presented in Chapter IX of this report, in conjunction with quanti-
tative calculations of stream loadings.
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IV-K
References
Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste Water,
llth Edition, I960. American Public Health Association,
American Water Works Association, Water Pollution Control
Federation.
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V PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS
Page Number
ANALYTICAL RESULTS (continued)
Total Phosphate 20
Organic, Ammonia and Nitrate Nitrogen 21
Toxic Metals 2h
PLOW 26
ORGANIC INVESTIGATIONS 27
Methods 28
Discussion of Results 29
Alcohol Extracts 31
Losses 31
Summary 32
RADIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS 32
Significance of Radiological Contamination 32
Sampling Stations 35
Sample Collection 35
laboratory Procedure 35
Sources of Radioactive Wastes 36
Results of Analyses 36
REFERENCES H2
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V ' PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS
Page Number
INTRODUCTION 1
LABORATORY PROCEDURES 1
ANALYTICAL METHODS 1
Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH) 2
Dissolved Oxygen 2
Biochemical Oxygen Demand 2
Oxygen Demand (Chemical) 2
Nitrogen-Ammonia and Organic ' 2
Nitrate and Nitrite Nitrogen 3
Chlorides 3
Solids 3
Alkyl-Benzene Sulfonates 3
Metals (Toxic) U
ANALYTICAL RESULTS 7
Temperature 8
Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH) 9
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) 10
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) 13
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) 16
Suspended and Dissolved Solids 17
Chloride 18
Alkyl Benzene Sulfonate (ABS) 19
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V-l
V PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS
Introduction
This chapter presents the physical and chemical results
obtained from stations on the Illinois River System and major
tributaries during the period April 1961 through August 1962.
The data are grouped by sampling periods, as described in
Chapter IV; and presented as algebraic averages of the individual
values obtained, unless otherwise designated. The parameters
measured and reported in subsequent sections of this chapter are:
Temperature; Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH); Dissolved Oxygen (DO).
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD); Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD);
Dissolved Solids; Suspended Solids; Chloride; Alkyl Benzene
Sulfonate (ABS); Phosphate; Ammonia, Organic and Nitrite plus
Nitrate Nitrogen; Toxic Metals including Cadmium, Chromium,
Copper, Nickel and Zinc; Organic Contaminants; and Eadioactivity.
Each of these parameters is defined in the respective sections
of this report.
Laboratory Procedure s
Analytical determinations were made at the laboratories of
the Great Lakes-Illinois River Basins Project; at 5555 South
Archer through July, 1961, and at 1819 Pershing Road, Chicago,
Illinois, after August 1, 1961. During the periods of study
of the Lower Illinois River, a field laboratory was established
at the Jeoria, Illinois, office of the Illinois Water Survey.
This laboratory performed the physical, bacteriological and
chemical analyses requiring immediate attention.
In the earlier periods of this study, the principal laboratory
effort was expended on the measurement of the parameters of gross
pollution such as dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand,
temperature and pH. As laboratory capability developed, additional
parameters were included in order that other factors affecting
water quality could be evaluated.
Analytical Methods
The chemical data included in this report were obtained,
unless otherwise indicated, by using the procedures published
in "Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater,
llth Edition, 1960", hereinafter referred to as "Standard Methods."
While many methods may be used in water analysis, those described
in the "Standard Methods" were selected by the Public Health
Service because the procedures are supported by collaborative
studies of capable analysts, throughout the nation, who have
demonstrated the methods to be sufficiently accurate and
reproducible.
-------
-------
V-2
Minor modifications were made by this laboratory in certain
procedures, when in the judgment of the Chief Chemist, they
could better accomplish the purpose for which the procedure
was applied. Before adopting any changes or modifications,
however, many analyses were repeated to determine the precision
and accuracy of the modified method and also the agreement with
the "Standard Method."
To assure continually reliable data, reference standards
of known composition were analyzed daily in conjunction with
each test. Blanks were analyzed simultaneously with all tests.
The glueose-glutamic acid synthetic standard was used to deter-
mine the accuracy and precision in the BOD tests.
A skeleton outline of tests performed by this laboratory
follows. Where the tests conform strictly to "Standard Methods",
only the pages wherein the procedure may be found are cited, but
where modifications or changes are made these are described
in derail.
1. Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH)
This test was performed by the Glass Electrode Method
as described in "Standard Methods" on page 19^-
2. Dissolved Oxygen
This test was performed in accordance with procedure
described in "Standard Methods", Method A, Alsterberg
(Azide) Modification of the Winkler Method, pages 309-311~
3. Biochemical Oxygen Demand
The procedure for Biochemical Oxygen Demand was the
same as described on pages 318-23 in "Standard Methods."
**•• Oxygen Demand (Chemical)
The method used was as recommended in "Standard
Methods," pages 399-^02; but without silver sulfate. The
chloride correction was applied to each test result.
5. Nitrogen. - Ammonia and Organic
Free Ammonia Nitrogen was quantitatively determined
by the distillation method described in "Standard Methods,"
pages 298-299' Organic nitrogen was measured by the
Kjeldahl method using mercuric sulfate as a catalyst.
This procedure is described in "Standard Methods," pages
305-307.
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V-3
6. Nitrate and Nitrite Nitrogen
Nitrogen in the form of nitrates was determined
by the phenoldisulfonic acid method described in
"Standard Methods", pages 302-303. The nitrites, if present,
were oxidized to nitrates with hydrogen peroxide (H 0 ) in
acid medium.
7. Chloride
Chloride content was measured by the mercuric
nitrate method described in "Standard Methods", on pages 79-81•
8. Solids
Suspended and dissolved solids were measured by the
method described in "Standard Methods", pages 326-330.
9. Ally 1-Benzene Sulfonates
The methylene blue procedure for determining Alkyl-
Benzene Sulfonate (ABS) as described in "Standard Methods",
pages 2^5-251> was modified by this laboratory. The changes
in no way affected the reproducibility or accuracy of the
method, but did speed up the procedure and economize on the
use of time and reagents.
The modifications were as follows:
(a) The washing of extracts with wash solution
was eliminated because comparative studies shewed
that values were equally reproducible and accurate
without this step.
(b) Twenty-five ml aliquots or aliquots
diluted to 25 ml were used for analysis.
(c) Five ml of methylene blue solution was
added to each sample. An additional amount, if
needed, would be indicated by the water phase
becoming clear after extraction with chloroform.
(d) The sample was extracted two times with
10 ml portions of chloroform and filtered through
a plaget of cotton in the tip of the separatory
funnel. This filtered and removed moisture from
the chloroform extract satisfactorily.
(e) The sample was collected, made up to
volume and read in the spectrophotometer at a
wave-length of 650 milli-microns.
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v-4
10. Metals (Toxic)
A polarographic technique was used to analyze
water for toxic metals. The instrument selected was the
Sargent Model XV because of its great sensitivity. Metals
in concentrations as low as 0.01 mg/1 can be determined and,
with the addition of the range extender and/or greater con-
centration of sample, lower levels may be detected.
The method has "been demonstrated to be as accurate as,
and definitely more time-saving than^ the usual colorimetric
procedures. The precision was in the range of i 3$* an<^
accuracy determined was ± 5$-
A detailed description of procedure is as follows:
1. 4PPAR&TUS
1. Sargent Model XV Recording Polarograph.
2. Micro Range Extender for above.
3. 500 ml Graduated cylinders.
k. Funnels for above.
5. Muffle Furnace.
6. Pipettes (Mohr + volumetric).
T. 10 ml beakers.
8. Hot plate.
9- 50 ml volumetric flask.
10. Folded filter paper.
II. REAGENTS, Hot mentioned in Procedures
1. Mercury (high grade metal-free)
2. Nitric-acid (cone)(metal-free)
3- Hydrochloric acid (cone)(metal-free)
k. Double distilled water (metal-free)
5. Sodium Sulfite (used to wash nitrogen)
6. Bottled Nitrogen Gas (water pumped)
III. PREPARATION OF SAMPLE
Wash all glassware and other containers
with MO (1:1) and rinse with re-distilled water.
Avoid etched beakers, because they could
conceivably retain metals.
To prevent adsorption of metals on the walls of
the container, add 5 nil of HNO,. (cone.) per liter of
sample, as soon as possible after sample is taken.
-------
-------
V-5
To a 500 ml filtered sample in a 600 ml
beaker, add 1 ml NaOH (2N) and 5 ml HNO^ (cone.).
The NaOH provides "bulk to prevent loss of metals
in subsequent ashing.
Evaporate the sample to dryness at a temperature
just below boiling to prevent splattering.
Ash the sample contained in the beaker in a
muffle furnace at ^50°--500° for 15-20 minutes.
If carbon is still present (by dark color of
sample), add additional nitric acid, redry the
sample and re-ash.
After cooling; add a mixture of 5 ml HC1 (1:1)
and 5 ml HNOo (l:l), cover with watch glass, and
heat gently for 10 minutes.
Dilute to 50 ml and pipette three 5-0 ml
portions into 10 ml beakers. Evaporate these
portions to dryness.
IV. DETERMINATION OF THE METALS
A. Method for Copper., Cadmium, Nickel, and Zinc.
(l) Reagents:
a. Electrolyte-lM with respect
to mci and NH^OH; 0.2 ml
Triton X (10$) per liter.
b. Nitrogen gas.
(2) Procedure:
a. Add 5.0 ml of the electrolyte
to the dried aliquot (10 ml
beaker) and allow to stand at
least 5 minutes.
b. Police sides and bottom of beaker
and transfer to cell.
c. Bubble nitrogen through sample
5 minutes, then add mercury pool.
d. Record polarogram.
e. Advised settings: Sensitivity .002
(if Range Extender available,
otherwise use .003), Voltage range
0 to -2.
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-------
v-6
B. Method for Chromium.
This method, based on the conventional
procedure for oxidation of chromium, was
developed by the GLIRBP laboratories.
(l) Reagents:
a. H2SO^ (0.5H)
b. KKnOi^ (.1$)
c. NaN3 (1$)
d. NaOH (2N); 0.5 ml Triton - X
(10$) per liter.
(2) Procedure
a. To the dried aliquot (in 10 ml
beaker) add 2 ml H?SOK (.5W)
+ .1 ml KMnO^ (.l/oj and heat
just below boiling 5 min.
(Add more KMnO^ if red color
fades)
b. Add 2 drops ML l$) and
continue heating until
colorless; add more NaNo if not
discolored in 30 seconds.
c. Remove from heat and add 1.0 ml
2N NaOH + Triton - X within
10 aiin. and make up to 5 ml with
double-distilled water.
d. De-aerate 5 minutes with nitrogen
and add mercury pool.
e. Record polarogram.
f. Advised settings: Sensitivity .002,
voltage range 0 -- -2.
V. STANDARDS
1. A stock standard solution was made by
dissolving the salts of the metals in water or
the metals in nitric acid and mixing them in
definite proportions. The mixed standard then
contained 0.005 ing of each metal per 0.5 ml.
2. A working standard was prepared by
diluting 100 ml of stock standard to 1 liter.
This working standard contains .005 mg of each
metal per 5.0 ml.
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-------
V-7
3. A 5 ml portion of this working standard
was pipetted into a 10 ml beaker and evaporated
to dryness. This standard was treated exactly
as the samples and the comparative wave heights
were used in calculating the amount of the
metals in the samples.
VI. HALF-WAVE POTENTIALS WITH MERCURY POOL
Metal
Cu)
Cdj
Ni
Zn
Cr
1M
NaOH
Electrolyte
DH + 1M KH^Cl
-.32 36
-.62 - -.67
-.90 -95
-1.16 1.22
-.68 — -.73
VII. CALCULATIONS
The following formula contains all the
necessary factors for calculating the amounts
of metals:
mg/1 =/
mg in
5 ml
Sample x Std
std
Final
Volume of
concentrate
Volume of
concentrate
taken
S. of sample
S. of std
x 1000
sample
volume
taken
where mg/1 = milligrams per liter of metal in sample
^H = wave height
S = sensitivity
Std = standard
Ajaalytical Results
The analytical results presented in the subsequent
sections are the arithmetic averages of the individual
results collected during the study period. These data
conform with the sampling periods listed in Chapter IV
except for certain data collected during the March-April
study of the lower river. Some of the data collected
during this period was separated into a March and April
grouping to show the possible effects of spring runoff
which occurred at that time. These will be apparent in
the subsequent discussions of the analytical results
obtained in this study.
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V-8
Temperature
The temperature of water is usually the result of natural
phenomena. However,, multiple usage by man has often resulted
in significant changes in the normal temperature ranges of a
stream and has upset the life cycles of the aquatic biota.
Temperature controls the concentration of oxygen vhich can be
dissolved in water. This is an inverse relationship in that
less oxygen can dissolve as the temperature rises. For example,
at sea level barometric pressure (j6d mm. mercury), the
saturation value is Ik.6 milligrams per liter at 0° C and 7,6
milligrams per liter at 30° C. (l) Temperature also affects
the rate of oxygen utilization by organic matter; the rate
increasing with rising temperature. Thus, high water temperatures
affect dissolved oxygen in two ways: they lower the saturation
value and speed the consumption of oxygen. Unnaturally high
temperatures may cause fish deaths, and disrupt normal biological
activities. The efficiency of water for industrial cooling pro-
cesses, including steam power generation, decreases as temperature
increases.
Figures V-l and V-2 present the average values of water
temperature taken at the time of sample collection for each of
the stations during the sampling periods designated. Figure V-l
describes the observed temperature of the Upper Illinois water
system. A rise in temperature is displayed as the water passes
through the waterway system. Higher temperatures are displayed
below points of treatment plant and cooling water discharge,
resulting in a net rise in temperature of about 9°C for the
upper waterway. The significance of this net rise on other
factors affecting the water quality of the waterway can be
illustrated by considering the July averages. Incoming water,
at l8°C can hold a maximum of 9-5 DJg/1 dissolved oxygen. The
9° temperature rise would reduce this value to 8.1 mg/1, thus
accounting for a net loss of l.k mg/1 oxygen on the basis of
temperature alone, excluding all other factors. To this is added
the increase in rate of oxygen consumption by decomposing organic
matter, in the natural purification processes. A,net temperature rise of 9
increases this rate to 1.6 times the initial rate. This temperature
influence on oxygen consumption creates a greater livelihood of
nuisance conditions.
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v-9
Temperature averages for the Grand Calumet-Little Calumet
system represent only a single monthly period. The Grand Calumet
data indicates abnormally high temperature values, which may be
the result of numerous industrial and cooling discharges into
this small stream.
Temperature averages of the lower river, as presented in
Figure V-2, appear to follow seasonal patterns with little or
no evidence of unusual, local increases. This is to be expected
because the volume of water available for dilution in the lower
river would minimize effects by all but major inputs of heat.
Of the four study periods represented on this Figure, the March
study had the lowest temperature-varying between three and four
Centigrade^degrees. The November study period showed variations
between six and ten Centigrade degrees, with a trend to lower
temperatures at the downstream points. April temperature
variations at most stations were between seven and eight Centigrade
degrees but extreme ranges of six to nine degrees have been
observed in some cases. The July averages ranged between 2k and
2J° Centigrade; the warmer waters occurred at the Kankakee
confluence and again in the lower reaches of the stream.
Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH)
The data in Figures V-3 and V-U are averages of pH obser*
vations, taken daily, during the study periods reported. Averages
are presented because there was little variation in observed day
to day pH values.
pH is defined as "the logarithm of the reciprocal of the
hydrogen ion concentration or, more precisely, of the hydrogen
ion activity - in moles per liter(l). pH .7 is the neutral point,
or dividing line between an "acid" and an "alkali"; pH values
below 7 indicate an acid condition, values above 7 indicate an
alkaline -condition. Each unit change in pH indicates a tenfold
change in hydrogen ion concentration; e.g., pH 6 is 10 times
stronger than pH 7, and pH 5 is 100 times stronger than pH 7.
The pH value of water is significant for several reasons.
Low pH values (acidity) disrupt biological activity, cause corrosion
of steel and concrete, intensify the effect of toxic materials--.such
as sulfide and cyanide, interfere with water plant coagulation
practices and tend to add undesirable iron and manganese to the
water. High pH values (alkalinity) also disrupt biological activity,
precipitate calcium and magnesium from werfcer and increase the
toxicity of ammonia and other amines.
-------
Figure V-3 presents the range of pH values encountered in
the Upper-Illinois River, system ,and, tributaries for the periods
of study'indicated. Shortly- after the high pH waters (pH '8.5^
enter the main channel a sharp drop occurs due to mixing with
the lower pH water of the Northside 'Treatment Plant effluent.
This lower pH condition (pH 7.^-7.7) persists throughout the main
channel as far as the Kankakee confluence where a rise to pH 8.0:
occurs. TheiCal-Sag Channel .shows a similar pattern in its
confluence' with the main channel, with .perhaps a slightly greater
range of pH;r6bange (pH 1-Q-l.l], in the'general vicinity of'the
Calumet•Treatment Plant discharge. The Grand Calumet tributary,
in the single period of study, showed a lower pH (7.1-7.3) than
did the :other streams; this difference, may be attributed to
discharges from numerous industrial outlets to that stream. No
important pH -changes are apparent -from the. inspection of these
data; the overall pi range is within the neutral .to slightly '•
alkaline zone of the pH scale. Conclusion: no adverse pH
conditions existed ini.'the upper;,.Illinois River system during
this study' period-except -for possible localized situations
which may have'oecurrsd -between;.sampling points but'which were
insufficient td-'iafluence significantly the entire stre'am.
The averages of the pH values encountered in the four :
periods of study of the Lower Illinois River are presented in
Figure V-U. These'averages", varying between pH 8.2 and 7-2,
indicate no .adverse pH conditions in the lower river during
this,,pe.ripd of "study., "It is concluded-that pH is not :a critical
factor, at this time, in the; water quality of the Illinois River. ..
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Gaseous oxygpn dissolved in water is one of'the most important
constituents, .of a natural water, The existence'of desirable
aquatic life is. dependent on'the pres';rce of- adequate levels, of
oxygen at all times. Because the solubility of oxygen.;in water is
low, and is, adversely affected by "both physical.and biochemical
forces, the,: .^maintenance of satisfactory levels "Is a, delicate
balance between the forces utilizing oxygert and tho&e contributing
it. " ' '• • -'•• .
,-.•. i• ;oQxygen,is consumed by aq'uatic. organisms during-.;the processes
ofr-arfsp.lxe.ti9n,. It is replenished from the atmosphere by physical
forces::,and^ pan., also be added through phetosyntbesl's by aquatic
plant®• and*;-algae. ,,'.When, or^ahic' pollutiofe' enters an-.aquatic*-; <.
. .enVitpjiHieititj' -thje, Balance' bfetweeii' .c6afeur*ption; and; contribution is
upset. -;The..bacteria, present\iri water or"-isttdduced with-the .
pollution begin active consumption of thfe org'anicr 'matter,- -.-• ;..
multiply.'^ ;• rapidly in the process, and consume the oxygen present
in the water. If they consume oxygen at a rate greater than the
-------
v-n
rate of atmospheric reaeration, the imbalance created in the
stream results in an oxygen deficiency which, if great enough,
can cause the death of fish and other desirable aquatic life
and can convert the stream into an odoriferous nuisance. In
polluted streams, these conditions are particularly in evidence
during warm weather , when rate of oxygen consumption is increased,
the ability of water to hold oxygen in solution is decreased, and
the natural flow of streams is at a minimum providing a minimum ,
availability of dilution water in proportion to the waste applied. I
Upper River:
Hie sampling points of the Upper Illinois River system were j
analyzed for dissolved oxygen throughout this study period. The
data presented in Figures V-5, 6 and 7 represent the average
values observed. In the main channel of the upper river system
the DO entering at the Wilmette inlet was at or above saturation
throughout the study period. As the water progressed downstream,
DO was observed at all stations to the junction of the inlet
waters of the Chicago River. The extent of the depletion was
least during the cold months and greatest during the warmer
seasons-when it approached zero at a station above the confluence
of the North Branch with the Chicago River. Beyond the confluence
a sharp DO rise, caused by lake water entering the system, was
observed; thereafter the DO contents continued to decline. In
the reach between the Chicago River inlet and the Calumet Sag
Channel the DO dropped from about six mg/1 to two mg/1 in April,
May and June and from four mg/1 to less than one mg/1 in July
and August. The January drop was from ten to five mg/1. Between
-the Calumet Sag confluence and the Lockport Dam, there was little
or no oxygen, remaining during the summer months.
Water at the Calumet Sag Channel inlet was lower in DO than
at the other inlets, although much higher than at other downstream
points. This may be caused by the periodic reversals of flow
occurring in this portion of the Channel. Downs"tream points on
the Calumet Sag showed progressive DO depletions. The lowest DC*
(less than one mg/l) was observed during the summer
period at points above the junction with the Sanitary and Ship
Canal.
The Grand Calumet and Little Calumet rivers -both tributary
to the Calumet Sag Channel- showed significant oxygen depletion
in the one month (February) when these streams were studied.
The greatest depletion occurred on the Grand Calumet, where DO
dropped as low as four mg/1 at two points . It should also be
pointed out that the DO content of the Grand Calumet, at its
confluence with the Calumet Sag Channel, was consistently below
that of the channel. Zero or near zero DO levels were observed
during most of the -study period.
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At Lockport water flow of the Upper Illinois River system
passed through navigation locks and through the hydraulic power
plant where aeration occurred. This raised the DO content from
near zero to about seven mg/1 during the critical summer period.
Between Lockport and the Kankakee confluence, further depletion was
observed. The DO dropped to about four mg/1. The mixing of high DO
waters of the Kankakee River, and further aeration on passage over
the Dresden Dam, restored the DO of the river to near saturation at
the point marking the beginning of the Lower Illinois River.
Lower River:
The DO profiles for the Lower Illinois River are presented
in Figure V-8. This figure represents the average DO observed at
various sampling points on the main stem and tributary mouths for the
periods indicated. During the cooler seasons of this study (i.e.
namely November 1961, March and April 1962) the average DO was
at or near saturation-well above critical levels for aquatic life.
Minor drops in DO content in the stream reaches between dams were
insufficient to be of concern from a water quality standpoint.
However, the summer study period revealed an entirely different
picture. Because there were lover flows and higher vater temperatures
during this period, two important zones of oxygen depletion
vere observable : one was in the stretch between mile points 230
and iQk, the other was between mile points 15? and 8l. In
the first stretch, oxygen levels dropped from 7«7 mg/1 to 4.2
mg/1; in the second stretch, DO dropped from 6.0 mg/1 to 2.6
mg/1. These low dissolved oxygen levels were significantly
below those levels required to support desirable fish and
aquatic life in streams. (2)
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V-13
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
The introduction of organic waste into water - whether the
wasta originates from domestic sewage, industrial processes, land
runoff, or any other source - initiates a chain of events involving
the organic material, microorganisms accompanying it, and the natural
biota present in the receiving water. Organic matter is rapidly
utilized as f;ood by those organisms capable of converting it; the
net result of this action is consumption of dissolved oxygen. Because
control of dissolved oxygen is important in water quality management
programs, a means of measuring the oxygen depletion potential of wastes
is necessary if adequate control measures are to be adopted. The test
commonly used for this purpose is the BOD test.
The BCD test is based more on bioassay than a well defined
chemical reaction; it involves observation of oxygen usage by micro-
organisms which convert unstable organic matter into cellular
material; and respiratory products. Waste material is utilized as
energy to effect this conversion. Toxic substances, if present,
adversely influence this test.
The routine test involves measurement of dissolved oxygen
initially present in a sample, and of DO remaining after incubation
of the sample, in the dark, for a stated time interval (generally
five days at 20° C.). Special determinations made at frequent
intervals over an extended period of time are necessary to measure
the rate at which oxygen demand is exerted.
Oxygen demand of the waste, and the physical, chemical and
biological characteristics of the receiving waters must be cor-
related in order to evaluate stream conditions and to design waste
treatment facilities.
In general, high BOD values can be expected to result in l«w
dissolved oxygen levels in the receiving waters; this implies a less
than optimum environment to fish and other desirable aquatic life,
greater need for chlorine and chemicals for water treatment, and a
deterioration of the quality of treated water because undestroyed
organic residues are present.
The Upper River:
Figures V-9, 10 and 11 present five day BOD averages of the
river stations for the sampling periods indicated. The BOD of
representative samples of Lake Michigan waters was very low (about
one mg/1 or less); waters entering the river system at various
inlets showed higher values throughout most of the study period.
This was investigated for the Wilmette inlet waters and is discussed
in Chapter VIII.
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During the April-May period, the BOD of incoming water at
Wilmette averaged 5*5 mg/1. This level did not change appreciably
until mile point NS 33U«9j there a sharp rise, to 9.0 mg/1, demon-
strated the influence of the Norths ide sewage treatment plant dis-
charge. Beyond this point the BOD varied between 8.5 and 5.5 -
gradually diminishing to the lower value until a sharp rise to 11.0
ppm occurred at mile point SS 31^. The rise was caused by the West-
Southwest sewage treatment plant discharge. From this point on, the
BOD declined to a value of ii.5 at the IR 271.5 mile point; a minor
rise at mile point 285.8 was caused by discharges from the Joliet
area .
The Gal Sag averages showed an initial BOD of lj.0 mg/1
gradually rising to a high of 8.5 at mile point 320.2 (because of
the Calumet treatment plant discharge) and slowly diminishing to
6.0 at its confluence with the Sanitary and Ship Canal.
The June and July averages followed the same pattern exhibited
by the April-May period except that the BOD continued to rise between
mile points MS 33U.9 and MB 325.8. The incoming BOD at Wilmette was
U.O-li.5; it rose to a peak of 10.5-11.0 at the first station below
the West-Southwest treatment plant and then diminished to 14.5-6.0
at mile point IR 271.5.
The BOD pattern during June in the Cal Sag Channel followed
closely the April-May pattern. The incoming BOD of 3.5 rose to a
peak of 11.0 at mile point 320.2, then diminished gradually to 6.5 '
at the confluence of the Sanitary and Ship Canal. During July the
incoming BOD of 2.5 rose to 12.5 and diminished to 5»0.
The pattern resulting from the August averages - although
similar to the earlier patterns - showed an overall lower BOD.
Incoming BOD at Wilmette was only 3.0j this rose to a maximum of
7.0 below the West-Southwest treatment plant, then dropped very
slightly over the remainder of the waterway, ending with an average
value of 5«0«
The Cal Sag Channel for this period of observation demon-
strated a similar pattern, exhibiting lower values throughout its
course.
The January study results presented a pattern somewhat dif-
ferent from the other studies. Here discharges from the Northside,
Calumet, and Stickney treatment plants stood out sharply. The BOD
of the Grand Calumet Tributary to the Calumet Sag was considerably
higher than that of the main channel - ranging between 10 and 30 mg/1
throughout its course. The Little Calumet River averaged between
five and ten mg/1 during this winter study period.
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If the sources of BOD entering the river system were limited
to effluents discharged from the three treatment plants, a. gradual
reduction in BOD between the point of entry of one effluent to the
point of entry of the next effluent would be expected. Examination
of the data reveals numerous increases in BOD at intermediate points;
this suggests the entry of other waste discharges throughout the
river course.
The Lower River:
Four periods of study are presented in Figure V-12 showing the
averages of the observed BODs for the Lower Illinois River. Inventory
data presented in Chapter III show comparatively little additional
BOD entering this stretch of the stream, except in the Peoria area
(mile points 166-1^2). On. the other hand, there are significant in-
creases in measured BOD in the upper half of the lower Illinois River
from its beginning at mile point 273 down to about mile point 210j
this is followed by a BOD reduction to mile 170, then an increase
again to mile point 125 and a gradual reduction below this point to
the terminal stations of the study. Because this high BOD cannot be
accounted for (except in the Peoria area) in terms of introduction of
fresh wastes entering the stream, other causes for this high oxygen
demand must be explored. One very apparent cause is the high ammonia
nitrogen concentration, available for oxidation by microorganisms, in
the Upper Illinois River system. It is well known that the BOD re-
action consists of two separate events - the oxidation of carbonaceous
material followed by oxidation of nitrogenous matter. Although the
two can occur simultaneously, most studies reveal two separate events.
This data, when compared with corresponding data on changes in ammonia
nitrogen concentrations, shown in Figure V-27, clearly indicates this
relationship •
In every one of the periods studied, the rise in BOD was paral-
leled by a corresponding drop in ammonia nitrogen.
The effect of this high BOD on the dissolved oxygen is evident
from the July '62 data on DO presented in Figure V-8. Here the data
revealed a steady fall in DO from about eight mg/1 to almost four mg/1
between mile points 230 and 18U. Because the control of dissolved
oxygen, at levels high enough to support desirable aquatic life, is an
important objective of water quality management, these data should
serve to point out that the removal of carbonaceous BOD by sewage
treatment plants will not by itself satisfy the ob^eotive to be met ••
if the lower Illinois River is to support desirable fish -and aquatic
life.
A significant rise in BOD was observed between mile
166 and 12^. This rise corresponded to a, significant
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V-16
from 6 mg/1 to 2.5 mg/1, between mile 166 and mile 88 during the
summer study. BOD discharges in the Peoria area are believed to
be the primary cause of the observed DO drop.
The BOD test, as an important criterion of water quality,
reveals the potential oxygen depletion that can be expected under
conditions favorable for natural processes of stream purification.
To maintain a satisfactory DO level, control must be exercised over
the quantity of oxygen demanding wastes permitted to enter a stream.
Lack of control can lead to oxygen depletion below the critical
levels that can be tolerated for other beneficial stream uses; this
results in a general degradation of water quality and creates
nuisance conditions, and taste and odor problems.
The data presented in this section clearly shows that the
three Metropolitan Sanitary District plants are major sources of
BOD entering the stream; their influence is extended throughout
the entire Illinois River system. Other major BOD sources are the
numerous storm water outlets and other outfalls in the Upper River
system and in the Peoria area in the lower river. Quantitative data
will be presented in Chapter IX to show the extent of the BOD loadings
observed.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
The COD test provides information concerning the total
oxidizable organic load present. COD tests,used in conjunction
with the BOD test, enable judging whether a sample contains con-
taminants which are resistant to biological action, detecting the
presence of toxicity which may inhibit bacterial decomposition of
waste organic matter, and observing the relative stability of the
organic matter present (i.e. is the organic matter fresh in origin
or has it already undergone stabilization through treatment?). If
both COD and BOD are low, the water under test is considered to be
relatively free from oxidizable organic matter - a condition normally
existing in unpolluted streams. A low BOD coupled with a high COD
may indicate stabilized organic matter, organic matter not subject to
biological degradation, or the presence of toxic substances which
inhibit biological activity. A high BOD coupled with a high COD
would indicate heavy organic contamination. In this instance a
COD/BOD ratio much higher than 2/1 would reveal organic matter
present which is not being discovered by the BOD test. Normal
domestic sewage should have a COD/BOD ratio between 1.5/1 and 2.0/1.
The COD values observed in the upper Illinois River system
for the January '62 study period are presented in Figure V-13.
These values range from a high of 50 mg/1, immediately below the
treatment plants, to a low of about 11 mg/1 for the inlet waters
-------
V-17
entering the river system from the lake. In general, the COD
pattern was observed to follow the BOD pattern in Figure V-ll.
It is also apparent that the COD value was four to six times
greater than the corresponding BOD value; this indicated the
presence of organic matter not readily available as BOD.
The averages of COD values observed for the lower Illinois
River for the periods of study indicated are presented in Figure
V-lU. In general, these values parallel the BOD averages for the
same periods. Outstanding deviations, noted for stations down-
stream from Peoria (during the November study), reflect higher
flows encountered for this stretch of stream. This can be at-
tributed to the higher silt load carried. The March study shows
a similar rise in COD in the upper portion of the lower river,
reflecting the high flows encountered there. The July data for
COD were similar to the BOD data for that period, except for the
lower ratios observed. This may be attributed to the high nitrogen
BOD experienced during this period, which is not measured by the
COD test. COD values encountered in the lower river ranged from
23 flig/1 to 53 rog/l> indicating the presence of residual carbonaceous
matter not readily oxidizable by biochemical processes.
Suspended and Dissolved Solids
Suspended solids tests measure the amount of material sus-
pended in the stream that can be filtered out by standard filtra-
tion methods. The materials in suspension, upon settling, cause
sludge or silt concentrations which alter the biological habitats
of aquatic life and sometimes interfere with navigation. Sludge
banks resulting from putrescible organic matter are unsightly,
odoriferous nuisances and contribute to the oxygen demand of the
stream passing over them as a result of the anaerobic digestion
products released by the sludge.
Dissolved solids tests measure the total amount of soluble
material carried by the stream. This includes both organic and
inorganic matter. Excessive dissolved solids in water can be
unpalatable, and increase the cost of water treatment for many
water uses. The Drinking Water Standards of the U.S. Public Health
Service recommend the rejection of sources providing water containing
over 500 mg/1 of dissolved solids(if another water source is avail-
able) because of a noticeable saline taste, and possible cathartic
effect on many individuals.
The Upper Illinois River system was studied only during January
of 1962. Because an insufficient number of analyses were performed
during this sampling period, the available data are not considered
representative and have not been included in this report.
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V-18
The data collected on the Lower Illinois River are presented
in Figures V-15 and 16.
Suspended Solids:
The suspended solids results for the lower river are pre-
sented in Figure V-15 for three study periods. Except for minor
fluctuations between mile points 270 to Iit3 attributable to
tributary inflow followed by settling, no significant variations
were apparent. The levels fluctuated between 30 mg/1 and 120 mg/1.
Below mile point lU3j sizeable inputs of suspended solids were
observed during November and July, rising as high as U20 mg/1 in
November and 190 mg/1 in July, The November input can be explained
by the large flow contributions from the tributary streams (particu-
larly the Sangamon and the Spoon Rivers) and runoff resulting from
local rains. (See Figure V-32). The July increase was unexplainable
at that time.
Dissolved Solids:
Figure V-16 presents the average of the dissolved solids
concentrations found in the lower river during the three study
periods. The March period exhibits the lowest average concentra-
tions throughout the river, ranging between 220 mg/1 and 370 mg/1,
and reflecting the effect of the higher flows encountered at that
time.
In July the average concentrations observed varied between
^UO mg/1 and 375 mg/1.
The November 1961 averages varied between IjOO mg/1 and 510
mg/1.
Chloride
This is a component of the dissolved ionized solids present
in most surface waters. It is closely associated with man's
activities since it is a component of urine and is also used freely
in many industrial processes. Chloride can produce a salty taste
to drinking water and render it unpalatable. Many waters are unsuit-
able for domestic use, irrigation and industrial processes because
of high chloride content. The Drinking Water Standards of the U.S.
Public Health Service recommend the rejection of sources providing
water containing over 250 mg/1 chloride if other water, of better
quality is available. It is not treatable by conventional water and
waste treatment methods. Increased chloride concentration vould imply
deterioration in water quality for many beneficial uses.
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The npper Illinois river- sj—stem was studied only during
January of 1962. The results of this study are presented as
average values for the various stations in Figure V-18. The
waters of Lake Michigan entering the inlets of the jpper Illinois
River system contained about 7.0 mg/1 of chloride. This concentra-
tion increased rapidly (because waste discharges from the treatment
works and other sources entered the river system) and reached levels
as high as 1^0 mg/1 in sections of the upper river. Following dilu-
tion from various sources, the chloride content below the junction
of the Kankakee was reduced to about 50 mg/1. The major sources of
chloride were the treatment plant effluents, as expectedj but when
a comparison was made with the normal chloride concentration of these
effluents (58 mg/1 as reported in Chapter VIII), the effect of the
wintertime practice of salting city streets for ice removal became
apparent.
Average chloride concentrations found in the ^ower Illinois
River during the study periods indicated are reported in Figure V-19.
This figure presents the averages of observed values obtained during
the four indicated study periods. The March and April periods reflect
the dilution effects of high flows which occurred during these periods
of study. They ranged between 11.0 mg/1 and 25.0 mg/1. In the November
period, chloride ranged between 20.0 mg/1 and 37.0 mg/lj in July be-
tween 22.0 mg/1 and 33.0 mg/1. These levels, all well below the
permissible levels set forth above, would not be considered detrimental
to water quality related to beneficial uses of the Illinois River.
Alkyl Benzene Sulfonate (ABS)
This test is a measure of the large, anionic-type molecules
which, in streams, are representative of the synthetic organic
detergents now contaminating many surface and ground waters. The
ABS is that portion of a common household or industrial cleaning
compound that imparts foam and reduces surface tension to aid in
the removal of dirt particles by the cleaning compound. ABS com-
pounds are new to the water environment. They have been used as
substitutes for soap only in recent years. They pass through water
and sewage treatment processes with only partial reduction in
concentrationj moreover,they are not readily attacked by stream
purification processes. Consequently^ ABS can be found for many miles
below sources of waste water discharge. ABS is believed to be non-
toxic to man (3) (U) in the concentrations found in contajidru-tacL
watersj but it produces unsightly, persistent foajns in streams a*
points of agitation or discharge over dams. The ABS content of
drinking water is limited to 0.5 mg/1 by the U.S. Public Health
Service Drinking Water Standards.
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V-20
The ABS data obtained in the upper Illinois River system are
reported as averages for the January study period, in Figure V-20.
Except for waters entering inlets to the upper Illinois River system,
waters from nearly every station sampled revealed ABS above the limits
of 0.5 mg/1 described above. Values as high as 2.0 mg/1 were found
below the principal treatment plant discharges.
ABS data collected on the lower Illinois River are presented
in Figure V-21. This data represents averages of samples collected
during the study periods indicated. The range of values observed
during the November period was between O.l;2 and O.lU mg/lj the higher
values were observed in the upper reaches -of the stream. In March,
the values ranged between O.lU and 0.30j in April between 0.19 and
0.56 j and in July, between 0.28 and 0.76. It is evident from these
data that in a large portion of the lower Illinois River the ABS
values are above the limits of the Drinking Water Standards,
particularly during the summer season when low river flows prevail.
Total Phosphate
Phosphate is a necessary nutrient for biological activity. Its
presence in the water will permit the processes of stream purification
to proceed at an optimum rate. Also, its presence in water is not
considered harmful to human health. Excessive concentrations of
phosphate - coupled with other favorable conditions such as abundant
nitrogen supply, optimum temperature and sunlight - can result in
massive growths of algae and plankton. These excessive growths affect
the quality of water downstream, interfere with water treatment opera-
tions, increase taste and odor problems, cause unsightly scums and
decaying matter, and create problems of dissolved oxygen control.
Concentrations of phosphates between 0.03 and 0.3 mg/1 are needed to
stimulate algae growth according to various authors. Sawyer (5)
states that "nuisance conditions can be expected when the concentra-
tion of inorganic phosphorus exceeds or equals 0.01 ppm." The
biological impact of phosphate is discussed further in Chapter VI,
Biological Investigations.
Phosphate enters the stream with sewage treatment effluent
because it is removed only with solids in conventional processes,
It is normally present in human and animal waste productsj synthetic
detergent formulations used in modern day washing practices have
further increased the quantities discharged to the stream. Phos-
phate is also present in surface runoff, particularly from fertilized
fields, and may be a component of the effluent from industrial
processes.
The average phosphate concentration of the Upper Illinois
River system for the January study period is presented in Figure
V-22. As the incoming lake waters mixed with effluents discharged
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V-21
by the treatment works the phosphate level rose at one point from
less than 0.1 mg/1 to over 10.0 mg/1. Following dilution by
additional lake water, the phosphate level of the upper river
dropped to a three to four mg/1 range and remained near this con-
centration to Lockport. A rise to six rag/1 was observed between
Lockport and the Kankakee confluence.
The Calumet Sag channel revealed a similar pattern of
phosphate concentration change; it was due to the large addition
from the Calumet treatment works. The Grand Calumet and Little
Calumet tributaries also showed high phosphate values, as would
be expected of streams receiving domestic and industrial wastes.
In the main channel of the upper Illinois River system,
between Lockport and the Kankakee river, the observed rise of 3»0
mg/1 in phosphate concentration was unexpected. The volume of
domestic waste contribution, in relation to the larger stream flow
in this stretch, would not be expected to result in such a large
increase. Quantitative calculations (presented in Figure V-23)
revealed a sizeable contribution, equivalent in quantity to the
total contribution of the effluents from the Chicago area. The
only known source of phosphate, other than domestic wastes in this
stretch of stream, is from a chemical manufacturing plant located
at Joliet. Water Quality management programs concerned with the
lower Illinois River cannot overlook this source of phosphate if
control of plankton and algae nuisances is to be exercised.
Phosphate averages obtained from studies of the lower Illinois
River and tributaries are presented in Figure V-2ii. These results
show the influence of stream flow on the results obtained; the March
and April data, representing high springtime flows, revealed much
lower concentrations at all sampling points. The July and November
data show a steady drop in phosphate levels - from 2.5 nig/1 to
0.3 mg/1 as the water moves downstream. Because phosphate results
were obtained from samples from which suspended matter had been
filtered, the observed decrease in phosphate concentration can be
attributed to its removal by the plankton and algae present in the
stream, and to dilution effects of water from tributaries and back-
water lakes of the lower river.
Organic, Ammonia and Nitrate Nitrogen
The presence of nitrogen compounds in the stream (except
for high nitrate concentrations or specific nitrogen compounds
such as cyanides or amines) is not considered significant to
health. Nitrogen, like phosphorus, is necessary to the normal lif«
cycle of aquatic life; if it is present with phosphorus in optimal
concentrations massive growths of algae and plankton can result
under otherwise favorable conditions. Ammonia is a substance toxic
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V-22
to many forms of aquatic life (at high levels and under alkaline
pH conditions (2) )4 Amines and cyanides have toxicity properties
peculiar to specific compounds containing these chemical groupings.
Nitrate nitrogen (2) has been implicated as the cause of Methemo-
globinemia in infants; a limit of U5 mg/1 of nitrate has been in-
cluded in the Drinking Water Standards of the U. S. Public Health
Service.
In the stream, nitrogen compounds present in one form are
readily converted into other forms by various biological changes.
The nitrogen cycle has been a phenomenon much studied by biologists
and biochemists interested in the role of nitrogen in biochemical
processes. Complex reactions result in a never ending cycle as
life processes transform nitrogen gas to nitrogen oxides, to ammonia,
protein and back to nitrogen gas.
Of particular concern, in terms of water quality, are the
changes that occur in streams receiving waste discharges. In the
waste treatment plant, microorganisms convert some of the nitrogen,
received as ammonia and urea from human wastes to protein, which is then set-
tled out/ad sludge. Another portion may be converted to-;nit*ite and
nitrate. The effluent may contain varying amounts of nitrite, nitrate,
ammonia and organically bound nitrogen. The effect of these materials
upon the receiving stream is complicated by the condition of the
stream receiving the effluent. Streams already depleted in DO will
utilize oxygen in nitrate, thereby converting the nitrate to ammonia,
nitrogen gas and proteinaceous matter. Streams with sufficient oxygen
resources will continuethe oxidation or assimilation of ammonia to
proteinaceous material, nitrogen gas, nitrite and nitrate. As discus-
sed in the section under BOD, oxidizeable nitrogen becomes a part of
the biochemical oxygen demand exerted on the stream.
The Upper Illinois River System:
Organic and ammonia nitrogen determinations were carried out
during the January study of the upper river. Averages of the
observed values are presented in Figure V-2$. As the incoming lake
waters mixed with effluents discharged by the treatment works, the
organic and ammonia nitrogen concentrations rose rapidly. Values
of organic nitrogen as high as two mg/1 were observed below treatment
plants; ammonia nitrogen values rose as high as seven mg/1 at one
point. Respective concentrations of 1.5 rag/1 and luO mg/1 were found
at the station immediately upstream from the Kankakee confluence.
The Lower Illinois River System:
Organic, ammonia, and combined nitrite-nitrate nitrogen
determinations were carried out during four periods of study. These
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7-23
data are presented as Figures V-26, 27 and 28.
Figure V-26 presents the averages of the values observed
for organic nitrogen during the periods of study indicated. Wide
fluctuations ("between 1.0 and 2.0 mg/l) were observed as the water
moved downstream. These fluctuations are "believed to result from
changes in the nature and quantity of aquatic life at succeeding
sampling points; they therefore reflect the quantity of proteinaceous
material present. Since proteinaceous nitrogen is one phase of the
complex nitrogen cycle, the observed levels serve to point out that
a reservoir of stabilized organic matter was present throughout the
study periods.
Figure V-27 presents averages of the values observed for
ammonia nitrogen for the same study periods. Data for the November
'6l study period revealed diminishing concentrations of ammonia
nitrogen as the water moved downstream; the concentration dropped
from 1.0 mg/1 at the Kankakee confluence to 0.26 mg/1 at mile point
78 - the terminus of this study. This reduction can result from
bio-oxidation to nitrate as well as dilution by tributaries and
inflows from the backwater lakes.
The data for March revealed little change in ammonia nitrogen
concentration as the water moved downstream, probably because the
colder temperatures during this period reduced the oxidation rate
of ammonia. The observed concentration (l.O mg/1 at the Kankakee
confluence) dropped to 0.75 mg/1 at one point, then rose again to
the 1.0 mg/1 level for most of the stream reach studied.
The data for April was comparable to the November results;
it followed the same general pattern, but at slightly higher
levels.
The most striking changes are represented by the results of
the July study. Beginning with a concentration level of 3-0 mg/1
at the Kankakee junction, a rapid reduction (to 1.2 mg/l) was
observed to occur between that point and mile 209- This level
remained constant to mile 184 then dropped sharply to 0.75 mg/1
at mile 166. A slight rise was observed at stations enveloping
the Peoria section of the stream, followed by further reductions
at downstream points to a level of 0.25 at mile 21 near the mouth
of the Illinois River. Comparison of these data with that of the
dissolved oxygen values in Figure V-8 show similar zones of oxygen
depletion which parallel the losses of ammonia nitrogen. The
combination of warm water temperature and low flow coupled with
high initial concentrations of ammonia nitrogen - as observed in the
July study period - revealed the oxygen-demanding potential of this
water quality parameter; it should be an important consideration in
a water quality management program for the Illinois River.
In Figure V-28 are presented the averages of the nitrite plus
-------
nitrate values observed during the periods of study indicated. The
November study revealed a fairly constant level of oxidized nitrogenj
it fluctuated between 2.0 and 2*5 mg/1 at most stations. The March
data revealed a similar pattern; fluctuations were between 1,5 and
2,0 mg/1. In the April period, the oxidized nitrogen level rose from
about 2«0 to over 3.0 mg/1 between the I^kskee mouth and mile point
18U and fluctuated between 3»0 and 3.5 at the sue3ceding downstream
stations. The July study followed a similar pattern beginning at
a level of 0.75 mg/1 and reaching a peak of 2.1 mg/1.
The significance of these oxidized nitrogen levels - in addition
to their nutrient properties discussed earlier - is an indication of a
potential danger that can exist when these waters are used in infant
feeding formulas. A nitrate nitrogen value of 3.5 mg/1 is equivalent
to 15.5 Mg/1 nitrate. Although this level is below the U5 mg/1
limit of the Drinking Water Standards, further increases in nitrogenous
matter discharged to the Illinois River can resxilt in levels of nitrate
approaching the limits of safety. This is further justification for
control of nitrogen discharges to the Illinois River.
Toxic Metals
The U.S. Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards
limit the concentration of certain metals in drinking water because
of potential toxic properties to humans. These limits are as follows:
Arsenic, 0.05 mg/1; Barium, 1.0 mg/1; Cadmium, 0.01 mg/lj Chromium,
0.05 mg/lj Lead, 0.05 mg/1; Selenium, 0.01 mg/1; and Silver, 0.05 mg/1.
The presence of any of these elements in excess of the concentration
listed shall constitute grounds for the rejection of the water supply.
In addition, the Standards list tolerance limits for metals that, if
exceeded, can constitute grounds for rejection if other suitable
supplies can be made available. These are as follows: Arsenic, 0.01
mg/1; Copper, 1.0 mg/1; Iron, 0.3 mg/1; Manganese, 0.05 mg/1; Zinc,
5.0 mg/1. The basis for rejection in this tolerance list is not
toxicity in all cases but is also related to consumer acceptance. In
addition to human toxicity, some of these metals are toxic to aquatic
life and can play an important part in the biological makeup of the
aquatic environment.
In the studies of the Upper and Lower Illinois River system,
five metals, considered as having toxic properties in relation to
beneficial water uses, were studied in detail. These were Copper,
Cadmium, Chromium, Nickel and Zinc.
Copper occurs in natural waters only in trace amounts. Exces-
sive quantities are generally the result of pollution, attributable
to the corrosive action of water on brass or copper piping, to in-
dustrial wastes, 01 to the use of copper for the control of undesirable
-------
plankton organisms. Copper in water may be detrimental for some
industrial uses and has been found toxic to a wide variety of aquatic
organisms, including bacteria and fish (2).
Cadmium is one of the least abundant metals present in the
earth's crust and is rarely found in natural waters. It is invariably
present in zinc to some extent. Its uses are limited principally to
industrial applications, therefore quantities found in water are the
result of industrial pollution. It has been found to be toxic to
man when ingested, therefore its presence in water is a definite health
hazard. It is also toxic to aquatic life, including fish (2).
Trace concentrations of chromium are found in some natural
waters but excessive concentrations arise from its industrial uses.
It is extensively used in electroplating, tanning, paints, and many
other industries, and is used to control corrosion in cooling water
systems of power plants. Its toxicity to humans when ingested in
water is subject to some question, but because of its pronounced
toxicity and carcinogenic properties when present in other paths of
exposure, the limits set for drinking water reflect these considera-
tions as a factor of safety. Its toxicity to aquatic life covers
a broad range, being toxic to some of the smaller organisms at levels
as low as 0.05 mg/1 (2).
Nickel is not a common constituent of natural waters, its
presence being related to industrial waste discharges. Its toxicity
to humans is low and is not considered important. It is toxic to
aquatic life but less than copper or zinc (2).
The principal effect of zinc in drinking water is aesthetic;
it imparts a noticeable metallic taste to water above 5*0 mg/l«
However, it has a marked toxic effect on fish and aquatic life; its
toxicity is noticeable at concentration levels of 0,1 mg/1 in soft
waters (2), In nature, zinc can be present in waters draining mining
areas but its most frequent source is from waste effluents from many
industries. Galvanized piping may contribute zinc to drinking water.
Figures V-29 and 30 present the results of samples collected
in the Upper Illinois River system during the January study period,
The values represent a single analysis of a composite of the samples
collected during this period. Zinc was found at all stations of the
main channel, varying between 0.35 and 0.10 mg/1. The Calumet Sag
Channel results showed concentrations varying between O.UU and 0,15
The highest concentration, 1.1 mg/1, was found in the Grand Calumet
tributary.
Chromium was observed up to about 0.05 mg/1 at only four
locations on the main channel; at most stations the concentrations
were below the test detection limit of 0.01 mg/1. Concentration
in the Grand Calumet tributary fluctuated between a high of 0.1 mg/1
and below the detection limit of 0.01 mg/1.
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V-26
Copper was found at all stations, including the tributaries;
the highest level was 0.3 mg/1, immediately below the Northside
treatment works. Nickel, found at all stations, varied between
0.02 and 0.10 mg/1. Cadmium was detected at or just above its test
detection level of 0.01 mg/1 at only a few locations on the main
channel and the Calumet- Sag Channel. Concentrations as high as
0.05 mg/1 were detected in the Grand and Little Calumet tributaries,
at several points.
A preliminary review of the data obtained for the Lower
Illinois River indicated that copper was found at nearly all stations,
including tributaries; copper concentrations ranged from traces up to
0.8 mg/1 in one tributary, but were below 0.30 mg/1 in the main river.
Cadmium was found at its test detection limit at only a few stations.
Nickel concentrations ranged between the test detection limit of
0,01 mg/1 and 0.25 mg/l« Zinc was found at levels up to 0.13 mg/1
and chromium was found to vary from the test detection limit of 0.01
mg/1 to 0.08 mg/1.
Flow
Figure V~32 presents the averages of the stream flow in the
L'.ower Illinois River during the study periods indicated. The lowest
flows, which occurred in July 1962, were from 6500 cfs to 13,000 cfsj
the November 1961 flows were between 8500 and 27,000 cfs; the March
flows were between 2-6,000 and 57,000 cfs? and the April flows were
between 19,000 and 7h,500 cfs.
The flows in the Upper Illinois River system for the periods
of study have been tabulated in Tables IX-U through 13.
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V-27
Organic Investigations
Investigation of the organic loadings in the Upper Illinois
River System began in June 1962 with the installation of carbon
filters at the inlet structure at Wilmette and at Lockport.
The primary reason for using the presence of persistent organic
chemicals for measuring water quality of the area is based on
the fact that many of the nation's streams and other water
resources have evidenced an increasing pollutional load of
organic contaminants in recent years. (6) Because of the heavy
concentration of industries that discharge wastes in this water-
shed, it was assumed that organic contaminants would be a
significant part of the total pollutional load discharged into
these streams. Additional organic contaminants may also reach
the streams by surface run-off, contributing insecticides,
pesticides, herbicides and other agricultural chemicals.
These organic substances are only partially removed by
ordinary methods of water treatment and, although they may be
degraded to a certain extent through biological action, dilution,
and settling, a considerable concentration can reach the consumer
in drinking water. Organic contaminants are significant in the
evaluation of water quality because of their effect on fish and
other aquatic life; the production of tastes and odors; and their
possible toxicity to humans. (7) Concentrations at levels
considered toxic for humans have not been reported in past
studies. However, there is a potential hazard to health which
cannot be discounted despite the lack of information on the
possible effects, immediate or long-term, of even small amounts
of these materials on the health of consumers. A principal
objective in a control program is to detect undesirable con-
taminants in water before they reach concentrations that may
be harmful, and to work out suitable methods of removing such
contaminants. Organic contaminants known to be toxic have been
isolated and recovered in waters; among these are DDT, nitriles,
ortho-nitrochlorobenzene, dieldrin, and phenyl esters. In
addition, many other organic chemicals of synthetic origin
have been isolated qualitatively.
Early studies have shcm that a few micrograms per liter
of organic contaminants can affect the quality of drinking water
by causing objectionable tastes and undesirable odors.(8) (9)
These findings have led to the adoption in the U.S. Public
Health Service Drinking Standards a maximum allowable concentration
of 0.2 mg/1 of chloroform extractable material in finished
waters. (lO)
-------
V-28
Studies are now being conducted by GLIRBP Laboratories at
special sampling points to determine the organic pollutional
trends on the Illinois River System. Since this work has only
recently begun, relatively few samples have been processed.
It is significant, however, that early data resulting from these
sampling stations show trends similar to those at the Peoria
Station of the National Water Quality Network. The comparative
data are shown in Table V-la and b.
Methods
The methods -employed in the determination of organic
contaminants in this study are essentially the same as those
described by Middleton, et al.{ll)
Because of the low concentrations of certain organic materials
in water, ordinary analytical methods have been impractical in
measuring quantities present. As a consequence, the carbon
adsorption technique was developed and is now widely used. This
procedure collects and concentrates the organics from a large
volume of water, approximately 5,000 gallons, onto a bed of
activated carbon. The property of adsorption by carbon of many
types of organic materials is particularly advantageous in this
procedure. After the carbon containing the adsorbed sample is
dried under carefully controlled conditions, it is then extracted
with chloroform. Excess chloroform is distilled off and a
weighable residue of mixed organic contaminants is left. This
residue is called the Carbon Chloroform Extractables (CCE).
Further extraction of the carbon is done with ethyl alcohol
which removes the more polar organic substances. This residue
is called the Carbon Alcohol Extractables (CAE).
It should be pointed out that the carbon does not adsorb
all organic material present in water, nor do the solvents
desorb or recover all the materials adsorbed. The technique^
therefore, cannot be considered a. measure of complete organic
content. Studies (12) have shown that adsorbed materials can
be recovered in a range of 50$ to 90$, and that results from
samples run in replicate agree within ± 10$>. Though the
technique is limited in determining "total organic content"
it does provide the following:
1. A relative measure of the pollution load due to a class
of organic materials not measured by other analytical
methods.
-------
2. The knowledge of undue stress on a water from most
organic industrial contaminants, particularly synthetic
chemicals.
3. Materials that can be subjected to physical, chemical,
and physiological tests.
4. A means of determining the relative cleanliness of a
stream over a definite period.
Following the extraction and weighing of the gross extract-
ables of chloroform and alcohol, group separations of the chloro-
form extract were made from the mixed residue on the basis of
solubility differences. These groups include either insolubles,water
solubles,weak acids,neutrals,end "j- ~ic r ;':^rl--.1- . 1h? noutrr.l components
were further separated by chromatographic means into aliphatic,
aromatic and oxygenated fractions. Infrared adsorption curves
were also run on selected fractions. The findings are reported
in Table V-la and b. The data from the Peoria station, also
included in this table, are taken from tests performed earlier
under the National Water Quality Network. Figure V-31 shows the
average concentration of organics in parts per billion on a
comparative basis, at the three selected stations during the
period studied. Also shown is the ratio of chloroform extract-
able s to alcohol extractables.
Discussion of Results
The average chloroform extractables (Table V-la) recovered
at the Wilmette sampling station was about 33 micrograms per
liter (ppb). This is characteristic of waters where industrial
pollution is light or non-existent. At the Lockport station,
downstream from numerous industrial plants, the CCE increased to
an average of 190 micrograms per liter. This closely approached
the maximum allowable limits. The average of 72 micrograms per
liter reported at Peoria probably resulted from degradation of
organic products and through dilution by the various tributaries.
Another significant finding in the Peoria data is the relative
increase in the oxygenated fraction, which in this case is 79$
of the neutral fraction, while at Lockport the oxygenated
fraction is only 25$ of the neutral fraction. This clearly
indicates an "aging" of the pollution at Peoria due to a longer
traveling distance from point of origin.
The fractional components into which the chloroform extract-
ables have been separated (Table V-lb) and their significance is
discussed briefly as follows:
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V-30
1. Efcher Insolubles
This group, usually a "brown humus-like powder,
is composed to a large extent of carboxylic acids,
ketones, and alcohols of complicated structures.
2. Water Solubles
Tne compounds present in this group are largely
simple molecules such as hydroxy acids, alcohols, etc.,
whose probable origin is the oxidation of hydrocarbons,
or the residue of natural oxidation processes.
3. Weak Acids
This group is removed from ether solution by
sodium hydroxide, a strong base. It is generally
characterized by presence of compounds whose properties
are weakly acidic. Among these would be phenols,
certain enols, iraides and sulfonamides.
k. Strong Acids
Occurring in this fraction are usually the acids
of the carboxcylic group, e.g. acetic, butyric,
salicylic, benzoic and higher homologues of this nature.
It is significant that these compounds are used frequently
in industrial processes.
5. Bases
This group is characterized by the strongly basic
alkyl amines and the less basic aryl amines. Included
would be such conrpounds as hydrazine, methylamine,
pyridine, pyrrole and other heterocyclic types which
are analogous in that each has a trivalent nitrogen.
A high concentration of this fraction is of great
significance in producing tastes, odors, or even
toxici/ly.
6. Neutrals
This fraction generally contains compounds which
show neither basic nor acid properties. Among this
group are the aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons,
aldehydes, ketones and products of esterification.
This group can be separated into subgroups by chroma-
tographic in^ans as follows:
-------
V-31
(a) Aromatics
The materials in this group are principally
the aromatic derivatives of coal tar such as benzene,
toluene, xylene, aldrin, nitro-chlorobenzene and
others. These compounds have great industrial use
and their presence in water in large quantities can
be significant. Many of these toxic materials have
been isolated from some of the nation's rivers. (13)
(b) Aliphatics
This portion contains the straight chain
petroleum type of hydrocarbons whose source is
usually the petroleum industry.
(c) Oxygenated Compounds
These are generally hydrocarbons that have
undergone oxidation into aldehydes, ketones and
esters. While many of these compounds result from
long exposure of the pollution to chemical forces
some are from direct discharges into the stream.
Alcohol Extracts
The alcohol fraction generally consists of polar substances,
such as the synthetic detergents, carbohydrates, proteins and other
natural products. This fraction is not broken down further becsuaa
the products present in this fraction can be better determined
through conventional methods of analysis.
Losses
As was stated earlier in this report the method used in this
experiment does not provide 100% recovery of organic materials.
Some of the material is naturally lost in transferring for the
various separations and the other is lost because of the extremely
volatile nature of some organic components.
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V-32
Summary
In this investigation on the Illinois River Basin, it is
demonstrated that organic contaminants are being carried in the
streams and can be detected by the carbon adsorption technique.
The number of samples studied thus far, however, will not
warrant the drawing of definite conclusions regarding the
extent of pollution. Further, studies over a longer period of
time are being carried out. It is also expected that the
analytical methods now used will be supplemented by refine-
ments which may give a better identification of substances
found.
Radiological Investigations
A preliminary investigation of the existing radiological
contamination of the Upper Illinois River System has been
initiated. Potential sources of radioactive contamination
have been identified, information has been assembled on levels
of radioactivity and waste flows, and samples from this river
system have been collected for analysis. The Radiochemistry
Laboratory was established in July of 1962. Samples had been
analyzed previously by the Public Health Service, the Illinois
State Board of Health, Argonne National Laboratory, Armour
Research Foundation, and Dresden Nuclear Power Station. This
report includes results from these sources as well as results
from the Project Radiochemistry Laboratory.
Significance of Radiological Contamination
Radiological contamination of the environment is of great
interest because of increasing public health concern over the
long term effects of radiation levels and the fact that expanding
production and use of atomic energy will inevitably increase the
amount of radiation escaping to the general environment.
When radioactive wastes are discharged to the environment
they are not absorbed in the environment in harmless fashion.
Even though decay and dilution may occur, radioactive wastes
may be reconcentrated physically, chemically and biologically
so that the radioactive concentration can be increased as it
passes through the environment to the point of human contact.
-------
V~33
Contamination of surface water "by radioactive? materials
can result in human radiation exposure through the use of the
water as a source of municipal water supply, through the con-
sumption of fish from a contaminated stream or through the
consumption 6| agricultural crops irrigated "by such water.
It is generally agreed that all unnecessary human exposure
to radiation is undesirable and should be prevented. However,
if the benefits of atomic energy are to be utilized then some
radiation exposure is inevitable. The National Committee on
Radiation Protection (NCRP) has for many years recommended
limiting standards for maximum permissible exposure. (l4)
The values recommended by the WCKP are for occupational
exposure. Although the Council recognized that standards for
exposure to the radiation worker should be reduced by appropriate
factors to establish standards for exposure to the general
population, they did not establish these values. The Federal
Radiation Council (PRC) was established in 1959 to provide a
federal policy on radiation exposure. To date, the FRC has
issued three reports (15) (l6) (17) which together provide
the basic framework of radiation protection standards. These
reports establish radiation protection guides (RPG) for the
general population. Included in these guides are established
specific ranges for daily intake of Iodine-131, Strontium-90,
Strontlum-89, and Radium-226 within the following criteria:
Range 1; Daily intakes not expected to result in any
appreciable number of individuals in the population reaching
a large fraction of the RPG.
Range 2; Daily intakes resulting in average exposure to
population groups not in excess of the RPG. Such intakes call
for active surveillance of the environment and routine control.
Range 3j Daily intakes would be presumed to result in
exposures exceeding the RPG if continued for a sufficient period
of time. Such results call for careful evaluation and, if
necessary, positive control measures.
The daily intake ranges for each of the four radionuclides
are shown in Table V-2, These represent the most significant
radionuclides but are not the only ones of concern. The environ-
ment contains radioactivity from naturally occurring minerals in
the earth's crust, from peaceful uses of atomic energy, and from
fallout from the testing of nuclear weapons. Fallout is a cojapjjp
mixture of radioactive fissinn products with a wide varioti'm in
activity.
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V-3U
These various radionuclides can enter the "body by several
pathways. Combinations of intake from air, water and food may
occur; consequently, the use of the RPG must take into account
the relative contribution of each source to the total intake.
This makes the establishment of a concentration value for any
one medium such as water, a very difficult task.
The Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards
have received widespread use by various regulating agencies.
The radioactivity standards for drinking water are generally
accepted as the criteria for evaluating the condition of
untreated water for all uses, and are used as the frame of
reference for this report. Following is an abstract of the
PHS Drinking Water Standards of 1962. (lO)
"Approval of water supplies containing radioactive
materials shall be based upon the judgment that the radio-
activity intake from such water supplies when added to that
from all other sources is not likely to result in an intake
greater than the radiation protection guidance recommended
by the Federal Radiation Council and approved by the President.
Water supplies shall be approved without further consideration
of other sources of radioactivity intake of Radium-226 and
Strontium-90 when the water contains these substances in amounts
not exceeding 3 and 10 micromicrocuries per liter, respectively.
When these concentrations are exceeded, a water supply shall be
approved by the certifying authority if surveillance of total
intakes of radioactivity from all sources indicates that such
intakes are within the limits recommended by the Federal Radiation
Council for control action."
"In the known absence* of Strontium-90 and alpha emitters,
the water supply is acceptable when the gross beta concentrations
do not exceed 1000 micromicrocuries per liter. Gross beta
concentrations in excess of 1000 micromicrocuries per liter shall
be grounds for rejection of supply except when more complete analyses
indicate that concentrations of nuclides are not likely to cause
exposures greater than the Radiation Protection Guides as approved
by the President on recommendation of the Federal Radiation Council."
*"Absence is taken here to mean a negligible small fraction of
the above specific limits, where the limit for unidentified
alpha emitters is taken as the listed limit for Radium-226."
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Sampling Stations
The sampling stations used for radiological investigations
were the same as those used for physical and chemical investi-
gations. These stations are listed in Tables IV-1, a-h,
Sample Collection
A special collection of samples was made for the Radio-
chemistry Laboratory in August and September 19&2, since it
was not in existence at the time samples were collected for
the chemical and physical studies. Water samples were collected
at mid-stream and mid-depth. Algae samples were collected from
the surface of pilings and rocks at various locations in the
river. Bottom muds were collected with an Ekman or Petersen
Dredge.
Laboratory Procedure
Radiological determinations were made at the Project labor-
atory. The determinations were made under the supervision of an
experienced radiochemist. Analytical procedures followed the
methods described in Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Waste Water (l) and the Radionuclide Analysis Laboratory
Manual of the Public Health Service(l8).
Water and bottom mud samples were prepared on two inch
diameter cupped aluminum planchets. Algae samples were ashed
and prepared on similar stainless steel planchets. Suspended
solids were separated by membrane filter, transferred and burned
with Ethyl Alcohol. All planchets were dried and fixed when
necessary with lucite in acetone.
Counting was done in a windowless internal proportional
counter (Nuclear Chicago IA-8) with a. two inch lead shield and
automatic sample changer (NC Model C210 Special), combined with
an KG 202 Sealer and Hewlett Packard 560A Digital Recorder.
All samples were counted for thirty minutes (three 10 min.
counts) and corrections were made for geometry (G), backscatter(B),
self-absorption (A), sample volume (v), and background using the
general equations:
-------
Net cpm/GBAV 2.22 = gross radioactivity, uuc/1 ± C.E.
where: C.E. (± uuc/1) « 1.96 (cpms/ts +cpmb/tb)2/GBA.V 2.22
vhere: cpms = counts per minute sample
cpmjj = counts per minute background
net cpm = cpms - cpm^
ts = counting time sample
t^ = counting time background
Additional determinations from the Illinois Department
of Public Health follow the same methods. Results from Argonne
National Laboratory follow the methods described in T3D-4500,
l6th Edition, AEG Research and Development Report.
Sources of Radioactive Wastes
Potential sources of radioactive wastes which could
reasonably be expected to find their way into the Illinois River
System can be grouped in two categories: A. Nuclear Reactors,
B. Radioisotope Users. The former is the more significant
from the standpoint of radiological water pollution. There are
three installations in this category in the area of concern:
The Argonne National Laboratory, The Armour Research Foundation,
and the Dresden Nuclear Power Station. Data on the nuclear
reactors at these locations are given in Table V-3.
Results of Analyses
Results of gross radiation analyses of the Illinois River
System are shown in Table V-k. Highest levels of activity
in water and bottom mud samples were found in the North Branch
of the Chicago River, the Grand Calumet River, the Little Calumet
River, the Illinois River at Dresden Dam and the Sangamon River.
The highest gross beta activities found in water samples (total
of dissolved and suspended) were found at stations GC 331.1,
GC 326.6, IR 2T1.6, and Sangamon 102.k. The results were 153,
73, $b and 132 uuc/1 respectively, and are not in excess of
the 1000 uuc/1 limit for gross teta activity in the known
absence of Strontium 90 and alpha emitters. Some of the alpha
results in water samples exceed 3 uuc/1, which is the limit
for Radium 226 in water, and most of the samples exceed 10 uuc/1
of beta activity which is the limit for Strontium 90. The
laboratory was not equipped to run specific radiochemical analysis
on these samples and was therefore unable to demonstrate that
the samples were below the levels established for Radium 226 and
-------
V-37
Strontium 90. Station IR 271.6 is the first station below the
Dresden Nuclear Power Station which is at the confluence of
the Kankakee and Des Plaines River. A comparison of the total
Beta activity at IR 271.6 (9^ uuc/l) with the activity at the
last two stations above it, DP 277.5 (3«^ uuc/l) and Kankakee
278.7 (U4 uuc/l) shows the effect of the reactor effluent on
the river.
Since water samples indicate only the amount of activity
present at the time of collection, it is of interest to note
the results obtained from bottom samples and algae samples.
These samples will give some indication of the general levels
of activity over a period of time. Because these samples are
selective and represent only certain isotopes which have been
present and because they accumulate these particular isotopes,
they are difficult to interpret. The accumulation, however,
is directly dependent upon the presence of these isotopes in
the water over a given period of time.
It Is interesting to note, in Table V-4, that one of the
two highest "beta activities in bottom muds of 370 uuc/gram was
found at the same station which exhibited the highest water
sample beta activity. The other bottom mud sample which had
370 uuc/gram coincided with station NB 333-k which had the
second highest beta activity in algae. Many of the algae samples
had beta activities between 200 and 800 uuc/gram.
These results do not reflect the location of expected
sources of significant wastes. Since these samples are from a
moving stream and with the exception of two stations, only one
or two sample collections are represented here, the results
cannot be used to pinpoint such locations. They do indicate,
however, that radioactive materials exist in the system and
more study should be undertaken to determine the significance
of these materials.
A discussion of the major sources of radioactive wastes
and the results of analysis from other agencies follows.
A. Argonne National Laboratory
Argonne National Laboratory is a research and development
laboratory operated by the University of Chicago under a contract
for the AEG. It is located near Lemont, Illinois, in a relatively
high population density area.
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V-38
The Laboratory conducts a research program of broad
scope, much of which is associated with nuclear reactor fuels.
In addition to operating reactors shown in Table V-3, significant
quantities of liquid radioactive wastes of wide variety are
produced.
The Laboratory is equipped with a large well-designed and
well-operated waste treatment facility. High level wastes are
concentrated and transported to Oak Ridge for burial. Low level
wastes are transported to the waste treatment facility in con-
tainers. Wo radioactivity is permitted in the laboratory drains.
The systems used are described in open literature. (19) In the
handling of radioactive wastes every effort is made to see that
no radioactivity enters the Des Plaines River beyond that allowed
by NBS Handbook 69,
A record of the discharge of radioactivity from this facility
after treatment is shown in Table V-5-
The effluent from Argonne National Laboratory is discharged
to Sawmill Creek, a small stream that runs through the Laboratory
grounds and flows into the Des Plaines River. Table V-6 shows the
effect of the discharge on existing levels in Sawmill Creek.
Comparison of the total alpha activities with uranium concen-
trations shows that the alpha activity added to the creek by the
waste water was due principally to natural uranium. The waste
water added an average of about 22 micromicrocuries of uranium
per liter or about O.lfo of the MFC for natural uranium. Small
amounts of plutonium and thorium were also found below the out-
fall. The alpha activities due to these elements are shown in
Table V-J.
The total beta activities in Sawmill Creek are given in
Table V-8. Beta activity both above and below the outfall
reflects the presence of fission products from nuclear weapons
test. Samples taken below the site show an average increase
due to waste of 20 micromicrocuries per liter. The individual
beta emitters are shown in Table V-9 and are considerably less
than their MFC values. Tables V-10 and V-ll indicate that
this waste has little effect on the Des Plaines River. In general,
then, under normal operating conditions, the radioactivity added
to the river by Argonne National Laboratory is not significant
at the present time.
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V-3*
B. Armour Research Foundation
Armour Research Foundation is located in a high population
density area in Chicago five miles south of the loop and two
miles west of Lake Michigan. Armour operates a low power level
(75 kw ) homogeneous solution type reactor for industrial research.
The reactor is fueled with a uranyl sulfate solution containing
850 grams of U-235. (20) Continuous fission product removal
from the fuel solution is required. This process results in the
accumulation of high level liquid wastes which are stored in steel
containers and shipped to Argonne National Laboratory for disposal.
The reactor is located below the level of the sewer system
and all discharges must be pumped to waste. Low level wastes are
retained in large stainless steel tanks and after analysis are
discharged to the City of Chicago sewer system.
Past records indicate an average activity discharge of 10
millicuries per year of beta emitters with only trace amounts of
alpha activities.
C. Dresden Nuclear Power Station
The Dresden Nuclear Power Station, located kf miles south-
west of Chicago is the nation's largest all-nuclear power plant.
Dresden is a dual cycle boiling water reactor employing llj-5,000
Ibs. of enriched U-238. The plant was completed in I960 and
full power operations began in 1961. (21)
As liquid wastes are generated they are collected and
analyzed to determine appropriate treatment. Liquid wastes
discharged from the plant after treatment average 5,000 to
7,000 gallons daily with a residual activity averaging 30 me/day.
This discharge is added to the 163,000 gpm cooling water flow
before discharge to the Illinois River. The permissible waste
discharge from the reactor was established by a permit issued
by the Illinois State Sanitary Water Board on August 15, I960.
Under this permit the maximum discharge allowed depends on
concentrations observed in the Illinois River below the station
at Morris, Illinois. Permissible discharge concentrations are
computed each month for the following month by the State as shown
in Table V-12 wherein the discharge concentration permitted is
100 micromicrocuries per liter minus the preceding twelve wonth
average concentration observed at Morris.
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v-Uo
It is expected that 1.1 million gallons of radioactive
liquid wastes will "be discharged annually at rated capacity.
(21) (22) About 0.2 million gallons of concentrated wastes from
the demineralizer system will "be stored annually in a steel tank
housed in an underground concrete vault. Up to 1,200 curies of
activity may "be contained in this concentrated solution. The
accidental release of this amount of stored material, an extremely
remote if not non-existent possibility, would of course, result
in very high levels in the Illinois River.
It can "be concluded that under normal operating procedures
and the controls established "by the State of Illinois, the
radioactivity added to the Illinois River by Dresden will be well
within the limits presently considered acceptable.
E. Radioisotope Users
Production and use of radioistopes has increased steadily
since they were first released for general use in 19^6. The
radioisotopes are licensed for use and regulated by the AEC for
medical, educational and industrial uses. It is estimated that
91% of the total isotope activity shipped by the AEC is used as
sealed sources. (23) Sealed sources are designed so that leakage
of material is prevented. The bulk of remaining isotopes in use
have half-lives of less than 30 days and are used chiefly in
medical diagnosis and therapy as well as in industrial develop-
ment and research. Some of this material can be expected to find
its way into the sewers; however, the amount would be small.
Of 250 AEC licenses in Illinois nearly half are located in
Chicago. Half of the Chicago licenses are for material in sealed
sources. A summary of unsealed sources appears in Table V-13«
It is not possible to determine from this information how
much of this activity reaches the sewer system since much of
it is utilized or stored and is either discharged to the sewer
slowly or after a period of significant decay. If we were to
assume that all of this activity reached the sewer at full
strength and was discharged uniformly throughout the year, we
would expect an approximate activity concentration of 200
micromicrocuries per liter to result. Actually, of course,
a considerably lower concentration would be expected.
-------
In order to obtain an indication of the amount of activity
in Chicago's sewage, samples have been taken from each of Chicago's
three major treatment works. All samples were taken over a 2k hour
period and composited prior to analyses. Gross alpha and beta
results are summarized in Table V-lk. The alpha activities are
not significantly higher than those found in the water supply. The
slightly higher beta activities can be related to the much greater
solid content per liter of sewage as in the same volume of water.
The radioisotope usage in Chicago was not readily detectable in
the waste effluents sampled.
-------
REFERENCES
Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste Water,
llth Edition. American Public Health Association, American
Water Works Association, Water Pollution Control Federation
(I960).
Quality Criteria. State Water Pollution Control Board,
Sacramento, California.
3. The Relation of Surface Activity to the Safety of Surfactants
in Foods. Food Protection Committee - National Academy of
Sciences, National Research Council Pub. ^63, Washington, B.C.
(1956).
h. Freeman, S., et al. The Enzyme Inhibitory Action of an Alkyl
Aryl Sulfonate and Studies on Its Toxicity When Ingested by
Rats, Dogs, and Humans. Gastroenterology, k: 332-31J-3 (19^5).
5. Sawyer, Clair N. Fertilization of Lakes by Agricultural and
Urban Drainage. Journal New England Water Works Ass'n, 6l~2:
109-127.
6. Annual Compilation of Data, October 1, 1959-Sept-30, I960.
National Water Quality Network, U.S. Dept. of HEW, PHS.
7. Rosen, A. A. and Middleton, F.M. Chlorinated Insecticides
in Surface Waters. Analytical Chemistry, 31: (Oct. 1959).
8. Ruchhoft, C.C., Middleton, F.M., Branis, H. and Rosen, H.A,
Taste and Odor Producing Components in Refinery Gravity Oil
Separator Effluents. Ind. & Eng. Chemistry, k6:2&k ( 195*0 •
9. Middleton, F.M., Grant, Wallace and Rosen, H.A.
Drinking Water Taste and Odor Correlation with Organic Content,
Ind, & Eng. Chemistry, 1*8:268-27^ (1956).
10. 26 Federal Register, 6737> July 27, 196l; Amendments Federal
Document 62-2191, March 6, 1962.
11. Middleton, F.M., Rosen, A. A. and Burttschell, R.H,
Manual for Recovery of Organic Chemicals in Water. R.A. Taft
Sanitary Engineering Center, PHS (1957).
12. Hller, E.A., et al. Relative Efficiencies of Organic
Contaminant Removal. R,A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center,
unpublished data, (Dec. 1961 ).
-------
13. Middle-ton, F.M. and Idchtenberg, J.J. Measurements of
Organic Contaminants in the Nation's Rivers.
Ind. & Eng. Chemistry, 52: (June I960).
1^. Handbook 69. National Bureau of Standards, U.S. Government
Printing Office, (June, 1959).
15. Background Material for the Development of Radiation Protection
Standards. Staff Report No. 1, Federal Radiation Council,
U.S. Government Printing Office (May 13, 1960).
16. Background Material for the Development of Radiation Protection
Standards. Staff Report No. 2, Federal Radiation Council,
U.S. Government Printing Office (September 1961).
17. Health Implications of Fallout from Nuclear Weapons Testing
through 1961. Staff Report No. 3, Federal Radiation Council,
U.S. Government Printing Office (May 1962).
18. Radionuclide Analysis of Environmental Samples. Technical
Report R-59-6, Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center,
U.S. Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio (1959).
19. Rodger, W.A., Fineman, B. Nucleonics 9: 50-61 (1951).
20, Supplementary Description and Analysis of a Solution Type
Reactor for Armour Research Foundation. Armour Research
Foundation Report NAA-AER-1135 (June 1958).
21. Annual Report to Congress of the Atomic Energy Commission
for I960. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, U.S. Government
Printing Office (January 196l).
22. Nixon, V.D, A Review of Dresden Nuclear Power Station.
Ger-1506 General Electric Co., San Jose, California.
23. Hearings Before the Special Subcommittee on Radiation of the
Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, Industrial Radioactive Waste
Disposal, 1:140, 708; 111:21*88, U.S. Government Printing Office
(1959).
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VI BIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS
Page Number
INTRODUCTION 1
SIGNIFICANCE OF BIOLOGICAL INFORMATION 1
METHODS 3
Field Procedures
Laboratory Procedures
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 4
Bottom-dwelling Animals
Attached Algae
Plankton Algae
Physical Observations
CALUMET AREA BIOLOGICAL SURVEY 7
FLOOD PLAIN LAKES 7
LOWER ILLINOIS RIVER BENTHIC FAUNA 8
DEFINITION OF TERMS 9
REFERENCES 11
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VI-1
VI BIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS
Introduction
Seasonal studies were made throughout the Illinois River
system to determine the kinds and numbers of stream bottom-dwelling
animals, the species and abundance of attached plants, and the
kinds and populations of plankton algae.* Data were obtained from
the laboratory examination of the various samples collected during
the period July, 1961 through June, 1962. Collections of bottom-
dwelling animals and attached plant life were made during July-
August, 1961j October-November, 196!; and February, 1962. Water
samples were collected for plankton algae determinations through-
out this same stream section from July, 1961 through June, 1962.
In addition, special studies included: a survey of the Calumet
River system during February and March, 1962j investigations of
the flood plain lakes in the lower part of the river system;
and exploratory investigations of the benthic fauna downstream
from Peoria. These data are summarized in this report and the
biological condition of the subject streams in the Illinois River
system is evaluated.
Significance of Biological Information
The kinds and numbers of living plants and animals inhabiting
a particular stream area reflect the quality of the water that
has passed over this area for an extended period of time. Some
plants and animals are capable, by virtue of physiological features
or living habits, of withstanding polluted conditions and multiply ^
rapidly when competition with less tolerant forms is eliminated. "-
Examples of pollution-tolerant animals are the sludgesworms,
bloodworms, leeches, and pulmonate snails that exist in the
decaying organic sediment which builds up from the settleaWLe
organic solids present in most waste discharges. As conditions
favoring these tolerant organisms develop, the more sensitive
animals, such as the mayflies and caddisflies, disappear from the
community. Ultimately, a population consisting of only one or
two species makes up the fauna of the stream bottom, (l)
A benthic population consisting of many kinds of organisms
with low numbers of each species is typical of unpolluted
streams.(2) Although some of the pollution-tolerant kinds
might form part of such a community, they would be a minority.
When a single species dominates the population to the exclusion
of organisms intolerant of low dissolved oxygen conditions and
*This and other technical terms are defined at the end of this Chapter«
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VI-2
organically overloaded water, the stream is considered severely
degraded. Degradation is extreme when streams become so heavily
loaded with putresclble materials as to effect complete oxygen
depletion so that only air-breathing animal forms can exist.
The introduction of toxic wastes and settleable solids, as well
as of oxygen-consuming materials could also alter the composition
of the community by destroying the sensitive forms and giving
more living room to the tolerant kinds. A balanced population
would not be re-established automatically by the sudden return
to optimum water quality conditions, because the lengths of
the life cycles of the organisms vary from weeks to years.
The attached plants (algae and fungi) are also subjected
to the waters flowing through their living area. In addition,
they are not always found on the stream bottom. In clear water,
growths can exist on submerged objects but, as turbidities
increase, the algal growths, requiring light, develop nearer
the surface. When light transparency is further reduced, the
plants favor only the substrata where air, water, and shore
meet. Where this stream condition exists, the organisms are
exp*w»d not only to the water in the stream but to materials
on the surface, such as oil slicks, scums, and floating debris.
Thus, the abundance and kinds of plant life are influenced by
the quality of the water and the floating materials.
The tolerances of algae to pollution are not as well
defined as for the benthic fauna. However, some of the species
are knewn to prefer organically enriched waters and seme are
known to be intolerant of organically polluted waters.
Plankton algae are microscopic, chlorophyll-bearing plants
suspended in the water. Unlike the bottom-dwelling animals and
attached plants, they do not represent the biological condition
at a given stream area beeause tLey are transitory and subject
to currents. However, they are an important constituent of the
stream becaupe.-they represent a basic link in the food chain
and, through photosynthesis, provide oxygen for the minute
anir-J.8 upon which fish and other aquatic life feed. To a degree,
the plankton algae indicate the quality of the water in that the
kinds and numbers of algae present depend on the chemical and
physical composition of the water in which they originated and
in which they dwell.
Algae, like all green plants, require nutrients for growth.
Besides many trace elements, algae take up measurable amounts of
nitrogen and phosphorus. The density of algae in the water is
dependent upon several factors, including the concentration of
nutrients. All other factors being favorable, the higher the
concentration of nutrients, the greater will be the density of
algal growth. (3)
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VI-3
The benthic organisms, attached plants, and the plankton
algae not only reveal the quality of the water; they are
important agents of self-purification. If organic loading,
toxic or inhibitory wastes reach concentrations sufficient to
hinder the growth and propagation of these organisms, the natural
purification rate is slowed. As a result, the recovery process
of the stream is extended farther downstream. (4)
Methods
Field Procedures
All samples of bottom fauna were collected from Etaaan and
Petersen dredges. The Ekman dredge is a trip-spring device
which samples 36 square inches of the bottom to a depth of one
to six inches. The Petersen dredge is a much heavier sampler
which will collect two-thirds of a square foot of the stream
bottom to a depth of one to four inches. A minimum of three
dredgings were made at each stream station, usually in a transect.
The dredged bottom mud was sifted through a 30-mesh sieve to remove
the finer particles and then preserved with formalin.
Specimens of attached filamentous algae were collected from
substrata such as buoys and channel walls and preserved with
formalin. The plankton algae samples were collected by the
aquatic sampling personnel, preserved with formalin, and sub-
mitted to the laboratory. Field observations, including odor
and consistency of the bottom muds, weather, floating materials,
and unusual conditions were recorded.
Laboratory Procedures
The bottom fauna collections were washed free of formalin,
sifted, and the various animal forms picked from the remaining
detritus. The organisms were then sorted by kinds, counted and
reported as numbers of individuals per square foot of stream
bottom. (5)
The attached plant life (periphyton) was examined micro-
scopically and identified to genus. Only the predominant
organisms are reported.
The clump count method was used to determine the kinds and
numbers of plankton algae whereby a microscope counting cell
holding one milliliter of water was scanned in such a way that
1/20 of the cell was counted. (6) The organisms were identified
to genus and recorded as numbers per milliliter.
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VT-fc
Discussion of Findings
Bottom-dwelling Animals
All stations on the Illinois River system from the inlet
structures of Wilmette, Chicago Harbor, and Calumet Harbor to
downstream IR 166.2 were "biologically degraded (Tables VI-1,
VI-2, VI-3). Only NS 340.7 near Wilmette, and the Kankakee
River station (KR 280.0) bore any semblance to a biologically
balanced stream. Severe biological degradation was apparent
from NS 336.9 downstream, including CH 326.9 in the Chicago River;
and degradation was extreme in the reach downstream from the West-
Southwest Sewage Treatment Plant. Only pollution-tolerant kinds
of benthic organisms were found from WS 336.9 to IR 166.2,
However, a more varied benthic fauna at IR 263.5 indicated
improvement. There was a decided tendency toward recovery in
the lower part of the Illinois River to IR 166.2 as shown by the
increased variety of bottom fauna with fewer individuals of each
kind.
Slight seasonal variations in numbers of organisms were found,
but the stream reaches having lesser numbers of organisms during
one season were similarly affected during other seasons. These
differences, therefore, were attributed to temperature changes in
the water. During the winter months, colder water slowed
biological activity, particularly the propagation of bacteria,
protozoa and other organisms responsible for the breakdown of
organic solids. This, in turn, reduced the oxygen consumption
so that sufficient dissolved oxygen was present for the existence
of larger populations of bottom-dwelling animals.
During the Slimmer and Fall 1961 surveys, the entire Calumet
River and Cal-Sag Channel sections were biologically depressed.
Industrial wastes, such as iron oxides and petroleum, were
evident in the bottom samples from stations throughout this river
system. No benthic organisms were found in the bottom mud at
GC 325.8 on the Grand Calumet River. At the other stations large
populations of sludgeworms were taken and, except for the pollutian-
tolerant fingernail clams collected in the Little Calumet River
(LC 322.4), no other kinds of bottom-dwelling animals were found.
The February, 1962 investigations yielded greater variety in kinds
of organisms because of colder water and subsequent decreased
activity by the primary agents of "stream purification" mentioned
above.
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VI-5
Attached Algae
During the 1961 surveys, attached filamentous algae were
scraped from substrata at each sampling station. The kinds of
organisms comprising these samples were those usually associated
with organically enriched streams. The various genera collected
at each station are recorded in Table VI-4, and the tolerance
to pollution is reported except where information regarding
tolerance is lacking. In the Cal-Sag Channel the growths were
either slight or non-existent due to oil slicks on the surface
of those streams. No attached plant growths were collected
during the February, 1962 survey because of the ice cover.
As a polluted stream progresses from its zone of degradation
to its recovery zone, one of the most striking aspects of the biota
is the luxuriant growth of filamentous green algae that covers
submerged projections. Although attached algae were present in
the upper river, no abundant growths were observed in the Illinois
River until ER 232. Downstream from IE 232 there were heavy
growths, especially in the Peoria Pool (IR 178.0-IR 166.2) where
Cladophora was the predominant organism. Cladophora is an algal
form typical of nutrient-rich lakes and streams.
Plankton Algae
The plankton algae data are reported for the period, July, 196l-
June, 1962 inclusive. The seasonal averages by major artificial
groupings, the totals for each of the stream stations, and the
predominant genera are recorded in Table VI-5. The total counts
are presented graphically in Figure VT-2.
The nutritional effects of wastes discharged in the Chicago
area are manifested in. the gradual rise from low algae counts
below the Cal-Sag and Dresden Pool segment of the river to high
concentrations fetrther downstream. Although these important
agents of stream purification are sometimes objectionable in
numbers as high as those reached at IR 166, their presence
indicates the progress of recovery and may signal decreased
bacterial concentrations.
Knowledge' of the kinds and numbers of algae also provides
information regarding water quality. Algal forms, such as the
diatom Cyclotella and the blue-green Anacystis, increase in
numbers in stream reaches subjected to organic wastes. These
are genera known to favor an organically enriched medium, and
were the predominant algal forms in stations downstream, .from
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VI-6
DP 286.5. Their numbers increased continuously to the farthest
downstream station (IR 1.66). Conversely, the diatoms Tabellaria,
Asterionella, and Fragilaria, and others typical of Lake Michigan
which are carried into the system at the Wilmette inlet structure
(US 340.7), exemplify algae that do not tolerate polluted conditions.
They will not survive in a heavily polluted stream, and did not
occur abundantly in samples collected downstream from DP 286.5.
Total plankton algae counts "by seasons are illustrated
graphically in Figure VI-2. The Fall 1961 and Spring 1962
results were nearly parallel, but the Summer 1961 and Winter 1962
counts were widely divergent. The steady decrease downstream
during the Summer of 1961 indicated a process of recovery in the
stream, but there was no such rise during January-March 1962.
Algal growth and reproduction are retarded in the cold water and
subdued light of winter. The recovery process is likewise slowed.
Therefore, polluted conditions existed over a longer reach of the
stream in winter than during the warmer season.
Physical Observations
As each station was sampled during the three seasons,
conditions of the water surface and stream bottom were recorded.
A summary of these observations are tabulated elsewhere in this
report. Oil slicks, slime, debris, and sewage solids were pre-
sent on the surface at most of the stations from NS 336.9 to
IR 2T1.5 and throughout the Calumet River system. Dredging
revealed oily wastes in many of the samples of bottom deposits
from NS 336.9 and CA 333 downstream as far as IR 271.5.
Evidence of iron oxides and various unidentified inert materials
was apparent at Calumet River stations, particularly at CA 333-0
and GC 325.8.
The effect on the biota of the various wastes is not clearly
defined, but some of them are probably inhibitory as shown by the
smaller numbers of organisms where bottom deposits were sufficient
to support large populations of sludgeworms, and dissolved oxygen
values were adequate for these very tolerant animals.
The three seasonal studies involved boating between stations.
Thus, the entire Illinois River system was travelled several times.
During these trips, continual observations were made and unusual
conditions noted. Sewage solids were not common downstream from
IR 271.5j but oily wastes were occasionally observed as far
downstream as IR
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VI-T
Calumet Area Biological Survey
During February and March, 1962, a survey was made covering
Ik stations in the Calumet area of Northeastern Illinois and
Northwestern Indiana. Sampling was restricted to bottom-dwelling
animals, since the ice cover precluded sampling for attached algae.
The findings of that survey are reported in Table VI-3b. The
methods in the field and laboratory were identical with those
employed in studies of the Illinois River system.
A striking contrast between the Little and Grand Calumet
Rivers was observed. Although both streams were considered
biologically degraded, the Little Calumet River yielded bottom-
dwelling organisms other than sludgeworms. Polluted conditions
in this river were due to sanitary sewage and there was little
evidence of industrial wastes.
In the Grand Calumet River, however, both sewage solids and
industrial wastes were observed. The Grand Calumet was found to
be biologically barren at three of the stations sampled and only
a few sludgeworms existed in the bottom deposits at the other
stations. Petroleum wastes, minute iron particles, fibers, and
sewage solids were observed in this stream. Undoubtedly, the
industrial wastes exerted an inhibiting or toxic influence strong
enough to suppress the establishment of sludgeworm communities.
The organic bottom deposits and the presence of dissolved oxygen,
even though slight, would ordinarily create a favorable habitat
for these very tolerant organisms. (7)
Flood Plain Lakes
The biological condition of the flood plain lakes along the
lower Illinois River system was evaluated by a series of bottom
fauna surveys. Those lakes were Lake Senachwine and Sawmill
Lake near Henry, Douglas Lake near Chillicothe, Quiver Lake near
Havana and Muscooten Bay near Beardstown. All of these lakes are
large and have an average depth of only one to three feet. The
bottom was silt and ooze and very little rooted vegetation was
observed.
Bottom dredgings at Lake Senachwine, Sawmill Lake, Douglas
Lake and Quiver Lake yielded only sludgeworms and bloodworms.
Muscooten Bay was considerably improved over the above-mentioned
lakes in that fingernail clams, operculate snails and mayfly
larvae were present along with many sludgeworms. Muscooten Bay,
however, receives water directly from the Sangamon River via a
channel from the Sangamon, whereas the other lakes have direct
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vi-8
connections with the Illinois River and are influenced "by no
other streams. It appears that these lakes connected with the
Illinois River are subjected to siltation from the Illinois
during periods of high water and are continuously "becoming
more shallow.
The records at the office of the Chautauqua Wildlife
Refuge near Havana, indicate that Lake Chautauqua which is
only connected to the Illinois River during floods has "been
reduced in depth "by siltation several feet in the last 30 years.(8)
All of the lakes observed were very turbid, having trans-
parencies in a range of 6 to 12 inches as measured "by a Secchi
disc. These high turbidities are largely responsible for the
lack of rooted vegetation, since the sunlight required by young
plants cannot penetrate.
Benthic Fauna of the Lower Illinois River
The biological condition of the Illinois River from Peoria
downstream did not show any marked change until IR 113* where
sludgeworms ceased to be the predominant organisms and the
pollution intolerant operculate snails and unionid clams were
dredged from the stream bottom, (Table VI-3b).
Farther downstream sludgeworms again occurred, but the numbers
of kinds of other organisms increased and the pollution-intolerant
unionid cleme were common. The more varied populations of benthic
fauna and the occurrence of pollution-intolerant forms indicate
that 'the Illinois River improved biologically from the vicinity
of IR 113 downstream to IR 21. Evidence of materials deleterious
to the stream biota, such as oil and other industrial wastes,
were rare and the dredgings from the bottom of the stream did not
have a sewage odor as did many of the bottom samples at stations
farther upstream.
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VI-9
Definitions of Terms
Algae - Comparatively simple floating or attached plants,
containing photosynthetic pigments. A majority are
aquatic and many are microscopic in size.
Benthic - Adjective referring to aquatic organisms growing in
close association with the bottom.
Benthos - All bottom-dwelling organisms.
Biota - The plant and animal life of a region.
Bloodworm - A common name for insect larvae of the Family
Tendipedidae. This family includes the aquatic midges
with the exception of the Ceratopogonidae.
Chlorophyll - Green plant pigment associated with photosynthesis.
Ecology - The study of interrelations between organisms and
their environments.
Fauna - Animal life.
Fingernail Clams - Small clams of the Family Shpaeriidae.
Flora - Plant life.
Fungi (sing. Fungus) - Simple plants without chlorophyll,
including the bacteria. The simpler forms are one-c«lledj
the higher forms are branching filaments.
Macroscopic - Large enough to be clearly observed by the naked eye,
Mayfly - Aquatic insect of the Order Ephemeroptera.
Microscopic - Too small to be clearly observed by the naked eye,
Ooze - Soft, black, non-granular, slimy bottom material.
Operculate Snail - A gill-breathing snail.
Organism - Any living thing.
Feriphyton - A miscellaneous assemblage of plants growing upon
free surfaces of objects submerged in water.
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VI-10
Photosynthesis - Process carried on in light by plants con-
taining chlorophyll which enables them to combine water,
carbon dioxide, and other inorganic essentials to form
sugar and other carbohydrates, and to release oxygen
into the water.
Phytoplankton - Plant plankton.
Plankton - Minute, unattached aquatic plants and animals, usually
microscopic, drifting with the current.
Pulmonate Snail - A lung-breathing snaili
Sludgeworm - A common name for a group of various kinds of
Oligochaetes, which are segmented worms found in aquatic
environments and achieving their greatest abundance in
areas of organic enrichment.
Substratum - Surface upon which an organism rests or moves,
or the solid material within which it lives in whole
or in part.
Toxicity - Degree to which a substance is poisonous.
Unionid Clam - A large bivalve, belonging to one of the clam
families other than the Family Sphaeriidae (fingernail
clams).
Zooplankton - Animal plankton.
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vi-n
REFERENCES
1. Tarzwell, C. M. and Gaufin, A. R. Some Important Biological
Effects of Pollution often Disregarded in Stream Surveys.
Purdue University Engineering Bulletin, Proceedings of the
Eighth Industrial Waste Conference. Purdue University,
Lafayette, Indiana (1953). p. 303 and pp. 306-307.
2. Bartsch, A. F. and Ingram, W. M. Stream Life and the
Pollution Environment. Raprinted from Public Works
Publications, Ridgewood, N.J.
3. Welch. P. S. Limnology. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York
(1952). p. 25T."
h. Reid, G. K. Ecology of Inland Waters and Estuaries.
Reinhold Publishing Co., New York (1961J.p. 317-
5. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater.
American Public Health Association, New York (1961).
pp. 572-586.
6. Plankton Identification and Control. Course Manual,
R. A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center, Cincinnati, 9hio
(1961). BI.MIC. pp.1-3.
7. Goodnight, C. J. and Whitley, L. S. Oligochaetes as
Indicators of Pollution. Purdue University Engineering
Bulletin, Proceedings of the Fifteenth Industrial Waste
Conference. Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana (l96l).
pp. 139-lte.
8. French, W. Cheutauqua Wildlife Refuge. Pr:'. rte Oommunication.
Havana, Illinois (1962).
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VII BACTERIOLOGICAL STUDIES
Page Number
INTRODUCTION 1
Definition of Coliform
Significance of Coliform Bacteria
Definition of Fecal Streptococci
Significance of Fecal Streptococci
Method of Detection of Coliform Bacteria
and Fecal Streptococci
Geographical Area Surveyed
Method of Data Presentation
UPPER ILLINOIS RIVER SYSTEM 3
Sample Collection and Compilation of Data
General Summary
Coliform and Fecal Streptococcus Results
Calumet Drainage Basin Study
LOWER ILLINOIS RIVER SYSTEM 12
General Summary
Coliform and Fecal Streptococcus Results
CONCLUSIONS FROM THE FINDINGS ON INDICATOR ORGANISMS 15
Upper Illinois River System
Lover Illinois River System
SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS l6
Detection of Pathogenic Enterobacteria
Definitions
Significance of Pathogenic Enterobacteria
Collection of Samples
Method of Detection
Salmonella - Shigella Results
Conclusions
Enterovirus Isolations from Sewage and River Water
Definition and Significance of Enteroviruses
Collection of Samples
Method of Detection
Enterovirus Results
Conclusions
REFERENCES 2b
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VII-1
VII BACTERIOLOGICAL STUDIES
Introduction
The chief bacterial parameters presented herein to express
the sanitary quality of the waters investigated are the densities
of colifonn "bacteria and fecal streptococci. The coliform
bacteria have long "been used in the United States as indicators
of fecal contamination of water. To provide additional bacterial
information of sanitary significance a recently improved test
for determining the density of fecal streptococci has been
included by the Great Lakes-Illinois River Basins Project.
Definition of Coliform
The coliform groups of bacteria are defined as including
all of the aerobic and facultative anaerobic, Gram-negative,
non-sporeforming, rod-shaped bacteria which ferment lactose
with gas formation within h& hours at 35° C. This group is
synonymous with the "B coli" or "coli-aerogenes" group, as
described by earlier standard texts. (See Standard Methods
for the Examination of Water and Wastewater(l), p.494.)
Significance of Coliform Bacteria
The significance of coliform organisms to water quality
is that the origin of most of this group of bacteria is the
intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals, including man.
Consequently, the presence of coliform organisms in a body
of water is interpreted as an indicator of contamination
of the water by fecal matter. Since the contamination of
water by fecal matter is one avenue of transmission of
certain water-borne diseases to humans, coliform organisms
are utilized as indicators of possible pathogenic contami-
nation. Increasing densities of coliform bacteria found in
water are, therefore, related to the degree of pollution of
enteric origin and to increasing health hazard to those
exposed to the water.
Definition of Pecal Streptococci
Streptococci are Gram-positive cocci occurring in chains,
composed of varying number of cells. These organisms may be
parasitic or saprophytic. Several species abound in the
intestinal contents of man and other animals. In most earlier
references, those originating from fecal matter or sewage
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VII-2
have been referred to as the enterocpcci, with specific
reference to Streptococcus faecalis and its varieties and
Streptococcus durans. While these latter forms are the pre-
dominant streptococcal species in human feces, they also
occur in the feces of other animals and fowls. However,
other streptococcal species may predominate in the feces of
different animals, depending on the kind of animal (cow, pig,
horse, fowl). Among these streptococci may be Streptococcus
bovis, Streptococcus equinus, and biotypes not easily placed
in any one group.
The term fecal streptococci as used in these present studies,
Includes any species of streptococci commonly present in
significant numbers in the fecal excreta of humans or other
warm-blooded animals. (2)
Significance of Fecal Streptococci
The fecal streptococci, which are also enteric organisms
abounding in the intestinal tracts of all warm-blooded animals,
likewise indicate the presence of fecal matter in water. The
fecal streptococci may, at times, indicate the presence of
fecal matter in water more specifically than the coliform
bacteria. This is because some of the coliform group may be
found in nature (soil, etc.) and may multiply in water or
soils; whereas the fecal streptococci generally do not
multiply in bodies of water.
In human feces, there are, on the average, three times
as many coliform bacteria as fecal streptococci. In polluted
waters, the coliform/streptococcal ratio varies widely,
depending on the source of pollution (domestic, or packing
house wastes, etc.), its age, and other environmental conditions.
Tests for fecal streptococci are not proposed as a replace-
ment for coliform determinations. The demonstrated presence of
fecal streptococci may, however, confirm the supposition that
coliform organisms which are found in a certain water sample
are of fecal origin. The tests may thus be of value where
there is a question concerning the sanitary significance of
coliform bacteria.
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vxi-3
Method of Detection of Coliform Bacteria
and Fecal Streptococci
There are two standard procedures for determining coliform
density. One is the most probable number procedure, long used
in this field. It results in a number which is a statistically-
derived representation of the density. The other is the
membrane filter procedure, more recently developed, which is a
direct colony count. The membrane filter procedure, as it is
described in Standard Methods (l) (pp. 508-513) was the
procedure used in the present survey.
The direct colony count by the membrane filter procedure
was also used for the enumeration of the fecal streptococci.
Standard Methods (l)(pp.523-526) lists the tests for the
enterococcus group on a tentative basis. The test procedure
for the fecal streptococci used in the present study is based
on the procedure developed at the Robert A. Taft Sanitary
Engineering Center by Kenner, Clark, and Kabler(3), and is
referred to as the "Fecal Streptococcus Test."
Geographical Area Surveyed
The geographical limits of the waters investigated, with
the sampling points, are shown in Fig. IV-1, IV-2, IV-3, and
described in Chapter IV.
Method of Data Presentation
All coliform and fecal streptococcus results in the
present report are expressed as the geometric mean per 100 ml
of original sample.
Upper Illinois River System
Sample Collection and Compilation of Data
Detailed information on the densities of coliform bacteria
and fecal streptococci occurring in the Upper Illinois River
System are presented in Table VII-1 and Figures VII-1 and VH-2.
Table VII-1 and Figure VII-1 show 196l summer conditions and
1962 winter conditions for the main reaches of this system
(see map of sampling points, Figure IV-l). Likewise Figure VEL-2.
shows 1962 winter findings in the investigation of the Calumet
Rivers.
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VII- k
In the summer study for coliform bacteria, samples were
collected generally on a daily "basis throughout April-May,
June, July, and August 1961. The fecal streptococcus
determinations on the summer study were obtained only in
September 1961.
The coliform results from the summer study are presented
both as monthly geometric means and also as geometric means
derived from the total number of samples comprising the
summer study for each point (referred to in Table VII-1 as
the 4-month geometric mean).
General Summary
The water entering at Wilmette (NS 3^0.7) and the Chicago
River (CH 326.9) inlets is of relatively good quality, usually
carrying only moderate or light densities of coliform bacteria
and fecal streptococci. The inlet of the Cal-Sag system at
its mouth (CA 332.7) is frequently subject to intermittent
pollution resulting from reversal of flow direction.
As the water moves down the waterway, the coliform
density increased from 230 per 100 ml to 390,000 in fifteen
river miles. The fecal streptococci increased from 320
to 3,1*00 in eleven river miles. (Both coliform and strepto-
cocci levels just cited were from the summer months investi-
gation). The pollution level indicated by these bacterial
findings at all sample points (except the inlets NS 340.7
and CH 326.9) within the Upper Illinois River System is such
that danger to health must be presumed to exist in any use
of, or contact with, these waters located in the Metropolitan
Chicago Area.
While the exact points of pollution were not located
precisely, they appeared to be distributed throughout the
drainage basin indicating numerous points of entry. Sharp
rises in coliform and fecal streptococcus counts are also
encountered downstream from the Northside, Stickney, and
Calumet Sewage Treatment Plants, as would be expected of
unchlorinated sewage treatment plant discharges.
The winter coliform densities encountered were generally
lower than those of summer at each corresponding point,
whereas the reverse was generally true of the fecal strepto-
cocci; that is, the winter values for the streptococci were
at times somewhat higher than those of the summer determinations,
These findings may be due to the differences in the survival
characteristics of the two types of organisms when released
into bodies of water.
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VII-5
Coliform and Fecal Streptococcus Results . ,
The bacteriological findings from the investigations of
the Upper Illinois River System are described below in relation
to the various reaches of the river system.
North Shore Channel: Table VII-la
Sampling Point NS 340.7
Coliform Density: During the sampling periods of April-May,
June, July and August, average coliform densities of 150, 160,
400 and 600 per 100 ml, respectively, were encountered. The
4-month geometric mean based on a total of 71 samples was 230 per
100 ml. In the winter period the mean coliform density was 52.
Fecal Streptococcus Density: Fecal streptococcus oe«n .
values for summer and winter were 320 and 100 respective.^. These
densities would represent the condition of the lake waters enter-
ing the river system.
Sampling Point US 338.6
Coliform Density: Higher counts were observed at the next
sampling point, NS 338-6, during the summer months with monthly
means of 4,100; 3,100; 4,600 and 1,300 per 100 ml. The 4-month
geometric mean was 3,500 per 100 ml, with a mean value of
1,800 per 100 ml for the winter conditions.
Fecal Streptococcus Density: Fecal streptococcus mean
values for summer and winter were 80 and 120 respectively.
Sampling Point NS 336.9
Coliform Density: This sampling point manifested an
additional increase with mean monthly values of 17,000; 6,200;
7,600; and 1,600 per 100 ml and a 4-month geometric mean of
8,200 per 100 ml. No winter data are available due to icing
conditions.
Fecal Streptococcus Density: The fecal streptococcus mean .
value for summer was 88 per 100 ml. Up to this point these
increases can be attributed to sewage pollution of unknown origin.
Sampling Points US 334.9 and US 333.4
Coliform Density: Sampling point NS 334.9 which is the point
just below the Northside Sewage Treatment Works, and point NS 333.4
further downstream show sharp increases in coliform densities with
mean monthly values ranging from 110,000 to 280,000 per 100 ml,
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vil-6
representing increases of 10 to 175 times at point NS 333.Cl-
over the corresponding monthly mean value at point NS 336.9,
above the treatment plant. The 4-month geometric means were
160,000 per 100 ml. at point NS 334.9 and 104,000 per 100 ml.
at point NS 333.4.
The winter densities at points NS 334.9 and NS 333.4 were
100,000 and 140,000, respectively.
Fecal Streptococcus Density: The mean values for
summer conditions were 2,200 at point NS 334.9 and 1,200 at
point NS 333.4. Winter densities were 5,200 and 5,400 per 100 ml.
respectively.
North Branch, Chicago River: Table VII-Ib
Sampling Points NB 333-4, NB 331.4,
NB 329.0 and NB 325.8
Coliform Density: At point NB 333.4, located above the
juncture of the Worth Shore Channel and North Branch of the Chicago
River, the monthly means - for April-May, June, July and August
were 33,000; 100,000; 140,000; and 72,000 per 100 ml., with a
4-month geometric mean of 71>000 per 100 ml. Below the juncture
of the North Shore Channel and North Branch of the Chicago River,
pollution levels progressively increase at the next three
sampling points, as is shown in the 4-month geometric mean of
l60,000; 220,000; and 390,000 for sampling points NB 331.4,
NB 329.0 and 325.8, respectively. The July monthly mean of
570,000 per 100 ml. at point NB 325.8 was the highest density
encountered at these three points (Table VII-Ib).
Winter coliform densities at points NB 333.4, NB 331*4,
NB 329.0 and NB 325.8 were 21,00^; 63,000; 44,000; and 18,000
respectively.
Fecal Streptococcus Density: The fecal streptococcus
densities at points NB 333-4, NB 331.4, NB 329-0 and m 325«8
as shown by the summer investigations were 830, 1,600, 3*400,
and 2,200 respectively.
Winter densities for fecal streptococci were 5>200, 5/100,
3,400, and 1,900 respectively.
Chicago River: Table VII-Ib
Sampling Points CH 326.9 and CH 325-8
Coliform Density: At the two sampling points located on
the Chicago River, the following monthly mean . of coliform
densities were obtained: 480, 1.400, 630, and 400 per 100 ml.
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vii-7
for the months of April-May, June, July, and August respectively,
and 5,300, 18,000, 11,000, and 7,000 per 100 ml. at the second point.
The 4-month densities were 680 and 9,100. CH 326.9 is the
point nearest to the inlet from Lake Michigan and represents the
"bacterial quality of the incoming water.
During the winter study,mean values of 200 and 640 per
100 ml. were observed.
Fecal streptococcus Density: At point CH 326.9 the fecal
streptococcus density was 200 per 100 ml. for the summer study
and 120 per 100 ml. during the winter study. At point CH 325.8
the streptococcus density was 780 in summer and 100 in winter.
South Branch, Chicago River: Table VII-lc
Sampling Points SB 324.3 and SB 322.8
Coliform Density: Below the juncture of the North Branch
and the Chicago River, designated as the South Branch, the two
sampling points are located at milepoints SB 324.3 and point
SB 322.8 respectively. Points SB 324.3 and SB 322.8 showed
a 4-month geometric mean of 200,000 and 280,000 per 100 ml. in
the summer study. The highest single monthly mean at
either of these two points occurred in June at point SB 322.8
with a density of 410,000 per 100 ml.
During the winter study, point SB 324.3 had a mean
of 14,000 per 100 ml., and point SB 322.8 had a mean of
13,000 per 100 ml.
Fecal Streptococcus Density: In the summer study, fecal
streptococcus densities of 720 and 6lO per 100 ml. were obtained
at points SB 324.3 and SB 322.8. In the winter study, the
fecal streptococcus densities were 700 and 1,700 respectively.
The lower levels observed at these points reflect the effects
of dilution of the grossly contaminated waters at NB 325«8.
Sanitary and Ship Canal:
Table Vll-ld, VTI-le
Sampling Points SS 320.0, SS 317.3, SS 314.0, SS 307.9,
SS 304.1, SS 300.5, SS 292.1, and SS 291.1
Coliform Density: The drainage area beginning at point
SS 320.0 and extending to point SS 291.1 for 28.9 miles, is
designated as the Sanitary and Ship Canal. The coliform levels
at points SS 320.0 and SS 317.3 are approximately the same as
in the South Branch, Chicago River, at point SB 322.8.
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YII-8
The coliform peak in the Sanitary and Ship Canal occurs at
point SS 31^-0 with the August monthly geometric mean of
950>000 per 100 ml. Monthly geometric means for April-May,
June, and July were 250,000; 440,000; and 620,000. Point
SS 314.0 is the first sample point "below the Stickney Sewage
Treatment Works. At point SS 307.9, the coliform density
increased each month during the study period: 320,00 in
April-Mayj 470,000 in June; 570,000 in July; and 900,000 in
August. A progressive decrease was generally observed from
point SS 304.1 through point SS 292.1, reaching the lowest
value of 6l,000 (4-month geometric mean for the Sanitary and
Ship Canal). The Cal-Sag Channel enters the main stem
immediately below SS 304.1.
Fecal Streptococcus Density: During the summer study,
the fecal streptococcus densities showed a general, pro-
gressive increase between points SS 320.0 and SS 307.9
(l,500 to 8,100 per 100 ml.) followed with progressive
decreases downstream with a density of 520 at point SS 291.1.
In the winter studies, the highest fecal streptococcus density
in the Sanitary and Ship Canal was encountered at point SS 314.0
(5>800 per 100 ml.) with progressive decreases downstream in the
canal to the level of 580 at point SS 291.1.
Calumet-Sag Channel and Calumet Rivers
Calumet River and Grand Calumet River: Table VII-If
Sampling Points CA 332.7, CA 328.1, CA 327.0 and CrC 325.8
Coliform Density: Three sampling points were located on
the Calumet River: point CA 332.7, CA 328.1 and @A 327.0.
The study showed these points to have respective coliform
densities of 2,000, 5,400, and 4,000 per 100 ml. ("4-month
geometric mean). CA 332-7 is located near the mouth of the
Cal Sag System and represents the condition of incoming waters
from the lake. Point CA 327.0 is located at the mouth of
Lake Calumet. The Grand Calumet River joins the Calumet River
below point CA 327.0. CA 328.1 is intermediate between these
two points. One sample point on the Grand Calumet River,
GC 325.8, had a coliform density of 2,300,000 (4-month geometric
mean), with the highest monthly geometric mean occurring in
June (3,000,000). This extremely high coliform density of the
Grand Calumet River may be the result of discharges from several
towns located in this area.
The winter coliform densities for points CA 332.7, CA 328.1,
CA 327.0 and GC 325.8 were 270; 1,300; 990; and 27,000
respectively, per 100 ml.
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VZL-9
Fecal Streptococcus. Density: During the summer study,
fecal streptococcus densities of 140, 480, 120 and 1,200 were
detected with the corresponding points showing winter levels
of 130, 4,700, 180, and 9,100 at CA 332.7, CA 328.1, CA 327.0
and QC 325.8, in that order.
Little Calumet River: Table VII-If
Sampling Points: LC 322.If, LC 320.1, LC 320.2
Coliform Density: Sampling points on the Little Calumet -
River portion of the Cal-Sag System with their coliform densities
(4-month geometric mean) are: Point LC 322.4 with 40,000 per
100 ml.; point LC 320.1 with 51,000; and point LC 320.2 with
150,000. The Calumet-Sag Channel forms a junction with the
Little Calumet River between sampling points LC 320.1 and
LC 320.2.
The Calumet Sewage Treatment Plant is located near sampling
point LC 322.4. The effluent from this plant is divided, with
80$ flowing into the Little Calumet River between points LC 322.4
and LC 320.1, and 20$ flowing into the Calumet-Sag Channel at
the junction of the channel with the Little Calumet River.
Calumet-Sag Channel: Table Vll-lg
Sampling Points: CS 317-9, CS 314-9, CS 311.5, CS 308.4 and
CS 304.1
Coliform Density: The coliform densities (4-month geometric
means) were: CS 317-9, 120,000; Point CS 314-9, 190,000; Point
CS 311.5, 110,000; Point CS 308.4, 98,000; Point CS 304.1, 23,000,
The winter densities for these same points were 90,000,
57,000, 47,000, 23,000, and 18,000 per 100 ml.
Fecal Streptococcus Density: Points CS 317-9, CS 3l4«9,
CS 311.5, CS 308.4, and CS 304.1 showed the following respective
fecal streptococcus densities in the summer study: 2,100,
1,300, 520, 460, and 260 per 100 ml. Under winter conditions,
the fecal streptococcus levels were as follows: point CS 317-9-
5,000; point CS 314.9-3,500; point CS 311.5-2,200; point
CS 308.4-1,500; and point CS 304.1-490.
The Calumet-Sag Channel forms a junction with the Sanitary
and Ship Canal just below point SS 304.1.
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VTI-10
Sanitary and Ship Canal: Table VTI-ld, VII-le
Sampling Points SS 300.5, SS 292.1, and SS 291.1
Coliform Density: The monthly colifora densities at
SS 300.5 ranged from 130,000 to 260,000 per 100 ml; the
4-month geometric mean was 200,000. The winter density
at this point was 4l,000.
As was pointed out earlier, the coliform densities pro-
gressively decreased between sampling points SS 304.1 and SS 292.1,
The 4-month geometric means for SS 296.2 and SS 292.1 were 110,000
and 6l,000 per 100 ml., respectively. The winter densities were
41,000 and 14,000, respectively.
An increase in coliform densities was observed at SS 291.1.
The 4-month geometric mean at this point was 72,000. The
winter density was 20,000.
Fecal Streptococcus Density: The summer streptococcus
densities at points SS 300.5, SS 296.2, SS 292.1, and SS 291.1
were 330, 970, 420, and 520, respectively. The winter densities
were 2>600, 2,000, 500, and 580 per 100 ml., respectively.
The increases in coliform and fecal streptococcus densities
reflect some addition of pollution to the stream in this area,
which is adjacent to Lockport, Illinois.
Des Plaines River: Table VII-Ih
Sampling Points DP 292.7, DP 285.8, and DP 278.0
Coliform Density: The upper point DP 292.7 had a 4-month
geometric mean coliform density of 4,200, and is the only point
sampled on this river above its junction with the Sanitary and
Ship Canal. The first sample point below the junction was
DP 285.8 with a 4-month geometric mean of 79,000 coliform
bacteria per 100 ml. At DP 278.0 the count was 64,000 coliform.
The Des Plaines flows through the city of Joliet, Illinois,
with sampling point DP 285.8 located just below the city.
The winter coliform densities at points DP 292.7, DP 285.8,
and DP 278.0 were 7,300, 32,000, and 23,000 per 100 ml.
Fecal Streptococcus Density: The streptococcus densities
(4-month geometric mean) for points DP 292.7, DP 285.8 and
DP 278.0 were 580: 910; and 430, and •'••he winter study were
480; 2,500; and 990 respectively.
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vu-n
Illinois River: Table VII-Ih
Sampling Points KR 277-5 and IE 271.5
Coliform Density: The coliform density of the Illinois
River below the mouth of the Kankakee River at IR 271.5 had a
4-month geometric mean value of 17,000 per 100 ml., with a
winter density of 8,700.
A single sampling point on the Kankakee River, KR 277*5
was 20,000 per 100 ml. (4-month geometric mean), and 5,000 per
100 ml. for the winter mean.
Fecal Streptococcus Density: The summer streptococcus
density for point IR 271.5 was 98 and at point .KR 277.5, 290
per 100 ml. The winter means were 420 IR 271.5 and 560
KR 277.5.
Calumet Drainage Basin Study
The water quality of the Calumet Drainage Basin was studied
in the period February 8, 1962, to March 2, 1962. Samples were
collected once a day, almost daily.
Several streams form a network of channels which are
connected to Lake Michigan at several points. (See Figure XV-2).
These streams are the Grand Calumet River, the Little Calumet, the
Indiana Harbor Canal. Hart Ditch and Thorn Creek empty into the
Little Calumet River. The Calumet Sag Channel also is connected
to the Little Calumet.
The bacterial results are shown in Table VII-li. Heavy
pollution was indicated at most of the sampling points, with
coliform counts in the range of 100,000 - 300,000 per 100 ml.
The fecal streptococcus densities were also elevated at these
points, ranging from 20,000 to 120,000 per 100 ml. The lowest
coliform counts occurred on that portion of the Calumet River
receiving Lake Michigan water diverted to the Calumet Sag
Channel. These were at LC 327,0, with a coliform density of
5,500 per 100 ml., and a fecal streptococcus density of 1,100
per 100 ml. Point LC 322.4 had a coliform density of 8,500
and fecal streptococcus density of 1,200 per 100 ml. The
sampling point at GC 326.6 showed the highest counts of all:
coliform 300,000 per 100 ml., and fecal streptococci, 120,000
per 100 ml.
From the results of this study, it is obvious that the
waters of the Calumet Drainage Basin are heavily contaminated.
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VII-12
Lower Illinois River System
Collform and fecal streptococcus densities for the Lover.
Illinois River System are shown in Tables VII-2a and VII-2b
respectively and in Figures VII-3 and VII-U, respectively.
Information from three separate studies is included. These
are November, 196l (autumn conditions), March, 1962 (winter
conditions), and July, 1962 (summer conditions). Each of
these studies was of approximately one month duration.
General Summary
In general, the pattern for the three seasons on the Illinois
River is the same, with the coliform values increasing at River
Miles IR 263.5 and IR 252.7 followed by reduction in numbers
at points further downstream until the City of Peoria is reached.
The effect of the Peoria wastes is reflected in the highest
coliform values on the Illinois River at IR llj-3.2, with aeafl • .
coliform densities of 38,000, 17,000, and 210,000 per 100 ml in
November, March, and July. The coliform densities at stations
below IR 1^3.2 showed some reduction in density, but remained at
higher levels than at stations immediately above Peoria.
In a comparison of the variations due to season, the coliform
densities were generally rather constant. They did not manifest
significant increases or decreases at most of the sampling points
except at IR 1^-3-2 which showed a substantial rise during the
July study period.
The findings based on fecal streptococcus densities support
the coliform findings, showing similar rises and decreases in the
mainstream. In several of the tributaries (marked "T") the
streptococci exceeded the coliforms. This may be a reflection
of run-offs from farm lots with concentrations of live stock or
fowl.
Coliform and Fecal Streptococcus Results
Sample Point 280.8(T) - DuPage River
The DuPage River is tributary to the DesPlaines River
above the junction of the DesPlaines and Kankakee River, which
unite to form the Illinois River. The DuPage at point 280.8
showed coliform levels of 5,300, 17,000, and 14,000 per 100 ml
in the November, March, and July studies, respectively. The
corresponding fecal streptococcus densities were k60, 15,000, and
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vil-13
Sample Point 278.7(1) - Kankakee River
The coliform densities for November, March, and July were
5, M)0, 13,000, and 16,000, respectively. The fecal streptococcus
densities were 690, 16,000, and 1,900, respectively.
Sample Point 271.6(Dresden Dam)
The sampling point on the Illinois River at 271.6 showed
coliform densities of 8,200, 9,800, and 28,000 in November,
March, and July, respectively with accompanying densities of
fecal streptococci of 310, 6,200, and 810.
Sample Point 270.6
The next point downstream on the Illinois River (at 270.6)
exhibited coliform densities of 7,300, li)-,000, and 27,000, and
fecal streptococcus densities of 270, 7,000, and 390 in the
November, March, and July studies, respectively.
Sample Point 263.5
Coliform densities showed an increase at this point with
14,000, 20,000, and 32,000 for November, March, and July,
respectively. These increases indicate increasing pollution
between points 270.6 and 263.5. The corresponding fecal
streptococcus densities were 360, 5,200, and 630 per 100 ml.
Sample Point 252.7
The bacterial quality of the Illinois River Water did not
manifest significant change in the stretch between 263.5 and
252.7. Coliform densities were 1^,000, 11,000, and 21,000;
while the fecal streptococcus densities were 390, 6,200, and 200,
for November, March, and July, respectively.
Sample Points 21*6.9 to 166.1
Between sample points 252.7 and 166.1 the coliform
densities generally decreased in each of the three studies.
Point 166.1, opposite the Peoria water intake, showed coliform
densities of 1,300, 780, and 3,500 in the November, March
and July studies Respectively. These densities at this point
represent the lowest densities encountered on the Illinois River
in these studies. (See Table VTI-3a). The fecal streptococcus
densities were 210, 840, and 90, at 166.1, in November, March,
and July.
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VII-14
In this stretch of river two tributary streams empty into
the Illinois River. These are the Fox River (24l) and the
Vermillion River (236.5). The Fox River showed coliform
densities of 4,600, 11,000, and 3,900 in November, March, and
July with corresponding fecal streptococcus densities of 840,
6,500, and 2,600. The Vermillion River showed coliform densities
of 17,000, 7,800, and 6,200. The fecal streptococcus densities
were if-, 100, 15,000, and 1,500 in the November, March, and July
studies, respectively.
Sampling Points 158.7 to 11*3.2
The effects of the discharges from Peoria are reflected in
the increasing coliform densities in this stretch of the River.
In each of the three studies, point 143.2 exhibited the highest
coliform densities of all the sampling points located downstream
from Peoria on the mainstream. These coliform densities were
38,000, 17,000, and 210,000 in November, March, and July,
respectively. In the November and March studies, point 143-2
also exhibited the highest fecal streptococcus densities of points
located on the mainstream below Peoria, with densities of 8,200
and 6,900. In the July study the peak in fecal streptococcus
densities was 4,000 at point 156.5.
Two tributaries occur in this stretch of the river -
Kickapoo Creek and Mackinaw River.
The Kickapoo showed coMform densities of 9,800, 9,600,
and 23,000 and fecal streptococcus densities of 4,800, 4>100, and
3,100 for the November, March, and July studies, respectively.
The Mackinaw River showed corresponding coliform densities
of 12,000, 7,500, and 6,400 and fecal streptococcus densities
of 13,000, 3,900, and 800.
Sample Points 125.8 - 21.7
The Illinois River showed a tendency to reduction of coliform
densities from 132.0 to 21.7. However most of the densities
were in excess of 10,000 per 100 ml. The July coliform density
at 21.7 was 25,000 per 100 ml.
The fecal streptococcus densities were higher for the
November and March studies in the lower reaches of the Illinois
River (at 78.6-4,000 in November, 1,900 in March, and 190 in July).
The July streptococcus density at 21.7 was 240 per 100 ml.
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Vll-15
Tributaries in this stretch of the Illinois River
the Spoon River, the Sangamon River, the LaMoine River and
Macoupin Creek. These streams showed highest coliform densities
in the November study with densities of 19,000, 20,000, 15,000
for the Spoon, Sangamon, and LaMoine Rivers, respectively. The
corresponding streptococcus densities were lU,000, i)-,100, and
12,000. The lowest streptococcus densities for these streams
occurred in July
Conclusions from the Results on Indicator Organisms
Upper Illinois River System
1. With the exception of sampling stations KS 3^0.9 and
CH 326. 9, the inlets from Lake Michigan, all sample points
showed evidence of excessive pollution, as indicated by the
coliform and fecal streptococcus tests.
2. Increasing coliform and fecal streptococcus densities
usually indicate increasing sewage pollution.
3. Coliform densities at all sample points, except NS 340.7
and CH 326.9 were such that danger to health must be presumed
to exist through any water uses or contact with these waters.
k. While it is impossible to locate all points of sewage
influx, they appear to be distributed throughout the drainage
basin .
5- Large numbers of coliform and fecal streptococcus
organisms are contributed by the sewage treatment works effluents,
as evidenced by sharp rises below the North, Stickney and Calumet
plants of the Metropolitan Sanitary District.
Lower Illinois River System
1. With the exception of IR 166.1 located near the Peoria
Water Intake, all points on the lower Illinois River System
showed sustained evidence of excessive pollution, as indicated
by the coliform and fecal streptococcus tests.
2. Coliform and fecal streptococcus densities at most
sample points were such that danger to health must be presumed
to exist in any water uses or contact with these waters.
3. The pollution load of the Illinois River is increased
by the discharges from the City of Peoria and aH tributaries
studied.
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vii-16
Special Investigations
In view of the extensive pollution in the Upper Illinois River
System as indicated by the findings from the coliform and fecal
streptococcus investigations, a further, more detailed investi-
gation of the actual incidence of certain water-borne pathogens,
vas undertaken. Among the water-borne disease-producers are
the bacterial forms producing typhoid and enteric fever (Salmonella),
dysentery (Shigella), tularemia (Pasteurella), and tuberculosis
(Mycobacterium)^.Viral forms include enterovirus es, among which
are the poliovirus and the infectious hepatitis virus. One
parasitic form is the amoebic dysentary protozoan (Endamoeba
hystolytica). These special laboratory investigations have been
limited to detection of the Salmonella-Shigella group and the
enteroviruses, particularly the polio virus.
Detection of Pathogenic Enterobacteria
Details of the survey program for detection of organisms
belonging to the Salmonella-Shigella group (pathogenic non-
sporeforming, Gram-negative rods7 are briefly outlined in the
paragraphs below.
Definitions
Salmonella. "The salmonella are Gram-negative,nonspore-
forming, motile bacilli easily cultivated on ordinary media;
they characteristically fail to ferment lactose and sucrose.
The different species are closely related antigenically, and
these relationships are used as the main criterion in
classification. All are pathogenic for man or animals, usually
for both. Salmonella typhosa, the cause of typhoid fever, is
pathogenic only for man; the other salmonella produce disease
in man and animals." (U)
Shigella. Organisms belong to the genus Shigella are non-
encapsulated, nonsporulating, nonmotile gram-negative rods.
Different members ferment various carbohydrates. At least one
species ferments lactose but only after 2 or 3 days' incubation.
Their natural habitat is restricted to the gastro-intestinal
tract of primates in contrast with the more ubiquitous
distribution of the members of the genera Salmonella and
Escherichia. The various species of Shigella are pathogenic
for man and represent the etiologic agents of bacillary
dysentery-hence the common name of dysentery bacilli.
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VII-1T
Significance of Pathogenic Enterobacteria
Water-borne epidemics of enteric fevers have been reduced
in frequency to such a point as to be isolated exceptions to
the general rule. The water-borne epidemics of typhoid fever,
cholera, and dysentery-so common at the turn of the century-
apparently became a thing of the past, as modern hygienic
principles became established in sanitary engineering practices.
However, with increasing population adding greater volumes of
domestic sewage, agricultural and certain industrial wastes,
and with increasing water usages introducing additional
pollution loads, the margin of safety has narrowed for the
drinking water industry.
Modern microbiology has shown that enteroviruses are not
completely removed by sewage treatment processes and that these
same enteroviruses may withstand the drinking water treatment
processes now in general use.
Drinking water is only one of many water usages of concern.
Other uses such as recreational activities bring the public
into intimate contact with natural and public bodies of water.
These recreational activities include water sports, swimming,
water-skiing, skin-diving, boating, hunting and fishing.
General industrial uses include those directly associated with
water, e.g., navigation and commercial fishing, etc. The
contamination of foodstuffs-fish and crops irrigated by polluted
water-are also factors associated with degraded stream and lake
water.
Most of the water courses draining inhabited regions are
contaminated with human or animal feces. However, pathogenic
enteric microorganisms probably do not multiply in the water
under normal conditions. They usually disappear from streams in
a relatively short time, sooner in some waters than in others,
and more quickly in summer than winter. (5)
With the above considerations in mind, the Great Lakes-Illinois
River Basins Project undertook a survey localized in the Chicago
Metropolitan Area. Raw sewage in the Chicago sewers and sewage
treatment plant effluents were analyzed qualitatively for
pathogenic enterobacterial content. These findings are summarized
in Table-VII-3-
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vil-18
Collection of Samples
The first samples were collected in June of 1962. The pro-
gram continued into the fall of 1962.
Samples were collected by means of Moore Gauze Pads (6)
suspended for 3-day periods in the streams and in waters at the
treatment plants. The pads were installed at the following points:
North Shore Channel
1. Influent-Northside Sewage Treatment Plant.
2. Effluent-Northside Sewage Treatment Plant.
Sanitary and Ship Canal
3. Influent-Stickney Sewage Treatment Plant.
4. Effluent-Stickney Sewage Treatment Plant.
Calumet Sag Channel
5. CS 317-9
6. Influent-Calumet Sewage Treatment Plant.
7. Effluent-Calumet Sewage Treatment Plant.
8. LC 322.1*.
The Moore Gauze Pad method of sample collection was chosen as
a means of concentrating the enteropathogenic bacteria which
occur at a much lower density than the coliform bacteria and
fecal streptococci. This means of sample collection obviates
quantification of findings. However, the isolation and
identification of enteropathogenic bacteria is sufficient
evidence to indicate a public health hazard. No actual quanti-
tative statement regarding the size of infectious doses is
available since this factor depends on individual resistance.
A small number of microbial cells may at times produce the
disease in one person whereas another individual (either
through natural means or through artificial immunization) may
withstand significantly larger numbers of the same organism.
Method of Detection
The laboratory isolation procedures utilized established
cultural and serological techniques as set forth in Identification
of Enterobacteriaceae by Edwards and Ewing. (7) The serological
findings were confirmed by the Communicable Disease Center,
Atlanta, Georgia.
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VII-19
Salmonella- Shigella Resiilts
Of a total of 26 samples, 11 (42$) have yielded Salmonella
organisms. The samples were distributed as follows: raw sewage
(S.T.P. influent), 13j treated sewage (S.T.P. effluent), 10;
river water (points removed approximately 1-2 river miles from
the sewage treatment plant outfalls), 3 (See Table VII-3). The
frequency of positive findings for salmonella organisms were
as follows: IT strains from raw sewage; 15 strains from sewage
treatment plant effluent; and 1 strain from sampling point
LC 322.4 on the Little Calumet River.
The species of Salmonella serologically identified were
as follows: Salmonella paratyphi B, S_._ derby, £._ Montevideo,
S_._ anatum, £>_._ san-diego, S_._ tennessee, S_^ senftenberg,
£1 foraenderup, S^ infantis, £>_._ oranienburg. Table VII-2 shows
the distribution and frequency of isolation of these Salmonella
species.
Salmonella paratyphi belongs to the group primarily con-
taining human pathogens producing paratyphoid fever. The other
strains are representative of the group naturally pathogenic
to animals, but also able to produce disease in man in the form
of gastro-enteritis-which is sometimes fatal.
Wo Shigella have been isolated to date. The Shigella
group has rarely been isolated from streams or sewage effluents.
However, negative findings do not necessarily indicate its
absence because the laboratory isolation media and procedures
may not be sensitive enough to detect the organism.
Conclusions
The results indicate that:
(l) the raw sewage in Chicago contains a variety of
infectious Salmonella species.
(2) these organisms effectively move through the present
sewage treatment process and into the receiving streams.
It is assumed, on basis of these results, that the waters
receiving raw sewage discharges are thereby contaminated with
these organisms.
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VII-20
Enterovirus Isolations from Sewage and River Water
A special project was initiated in July 1962 to investigate
enteroviruses in the water of the Illinois River Basin. This
was a cooperative study between the Kansas City Field Station
and the Great Lakes-Illinois River Basins Project. From the
middle of .'July to the end of December, 1962, virus isolations
have been performed on 162 samples. This report describes the
preliminary results of virus isolation and identification.
Definition and Significance of Enteroviruses
According to Sergey's Manual (8), viruses are defined as
"etiological agents of disease, typically of small size and
capable of passing filters that retain bacteria, increasing
only in the presence of living cells, giving rise to new strains
by mutation. A considerable number of plant viruses have not
been proved filterable; it is nevertheless customary to include
these viruses with those known to be filterable because of
similarities in other attributes in the diseases induced....
Viruses cause diseases of bacteria, plants and animals."
The term enterovirus refers to a group of viruses which are
normally found in the gastointestinal tract of man. It includes
the polioviruses, the Coxsackie viruses and the ECHO(enteric
cytopathogenic human orphan) viruses. These viruses frequently
cause infections in man, particularly during the summer and fall
months. Polioviruses are well known for their capacity to cause
paralytic and nonparalytic poliomyelitis. Coxsackie and ECHO
viruses cause a variety of illnesses, including polio-like
disease, pleurodynia (devil's grip), pericarditis, myocarditis,
diarrhea, and respiratory disease. The virus may be discharged
in the feces of infected persons for a month or longer. The
enteroviruses are relatively hardy and can withstand environmental
damage. Man becomes infected by ingestion of material contaminated
with the virus.
Collection of Samples
Weekly samples were collected from 12 sampling sites in
the Upper Illinois River Basin as follows:
Worth Shore Channel
1. KS 336.9
2. Influent-Northside Sewage Treatment Plant
3. Effluent-Northside Sewage Treatment Plant
4. KS 33^.9
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VII-21
Sanitary and Ship Canal
5. SS 317.3
6. Influent - Stickney Sewage Treatment Plant
7. Effluent - Stickney Sewage Treatment Plant
8. SS 311*.0
Calumet Sag Channel
9- CS 317-9
10. Influent - Calumet Sewage Treatment Plant
11. Effluent - Calumet Sewage Treatment Plant
12. LC 322.k
The specimens were collected by personnel of the Great Lakes-
Illinois River Basins Project, employing the gauze pad technique
introduced by Moore (6). The pads were immersed in the sewage
or water flow for a period of seven days. The liquids were
squeezed from the pads. The samples thus obtained were frozen
and shipped to the Virus Laboratory at Kansas City.
Method of Detection
Each sample was prepared by preliminary centrifugations to
get rid of gross particles and bacteria. The clarified liquid
was concentrated by high speed centrifugation according to the
method described by Gravelle and Chin.(9)
Monkey kidney tissue cultures and suckling mice were used
for virus isolation. Polioviruses, ECHO viruses and certain
types of Coxsackie viruses cause destruction of monkey kidney
tissue culture cells. Coxsackie viruses cause illness in
suckling mice with characteristic pathologic changes.
Poliovlruses were identified by typing with specific polio-
virus antisera. Those isolates, not typable by poliovirus
antisera, were tested for Coxsackie virus by suckling mouse
inoculation. Those viruses which are not identifiable as
poliovirus or Coxsackie virus will be studied further. Many
of these isolates are probably ECHO viruses or mixtures of
different enterovirus types,
Enterovirus Results
Of the 162 samples, ^9 were raw sewage, kk- were samples
from the effluent outfall, 37 were water samples from the sites
above the treatment plants and 32 were water samples from sites
below the treatment plants. The frequency of virus isolations
by types of sample is shown in Table VII-5 and summarized in YEX-k,
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VII-22
Of the 162 samples tested, 76 (46.9 per cent) contained a
virus or a mixture of viruses. Eighteen polioviruses were
isolated. Six were identified as Type 1, one Type 2, seven
Type 3, and four have not been typed. Fifteen of the positive
samples contained a Coxsackie virus.
Virus was isolated from 77-6 per cent of raw sewage samples
and from 45-4 per cent of water samples obtained at the effluent
outfall. Twenty-seven per cent of water samples from sites above
the treatment plants contained virus. A similar percentage (25$)
of virus isolations were obtained from water samples collected at
areas below the treatment plants(See Table VII-5).
The samples were distributed among the various sampling
points as follows: NS 336.9, 14; Northside Sewage Treatment Plant
Influent, 16; Northside Sewage Treatment Plant Effluent, 16; NS 334.9,
8; SS 317.3, 12; Stickney Sewage Treatment Plant Influent, 16;
Stickney Sewage Treatment Plant Effluent, 13; SS 314.0, 12; LC 332.4,
11; Calumet-Sewage Treatment Plant Influent, 17; Calumet Sewage
Treatment Plant Effluent, 15; and LC 317-9, 12. Table VII-5
(Col.3) shows that 50$ of the effluent samples from the Worthside
Plant yielded enterovirus, while 46.2$ of the effluent samples
from the Stickney Plant and 40$ of the effluent samples from the
Calumet Plant also yielded enterovirus. From these positive
effluent samples, the following poliovirus identifications were
made: Northside, 1; Stickney, 1; and Calumet, 3- Five poliovirus
isolations were made from the stream samples collected either
above or below the treatment plants. Eight poliovirus isolations
Fere made from the influent samples. Of the 15 Coxsackie virus
isolations, 12 originated in samples collected in relation to the
Northside Plant (4 from the stream site above the plant, 5 from
the influent samples and 3 from the effluent samples). Of* the
three remaining Coxsackie isolations., 1 originated from the point
above the Stickney Plant and 1 from the Stickney influent. The
remaining Coxsackie virus originated in the Calumet Plant influent.
The total number (76) of virus isolations were divided among
the three plants and their associated points as follows:
Northside, 31; Stickney, 26; and Calumet,19-
The frequency of virus isolations by month of collection is
summarized for 138 cif the samples, in Table VII-6. Sixty per cent
of the samples obtained in July were positive; the frequency of
isolations then gradually decreased to 37 per cent in October.
Although the numljer of polioviruses and Coxsackie viruses identified
to date is relatively s- r,ll, it is noteworthy that Coxsackie
viruses were most prevalent in July, while polioviruses were
most prevalent in August.
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VII-23
Conclusions
The results suggest that water of the Upper Illinois River
Basin is contaminated with enteroviruses. The high frequency
of virus isolation from the sewage effluent indicates that the
sewage treatment facilities are inefficient for elimination of
enteroviruses.
Since polioviruses, Coxsackie viruses and ECHO viruses
normally multiply in the intestinal tract of man, finding of
these viruses in the river waters provides direct evidence of
human fecal contamination.
Exposure to these waters can be considered as a hazard
to human health.
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REFERENCES
1. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater.
Eleventh Edition. American Public Health Association, Inc.
Nev York, N.Y. (1960).
2. Recent Developments in Water Bacteriology. U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare; Public Health Service;
Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control; Robert A.Taft
Sanitary Engineering Center. Cincinnati, Ohio. (1961).
3. Kenner, B.A.; Clark, H.F.; and Kabler, P.W. Fecal Streptococci.
I. Cultivation and Enumeration of Streptococci in Surface Waters.
Applied Microbiology, 9- No. 1: 15-20 (1961).
b. Dubos, R.J. Bacterial and Mycotic Infections of Man.
J.B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia (1958). p. 375-
5. Kabler, P.W.; Clark, H.F.; and Clarke, N.A. Pathogenic
Microorganisms and Water-Borne Disease. Proceedings Rudolfs
Research Conference: Public Health Hazards of Microbial
Pollution of Water. Dept. of Sanitation, College of
Agriculture, Rutgers University. (1961). pp. 9-56.
6. Moore, B. The Detection of Paratyphoid Carrier in Towns by
Means of Sewage Examination. Month. Bull. Min. Health and
Pub. Health Lab. Service, 7:2hl (19^8JT
T. Edwards, P.R. and Ewing, W.H. Identification of Enterobacteriaceae.
Burgess Publishing Co., Minneapolis (1962).
8. Breed, R.S.; Murray, E.G.D.; Smith, N.R. Sergey's Manual of
Determinative Bacteriology. The William & Wilkins Co.
(1957). p. 9«5-
9. Gravelle, C. and Chin, T. Enterovirus Isolations from Sewage:
A Comparison of Three Methods. £._ of Infectious Diseases,
109: 205-209 (I96l).
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CHAPTER VIII - SPECIAL STUDIES
Table of Contents
Page
QUALITY OF DIVERSION WATER AT WIIMETTE 1
METROPOLITAN SANITARY DISTRICT - TREATMENT PLANT STUDIES 2
Description of MSD Plants 2
First Study Period (April 24 - May 21, 1961) 3
Second Study Period (September 11-24, 1961) 3
Coliform and Fecal Streptococcus Determinations 6
COMBINED SEHER OVERFLOWS 7
Pollutional Aspects of Combined Sewer Overflows 8
Study Area 11
Hydraulic Measurements 11
Sampling Procedure 12
Dry Weather Flow 13
Storm Flow 13
Pollution Load 13
SLUDGE DEPOSITS 16
CONTINUOUS DISSOLVED OXYGEN RECORDING 18
Scope of Investigations 18
Description of Dissolved Oxygen Analyzers 19
REFERENCES 21
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VIII-1
VIII SPECIAL STUDIES
This Chapter presents details of special studies carried
out in conjunction with basic studies concerning water quality
of the Illinois River system. Subsequent sections discuss
additional aspects including the quality of incoming diversion
water at Wilmette Harbor; influents and discharges from the
three major treatment plants of the Metropolitan Sanitary
Districtj the quality and quantity of wastes discharged from
storm water overflow outlets of the combined sewer system; an
estimation of the depth and extent of sludge or settleable solids
deposited in the channels of the Upper Illinois River system;
and results of continuous Dissolved Oxygen analyses at three
locations. All these studies were found necessary; they provide
additional information to support the findings of the basic study.
Quality of Diversion Water at Wilmette
As early analytical results became available it soon was
apparent that the BOD of incoming lake water sampled at points
of diversion was not representative of unpolluted water.
Analytical results obtained from samples taken at NS 3^0.7
(representing the water entering the Upper Illinois River system)
indicated pollution in excess of that expected for Lake Michigan
water. To determine the BOD of JLake waters adjacent to this inlet,
a special study of the quality of shoreline water in the vicinity
of the Wilmette inlet was undertaken.
Samples were taken both inshore and offshore for a distance
of approximately three miles above and three miles below the
inlet. Inshore samples were taken at points shallow enough for
surface waves to affect bottom sediment; offshore stations were
beyond the point of wave interference on the bottom. The
results, using these samples, are presented in Table VIII-1
and Figure VIII-1; they show that the BOD of inshore waters
was from two to four times greater than that of the offshore
waters. This increase in BOD is attributed to bottom sediment
resuspended by wave action. Figure VIII-1 verifies this
conclusion since a definite pattern can be seen between the
inshore BOD's and inshore suspended solids. As the solids go
up, so do the BOD's.
Inspection of the shoreline revealed no apparent sources
of pollution such as sewer outfalls or storm water overflows.
From the data presented, it was concluded that this increased
BOD can be attributed to the presence of increased suspended
solids, constantly in suspension due to wave action, whose
possible source may be the accumulation of surface debris driven
to the shore by wind and wave action. The equivalent PE of
incoming lake water was calculated as approximately 35;000 at the
average diversion rate of 475 cfs, for this sampling period.
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VIII-2
Metropolitan Sanitary District - Treatment Plant Studies
The three Sewage Treatment Plants of the Metropolitan
Sanitary District contribute the principal metropolitan waste
load to the Illinois River system. Because the volume of these
wastes is large, these plants are considered, jointly, as the
most important single factor affecting the water quality of the
river. Therefore, a study of the water quality of discharges
from these plants, and impact of the discharges on the receiving
waters, was undertaken. The three plants were studied during
two separate periods. The first period was from April 2k through
May 21 j the second period was from September 11 through September
196l. The extreme rainfall conditions which prevailed during the
second period resulted in significant differences between the
two study periods.
Description of MSD Plants
The Korthside Works is an activated sludge plant with an
average design capacity of 250 MOD and a maximum capacity of
375 MGD. It discharges its effluent into the North Shore Channel
of the Upper Illinois River system at mile point 336.6.
The Calumet Works is an activated sludge plant with an
average design capacity of 136 MGD and a maximum capacity of
210 MGD. It discharges its effluent into the Little Calumet
River section of the Calumet Sag Channel at two points,
mile point 319.2 and mile point 321.U. The flow is divided
approximately 20$ and 80$, respectively.
The West-Southwest (Stickney) Works combines two types
of sewage treatment plants; the Westside Imhoff Plant and the
Southwest Activated Sludge Plant operate together as a unit.
This is the largest sewage treatment plant in the world. The
Westside Plant is designed for an average flow of Vf2 MGD and
a maximum of 690 MGD. The Southwest Plant is designed for an
average flow of ^28 MGD and a maximum of 810 MGD. When the
two plants are operating as a combined unit, the average design
flow is 900 MGD and the maximum is 1,200 MGD. Each plant
provides primary treatment to the portion of raw sewage reaching
that plant through a combination of interceptor sewers serving
different areas of the Metropolitan Sanitary District. The
primary treated sewage entered the Southwest aeration tanks;
k6 percent came from the Westside Imhoff tanks and 5k percent
from the Southwest primary tanks.
The raw sewage flow to the Westside Plant, with the
addition of Southwest Plant primary sludge, is settled in
Imhoff tanks. The sludge from the Imhoff tanks is dried on
sludge drying beds, or is pumped to sludge lagoons or to the
Southwest sludge concentration tanks. The Westside Imhoff
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vm-3
effluent flows to the Southwest aeration tanks and leaves
the Works after secondary treatment via the Southwest effluent
sewer. The waste activated sludge from Southwest is concen-
trated, vacuum-filtered, and dried for storage or shipment.
The raw sewage flow to the Southwest Plant is settled.
The settled sludge from the primary settling tanks is trans-
ferred to the Westside Plant by the Salt Creek interceptor.
The primary effluent, together with the Westside effluent and
Northside sludge/ is treated by the activated sludge process.
The point of discharge of the Stickney effluent is at mile
point 315.8 on the Ship and Sanitary Canal.
First"Study Period (April 24-May 21, 196l)
Sampling was carried out on a 24-hour basis with grab
samples of influent and effluent collected hourly, iced and
delivered to the laboratory every eight hours. In the
laboratory the samples were composited in eight-hour increments
proportional to flow and subjected to immediate analysis.
Data collected from the three plants during this period
is summarized in Table VIII-2. This table shows that the total
average discharge rate from all plants during the study period
was 1238 MOD - very close to the 1286 MOD average design flow
of the three plants. The Population Equivalent (PE) of the
combined discharges was 969,000 or 78.2 tons of 5-day BOD per
day; a contribution of 37-9 tons of dissolved oxygen, daily,
is shown. The over-all removal efficiancy was 88.8j£.
The quality of these discharges is typical of activated
sludge plant effluents. The 5-day BOD averages of the discharged
effluents ranged between 10.8 and 16.4 mg/1. The pH of the
discharges was normal for typical activated sludge plants and
the coliform density range was typical of this type of unchlorinated
effluent. The DO levels were generally higher than expected
for activated sludge effluents but are considered beneficial in
view of the low dilution available in the receiving waters.
Second Study Period (September 11-24, 196l)
This study was undertaken to extend the scope of the first
study by including tests for additional parameters of water
quality. In addition to studies on flow, pH, BOD, DO and
eoliforms, the influents of the three MSD plants were analyzed
for: COD; suspended, settleable and dissolved solids; fecal
streptococci. The additional tests on the effluents were:
COD; settleable BOD; suspended, settleable and dissolved solids;
organic, ammonia, nitrite plus nitrate nitrogen; ortho and total
phosphate; ABS; chloride; and fecal streptococci. Sampling
procedure was identical to that of the first study.
-------
The results of this study are summarized in Tables VIII-3,
-k, -5, & -6. The ranges displayed in these tables emphasizes
the effect of heavy rainfall which was encountered during the
study period.
Table VIII-3 summarizes the BOD loadings and reductions
effected by the three treatment plants. The average discharge
rate from all plants during the study period was 1682 MGD which
is considerably higher than the average design flow. The
population equivalent of the combined discharges was 793>000,
or 66.2 tons of 5-day BOD per day. The overall removal efficiency
was 87.8$. These findings, when compared to the first study
'period; show the effect of extreme rainfall conditions on loads
received at the plants. For example., the raw PE of the first
study period (8,288,000), compared with the PE of the second
period (6,504,000) shows that in spite of an increased volume
of waste water handled, there was a loss of 1,784,000 PE per
day due to storm water overflow or bypassing. Adding this
load to the effluent discharge load of 793,000 results in an
average PE discharge of 2,577^000, If the average effluent PE
of 969jOOO observed during the April study is subtracted from
this figure, a net loss of I,6o8;000 in PE is indicated (presumably
as storm water overflow or direct bypass to the receiving stream).
Another observation of interest; shown in this table, is
the percentage of total BOD of the effluents that is settleable.
This suggests that a further reduction in BOD could be accomplished
by additional treatment.
Table VIII-4 summarizes the solids loads received and discharged
by the three plants. Eleven hundred ten tons per day of suspended
solids were received and 119•! tons were discharged, resulting in
a reduction of 89.3 percent.
The discharged dissolved solids amounted to 3^238 tons per
day. This value is a composite of the dissolved solids present
in the water supply of Chicago plus that added as sewage. If all
of the water pumped by Chicago (MGD) passes through the MSD plants
its content of dissolved solids (155 mg/l) will account for 665
tons/day of the dissolved solids in tne effluent. The remaining
2,563 tons per day is the load contributed by the industries and
population of the MSD.
Table VIII-5 summarizes the other chemical parameters of
significance to water quality studied during this period. Of the
4l.5 tons of nitrogen discharged, 58 percent, or 24-5 tons, is in
the form of ammonia and organic nitrogen. The remainder is oxidized
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VIII-5
and exists in the form of nitrite and nitrate nitrogen. The
oxygen attached to the nitrogen is available to the stream as
an additional source of oxygen whenever conditions approaching
total depletion of dissolved oxygen are reached. In this form
it is an asset, useful in delaying the occurrence of nuisance
conditions. The organic and ammonia nitrogen are potential
sources of oxygen demand and can account for over five times their
weight in oxygen demand if oxidized to nitrate. This potential
oxygen requirement can be a heavy demand in downstream reaches
subject to nitrification. The combined effect of the total
nitrogen discharged, with the phosphate that is present, can
result in increased levels of algae and plankton life downstream.
This nutrient effect can ultimately cause taste, odor, and increased
treatment costs to downstream water users.
The ABS concentration of 1.6 Ug/1 is considerably above the
limits set for drinking water standards by the USERS (l). Although
partial degradation by natural purification processes can be
expected, the residue from this concentration of ABS can result
in foaming, and unsightly appearance. Wo conventional method of
treatment is currently available to reduce ABS concentrations to
acceptable water quality levels.
The average chloride concentration of 58 rag/1 discharged by
the three MSB plants includes the chloride (7.5 sg/l) present in
the water supply of Chicago. The net increase of 50-5 og/1 is
equivalent to 31^ tons per day added by domestic and industrial
wastes discharged to the sewer system. Because chloride can be
responsible for objectionable taste in drinking water at high
concentrations, and is responsible for increased corrosion to
water handling equiment in industrial and cooling uses, control
of excessive chloride discharges is a worthwhile practice.
The dissolved oxygen levels contributed by the MSQ plants
averaged 6.7 3)g/l and provided ^6.3 tons/day of additi«nal oxygen
to the river system. Although this quantity of oxygen is in-
sufficient for the over=all needs of the river system it is a
beneficial contribution and should be maintained.
The average pH of the treatment plant discharge (pH 7«5)
is typical of activated sludge effluents and, being approximately
neutral, is considered satisfactory for discharge to the river
system. The pH of the daily discharges did not vary significantly
from the average value; therefore, in terms of water •quality
significance, the pH is not considered a problem.
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vm-6
Coliform and Fecal Streptococcus Determinations
A short term investigation of the coliform and fecal
streptococcus density of the influents and effluents of the
three sewage treatment plants (Worthside, West-Southwest and
Calumet) was conducted during the month of September 196l.
Samples were collected every four hours to obtain a twenty-four
hour study on each of the plants. Data was obtained on total
coliform and fecal streptococcus density via direct membrane
filter procedure on each of the samples collected. Initial
measurements were in terms of numbers per 100 ml.of sample.
Total coliform and streptococcus loads for the twenty-four hour
period were computed on the basis of flow as determined for eight-
hour periods. The average numbers of coliform and streptococci
per 100 ml.were similarly determined. The ratio of coliform to
fecal streptococci was calculated for each influent and effluent.
The summary data are presented in Table VIII-6.
Horthside Plant: For the 24-hour period studigd, the
average coliform density of the influent was 9-9 X 10 per 100 ml.,
and the fecal streptococcus average was 1270 x Kr organisms per
100 ml. The ratio of coliform to streptococci was 8.0. The
effluent coliform average was 0.34 x 10 per 100 ml. ,and the
fecal streptococcus average was 27 x K>3 per 100 ml. The ratio
of total coliform to streptococci in the plant effluent was 12.7«
The average plant efficiency in terms of coliform reduction
was 96.U/o, and in terms of fecal streptococci, 97.9$.
Calumet Plant: For the twenty-four/-hour period studied,
the influent coliform average was 8.1 x 10 organisms per 100 ml.,
and the fecal streptococcus average was 1732 x 10-> per 100 ml.
The ratio of coliform to fecal streptococci was 4.8. The effluent
coliform average was 0-3 x 10 per 100 ml .and the fecal strepto-
coccus average was 52 x 103 per 100 ml. The ratio of coliform
to fecal streptococci was 6.6.
The average plant efficiency in terms of coliform removal
was 95«8$ and in terms of fecal streptococci, 97-0$.
West-Southwest Plant (Stickney): A twenty-four hour study
on the West-Southwest plant was completed for the period of
September 12 and 13- Because this study occurred during a period
of heavy rainfall, an additional twenty-four hour study was carried
out on September 20 and 21 in conjunction with similar studies on
the Northside and Calumet plants on the same day, when influent
flows were not as great.
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VIII-7
September 12-13: Since the Stickney works are a combination
of two types of sewage treatment plants and provide a common plant
effluent into the Illinois Waterway, the influent data was calcu-
lated on the "basis of combined totals and averages obtained on data
from the two separate influents (West and Southwest). The combined
twenty-four hour average coliform concentration was 10.1 x 10°
organisms per 100 ml. and the combined fecal streptococcus average
was 2500 x 10-3 per 100 ml. The ratio of coliform to fecal strep-
tococci from the Southwest and,-West influent was 7.0. The effluent
coliform average was 0.11 x 10° per 100 ml.,the fecal streptococcus
average was 59 x 10^ per 100 ml, ,and ratio of coliform to fecal
streptococci was 1.9.
The average plant efficiency in terms of coliform removal
was 99.4$,and in terms of fecal streptococci, 97.6%.
September 20 and 21: The influent coliform average was
40.0 x 10 pep 100 ml and the combined fecal streptococcus average
was 15.5 x 10 per 100 ml. The ratio of coliform to fecal strep-
tococci was 2.6. The effluent coliform average was 0.34 x 10° per
100 ml. The fecal streptococci average was ikQ x 10-3 per 100 ml.,
and the ratio of coliform to fecal streptococci was 2.4.
The average plant efficiency in terms of coliform removal
was 99-2$ and in terms of fecal streptococci, 99-1$.
The coliform and fecal streptococci discharges from the
three treatment plants show a reduction of 95 to 99$> which is
typical of the activated sludge process without chlorination.
However, the levels discharged are far above that considered
safe for human exposure. The pollution levels indicated by these
bacterial findings is such that danger to health must be presumed
to exist in any use of, or contact with, these effluents.
Combined Sewer Overflows
Underground storm water -.rair^e in Chicago was inaugurated
with the construction of the first city sewer system in 1856.
The system was designed to carry both storm water and sanitary
sewage to the Chicago River and to Lake Michigan, and served
about seven square miles including the present "Loop" area. In
the 10^ years since 1856, the Chicago combined sewer system
has been expanded to include over 3>600 miles of sewers serving
190 square miles with 3-5 million population. Most of the suburban
municipalities in the Chicago Metropolitan Area also are served
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vm-8
"by combined, sewwr syeteras which discharge storm runoff into
the waterways of the area.
For many years these combined severs discharged *O.i flows
directly to the streams, of which some were tributary to Lake
Michigan, and others tributary to the Illinois River. In 1890,
the Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago was organized
and initiated construction of a system of sanitary and combined
interceptor sewers serving Chicago and many of the suburbs. The
interceptor system is designed to conduct dry weather flows to
the various sewage treatment plants operated by the Sanitary
District, and to discharge storm runoff through overflow structures
and pumping stations, to the Des Plaines, Chicago and Calumet
Rivers, the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal, and the Calumet Sag
Channel.
Storm water overflows to the Des Plaines River follow the
natural course of the river to the Illinois River. Storm water
overflows to the Chicago River are also tributary to the Illinois
River, since the natural direction of flow of the Chicago River
has been reversed. The Calumet Sag Channel, completed in 1922 by
the Sanitary District, was designed to reverse the flow of the
Calumet River from Lake Michigan to the Chicago Sanitary and Ship
Canal. This flow is regulated by means of the Controlling Works
at Blue Island, except during infrequent heavy storms when runoff
threatens to cause flood damage along the Calumet Sag Channel.
At such times, the control gates are closed, forcing Calumet River
flood flows to Lake Michigan. If storm runoff to Calumet Sag
Channel causes the water surface to rise above that of the Calumet
River, the control gates may be opened to permit flow out of the
Calumet Sag to Lake Michigan, as a flood relief measure. Thus,
storm water overflows to the Calumet Sag Channel and Calumet River
are usually tributary to the Illinois River but may occasionally
go to Lake Michigan. A new lock and control gates have been built
in the Calumet River just downstream from the confluence of the
Grand Calumet and Little Calumet Rivers. After removal of the old
Controlling Works, Calumet Sag Channel flows wi.11 be regulated at
the new lock.
Pollutional Aspect of Combined Sewer Overflows
The discharge of raw sewage and industrial wastes mixed
with storm water during periods of storm runoff constitutes a
significant intermittent source of pollution of the waterways in
the Chicago area. The physical extent of the problem is indicated
by the large number of overflows, approximately 200 on the main
channels, and an undetermined number on tributary streams such as the
Des Plaines River, the Jorth Branch Chicle River and the Livtls Calumet
River. The locations of the overflows on the main channels are
shown on Figure VHI-2.
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vni-9
Pollution of streams in a Ljetropolitan area results in
economic loss through curtailment of recreational use of the
waterways, increased water treatment costs, reduced property
values, corrosion of boats and nearby structures, and, under
certain conditions, the loss of industrial development. The
esthetic value of the streams is destroyed by unsightly floating
material, murky waters and unpleasant odors. The biological life
of the stream is adversely affected by low oxygen values resulting
from the oxygen demand of sewage and industrial wastes. Pleasure
boat operators either avoid the waterways or use them as a means
of acess to less polluted waters.
More important, however, is the danger to public health
from the pathogenic bacteria and viruses which may be present in
raw sewage. Although the concentration of BOD and sewage solids,
with exception of the first flush, may be reduced by dilution
during runoff periods, the pathogens remain a serious menace to
any public use of the streams receiving these discharges.
The total pollution load contributed to Chicago area water-
courses by storm water overflows from the combined sewer systems
has not been determined by field measurement. The percentage of
the annual sanitary and industrial waste flow spilled to the
canals during overflows has been estimated by several investigators
to be in the range of three to five per cent for sanitary sewage
interceptors designed for one and one half to three times the
average dry weather flow. However, the first slug of such wastes
may be several times the strength of the normal sewage flow.
In 19^-7.» J- E. McKee (2), reporting on studies for sewage
disposal in the Merrimack River Valley Sewerage District in
Massachusetts, showed that, although only a small per cent of
the annual sanitary sewage flow is lost in storm water overflows,
a large percent of the sewage present in the combined sewers during
rainstorms is lost during overflows. McKee's studies also showed
that with interceptors designed for one and one-half to three
times the average dry weather flow, overflows will occur every
five or six days on the average during summer months. Thus the
receiving stream would be seriously polluted for short but
frequent periods during rainstorms; this would greatly restrict
the recreational use of the stream.
McKeels study also showed that increasing the capacity of
the interceptors for the purpose of reducing the frequency of
overflows sufficiently to avoid pollution of recreational waters
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vm-io
•was generally not economically feasible. Studies reported by
C. L. Palmer (3) for Detroit, Mich., E. Riise-Carstensen (4) for
Buffalo, N.Y., C. P. Johnson (5)(6) for Washington, B.C., T.R.
Camp (?) for Concord, N.H., W. W. Horner (g) for St.Louis, Mo.,
S. A. Greely and P. E. Langdon (9) for New York City, H. H. Benjes
et al.(io) for Kansas City, Mo., and A.L.H. Grameson and R. N.
Davidson (ll) for Northampton, England, have supported the findings
of McKee. However, as Johnson (6) pointed out, where the highest
recreational use of a stream is desired, it may be economically
practicable to design interceptors for as much as 30 times the
average dry weather flow.
The public health problem of pathogens in combined sewage
was emphasized by Camp (12) in a report of studies of chlorination
of raw sewage for bacteria kills and virus inactivation. British
practice in the treatment of combined sewage was reviewed by
H. Romer and L. M. KLashman (13).
An analysis of the present condition of the Chicago canal
system from Wilmette to the confluence with the Des Plaines River
reveals the presence of organic loadings in significant amounts
from sources other than known municipal and industrial waste
discharges. The loads from known sources are presented in Table
IX-1 and average about 200,000 pounds of ultimate BOD per day for
the period of study. The unidentified source loads, which are
presented in Table IX-2, average about 100,000 pounds of ultimate
BOD per day for the same period. It is believed that combined
sewer spillage during periods of storra runoff is an important source
of the unidentified loads.
GLIRBP has undertaken a study of combined sewer overflows
to determine the pollution loads discharged to the streams from
selected combined sewers during storms. By extension of the
observed data, the total pollution load entering the streams
from the sewer system can be estimated, and the major sources of
these loads can be located.
Flows have been measured and sampled in two combined sewers,
the Roscoe Street sewer on the north side of the city, and the
Union Avenue sewer located just south of the Loop area, see Figure
VIII-3. However, due to the paucity of data collected at the Union
Avenue site, only the Roscoe Street data were used in this analysis.
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vm-ii
Study Area
The drainage area of the Roscoe Street sewer is about
8.6 square miles. The City of Chicago follows the practice
of providing interconnections between major sewers serving
adjacent drainage areas. This provides needed relief drainage
for localized storms, together with economy of design. However,
it often also results in indistinct drainage boundaries. About
2.1}- square miles of the Southwest portion of the Roscoe Street
sewer area is interconnected with the Wrightwood Avenue sewer
and with the Kostner Avenue sewer. The intercor^cted area was
assumed to be tributary to the Roscoe Street sewer for the
purpose of this study. The drainage area slopes from elevation
61)- 5 feet above mean sea level (ft. m.s.l.) near the western
boundary to elevation 592 ft. m.s.l. at the diversion chamber -
an average fall of about 10 feet per mile. The impervious
surface is estimated to be k-2. per cent of the total area, based
on land use data obtained from the Chicago Area Transportation
Study, and from land use imperviousness factors from the Division
of Sewer Planning, City of Chicago. Land use and per cent imper-
viousness are shown in Table VTII-7.
Hydraulic Msasurements
At the point where dry weather flow is diverted to the
Metropolitan Sanitary District interceptor sewer, the Roscoe
Street combined sewer is a twin 12' x 12J horse-shoe section,
with an invert slope of 0.0005, and a nominal capacity of 1,200
cfs when flowing full. Ports are located about every 150 ft. in
the common wall to equalize flow. At the diversion chamber, the
invert of the sewer is about 7 feet below river level. Flap gates
in the outfall section prevent backflow from the river. The water
level in the sewer must rise above the river level before overflow
begins, thus providing considerable storage in the sewer system,
which prevents overflow during rains of low intensity, and reduces
the overflow during larger storms. A sketch of the diversion
chamber is presented on Figure
Float type water stage recorders were installed in float
wells in manholes located h60 feet and 1930 feet upstream from
the diversion chamber. These gages indicate the hydraulic
gradient in the sewer, and discharge is determined from computed
rating curves.
Diversion to the interceptor is through a V x V sluice
gate which was open half-way during the period of study. This
gate is motor-operated, and equipped for automatic operation based
on water level in the interceptor. The sewer invert is raised
2 ft. at the downstream side of the diversion chamber, forming a
dam to divert dry weather flow.
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VIII-12
Float-type water stage recorders were installed upstream
and downstream of the sluice gate. Discharge is determined from
a computed rating curve for the sluice gate opening. The dis-
charge coefficient for the gate opening was determined from
current meter measurements made through the stop-log slot
located just upstream from the gate.
Rate of flow to the river was determined as the difference
between total flow in the sewer and the diverted flow during the
period of overflow. The overflow period was determined by ob-
servation of the flap gates and by interpretation of gage height
record on the recorder charts. It was found that water levels
remained nearly constant during the overflow period so that
storage corrections were not required.
Two recording rain gages were installed to supplement the
rainfall data from existing rain gages.
Sampling Procedure
In order to man the sampling operation ahead of an expected
overflow, an alerting procedure was set up, in which the U. S.
Weather Bureau notifies Project supervisory personnel when a
rainfall of about 0.1 inch per hour with a total of around 0.5
inch is expected. The supervisor then notifies sampling personnel.,
laboratory personnel and an engineer from the hydraulics section.
Bulky sampling equipment such as ice chests and sample
containers were stored previously in the underground diversion
chamber, so that sampling personnel would have a minimum amount
of equipment to transport to the site.
Sampling procedure before and during a storm is•
Bacterial samples at diversion chamber and on outfall sewer,
hourly throughout.
BOD samples at both locations, hourly before water level
starts to rise, every 15 minutes during the rise and overflow
periods, and every 30 minutes after overflow stops until the
water level recedes to low stage.
DO samples on the outfall sewer only, with same frequency
as for BOD samples.
During periods of runoff and overflow when samples were
being taken, an engineer from the Project was on hand to make
sure that gages were functioning properly, and to observe flow
conditions.
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VIII-13
Background sampling of dry-weather flow was carried on dur-
ing October, 1961.
Considerable difficulty was experienced in obtaining
adequate samples of storm flow. The main factor was the extremely
difficult problem of making accurate quantitative precipitation
forecasts for relatively small geographical areas. It was found
that an average rainfall intensity as low as 0.04 in./hr. would
produce an overflow under certain conditions. The lag time
between beginning of rainfall and overflow was usually about two
hours, so that sampling should have been started within about one
hour after rainfall began. This proved to be very hard to
accomplish when rainfall occurred after regular working hours,
due to time required to recruit sampling personnel, travel time,
etc. When rainfall occurred without advance notice during
regular working hours, sampling personnel were often in the
field on other assigned duties and not readily available. In
all, adequate data were obtained from only five storms.
Dry Weather Flow
Average dry weather flows were determined from the sluice
gate rating curve for periods considered to be representative
of the entire period of gage record. Average flows for November,
April, June, and August are shown on Figure rlII-5. The estimated
annual average dry weather flow is 45 cfs.
Samples of dry weather flow in Roscoe Street sewer were
collected on 23 days during the period September 2? to November
2, 1961. Average concentrations reported in the laboratory
analyses, and the estimated annual average dry weather load,
based on an average flow of 45 cfs, are shown on Table 'III- .
Storm Flow
During the period of gage record (Sept.-Dec. 1961 and
March-Nov. 1962) there were 36 storms which caused overflow.
The average duration of overflow was 3-9 hours. Monthly dis-
tribution is shown on Table VIII-9. Rainfall and runoff data
for 34 of these storms are summarized on Table VIII-10. Dis-
charge hydrographs and hourly rainfall for the storm of
November 15-16, 1961, are shown on Figure VIII-6.
Pollution Load
Samples obtained during overflow periods were composited
in the laboratory prior to analysis. The results of the lab-
oratory analyses are shown on Tables VIII-11 to VIII-15. It
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viil-lU
vas expected that there would be a relationship between the
strength of the combined sewage and the time after beginning of
rainfall. The 5-day BOD concentrations were found to vary with
time as shown on Figure VIII-7- In order to extend these data,
calculation of the total BOD load to the system is shown on
Table VIII-l6 and is explained below.
The volume of overflow in each 30-rainute period, after
start of overflow, was computed for the 31 storms which occurred
during the months October-December 1961, and April-September 1962.
October and November 1962, were omitted from this computation to
avoid duplication of months. The corresponding BOD concentration
for each 30-minute period was taken from the curve on Figure VIII-J,
and the total BOD load discharged to the stream during the 31 storms
was computed to be 278,300 lb- The duration of overflow was 126.7
hours in nine months of total time• This would be an average daily
load of 1,010 lb. for the 9~mon"kh period. It was considered that the
annual average daily load would not differ appreciably from the 9-mon~th
average.
It was assumed that the frequency, duration, and volume per
unit area of the overflow from the Roscoe Street sewer would be
representative of the overflows to be expected from all sewered areas
tributary to the Sanitary Canal. This is recognized as an oversimpli-
fication of the complex relationships between rainfall intensity, time
of concentration, imperviousness, storage in the sewers below river
level; etc. However, on the basis of the information available at
this time, the assumption is considered reasonable. A study of an
adequate number of sewers to define the overflow characteristics of
the entire tributary area is beyond the scope of the GLIRB Project.
It was further assumed that, in the tributary area of each
main treatment plant, the ratio of the total overflow BOD load
to the Roscoe Street overflow BOD load would be equal to the
ratio of the total BOD load received at the plant to the total
BOD load diverted from the Roscoe Street sewer into the MSD interceptor.
The total BOD loads received at the treatment plants are
not available for 1962, when most of the Roscoe Street data were
collected, therefore average loads based on records for 1957
through 1961 were used. The BOD load to the Stickney Plant was
adjusted to delete that part of the load from suburban areas
where the sewers overflow to the Des Plaines River.
The total BOD load diverted from the Roscoe Street sewer
to the MSD interceptor was not determined, since data for storms
not producing overflows have not been analyzed at this time.
Therefore> the dry weather BOD load was used for this purpose.
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VIII-15
The 5-day BOD overflow load in each treatment plant area
was computed separately:
North Side: -178.AGO (.1.010) __ <^10o Ib./day
Stickney: 887,300 (1,010) = 35,500 Ib./day
25,200 ' ' *
Calumet: 106.500 (1.010) =— 4,300 Ib./day
25,200
The total 5-day BOD overflow load to the canal system was
46,900 Ib./day.
Precipitation during the nine-month period of gage record
was below normal in all months except October 1961, and July
1962. The nine-month total was about 80 percent of normal for
Midway Airport gage. Precipitation for the 12-month period
October 1961 through September 1962, was about 85 percent of
normal.
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VIII-16
Sludge Deposits
Investigation of sludge deposits in the Upper Illinois River
System was instituted during August 1961. The investigation was
made to determine the distribution of sludge on the stream bottom.
It included the entire North Shore Channel from mile point NS
340.7 to its junction with the Chicago River at mile point 325.5,
the Chicago River and South Branch of the Chicago River, and the
Sanitary and Ship-Canal down to the junction with the Calumet"Sag
Channel at mile point SS 303-5. In all, 37.2 miles of stream*
were surveyed using an indicating type of depth probe. This
probe operates with ultrasonic sound waves. It emits the sound
from a transducer located in the bottom of the survey boat -
which is directed downward through the water in a narrow beam.
When this beam strikes bottom, or any other material of heavier
density than water, it will be reflected; a portion of the beam
returns to the transducer in the boat. The elapsed time, while
the sound wave travels to the point of reflection and returns,
is a function of the depth of water at that point. The instru-
ment used was the Columbian Aqua-Probe Depth Finder, Model
CB 303.
The readings, plotted in Figure VIII-8, have been corrected
for the water level elevation at the time of the study and for
the depth of setting of the transducer in the boat hull. The
depth of the sludge deposits shown in Figure VIII-8, was an
average depth taken at the center line of the stream; it did not
show the conditions on either side of the track of the boat as
it moved down the center of the stream.
The relationship of the sludge deposits to the known
stream profile varied from zero at Wilmette to seven feet at
mile point SS 317.5 just upstream from the Cicero Avenue Bridge
on the Sanitary and Ship Canal. Some peaking was noticed below
the various outfalls and treatment plants. The sludge line
dropped 2^ to 3 feet at the point where the Canal narrows below
the Wentworth Bridge at mile point SS 308.0.
The method of measurement used is accurate, within limita-
tions, and for this application may indicate a thin layer of
sludge or blanket of flocculent material suspended in the stream.
The height of the sludge shown in the Figure does not indicate
what the physical condition of the sludge was at any point, but
does show that a blanket of different density existed from that
point to the bottom of the stream.
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VIII-17
Heavy accumulations of sludge existed in the North Shore
Channel below the Roscoe Street diversion sewer, the Addison
Street pumping station, and the Northside Sewage Treatment
Plant. Some sludge concentrations mixed with grit existed in
the turning basin below the North Avenue Bridge. In the Chicago
River, South Branch of the Chicago River and the Sanitary and
Ship Canal, heavy sludge concentrations occurred from a point
north of the Cicero Avenue Bridge to about mile point SS 30?.9
Below mile point SS 307.9 the velocity of the Sanitary and Ship
Canal increases and some scour occurs. Sludge boils and
gaseous emission from the sludge below the treatment plants
dotted the surface of the water like rain at these points.
Some sludge was turned up by towboats in this area. These tows
exert a powerful influence on the bottom of the stream - at
times strong enough to bring oil - and water-soaked 12x12 inch
timbers 12 to 15 feet long to the surface from the bottom.
These wood timbers and debris which boil to the surface present
a hazard to small boats; they also serve to illustrate the
powerful suspension and mixing forces exerted by passing tow-
boats .
The results of the sludge deposit survey confirm the
existence of large and extensive sludge deposits which would
be responsible for a significant portion of the -demand on. the
oxygen assets of the stream.
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vTII-18
Continuous Dissolved Oxynen R
Scope of Investigations
One of the special investigations undertaken by the Project was a
study of surface water dissolved oxygen concentrations using continuous
dissolved oxygen recorders.
The instruments were installed at Wilmette Inlet on the North Shore
Channel (river mile 340.7), above the dam at Lockport on the Ship and
Sanitary Canal (river mile 293.1), and above the dam at Peoria on the
Lower Illinois River.
Each instrument was serviced at least every eight days. Results
from the recorder charts were spot checked with the modified Winkler
dissolved oxygen test. The averages of maximum and minimum values ob-
served at three sampling stations are given in the following table:
Time of Occurrence
of Maximum or
Minimum
Temperature of
Water (°C)
% Saturation of
Dissolved Oxygen
Concentration of
Dissolved Oxygen
(meA)
Period of Operatior
Wilmette Lockport
fex
4:30 PM
16.6
100
9.8
Min ; Max. Min
i
8:00 AM ! 6.:DO PK
15.2 26.1
1
95 5
9.5
10/5/62 to
i 10A5/62
10 days
0.4
10:00 AM
25.6
0.7
0.1
8/11/62 to
10/16/62
44 days
Peoria
Max Min
6:00 PM
18.2
68
6.4
8:00 AM
16.0
59
, 5.8
9/6/62 to
10/18/62
29 days
On a significant number of occasions, the recorder at Lockport
registered a dissolved oxygen reading of zero, for periods of 12 to 18
hours at a time. These continuously recorded observations confirm the
findings of the earlier studies at these sampling locations.
-------
VTII-19
Description of Dissolved Oxygen Analyzers
The Hays Dissolved Oxygen Meter was used in the investigation.
This instrument consists of three basic units; the contact, sampler,
the oxygen analyzer, and.a recorder.
Contact Sampler
The sample water is continuously pumped through a pressure re-
gulator into an aspirator. Here the "water is thoroughly mixed with
the oxygen bearing gas returning from the analyzer. Thorough mixing
of the confined -gas and the influent sample water brings the mixture
to equilibrium. At equilibrium the partial pressure of- oxygen above
the water -surface is directly proportional to the amount of oxygen ,
in the water. Measurement of the partial pressure of the oxygen .gas,
therefore, is a quantitative, measure of the amount of dissolved -oxygen
in the sample water.
Prom the aspirator, the* gas-water mixture is forced into the water-
gas separator, where the gas is centrifugally separated from the water.
At this point, the water is discharged from the separator while the
gas passes to the analyzer.
Analyser
The paramagnetic property of oxygen .is the principle utilized by
the Hays Analyzer. Paramagnetism is defined as the property of be-
coming magnetized when placed in a magnetic field, in the direction of
the field. This phenomenon is unique among only a few gases and pe-
-culiar only to oxygen in gaaes common to the atmosphere.
When an oxygen-bearing gas is introduced into the analyzer, it
is attracted into a magnetic field surrounding one of two similar
heated resistance elements. The specially constructed wire-wound
platinum resistors are suspended in each of the two chambers within
an analyzer cell block. These resistors form one leg of a Wheatstone
bridge network and are heated by the cell .block bridge supply circuit.
Both resistors are exposed to, and cooled by, the sample gas.
As a result of being heated, .the oxygen bearing gas loses its mag-
netic properties and is immediately replaced by cooler, more magnetic
gas drawn into the field. Since the magnetic field surrounds only one
chamber, there is a difference in cooling effect between the two re-
sistors. The temperature difference results in an electrical resistance
difference between the resistors, which in turn causes a voltage
difference bo appear across the output of the bridge circuit. Moreover,
this voltage difference is directly proportional to the amount of
-------
VIII-20
oxygen present in the sample gas. From the analyzer the sample gas
returns to the aspirator where it is mixed with fresh sample water
to complete the gas sample flow loop.
Recorder
The voltage difference across the output of the bridge circuit,
as a result of the temperature difference in the cell block resistors,
is applied to the amplifier circuit. The amplifier amplifies this
voltage, adjusts the phase, and causes a pen drive motor to operate.
Readings are presented on circular charts as the dissolved oxygen
content of the sample water or in percent of saturation, as desired.
-------
VIII-21
1. 26 Federal Register, 6737, July 27, 196l; amendments Federal
Document 62-2191, March 6, 1962.
2. McKee, J. E. 'Loss of Sanitary Sewage through Storm Water
Overflows . Journal of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers,
34, 2: 55 (April
3. Palmer, C. L. . 'The Pollutional Effects of Storm- Water Over-
flows from Combined Severs. Sewage and Industrial Wastes,
22, 2- 15i|- (February 1950).
h. Riis-Carstensen, Erik Improving the Efficiency of Existing
Interceptors, Sewage and Industrial Wastes, 27; 10 •' 1115
(October 1955).
5. Johnson, C. F. Nation's Capital Enlarges ts Sewerage System.
Civil Engineering, 28 2 : 56 (June 1958).
6. Johnson, C. F., Equipment, Methods, and Results from Washing-
ton, D. C., Combined Sewer Overflow Studies. Journal WPCF,
33, 7 721 (July 1961).
7. Camp, T. R. Overflows of Sanitary Sewage from Combined Sewer*
age Systems. Sewage and Industrial Wastes. 31, ^' 3^1
(April 1959).
8. Shifrin, W. G. , and Horner, W. W. Effectiveness of the
Interception of Sewage - Storm Water Mixtures. Water Pollution
Control Federation. Philadelphia Cdnvisntlfrn, ( Oeiobe v I-£)60 .• )
9. Greeley, S. A., and Langdon, P. E. Storm Water and Combined
Sewage Overflows. A.S.C.E. Journal of Sanitary Engineering
Division. 87, SA 1- 57 (January 1961).
10. Benjes, H. H. , Haney, P. D. ., Schmidt, 0. J. , and Yarabeck,
R. R. Storm-Water Overflows from Combined Sewers. Journal
WPCF, 33, 12- 11252 (December 1961).
11. Gameson, A. L. H. , and Davidson, R. IT. Storm-Water Investi-
gations at Northampton. The Institute of Sewage Purification.
Annual Conference, Llandudno, (June 1962.)
12. Camp, T. R. Chlorination of Mixed Sewage and Storm Water.
A.S.C.E, Journal of Sanitary Engineering Division, 87, SA 1,
1 (January 1961).
13. Romer, H., and KLashman, L. M. The Influence of Combined
Sewers on Pollution Control. Public Works , (October 1961.)
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TABLE OP CONTENTS
Chapter IX The Impact of Waste Loads on the Stream
Page
Introduction 1
Stream Self-Purification 1
Stream Assets 2
Stream Liabilities 3
Mathematics of Self-Purification 5
The Oxygen Balance 8
The Illinois River System 10
Field Studies 11
Existing Loads 11
Velocity Constants KI and K£ -12"
BOD Balances: Integration of Loads 12
DO Balances IT
Summary 19
Lower Illinois River System 20
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DC-1
DC THE IMPACT OF WASTE LOADS ON THE STREAM
Introduction
This chapter will be concerned with the dynamics of self-
purification of the Upper Illinois River System as it receives
and attempts to assimilate the complex pattern of organic waste
loads that are imposed upon it. The primary purpose is to eval- -
uate the present degree of organic pollution and the relative im-
portance of the several ca-uses or kinds of pollution. As a part -
of the analysis, the self-purification capacity of the stream sys-
tem is estimated; and will serve later as a guide in predicting
the effects of corrective measures.
In order to evaluate the self-purification capacity, thor-
ough analysis of existing conditions is necessary. Based upon in-
itial evaluations of the existing waste loads, river flows, organ-
ic sludge demands, tributary flow, atmospheric reaeration, and
other factors, calculations of the self-purification capacity and
expected dissolved oxygen levels (BO) in the stream are tested
against dissolved oxygen profiles actually observed. Once agree-
ment between calculated and observed dissolved oxygen concentra-
tions is obtained, it is possible to predict with confidence.
It is important to realize that this procedure is a
science of estimating, and is not exact in the sense that physics
and chemistry are exact sciences. We are measuring the chemical
results (DO) of a complex and dynamic biochemical process that is
highly sensitive to relatively slight environmental changes. The
existing body of knowledge on this subject is not complete, es- -
pecially insofar as modification of waste loads or the stream en-
vironment may, to a limited degree, alter one or another of our
basic parameters. For tlvse reasons, there will always be a range
of uncertainty in DO predictions, and the degree of uncertainty
will, to a large extent, depend upon the complexity of the river
system under study.
Stream Self-Purification
In essence, the organic pollution added to a flowing
stream is attacked as food by the stream bacteria. As a part of
this process the bacteria require oxygen, and utilize the dissolved
oxygen of the stream. In turn, the stream's oxygen resources are
steadily replenished, primarily by a higher quality tributary in-
flow and by atmospheric reaeration. Thus, in any flowing stream,
there is a continuous action and reaction in a balancing process
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IX-2
between the demands for oxygen and the available oxygen resources.
The extent to which the oxygen resources are depleted is the measure
of whether the stream remains in good condition or becomes seriously
degraded by an excess of organic pollution.
Thus, we speak in terms of stream assets (available dissolved
oxygen and the means by which it is replenished) and liabilities
(demands for oxygen and the modes by which such demands are exerted).
Quantitative analysis of stream self-purification capacity consists
of accounting for all of the assets and liabilities involved and con-
ducting a balance of the DO and the oxygen demands.
Stream Assets
The two primary sources of dissolved oxygen are tributary flow
and atmospheric reaeration. Existing flow in the main stream and
that brought in by tributary streams carries DO with it, and this is
usually a relatively large source of oxygen in pounds per day. It is
x-rell to note here that additional tributary flow ( "dilution"), over
and above the usually available flow, improves the oxygen balance in
essentially one major respect - it carries an added oxygen resource
available to meet oxygen demands.
In contrast to deoxygenation, which is a biochemical process
involving the intervention of living things, atmospheric reaeration
is a purely physical process. When water is in contact with the
atmosphere, the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the water tends
toward a "saturation" level at which the partial pressures of oxygen
in the two media are equal. When the DO of the water is lower than
this possible saturation concentration, the partial pressure of
oxygen in the'Vater is lower than that in the air. This difference
of pressures is the driving force by which the water takes up oxygen
from the air in the ever-present attempt to equalize these pressures.
The greater the degree of oxygen depletion in the water, the greater
the partial pressure difference, or driving force, and, hence, the
faster the reaeration process. Reaeration of still water in a glass
is quite"slow, whereas in a flowing stream, turbulence and mixing
result in a much faster process because the water is much more fre-
quently brought into direct contact with the air. Streams, can become
"supersaturated" with DO due to photosynthesis - when this happens
deaeration takes place, as the direction of the driving force is
reversed.
Certain other events in the stream can be looked upon as
assets to some degree. During the daylight hours, green algae, if
present in the stream, produce oxygen by photosynthesis. However,
this is not an unmixed blessing, as the same algae, by respiration,
-------
IX-3
demand corresponding quantities of oxygen, causing further oxygen
depletion in the dark hours when photosynthesis cannot proceed.
Also, when the DO becomes completely exhausted,, the stream becomes
anaerobic, and gases such as methane and hydrogen sulfide may be
evolved and lost to the atmosphere with accompanying odor nuisance.
A portion of the liabilities, or oxygen demands are wiped out by
this process, and improvement of downstream conditions is somewhat
hastened.
Stream Liabilities
The introduction of organic wastes brings about depletion
of the DO of a stream, through the activities of bacteria. The
oxygen-depleting ability of a waste is referred to as its BOD
(Biochemical Oxygen Demand). It should be noted here that the
BOD is a measure only of the oxygen-depleting ability of a waste
under specific test conditions, and it is not a measure, for in-
stance, of total organic content.
The satisfaction of pollution loads in a stream, or deox-
ygenation, is a time- and temperature-dependent reaction that usu-
ally takes place in two stages, a so-called first stage which in- -
volves carbon oxidation, and a second stage, referred to as nitri-
fication, in which nitrogen compounds are oxidized (see schematic
diagram). The "ultimate first-stage demand" is the demand that
would be Treasured if carbon oxidation were carried to completion
(broken line in schematic diagram). It is a theoretical figure,
not measured, because nitrification is superimposed and because of
the long periods of observation that would be involved (twenty
days, more or less). Usual procedure is to observe the 5-day de-
mand and convert it to the ultimate first-stage demand on the
basis of estimates or tests of the actual rate and course of the
reaction. If it proves necessary or desirable, the second-stage
demands may be evaluated by successive analysis of the two stages,
first evaluating the course of carbon oxidation, then deducting
the day-by-day first-stage demands from the observed data, the
differences being the day-by-day second-stage demands.
The rate at which the BOD is exerted is substantially
affected by the temperature of the stream, bacterial activity
(and consequently the BOD reaction rate) being greater at high tem-
peratures and reduced as the temperature decreases. In addition,
at higher temperatures water cannot hold as much oxygen as at low •
temperatures—the DO saturation concentration decreases as temper-
ature rises. Thus, increased water temperatures, which may be due
to seasonal variation or to cooling water use, result in reduced
dissolved oxygen resources and reduced capacity of the stream to
assimilate pollution.
-------
-------
IX-5
One other type of stream liability is of importance in the
studies at hand, namely, the occurrence of organic sludge deposits
on the river bed. Such deposits, consisting of settleable organic
waste solids, usually form in reaches of low stream velocity where
they can settle most readily. As sedimentation of suspended organic
material continues the deposit becomes deeper, its organic content
accumulates, and its oxygen-demanding capacity becomes greater.
Eventually, if undisturbed accumulation continues, an equilibrium is
reached whereby the amount of daily oxygen demand from such a deposit
is equal to the total amount of BOD deposited daily.
Except at the very top, sludge deposits undergo anaerobic
decomposition as a result of bacterial attack. This is a slow proc-
ess relative to the usual aerobic decomposition of flowing dissolved
loads. The soluble end products of the process pass upwards to the
sludge-water interface, and into the flowing water, where they under-
go direct chemical oxidation at a rapid rate. In this way they
usually create a highly localized and immediate demand for oxygen
from the flowing water. This type of demand, at times amounting to
nearly a point-load, is especially damaging, as little or no time is
available for atmospheric reaeration to counter or keep up. The time
scale of the usual oxygen sag curve is thus compressed, critical DO's
usually occur at the deposit area, and the DO's are lower than would
have occurred due to normal deoxygenation in the flowing water.
Such sludge beds are also occasionally scoured by higher
stream velocities. In this event, the transported solids undergo the
usual, more rapid aerobic degradation. If the prior accumulation
period has been long, this can result in the sudden addition of a
substantial flowing load. Although this type of situation usually
occurs in conjunction with flood flows (and much additional dilution)
the sludge bed can be disturbed and scoured by other means, such as
barge traffic, at low flows when no additional dilution is available.
The natural self-purification capacity of any specific stream
is strictly limited in terms of the available oxygen resources. If
the organic pollution loads added are too great the available oxygen
resources can be exhausted, with resulting nuisance conditions, much
in the same way that a bank account can be overdrawn.
Mathematics of Self-Purification
Well recognized mathematical models are available to describe
the basic processes involved in self-purification, and although there
is occasional question as to their theoretical perfection, they are
quite adequate for prn.ot:<-c.l purport?. •. They include equations
-------
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paujaouop sjoq-OBj; 'III 'JSATH OTqp ^qq- JQ uoTgBOTiTj-nj; TB.mq.BH
PUB uoTq,ntTOci aqq. jo Apnq.s v *a *3 'sdtaqj PUB '-ft *H <-iaq.aa.iq.g
aqq. OSTT2 PUB 'ps^-iaxa doa jo q.unoTne ax^Q. ST sousasjj-Fp aqq.
-2 aqq. raojj paq.onp3p ST sJCcp £ q.^ i jo anTBA at^ jf
'poTjad q.T2t[q. Snjjmp 'pasn ao 'papueraap uaSvCxo jo q.unoura
sq.uasaj:daj: aAxno sfqq. uo sq.uToa OAC). /lire uaa/\q.aq aouajajjfp
ST
UT souajuaAUOO JQJ foi as^q aqq. oq. pa^aAuoo q.UBq.snoo
aqq. ST "C^) pautB^qo ST T^[ ST adofs asotiA SUTT. q.q9fBj:q.s Sujpuaosap is
'aurpq. snsjcaA i jo tncfQ.Tj'BSoi aqq. se p'eaq.gut paq.q.OTd ST aAjno Sufpuaosap
JI •iffBjrS'BTp oTq.Biaaqos SuTpaoaad aqq. UT uw.oqs aAjno QOS
aqq. jo aS^urf JOJJTHI B aq PTTXOH aAjno sfqj, •amrq. gno^ •B
saqoBOJiddB pue
-------
IX-7
amount of oxygen used, during this 3-day period. This is the basis
for the graphical method of integrating pollution loads that has
been used in the computations described later.
The stream reaeration process is formulated according to the
principle that the rate at which oxygen is dissolved into the flowing
vater is directly proportional to the oxygen deficit belov satura-
tion; in other terms, the oxygen deficit decreases at a rate propor-
tional to its own magnitude.
Mathemat ically
§
where D is the oxygen deficit below saturation at t days, and Kg is
the velocity constant that describes the rate at which reaeration is
taking place.
Equation (3) is solved by the expression
-K9t
D = D e d (U)
S-
where Da is the initial oxygen deficit below saturation, or the defi-
cit at time zero. Thus, Equation (4) indicates that as time passes
the oxygen deficit will approach zero, or the dissolved oxygen will
approach its saturation value, due to reaeration.
In a flowing stream, Kg is a function of the depth and veloc-
ity of flow, or the degree of turbulence and mixing, and the rate at
which oxygen can diffuse from the air into the water. Several equa-
tions for the computation of Kg have been proposed over a period of
years. One of the more recent, and the one that has been used in the
computations for the Illinois River System, is the O'Connor-Dobbins*
model
K
K2 =
O'Connor, D. J., and Dobbins, W. E. The Mechanics of Reaeration
in Natural Streams. Trans. ASCE, 123, 6hI-6Qk.(1958)
-------
IX-8
in which D is a diffusion coefficient, V is the mean velocity of
flow, and H is the mean depth.
In any real stream pollution situation the processes of deoxy-
genation and reaeration go on simultaneously, and it is not possible
to observe their separate courses. Instead, the two processes can be
combined mathematically to yield the well known oxygen sag equation
of Streeter and Phelps. To do this, Equations (l) and (3) are com-
bined to yield
which indicates that deoxygenation (K-]_L) Increases the oxygen deficit,
while the counter process, reaeration, decreases the deficit. Equa-
tion (6) has as its solution
( -K,t -K t ) -K?t
D = la ( e •'•-eJ+De (?)
which is the widely used oxygen sag equation.
There is no method available by which Kg can be obtained
directly in the usual stream pollution situation, because of the
simultaneous occurrence of deoxygenation. The sag equation repre-
sents an idealized case involving only one pollution load, and the
absence of additional factors such as sludge deposits and photo-
synthesis. Many pollution cases approach this degree of simplicity,
however, and in such cases the traditional practice for indirectly
determining Kg has been to measure all of the other factors in Equa-
tion (7) and then compute the resulting value of Kg. Such an
approach is impossible in the highly complex Upper Illinois River
pollution situation. Instead, therefore, the necessary numerical
estimates of Kg must be obtained from an independent equation such
as Equation (5).
The Oxygen Balance
In complex situations such as that under study here, involv-
ing many pollution loads, sludge demands, and the like, the oxygen
balance technique offers the best approach to analysis. In essence,
this consists of making independent estimates of as many of the
assets and liabilities as possible, and combining these estimates in
a balance sheet to test them against the observed DO profiles in the
stream. A running balance of oxygen income and loss is kept, in much
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IX-9
the same fashion as a financial balance is developed over a period
of time.
Consider a short reach of stream whose upstream end is Sta-
tion A, and whose downstream end is Station B. Then the total
available assets in the reach AB are the DO initially available at A,
and the oxygen income in the reach AB from reaeration and from addi-
tional tributary flow:
Total Assets, AB = DO at A + DO income from reaeration + DO
income from tributary flow.
The total liabilities, or oxygen losses, in the reach AB
include the oxygen used in satisfying the flowing organic loads, and
the oxygen lost as a result of sludge demands:
Total Liabilities, AB = DO loss due to flowing BOD + DO loss
due to sludge demands.
The net DO remaining at B is just the amount obtained by sub-
tracting the total liabilities from the total assets:
DO at B = Total Assets - Total Liabilities.
For these studies of the Upper Illinois River System, 20
sampling stations have been used, resulting in an average reach, AB>
two and one-half miles in length. The assets for each reach have
been estimated by the methods indicated earlier: the available DO at
the upper end has been obtained by measurement, the DO income from
reaeration has been estimated by the use of Equations (3) and (5),
and any DO income from added tributary flow has been obtained by
field measurements. Thus, the estimates of total available assets
for each reach do not involve great uncertainly, and are correct
within reasonably narrow limits of possible error.
Estimating the total liabilities for each reach has not been
so straightforward, as a number of factors complicate and conceal
the true pollution load situation. These include the existence of
illicit waste outfalls that release unkno\m quantities of BOD, the
erratic and largely unknown loads delivered to the System from com-
bined waste outfalls during storms, and the resuspension, redistri-
bution and resettling of organic sludges by barge traffic. To
attempt to measure all of these effects in the field is out of the
question because of technical and time limitations, to say nothing
of reasonable costs. Thus, a BOD balance system has been devised and
used to permit adequate estimates of the above factors. This will be
described in detail in the following sections.
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IX-1C
The Illinois River System
The Illinois River System is over 300 miles long, the
main stem extending from Lake Michigan at Chicago to the
Mississippi River at Grafton, Illinois. In this report, the river
mileage index system from Grafton is used. Station 1, at the
Wilmette entrance to the North Shore channel, is at mileage
WS 3^0.7. Station 22 is at the upstream side of the Lockport Dam
at mileage SS 291.1. The Dresden Dam station, Wo. 27, is at mile-
age Index IR 271.5. The farthest downstream station that vas reg-
ularly sampled was at the Hardin Highway Bridge at mileage IR 21.7.
Generally, velocities in the stream are slow—ranging from
0.1 to 1.4 feet per second at normal flows. The flow time from
Station 1 to Grafton is in the range of 20 days. This low velocity
is due to the flat terrain and the large cross-sectional areas cre-
ated "by the navigation pools.
Because of its length, the practical problem of adequate
sampling was solved by sampling over monthly intervals, and by
sampling the system in two parts. For purposes of analysis re-
ported in this chapter, the Upper Illinois River System is con-
sidered to be the length from Station 1 to Station 22, or Wilmette
down to Lockport Dam, mileage 3^0.7 to 291.1. The Lower River is
considered to be the reach from Dresden Date, mile 271.5, to Graf ton
at mile zero. Thess two parts were sampled and studied as units,
and will be discussed as these parts.
The Upper Illinois River System, as previously described
in Chapter I, is a complex and artificially controlled canal sys-
tem. Prom Lockport downstream to the mouth of the Illinois River,
the main stem is a succession of slack-water pools formed by the
navigation dams that make it a part of the inland waterway system.
Including Lockport, there are seven locks and dams on the system,
with lifts ranging from 10 to ko feet. The waterway was designed
and is maintained to provide for vessels having a maximum draft of
9 feet. Heavy siltation has occurred in the pools, with the result
that a typical pool consists of shallow overbank areas on each side
and a channel portion which is kept clear by a combination of river
current, barge traffic, and dredging.
Generally, the Upper System channels, in the Chicago area,
can make only limited recovery by natural purification from the im-
pact of discharged organic waste loads. This is due to the combin-
ation «f slow velocities, low diluting flews, repeated heavy pollu-
tion loads, and the low available dissolved oxygen.
The Lower Illinois River is generally in the recovery stage
of self-purification due te greater dilution, higher velocity, lower
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IX-11
turbidity, and the much smaller number and magnitude of pollution
loads added in the downstream, reaches.
It is known that there are approximately 200 combined sanitary-
storm sewer outfalls that overflow directly to the river during storms,
numerous industrial waste outfalls, treatment plant discharges, and
some illicit waste outfalls in the main channel of the Upper Illinois
River System. During times of storm spillage, suspended, dissolved,
and settleable \ra,stes are scoured into the Upper Illinois River Sys-
tem. In the River System the sludges may be raised, resuspended and
settled again by barge traffic. All of these factors, many of which
are known and some of which are unknown, complicate the natural self-
purification picture of the Illinois River System.
Field Studies
The Upper Illinois River System was sampled during April-May
1961, June 1961, July 1961, August 1961, and January 1962. The Lower
Illinois River System was sampled during November-December 196l,
March-April 1962, and July-August 1962. Each of these study periods
was approximately one month in time. Complete BOD-DO balances have
been computed for the first fiv.e study periods on the Upper River.
The summaries are in Tables IX-4 through 13..
In the Upper System mainstem there are 20 sampling stations,
with an average reach between stations of two and one-half miles.
Samples were collected at each sampling station 15 to 25 times during
each sampling study period of approximately one month. They were
collected at different times of the day and on different days of the
week. The results were averaged for each station to give a daily
average for the study period. These averages are used in balance
computations.
A number of river samples were analyzed to determine the deoxy-
genation rate constant, k-^. These results are given at a later point.
Existing Loads
The Illinois River System receives waste loads from communi-
ties, industries and the storm water runoff from the watershed. The
community and industrial wastes are partially treated wastes of a
wide variety. The estimated sewered population equivalent discharged
into the Upper River System totals nearly 800,000. The estimated
discharge into the Lower River is nearly 700,000 P.E. The 800,000
P.E, comes into the Upper River in a length of about 50 miles, while
the 700,000 P.E. comes into the Lower River in a length of nearly 200
miles.
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IX-12
The storm spillage load into the Upper River is sewage plus
storm runoff. This load is in the range of 26,0,000 P.E.
The known industrial waste load estimated to be going into the
Upper River is 500,000 P.E. The known industrial waste load estimated
to be going into the Lower River is 320,000 P.E.
The grand total of these estimates comes to an imposed load on
the mainstem and tributaries of ab^ut 2,500,000 P.E. This is equiv-
alent to about 400,000 pounds per day of 5-day BOD, or 625,000 pounds
per day of ultimate first-stage BOD.
The unknown pollution loads that could not otherwise be evalu-
ated were estimated as "mid-station loads" by the balance procedures
outlined later. Quantitative estimates of the sludge oxygen demands
for each reach are also outlined in the examples of DO-BOD balances.
Velocity Constants, K, and K?
In the Upper River System, 31 samples were taken for long-term
BOD determinations to permit evaluation of the BOD rate constant, k]_.
The rate constants were calculated by the Thomas-Slope technique.
All 20 of the Upper River sampling stations were represented in this
study. The observed values of k]_ ranged from 0.06 to 0.25 per day,
depending upon a variety of factors. However, the data (see Table
IX-16) demonstrated a definite central tendency toward a single rate
constant of 0.139 per day. A statistical analysis of variance of the
observed values indicated that the means for the several station
ranges were uniform, confirming that the single value of 0.139 would
be an adequate representation of k-^ for the whole Upper River.
Accordingly, the value kj_ = 0.139 per day was used in the subsequent
computations.
As noted earlier, direct observation of kg, the reaeration
rate constant, was not possible in the complex Upper River System.
Limited laboratory experiments on the rate of oxygen uptake from the
atmosphere by deoxygenated river water were undertaken, but have not
yielded additional si3r.ificant data. Hence, the O'Connor-Dobbins
equation given earlier was used to obtain estimates of this rate
constant.
BOD Balances:Integration of Loads
As indicated earlier, the computation of stream oxygen demands
forms the basis for the subsequent DO balances, and involves consider-
ably greater chance for error because of storm overflows from the com-
bined sewers, illicit and unknown loads, and organic sludge deposits.
-------
IX-13
Accordingly, the first phase of the analysis involves accounting for
the known pollution loads and their degradation as they pass down-
river, and developing rational estimates of the other, unknown loads.
These computations are carried out in the detailed integration, or
summation, of pollution loads. The entire computation is given for
the April-May, June, July, Aug., and Jan.' survey periods in Tables
IX-4, 6, 8, 10,& irrespectively, and in Figures IX-1, 3, and 5,
respectively, for the April-May, July, and August periods. A brief
discussion will serve to illustrate the use of the Tables and Figures,
and to show the mode of computation as it has been devised to mini-
mize error.
Referring to Figure IX-1 and Table IK-k, recall that the curve
describing the process of satisfaction of flowing organic loads is a
straight line on semi-logarithmic scales, and that the slope of the
line is just k]_, the BOD rate constant, according to Equation (2)
given earlier. Also, as noted earlier, it has been determined that a
single k]_ of 0.139/day is adequate to describe the BOD process in the
Upper Illinois River System.
At Station 1 the field surveys indicated a flowing BOD load of
27,960 Ib./day, and at Station 2 a flowing load of 27,270 Ib./day was
found. These points are plotted in Figure IX-1, at the far left. The
computation procedure now involves drawing two lines beti^een Stations
1 and 2, both at the slope k-^ = 0.139/day; one of the lines passes
through the value 27,960 at Station 1, the other through the value
27,270 at Station 2. Thus, the two lines are parallel, but, as seen
in Figure IX-1, they do not meet. In this example, the mid-point
vertical distance between them involves 2^0 Ib./day of flowing BOD,
and the vertical line moves upward, proceeding from Station 1 to 2.
In this manner, the computations indicate that an additional BOD load
is added somewhere between Stations 1 and 2 in the amount of 2^0 lb./
day. For want of information to the contrary, this estimated load is
located " at a point midway between the two stations, as a best
guess that does not involve major error. This computation has also
indicated that 1,000 Ib./day of the flowing load has been exerted
between Stations 1 and 2, or 1,000 Ib./day of DO has been used up.
This is the manner in which all of the estimated "mid-station
loads" have been found. In this particular example, the 2^0 Ib./day
is a negligibly small load. It may be real, or it may be the product
of small error in the basic data used. For instance, in this stretch
of stream, and at the particular time of survey, the value of k]_ may
have been slightly lower than the average value of 0.139/day that was
used. Alternatively, the true average BOD at Station 1 or 2 may have
been slightly different than the observed average. It is well to bear
in mind throughout these computations that they are estimates, rather
-------
than being perfect. We are seeking major mid-station changes, rather
than slight differences. In order to do this effectively, however, it
is necessary to adopt a single system of computation that is of man-
ageable proportions.
Proceeding downstream, consider the reach between Stations 2
and 3, during April-May 1961. (See Table TX.-k and Figure IX-l). At
the upstream end, Station 2, we have a flowing load of 27,270 Ib./day.
At Station 3, downstream, a flowing load of 30,170 Ib./day has been
observed. There are no known pollution loads added to the river in
this reach, but the data are clear in this case and show that signif-
icant, nonnegligible load is being added between Stations 2 and 3»
By the process outlined above, this mid-station load is estimated at
3,^80 Ib./day, and in the reach it is also estimated that 660 Ib./day
of BOD is satisfied by using up the DO of the river.
One further example will serve to illustrate this procedure,
and to indicate how other available information is used as a test.
In April-May the average result for Station Ik was 71,100 Ib./day of
BOD. By natural purification this should have been reduced to 65,330
at Station 15. However, the results at Station 15 shox/ed that it had
a BOD load of 79,000 Ib./day. Therefore, there was a calculated mid-
station added load between Station Ik and Station 15 that amounted to
an average of 12,520 Ib./day. The calculated mid-station load between
Stations Ik and 15 was due to storm spillage, industrial waste loads,
and possibly to the lifting of bottom sludge. We know that there are
at least 11 combined sanitary-storm sewer outfalls in this portion of
the stream and four industrial waste outfalls.
In the April-May period it was found by a separate computation
that 7,810 Ib./day of storm spillage, and 560 Ib./day of industrial
waste load spilled into the river between Station 1^ and Station 15.
These storm spillage and industrial waste loads were computed from
limited field and sampling data. They account for over two-thirds of
the computed mid-point load.
One other type of mid-station change has been consistently
observed in the computations, and has not been unexpected. It
involves the settling out of part of the initially flowing BOD to
form sludge deposits. Examples of this will be shown below. In
brief, the foregoing computation procedure at times indicated a nega-
tive change in the loads between sampling points, that is, the amount
of flowing BOD remaining at the lower end of the reach was much too
small to be accounted for on the basis of natural self-purification
of the flowing loads and a k^ in the neighborhood of 0.139/day. Such
disappearance of BOD is accounted for as BOD that has settled to the
river bed to form a sludge, as the most likely explanation. As in
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IX-15
case of the mid-station loads, some of the resulting computed deposits
are negligibly small, and may have resulted from small errors in k]_ or
in sample averages. But others are definite and can only be signif-
icant deposits.
Suspended and settleable wastes enter the Upper Illinois River
System as part of all the wastes that contribute to the pollutional
loads. The amount deposited will vary depending upon the waste, the
hydraulics of the river system, the rate, and the nature of the decom-
position of the waste. In the Upper Illinois River System the average
velocities are low - in the 0.1 to 1.0 foot per second range. At the
lower velocities in this range settleable wastes are deposited
quickly. This deposited sludge results in a sizeable oxygen demand
on the oxygen resources of the stream.
Estimating the locations and magnitudes of significant sludge
deposits and their resulting oxygen demands has been one of the most
difficult parts of these analyses. In the first place, the location
of such deposits is strongly affected by river velocities, and the
latter change with flow changes, storm flows, river traffic, and like
effects. Thus, the location of a significantly large deposit may, on
the average, shift somewhat from one month to the next. Its magni-
tude may also vary in like fashion, depending, for instance, upon the
frequency, location, and magnitude of storms.
Added to these effects, the river barge traffic churns up, and
resuspends the once-settled bottom sludges, and it does so on an
erratic, or nonregular, basis. Barge and boat passages average 10 to
20 per day. In this fashion, the solids that may earlier have been
deposited in two or three definite locations become resuspended and
redistributed. These computations indicate that as a result of such
influencing factors virtually the entire river bed has at least some
small organic sludge deposit and demand. The location and magnitudes
of such deposits and demands are not stable over long periods of time,
but rather are expected to shift on a nonpredictable basis. As a
result, one can only estimate average effects for specific survey
periods, and it is not to be expected that these locations and magni-
tudes will necessarily agree from one survey period to the next.
With these points in mind an example of the computation of
sludge deposits is useful. Referring again to the April-May 1961
survey period, let us examine the reach between Stations 6 and 7«
Referring to Table IX-4 and Figure DC-1, the combined flowing BOD
from Station 5 and the North Branch, Station 6, was 62,190 Ib./day.
At the lower end of the reach, Station 7, a flowing load of only
53>l6o Ib./day remained, as indicated by the field survey. The time
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ix-16
of travel was only 0.108 days, hence this sharp reduction in flowing
load could not have resulted from natural self-purification at k]_ =
0.139/day. The reduction is too great to be accounted for on the
basis of errors in k^_ or in sample averages. As a result, it is
estimated by the foregoing procedures that 1,410 Ib./day of BOD were
satisfied in the usual fashion in the flowing stream, and 1,170 lb./
day disappeared from the flo\/ing stream to settle on the river bed.
There are known BOD loads coming into the main channel Upper
Illinois River System at six points. These are at Station 1 at
Wilmette, the Northside Sewage Treatment Plant, the North Branch
Chicago River, the Chicago River, the Southwest Sewage Treatment
Plant, and the Cal-Sag Channel. These known sources of loads are
tabulated in Table IX-1. The totals of these six loads for each of
the five study periods were as follows: 195,570; 255,300; 171,9*10;
160,330, and 2C6,T60 pounds of ultimate first-stage BOD per day. The
averages for each of these loads were 16,190; 24,000; 3,210; 10,870;
122,2^0, and 21,870 pounds per day.
From the observed BOD and DO values at sampling stations, com-
putations have revealed numerous mid-station loads. These are tabu-
lated for the four study periods in Table IX-2. In each of the study
periods the load inflow (plus) changes are greater than the load
drop-out (minus) changes. The average for added mid-station loads
was 157,250. The average for deposited BOD was 8£,900. These loads
come into the system from storm spillage, plant discharges and indus-
trial wastes.
In a separate study of industrial wastes, it was found that
5^,300 pounds were discharged into the main channel Upper Illinois
River. From the Storm Spillage investigations, the spillage from
combined storm and sewage was computed to be 56,000 pounds. The sum
of these two figures totals 110,300pounds. This accounts for 70 per
cent of the estimated 157,2-50 Ib./day of mid-station loads. These
figures are summarized in Table IX-1. Details of the computations
are in Table IX-35.
Table IX-2 summarizes the estimated mid-station pollution
load changes. As may be seen, for the April-May 1961 survey period
specifically, the estimated total of BOD that deposited in the Upper
Illinois River System was 77,090 Ib./day. As will be seen in the
next section, during the same period the total amount of oxygen
estimated to have been demanded by the existing sludge deposits was
57,030 Ib./day. In view of the many difficulties involved in the
analysis of sludge effects, the agreement between these quantities is
considered quite satisfactory.
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IX-IT
The accompanying tables and figures present all of the compata-
tions involved in the estimating of the pollution load picture for the
Upper River System.
DO Balances
Having established a best estimate cf the extent of pollution
of the Upper River System, and the resulting cxyg?n demands of the
flowing loads, ic remaius to conduct the balance of these demands
against the available oxygen resources.
Referring to the earlier discussion of procedures, the avail-
able assets include the tributary DO available at the beginning of any
reach, DO added between sampling stations by tributary flows, and the
oxygen income from reaoration. The liabilities for each reach have
beon estimated by the "BOD balancer,. The procedure now, for each
river reach,is to total the available assets, deduct the estimated
oxygen deimnde, and test the re-nit against the observed DO at the
downs cr9c,m end of the reach. These oomputritions are given in Tables
IX-5, 7, 9,11,^1: foi tho Aprr.-1'Ir.y, Juris, July, r;id August, c,nd J -
survey periods, and the results for the April-May, July, and August
periods F-.TCS shown in Figures IX-2. ^, and 6.
As in the case of the BOD balances and integration of pollu-
tion loads, the DO balances have revealed -3ome mid-station changes,
some positive and more negative. In essence, occasional positive
changos occurred, indicating an apparent additional oxygen resource
tedded between the stations. In m^st cases this apparent added oxygen
is small in iiiagnj.txi.de arcl may oe unreal, having resulted from minor
deviations of the DO canple averages from the true mean, or from
minor differences Tmtvaei. the rei". and assumed values :por kg as
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IX-18
alternative exists. Thus, averaging these observed zero values for
DO with other real, or positive, values can lead to larger error, and
would result an apparent additional source of DO. It is also well to
note that when DO's in the stream are zero it is extremely difficult
to demonstrate this value by usual sampling and laboratory methods.
The driving force for reaeration is relatively tremendous, and henve
"observed" DO's of 0.2, 0.3, 0.5 mg/1. may well be actually zero.
The larger apparent positive mid-station changes in DO, there-
fore, may be due to photosynthesis or they may be due to the diffi-
culties that occur with zero DO's. The latter is thought to be a
distinct possibility in the reaches below Station 1$, and, for instance,
in the August 196! period immediately below Station 9« In view of the
general agreement obtained between computed and observed results on
the basis of the assumptions used, these particular difficulties do
not detract significantly from the estimates of the self-purification
capacity of the Upper River System.
It is well to note also in this regard that Station 12 was a
necessary but particularly poor sampling point in terms of the diffi-
culties encountered in obtaining representative samples. These di-
ficulties arose because of the proximity of Station 12 to the con-
fluence of the mainstem and North Branch of the Chicago River, and it
is quite likely that at times the sample at Station 12 did not repre-
sent a proper mixture of these two streams. This also may account
for the large apparent positive mid-station change calculated below
Station 9 in the August 1961 survey period.
In most cases, as shown by the tables, the estimated mid-
station changes were negative, indicating an unexpectedly large loss
of stream oxygen between two sampling points. Again also, a number
of the estimated magnitudes are negligibly small and may have arisen
through minor differences between the actual situation of the moment
and the basic computational assumptions. In a number of cases, how-
ever, the apparent mid-station loss of oxygen is unquestionably real,
and is the result of the oxygen demands of underlying organic sludge
deposits. As indicated in the tables, this effect is prevalent
throughout most of the Upper River System.
The resulting estimates of bottom sludge oxygen demands (BSOD)
are presented in Table IX-3. It is of interest to compare these sum-
maries with those of Table IX-2, where the estimated mid-station
sludge deposits are summarized. Averaging the negative (drop-out)
totals from Table IX-2 yields a grand estimate of 82,900 Ib./day of
sludge depositing throughout the Upper River System. Averaging the
totals of Table IX-3 (BSOD), on the other hand, yields a grand average
for the System of 58,600 Ib./day of oxygen being demanded by sludge
deposits.
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.DC-19
Thus, the estimates Indicate that the oxygen demands of river
sludge deposits in the Upper River System amount to 71 per cent of the
amount of BOD deposited daily. It may "be recalled in this regard
that the maximum, or equilibrium, demand would be 100 per cent of the
daily deposit, and many stream effects tend to prevent this full
equilibrium from being reached. The erratic and nonpredictable pat-
tern of loading with settleable BOD, the random occurrence of storms,
and the known resuspension and redistribution of existing sludge beds,
all tend to create an exceptionally complex problem in analysis. In
view of these facts, and considering that the estimates of daily
deposit and daily demand have been made along separate computational
paths, the figure of 71 per cent of equilibrium is entirely in keep-
ing vith what should be expected, and the general estimates of daily
deposit and daily sludge demand are considered quite reliable.
The importance of these sludge demands in the Upper River Sys-
tem is readily demonstrated by comparing the 53,,600 Ib./day of demand
to the total estimated oxygen income from reaeration. Reference to
Tables IX-5, 1, 9,H & 13, yields the necessary data. Totalling the
reaeration income for each survey period, and averaging the five
totals, an average of 52,600 Ib./day of total reaeration income is
obtained for the Upper River System. Thus, the oxygen demand from
organic sludge deposits is equal for practical purposes to the total
oxygen income from reaeration.
Another way in which the order of magnitude of these sludge
demands may be indicated is to consider the amount of oxygen that can
be held by saturated water. At 25 C, one thousand cfs of water
saturated with dissolved oxygen contains 45,000 Ib./day of oxygen.
This figure may be compared to the estimated 58,600 Ib./day of
existing sludge demands.
Summary
BOD and DO profiles have been constructed from observed con-
ditions in the Upper Illinois River System. The three BOD profiles
show the same general picture, namely, a load coming into the stream
at Station 1, a sizeable load added by the Northside Treatment Plant,
and mid-station loads that maintain the high BOD level down to the
Chicago River.
The Chicago River brings in a load, and the BOD is raised by
mid-station loads down to the Southside plant. There are more com-
bined sewer outfalls between the Chicago River and the Southside
plant than in any other 10-mile stretch of the river. These outfalls
drain a very large portion of the city. The general level of the BOD
profile is upward in the reaches from Chicago River to the Southside
plant due mainly to these mid-station loads.
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IX-20
At the Southside plant the largest single load is added to the
stream. From this location the stream slowly oxidizes its pollu-
tional load. At Station 22, Lockport Dam, the remaining BOD load is
over lV),000 pounds of ultimate first-stage BOD per day. This load
has rapidly exhausted the DO assets of the stream.
Sludge deposits and resulting oxygen demands occur to greater
or lesser degree throughout the entire Upper River System. The
demands for oxygen from these deposits equal the entire oxygen income
from reaeration, in the neighborhood of 60,000 Ib./day. They are
greater by about 15,000 Ib./day than the entire DO that can be car-
ried by 1,000 cfs of ^rater saturated with oxygen at 25°C.
The DO assets of the stream, starting at near saturation at
Station 1, are rapidly depleted as the stream approaches Station 9-
In April-May, DO dropped from 12.0 mg/1. at Station 1 to 5.2 mg/1. at
Station 9- In June this low point was 3-0 mg/1.; in July it was 1.0
mg/1.; and in August it was only 0.26 mg/1., or, effectively, zero.
These low DO values are the result of heavy loads being added
to the river, the higher temperatures resulting in higher consumption
rates of DO, and the lower summer flows, all combined with the large
sludge oxygen demands. In August the river was rapidly approaching
anaerobic conditions at Station 9, just upstream from the Chicago
River.
In each of the study periods, the Chicago River brought new DO
assets into the stream, increasing the DO level. However, the heavy
loads in the river immediately started to lower the DO. With the
existing heavy BOD load, sludge demands, and added loads from the
Chicago River to the Southside plant, the DO fell from 3.0 mg/1. to
less than 1.0 mg/1. in August.
Along with its heavy BOD load, the WrM contributed substantial
quantities of oxygen but the DO profiles again fell rapidly to very
low levels in the reaches above the Lockport Dam. The Calumet-Sag
Channel brought in a small amount of added DO. The DO of the stream
is usually below 1.0 mg/1. in these reaches, and often completely
exhausted.
Thus, the self-purification model outlined earlier, has pro-
vided a rational and adequate explanation of dissolved oxygen levels
as observed in the Upper Illinois River System.
The Lower Illinois River System
The Lower Illinois River System was sampled for monthly per-
iods during November-December 1961, March-April 1962, and July-August
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IX-21
1962. The known estimated loads from community wastes are 225,000
pounds ultimate first-stage BOD per day. The known estimated loads
from industrial wastes are 80,000 pounds per day. These loads are
imposed «n the Lower River System and its tributaries over a lengthr
of more than 200 miles. The order »f magnitude of the loads is simr
ilar to that in the Upper River. However, the greater length of
the river, the greater dilution,-the longer times of travel, and
the more advanced stages of self-purification, all result in the
Lower River generally being of better quality than the Upper River.
This is the picture for November 1961 and the March 1961 study
periods. The July 1962 study period tells a more complex, and a
somewhat more critical story.
The DO during November 1961 and March 1962 was near satura-
tion for the entire length. For this reason, BOD-DO balances were
not computed for the Lover River for any of the three study periods.
The Lower River shows clear evidence of nitrification oxi-
dation in the July 1962 study period. In July 1962, the flows
were relatively low, temperatures high, and BOD at moderate levels.
DO values fell to the lowest levels of the three study periods.
From about 8.0 mg./I. at the upstream stations, DO fell to k.O
rag./I. in the lower reaches. During this period the BOD levels fell
from a high of 12.0 mg./l. to 6.0 mg./l. At the same time nitrates
rose from 2.0 mg./l. to nearly ^.0 mg./l., indicating extensive
nitrification. Nitrification of ammonia to nitrites and then to
nitrates represents the final stage of the nitrogen cycle, and re-
sults in an oxygen demand. These changes represent satisfied de-
mands on the self-purification capacity of the stream.
The summary data for the Lower Illinois River System are
given in Tables 17 through 21 for Flows, BOD, DO, Temperature,
and Nitrates, respectively.
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X-l
X SUMMARY OF EXISTING CONDITIONS
This chapter presents a summary of the principal conclusions
revealed by this study of the Illinois River system. It reviews in
general terms the water resources, uses, and water borne wastes as
found by inventory methods. It presents general conclusions, result-
ing from laboratory and field observations, of the physical, chemical,
radiochemical, and biological parameters studied, and includes a
quantitative evaluation of waste loads and assimilative capacity.
The principal conclusions derived from a study of the data
presented in this report are listed below:
1 • Surface water- is • the" principal source of water supply in
the 'Illinois River Basin on the basis of volume of water pumped and
population served* Lake Michigan is the principal•somroe of the
surface water used. The Chicago water supply system plus the direct
diversion from Lake Michigan at Chicago is also the principal direct
or indirect source of water for other major uses in the upper basin,
namely, industrial water, power generation, navigation on the Illinois
Waterway, and waste assimilation and transport.
2. About 2,1*00,000 population equivalents of oxygen-demanding
wastes are discharged to streams in the Illinois River Basin. Of
this amount, about 1,1^00,000 are from municipal sources and 1,000,000
are from independent industrial discharges. In the Upper Illinois
River Basin above the Kankakee River, the total population equivalents
discharged to the streams are about 1,£00,000, of which about 1,000,000
are from municipal sources. Nearly all municipal wastes in the Upper
Illinois River Basin receive secondary treatment. In the Lower Illinois
River Basin, the population equivalents discharged to the streams are
about 900,000, of which about 1^00,000 are from municipal sources.
3. The physical appearance of the Upper Illinois River reflects
the many sources of pollution received. It is littered with rubbish
and garbage, including debris large enough to be of hazard to small
craft. Oil slicks and foam are prevalent throughout its length.
This condition also prevails for many mi3e s of the lower river, where
it is gradually transformed by the appearance of green vegetation.
Much of this general pollution can be prevented by adequate policing.
U. Of the many physical and chemical parameters studied, it
was found that the water quality of the Illinois River system was
affected principally by abnormal temperature conditions, low dissolved
oxygen, high BOD, suspended solids, the ABS content, significant loads
of nitrogen and phosphate wastes, toxic metals, and persistent organic
compounds.
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X-2
A. The thermal loads imposed on the Upper Illinois River
system resulted in a gradual rise in temperature of about
9° C. throughout the system, thus decreasing the oxygen con-
taining capacity of the stream and increasing the rate at which
oxygen is consumed by decomposition of organic wastes.
B. The pollution loads imposed on the Upper Illinois
River system exceed its natural capacity for waste stabiliza-
tion and recovery. The loads seriously deplete oxygen reserves
needed to maintain minimal DO levels. No reserve is available
against the effects of these loads. Numerous individual
observations of zero DO confirmed the observations of nuisance
conditions.
C. There are significant quantities of settleable organic
and inorganic solids present in the upper waterway. These
result in sludge deposits of considerable volume, which exert
a heavy and continuous demand on the oxygen resources of the
waterway and are a major factor in reducing oxygen concentra-
tions to the low levels found.
D. In addition to oxygen-consuming carbonaceous wastes,
the river system carried substantial loads of organic and
ammonia nitrogen. The oxygen-consuming (nitrogenous BOD)
load due to the nitrogenous matter resulted in significant
oxygen depletion in downstream portions of the Illinois River
system.
E, The phosphate load carried by the Illinois River can
be a significant nutrient factor contributing to the prolific
population increases of plankton and algae which subsequently
result in nuisance conditions to downstream water users.
F. The presence of toxic metals has been detected at
various locations in the Upper and Lower River system. How-
ever, levels found were within the limits set forth in the U.S.
Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards.
G. Significant quantities of persistent organic materials,
as exemplified by the ABS and carbon absorption analyses, are
being discharged to the river system. These chemicals resist
biological degradation and can be the cause of damage to down-
stream water uses. Their significance to water quality has
been recognized by inclusion in the U.S. Public Health Service
Drinking Water Standards. (ABS at 0.5 mg/1, and Carbon
Chloroform Extract at 0.2 mg/l).
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X-3
5. Under existing fallout conditions and controls by both
the Atomic Energy Commission and State Agencies, radiation levels in
the river system were within prescribed Radiation Protection Guides.
6. Biological degradation was evidenced throughout the main
stem of the Upper Illinois River system, including the Cal Sag
tributary system. Degradation was severe as far downstream as mile
point IR 271*5? there was a gradual improvement in quality from that
point downstream to IR 19U.1 where a definite tendency toward recovery
was noted. Extreme biological depression occurred in certain reaches
of the Upper Illinois River system during the summer months when popu-
lations of organisms very tolerant to pollution, such as sludgeworms,
were greatly reduced although bottom sludge banks existed. The flora
and fauna of the Lower Illinois River indicated further progress toward
recovery below mile point 19U.1* in that organisms intolerant of low
dissolved oxygen conditions or high concentrations of toxic and in-
hibitory materials were common in that reach of the stream. An evalua-
tion of the fish populations in the Upper Illinois River substantiated
the other biological data.
7. Significantly high coliform levels were found throughout
the waterway system. Starting with the low levels found in Lake
Michigan water at the several inlets, the levels in the Upper Illinois
River system increased at numerous points due to additional waste dis-
charges reaching the system. These high concentrations represented
gross pollution and were of public health significance because of their
association with waste discharges known to contain human fecal material.
This danger has been confirmed by the finding of varieties of patho-
genic bacterial and enteroviruses.
8. The Lower Illinois River reveals evidence of heavy bacterial
pollution throughout its length. The natural tendencies of stream
purification and bacterial die-off are offset bv fresh additions of
pollution originating from tributary streams and cities located in
the drainage basin.
9. A quantitative evaluation of the total organic waste loads
discharged to the Upper River system indicated the presence of sub-
stantial sources of oxygen demand - equivalent to about 150,000 pounds
of ultimate BOD daily. This was in addition to the loads contributed
from treatment plant effluents, and other known sources. These
demands may be due to resuspension of sludge deposits, storm water
spillage, unconnected outfalls or a combination of these factors.
Over 70 percent of this additional load can be accounted for through
information gained in studies of storm water overflow and industrial
waste discharges direct to the Upper Illinois River system. The
oxygen demand of sludge deposits in the Upper Illinois River system
was found to be about 60,000 Ib./day, These demands, totalling
about U00,000 Ibs., exceeded the natural self-purification capacity
of the Upper Illinois River system.
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