INTERSTATE AIR POLLUTION
STUDY
BI-STATE DEVELOPMENT
AGENCY
ST. LOUIS DEPARTMENT OF
HEALTH AND HOSPITALS
ST. LOUIS - DIVISION OF
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
PHASE II PROJECT REPORT
EAST ST. LOUIS - AIR
POLLUTION CONTROL
COMMISSION
ST. LOUIS COUNTY
HEALTH DEPARTMENT
EAST SIDE HEALTH
DISTRICT
MISSOURI DIVISION
OF HEALTH
ILLINOIS DEPARTMENT
OF PUBLIC HEALTH
CHAMBER OF COMMERCE OF
METROPOLITAN ST. LOUIS
II. AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION INVENTORY
ILLINOIS AIR POLLUTION
CONTROL BOARD
DHEW
PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE
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INTERSTATE AIR POLLUTION STUDY
PHASE II PROJECT REPORT
II. AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION INVENTORY
prepared by
R. Venezia
G. Ozolins
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 5, Library (5PL-16)
230 S. Dearborn St-'-eet, Room 1670
Chicago, IL 60604
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
Bureau of Disease Prevention and Environmental Control
National Center for Air Pollution Control
Cincinnati, Ohio
Revised December 1966
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FOREWORD
The Interstate Air Pollution Study was divided into two phases. Phase I, a
general study of the overall air pollution problems in the St. Louis - East St. Louis
metropolitan area, was conducted to determine specific activities that would require
further study in Phase II of the project. The effort was divided into two phases to
provide a logical stopping point in the event that interest and resources for proceed-
ing further might not materialize. The necessary impetus did continue, however,
and the Phase II operation was-also completed.
The Phase I operation resulted in a detailed report, designed primarily for use
of the Executive Committee members and their agencies in making decisions con-
cerning the Phase II project operation. A Phase I summary report was also pre-
pared; it received wide distribution.
Numerous papers, brochures, and reports were prepared during Phase II
operation, as were some 18 Memorandums of Information and Instruction con-
cerning the project. All of these documents were drawn upon in the preparation of
the Phase II project report. The Phase II project report consists of eight separate
volumes under the following titles:
I. Introduction
II. Air Pollutant Emission Inventory
III. Air Quality Measurements
IV. Odors - Results of Surveys
V. Meteorology and Topography
VI. Effects of Air Pollution
VII. Opinion Surveys and Air Quality Statistical Relationships
VIII. Proposal for an Air Resource Management Program.
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CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION , 1
SUMMARY OF RESULTS 4
FUEL COMBUSTION IN STATIONARY SOURCES 5
Methodology 13
Industrial 14
Steam-Electric Utilities 18
Residential 18
Other 18
Results 18
Industrial 18
Steam-Electric Utilities 22
Residential 22
Other 24
SOLID-WASTE DISPOSAL 26
Methodology 28
Combustible Refuse Generated 28
Municipal Incinerators 28
Open-Burning Dumps and Sanitary Landfills 29
On-Site Incineration 29
On-Site Open Burning 29
Results 29
TRANSPORTATION SOURCES 30
Methodology 30
Road Vehicles 30
Aircraft, Railroads, and Vessels 32
Results 32
Road Vehicles 32
Aircraft, Railroads, and Vessels 34
INDUSTRIAL PROCESS EMISSIONS 35
Methodology 35
Results 35
Oil Refineries 35
Cement Manufacturing ' 36
Asphaltic Concrete Manufacturing 37
Steel Manufacturing 37
Foundries 37
Grain Handling and Processing 37
Coffee Roasting 37
Chemical Industry 37
Solvent Evaporation 37
REFERENCES 40
APPENDIX - EMISSION FACTORS 41
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II. AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION INVENTORY
INTRODUCTION
Knowledge of sources of air pollution in a community and the quantities of the
various pollutants emitted to the air can provide the basic framework for further
air conservation activities. Through an emission inventory, information relating
to the quantities of the various pollutants released, the relative contribution of
pollutants from the different source categories, and the geographical distribution
of pollutant emissions within the study area may be obtained. The results of an
emission survey may be used effectively in metropolitan planning, pollution abate-
ment activities, sampling programs, and diffusion models for predicting atmospheric
levels of pollutants.
An emission inventory was conducted during 1963-1964 as part of the St. Louis -
East St. Louis Interstate Air Pollution Study. The Study covered an area of 3, 567
square miles and included the City of St. Louis and the six surrounding counties - St.
Louis, St. Charles, and Jefferson Counties in Missouri and Madison, St. Clair, and
Monroe Counties in Illinois. More than 95 percent of the population and almost all
of the industrial activity are located in the 400 square miles of the centrally located
urbanized part of the Study area. The pollutant emission data presented can be
almost entirely attributed to this urbanized portion of the'area. Population density
and land-use maps, which provide an excellent index to the areal distribution of
most pollutant emissions, are presented in Figures 1 and 2.
The pollutants considered in this survey are those emitted in large quantities
from a variety and multitude of sources dispersed throughout the area. Included
are aldehydes, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides (calculated as
nitrogen dioxide), sulfur oxides (calculated as sulfur dioxide), particulates, and
benzo(a) pyrene (B(a)P). The emissions of other pollutants are generally associated
with a specific process or operation and, in general, are not distributed throughout
the community.
The sources of air pollution in the Study area may be subdivided into the five
following general categories:
1. Fuel combustion in stationary plants.
2. Combustion of refuse material.
3. Fuel combustion in transportation vehicles.
4. Industrial process emissions.
5. Solvent evaporation.
The geographical variations of pollutant emissions within the Study area are
delineated by presenting emission data for the City of St. Louis and each of the six
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< 499
5OO-1.999
2,000-4,999
5,000-9,999
10,000-20,000
> 20,000
"' 410 420 430 440 450 46C 470 480 490 500M' 510 520 530 540 550
Figure 1. Population by 5, 000-foot-square grid cells - I960 census.
counties individually. In addition, pollutant emissions were designated for 10, 000-
foot-square grid cells.* Pollutants by grid cells are shown in Figures 3, 4, 9,
and 10.
*Grid cells refer to the area north and east of the designated point,
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9 * -* -.
o t t i* 3
EXISTING LAND USE
INDUSTRIAL CZ3 RESIDENTIAL
OTHERS
Figure 2. Land use in Metropolitan St. Louis in 1957.
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The procedure for conducting an emissions survey consists of two parts. The
first part involves collection and compilation of basic data such as quantities of fuels
and refuse material burned, the combustion equipment and techniques employed,
selected chemical analysis of fuels used, and the quantities and types of materials
handled or processed. In the second part of the survey, average emission factors
are applied to the measured data to translate these quantities into pollutant emission
rates. An emission factor represents the average emission rate of a pollutant per
unit quantity of material handled, processed, or burned. The emission factors used
in this survey are presented in the Appendix.
SUMMARY OF RESULTS
The following is a brief summary of pollutant emissions and sources in the
Study area:
1. Particulate matter is emitted primarily from the combustion of coal,
various industrial processes, and the open burning of refuse. The com-
bustion of coal contributes 56 percent, industrial processes 27 percent, and
open burning of refuse 10 percent of the total particulate emissions.
2. More than 90 percent of the sulfur oxide emissions are discharged during
the combustion of fossil fuels. The burning of coal contributes more than
87 percent and fuel oil 4 percent of total emissions.
3. Oxides of nitrogen are discharged primarily from the burning of coal (51%),
transportation sources (35%), and burning of gas (7%).
4. Motor vehicles emit more than 63 percent and open burning of refuse almost
23 percent of the total hydrocarbons released.
5. The major source of carbon monoxide is the operation of gasoline-powered
motor vehicles, which emit almost 98 percent of the total.
The emissions of pollutants discharged to the air of the Study area are sum-
marized in Table 1 for the Study area and Tables 2 through 8 for each of the political
subdivisions. The geographic distribution of particulate and sulfur oxide emissions
are shown in Figures 3 and 4. The validity of the results depends primarily on the
accuracy and applicability of the presently available emission factors. These
factors, for the most part, represent the average emission rates for a particular
industry or fuel group. Because of the differences in emission rates among the
plants or fuel users within a given category, the application of the emission factors
to any individual plant or even a small number of similar plants or processes may
result in a considerable discrepancy between the actual and calculated emissions.
The incompleteness of data relating to pollutant emissions from some processes
and fuel uses has resulted in the omission of some air pollutants and air pollution
sources in the area. For the most part, these omissions have been confined to
source categories or sources contributing relatively small quantities of pollutants.
The emission inventory should therefore be fairly representative of total area
emissions of the principal pollutants. This inventory of commonly occurring pollu-
tants cannot, however, be used to identify some kinds of pollutant sources, which
are few in number but which may cause objectionable neighborhood pollution problems
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Table 1. SUMMARY OF AIR POLLUTANT EMISSIONS IN
INTERSTATE AIR POLLUTION STUDY AREA, 1963 (tons/yeara)
Source
category
Transportation
Road vehicles
Other
Combustion of fuels
stationary sources
Industry
Steam-electric util.
Residential
Other
Refuse disposal
Incineration
Open burning
Industrial process
emissions
Solvent evaporation
Totals
Aldehydes
1,800
1, 600
200
600
200
16
360
28
1,240
90
1, 150
nab
nab
3,640
Carbon
monoxide
1,088,000
1, 083, 000
5, 000
26,500
2, 600
1,200
19,000
3,600
150
150
nab
nab
1, 115,000
Hydro-
carbons
236,000
232,000
4,300
6,200
900
500
4,000
800
84,000
50
83,900
11,700
36, 000
373,900
Nitrogen
oxides
48,000
43, 400
4,700
85,600
22,700
53,200
8, 000
1,800
500
300
200
4,200
nab
138,300
Sulfur
oxides
4, 400
3,600
800
421, 000
113,000
244, 000.
50,000
14,000
500
200
300
29,600
455,000
Partic-
ulates
7, 100
4,700
2,400
87,000
39,000
22, 400
19,900
5,500
15,800
1,700
14, 100
37, 500
14? 400
B(a)Pa
489
456
33
641
427
7
156
51
416
15
401
nab
1,546
aBenzo(a) Pyrene in Ib/year".
bna = Information not available or not reported.
because of particulates or odors. The maps in Figures 5, 6, and 7, showing loca-
tion of several types of sources of this kind, are of some assistance in evaluating
the potential problems that may be associated with these kinds of sources.
FUEL COMBUSTION IN STATIONARY SOURCES
Coal, fuel oil, and gas are the principal fuels used in the Study area to supply
heat and power for industries, steam-electric utilities, households, and commer-
cial establishments. The combustion of these fuels produces various products,
which, when released to the air of the community, contribute significantly to the
deterioration of the air quality. In fact, these releases constitute the major sources
of particulates, oxides of sulfur, and oxides of nitrogen present in the air of the
Study area. To more accurately define the sources of pollution and provide better
estimates of emissions, the area fuel use was subdivided into the following consumer
categories:
1. Industrial
2. Steam-electric utilities
3. Residential
4. Other (commercial, institutional, etc.)
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PARTICULATE EMISSIONS,tons/year
MULTIPLE SOURCES SINGLE SOURCES
I I 100
| "| 100 - 500
,,,,,,,,, 500 -1,000
1,000 -3,000
1,500 - 3,000
3,000 - 6,000
6,000 - 13,000
430 440 450 460 470 480 490 500°°°' 510 520 530 540
Figure 3. Emissions of participates in study area.
The emissions of pollutants are not only dependent upon the types and quantities of
fuels burned but also on the chemical composition of fuels, firing techniques and
equipment employed, and efficiency of air pollution control devices used. Where
applicable, these parameters have been considered in the emission calculations.
Methodology
Fuel consumption data for the Study area were obtained through the use of a
variety of techniques and from numerous information sources. These varied from
individual contact, mostly by questionnaires, to the use of city or metropolitan area
totals as reported by the U.S. Bureau of Census or national fuel associations. Where
possible, the data have been cross-checked by using different techniques and sources.
13
-------
SULFUR OXIDE EMISSIONS,tons/years
MULTIPLE SOURCES
(grid totals) SINGLE SOURCES
0 - 100
| | 100 - 1,500
lilij 1,500 - 5,000
5,000 - 10,000
3,000 - 10,000
(Q) 10,000- 20,000
50,000- 60,000
420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 500000' 510 520 530 540
Figure 4. Emissions of sulfur oxides in study area.
Fuel-use data were compiled by consumer categories and by major political subdivi-
sions of the Study area. The techniques used in assessing the fuel consumption of
each of the user categories are briefly summarized below.
Industrial - With the cooperation of the Industrial Waste Council and the Metropolitan
St. Louis Chamber of Commerce, the largest 900 of the approximately 3,300 manu-
facturing firms in the Study area were sent questionnaires. Approximately 330 of
these establishments returned usable data. Although the percentage of response
was small, these firms actually burn a large majority of the fuel consumed in the
Study area, especially coal and residual fuel oil, and thus contribute the majority of
pollutants from this consumer category. For example, 23 of the 24 largest indus-
trial coal users in the Study area replied to the questionnaire. Most of the firms
14
-------
not surveyed are engaged in light manufacturing, which requires little fuel for pro-
cess use, and which generally uses gas or distillate fuel oil to satisfy their space
heating requirements.
SOLID-WASTE DISPOSAL SITE
4. MUNICIPAL INCINERATOR
Figure 5. Solid-waste disposal sites and municipal incinerators.
15
-------
410 430 450 470 490 510 530 550 570 410 430
450 470 490 510 530 550 570
GHAT MOM 1 STEEL FOUNDRY
NON FERROUS METAL FOUNDSr
Figure 6. Major industrial operations.
To check the validity of the survey results, the survey data were compared
with those reported by the U. S. Bureau of Census for the St. Louis Standard
Metropolitan Statistical Area. Industrial coal consumption agreed within 10. 5
percent, fuel oil consumption within 7. 5 percent, and gas consumption within
37 percent of the amounts reported by the U. S. Bureau of Census. The predomi-
nant use of gas in the smaller industrial establishments not surveyed accounts for
16
-------
Figure 7. Major industrial operations.
the larger discrepancy in the gas consumption data. Since, however, the comous-
tion of gas produces relatively insignificant amounts of most pollutants, the resulting
error may be considered negligible. It is, therefore, estimated that the responses
to the questionnaire accounted for more than 90 percent of the area industrial fuel
use.
17
-------
Steam-Electric Utilities - The annual consumption of fuels by each of the five public
utility steam-electric generating plants in the area was obtained by questionnaires
and verified by information published by the National Coal Association.
Residential - The residential use of the respective fuels was estimated on the basis
of the number of dwelling units using each fuel and the average heating requirement
per unit per degree-day. The number of dwelling units using a giveji fuel for each
political subdivision was obtained from the U.S. Bureau of Census. This method
of estimating domestic fuel consumption has been proved relatively accurate in
instances where actual fuel consumption data were available for comparison.
Other - There are more than 12,000 commercial establishments in the Study area.
Included in this total, in addition to commercial concerns, are public and private
institutions, schools, and hospitals. Questionnaires relating to fuel use and waste
disposal practices and one followup letter were mailed to 899 of these concerns; a
response of 64 percent was obtained. The 899 establishments were preselected to
include businesses and institutions large enough to possibly burn considerable
quantities of fuels. Many of the 899 establishments are large office buildings, some
of which house as many as 100 individual commercial concerns. The multitude of
the smaller concerns and shops did not allow more complete sampling of this con-
sumer category.
On the basis of the information received, the fuel use was extrapolated to
include all of the 899 large establishments sampled. The total fuel use by all of the
establishments in this consumer category could not be extrapolated in a similar
manner. More than 85 percent of the area commercial-institutional fuel use is
thought to be consumed by the 899 establishments. This is only a rough approxi-
mation and should be interpreted as such. In any event, the presented fuel use data
and the resulting pollutant emissions from this .consumer category are minor when
compared to the total emissions from fuel use in the Study area.
Results
During 1963, approximately 7.5 million tons of coal, 242 million gallons of
fuel oil, and 131 billion cubic feet of gas were burned in the Study area. This con-
sumption represents a total heating value of 345 x 10 Btu per year, of which 52.2
percent was supplied by coal, 40. 0 percent by gas, and 7. 8 percent by fuel oil. In
addition, 1. 3 million tons of coal was used in the area for the production of coke.
A breakdown of these totals by consumer category and major political jurisdictions
is given in Tables 9 and 10. The locations of the 57 largest consumers of fuels -
coal, fuel oil and gas - in the area are presented in Figure 8. The quantities of
pollutants released in the Study area by the combustion of fuels are summarized in
Table 11.
Industrial - During 1963, the manufacturing industry consumed 22 percent of the
coal, 47 percent of the fuel oil (mostly residual), and 52 percent of the gas burned
in the Study area. The combustion of these fuels resulted in an emission of 39,000
tons of particulates, 113, 000 tons of oxides of sulfur, and 23,000 tons of oxides of
nitrogen. These emissions accounted for between 20 and 30 percent of the area
totals of these pollutants.
The coal consumption of individual plants ranges from a few tons per year to
over 250,000 tons annually. A study of the major coal consumers (industrial,
18
-------
410 430
450
i igure 8. Locations of fuel consumers that use 565 x 10 or more Btu per year.
steam-electric utilities, and commercial) in the area conducted by the National
Coal Association indicated the following distribution.
50 plants use between 1,000 and 25,000 tons per year
12 plants use between 25, 000 and 50, 000 tons per year
4 plajits use between 50,000 and 100,000 tons per year
19
-------
8 plants use between 100,000 and 250,000 tons per year
6 plants use 250,000 or more tons per year.
The amounts of particulates released by the combustion of coal are not only
dependent upon the quantity and type of coal burned, but also on the firing equip-
ment used and the collection devices employed. Table 12 summarizes industrial
coal use by burner type and lists the annual coal consumption according to types of
air pollution control devices used.
The quantity of sulfur oxides released are dependent directly upon the sulfur
content of the fuels used. The sulfur content of the coal used in the area averages
from 1. 0 to 3. 3 percent with a mean of slightly less than 3. 0 percent. Approxi-
mately 90 percent of the fuel oil used by industries is residual, with the remaining
10 percent distillate. The sulfur content of distillate fuel oil is approximately 0. 3
to 0. 7 percent and that of residual of 1.5 to 3.6 percent. The sulfur content of gas
is negligible. Selected chemical analyses of the fuels used in the area are sum-
marized in Table 13.
Table 9. ANNUAL, FUEL CONSUMPTION IN
INTERSTATE AIR POLLUTION STUDY AREA, 1963
Fuel
Coal, tons /year
Fuel oil- -residual,
gal/year
Fuel oil- -distillate,
gal/year
Gas, million cubic
feet/year
Consumer category
Industry*
Steam-electric utilities
Residential
Other
Total
Industry
Steam-electric utilities
Residential
Other
Total
Industry
Steam-electric utilities
Residential
Other
Total
Industry
Steam-electric utilities
Residential
Other
Total
Annual
c on s umpti on
1,628,000
4,874, 000
738,000
222, 000
7,462, 000
106,223,000
642, 000
nb
nb
106,865, 000
8,284, 000
0
120, 543, 000
6,414, 000
135,233, 000
68, 151
9,252
51,078
2,974
131,454
Percent
of total
21.8
65.3
9.9
3.0
100.0
99.0
0. 5
nb
nb
100.0
6. 1
0
88.9
5.0
100.0
51.8
7.0
38.9
2.3
100.0
aAn additional 1, 327, 000 tons is used in the production of coke.
bn = Negligible.
20
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-------
Table 11. AIR POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM COMBUSTION OF FUELS IN
STATIONARY SOURCES IN INTERSTATE AIR POLLUTION STUDY AREA,
1963 (tons/yeara)
Fuel
Coal
Fuel oil
Gas
User category
Industrial
Steam electric
Residential
Other
Totals
Industrial
Steam electric
Residential
Other
Totals
Industrial
Steam electric
Residential
Other
Totals
Grand totals
Aldehydes
3
11
1
nb
15
93
nb
113
6
212
111
4
244
20
379
606
B(a)Pa
414
7
157
31
609
10
nb
1
11
2
nb
1
3
623
Carbon
monoxide
2, 442
1,220
18,873
3,587
26, 100
94
nb
113
6
213
89
74
5
168
26,500
Hydro-
carbons
814
487
3, 682
714
5, 697
93
nb
113
6
212
nb
244
20
264
6, 173
Nitrogen
oxides
16,276
51,261
2,945
571
71,053
2, 055
41
2,015
103
4,214
5,376
1,793
2, 935
210
10, 314
85,581
Sulfur
oxides
98,390
244, 443
46, 194
13, 800
402, 827
14, 300
31
3, 590
198
18, 119
15
3
9
27
420, 973
Partic-
ulates
37,990
22, 400
18,873
5,450
84,713
683
nb
671
34
1,388
423
68
354
27
872
86,973
aBenzo(a)Pyrene in Ib/year.
bn = Negligible.
Steam-Electric Utilities - The steam-electric generating plants are the major coal
consumers in the Study area. During 1963, collectively they burned almost 4.9
million tons of coal, which represents 65. 3 percent of the coal used in the area. In
addition, the steam-electric plants consumed 642,000 gallons of fuel oil (residual)
and 9. 3 billion cubic feet of gas, or 0. 3 and 7 percent, respectively, of the total
oil and gas used. The steam-electric utilities emitted 53. 6 percent of the oxides of
sulfur, 15 percent of the particulates, and 38. 5 percent of the oxides of nitrogen
released to the air of the Study area from all pollution sources.
Four of the five steam-electric utilities are fully equipped with electrostatic
precipitators that range in efficiency from 90 to 98 percent. The remaining installa-
tion is equipped with settling chambers and mechanical collectors, with an overall
efficiency of approximately 70 percent. In summary, approximately 2. 5 million
tons of coal is burned in installations of 98 percent collection efficiencies; 1. 4
million tons, in installations of 92. 5 percent collection efficiencies; 0. 5 million
tons, in installations of 90 percent collection efficiencies; and 0.5 million tons, in
installations of approximately 70 percent collection efficiency.
Residential - Approximately 50 percent of the dwelling units in the Study area use
gas as the heating fuel. Coal, distillate fuel oil, and other fuels were used in 22,
21, and 7 percent, of the dwelling units, respectively. Collectively, the residential
use of fuels accounted for 39 percent of the gas, 50 percent of the fuel oil, and 10
percent of the coal burned in the Study area.
A considerable area variation in the use of a particular fuel is evident. Natural
gas is used in approximately 57 percent of the dwelling units in the Missouri portion,
22
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23
-------
Table 13. SELECTED CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF FUELS IN
INTERSTATE AIR POLLUTION STUDY AREA, 1963
Fuel
and
source
Coal
Belleville District
Southern Illinois
East Kentucky
Miscellaneous
Residual fuel oil
Distillate fuel oil
Gas
Quantity
consumed
annually
(tons)
&, 411,600
2, 600,000b
450,000°
250,000
(gallons)
106,865,000
(gallons)
135,233,000
(106 ft3)
131,454
Selected chemical analysis of fuelsa
Sulfur,
%
3. 3
1. 5
1. 0
1.6d
0.4d
0.0008
Ash,
%
10
8
5
ne
ne
ne
Volatile,
%
36
34
38
100
100
100
Average
heating value
(Btu/lb)
11, 300
12,200
13, 500
(Btu/gal)
151,000
(Btu/gal)
142, 000
(Btu/ft3)
1,050
aAs-burned basis.
^876, 000 tons used for coking.
C450, 000 tons used for coking.
Estimated average.
en = Negligible.
but in only 30 percent in the Illinois part; whereas coal is used in 35 percent of
dwellings on the Illinois side and only 17 percent in Missouri. A summary of the
domestic heating fuels by county and the City of St. Louis is given in Table 14.
Emissions of particulates and sulfur oxides from residential uses are shown in
Figures 9 and 10.
Other - The commercial-institutional use of fuels is minor when compared to the
other consumer categories. Similarly, the pollution load arising from these estab-
lishments is relatively small. This consumer category consumed less than 10 per-
cent of any of the fuels used in the area.
On the basis of the returned questionnaires, the following generalizations
relating to the use of fuels and types of firing equipment and control devices used
may be made. Approximately 29 percent of the establishments use coal as the
heating fuel, 16 percent use fuel oil, 45 percent use gas, and 11 percent use various
combinations of these fuels. The use of coal is centered primarily in the City of
St. Louis, where coal is used in 52 percent of the establishments.
The returned questionnaires indicated that 150 establishments are heating with
coal; 135 of these are equipped with underfeed stokers, 8 with chain grate stokers,
3 with spreader stokers, 3 with hand-fired, and 1 with traveling grate. Only 9 of
the 150 establishments are equipped with air pollution control devices (7 with settling
chambers and 2 with multiple cyclones). The types of firing equipment used and the
quantity of coal burned are summarized in Table 15.
24
-------
nt
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25
-------
MADISON CO
CLAIR, CO
PARTICULATE EMISSIONS,_
tons/year
o- ,00 BELLEV)
100- 500
500-1,000
> 1,000
420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 500°°°' 510 520 530 540
Figure 9. Emissions of particulates from the residential use of fuels.
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL
Refuse material generated within the Study area is disposed of through municipal
and on-site incineration, open-burning dumps, backyard or on-site open burning,
sanitary landfills, and salvage operations. (On-site means that the refuse is dis-
posed of on the premises on which it is produced.) A variation of disposal practices
among the different political subdivisions within the Study area is clearly evident and
is therefore considered in making emission estimates. For example, the City of
St. Louis operates two municipal incinerators; St. Louis County operates a sanitary
landfill; and the surrounding counties have open-burning dumps scattered throughout
the area. In addition to these, on-site incineration and open burning are employed
to a varying extent in all of the jurisdictional areas.
26
-------
- ft-
MADISON CO
SULFUR OXIDE EMISSIONS
tons/year
0 - 100
LI I 100- 500
500- 1,000
,000 - 3,000
420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 500°°°' 510 520 530 540
Figure 10. Emissioas of sulfur oxides from the residential use of fuels.
To estimate the pollution load released by the combustion of refuse material,
the quantities of refuse material incinerated and burned openly had to be determined.
This attempt was severely hampered by the lack of authentic and complete data.
The available data relating to refuse quantities handled at collective disposal sites
ranged from relatively accurate records for the municipal incinerators to "rough"
estimates for the landfills and dumps. The only way possible, within the available
resources, to estimate the quantities burned on-site was to assume average per
capita production of waste inaterial and assume that the difference between the
quantity generated and the quantity disposed of at collection sites was that disposed
of on-site. Any interpretation of the data should then be viewed within the accuracies
and limitations of these estimates.
27
-------
Table 15. COMMERCIAL-INSTITUTIONAL COAL USE BY BURNER TYPEa IN
INTERSTATE AIR POLLUTION STUDY AREA, 1963
Burner type
Underfeed stokers
Chain grate stokers
Traveling grate stokers
Spreader stoker with
ash reinjection
Spreader stoker without
ash reinjection
Hand-fired units
Totals
With air pollution
control devices
Number of
installations
3
4
-
1
1
-
9
Quantity of
coal burned,
tons /year
326
15,629
-
2,000
682
-
18,637
Without air pollution
control devices
Number of
installations
132
4
1
-
1
3
141
Quantity of
coal burned,
tons /year
20,082
7,747
30,785
-
4,000
328
62,492
aUnexpanded partial total, based only on returned questionnaires.
presented numbers refer to installations, not individual boilers.
Methodology
For the purposes of this investigation, it was assumed that the total refuse
generated was 4.5 pounds per capita per day (household, commercial and industrial)
and that 75 percent, or 3. 4 pounds per capita per day, was combustible. These per-
capita averages are based on the results of past studies in 12 cities conducted by the
American Public Works Association. An average per-capita collection of refuse of
approximately 4 pounds per day with a range of 3. 0 to over 4. 5 pounds per day was
observed. Since, however, the amount collected does not include the portions of
refuse disposed of on-site, an estimate higher than 4 pounds per capita per day is
likely.
The variations among the sectors of the Study area in the per capita generation
of combustible waste are assumed to be negligible; therefore 3. 4 pounds per capita
per day seems reasonable for all sectors of the Study area. The amount of com-
mercial and industrial refuse undoubtedly decreases in the predominately residential
counties of the area; however, an increase in yard and garden rubbish in residential
areas would tend to minimize the variation.
Combustible Refuse Generated - The quantity of combustible refuse generated in
each area is based on the estimated 1963 population and 3.4 pounds per capita per
day. The per capita average of 3. 4 pounds per day compares favorably with the
3. 1 pounds per day reported for St. Louis County by Horner and Shifrin. ° Since the
3. 1 pounds per day was based on the amount collected, a total production of more
than 3. 1 is likely.
Municipal Incinerators - Data relating to the quantities of refuse material burned at
the two St. Louis municipal incinerators was supplied by the City of St. Louis.
28
-------
Open-Burning Dumps and Sanitary Landfills - The quantities of refuse brought to the
dumps and landfills are based on estimates obtained in cooperation with the Illinois
and Missouri Health Departments. Since actual weights were unavailable, estimates
were generally based on the number of loads brought in per day and an estimate of the
weight of refuse in the average load.
On-Site Incineration - The quantity of refuse disposed of by on-site incineration at
major commercial and industrial establishments was supplied in the questionnaires
and expanded to include the establishments not responding. The quantity of refuse
disposed of in domestic incinerators was based on the number of gas-fired incinera-
tors in use and an estimated quantity burned per unit. Since, however, information
on the number of domestic incinerators in use was available only for the City of
St. Louis and St. Louis County, the estimated quantities disposed of in residential
incinerators are undoubtedly low.
On-Site Open Burning - The difference between the amount of waste generated and
that disposed by the above mentioned means in each of the political subdivisions was
assumed to be burned on-site.
Results
An estimated 1,329,000 tons of combustible refuse material is generated
annually in the Study area. A breakdown of this total by county and the City of
St. Louis individually is given in Table 16. Table 16 also presents the quantities
of refuse material disposed of by the various disposal methods in each political
subdivision. In some instances refuse material is transported from one jurisdic-
tional area to others for disposal. Where possible this transfer has been taken
into account. For this reason the quantities given in Table 16 may show more
refuse disposed of than generated in a given county. The predominant direction of
refuse material transfer was from the City of St. Louis and St. Louis County to the
counties on the Illinois side of the river.
An estimated 948,000 tons, or 70 percent, of the total refuse generated is
disposed of at collection sites, with the remainder being burned on-site. The
locations of the collection disposal sites are shown in Figure 5.
Table 16. REFUSE DISPOSAL IN INTERSTATE AIR POLLUTION
STUDY AREA, 1963 (tons/year)
Political
subdivision
St. Louis City, Missouri
St. Louis County, Missouri
St. Charles County, Missouri
Jefferson County, Missouri
Madison County, Illinois
St, Clair Comity, Illinois
Monroe County, Illinois
Totals
Combustible
refuse
generated
440, 000
480, 000
40,000
50,000
145, 000
165,000
9, 000
1,329, 000
Incineration
Municipal
223,000
--
--
--
--
--
--
223,000
On-site
44, 000
13, 000
100
2, 500
1, 000
2,000
na
62. 600
Landfills
100, 000
296, 000
26,000
19, 000
na
n*
na
441, 000
Open burning
Dumps
--
--
--
55, 000
29,000
185,000
15, 000
284,000
On-site
88, 000
45, 000
14, 000
9,000
75,000
82, 000
5,000
318, 000
an = Negligible.
29
-------
On-site open burning is used for the disposal of approximately 25 percent of the
total refuse generated in the area. Included in this total, however, are the com-
mercial and industrial on-site incinerators not shown on the questionnaires, and
the residential non-gas-fired incinerators. Similarly, since this total was obtained
by difference, any errors in the assumed per capita generation or in the quantities
handled at the collective disposal sites will be reflected in these figures. In addi-
tion, since the quantity of refuse transported from the City of St. Louis to areas
outside could not be estimated accurately, the on-site open burning may be subject
to considerable error.
The quantities of air pollutants released during the burning of refuse material
are shown in Table 17. Since the landfills in the area burn only intermittently, no
pollution load is ascribed to this method of refuse disposal. The pollutants generated
by refuse burning are primarily hydrocarbons and particulates. Approximately
85,000 tons of hydrocarbons and 15,000 tons of particulates are released annually
from this source category. Open burning, on-site or at dumps, accounts for more
than 90 percent of these pollutants from this source category.
Table 17. AIR POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM SOLID-WASTE DISPOSAL IN
INTERSTATE AIR POLLUTION STUDY AREA, 1963 (tons/yeara)
Category
Incineration
Municipal
Residential
Industrial
Other
Open burning
On-site
Dumps
Total
Aldehydes
150
39
25
52
34
1, 140
572
566
1,290
Carbon
monoxide
377
33
nab
208
136
nab
nab
nab
377
Hydrocarbons
396
33
19
208
136
84, 300
44, 500
39, 800
84,696
Nitrogen
oxides
323
268
25
17
13
165
80
85
488
Sulfur
oxides
226
201
25
nab
nc
297
127
170
523
Particulates
1,486
1,004
80
262
140
14, 147
7,473
6,674
15,633
B(a)Pa
14
3
nab
6
5
402
245
157
416
aBenzo (a) Pyrene in Ib/year.
bna = Information not available or not reported.
cn = Negligible.
TRANSPORTATION SOURCES
The transp'ortation sources of air pollution include any vehicles that are powered
by the combustion of fuels. Road vehicles (automobiles, buses, and trucks) are by
far the most important community-wide transportation source of air pollution. Other
transportation sources include railroads, aircraft, and river vessels.
Methodology
Road Vehicles - The quantity of gasoline and dies el fuel consumed in a community
is an index to the amounts of the various pollutants released to the air of the com-
munity from the operation of automobiles, buses, and trucks.
30
-------
The quantity of gasoline sold in a metropolitan area is approximately the same
as the amount consumed in the area. For the purposes of this investigation, gaso-
line sales in the Study area, less evaporation and other losses, are considered to
equal the amount burned. The effect of through traffic, i. e. , the purchase of gaso-
line outside the area and its consumption inside and vice versa, is considered insig-
nificant when compared to the total gasoline consumption in the area. Since the
service boundaries of the gasoline distributors do not coincide with those of the
Study area, gasoline sales data for the entire Study area could not be obtained
directly. Actual gasoline sales, in gallons, were available for only the City of
St. Louis. These data allowed direct verification of the methodology used in calcu-
lating gasoline sales for the entire area. Gasoline sales were determined from the
following data: (1) service station sales in each county and the City of St. Louis, '
(2) service station sales in the States of Missouri and Illinois,"1 ^ and (3) gasoline
sales in gallons for the States of Missouri and Illinois. H Since the ratio of gasoline
sales to the value of service station sales is relatively constant throughout a state,
this ratio and the service station sales for each county were used to determine the
gallonage sold.
The validity of this method was tested by comparing the results with those
obtained for surrounding states, other urban areas in the country, and the City of
St. Louis. The calculated and actual gasoline sales 12 for the City of St. Louis
agreed within 6 percent. The annual per-capita gasoline consumption compared
favorably with other metropolitan areas, being somewhat higher than cities with
rapid transit facilities and slightly lower than others without these facilities.
The evaporation of gasoline from gas tanks and carburetors adds to the pollution
arising from vehicular traffic and also reduces the quantity of gasoline available for
combustion. An average of 1. 5 percent by volume of the gasoline sales is assumed
to approximate these evaporation losses. ^
The gasoline consumption within each county and the City of St. Louis was
estimated on the basis of gasoline sales in each area adjusted to reflect the inter-
area travel. On the basis of traffic studies, employment data, and location of
principal shopping areas, an estimated 20 percent of the gasoline sold in the Missouri
counties and 10 percent sold in the Illinois counties are burned within the City of St.
Louis. This is only a rough estimate and should be considered as such.
The consumption of diesel fuel may not be approximated in the same manner.
The prime users of this fuel, the long-haul trucks, may purchase the fuel within
the area, but use the majority of this fuel outside the area. By comparison with
gasoline usage, the annual consumption of diesel fuel, and therefore the quantities
of pollutants emitted, is minor. The errors introduced by the rough method of
estimating diesel fuel consumption will therefore be small when considering the
total emissions from transportation or mobile sources of pollution.
An estimate of diesel fuel consumption in the Study area was obtained by con-
sidering trucks and buses individually. The annual consumption of diesel fuel by
buses was obtained from the local transit companies. For lack of more definitive
information, national averages of diesel-powered vehicles in urban areas and their
fuel consumption per mile were used to estimate the consumption of diesel fuel by
trucks traveling in the area. ***
-------
Aircraft, Railroads, and Vessels - The emissions of pollutants from aircraft,
railroads, and vessels were based on the following:
Aircraft - Number of flights originating or terminating in the area
(Lambert Field).
Vessels - Quantity of fuels burned as determined by considering the number
of vessels passing through the Study area and the average opera-
ting conditions.
Railroads - Quantity of fuels consumed in the area. These quantities were
supplied by the individual railroad lines.
Results
Road Vehicles - An estimated 759 million gallons of gasoline, including gasoline for
non-highway uses, is sold annually in the Study area. As shown in Table 18, gaso-
line sales in the City of St. Louis account for 28 percent and in the St. Louis County
for 42 percent of the total Study area gasoline sales. A comparison of per-capita
and per-vehicle use of gasoline in the Study area to those of the nation, surrounding
states, and selected metropolitan areas is shown in Table 19.
Estimates of gasoline consumption in each of the political subdivisions in the
Study area are given in Table 20. Approximately 9.5 billion vehicle miles is
traveled annually in the Study area distributed among the political subdivisions
according to the gasoline consumption data presented in Table 20.
The annual diesel fuel consumption in the Study area is approximately 12. 5
million gallons, with 7 million gallons consumed by buses and the remaining 5. 5
million gallons by diesel-powered trucks (Table 21).
The quantities of pollutants attributed to vehicular traffic are summarized in
Table 22. More than 1 million tons of carbon monoxide, approximately 220,000 tons
of hydrocarbons, and over 40,000 tons of oxides of nitrogen are contributed annually
by the movement of vehicular traffic in the area. The contribution of diesel fuel is
almost insignificant in comparison with that of gasoline.
Table 18. GASOLINE SALES FOR 1962 IN
INTERSTATE AIR POLLUTION STUDY AREA
Jurisdiction
St. Charles County
St. Louis County
Jefferson County
City of St. Louis
Madison County
Monroe County
St. Clair County
Study Area
Retail service
station sales,
million dollars
6.5
85. 1
7. 1
56.7
21.9
1.2
23. 7
202. 2
Gasoline sales
Per capita,
gal
470
468
414
294
333
262
306
366
Total,
million gal
24. 9
329. 0
27. 5
220. 0
74. 6
4. 0
80. 0
759. 0
32
-------
Table 19. COMPARISON OF STUDY AREA USE OF GASOLINE
WITH SELECTED STATES AND CITIES
Jurisdiction
United States
Missouri
Illinois
Indiana
Cincinnati
District of Columbia
Los Angeles County
Study area
1960
population,
millions
179.3
4. 3
10. 1
4. 7
1. 1
0.8
6.8
2. 1
1963
gasoline
consumption,
million gallons
66, 144
1,804
3,328
1,865
340
217
2,701
759
1962
vehicle
registration
79,023,000
1,698,000
3,977,000
2, 174,000
356,000
217,000
3,450,000
780, 000
1962
persons
per
vehicle
2.27
2.53
2.54
2.16
3.23
3.52
1.97
2.66
Per capita
use of
gasoline,
gallons
369
417
323
400
310
286
390
366
Per vehicle
use of
gasoline,
gallons
837
1,060
812
860
930
1, 000
783
975
Table 20. GASOLINE AND DIESEL FUEL CONSUMPTION
IN STUDY AREA POLITICAL SUBDIVISIONS
(million gallons/year)
Political
subdivisions
City of St. Louis
St. Louis County
St. Charles County
Jefferson County
Madison County
St. Clair County
Monroe County
Total
Gasoline
Consumption
306. 0
257.7
19.6
21.6
65.8
70.6
3. 5
744. 8
Evaporation
6.3
5.3
0.4
0.4
1. 3
1.4
0. 1
15.2
Diesel
consumption
9.3
1.9
0. 1
0. 1
0.5
0.6
na
12. 5
an = Negligible.
Table 21. GASOLINE AND DIESEL FUEL CONSUMPTION
ROAD USE IN INTERSTATE AIR POLLUTION STUDY
AREA, 1963 (million gallons/year)
Fuel and use
Quantity
Gasoline
Road use
Evaporation
Diesel fuel
Buses
Trucks
744
15
7
5.5
33
-------
Table 22. AIR POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM TRANSPORTATION SOURCES IN
INTERSTATE AIR POLLUTION STUDY AREA, 1963 (tons/year21)
Source
Road vehicles
Gasoline
Exhaus.t
Blowby
Evaporation (tank
and carburetor)
Diesel
Exhaust
Aircraft
Jet
Turboprop
Piston
Railroad
Vessels
Totals
Aldehydes
1, 560
1,500
nb
60
28
17
2
9
140
60
1,800
Carbon
monoxide
1, 083, 000
1, 083, 000
nb
370
3,945
230
15
3,700
800
360
1, 088,000
Hydrocarbons
232, 000
147, 200
48, 100
35,500
1, 000
722
50
2
670
2, 500
1, 100
236, 000
Nitrogen
oxides
43, 400
42, 000
nb
1,400
289
110
9
170
3,000
1, 350
48, 000
Sulfur
oxides
3,600
3, 400
nb
200
18
15
2
1
500
250
4, 400
Partic-
ulates
4,700
4, 100
nb
600
211
190
4
17
1, 500
670
7, 100
B(a)Pa
456
445
nb
11
nac
nac
nac
nac
24
9
489
aBenzo(a) Pyrene in Ib/year.
^n = Negligible.
cna = Information not available or not reported.
Aircraft, Railroads, and Vessels - In 1963 itinerant operations (flights that do not
originate and terminate at St. Louis) totaled 226,748; local operations (flights that
do originate and terminate at St. Louis) totaled 29,988. 15 An "operation" as
used here means a takeoff and landing. A summary of air traffic activity by cate-
gory is given in Table 23. Aircraft emissions at Lambert Field by aircraft type
are given in Table 22. Emissions from aircraft activity in other parts of the survey
area may be considered negligible.
Railroads consume about 27 million gallons of diesel fuel per year in the Study
area.
Table 23. AIR TRAFFIC ACTIVITY AT
LAMBERT FIELD, ST. LOUIS COUNTY,
MISSOURI, FOR CALENDAR YEAR 1963
Air carrier
General aviation
Air Force and Army
Navy
Totals
Itinerant
operations
90, 970
119, 085
12, 681
4, 012
226, 748
Local
operations
None
22,977
5,470
1, 541
29,988
34
-------
Approximately 10,300 vessels, primarily dies el-powered tugs, pass through
the Study area each year.^" An estimated 13,000 gallons of fuel oil is consumed
per month per mile of river. Emissions from vessels are also given in Table 22.
Collectively, aircraft, vessels, and railroads contribute extremely small
amounts of pollutants to community-wide air pollution. The quantities are, however,
considerable if considered in specified locations within the area.
INDUSTRIAL PROCESS EMISSIONS
The quantities of the different pollutants discharged from most industrial and
some commercial establishments are attributable to two general types of operations,
the pollutants generated by the combustion of fuels and the pollutants produced and
discharged from the industrial processes. Unfortunately, emission factors are
available for only a small number of processes and industries. In addition, quanti-
ties of pollutants discharged or the production data upon which to base emission
estimates were not available in all cases. For example, data relating to the emis-
sion of benzo(a)pyrene from processes involving the treatment of hydrocarbon
materials such as coal tars, asphalts, and petroleum were not reported. The indus-
trial process emissions presented herein are therefore only a fraction of the area
total.
In addition to the seven major pollutants included in this survey, other pollutants
such as aluminum oxide, ammonia, chlorine, chlorinated cyanic acid, fluorides,
hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen cyanide, ilmenite, magnesium oxide, nitric acid, phos-
phorous pentoxide, potassium meta bisulfite, potassium cyanide, sodium fluoride,
sodium bifluoride, sodium hydroxide, zinc chloride, zinc oxide, and others are
generated and released by the various industrial processes. The industrial process
emissions of common pollutants that were obtained are summarized in Table 24.
The geographical locations of the major industrial establishments are shown in
Figures 6 and 7.
Methodology
Data relating to materials handled or processed and the types of processes
employed were collected by the use of the industrial questionnaires and supple-
mented by personal contact with a number of industry groups. A detailed descrip-
tion of the sampling procedures, percentage of responses, and the treatment of data
is included in the section on industrial fuel use.
Results
The St. Louis Metropolitan Area is a heavily industrialized complex. In 1963
almost 260, 000 employees were employed by the area's industries. Almost all of
the major types of industrial activity are present in the area. The most prevalent,
in terms of employment, are the fabricated metals, primary metals, food and kindred
products, and chemical products manufacturing industries. The types and quantities
of pollutants discharged vary not only among the various industrial categories, but
also within these categories.
Oil Refineries - Four large oil refineries are located within the boundaries of the
Study area - three in the Alton-Wood River area and one in Monsanto, Illinois. The
most important factors affecting refinery emissions are crude oil processing capacity,
35
-------
Table 24. SUMMARY OF INDUSTRIAL PROCESS EMISSIONS IN
INTERSTATE AIR POLLUTION STUDY AREA, 1963 (tons/year)
Pollutant and sources
Participates
Coffee processing
Sulfuric acid manufactur-
ing
Asphaltic concrete batching
Steel foundries
Gray iron foundries
Nonferrous foundries
Steel mills
Superphosphate manufac-
turing
Coke plants
Cement plants
Grain industry
Other sources reported on
industrial questionnaire
Totals
Sulfur oxides
Sulfuric acid manufactur-
ing
Other sources reported
on industrial question-
naire
Totals
Nitrogen oxides
Nitric acid manufacturing
Cement plants
Other sources reported on
industrial questionnaire
Totals
Hydrocarbons
Sources reported on indus-
trial questionnaire
Missouri
St. Louis
City
18
0
28
217
265
32
0
0
9
0
1,907
188
2,664
0
nab
nab
0
0
5
5
9,447
St. Louis
County
na
77
94
0
0
1
0
57
0
3,600
0
6
3,835
8,663
nab
8,663
0
1,387
nab
1,387
1
St. Charles
County
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
50
53
0
nab
nab
0
0
nab
nab
nab
Jefferson
County
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8,000
8,000
0
1, 150
1, 150
2,475
0
nab
2,475
800
Illinois
St. Clair
County
2
115
7
0
158
4
0
166
0
0
3,813
2,435
6,700
11, 118
3,250
14,368
0
0
300
300
1,500
Madison
County
18
0
69
300
14
1
11,438
0
64
0
975
3, 384
16,263
0
5,500
5, 500
0
0
nab
nab
nab
Area
total
38
192
198
517
437
41
11,438
223
73
3,600
6,695
14,063
37,515
19,781
9,900
29,681
2,475
1,387
305
4, 167
11,748
an -Negligible, less than 0. 5 ton/year.
bna Information not available or not reported.
the processing techniques employed, level of maintenance and housekeeping, and
the air pollution control measures used. Hydrocarbons, oxides of sulfur and nitro-
gen, carbon monoxide, and odors are the primary pollutants emitted from this
operation. The reclamation of sulfur from various hydrocarbon streams containing
hydrogen sulfide has resulted in approximately 95 percent reduction of sulfur dioxide
emissions from two of the refineries. Previously these gas streams were used as
boiler fuel. This use resulted in the conversion of hydrogen sulfide to sulfur dioxides
and their subsequent release to the atmosphere. During 1963 none of the refineries
had carbon monoxide boilers to burn the carbon monoxide in catalyst regenerator
effluents; since then, however, one refinery has installed such a boiler. The hydro-
carbon emissions from this source category have been included under solvent
evaporation.
Cement Manufacturing - Two large cement plants, with a combined capacity of 7. 6
million barrels per year, are located in the Study area. An estimated 3,600 tons
of particulates and 1, 400 tons of oxides of nitrogen are discharged annually from
36
-------
the two plants. They are equipped with electrostatic precipitators and multiple
cyclones. The overall collection efficiency is approximately 95 percent.
Asphaltic Concrete Manufacturing - Approximately 600,000 tons of rock is processed
annually at the 14 asphaltic concrete plants in the area. Dust from the rotary drier
and related handling operations is the principal pollutant. To minimize particulate
emissions, 13 of the 14 plants in the area employ one or more primary dry cyclones
followed by a wet scrubber. The remaining plant uses only a primary dry cyclone.
Collectively, these plants emit an estimated 198 tons of particulates annually.
Steel Manufacturing - Two major steel plants are located in the Study area, one in
Granite City and one in Alton, Illinois. One plant operates blast furnaces, open-
hearth furnaces, and coke ovens; the other operates open-hearth furnaces and sup-
plements its production with cupolas. The steel manufacturing industry emits an
estimated 11,400 tons of particulates annually.
Foundries - Eight steel foundries, 18 gray-iron foundaries and 30 nonferrous found-
ries located in the Study area annually discharge approximately 517, 417, and 41
tons of particulates, respectively, to the atmosphere. Particulate emissions from
eight electric arc furnaces are controlled by the use of cloth collectors, whereas
ten are uncontrolled. Eleven open-hearth furnaces in steel foundries and 16 gray-
iron cupolas are being operated without the use of any control equipment. Emissions
from two cupolas are controlled by the use of wet cap scrubbers. Control equipment
is not used to reduce the emissions from five electric induction furnaces; the emis-
sions from these are, however, negligible if only the clean scrap is charged.
Grain Handling and Processing - St. Louis is a large grain handling and processing
center. Grain processing plants are located in Granite City, Alton, Belleville, and
the City of St. Louis. Grain storage facilities are scattered throughout the area.
The particulate emissions from grain processing and handling, based on a loss
factor of 0. 3 percent of the grain handled, are estimated as 6, 000 tons annually.
Coffee Roasting - Processing of approximately 32,000 tons of green coffee beans
annually in the Study area results in a particulate emission of approximately 38 tons
per year. In the indirect-fired roaster a portion of roaster gases is recirculated
through the combustion area to reduce some of the smoke and odors. In the direct-
fired roaster, however, all of the roaster gases are vented directly to the atmosphere.
In addition to roasting, some particulate matter is also released from the stoners,
coolers, cleaners, and handling systems.
Chemical Industry - The lack of emission factors and production data, and incom-
plete reporting of process emissions on industrial questionnaires made it impossible
to estimate emissions from chemical industry operations in most cases. The manu-
facture of 950,000 tons of sulfuric acid by five firms in the area results in an esti-
mated annual discharge of 20, 000 tons of sulfur dioxide and 192 tons of sulfuric acid
mist. Mist eliminators are used in all plants to reduce the acid mist emissions.
Nitric acid manufacture causes an estimated emission of about 2,500 tons of nitro-
gen oxides per year. Superphosphate fertilizer manufacture results in emission of
an estimated 225 tons of particulates per year.
Solvent Evaporation - Solvent usage in 1963 amounted to approximately 7 million
gallons, or 21.5 pounds per capita per year. Table 25 lists solvent emissions in
the Study area by consumer type. Solvents are used primarily in the application
37
-------
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38
-------
of protective coatings, metal cleaning and degreasing, dry cleaning, and printing.
Based on the assumption that 100 percent of the solvents used ultimately reach the
atmosphere, total solvent emissions are approximately 24,000 tons per year, or
approximately 7 percent of the hydrocarbons emitted in the Study area.
Evaporation of gasoline from stationary sources was also included in this
category. Bulk storage tanks predominately have floating roofs, however, fixed-
roof storage accounts for evaporation of over 7,000 tons per year. Other gasoline
evaporation amounts to approximately 5,000 tons per year.
39
-------
REFERENCES
1. Fuels and electric energy consumed in manufacturing industries: 1962-1963
census of manufactures. MC63(l)-7. U. S. Bureau of Census. U. S. Govern-
ment Printing Office. Washington 25, D. C. pp. 68-69.
2. Steam electric plant factors , National Coal Association. 15th ed. National
Coal Association. 1130 17th St. , N. W. Washington, D. C. Sept. 1965.
3. U. S. Census of Housing - I960. Vol. 1 report HC(1). U. S. Bureau of
Census. U. S. Government Printing Office. Washington 25, D. C. 1962.
4. Mullen, J. W. Personal communication. National Coal Association. 1130
17th St. , N. W. Washington, D. C. Aug. 22, 1963.
5. Blade, O. C. Burner fuel oils. Mineral Industry Surveys. U. S. Bureau of
Mines. 1961.
6. Personal communication. Shell, American, Standard and Mobil Oil Refineries.
St. Louis, Missouri, area. Nov. 1965.
7. Municipal refuse disposal. American Public Works Association. Public
Administration Service. Washington, D. C. 1961. p. 24.
8. Solid waste disposal study for St. Louis County, Missouri. Homer and
Shifrin. St. Louis, Mo. 1964.
9. Retail trade - Missouri. 1963 Census of Business. U. S. Bureau of the
Census. U. S. Government Printing Office. Washington 25, D. C. 1964.
10. Retail trade - Illinois. 1963 Census of Business. U. S. Bureau of the Census.
U. S. Government Printing Office. Washington 25, D. C. 1964.
11. Petroleum facts and figures. American Petroleum Institute. 1271 Avenue of
the Americas. New York, N. Y. 1963. p. 152.
12. Vogelsang, Personal communication. St. Louis City Comptroller's Office.
13. Mayer, M. A compilation of emission factors for combustion process gasoline
evaporation and selected industrial processes. Tech. Rep. Division of Air
Pollution. R. A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center. U. S. Public Health
Service. Cincinnati, Ohio. May 1965.
] 4. Motor truck facts. Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc. Detroit,
Mich. 1964.
15. Civil Aeronautics Board, Federal Aviation Agency. Airport activity statistics
of certified route air carriers. June 1963.
16. Personal communication. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. St. Louis District
Office. St. Louis, Mo. May 15, 1964.
40
-------
APPENDIX - EMISSION FACTORS
The emission factors in this report were prepared after a thorough investigation
of previous work by personnel of the Technical Assistance Branch, Division of Air
Pollution. At the time of publication these factors are the best available for use in
air pollution emission inventories. As technical advances are made in this area,
these factors may in time become obsolete. Before these factors are used for other
studies, careful attention should be paid to developments in the field to determine
whether the emission factors have been up-dated.
Emission factors utilized in the Interstate Air Pollution Study are listed in
Tables A-l through A-17. The references cited are given at the end of the Appendix.
Table A-l. COMBUSTION OF COAL --
GASEOUS POLLUTANTSa
(pounds/ton of coal burned)
Pollutants
Aldehydes (HCHO)
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons (CH^)
Nitrogen oxides as N©2
Sulfur oxides as SO£
Power plants
0.005
0.5
0.2
20
38 Sb
Industrial
0.005
3
1
20
38 Sb
Domestic and
commercial
0. 005
50
10
8
38 Sb
aTaken from Reference 1.
S = % sulfur in coal.
Table A-2. COMBUSTION OF COAL --
EMISSIONS OF PARTICULATES AND BENZO(a)PYRENE
Type of unit
Pulverized - general
Dry bottom
Wet bottom -
Without reinjection
With reinjection
Cyclone
Spreader stoker
Without reinjection
With reinjection
All other stoker
Hand-fired equipment
Particulate emission, a
Ib/ton of coal burned
16 Ac
17 A
13 A
24 A
2 A
13 A
20 A
5 A
20
B(a)P emission, b
|j.g/ton of coal burned
600
6,000d
700
100, 000
12,000,000
aTaken from Reference 1.
''Taken from Reference 2.
CA = % ash in coal.
ATaken from Reference 3.
41
-------
Table A-3. COMBUSTION OF FUEL, OIL
(pounds/I, 000 gallons of fuel oil burned)"
Pollutants
Aldehydes
Benzo(a)pyrenec
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Nitrogen oxides as NO£
Sulfur dioxide
Sulfur trioxide
Particulate
Large sources
(1, 000 hp or more)
0.6
5,000 ((j.g/1,000 gal)
0.04
3.2
104
157 Sd
2.4 Sd
8
Small sources
(1, 000 hp or less)
2
40,000 ((Jig/1,000 gal)
2
2
72
157 Sd
2 Sd
12
aTaken from Reference 4.
^Density of fuel oil equals 8 Ib/gal, and 42 gal = 1 barrel.
°Taken from Reference 2.
dS = % sulfur in oil.
Table A-4. COMBUSTION OF NATURAL GASa
(pounds/million cubic feet of gas burned)
Pollutants
Aldehyde s
Benzo(a)pyrenec
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Nitrogen oxides
Sulfur oxides
Particulate
Power plants
1
n^
390
0.4
15
Industrial
boilers
2
20,000 (fig/106 ft3)
0.4
214
0.4
18
Domestic and
commercial
heating units
130,000 (jig/106 ft3)
0.4
116
0.4
19
aTaken from Reference 5.
bn = Negligible.
cTaken from Reference 2.
"na = Not available.
42
-------
Table A-5. INCINERATION OF REFUSE (pounds/ton of refuse burned)
Pollutants
Aldehydes
Benzo(a)pyrene
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Nitrogen oxides
Sulfur oxides
Particulate
Municipal
multiple
chamber
0. 35
6,200
(jig/ton)
0.3
0. 3
2.4
1.8
9
Industrial and
commercial
Single
chamber
1. 1
106, 000
(fj-g/ton)
4.3
0.45
1.6
0.8
25.0
Multiple
chambei
0.3
520, 000
(|o.g/ton)
0.5
0.25
2.0
1.8
4.0
Domestic0
Single chamber
Without auxiliary
gas burning
5. 5
nad
300
100
7
ne
39
With auxiliary
gas burning
2
nad
nad
1.5
2
ne
6.3
aTaken from References 2, and 5 through 15.
Taken from References 2 and 10.
cTaken from References 9-11, 13, and 14.
na - Information not available.
en = negligible.
Table A-6. OPEN BURNING OF REFUSE
(pounds/ton of refuse burned)
Pollutant
Aldehydes
Benzo(a)pyrene
Carbon monoxide
Nitrogen oxides
Sulfur oxides
Hydrocarbons
Particulate
Burning dumpa
4. 0
232, 000 (fig/ton)
nad
0.6
1. 2
280
47
Backyard burning"
3.6
365,000 ((ig/ton)
nad
1
0.8
280
47
Uncontrolledc
automobile
body burning
10 Ib/car
aTaken from References 5 and 13.
bTaken from References 5, 8, and 12-14.
cTaken from Reference 16.
dna = Not available.
43
-------
Table A-7. AUTOMOTIVE AND DIESEL EXHAUST EMISSIONS
(pounds/1, 000 gallons of fuel burned)
Pollutant
Aldehydes
Benzo(a)pyrene
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Nitrogen oxides
Sulfur oxides
Particulates
Gasoline engines3' "
Exhaust
4
0.27 (g/1,000 gal)d
2,910
524f
113
9
11
Diesel enginesc
10
0. 4 (g/1, 000 gal)e
60
180
222e
40
110
alncludes blowby emissions, but not evaporation losses.
"Taken from Reference 17.
cTaken from Reference 18.
dTaken from Reference 19.
eTaken from Reference 20.
Includes 128 lb/1, 000 gal blowby emissions.
Table A-8. GASOLINE EVAPORATION EMISSION
Point of emission
Storage tanks (refinery and bulk terminal)"
Cone roofc
Floating roof
25% cone roof, and 75% floating roof
Filling tank vehicles6
Splash fill
Submerged fill
50% splash fill, and 50% submerged fill
Filling service station tanks*
Splash fill
Submerged fill
50% splash fill, and 50% submerged fill
Filling automobile tanksS
Automobile evaporation losses (gas tank
and carburetor)*1
lb/1, 000 gal
of throughput
438
73
164
8. 2
4.9
6.4
11. 5
7. 3
9.4
12
92
Percent loss
by volume
7. 16
1. 19
2.68
0. 14
0
0. 11
0. 19
0. 12
0. 15
0. J9
1.50
aAn average gasoline specific gravity of 0. 73 is assumed.
^Tank capacity basis.
cTaken from Reference 21.
Taken from Reference 22.
eTaken from Reference 23.
^Taken from Reference 24.
§Taken from Reference 25.
Taken from Reference 26.
44
-------
Table A-9. PARTICULATE EMISSIONS FROM COFFEE PROCESSING
(pounds/1, 000 pounds of green beans processed)
Process
Roaster
Direct fired
Indirect fired
Stoner cooler cleaner and
handling systems combined
Instant-coffee spray dryer
Particulate emissions
without cyclonea
3.8
2. 1
0.7
always controlled
Particulate emissions
with cyclone
1. 1
0.6
0.2
0.7
aTaken from Reference 27.
bTaken from Reference 28.
Table A-10. EMISSIONS FROM PRODUCTION
OF SUPERPHOSPHATE21
Den production
28 tons/hr
SiF^ particulate emissions
490 Ib/hr
Taken from Reference 29.
Table A-ll. FERROUS AND NONFERROUS EMISSIONS3
Process
Gray-iron melting cupolas (avg)
Electric steel melting furnaces (avg)
Less than 5-ton capacity
5- to 20 -ton capacity
50- to 75-ton capacity
Brass -bronze, crucible or open-
flame furnace
Aluminum, magnesium
Crucible, open-flame, or electric
furnace
Reverberatory furnace
Zinc
Uncontrolled
14.7
8.6
10. 6
5.7
9.6
3.5
3.5
5.2
14. 0
Controlled
0.26b
0. 17b
-
-
-
-
-
2. lc
5.1d
Aerosol emission factor,
Ib/ton of
raw material processed
aTaken from Reference 5.
bWith baghouse control.
cWith packed column scrubber and either baghouse or electro-
static precipitator as a secondary collector.
Slag cover used as the only control method.
45
-------
Table A-12. EMISSIONS FROM HOT ASPHALTIC
CONCRETE PLANTSa
Uncontrolled
(primary dry cyclone)
Controlled
(wet scrubber)
Emissions of particulates,
Ib/ton of raw
material processed
0.45
aTaken from Reference 5.
Table A-13. EMISSION FACTORS FOR AIRCRAFT BELOW
3, 500 FEETa (pounds/flight*3)
Pollutants
Particulates
Carbon monoxide
Aldehydes
Hydrocarbons
Nitrogen oxides
Fuel consumption, c
gal/flight
Jet aircraft
34
40
3.6
9.1
19.5
625
Turboprop aircraft
2 engines
0.59
2.02
0.26
0.27
1. 13
50
4 engines
2.54
8.71
1. 14
1. 18
4.86
216
Piston-engine aircraft
2 engines
0.36
73.5
0. 16
14.72
4.41
30
4 engines
1.21
245.0
0.53
49. 1
14.7
100
aTaken from Reference 30.
°A flight is the combination of a landing and a takeoff.
cTaken from Reference 31.
Table A-14. EMISSION FACTORS FOR SULFURIC
ACID MANUFACTUREa
Pollutant
Sulfur dioxide
H SO mist (with eliminator)
2 4
Emissions,
Ib/ton of acid produced
45
0.4
Taken from References 14 and 32.
Table A-15. EMISSION FACTORS FOR NITRIC ACID PLANTS3
Pollutant
Oxides of nitrogen
Particulate: (ammonium nitrate)
Emission rate
55 Ib/ton of acid produced
4% of ammonium nitrate production
aTaken from Reference 33.
46
-------
Table A-16. EMISSION FACTORS FOR CEMENT
MANUFACTURING PLANTSa
Type of process
Wet process (avg)
Dry process (avg)
Particulate emissions,
Ib/barrel of cement produced
28
45
aTaken from Reference 34.
Table A-17. EMISSIONS FROM STEEL MILLSa
Operation
Blast furnace
Sintering machine
Sinter machine
creener, and cooler
Open hearth
(Not oxygen lanced)
Open hearth
(With oxygen lance)
Electric arc furance
Bessemer converter
Basic oxygen
furnace
Scarfing machine
Coke oven*
(By-product type)
Before control
Stack loading,
grains/scf
7-10
0.5-3.0
6.0
0. 1-0.4-2.0
0. 1-0.6-2. 5
0. 1-0.4-6.0
0.8 - > 10
5-8
0.2-0.8
No data
Ib/ton
of product
200
5-20-100
22
1. 5-7. 5-20. 0
9.3
4. 5-10.6-37.8
15-17-44
20-40-60
3 Ib/ton of
steel pro-
cessed
0. 1% of coal
(rough
estimate)
Emission with control
Control
usedb
Preliminary cleaner
(settling chamber or
dry cyclone)c
Primary cleaner
(wet scrubber)c
Secondary cleaner
(E.S.P. or V,S.)C
Dry cyclone
E.S.P. (in series"
with dry cyclone)
Dry cyclone
E.S.P.
v.s.
Bughouse
E.S.P.
V.S.
High efficiency
scrubber
E.S.P.
Baghcuae
No practical method
V.S.
E.S.P.
Settling chamber
Emissions can be
equipment design
and operational
techniques
Stack loading,
grains/Kef
3-6
0.05-0. 3-0. 7d
0.004-0.008
0.2-0.6
0.01-0.05
0.4
0.01-0.05
0.01-0.06
0. 01
0.01-0.05
0.01-0.06
0.01
0.01-0.04
0. 01
0. 03-0. 12
0.05
No data
No data
Ib/ton
of product
5.4
0. 1-1.4
2 0
1.0
1.5
0. 15
0. 15-1. 1
0. 07
0.2
0.2-1.4
0.2
0.3-0.8
0. 1 -0. 2
0. 4
0. 4
No data
No data
Approximate
efficiency, %
60
90
90
90
95
93
98
85-98
99
98
85-98
Up to 98
92-97
98-99
99
99
No data
No data
Approximate volume
of gases handled
87. 000 scfm for a
1 , 000-ton per day
furnace.
120,000-160,000 scfm
for a 1, 000-ton per day
17, 500 scfm for a
1 , 000-ton per day
machine.
35,000 scfm for a
175-ton furnace.
35,000 scfm for a
175-ton furnace.
Highly variable
depending on type
of hood. May be
about 30, 000 scfm
for a 50-ton furnace.
Varies with amount
20 to 25 scfm per
cfm of oxygen blown.
85,000 scfm for a
45-inch, four-side
machine.
No data
*Taken from Reference 20.
V.S. means ventun scrubber. E. S. P. means electrostatic precipitator.
cUsed in series. Data on that basis.
When three values are given, such aa 5-20-100, the center value is the approximate average and values at either end are the lowest and
highest values reported. All data are highly variable depending on nature of a specific piece of equipment, materials being processed,
and operating procedure.
47
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REFERENCES FOR EMISSION FACTORS
1. Smith, W. S. and C. W. Gruber. Atmospheric emissions from the combustion
of coal - an inventory guide. PHS Publ. No. 999-AP-24. R. A. Taft Sanitary
Engineering Center. Cincinnati, Ohio. 1965.
2. Hangebrauck, R. P. , D. J. von Lehmden, and J. E. Meeker. Emissions of
polynuclear hydrocarbons and other pollutants from heat-generation and incin-
eration processes. JAPCA. 14:267-78. July 1964.
3. Cuffe, S. Private communication. Division of Air Pollution. R. A. Taft
Sanitary Engineering Center. U. S. Public Health Service. Cincinnati, Ohio.
Oct. 1964.
4. Smith, W. S. Atmospheric emission from fuel oil combustion. An inventory
guide. PHS Publ. No. 999-AP-2. R. A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center.
Cincinnati, Ohio. Nov. 1962.
5. Weisburd, M. I. Air pollution control field operations manual - a guide for
inspection and enforcement. PHS Publ. No. 937. 1962.
6. Bowerman, F. R. , editor. Summary of the Conference on Incineration. Rubbish
disposal and air pollution. Report No. 3. Air Pollution Foundation. Los Angeles,
Calif. Jan. 1955.
7. Feldenstein, M. , S. Duckworth, H. C. Wohlers, and B. Linsky. The contribution
of open burning of land clearing debris to air pollution. JAPCA. 13:542-45. Nov.
1963.
8. Health officials' guide to air pollution control. American Public Health Associa-
tion, Inc. 1962.
9. How the Bay Area APCD's regulation 2 affects incinerator operations. Technical
Information Bulletin No. 2. Air Currents. Vol. 2, No. 2. Bay Area Air Pollu-
tion Control District. San Francisco, Calif. Sept. I960.
10. Kanter, C. V. , R. G. Lunche, and A. P. Fudurich. Techniques of testing for
air contaminants from combustion sources. JAPCA. 6:191-99. Feb. 1957.
11. Larson, G. P., G. I. Fischer, and J. W. Kamming. Evaluating sources of air
pollution. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. 45:1070-74. May 1953.
12. Unpublished emission factors. New York Air Pollution Control Board. Albany,
N. Y. Undated.
13. Proceedings - National Conference on Air Pollution. Washington, D. C.
Nov. 18-20, 1958. PHS Publ. No. 654. 1959.
14. Stern, A. C. Air pollution. Vol. I and II. Academic Press. New York, N. Y.
1962.
48
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15. Technical Progress Report. Vol. I. Air Pollution Control District. County of
Los Angeles. Los Angeles, Calif. Apr. I960.
16. Gerstle, Richard. Personal communication. Division of Air Pollution. R. A.
Taft Sanitary Engineering Center. U. S. Public Health Service. Cincinnati,
Ohio. Mar. 1965.
17. Chass, R. L. , et al. Total air pollution emissions in Los Angeles County.
JAPCA. 10. Oct. 1960.
18. Wohlers, H. C. and G. B. Bell. Literature review of metropolitan air pollutant
concentrations. Stanford Research Institute. Menlo Park, Calif. Nov. 1956.
19. Begeman, C. E. Carcinogenic aromatic hydrocarbons in automobile exhaust
effluents. Presented at the 1962 Automotive Engineering Congress. Society of
Automotive Engineers. Jan. 1962.
20. Mayer, M. A compilation of emission factors for combustion processes, gaso-
line evaporation and selected industrial processes. Technical Assistance Branch.
Division of Air Pollution. R. A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center. U. S. Public
Health Service. Cincinnati, Ohio. 1965.
21. Evaporation loss from fixed roof tanks. API Bulletin 2518. Division of Technical
Services. American Petroleum Institute. New York, N. Y. June 1962.
22. Evaporation loss from floating roof tanks. API Bulletin 2517. American Petro-
leum Institute. New York, N. Y. Feb. 1962.
23. Loading and unloading speeds for gasoline delivery trucks. API Bulletin 1605.
Evaporation Loss Committee. American Petroleum Institute. New York, N. Y.
Oct. 1961.
24. Chass, R. L. , et al. Emissions from underground gasoline storage tanks.
JAPCA. 13:524-30. Nov. 1963.
25. MacKnight, R. A. , et al. Emissions of olefins from evaporation of gasoline and
significant factors affecting production of low olefin gasolines. Unpublished
report. Los Angeles Air Pollution Control District. Los Angeles, Calif.
Mar. 19, 1959.
26. Clean Air Quarterly. 8{ 1):10. Bureau of Air Sanitation. State of California
Department of Health. Berkeley, Calif. Mar. 1964.
27. Coffee processing - process flow sheets and air pollution controls. Committee
on Air Pollution. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygenists.
1014 Broadway. Cincinnati, Ohio. 1961.
28. Partee, F. Air pollution in the coffee roasting industry. PHS Publ. No.
999-AP-9. R. A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center. Cincinnati, Ohio. Sept.
1964.
29. Sherwin, K. A. Effluents from the manufacture of superphosphate and com-
pound fertilizers. Chemistry and Industry. Oct. 8, 1955.
49
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30. Johnson, H. C. and N. E. Flynn. Report on automobile, diesel, railroad,
aircraft and ship emissions in the Bay Area Air Pollution Control Districts.
Unpublished report. Bay Area Air Pollution Control District. San Francisco,
Calif. Jan. 1964.
31. Johnson, H. C. Private communication. Bay Area Air Pollution Control
District. San Francisco, Calif. Jan. 1965.
32. Atmospheric emissions from sulfuric acid manufacturing processes. PHS
Publ. No. 999-AP-13. R. A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center. Cincinnati,
Ohio. 1965.
33. Graham, H. Measurement of nitrogen dioxide and total nitrogen oxides.
Unpublished industrial hygiene report. Chemical Engineering Department.
Tennessee Valley Authority. Wilson Dam, Ala. 1961.
34. Kemnitz, D. Air pollution in the cement industry. Unpublished report. Division
of Air Pollution. R. A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center. U. S. Public Health
Service. Cincinnati, Ohio. 1965.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Beglcn 5, Library (5PL-16)
230 S. Dearborn St r-eet, Room 1670
Chicago. IL 60604
50
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