BASIC FIELD SAFETY
Unit 1 - Worker's.Rights and Responsibilities
Unit 2 - Preparation for Field Activities
Unit 3 - Emergency First Aid for Field Activities
Unit 4 - Heat and Cold Stress
Unit 5 - Chemical Hazard Recognition
Unit 6 - Toxicology
Unit 7 - Health Hazards of Chemicals
Unit 8 - Evaluating Health Hazards and Toxicity Information
Unit 9 - Inspection and Sampling in Industrial Plants
Unit 10 - Hazards of Air Sampling
Unit 11 — - Inspection Safety for Water/Wastewater Facilities
Unit 12 -'-Mine Safety
Unit 13 - Defensive Driving
Unit 14 - Use of Boats
Unit 15 - Use ofJAircrafts
Unit 16 - Selection and Use of Fire Extinguishers
Unit 17 - Hazards of Flammable/Explosive Atmospheres/Materials
Unit 18 - Hazards of Field Sampling
Unit 19 - Natural Hazards
Unit 20 - Protective Clothing and Equipment
Unit 21 - Respiratory Protection
Unit 22 - Sampling at Hazardous Waste Sites
Unit 23 - Shipping Chemicals and Samples
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UNIT 1
WORKER RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES
NOTES
Educational Objectives
o Determine the legal basis for job
related and safety protection for
Federal employees.
o Understand the responsibilities
of the Agency to its employees.
o Identify the employees'
responsibilities under the regulations.
o Establish the rights of the
employees under current regulations.
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WORKER RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES
NOTES
Federal Safety and Health Legislation
The Federal Government employs
approximately 2.8 million workers. Job
descriptions run from clerical to test
pilot. In FY 1981, almost 200,000
civilian employees were injured and
approximately 300 were killed in job-
related injury or accidents.
Compensation and medical payment costs
arising from injury and illness for
Federal employees that year totalled
$820 million dollars.
The Occupational Safety and Health
Act was written to assure, so far as
possible, for every working man and
woman in the nation, safe and healthful
working conditions. Specifically,
Section 19 of the Act charges the head
of each Federal Agency with the
responsibility to "establish and
maintain an effective and comprehensive
occupational safety and health program
which is consistent with the standards"
set by OSHA for private sector employees.
Federal employee safety and health
were further emphasized by Presidential
Executive Order 12196 which defines the
responsibilities of the agencies, and
the role of the Secretary of Labor in
developing, implementing, and evaluating
such programs.
EPA Occupational Health and Safety
Program
EPA has adopted an occupational
healtn^aKd^fafety .•program which includes
compliance ' vhi'tefcfc' -the Executive Order,
with /OSjHA "Srtartdards and with safety
standaE^>QJT/other Federal agencies.
The/ E3^$|3~r;'0 g/r a m has specific
" /for safety and health
piratory protection and
oring. The EPA program
aLospeflJr'*0ut employee rights and
in detail.
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-NOTES-
In addition to the general safety
and health policy, EPA has adopted-
health and safety requirements
£? ^employees engaged in field"
EPA Order 1440.2, adopted
1981, establishes policy,
»v 'T.-'ire-sponsibilities, and mandatory
;: / RegtlirementK for occupational health and •
*iy f^Satelty -training and certification. The
J, '-J&rder also establishes guidelines for7
occupational medical monitoring of
Agency employees engaged in field"
activities.
Field activities, ranging from the
routine to the extremely hazardous, are-
a critical part of most EPA programs.
Since protection cannot be engineered
into field working situations, the'
protection of field personnel involves
establishing safe operating procedures*
J2£pper use of appropriate personaY
\^ protective clothing and equipment, and
' Tf-aining employees in use of safe
operating procedures and protective"-
eguipnvent.
~.»*^- • nif™'^''
.
'—Rights and Responsibilities
«The EPA program defines the ':
occupational health and safety rights
that all EPA employees have. The -
program also specifies the general
safety and health responsibilities of •-
all employees and the specific
responsibilities of supervisory
personnel, including the Agency
administrator.
Employee Rights
EPA employees are entitled to work
under safe and healthful conditions,
free of recognized hazards. EPA •
employees are not expected to take-
unusual risks or to expose themselves to
serious hazards. If an EPA employee
encounters serious hazards in carrying
out assigned field activities, the
activities should be carried out only
with appropriate safety procedures and
safety equipment.
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NOTES
^ If it is necessary to postpone a
scheduled activity until it can be done
•safely and without adverse health
,
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NOTES
Employees are responsible for
reporting accidents, injuries, and
property damage of $100.00 or more.
EPA employees also have a
responsibility to report unsafe and
unhealthful working conditions so that
they can be corrected, or so that safe
operating procedures can be established
for employee protection.
Employees who engage in field
activities are responsible for having a
baseline medical examination to confirm
their physical fitness for the stress of
the activities, and to provide a base to
measure any adverse effects that
activities may have.
Employees are responsible for
giving their supervisor information when
requested on the extent of their
individual health and safety training,
and the history of their participation
in occupational medical monitoring.
Employees are responsible for
notifying their supervisor of any
hazardous work situations, making
suggestions for corrective measures, and
applying the knowledge, skills, and
techniques acquired through training in
a manner that will help assure their own
health and safety and that of fellow
workers.
/
/ Employees are responsible for using
the, safety equipment, personal
pr/btective equipment, and other health
and safety devices provided.
/
Employees are responsible for
following the safe operating procedures
established, or other safety directions
.that the Agency deems necessary for
their protection.
When an employee reports for work,
the employee should be ready, willing,
and able to perform assigned duties.
For example, an employee who reported to
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NOTES
work without safety equipment would not
be ready to perform assigned duties and
could be placed on leave. In addition,
the conduct and physical or mental
condition of an employee must not create
a situation in which the presence of the
employee will constitute an immediate
threat to the general public, fellow
employees, or Government property.
All employees are expected to
observe all rules, signs, and
instructions relating to personal
safety. Willful non-observance of
certain safety regulations constitute
grounds for disciplinary actions.
Some of the more serious safety
violations include:
failure to report an accident
involving injury to persons or damage to
property or equipment ^j
failure to use protective clothing
or equipment when it is prescribed
endangering the safety of or
causing injury to personnel or damaging
property or equipment through negligence
negligent or careless work
performance resulting in loss or danger
of loss of life.
penalties prescribed for non-
compliance can range from a written
reprimand or suspension to more severe
penalties if offenses are repeated.
Supervisors' Responsibilities
Supervisors are responsible for the
health and safety of their employees,
and for furnishing them a place of
employment which is free from recognized
hazards that are likely to cause death
or serious harm.
Supervisors are responsible for . ^
complying with the Agency's occupational
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NOTES
health and safety standards, and
complying with all rules, regulations,
and orders issued by the Agency with
respect to the occupational health and
safety programs.
Supervisors are also responsible
for enforcing correct work practices.
Supervisors are responsible for
compliance with the Agency Order for
employee training and certification, and
occupational medical monitoring
programs. To do so they must:
identify employees who require
training and certification and
occupational medical monitoring
assure that they receive it to
comply with provisions of the Order
insure that these requirements are
properly contained in position
descriptions at job posting.
Administrator's Responsibilities
The Executive Order requires the
EPA Administrator to establish and
operate an occupational health and
safety program in accordance with the
Occupational Safety and Health Act of
1970, and with the basic program
elements issued by the Secretary of
Labor in 29 CFR 1960.
The EPA Administrator has
designated, in the Agency, an
Occupational Health and Safety Office to
manage and administer the Agency's occu-
pational health and safety programs.
EPA Occupational Health and Safety
Program
One goal of the program is to
assure prompt abatement of unsafe or
unhealthful working conditions, or to
develop abatement plans and interim
steps to protect employees when
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NOTES
conditions cannot be promptly corrected.
Procedures have been established to
assure that employees who file reports
of unsafe or unhealthful working
conditions or who participate in other
occupational health and safety program
activities, are not subject to
restraint, interference, coercion,
discrimination or .reprisal. These
procedures also are designed to assure
the right to anonymity of those making
the reports.
As part of the program, efforts
have been made to assure response to
employee reports of hazardous conditions
and require inspections within
relatively short time limits: 24 hours
for imminent dangers, three working days
for potentially serious conditions, and
20 working days for other conditions.
("Imminent danger" means any
condition or practice within EPA
organizations or workplaces or at a
field site that could reasonably be
expected to cause death or serious
physical harm either immediately or
before the danger could be eliminated
through normal administrative
procedures.)
The EPA Office of Occupational
Health and Safety has an occupational
health and safety management information
system to provide sufficient data to
identify unsafe and unhealthful working
conditions, and to establish program
priorities.
The Office of Occupational Health
and Safety has been working to provide
occupational health and safety training
for management officials and all
employees involved in field activities,
including supervisors, occupational
collateral duty health and safety
personnel, occupation health and safety
committee members, and employee
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NOTES
representatives.
Training and Certification Program
The objectives for training and
certification are to assure that EPA
employees are aware of the potential
hazards they may encounter during the
performance of field activities, and to
provide knowledge and skills necessary
to perform the work with the least
possible risk to personal health and
safety. Other objectives are to assure
that Agency program goals are
accomplished in as safe and healthful a
manner as feasible, and to assure that
EPA employees can safely disengage
themselves from an actual hazardous
situation which may occur during field
activities.
Employees should not be allowed to
engage in routine field activities until
they have been trained and certified to
a level commensurate with the degree of
anticipated hazards.
The training order describes the
requirements for three levels of health
and safety training, the methods for
certification, and annual refresher
training.
Basic Level of Health and Safety
Training
All employees are to be provided a
minimum of 24 hours of health and safety
training prior to becoming involved in
normal, routine field activities. The
training is to include, but not be
limited to, classroom instruction.
Each person who will engage in
field activities should, as part of the
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NOTES
basic level of training, also accompany
an employee experienced in field
activities and perform actual field^ ji
tasks for a minimum of thirty six"h5urs~ •~^~a~ ~j'
within a period of three months after
classroom instruction.
Intermediate Level
Additional training is -required for
field employees who are expected to be
required or allowed to participate in
certain types of field activities. The
intermediate level of training is
required for all inexperienced employees
who are to work in uncontrolled
Hazardous Waste and Hazardous Spill
Investigations. This level of training
may later be required for employees
engaged in other activities which are
determined to present unique hazards
requiring additional training.
The intermediate level is to
include a minimum of eight hours of
specified additional health and safety
training, as well as supervised field
experience. Each person who will engage
in hazardous waste site or spill
investigations should as part of the
intermediate level of training, also
accompany an experienced employee and
perform actual field tasks for a minimum
of three days within a period of three
months after classroom instruction.
Advanced Level
An advanced level of training is
required for all employees who manage
monitoring, sampling, investigations,
and cleanup operations at uncontrolled
hazardous waste sites and spill sites.
The training is to include eight hours
of additional health and safety training
and on- the- job training on topics such
as management of restricted and safe
zones, rules of handling the press and
VIP's, and safe use of specialized
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NOTES
Certification
Certification is based on employees
satisfactorily completing these
requirements and a multiple-choice
examination based on the instructional
material.
Certification may be based on
evaluation of their previous training,
education, and experience.
Recommendations for this type of
certification should be made by the
Safety Designee at the Reporting Unit to
the Director of the EPA Office of
Occupational Health and Safety.
Certification of safety and health
training will be issued by the
Occupational Health and Safety Designee
at the Reporting Unit in which an
employee works.
Employees can be certified at the
next higher level by completing only
additional training required, if
certification at the next lower level
has been received within the previous
one-year period.
Refresher Training
Employees at the Basic,
Intermediate, and Advanced levels are
required to complete a minimum of eight
hours of refresher classroom instruction
annually to maintain their
certification. In addition to the
classroom instruction, employees shall
have demonstrated by having performed
actual field tasks that they have
sufficient practical experience to
perform duties in a safe and healthful
manner.
Physical Examination and Medical
Monitoring Programs
There are two types of physical
examinations that are part of the EPA
occupational health and safety program.
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NOTES
One is required for everyone who will be
expected or allowed to use a respirator.
The other is recommended for everyone
who may be exposed to toxic chemicals as
part of one's field activities. Both
types of examination can be included in
a single comprehensive physical.
Use of respirators and protective
clothing put additional stress on the
body, and some people may not be able to
handle this stress safely.
A health surveillance program can
be very important to an EPA employee. A
pre-placement medical exam may reveal an
existing medical condition that may
place you at a higher risk when working
around certain hazardous substances.
Specific tests given at different times
may indicate exposure to hazardous
substances and may help prevent further
exposure problems or aid in treatment.
The objectives for occupational
medical monitoring are to detect any
adverse effects of occupational exposure
on the employee's health, to initiate
prompt corrective actions when
indicated, to assure that employees
assigned to arduous or physically-taxing
jobs or jobs requiring unique skills,
are able to perform those jobs without
impairing their health and safety or the
health and safety of others.
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UNIT 2
PREPARATION FOR FIELD ACTIVITIES
Educational Objective
o The student should be able to
define criteria for team member
selection.
o The student should be able to
complete a pre-site visit planning form.
o The student should be able to
recognize potential hazard areas found
on site.
o The student should be able to
marshal1 on-site resources to assist
Agency personnel.
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PREPARATION FOR FIELD ACTIVITIES
NOTES
Operating in a known environment
such as an office or factory, repeatedly
on a regular basis, quickly familiarizes
the individual with the hazards that can
be expected. Field activities, on the
other hand, present a wide variety of
unknowns that must be anticipated and
prepared for. EPA field crews can go a
long way in preventing accidents and
hazards by training themselves to
devote pre-activity time to careful and
thorough investigation of the up and
coming activity. It is no product of
luck that careful pre-planning and
reduced accidents go hand-in-hand.
Planning for Field Activities
Planning for field activities
should be done as a team effort. By
drawing on the experience and training
of the team members, a more
comprehensive plan can be drawn up than
can be done by a single individual.
Team Member Selection
Selecting the proper team members
is an important first step. The first
criterion for selection should be that
members that have visited the site or
similar sites before. Experienced
individuals will be able to provide a
wealth of valuable information rather
than the guesswork that would guide a
team that lacks actual experience.
The second criterion for selection
is physical conditioning. Inquire
whether potential team members have had
experience in the expected site
conditions in the past and if they have
been recently acclimated to the expected
work load or anticipated adverse weather
conditions. Be wary of selecting
someone who would "just like to get out
of the office for awhile," if they are
going to face heavy workloads or severe
temperature extremes. Make sure all
team members are physically fit. Get a
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NOTES
record of their past physical
examination and interview them to
discuss any limitations they may have.
In many cases the fear of heights, or
the fear of small, tight places or
protective equipment may not show up on
physical exams, and it could severely
limit the effectiveness of crews during
regular work routines as well as
emergencies. Such conditions may also
increase the likelihood of accidents.
Select an appropriate number of
team members to accomplish the job
safely. During heavy workloads or
extreme weather conditions, anticipate
that work will take longer and crew
members will have to be relieved on a
regular basis for rest and recuperation.
When hazards are anticipated, never
assign a crew member to work alone, even
for a short period of time unless the
worker has been provided with two-way
communication.
Team Assessment of Potential
All discussion of up and coming
activities should be done with all team
members present. Arrange for an open
forum type of discussion. Avoid telling
crew members what they must do. The
collective contributions of a carefully
selected team are better than those of
the most experienced individual.
Appoint one member to be
responsible for summarizing in writing,
the suggestions of crew members. The
saying "What is the responsibility of
all is the responsibility of none"
provides little consolation to crew
members who need something that has
been forgotten.
Organize the discussion along a
prearranged format. This helps
eliminate forgetting a crucial subject.
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NOTES
If information is needed that
cannot be provided by the crew members
during the discussion, assign a member
to get that information and relay it to
the member responsible for writing the
summary.
Discussion Format - Past
Ask crew members to discuss their
past experiences at the site or similar
sites. If no selected crew members has
had similar past experiences, ask other
Agency personnel to sit in briefly to
discuss their experiences. By setting
the stage, crew members can make
intelligent suggestions based on known
facts.
Ask each crew member to briefly
outline the field experiences they have
had, as well as the training they have
received. Such a discussion builds
confidence in team members, reveals
weaknesses in past experience and
training, and points out inexperienced
crew members who may need special
assistance or training.
Site Evaluation
Secure a map, or photographs, of
the site to be visited. Each member
should become thoroughly familiar with
the site, its relative location in
regard to roads, shelters and emergency
help centers such as treatment centers
and hospitals. Crew members should not
only know how to reach and leave the
site, but also how to communicate that
information to emergency squads.
Evaluation of existing or potential
two-way communication is essential. In
most cases, site communication is by
telephone. Find exactly where the
telephone is located at the site and
verify it is working. Secure the
telephone numbers of emergency help in
the area. Assign a crew member to call
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X
NOTES
and verify the accuracy of the numbers.
On sites where extreme hazards are
anticipated, calls should be made to the
local emergency centers, informing them
of the exact time and date the crews
will be operating at the site. This is
particularly crucial at remote sites or
at sites near small towns where
volunteers operate the emergency
equipment. Never assume a town has
emergency equipment available. Over 50%
of the towns in this country have no
immediate emergency help available; call
and verify.
On sites where telephone
communication is not available,
anticipate the use of two-way radios.
Determine if there is a possibility that
there may be interference with two-way
signals from sources of interference
such as transmission lines, hills or
tall structures. When arriving on site,
a check should be made with emergency
help. If the radios depend on
batteries, extra sets of fresh batteries
should be brought.
Examine the site for natural
physical hazards such as deep ponds,
streams, marshes, cliffs, lack of
ingress and egress, high winds, poor
visibility, tidal changes, high seas or
rough water, wave action, poor footing,
prevailing winds and abrupt wind
direction changes, abrupt changes in
weather patterns, heavy snows, flash
flooding, avalanches, mud slides, and
ice storms.
Where adverse weather conditions
are a possibility, it may be necessary
to carry out some preliminary
investigations about when past
conditions at the anticipated time
Agency personnel will be working at the
site. Local residents, radio stations,
and newspapers can often provide the
needed information. If the site is to
be visited within three days to a week,
a long range weather forecast can be
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NOTES
gotten from the local TV, radio station,
Coast Guard or the National
Weather Bureau. Assign a crew member to
complete this task and report this
information to the team members.
Careful assimilation of both a
physical and mental picture of the site
is invaluable in proper preparation.
Only by knowing all the facts can a
comprehensive plan be put together with
a minimum of omissions.
Assessing the Hazards
Once a crew is familiar with the
physical layout of the site, a unit-by-
unit assessment of the potential
hay-arris should be undertaken. Hazards
can be categorized into the following
units:
Transportation
Atmospheric
Chemical
Fire and Explosion
Physical and Mechanical
Radiation
Biological
Weather Related
Drowning
Each of these units is covered in
detail in a separate section of the
Basic Field Activities Safety Training
Course. Careful analysis of these
sections wil 1 provide the team with
information needed for the planning
necessary to meet the hazards associated
with each site. Figure 1 is an example
of the information that should be
compiled and recorded during the
planning period. A copy of this summary
along with pertinent medical records or
information should be kept in a file and
taken along for reference in the event
of an emergency where the information
might be needed. A second copy should
be filed with a supervisor before
leaving for the site. Such information
is particularly important for visits to
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NOTES
sites where crews may be stranded or
lost.
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FIGURE 2-1
SAMPLE PLANNING GUIDELINE FOR FIELD ACTIVITIES
Project Title:
Location:
EPA files exist and have been reviewed? Yes No
Names and Telephone Numbers for Contacting You:
Name Position Tel. Number
Crew Members:
Med. Training Received Medical or
Name Mont. Field Respiratory Phy. Restrictions
Length of Proposed Activity:
Crew Lodging Arrangements: Motel /Hotel
Location: Telephone f_
Anticipated Hazards:
Driving distance Hauling test equipment_
Hauling chemicals Hauling supplies
Noise Thermal hazards
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Flammable Hazards Moving hazards
Weather: heat cold wind rain thunderstorms
Toxic Substances (List) M 5 />S
Heights:
Vehicle(s) and Equipment
Motor vehicles: sedan van pickup
Mobile laboratory Other (list)
Vehicle safety check made: yes no
Vehicle appears okay or needs (list)
Watercraft
Boat will be used yes no
Boat safety check made yes no
Site access:
Identification
Permits
Visitors Agreement
Special problems
Type of Communication needed
Figure 1 Gont'd.
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Emergency and Rescue
Is first aid available in the area? Yes No Location:
Telephone No.
Is ambulance available? on site on call Tel. f
Nearest hospital with emergency services. Location
Telephone No.
Nearest poison control center. Location
Fire Department Telephone No.
Telephone No.
Portable extinguishers available. Location^
Type
Heavy and special rescue services available yes no.
What
Emergency Signals and Commnication
Fire Signal is
Evacuation signal is
Severe weather signal is
Toxic release signal is
Personal Protective Equipment/Clothing (Check if needed)
1. Eyes and Head
Safety glasses Type
Face shield Goggles_
Hard Hat Type
Hearing protection Type_
Other
Figure 1 Cont'd.
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2. Body, Hands, Feet
Coveralls
Foul Weather gear
Full encapsulated gear_
Safety footwear
Boot/shoe covers
Gloves
Type
Type
Other special equipment/clothing
Type
3. Respiratory Protection
Respirator
SCBA
Type
Type
Emergency Escape Mask Type
4. Special Health and Safety Equipment
Life belt
Safety line
Other (list)
5. Miscellaneous
Extra clothing_
Socks
Coveralls
Undergarments
Shoes
Boots
Outer clothing
Other (list)
Water
Drinking
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Figure 1 Cont'd.
Flushing
Other (list)
6. Miscellaneous Pope String Tape_
Matches Food Other
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On-Site Evaluation
No matter how thorough and complete
the pre-site briefing is, there will
always be hazards not anticipated or
covered. Before launching into a work
routine, take time to aquaint the entire
crew with the on-site hazards.
First tour the site. Look for
hidden hazards such as broken railings
or ladders, dangerous or unprotected
machinery, low or heated pipes,
discharges or outlets carrying dangerous
materials, new construction, open
trenches or unsafe scaffolding or any
other hazards not discussed at the
briefing.
Second, if there is a safety
department or knowledgeable company
employee, ask for a briefing of any
known hazards that exist at the site.
Request information as to evacuation
routes and warning signals, medical
staffing or other on-site emergency
help, and the location and type of
protective gear that is at the disposal
of Agency personnel. Take a few moments
to walk the crew through the emergency
evacuation route. Physically locate and
aquaint crew members with the on-site,
available safety gear. Remember, no
matter how much experience your crew
members have had, they cannot possibly
know and prepare for the on-site hazards
as well as the people who work at the
site every day.
Ask the company employee to alert
the safety department, medical or
emergency staff, and all those in the
vicinity of where Agency personnel will
be working of the exact time and
location of EPA personnel. This is
particularly important in confined space
entry. Find out if company rules
require special safety gear such as
steel-toed shoes or respirators. Do not
ignore company safety policy. It was
undoubtedly imposed for good reason.
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NOTES
Assign a crew member to keep a log
of any unexpected hazards encountered
during the work at the site and how
these hazards were handled. Such
records will go a long way in helping
the next crew prepare for similar
hazards and emergencies. List any
extra gear that is recommended to take
along that was not taken on this site
visit.
When contemplating entry into a
confined space or atmosphere, such as a
manhole, in addition to crew
monitoring, request information from
company employees as to past hazards or
events such as production discharges
that might quickly and significantly
change the degree of hazards associated
with the confined space. Agency
employees may not have enough time for
evacuation of a toxic discharge catches
them unaware in a confined area.
Whenever possible, always send
Agency personnel in pairs. The "buddy
system" has repeatedly been shown to
save lives. When entering into a
suspected hazardous environment, one
team member should always remain behind
with constant visual or voice
communication with the second. Buddy
teams must be taught to recognize danger
and respond to it effectively using
methods of rescue that have been taught
rather than headlong rush into hazardous
areas to save a fallen team member.
Where only one Agency person has
been assigned to a site, have that
employee request to be accompanied by an
on-site company employee knowledgeable
with the area to be inspected or
sampled.
Remember, the buddy system is a
safety precaution only. It is not a
protective procedure. Never enter
highly hazardous areas without thorough
monitoring and protective gear. At its
best, the buddy system speeds up rescue.
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NOTES
At its worst, it prevents the loss or
injury of one instead of two people.
Neither is acceptable if the accident
could have been prevented at the start.
It is estimated that fire and
rescue teams prepare and train for
emergencies 40 hours for every hour they
actually are involved in an emergency.
There is no substitute for effective
pre-planning. Never go out on even on a
small detailed activity without devoting
a block of time anticipating and
planning for hazards and emergencies.
The National Safety Council reports that
most accidents occur around the home or
within three miles of the home, a time
when few people anticipate an accident
and fewer prepare for it.
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UNIT 3 EMERGENCY FIRST AID FOR FIELD ACTIVITIES
Educational Objectives
o The student should be able to
list medical emergencies that are life-
threatening and require immediate first
aid.
o The student should be able to
list the minimum first aid training a
field crew should have.
o The student should be able to
demonstrate the correct first aids
techniques of cardiopu1monary
resuscitation (CPR).
o The student should be able to
define the first aid steps for stopped
breathing.
o The student should be able to
define the first aid steps for stopped
circulation.
o The student should be able to
define the first aid steps for excessive
bleeding.
o The student should be able to
define the first aid steps for traumatic
injuries to head, neck or back.
o The student should be able to
define the first aid steps for shock
resulting from injuries.
o The student should be able to
define the first aid steps for
overexposure to heat or cold.
o The student should be able to
define the first aid steps for thermal
burns that are deep or extensive.
o The student should be able to
define the first aid steps for
inhalation of toxic gas.
o The student should be able to
define the first aid steps for chemical
contact that is concentrated or
extensive.
3-1
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EMERGENCY FIRST AID FOR FIELD ACTIVITIES
NOTES
Introduction
Every person who engages in field
activities should be able to recognize
injuries and exposures which require
immediate emergency action. Most
injuries and illnesses are not life-
threatening, but it is important to
recognize those that are and be prepared
to take emergency action to prevent
serious consequences or death.
In many field activities, EPA
personnel can receive injuries or
chemical exposures which could cause
serious illness or death unless
immediate action is taken to control
the emergency. If EPA personnel are
remote from immediate medical emergency
treatment, they will have to depend on
the training and preparation of other
members of their team.
Every EPA field team should have
one or more members with recent training
in first aid, chemical splash treatment,
and cardiopulmonary resuscitation.
Every EPA employee engaged in field
activities should carry a wallet card
with important medical information such
as blood type, allergies, medication
being taken, and any physical condition
which may cause a problem in regular
activities or emergency situations. The
crew leader should know about any
medical conditions which may become a
problem during field activities.
This unit will describe medical
emergencies that may occur in field
activities, describe the general course
of action for any type of medical
emergency, and review the procedures for
treating such emergencies.
This unit does not take the place
of a first aid course or hands-on
training in first aid, chemical splash
procedures or CPR. This unit does
however, emphasize a different range of
3-2
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NOTES
emergencies than a basic Red Cross first
aid course.
Serious and Life-Threatening Medical
Emergencies
Medical emergencies may occur
during field activities as a result of
accidents, work stress, individual
medical conditions, or exposure to toxic
or corrosive chemicals. Nine different
conditions are so serious that they are
considered life-threatening. Three
conditions in particular require
immediate action because death will
result in minutes if no effort is made
to help the victim.
The three medical emergency
conditions that require immediate action
to prevent death are listed in the order
of their seriousness:
1. Bleeding severely
2. Breathing stopped
3. Circulation stopped
Bleeding severely from traumatic
injuries can lead to an irreversible
state of shock in which death is
inevitable.
Breathing can be stopped because of
An obstructed airway
Allergic reactions to insect
stings
Drowning
An electrical shock
Exposure to an oxygen-
deficient atmosphere
Exposure to a toxic gas with
immediate paralytic effects
Circulation can be stopped because
of
Heart attack
Electrical shock
Paralysis from chemical
exposure
3-3
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NOTES
If a victim is unconscious, it is
important to determine if he has stopped
breathing, if the victim's heart has
stopped beating and circulating blood
throughout the body, or if the person is
suffering from some other life-
threatening emergency. Always check for
an open airway, breathing and
circulation.
Other medical emergencies which are
extremely serious, or which can become
life-threatening, include:
4. Traumatic injuries to the head,
neck or back
5. Shock resulting from injuries
6. Overexposure to heat or cold
7. Thermal burns that are deep or
extensive
8. Inhalation of toxic gas
9. Chemical contact that is
concentrated or extensive
General Emergency Procedures
When a person is seriously injured
or exposed to large amounts of hazardous
chemicals, there are three activities
that must be carried out quickly. These
activities can be carried out by one
person, but if several people are
available it is much more effective if
all three activities can be carried out
at the same time:
1. Take charge of the situation
2. Give first aid
3. Summon assistance or prepare to
transport the injured person
Taking Charge of the Emergency
Someone must take charge of the
situation (with full recognition of his
or her own limitations). The person who
takes charge must direct others quickly
and clearly on exactly what they should
do.
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NOTES
The person who takes charge needs
to stay calm and try to instill
confidence in the injured person and
others that the emergency can be
controlled.
Some injuries or illnesses that
have alarming symptoms are not dangerous
to the victim. (Examples include:
fainting, convulsions, epileptic
seizures.)
The crew leader should be sure that
the team has the first aid supplies
necessary for the season and the
activity. The crew leader should also
see that the team has a first aid manual
and directions for obtaining emergency
medical assistance.
Giving First Aid
Someone must administer first aid
to reduce the severity of any life-
threatening medical emergency. This
person should have recent first aid
training and practice. If there is no
one available with recent training, a
crew member can carry out the most
important steps guided by a first aid
manual. Be sure that a good manual is
available in a readily accessible
location.
First aid is generally defined as
the immediate and temporary care given
the victim of an injury or sudden
illness until medical assistance can be
obtained. In this unit we use the term
"first aid" to include any immediate and
temporary care, including chemical
splash treatment and cardiopulmonary
resuscitation. The objectives of first
aid are to:
o care for 1 ife-threatening
conditions;
o minimize further injury and
complications, such as
infection; and
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NOTES
obtain medical assistance
Arranging for Transportation
Someone must arrange for medical
assistance for further treatment of
serious medical emergencies. Medical
assistance can be obtained in some areas
from paramedic teams from local
hospitals or fire departments. In other
areas, medical assistance can be
obtained most readily by taking the
injured person directly to a medical
treatment facility such as a hospital.
Find out in advance how to call for
medical assistance, and how to reach the
emergency medical facility. Have a map
and directions readily available, and
make a practice run if your field
activities are particularly hazardous.
If it is necessary to transport an
injured person to a medical facility, it
should be done so that it does not
complicate the injury or subject the
victim to unnecessary discomfort.
If it is necessary to transport an
injured or ill person without the
assistance of an ambulance team or
specially-trained personnel, there are
some important considerations before
starting to move the person. If the
medical emergency is one in which
movement can cause further injury, be
sure that the move is planned and
carried out so that it does not do the
injured person more harm than waiting
for help to arrive.
If the medical emergency is one
that requires uninterrupted treatment,
such as cooling thermal or chemical
burns, plan the movement so that the
emergency treatment can be continued.
If the medical emergency is the result
of a chemical splash, be sure that
preliminary washing has been thorough
enough to minimize the injury and to
prevent serious contamination of others.
3-6
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NOTES
Medical Emergency Supplies
Every vehicle should be equipped
with a first aid kit with supplies for
emergencies which field personnel are
likely to encounter. In cold or wet
environments, the team should have
blankets and supplies needed for
treating cold stress, and in hot
environments the team should have the
water or replacement fluids needed for
survival and for prevention and
treatment of heat stress. If the team
can be exposed to contact with hazardous
chemicals, their vehicle should be
equipped with a pressurized supply of
potable water which can be used for
flushing chemicals from the eyes and
body in case of splash. The volume of
the pressurized water supply should be
at least eight gallons. (The water can
also be used for washing skin areas
which may be contaminated during field
operations.)
Let's look at the first three life-
threatening emergencies that can occur
during field activities: severe
bleeding, stopped breathing, and stopped
circulation.
Emergency Treatment for Severe Bleeding
OSE PRESSURE DIRECTLY OVER THE
WOUND
Place a pad, clean
handkerchief or other clean cloth
directly over the wound and press firmly
with one or both of your hands. Hold
the pad firmly in place with a strong
bandage, adhesive tape, necktie or
strips of cloth. If a pad or bandage is
not available, close the wound with your
hand or fingers.
ELEVATE THE BLEEDING PART OF THE
BODY
Unless bones are broken, raise
the bleeding par£ higher than the rest
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NOTES
of the body.
down.
Keep the victim lying
USE OTHER METHODS TO STOP BLEEDING
IF NECESSARY
If direct pressure and
elevation do not stop the bleeding, try
to close the artery to the bleeding area
by applying pressure where the artery
passes close to a bone and can be
restricted. Use a tourniquet only if a
victim is bleeding profusely and other
methods have failed and the victim's
life is in danger. A tourniquet must be
tight to stop bleeding from an artery.
KEEP THE VICTIM WARM
SHOCK AND LOSS OF BODY HEAT
TO PREVENT
Use blankets, coats, or any
covering available. If the victim is
lying on the ground, use something under
the victim to prevent loss of body heat.
GIVE FLUIDS IF POSSIBLE
Give the victim fluids if she,
or he, is conscious, can swallow and
does n£jt have head or abdominal
injuries. Do not give any fluids if
she, or he, probably will require
surgery and will receive professional
help within less than one hour. Do not
give the victim alcoholic drinks or any
stimulants.
Emergency
Breathing
Treatment for Stopped
The second most serious medical
emergency after severe bleeding is
stopped breathing. If an injured person
is not breathing for any reason,
treatment given to other injuries will
not help. If a person's breathing is
stopped for more than just a few minutes
the person will, in most cases, die or
suffer brain damage from lack of oxygen.
In 'a serious emergency without
Abdominal Thrust
3-8
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NOTES
severe bleeding, the first priority is
to determine if the victim is breathing.
1. Look to see if the victim's
chest or abdomen is rising and falling
regularly.
2. If there is no visual evidence
of breathing, place your ear and the
side of your face very close to the
victim's nose and mouth to listen and
feel for air being exhaled by the
victim.
If there is no evidence that a
victim is breathing, proceed with
emergency treatment for stopped
breathing as quickly as you can. No
harm will result if the victim has not
stopped breathing.
Let's go over some of the reasons
why breathing may be stopped, and some
special procedures that may be needed.
Breathing can be stopped because of
Obstructed airway
Allergic reactions to insect stings
Drowning
Electrical shock
Exposure to oxygen-deficient
atmosphere
Exposure to toxic gas with
immediate paralytic effects
Performance Guidelines and Rationale
C o m £_l_e_t e_ A_i£
Conscious victim
STEP 1
Activity
Rescuer asks "Can you speak?" (2-3
seconds) Victim may be using the
"Universal Distress Signal" of choking:
clutching the neck between thumb and
index finger.
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NOTES
Critical Performance
Rescuer must identify complete
airway obstruction by asking victim if
she, or he, is able to speak.
Rationale
In the conscious victim it is
essential to recognize the signs of an
airway obstruction and take action
immediately. If the victim is able to
speak or cough effectively, do not
interfere with his or her attempts to
expel the foreign body.
STEP 2
Activity
Deliver four back blows. (3-5
seconds)
Critical Performance
With the heel of your hand, deliver
4 sharp blows rapidly and forcefully
between the shoulder blades; support the
victim's chest with the other hand on
the breastbone.
Rationale
Continually check for success.
This maneuver may have the effect of
dislodging the foreign body before
forcing it upward with the manual thrust
maneuver.
STEP 3
Activity
Deliver four abdominal thrusts or
chest thrusts. (4-5 seconds)
Critical Performance
ABDOMINAL THRUST: Stand behind the
victim and wrap your arms around the
victim's waist. Grasp; one fist with
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NOTES
your other hand and place thumb side of
your fist in the midline between the
waist and rib cage. Press fist into
abdomen with quick inward and upward
thrusts.
(Repeat back blows and manual thrusts
until effective or until the victim
becomes unconscious.)
CHEST THRUST: Stand behind victim
and place your arms under victim's
armpits to encircle the chest. Grasp
one fist with other hand and place thumb chestThru**
side on the middle of the breastbone.
Press with quick backward thrusts.
Rationale
The sequence of back blows and
abdominal or chest thrusts is more
effective than either maneuver used
alone.
Each back blow and manual thrust
should be delivered with the intent of
relieving the obstruction.
Chest thrusts are more easily done
than abdominal thrusts when the
abdominal girth is large, as in gross
obesity or in advanced pregnancy.
Note: Although the above sequence of
back blows followed by manual thrusts is
preferred, the reverse sequence of
manual thrusts followed by back blows is
acceptable.
Obstructed Airway ^ Choking Victim
Who Becomes Unconscious
STEP 1
Activity
Position the victim and call out
for help. Allow 4-10 seconds if face
down and turning is required.
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NOTES
Critical Performance
Turn if necessary, supporting head
and neck. Call out "Help!"
Rationale
The victim must be properly
positioned on his back in case CPR
becomes necessary.
This initial call for help is to
alert bystanders.
Activity
Open
ventilate.
STEP 2
airway and
(3-5 seconds)
attempt to
Critical Performance
Kneel properly. Use head tilt-chin
lift or head tilt-neck lift. Attempt
ventilation. Airway remains obstructed.
Rationale
Complete airway obstruction by a
foreign body is assumed present, but at
this point an attempt must be made to
get some air into the lungs just in case
the victim's fall has jarred the foreign
body loose.
STEP 3
Activity
Activate EMS. (2 seconds)
Critical Performance
If unsuccessful and a second person
is available, that person should
activate the EMS.
3-12'
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NOTES
Rationale
Advanced life support capability
may be required.
STEP 4
Activity
Give 4 back blows in rapid
succession. (4-6 seconds)
Critical Performance
Roll victim toward you using your
thigh for support. Give 4 forceful and
rapidly delivered blows to back between
shoulder blades with the heel of one
hand; keep other hand on the victim's
shoulder for support.
Rationale
Continually check for success.
Each back blow or manual thrust should
be delivered with the intent of
relieving the obstruction.
STEP 5
Activity
Give 4 abdominal thrusts. (5-6
seconds or give 4 chest thrusts (5-6
seconds)
Critical Performance
ABDOMINAL THRUST: Position
yourself with your knees close to
victim's hips. Place heel of one hand
in the midline between the waist and the
ribcage and second on top. Press into
abdomen with quick inward and upward
thrusts. Never place hands on the
xiphoid process or on the lower margins
of the ribcage. Rescuer may use the
aside or astride position.
CHEST THRUST: Same hand position
Abdominal Thrust
or Chest Thrust
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NOTES
Exert quick downward
compression.
thrust.
Rationale
Kneeling at victim's side gives the
rescuer greater mobility and access to
the airway.
Chest thrusts are preferred in the
presence of large abdominal girth
(advanced pregnancy or obesity).
Downward thrusts generate effective
airway pressure.
STEP 6
Activity
Check for foreign body using finger
sweep. (6-8 seconds)
Critical Performance
Turn head up, open mouth with jaw
lift technique and sweep deeply into
mouth along cheek with hooked finger.
Rationale
A dislodged foreign body may now be
manually accessible if it has not been
expelled. Dentures may need to be
removed to improve finger sweep.
STEP 7
Activity
(3-5
Reattempt to ventilate.
seconds)
Critical Performance
Reposition head using the head
tilt-neck lift or head tilt-chin lift
maneuver.
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NOTES
Rationale
By this time another attempt must
be made to get some air into the lungs.
STEP 8
Activity
Repeat sequence until successful.
Critical Performance
Alternate the above maneuvers in
rapid sequence:
* back blows
* manual thrusts
* finger sweep
* attempt to ventilate
Rational
Persistent attempts are rapidly
made in sequence in order to relieve the
obstruction.
As the victim becomes more deprived
of oxygen, the muscles will relax and
maneuvers that were previously
ineffective may become effective.
Obstructed Airway - Unconscious
Victim
STEP 1
Activity
Establish unresponsiveness and call
out for help. Allow 4-10 seconds if
face down and turning is required.
Critical Performance
Tap, gently shake shoulder, shout
"Are you OK?" Call out "Help!" Turn if
necessary, supporting head and neck.
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NOTES
Rationale
This initial call for help is to
alert bystanders.
STEP 2
Activity
Open airway. Establish
breathlessness (look, listen and feel).
(3-5 seconds)
Critical Performance
Kneel properly. Head tilt with one
hand on forehead and neck lift or chin
lift with other hand. Ear over mouth,
observe chest. Adequate time.
Rationale
None
STEP 3
Activity
Attempt to ventilate (3-5 seconds)
Critical Performance
Attempt ventilation. Airway
remains obstructed.
Rationale
Complete airway obstruction for a
foreign body is assumed present, but at
this point an attempt must be made to
get some air into the lungs.
STEP 4
Activity
Reattempt ventilation (3-5 seconds)
3-16'
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NOTES
Critical Performance
Reposition head, airway remains
obstructed.
Rationale
Improper head tilt is the most
common cause of,airway obstruction.
STEP 5
Activity
Activate the EMS
Critical Performance
If unsuccessful, and a second
person is available, he should activate
EMS system. Know your local EMS or
rescue unit number.
Rationale
Advanced life support capability
may be required.
STEP 6
Activity
Give 4 back blows in rapid
succession. (4-6 seconds)
Critical Performance
Roll victim toward you using your
thigh for support. Give 4 forceful
rapidly delivered blows to back between
shoulder blades.
Rationale
Each back blow or manual thrust
should be delivered with the intent of
relieving the obstruction.
3-17'
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NOTES
STEP 7
Activity
Give 4 abdominal thrusts (5-6
seconds) or Give 4 chest thrusts (5-6
seconds)
Critical Performance
ABDOMINAL THRUSTS: Position
yourself with your knees close to
victim's hips. Place heel of one hand
in the midline between waist and rib
cage and second hand on top. Press into
abdomen with quick inward and upward
thrusts. Never place hands on the
xiphoid process or on the lower margins
of the ribcage. Maneuver may be done
astride victim.
CHEST THRUSTS: Same hand position
as that for applying chest compression.
Exert quick downward thrusts.
Rationale
Kneeling at victim's side gives the
rescuer greater mobility and access to
the airway.
Chest thrusts are preferred in the
presence of large abdominal girth
(advanced pregnancy or obesity).
Downward thrusts generate effective
airway pressure.
STEP 8
Activity
Check for foreign body using finger
sweep. (6-8 seconds)
Critical Performance
Turn head up, open mouth with haw
lift technique and sweep deeply into
mouth along cheek with hooked finger.
3-18'
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NOTES
Rationale
A dislodged foreign body may now be
manually accessible if it has not been
expelled.
Dentures may need to be removed to
improve finger sweep.
STEP 9
Activity
Reattempt to ventilate. (3-5
seconds)
Critical Performance
Reposition head using head tilt-
chin lift or head tilt-neck lift.
Airway remains obstructed.
Rationale
By this time another attempt must
be made to get some air into the lungs.
STEP 10
Activity
Repeat sequence until successful.
Critical Performance
Alternate the above maneuvers in
rapid sequence:
* back blows
* manual thrusts
* finger sweep
* attempt to ventilate
Rationale
Persistent attempts are rapidly
made in sequence in order to relieve the
obstruction.
As the victim becomes more deprived
of oxygen, the muscles will relax and
3-19-
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NOTES
maneuvers that were previously
ineffective may become effective.
Allergic Reactions to Insect Stings
In some individuals, an insect
sting can cause an allergic reaction
that is so severe that swelling can
block the victim's airway and stop the
individual from breathing. If such a
reaction occurs, try to open the
victim's airway by tipping his, or her,
head back and keeping his, or her,
tongue from blocking his, or her,
throat.
An allergic reaction can be so
severe that it causes anaphylactic shock
which is life-threatening. Immediate
first aid, medication and medical
treatment will be needed.
If one of the crew members has had
severe allergic reactions previously,
she, or he, should have a special
emergency kit for insect stings. Such a
kit will contain a prescription
medication such as adrenaline or
an antihistamine. Emergency treatment
consists of maintaining an open airway,
removing the stinger (if the sting was
from a honeybee) , using the emergency
kit, and seeking medical attention
promptly.
If a person has a severe allergic
reaction to an insect sting but n_£
emergency kit is available, emergency
treatment will be more difficult and
less effective. In addition to
maintaining an open airway and removing
any honeybee stinger, you can try to
reduce circulation of the insect venom.
Get the victim to lie down and keep as
calm as possible. If the sting is on an
arm or leg, it may be possible to reduce
the circulation of the insect venom by
placing a construction between the sting
and the body. The constriction is
somewhat like a tourniquet, except that
it must be placed immediately and it
3-20'
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NOTES
should not cut off the flow of blood in
the arteries. Seek medical attention
promptly.
Drowning
Trying to rescue someone who is in
danger of drowning is difficult. In
deep water, a drowning person may pull
the rescuer under. In water below 70°F,
the drowning person may not be able to
hold on to a life preserver or rope.
If you must rescue a drowning
person, use a boat, life preserver,
spare tire, rope, long stick or other
means than swimming out to the person.
Begin mouth-to-mouth resuscitation as
quickly as possible, even before the
victim is completely out of the water.
If the victim is unconscious and a
neck or back injury is suspected, try
not to move or lift the victim until you
can keep his, or her, head and back from
twisting and possibly causing more
severe injury. (See the section on
head, neck and back injuries.)
Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation must
usually be started within a few minutes
after a victim has stopped breathing, to
avoid serious brain injury from lack of
oxygen. However, people who have been
submerged in water colder than 70°F for
periods as long as 30 minutes have been
revived successfully without any brain
damage. In cold-water drowning there is
a body reflex that slows the heartbeat
and reserves oxygen for the brain and
the heart. Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation
and cardiac compression must be started
as soon as possible, and must be
continued for several hours even though
the victim may appear to be dead.
Electrical Shock
Electrical shock can stop breathing
by paralyzing the respiratory system,
and in some cases it can stop the heart
or
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NOTES
cause it to beat irregularly and
ineffectively. If the victim is in
contact with a live electrical wire or
circuit, rescue will be necessary before
an effort can safely be made to restore
breathing.
If a person has stopped breathing
after being struck by lightning, you can
give assistance immediately because the
victim is not in contact with a source
of electrical energy. However, as a
precaution against lightning striking a
second time in the same place, try to
move the victim to a safer location
before you begin resuscitation.
If a person has stopped breathing
because he, or she, has touched a live
wire or faulty electrical wiring or
apparatus, you must first get the power
turned off or get the person out of
contact with the electrical wire. Do
not touch the victim until the power is
turned off or the victim is removed from
contact with the source of electricity.
If circuit breakers are quickly
accessible, turn off the individual
circuit breaker or open the main
electrical breaker. If circuit breakers
are not accessible, get the power cut
off or the victim removed from contact
by the power company or the fire
department.
Do not try to remove a person from
an electrical circuit or a power line
unless there is absolutely no other way
to save the victim. Unless you have had
special training for this type of rescue
work, you are likely to receive an
electrical shock and may also become a
victim needing rescue. You' must use a
dry rope or a long dry stick which will
prevent you from coming into electrical
contact with the victim or the wire.
As soon as the victim is free of
contact with the electrical current,
begin mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. If
3-22'
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NOTES
the victim's heart has stopped,
cardiopulmonary resuscitation will be
needed.
Exposure to Oxygen-Deficient or Toxic
Atmospheres
If a person has stopped breathing
in any unventilated space which may
contain an oxygen-deficient atmosphere
or a high concentration of toxic gas,
the first step is to rescue the person.
Do not enter an unventilated
confined space or a space containing a
high concentration of toxic gas without
using self-contained breathing apparatus
or air-supplied breathing apparatus.
Be sure there is one other
person equipped with such breathing
apparatus to assist or stand by to help.
Move the victim to fresh air
as quickly as possible without becoming
a victim and complicating the rescue
problem.
Control the source of
poisonous gas, if possible.
Procedures for Restoring Breathing
The first step in restoring
breathing is to be sure that there is a
clear and open passageway for air to
reach the lungs. Often the head slumps
forward and the tongue blocks the
passage of air. The passageway for air
through the nose and mouth to the lungs
is referred to as the "airway."
1. Lay the victim on his, or her,
back on a firm surface such as the floor
or ground.
2. Quickly clear the mouth and
airway of foreign material with your
fingers or a clean cloth wrapped around
your fingers.
3-23
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NOTES
3. If there does not appear to be
any neck injury, gently tilt the
victim's head backward by pressure of
one hand on the person's forehead, and
by lifting the victim's neck upward with
your other hand. This will keep the
victim's tongue from falling back and
blocking the airway.
The second step in restoring
breathing is to force air into the lungs
by some means of artificial breathing or
artificial respiration. The most
effective emergency method is to use
your exhaled breath, which contains an
adequate amount of oxygen for the person
who is not breathing. There are less
effective methods in which air is forced
out of the lungs by pressure on the rib
cage, and air is drawn into the lungs by
lifting the victim's arms to lift the
rib cage. Use of exhaled breath is
usually referred to as "mouth-to-mouth
resuscitation" even though the method
may have to be modified to force the air
into the victim through the nose or
throat.
Since restoring breathing is vital,
start as soon as you possibly can. Do
not wait for help and do not pay
attention to less important injuries.
Continue resuscitation until the victim
begins breathing, or someone else takes
over, or medical personnel direct you to
stop.
Mouth-to-Mouth Resuscitation
With the victim's airway open and
the head tilted backward, you are going
to force your breath into the victim.
If your mouth can cover the victim's
mouth, you will have to pinch the
person's nose shut to force air into
the person's lungs. If you have to
force air in through the person's nose
you will have to seal the person's mouth
with your hand. If the victim breathes
through an opening or stoma in the
throat, you may need to seal both the
3-24'
-------
NOTES
nose and mouth so you can force air into
the lungs through the opening in the
throat.
The initial step before you begin
resuscitation is to inflate the victim's
lungs fully and give a lot of oxygen
quickly.
Blow your breath into the victim
until you see the chest rise and repeat
these breaths four times as rapidly as
you can without allowing the victim's
lungs to deflate fully.
Maintain the head tilt and again
check the victim for breathing for
approximately five seconds.
For continuing resuscitation, blow
your breath into the victim until you
see her, or his, chest rise and then
remove your mouth and let the victim
exhale while you take another deep
breath. As soon as you hear the victim
breathe out, replace your mouth over
his, or her, mouth or nose and repeat
the procedure.
Repeat this procedure of giving one
breath and allowing the victim to exhale
about once every five seconds or about
12 times per minute.
Try to breathe at a normal rate so
that you do not overbreathe or
hyperventilate and become light-headed
or lose consciousness.
Hyperventi1 ation can cause
unconsciousness. Hyperventilation
causes decreased blood flow to the brain
by decreasing the carbon dioxide
concentration in the blood. A decreased
blood flow to the brain can also be
caused by an increased concentration of
oxygen.
3-25
-------
NOTES
Emergency Treatment for Stopped
Circulation
The third most serious medical
emergency is loss of blood circulation.
Blood circulation can be stopped because
of a heart attack, cardiac arrest or
fibrillation resulting from electrical
shock, or cardiac paralysis from
exposure to high concentrations of a
toxic gas such as hydrogen sulfide. If
blood circulation stops, breathing will
usually stop too.
If the victim has no apparent
pulse, his, or her, heart may have
stopped or it may be beating so
irregularly that it is not circulating
blood effectively.
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR)
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)
is a basic life-support technique used
in a medical crisis when the victim is
not breathing and it is possible that
her, or his, heart has stopped beating.
The technique involves:
1. opening and clearing the
victim's airway (by tilting the head
backward)
2. providing oxygen to the blood
(by mouth-to-mouth resuscitation)
3. and restoring blood circulation
(by external cardiac compression)
The first two steps can be done
effectively with the instructions in
this unit. However, restoring
circulation cannot be learned
effectively on the spot. Cardiac
compression should be learned and
practiced in a classroom with qualified
instructors. A course in CPR is
strongly recommended for every person
working in field activities.
3-26
-------
NOTES
Cardiac compression should not be
applied when the heart is beating
normally, and it should not be continued
when the heart begins to beat again.
Information provided in this unit
is not designed to take the place of a
complete course of instruction and
practice under the direction of a
qualified instructor. All training
programs should adhere to the standards
in JAMA "Supplement on Standards for
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) and
Emergency Cardiac Care (ECC), 18
February 1974, Vol. 227, Number 7.
Introduction to CPR Techniques
Sudden death or cardiac arrest (the
sudden, unexpected stopping of breathing
and circulation) may occur as the first
and only indication of heart disease or
heart attack. It may also occur in
individuals with known heart disease and
especially during heart attack. Within
seconds after cardiac arrest occurs, the
victim loses consciousness and breathing
stops. If CPR is started promptly, the
person has a good chance of surviving.
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR)
is a basic, life-saving technique for
sudden cardiac or respiratory arrest
pioneered by the American Heart
Association. CPR involves a combination
of mouth-to-mouth breathing or other
ventilation techniques and chest
compression. This technique provides
basic emergency life support until more
advanced life support can be added.
More important, it keeps oxygenated
blood flowing to the brain and other
vital organs until appropriate medical
treatment can restore normal heart
action.
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation is
based on three basic rescue skills, the
"ABC's of CPR."
3-27'
-------
NOTES
Airway
The most important action for
successful resuscitation is immediate
opening of the airway. In opening the
airway, it is important to remember that
the back of the tongue is the most
common cause of airway obstruction in
the unconscious victim. Since the
tongue is attached to the lower jaw,
moving the lower jaw forward lifts the
tongue from the back of the throat and
opens the airway.
Breathing
When breathing stops, the body has
only the oxygen remaining in the lungs
and bloodstream. It has no oxygen
reserve. Therefore/ when breathing
stops, cardiac arrest and death quickly
follow. Rescue breathing by mouth-to-
mouth resuscitation is the quickest,
most effective way to get oxygen into
the victim's lungs. There is more than
enough oxygen in the air you exhale to
supply the victim's needs. Rescue
breathing must be performed until the
victim can breathe on her, or his, own
or until training professionals take
over. Remember: If the victim's heart
is beating, you must (1) maintain an
open airway and (2) breathe for the
victim at a rate of 12 times per minute
(once every 5 seconds). If the victim's
heart is not beating, you will have to
perform CPR (mouth-to-mouth
resuscitation PLUS chest compression).
Circulation
The third skill of CPR is chest
compression which replaces the
circulation (heartbeat) of the victim.
This procedure results in the flow of
blood from the heart to the lungs,
brain, and other major organs.
Remember, never perform chest
compression on a victim unless mouth-to-
mouth breathing accompanies the attempt.
Airway
Breathing
3-28'
-------
NOTES
Performance Guidelines and Rationale
Single Rescuer CPR
STEP 1
Activity
Establish unresponsiveness and call
out for help. Position the victim (4-10
seconds)
Critical Performance
Tap, gently shake shoulders and
shout: "Are you OK?" Call out "help."
Turn if necessary, supporting head and
neck. Take adequate time.
Rationale
One concern about teaching people
CPR is the risk of unnecessary
resuscitation and possible damage from
unnecessarily resuscitating sleepers,
fainters, etc. A call for help will
summon nearby bystanders.
Frequently the victim will be face
down. Effective CPR can only be
provided with the victim flat on the
back. The head cannot be above the
level of the heart or CPR is
ineffective.
Accurate diagnosis is important.
Four to 10 seconds gives time to do that,
STEP 2
Activity
Establish
listen, feel).
breath 1essness (look,
(3-5 seconds)
Critical Performance
Kneel beside victim's shoulder;
upper hand on forehead, lower hand
either under neck or lifting chin. The
chin lift uses the lower hand to lift
the chin while the neck lift uses the
3-29-
-------
NOTES
lower hand to support the neck. The
chin should be lifted so that the teeth
are nearly brought together. Avoid
completely closing the mouth. Turn your
head toward the victim's foot with your
ear directly over and close to victim's
mouth. Listen and feel for evidence of
breathing. Look for respiratory effort
(rise and fall of the chest).
Rationale
The airway must be opened to
establish breathlessness. Many victims
may be making efforts at respiration
that are ineffective because of
obstruction by the tongue.
Hearing and feeling are the only
true ways of determining the presence of
breathing. If there is chest movement
but you cannot feel or hear air, the
airway is still obstructed.
STEP 3
Activity
f wfl
Four ventilations (3-5 seconds).
Critical Performance
Pinch off nostrils with thumb and
forefinger of upper hand while
maintaining pressure on victim's
forehead to keep the head tilted.
Open your mouth widely, take a deep
breath and make tight seal. Breathe
into victim's mouth four times with
complete refilling of your lungs after
each breath. Watch victim's chest rise.
Ventilations must be given in rapid
succession. These are "building
breaths"--that is, the victim's lungs
should not fully deflate after each
breath.
Head Tilt— Chin Lift
or Head Tilt.— Neck Uft
3-30
-------
NOTES
Rationale
When you
breathing, it
much oxygen as
If your rescue
you will:
are beginning rescue
is important to get as
possible to the victim.
breathing is effective,
* feel air going in as you blow
*feel the resistance of the
victim's lungs
* feel your own lungs emptying
* see the rise and fall of the
victim's chest and belly.
STEP 4
Activity
(5-10
Establish pulselessness
seconds).
Activate the EMS System
Critical Performance
Place 2-3 fingers on voice box just
below chin. Slide fingers into groove
between voice box and muscle, on side
next to rescuer. Other hand maintains
head tilt.
Palpate the carotid pulse.
Know your local EMS or rescue unit
telephone number. Send second rescuer
to cal1.
Rationale
This activity should take 5 to 10
seconds because it takes time to find
the right place, and the pulse itself
may be slow or very weak and rapid. The
victim's condition must be properly
assessed.
Notification of the EMS system at
this time allows the caller to give
complete information about the victim's
condition.
3-31
-------
NOTES
STEP 5
Activity
Begin first cycle: 15 compressions
and 2 ventilations (54-66 seconds).
Critical Performance
To begin first cycle:
Move to victim's chest. Run
fingers up lower margin of the rib cage
and locate sternal notch with middle
finger. With index finger on sternum,
place heel of hand closest to head on
sternum next to, but not covering, index
finger. Place second hand on top of
first.
Position body:
Weight is transmitted vertically,
elbows should be straight and locked,
shoulders over hands.
Say mnemonic at proper rate and
ration. (Count aloud to establish
rhythm; "one-and-two-and-three-and-
four-and"...)
Compress smoothly and evenly,
keeping fingers off victim's ribs. The
rescuer must apply enough force to
depress the sternum 1 1/2-2 inches, at a
rate of 80 compressions per minute.
Ventilate properly:
After every 15 compressions,
deliver 2 rescue breaths.
Rationale
Precise hand placement is essential
to avoid serious injury.
50% of compression is downward to
empty the heart, 50% of
compression/relaxation is upward to fill
the heart. With each compression, you
3-32-
-------
NOTES
want to squeeze the heart or increase
pressure within the chest so that blood
moves to the vital organs.
Adequate oxygenation must be
maintained.
STEP 6
Activity
At the end of 4 cycles, check for
return of pulse and breathing.
Critical Performance
Check pulse and breathing. If no
pulse, resume CPR. If there is a pulse
but no breathing, apply rescue
breathing.
Rationale
To establish whether there is a
spontaneous return of pulse or
breathing.
Now that we have discussed the
three most serious medical emergencies
that might occur during field activi-
ties, let's discuss six other medical
emergencies that could be very serious
or life-threatening.
Traumatic injuries to the head,
neck or back
Shock resulting from injuries
Overexposure to heat or cold
Thermal burns that are deep or
extensive
Inhalation of toxic gas
Chemical contact that is
concentrated or extensive
Emergency Treatment for Head, Neck and
Back Injuries
Head Injury ,/^-^^
Any time a person is found ' ^ •
unconscious, assume that a head injury
3-33
-------
NOTES
is possible and
accordingly.
treat the victim
Maintain an open airway so that the
person will be able to breathe. Keep
the person lying down, quiet and
comfortably warm. Do not move the
person any more than may be necessary to
maintain an open airway.
Neck Injury
If a person has a neck injury, it
is particularly important to prevent the
head from moving in any direction and
damaging the spinal cord. If the person
is having difficulty breathing, tilt the
head back slightly and very gently to
maintain an open airway.
Back Injury
Maintain an open airway so that the
person will be able to breathe. Keep
the person lying down, quiet and
comfortably warm. Do not move the
person any more than may be necessary to
maintain an open airway.
Moving Persons with Head, Neck or Back
Injuries
If it is necessary to move someone
who has possible head, neck or back
injuries, it is important to keep the
head from moving in a different
direction, sideways, backward or
forward. It is important to keep the
back from bending in any direction. Do
not let the victim's neck or back twist
or bend.
If it is necessary to rescue a
person with a neck or back injury, or to
move the victim in an emergency, take
special steps to keep the head in line
with the body and to keep the body from
bending or twisting. If an injured
person has to be dragged to safety,
pull the person in the direction of the
length of the body by the armpits or by
3-34
-------
NOTES
the legs.
In some cases, a board can be used
to immobilize an injured person's neck
or back. The board should be tied to
the person's body around the forehead,
under the armpits and around the hips or
lower abdomen.
To prevent neck injuries a towel or
newspaper can be rolled into a collar
about four inches wide and used to
immobilize the victim's head. The
collar is wrapped around the injured
person's neck and tied in place gently
but firmly (to hold it in place without
constricting the person's throat or
putting too much pressure on the
person's neck.)
If it is necessary to transport
someone with a neck or back injury to a
hospital, keep the person lying down and
try to keep the person's head and body
in their normal position. The person's
neck and back can be pillowed with some
soft objects such as folded sweaters,
shirts or newspapers.
Emergency Treatment for Heat and Cold
Stress
See Heat and Cold Stress Unit.
Emergency Treatment for Thermal Burns
Thermal burns can be life-
threatening if they are deep, extensive
or located on critical areas of the
body. Burns on the hands, feet, face
and genital areas are especially
dangerous.
This section is limited to a
discussion of emergency treatment for
severe thermal burns. (Burns that cause
blistering are classified as second-
degree burns, and burns that char or
burn through the skin are classified as
third-degree burns.)
3-35
-------
NOTES
Any thermal burn from hot chemicals
should be recognized and treated not
only as a thermal burn, but also as a
chemical exposure that may require
additional treatment for effects of the
chemical on the skin and in the body.
Chemical burns will be discussed in a
later section of this unit.
aid
The objectives of emergency first
for serious burns are to:
Prevent further injury and promote
healing.
Prevent and treat shock.
Prevent contamination.
Preventing Further Injury
Thermal burns can cause further
injury if a person runs with clothing
on fire, or if no action is taken to
cool hot or burning clothing and the
burned skin.
Thermal burns will be serious if a
person's clothing catches fire, and they
can be fatal if the person runs (as some
are likely to do). It is vital to stop
a person from running if her, or his,
clothing is on fire, and to get her, or
him, to drop to the floor or ground so
that the flames will not burn as rapidly
and so that the person's face is not in
the path of smoke and flames. As soon
as the person is horizontal, try to
snuff out the flames and cool smoldering
clothing. Roll the person, use a fire
blanket, use water, or even use a fire
extinguisher. Then treat the person for
the thermal burns and for shock.
Burns on the face, nose or mouth
may be accompanied by burns within the
airway that will keep the person from
breathing. Be sure a person with such
burns is breathing. Maintain an open
airway and give mouth-to-mouth
resuscitation if necessary.
3-36
-------
NOTES
Usually the first emergency measure
in case of serious thermal burns is to
stop further burn injury by cooling the
burned area. Thermal burns will
continue to get worse as long as hot,
smoldering or melted clothing is in
contact with the skin, and as long as
the skin is much hotter than normal.
Hot wet clothing should be removed
immediately. If you try to remove
burned clothing from the victim, be
careful not to remove any of his skin
that may be sticking to the clothing.
Use of ice or ice water is not
recommended to cool third degree burns
because it may intensify the shock
reaction. Use of water is not
recommended where the skin is broken
because the water may increase the
danger of infection.
Preventing and Treating Shock from
Burns
Shock can complicate every type of
burn. A person with "burn shock" may
die unless she, or he, receives
immediate first aid. In "burn shock"
there is a massive loss of fluid from
the burned areas. There may not be
enough blood volume left to keep the
brain, heart, and other organs
functioning normally.
Have victim lie down. Place
victim's head and chest a little lower
than the rest of the body. Elevate the
legs slightly if possible.
If the victim is conscious and can
swallow, give the person plenty of non-
alcoholic liguids to drink (water, tea,
coffee, dilute salt solution).
All thermal burns that destroy the
skin (third degree burns) and all
thermal burns that cause blistering on
large or critical areas should be seen
by a medical facility as soon as
possible.
3-37'
-------
NOTES
Preventing Contamination
Place the cleanest available cloth
material over all burned body areas to
exclude air and prevent contamination.
A covering for burns should be dry.
Clean newspaper can be substituted if no
clean cloth is available.
Emergency Treatment for Shock Resulting
from Injuries
Any serious traumatic injury can
also cause shock which can be life-
threatening. Shock depresses normal
body functions by causing the blood to
pool in the body core so that
insufficient oxygen reaches the brain
and other vital organs.
Shock can result as a side effect
of all serious injuries, from traumatic
loss of blood or other body fluids, and
from too little oxygen reaching the
lungs. Shock should be expected in
any serious medical emergency during
field activities. First aid for any
life-threatening emergency should always
include prompt treatment for shock.
Signs and symptoms of shock can
include:
Restlessness, anxiety, unusual
thirst, weakness, unresponsiveness
Eyes that look dull and sunken,
pupils widely dilated
Skin cool and clammy, or pale or
bluish
Breathing rapid, shallow,
irregular
Pulse rapid and weak
To treat or prevent shock:
Keep the victim lying down.
3-38'
-------
NOTES
Keep the airway open.
Raise the victim's feet if you can
safely do so.
Keep the victim warm enough to
prevent loss of body heat.
Give fluids only if the victim does
not have head or abdominal injuries, and
if it will be more than one hour before
the victim can reach a hospital. Do not
give alcoholic beverages or stimulants.
Try to reassure the victim and keep
him calm.
Emergency Treatment for Inhalation of
Toxic Gas
The first step in emergency
treatment for inhalation of toxic gas is
to get the exposed person out of the
toxic atmosphere exposure, without
exposing anyone else and multiplying the
problem. Unless the toxic gas exposure
was the result of a sudden localized
leak or a passing cloud of gas (a
transient exposure), rescue will require
two people equipped and trained to use
self-contained breathing apparatus. (In
some very unusual atmospheres that might
exist within a chemical plant, fully-
encapsulating suits may also be required
for safe rescue. See the unit on
Industrial Plant Hazards for detailed
information on hydrogen cyanide.)
Death or serious injury may be
prevented by removing the exposed person
from the exposure area and by providing
mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. If there
is an antidote for the chemical
exposure, it should be available if
there has been adequate preparation.
Once a person exposed to a toxic
gas or vapor has been removed from the
exposure, it is safe to administer
mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. There
3-39-
-------
NOTES
will be very little gas or vapor in the
respiratory system of the exposed person
and what there is will be exhaled
gradually (in dilute concentrations)
only after the rescuer has forced air
into the victim and taken his mouth away
from the victim's mouth.
Inhalation of a few breaths of
concentrated toxic gases or vapors of
some chemicals is likely to be followed
by almost instantaneous collapse and
cessation of breathing (examples are
hydrogen sulfide and hydrogen cyanide).
However, even if breathing stops because
of such an exposure, the heart will
usually continue beating for some time.
Therefore, immediate mouth-to-mouth
resuscitation and emergency medical
treatment are very effective in
preventing death.
If a person exposed to a toxic gas
or vapor is not breathing, give mouth-
to-mouth resuscitation (or some other
form of artificial respiration) until
normal breathing resumes or until a
resuscitator is available. (If a toxic
liquid has been splashed on the victim's
face, wash it off quickly before you
begin mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.)
Continuing emergency treatment of a
person exposed to a toxic gas or vapor
should include treatment for shock and
keeping the exposed person as quiet as
possible. Do not give the exposed
person any alcoholic beverage.
Emergency Treatment for Chemical Contact
by Splashes
Chemicals in contact with the eyes
and skin can cause serious or life-
threatening emergencies that must be
treated quickly. One drop of corrosive
chemical in an eye can cause permanent
blindness and splashes or corrosive
chemicals on the skin can cause
permanent tissue destruction. Some
chemicals splashed on a large portion of
3-40
-------
NOTES
the body can cause death if they are not
washed off quickly.
Washing splashed chemicals from the
eyes and body is the most important
emergency treatment. It takes
precedence over seeking medical
assistance.
If chemicals come in contact with
the eyes or body, flush the chemicals
off as quickly and as thoroughly as
possible. Use copious amounts of
potable water and wash for at least 15
minutes. Splashes of hot, concentrated
or corrosive chemicals will usually
require washing for a longer period, up
to several hours.
In case of chemical splashes in the
eyes or on more than a small area of the
skin, emergency treatment by flushing
with water should always be followed by
medical examination. Make sure that the
medical facility knows as much as
possible about the chemicals splashed or
contacted, particularly if the chemical
may have been absorbed so that further
diagnosis and treatment are needed.
(There have been deaths as the result of
material absorbed from massive splashes
with chromates and nitrates.)
Emergency Treatment for Chemical
Splashes in the Eyes
The most important emergency
measure, if chemicals are splashed in
the eyes, is immediate washing of the
eyes with large quantities of potable
water. To wash the eyes and exposed
surfaces effectively, hold the eyelids
open and try to get the injured person
to roll his eyes while you are
irrigating with water. The eyes and the
inside of the eyelids should be washed
for at least 15 minutes before any
effort is made to go to a medical
facility for follow-up treatment.
3-41
-------
NOTES
Immediate washing with water is
essential, and only a few seconds delay
can result in some permanent damage.
Washing the eyes thoroughly is more
important than reaching a medical
facility, and washing should not be
delayed for any reason. A victim should
be transported for medical attention
only after a thorough washing.
Chemical burns to the eyes may be
aggravated by soft or extended-wear
contact lenses which can accumulate some
chemicals. Hard contact lenses may
complicate effective irrigation of the
eyes, even though they may not aggravate
a chemical injury.
Eyes should not be irrigated with
any neutralizing agents as an emergency
treatment. Any neutralizing solution is
less effective than plain water, because
of the physiological characteristics of
the eye. Any acid in a neutralizing
solution will tend to react with the
protein in the cornea to form an
insoluble barrier which will prevent
washing out of any alkaline solution
trapped under the barrier. Medical
tests have shown that washing with
potable water is the most effective
emergency treatment available in field
situations.
Emergency Treatment for Chemical
Splashes on the Skin
The most important emergency
measure in case chemicals are splashed
on the skin is immediate washing with
large quantities of potable water. To
keep chemicals splashed on clothing from
being washed through the cloth or onto
the skin, remove splashed clothing and
wash the chemicals from skin with large
quantities of water. Speed and thorough
washing are important to reduce the
extent of injury.
If the chemical has splashed on the
victim's face or been inhaled, it will
3-42'
-------
NOTES
be important to see that there is an
open airway so the victim can breathe.
Remove all contaminated clothing
and shoes, and all clothing that may
accumulate contaminated wash water. In
case of a splash on the body, it will
usually be necessary to remove all
clothing.
Physical removal of splashed
chemicals may be speeded up by use of a
wash cloth or by use of a detergent. In
no case, however, should any attempt be
made to neutralize splashed chemicals.
Since washing chemicals off of a
person will dilute and spread the
chemicals, rescuers should recognize the
potential spread of contamination to
themselves and the immediate
environment. If gloves and protective
clothing are available within a few
seconds, so there is very little delay
in emergency washing, the rescuers may
want to wear the protection to reduce
their contact with splashed chemicals.
After the victim has been washed, the
rescuers will have to wash themselves to
prevent any injury from the chemical
which has been washed off the victim.
The cold water from a hose or
safety shower will reduce chemical
activity and burning during the initial
15 minute flushing. For prolonged
washing it will be desirable to find a
source of water in which the temperature
can be adjusted to prevent traumatic
shock.
If the area of chemical contact is
extensive or the period of washing has
to be prolonged, you will have to treat
the victim for shock. If the splashed
person is conscious and can swallow,
give him plenty of non-alcoholic liquids
to drink.
3-43'
-------
ONIT 4 HEAT AND COLD STRESS
EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES NOTES
o The student should be able to
recognize the causes of heat stress.
o The student should be able to
identify the symptoms of heat stroke.
o The student should be able to
identify the symptoms of heat
exhaustion.
o The student should be able to
identify the symptoms of heat cramps.
o The student should be able to
identify the symptoms of sunburn.
o The student should be able to
list the ways heat stress can be
prevented.
o The student should be able to
summarize the medical treatments for
various degrees of heat stress.
o The student should be able to
identify the causes of cold stress.
o The student should be able to
identify the symptoms of Hypothermia.
o The student should be able to
identify the symptoms of frostbite.
o The student should be able to
identify the symptoms of frostnip.
o The student should be able to
list the ways cold stress can be
prevented.
o The student should be able to
summarize the medical treatments for
various degrees of cold stress.
4-1
-------
HEAT AND COLD STRESS
NOTES
Field crews often experience a
variety of problems and discomforts. By
careful training and preparedness many
of these problems can be circumvented or
prevented. In the case of adverse
weather conditions, personnel must rely
on careful preparation before going out
in the field. Early recognition of
signs of weather related health problems
and a well organized and rehearsed emer-
gency treatment program are needed.
Heat Stress
Warm blooded animals such as the
human being maintain a very precise body
temperature. A slight deviation from
the normal 98.6 internal temperature can
dramatically alter the behavior of the
body and its functions. As external
temperatures are increased, heat due to
metabolism, increase internal tempera-
ture, and the body responds by working
to reduce the unwanted heat. The result
is increased heat rate, body tempera-
ture, respiration and perspiration or
heat stress. This additional burden on
the body functions can result in a var-
iety of adverse health effects ranging
from cramps to collapse and even death.
CAUSES
Heat stress is caused by external
heat sources such as high ambient air
temperature and direct sunlight or
internal sources such as heavy work or
protective gear such as encapsulated
suits or SCBA units.
EXTERNAL HEAT SOURCES
Advanced planning and preparation
will lessen the chance of adverse
health effects from high temperature.
Work which reguires long hours in the
sun should be scheduled if possible
in a time of the year when
temperatures are moderate. If the work
4-2
-------
must be done during the hot season
daily scheduling should be arranged so a
most of the strenuous work or work in
direct sunlight, can be accomplished in
the cooler morning or evening hours.
If possible, investigate ambient
air temperatures before scheduling work.
At some industrial sites, heat
generating processes may shut down
during certain times of the day.
Other external factors such as high
humidity and altitudes may increase the
effects of heat on the body.
INTERNAL HEAT SOURCES
Many factors may affect the amount
of heat generated by the body. Human
factors such as inadequate
acclimatization, fatigue, physical
condition, the effects of alcohol
consumption, cardiac and respiratory
conditions and some medications all can
cause increased body stress under high
temperatures. Before Agency personnel
are assigned work requiring exposure to
some form of heat stress, a Preliminary
Medical Monitoring program should be
conducted. Any indication of systemic
diseases or other physical problems
should be carefully considered before
the employee is assigned to a team
working in high stress areas.
PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT
The following factors should be
considered before committing Agency
personnel to an area of potential high
heat stress.
o Normal ambient air temperatures
for the time Agency personnel will be at
the site.
o Forecast winds and humidity
o Human factors such as medical
problems, accumulation and physical
condition of the crew.
o Exposure to direct sunlight
o Proximity of additional heat
sources such as vats, stacks, or pipes.
NOTES
4-3
-------
o Required use of heat retaining
equipment such as encapsulating suits,
respiratory gear, outer wear such as
rain gear or disposable suits
o Overall work load such as lifting
and climbing
o Amount of prior acclimatization
the crew members have had.
EMERGENCY INFORMATION
Once a site has been scheduled
advanced preparations should be made in
the event of an emergency problem. The
following steps should be taken.
o Locate your exact position on a
map. Or in an industrial site. Be sure
you can give adequate directions to
ambulance or emergency crews.
o Determine the exact location of
the nearest emergency treatment center.
In case an emergency vehicle is not
available, be sure you know how to find
the emergency center.
o Find the phone numbers of any
emergency center, emergency crew and
ambulance.
o Locate a source of water for
emergency cooling or a room that is air
conditioned.
o Make sure at least one member of
the crew is well versed in emergency
first-aid for heat stress victims.
ON-SITE WORK SCHEDULES
Plan to arrive early in the morning
while it is relatively cool. Lifting
and hauling should be done immediately.
If work is to be done during the
heat of the day in the hottest months of
the year, be sure to include time for
adequate rest periods. Rest gives the
body an opportunity to rid itself of
accumulated heat, slows production of
internal body heat, and provides greater
blood flow to the skin for cooling.
If respiratory equipment or
4-4 •
-------
encapsulating suits will be worn without
cooling vests when ambient temperatures
are expected to be over 90 degrees F,
schedule work periods of only 15 to 20
minutes at a time. Factors such as the
exact type of suit worn, provision of
cooling devices, amount of direct sun,
and the amount of physical activity
involved will affect the maximum working
time at any ambient air temperature.
EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES
Careful planning in bringing the
right equipment and supplies can not
only reduce workloads thus generation of
internal body heat, but can also protect
against or prevent the exposure that
lends to heat stress.
The following equipment and
supplies should be considered when heat
stress is a possibility:
o A reliable air thermometer for
continuous surveillance of ambient air
temperatures.
o An oral fever thermometer for
surveillance of internal body heat.
o Block and tackle for hoisting
heavy equipment.
o A large beach type umbrella or
tarpaulin to protect personnel from
direct sunlight.
o Protective heat shields,
insulating or reflective materials for
intense heat areas.
o Electric fans, blowers or other
ventilating equipment.
o Large insulated containers of
cool liquids both for drinking and
cooling.
o Towels, blankets, sponges, and a
plastic basin for emergency cooling
procedures.
o First aid kit
o Emergency communication equipment
for use between ground crews and those
at locations such as smoke stacks or
pits.
o Body replacement fluids
containing salts or other electrolytes
that are lost during perspiration, 2-3
NOTES
4-5 •
-------
NOTES
gallons per day per individual of a
solution of Gatorade, ERG, Squincher, or
salt water made up of 1 teaspoon per 5
quarts of water are required.
CLOTHING
Clothing worn by personnel should
be selected to reduce heat load. In
general clothing should be selected to
reduce heat load. In general clothing
should be light in color absorbent and
reflective. In direct sunlight special
precautions should be taken to cover the
head and wear shatter proof sun glasses.
When ambient temperatures are below 100
degrees F, clothing should be loose-
fitting, porous and preferably made of
cotton rather than synthetics or wool.
If ambient temperatures exceed 100
degrees F, loose fitting clothing
covering all exposed skin areas should
be worn.
PREPARATIONS FOR EMERGENCY TREATMENT
The possible effects of heat stress
should be taken as seriously as any
other life-threatening hazard. Field
crews should be trained to quickly
recognize the symptoms and react
accordingly. Heat stress victims should
be tended to as quickly as possible. If
help is more than 10 minutes away crew
members should administer first aid.
Vital information such as location
and phone number of emergency help,
description on crew location and
pertinent medical information of crew
members should be located in a centrally
kept place such as a crew vehicle.
Evacuation plans should be
discussed with the entire crew and, if
possible , practiced before work begins.
Stretchers, harnesses, or block and
tackle should not only be brought to the
site but made readily available to crews
that might need them.
4-6
-------
ON-GOING EVALUATION
Ambient conditions are subject to
change during a working day. Conditions
such as temperature, humidity and wind
should be recorded before work begins
and throughout the day at regular pre-
determined intervals. Two members
should be assigned this task with one
acting as a back-up in case the first
forgets or is pre-occupied. As
monitored conditions change increase
vigilance for signs of heat stress will
be necessary.
In situations where it is necessary
to be on the site for more than one day
a careful evaluation of the need for
supplies to be replenished and for new
equipment, due to changing conditions,
assessed. Remember what is the respon-
sibility of everyone quickly becomes the
responsibility on no one. Assign the
task of equipment and supply evaluation
to one responsible member of the crew.
If possible two crew members should
be given the responsibility of visually
monitoring crew members for signs of
heat stress. When one of the
responsible members is in doubt,
consultation with the other observing
member should be held. Visual checks
should be made and recorded at pre-
determined intervals. Crews should be
reminded of the necessity to replace
lost body fluids on a regular basis. It
if recommended that under heat stress,
personnel should drink every 15 minutes
to one hour depending on the heat load.
Under extreme heat conditions, oral
temperatures should be taken and
recorded at breaks to detect the onset
of heat stress problems.
Recognizing the Symptoms of Heat Stress
Heat stress manifests itself in
four disorders. From the most sever to
the least:
Heat Stroke
Heat Exhaustion
Heat Cramps
Sunburn
NOTES
4-7 •
-------
HEAT- STROKE
Heat stroke (sometimes called sun
stroke) is the most serious of the heat
stress disorders. In its most serious
form it is lethal. It results from
excessively high body temperature which
in turn disturbs or interferes with, the
body's own heat regulating system.
Normally, the body sweats producing
moisture for skin evaporation. As most
individuals know from standing wet in a
breeze, evaporation is an effective
cooling process. During heat stroke
this perspiration evaporation cooling
process is interrupted with a resultant
quick rise in internal body temperature.
Continuous exposure to high
temperatures for as little as three
hours can produce heat stroke. RAPID
COOLING IS URGENT TO PREVENT DEATH.
Symptoms of heat stroke:
Any or all of these symptoms may be
present:
o Body temperature is extremely
high, often 106 degrees and above.
o Skin is red, hot and dry. Sweating
is absent.
o Pulse is rapid and strong.
o Possible convulsion or collapse
o Possible delerium, disorientation
or unconsciousness.
If the person's body temperature is
elevated to 104 degrees F or above
(orally) but sweating is occurring, the
person is probably in a stage just be-
fore heat stroke. The person should be
treated for heat stroke.
Emergency Response to Heat Stroke
In the advent of heat stroke,
action must be taken immediately if the
life is to be saved.
o Call for emergency help
o COOL THE PERSON RAPIDLY. Remove
the person from the heat stress area, to
an air-conditioned room , vehicle, or as
NOTES
4-8
-------
a minimum to a shaded area. Remove the
person's clothing and begin to bathe the
body continuously with water, chilled if
possible. Fans or air currents such as
a hand fanning will assist in the
cooling-evaporation process. If
possible submerse the body completely in
chilled water and message continuously.
Apply cold packs if available.
In the event the victim is in a
position such as on a smoke stack where
it is difficult to immerse them in
water, remove the clothing and use a
sponge and basin to bathe the body until
help arrives. Monitor the victims body
temperature. When the back of the hand
held against the victims check indicates
normal skin temperature, or when the
internal body temperature reads 101
degrees F or below, discontinue the
cooling process. Wrap the person in a
blanket to prevent shock. If the person
is conscious, let the person sip
liquids. Do not give alcoholic
beverages or stimulants such as coffee
or tea.
If the person's body temperature
begin to rise again, repeat the cooling
process.
Prevention of Heat Stroke
The likelihood of heat stroke can
be lessened by protecting your body from
radiant heat, breaking the work day into
short work-rest periods, and drinking
enough fluids to replace those lost by
sweating.
HEAT EXHAUSTION
Heat exhaustion is also known as
heat prostration or heat collapse.
Although heat exhaustion is considered
less severe then heat stroke, it is
recognized that failure to quickly treat
heat exhaustion can lead to heat stroke.
Heat exhaustion is the result of
cardiac insufficiency stemming from
NOTES
4-9 •
-------
failure of the circulatory system to
compensate for increased blood flow
demands imposed by a need to cool the
body and from dehydration caused by
profuse sweating.
If recognized and treated
immediately, heat exhaustion usually
results in no permanent damage.
Symptoms of Heat Exhaustion
o Body temperature is normal or
slightly elevated or reduced.
o Skin is clammy and pale, moist
profuse sweating.
o Pulse may be weak with low blood
pressure.
o The person is tired and weak.
o The person may complain of
dizziness, giddines, fainting is
possible.
o Possible muscle cramps
o Possible nausea or vomiting
o The mental state is generally
rational
Emergency treatment of heat
exhaustion: Early recognition of heat
exhaustion is necessary if heat stroke
is to be prevented.
o Move the victim into shade, or a
air-conditioned room or vehicle.
o Have the person lie down.
o Elevate the feet 8"-12"
o Loosen tight fitting clothing
o If the victim is conscious, have
the person sip a glass of elecholyte
replacement solution such as Gatorade,
ERG or Squicher. Repeat every 15
minutes for 1 hour. Stop fluids if
vomiting occurs.
If the symptoms persist or return
summon medical help immediately.
Prevention of heat exhaustion
To prevent heat exhaustion,
schedule frequent rest periods. Replace
lost body fluids by drinking electrolyte
liquids every 15 minutes to one hour.
NOTES
4-10'
-------
Heat Cramps
NOTES
Agency personnel working prolonged
hours where profuse sweating takes place
experience painful muscle pains and
spasms known as heat cramps. Although
not life-treating, the resultant painful
cramps may hinder work or cause a
potential hazardous situations such as
when working at heights.
Heat cramps are caused by the loss
of salts (electrolytes) due to sweating
over a long period of time. Simple
replacement of lost fluids with water
without electrolyte may be insufficient
to prevent heat cramps.
Symptoms of Heat Cramps
o Painful muscle cramps and spasms
o Heavy sweating, vomiting, and/or
convulsions.
o Normal, or near normal, pulse and
blood pressure
o Rational behavior
Emergency Treatment for Heat Cramps
o Quiet rest in a cool shaded area.
o Gentle massage of affected area.
o If the person is not vomiting,
give electrolyte fluids every 15 minutes
for on hour.
Medical Treatment of Heat Cramps
If the heat cramps are not relieved
by giving fluids and the symptoms
persist, the victims should be
transported to the nearest medical
facility. Persistant symptoms may be
symptomatic of heat exhaustion or the
beginning of heat stroke.
Prevention of Heat Cramps
o Salt food more heavily than
normal
o Drink electrolyte solutions
o Eat salty food during heavy sweat
producing activities. (Salt tablets are
no longer recommended for general use.)
4-11
-------
If you are on a low sodium diet or
are taking diuretics, consult your
physician in advance of field activities
about replacement of salts. Be sure to
explain any such problems to your crew
leader.
SUNBURN
Sunburn is the least serious of the
four heat disorders although by far the
most common. It can result in painful,
red, swollen or blistered skin that may
result in the inability to continue
work. Advanced cases may require
medical treatment and should be viewed
as a precurser to more serious heat
disorders.
Sunburn is usually a first-degree
burn of the epidermis or first layer of
skin. The affects of a sunburn may not
be noticed or felt for many hours after
exposure.
Symptoms of Sunburn
NOTES
o Skin redness
o Pain
o Swelling
oln severe cases,
nausea, vomiting, chills
blisters.
Emergency Treatment of Sunburn
o Put cold water on the burned area
as quickly as possible.
o Severe burns should be submerged
in cold water or soaked with wet cloths.
o Elevate burned limbs
o Do not break blister that would
increase the chance of infection.
Medical Treatment of Sunburn
o Seek medical help if pain,
chills, and vomiting persist.
Prevention of Sunburn
The first line of defense against
sunburn is to cover exposed parts such
4-12'
-------
as the head, arms and legs. Those
individuals whose job requires a great
deal of exposure to the sun should take
steps to gradually expose the skin to
the sun for 20 minute intervals per day,
extending the time as the skin builds it
own natural protection in; the form of a
tan. If this is not possible or as a
safe-guard for overexposure, sun lotions
and sun shields should be used.
Lotion and ointments come in
various degrees of protection. Those
Agency personnel with fair skin or being
exposed for the first time should use
maximum protection. The level of
protection should be gradually reduced
as the skin tans.
Heavy sweating can reduce the
protection levels of ointments and
lotion in time. Personnel experience
heavy perspiration should reapply
protection approximately every hour.
It should be remembered that the
ultraviolet rays of the sun which cause
sunburns, can penatrate thin layers of
cloud. Sunburn protection should be
worn on days that are lightly overcast.
CCLD STRESS
EPA personnel are often required to
perform field work in cold weather.
Such conditions can lead to severe
health problems ranging from skin injury
to loss of fingers and toes, from frost-
bite and even death due to hypothermia.
It is imperative for EPA employees'
health and safety that adequate planning
and preparation be undertaken prior to
exposure to cold weather conditions.
Causes of Cold Stress
The human body functions normally
within a very narrow range of internal
body temperatures. Although the body is
capable of compensating for loss of body
NOTES
4-13'
-------
heat for short period of time, a drop of
only 5 degrees of internal body
temperature usually results in
disruption of normal activities. To
prevent this sudden loss of body heat,
Agency personnel should recognize the
ways in which heat can be lost.
BCCY HEAT LOSS
o Radiation
o .Conduction
o Convection
o Evaporation
RADIATION
Radiation is the loss of heat
through the radiation of heat from the
body. Exposed skin areas because of the
heat can lose as much as 25% of the
body's heat. Prevention of this type of
heat loss is primarily by insulation, in
the form of adequate clothing, such as
hats, gloves, thermal underwear.
CONDUCTION
Conduction is the loss of heat
when it is transferred to other
objects; ladders, metal surfaces, wet
clothing, snow, ice, or water all
resulting in the quick loss of heat.
Care should be taken to wear waterproof
gloves and clothes when near wet
surfaces. Gloves should always be left
on during contact with highly conductive
materials. Clothes that are wet should
be dried or changed immediately.
CONVECTION
The loss of heat due to the
movement of air currents is dramatic.
Winds can result in body heat loss with
unbelievable speed. In many areas
weather forecasts include the estimated
effect of winds on the body with what is
called the wind chill index. The wind
chill index allows you to estimate the
equivalent temperature based on the
thermometer reading and the wind speed
(see Figure 4-1 ). By determining the
wind chill judgements can be made about
NOTES
4-14
-------
scheduling field activities and the
amount and type of clothes to be taken.
To prevent loss of heat due to
convection wind proof gear such as
rubber, vinyl or poplin should be worn.
FIGURE 4-1
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WIHO CHIU EOUIYAIEHT TEMPERATURE TABLE
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EVAPORATION
Evaporation is a very effective
natural cooling process. Moisture for
evaporation can come from external
sources such as rain or snow or internal
sources such as perspiration. External
sources can be prevented by waterproof
gear. The same waterproof gear can also
minimize heat loss due to evaporation of
sweat.
Evaporation of sweat can also be
reduced by wearing highly absorbent
clothing next to the skin.
HUMAN FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO
COLD STRESS
Before Agency personnel are
assigned to field activities with the
possibility of cold stress, an analysis
of their general physical condition
should be carried out to ascertained the
following factors that can contribute to
cold stress.
o Cardiac or respiratory conditions
o Fatigue or lack of acclimatiza-
tion
'• r
11 r
•
•
ii •
n
i
i
NOTES
4-15
-------
o Inadequate sleep, food, or water NOTES
o Dehydration
PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT
Although little can be done about
the weather, advance planning and
preparations can spell the difference
between worker hardships and reasonably
comfortable working conditions.
Crew chief is responsible for
scheduling and should access weather
conditions carefully during the period
Agency personnel will be at the site.
The possibility of high winds, low
temperatures, snow, or rain must be
carefully weighed before a site is
scheduled.
On-site conditions such as the
openness of the work area, availability
of warm shelter, warm food and drinks
and drinking water must all be
considered against predicted weather
conditions.
Availability of Crew Members
If continuous Agency activity is
required consideration should be given
to assigning enough crew members to
allow alternate personnel to continue
the activity while others warm
themselves.
Carbon monoxide poisoning and
asphyxziation are always a danger when
vehicles or heaters are used. Care
should be taken to ensure adequate vent-
ilation where these alternate heating
sources are used.
PREPARATION AND PLANNING FOR COLD
WEATHER WORK
A great deal of unfavorable working
conditions can be avoided by careful and
thoughtful planning. Check weather con-
ditions before scheduling outdoor work
in highly exposed areas. Plan to rotate
crews regularly. Determine the avail-
ability of shelter and food.
4-16'
-------
Prepare a checklist of required
clothing, supplies, and equipment needed
for anticipated conditions. Arrange for
temporary shelter if none exists at the
site. Arrange and discuss emergency
plans for treatment and evacuation if
necessary. Prepare for a change of
scheduling if prevailing weather condi-
tions change during scheduled
activities. Carry a portable radio or
monitoring equipment to keep informed of
predicted or changing weather
conditions. Locate communications
equipment such as two way radios or
telephones. Schedule activities to make
maximum use of the warmer daylight
hours, including equipment retrevial and
egress from the site. Make allowances
in scheduling for the extra time and
added fatigue heavy clothing adds.
Assign two members of a team to monitor
weather on a regular basis and to
evaluate the physical condition of team
members. Prepare supplies, equipment,
clothing, blankets, and food for the
worst possible scenerio of being
stranded at the site.
NOTES
SELECTION OF CLOTHING FCP COLD
WEATPEB WOFK
The proper selection of clothing is
the best possible defense against cold
stress. Clothing should be selected
keeping three factors in mind:
o Insulation Value
o Absorption ability
o Wind resistance
Studies have shown that multiple
layers of clothing have more insulating
volume than single thick layers of equal
thickness. Each layer traps air between
it and the next layer to provide an
effective insulation layer. Multiple
layers also have the advantage of being
removable one at a time as weather
conditions or work may load dictate.
Inner layers should be porous as in
insulating underwear. Outer layers
would be non-porous, wind and water
proof. Intermediate layers should be of
4-17'
-------
good insulating properties such as found
in woo1.
NOTES
In determining protective clothing,
be sure to give special consideration to
the head, hands, and feet, the three
areas of the body most commonly injured
by cold.
Heat loss from the head is much
greater than the ratio of surface area
exposed to the rest of the body. As
much as 25% of the entire body heat loss
may come from the head alone. Head
covering should be well lined and loose
fitting with a means of protecting the
ears. Since EPA personnel often are in
areas exposed to high winds, some means
of securing the protection to the head
should be considered. Hard hats are
often inadequate for heat loss
protection. Insulating head protection
should be selected to accommodate hard
hats if requires.
Protection for hands and feet
should be selected with the same
properties in mind as head protection.
Well insulated but loosely fitting
materials should be selected. Fur lined
mittens with water resistant covering
are the best, although gloves may be
required for dexerity. Fur lined or
insulated boots in a size larger than
normally warn during warmer weather will
allow for air space insulation and
multiple layers of socks. Boots should
be of water proof material such as
rubber or leather, treated with water
proofing. In some instances steel toed
boots will be required. Soles should be
designed for sure footing on slippery
surfaces or in snow. Always carry extra
pairs of socks and gloves. Wet gloves
or socks quickly lose their insulation
value and can materially add to body
heat loss. Wet socks or gloves should
be changed immediately.
SYMPTOMS OF COLD STRESS DISORDERS
Hypothermia
Hypothermia
is the progressive
4-18'
-------
lowering of body temperatures with
accompanying rapid and progressive men-
tal and physical collapse. Hypothermia
is the most serious of the cold stress
disorders and is responsible for the
largest percentage of cold stress fatal-
ities.
A number of factors can induce or
speed up the onset of hypothermia.
Extended exposure to cold with
aggravating circumstances such as
moisture, winds, fatigue, hunger, and
inadequate clothing or shelter, and
heavy perspiration with rapid cooling
all play a role in hypothermia.
Hypothermia usually occurs between
the temperatures of 30 - 50 degrees F,
temperatures that most people believe
are not dangerous. Crew members should
be alert for symptoms of hypothermia,
especially when temperatures are drop-
ping rapidly or when they are exposed to
rain, snow, or ice.
Hypothermia is extremely rapid when
the body is submerged in cold water.
Even moderately cold water at 65 degrees
F and below quickly robs the body of
vital heat. Unconsciousness and death
may occur as rapidly as thirty minutes
after submersion in water temperatures
of 32 degrees F. Crew members that have
been totally submerged in cold water
should be treated as extreme emergency
cases. Table 4-1 gives the comparison
between exposure to water temperatures
and unconsciousness.
Table 4-1
Jime of Life Expectancy in Water With No Exposure Suit
'TIKI I
NOTES
n.i
iw
10* f
-------
In the early stages of hypotermia
the body begins to lose heat faster than
it can produced it and it makes efforts
to stay warm by shivering. When the
body can no longer generate heat fast
enough to overcome heat loss and when
energy reserves are exhausted, a second
stage begins. The body temperature
begins to drop. This affects the
ability of the brain to make rational
judgements and may result in loss of
muscular control of consciousness, as
Table 4-2 shows.
TABLE 4-2
EFFECTS OF LOSS BODY TEMPERATURES
Internal Body Temperature Symptons
NOTES
95 degress F and above
90 to 95 degress F
86 to 90 degress F
80 to 86 degress F
80 degress F and below
Person is conscious and alert,
but may have shivering that
becomes uncontrollable as
temperature nears 95 degress F.
Respiration increases at first.
Person is conscious but
disoriented and apathethic.
Shivering is present,
diminishes as temperature
drops. Below 93 degress F,
respiratory rate gradually
deminishes and pupils begin to
dilate.
Person is semi-conscious.
Shivering is replaced by
muscualr rigidity. Pupils are
fully dilated at 86 degress F.
The person is unconscious and
respiration is diminished.
Respiration is barely
detectable or nondetectable.
Death usually follows.
EMERGENCY TREATMENT
Hypothermia should be considered a major medical emergency. All
but the very mild cases should be treated by qualified medical
personnel at a medical facility. The following onsite treatment
is for very mild cases or when waiting for medical help to arrive.
4-20
-------
Mild Cases
Move victim to shelter and warmth as
soon as possible. Wet clothing should
be removed; it drains body heat.
Replace with warm dry clothing. Provide
beverages.
Severe Cases
While waiting for medical treatment
remember that in more severe cases of
hypothermia the body has lost a great
deal of internal body heat. Heavy
clothes or blankets are only of value in
keeping heat in. In the case of
hypothermia it is necessary to get
external heat to the body. Clothing
only prevents this external heat from
reaching the body. Therefore strip the
victim of his clothes. If possible
submerge the victims body in a bath of
105 to 110 degrees F water. Remain with
the patient if there is loss of mental
or physical ability or if the patient is
unconscious. If a bath is not possible,
warm towels should be wrapped around the
body particularly around the head, neck,
sides, and groin. Keep the towels warm.
Do not use hot water. If available use
electric blankets, hot water bottles or
heating pads.
Once the victim has been warmed,
wrap in blankets or sleeping bags with
an external source of heat if possible.
Although sleeping bags or blankets
provide no heat themselves, they do
prevent any further heat loss.
In remote locations with no other
heat source available lives have been
saved by body to body contact with the
victim being sandwiched between two
others.
Victims of hypothermia should be
checked for signs of frostbite.
Frostbite
Frostbite is the second most severe
manifestion of cold stress. Frostbite
is the freezing of some part of the body
NOTES
(ifi'l
•A\W
4-21
-------
as a result of exposure to very low
temperatures. Frostbite most likely
will affect hands, feet, ears, and
exposed parts of the face. As long as
circulation remains good frostbite will
not occur. The chances of frostbite
occurring increase in strong wind
conditions.
There are three stages of frostbite,
classified according to the amount of
skin damage. Severity can range from
frostnip, which only damages the surface
skin, to superficial frostbite, which
involves the skin and the tissues
immediately beneath it, to deep
frostbite, a much more serious injury
with damage that may effect deeper
tissue and even bone, often requiring
amputation.
Symptoms of Frostbite
Skin first turns red and later
becomes pale or waxy white. There may
be tingling stinging, or coldness fol-
lowed by numbness; or the frostbite may
be unnoticed by the person.
Superficial Frostbite
The skin in affected areas turns
white or gray-white with a waxy
appearance. The skin is firm to the
touch moving easily across the softer
tissue beneath. There is usually little
or no feeling in the area.
Deep Frostbite
Tissue is pale, cold and solid to
the touch. All sensation is lost.
Blisters and swelling follow thawing of
parts.
Emergency Treatment
Frostnip is easily reversed in the
field by the application of body heat.
Placing the hands under the armpits or
in other warm parts of the body will
reverse frostnip. The heat of
respiration can also help the hands. Do
not rub or massage affected areas; apply
heat.
NOTES
4-22-
-------
Superficial frostbite can be reversed NOTES
by application of body heat or external
heat
Deep Frostbite
The most effective method of
minimizing damage due to severe
frostbite is by immediate application of
external heat. Remove the victim to
warm shelter. Remove gloves boots,
socks, and other clothing that will
prevent heat from reaching the affected
area warm extremities in a carefully
controlled bath of warm water between
104 and 107 degrees F until color and
feeling return to the area. If warm
water is not available, warm packs or
towels between 100 and 112 degrees F, or
heating pads will suffice. Radiant heat
such as that from a stove, fireplace or
heater, should be used with great
caution, as burns may result before
feeling is restored. Never use snow to
thaw frostbite. Never rub or massage
frozen or damaged areas, as this in-
creases the likelihood of tissue damage.
Keep frostbitten areas elevated. Do
not allow victims to walk on frostbitten
feet. Have the victim move or exercise
toes or fingers as soon as possible.
PREVENTION OF FROSTBITE
Treatment of frostbite is a painful
experience that may result in amputation
of the affected part. If is far easier
to take the necessary steps to prevent
frostbite. Insist that crews prepare
adequately # for frostbite with warm
clothing, shelter, and team
surveillance.
4-23'
-------
UNIT 5
CHEMICAL HAZARD EECOQttTICN
NOTES
Educational Objectives
o The student should be able to
accurately define the chemical terms
needed to recognize potential hazards.
o The student should be able to
differentiate between hazardous waste,
and hazardous materials.
o The student should be able to
recognize a material as a hazardous
material or hazardous waste.
o The student should be able to
evaluate the effects of chemical and
physical properties.
o The student should be able to
determine chemical compatibility.
o The student should be proficient.
in the use of health and hazard data
resources.
CHEMICAL HAZARD RECOGNITION
Definitions
Many very important regulations
have been passed in recent years,
regarding hazardous materials and
hazardous wastes. In response to these
regulations, a great many informational
resources have been developed to assist
those affected by the regulations.
These resources can be very helpful to
those who are involved in protecting the
health and safety of all those coming in
contact with these hazardous substances
if time and effort are spent collecting
and learning to use these diverse and
sometimes very comprehensive aids. In
order to use informational resources
to recognize chemical hazards, it is
necessary to understand terms (or
"jargon").
5-1
-------
NOTES
DEPARTMENT OP TRANSPORTATION
One of the earliest efforts to
organize the handling of hazardous
materials was instituted by the
Department of Transportation (DOT) in
the 49 CFR 172.102 Hazardous Material
Tables, This comprehensive guide is
still one of the most frequently used
sources of information pertaining to
hazardous materials available. Many
other guides such as the Emergency Re-
sponse Guide (ERG), the Coast Guard's
Chemical Hazard Response Information
System (CHRIS), and the National Fire
Prevention Association's Fire Protection
Guide on Hazardous Materials utilize
definitions formulated by DOT. The
following are the most important def-
initions :
Explosive A - Materials that have a mass
explosion hazard such as TNT.
Explosive B - Materials that have a fire
hazard such as solid rocket fuels.
Explosive C - Materials that have only a
relatively small hazard as compared to
explosives A and B. Examples are common
fireworks.
Poison A - Poisonous gases or liquids
that are extremely dangerous even in
very small amounts, such as hydrogen
cyanide.
Flammable Gas - A compressed gas is
considered flammable when either a mix-
ture of 13% or less (by volume) with air
forms a flammable mixture or the flam-
mable range with air is wider than 12%
regardless of the lower limit. Methane,
Propane, and Acetylene are examples.
Nonflammable Gas - Those gases that will
not burn in any concentration of air or
oxygen. A number of these gases,
however, will support combustion.
Examples are anhydrous ammonia and
oxygen.
5-2
-------
NOTES
Flammable Liquid - Any liquid with a
flash point below 100 degrees C.
Examples are benzene, toluene/ xylene,
acrylonitrile.
Combustible Liquid - Any liquid that has
a flash point above 100 degrees C and
below 200 degrees C. Examples are fuel
oil, and creosote.
Flammable Solid - Any solid material
that is prone to cause fires through
friction or contact with water, or
spontaneous combustion and when ignited,
burn vigorously. Examples are calcium
carbide, magnesium metal, potassium
metal, sodium metal.
Oxidizers - A substance such as
chlorate, permanganate, inorganic
peroxide, or a nitrate that yields
oxygen readily to stimulate the
combustion of organic material.
Examples are calcium hypochlorite (HTH),
hydrogen peroxide, and ammonium nitrate.
Organic Peroxides - An organic compound
which contains the bivalent -O-O- struc-
ture and which may be considered a deri-
vative of hydrogen peroxide where one or
more of the hydrogen atoms have been
replaced by an organic radical.
Poison B - Those substances, liquid or
solid, other than Class A poisons or
irritating substances, that have been
considered toxic to humans or are
presumed to be toxic to because they
fall into any one of the following
categories when tested on laboratory
animals: (1) oral toxicity, (2)
inhalation toxicity, (3) skin absorption
toxicity. Examples are tetraethyl lead,
and potassium cyanide.
Irritant Materials - A liquid or solid
substance which upon contact with fire
or when exposed to air gives off
dangerous or intensely irritating fumes.
5-3
-------
NOTES
Examples are brombenzyl cyanide, chlora-
cetophenone, and tear gas.
Infectious Substance/Etiologic Agent
- A viable microorganism or its toxin,
which causes or may cause human disease
and is limited to those agents listed in
49 CFR 72.3 (c) . Examples are Polio
virus, enterotoxin, or CSorynebacterium
diphtheriae bacteria. Such agents may
be found in body parts, excreta, sewage,
diagnostic specimens, or biological
products .
Radioactive Substances - Those products
which emit various types of radiation
that consists of particles or photons of
energy, such as neutrons, gamma rays, or
x-rays. Examples are cesium, barium,
and uranium.
Corrosive Liquids - A liquid that causes
visible destruction or irreversible al-
terations in human skin or tissue at the
site of contact or in the case of leak
age from its container, a liquid that
has a severe corrosion rate on steel.
Examples are hydrochloric acid, sulfuric
acid, and hydrofluoric acid.
Corrosive Solid - A solid that causes
visible destruction or irreversible al-
ternations in human skin tissue at the
site of contact. Examples are potassium
hydroxide, soda lime, and sodium hydro-
xide.
ORM-A - Items that are anesthetic,
irritant, or noxious. Examples are
carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, 1,1,1
trichloroethane, and trichlorethylene.
ORM-B - Items which can damage vehicles
through aluminum corrosion. Examples
are metallic-mercury, and calcium oxide.
ORM-C - Catch all category. An example
is asbestos.
ORM-E - Hazardous waste category.
-------
NOTES
Usually a mixture of substances that
demonstrate one or more of the
characteristics of ignitability,
reactivity, corrosivity, EP toxicity.
The container or shipping name usually
contains the abbreviation NOS (not
otherwise specified.)
The recognition of hazardous
materials, wastes, or substances can be
further aided by the use of lists
formulated by specific acts, regulations
or agencies.
THE RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND
RECOVERY ACT (RCRA)
Under RCRA a waste is defined as
hazardous if it basically meets any of
the following criteria:
A. 1. If it exhibits
ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity,
and/or extraction procedure toxicity.
2. If it is waste from a
nonspecific source, or discarded
commercial products, off-specification
products, container residues, or spill
residues.
3. If it is a mixture of
solid waste and a hazardous waste, and
exhibits one of more of the following:
ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or
extraction procedure toxicity.
Since there are further criteria
for classifying wastes as hazardous,
students should refer to 40 CFR Part
261, subpart A for further details.
B. EPA Hazardous Characteristics
Definitions
1. Ignitability (I) - A
solid waste is considered ignitable if a
representative sample of the waste has
any of the following properties:
5-5
-------
NOTES
a. It is a liquid other
than an aqueous solution containing less
than 24% alcohol by volume and has a
flashpoint less than 60 degrees C
b. It is not a liquid
and is capable under standard
temperature and pressure, of causing
fire through friction, absorption of
moisture or spontaneous chemical changes
and, when ignited, burns so vigorously
and persistently that it creates a
hazard
c. It is an ignitable
compressed gas
d. It is an oxidizer
2. Corrosivity (C) - A solid
waste is considered corrosive if a rep-
resentative sample of the waste has
either of the following properties:
a. It is aqueous and has
a pH less than or equal to 2 or greater
than or equal to 12.5 as determined by a
pH meter or other EPA approved method
b. It is a liquid and
corrodes steel at a rate of 6.35 mm per
year at a test temperature of 130
degrees F.
3. Reactivity (R) - A solid
waste is considered reactive if a repre-
sentative sample of the waste has any of
the following properties:
a. It is normally
unstable and readily undergoes violent
change without detonating
b. It reacts violently
with water
c. It forms potentially
explosive mixtures with water
d. It generates toxic
gases, vapors, or fumes when mixed with
5-6
-------
NOTES
water in sufficient quantity to be
dangerous to human or environmental
health
e. It is a cyanide or
sulfide bearing waste which, when
exposed to pH conditions between 2.5 and
12.5 can generate gases, vapors, or
fumes which present a danger to public
or environmental health
f. It is capable of
detonation or explosive reaction if it
is subjected to a strong initiating
source or if heated under confinement
g. It is readily capable
of detonation or explosive decomposition
or reaction at STP
4. EP Toxicity (E) - A solid
waste is considered EP toxic if using
the test methods set forth in Appendix
II of Part 261, the extract from a
representative sample of the waste
contains any of the contaminants listed
in table 1 at a concentration equal to
or greater than the value given in the
table.
5-7
-------
TAHEE 5-1
Maximum concentration of contaminants
for characteristic of EP Tbxicity
EPA Maximum
hazardous Contaminant concentration
waste number (milligrams per
liter)
D004 Arsenic 5~70
D005 Barium 100.0
D006 Cadmium 1.0
D007 Chromium 5.0
D008 Lead 5.0
D009 Mercury 0.2
D010 Selenium 1.0
D011 Silver 5.0
D012 Endrin (1,2,3,4,10-10-hexa- 0.02
chloro-1,7-epoxy -4,4a,5,6,7,8,8a-octahydro-
1,4-endo-5,6-dimeth-ano-naphthalene.
D013 Lindane (1,2,3,4,5,6-hexa-chlor- 0.4
ocyclohexane, gamma isomer.
D014 Methoxychlor (1,1,1-Trichloro-
2,2-bis (p-methoxy-phenyl ethane).
D015 Texaphene (C10H10C12 Technical 0.5
chlorinated camphene 67-69%
chlorine).
DO 16 2,4D, (2,4-Dichlorophenoxyaceticacid) .10.0
D017 2,4,5-TP, Silvex (2,4,5-Trichlo- 1.0
rophenoxypropionic acid).
NOTES
5. Acute Hazardous Waste (H)
- A hazardous waste is considered acute
if it (1) exhibits characteristics
(ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity,
EP toxicity), (2) has been found to be
fatal to humans in low doses. If human
data are unavailable the following ani-
mal toxicity will be considered an oral
LD50 (rat) °f less than 50 mg/kg, an
inhalation LC50 (rabbit) of less than
200 mg/kg. It is also considered
acutely hazardous if it is otherwise
capable of causing or significantly
contributing to an increase in serious
irreversible or incapacitating
reversible illness, or (3) it contains
any of the toxic constituents listed in
Appendix A, Figure 5.
5-8
-------
NOTES
6. Toxic Waste (T) - A waste
is considered toxic if it contains any
constituent listed in Appendix A, Figure
4, using the test methods listed in 40
CFR or meets the criteria which classify
it as capable of posing a substantial
present or potential hazard to human or
environmental health when improperly
treated, stored, transported, disposed
of, or otherwise managed.
C. Hazardous Waste List - For
specific Hazardous Wastes List see
Appendix A, Figure 1.
CERCLA (SUPERFUMD)
A. Scope/Purpose - CERCLA, enacted
December 11, 1980, established broad
federal authority to deal with releases
or threats of releases of hazardous
substances from vessels and facilities.
The Act specifies an initial list of 696
hazardous substances.
The Act requires the person in
charge of a vessel or facility to notify
the National Response Center
immediately when there is a release of a
designated hazardous substance in an
amount equal to or greater than the
reportable quantity for that substance.
The main purpose of the notification
requirements is to alert governmental
officials of a release of hazardous
substances that may require rapid
response to protect public and environ-
mental health.
Appendix A, Figure 2, fulfills the
requirement of Section 306 (a) of CERCLA
that all "hazardous substances," as
defined in CERCLA, shall be listed as
hazardous materials under the Hazardous
Materials Transportation Act.
The CERCLA List also includes
substances listed in the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act, the Solid Waste
Disposal Act and the Clean Air Act.
5-9
-------
NOTES
CLEAN WATER ACT (1977)
A. Scope/Purpose - The Clean Water
Act (formerly the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act) (1972/1977) set
forth comprehensive revisions of
previously existing water pollution
control laws. Major provisions of the
Act, as amended in 1972 were:
1. Standards for direct
discharges into waters.
2. Standards for discharges
into publicly owned treatment works.
3. Provisions for responding
to, preventing, and penalizing spills of
oil and hazardous substances.
Regarding spills of oil and
hazardous substances, EPA designated a
list of hazardous substances and defined
what constitutes a harmful discharge of
both oil and each hazardous substance.
The following are chemicals listed
by EPA under Section 307 (a) of the
Clean Water Act. This list includes any
toxic pollutant or combination of
pollutants which has been determined
hazardous due to the following criteria:
1. Toxicity of the pollutant
2.Resistance of the
pollutant
3. Degradability of the
pollutant
4. Its present, or potential
toxic effects on aquatic organisms
Each toxic pollutant listed is
subject to effluent limitations
resulting from the application of the
best available technology economically
achievable. If determined by EPA,
effluent standards (which may include a
prohibition) establishing requirements
5-10'
-------
NOTES
for a toxic pollutant can be
promulgated.
B. Toxic Pollutants List - For
specific Toxic Pollutants List see
Appendix A, Figure 3.
CHEMICALS LISTED BY EPA UN3ER
SECTION 112 OF THE CLEAN AIR ACT
a. Benzene
b. Mercury
c. Radionuc 1 ides
d. Vinyl chloride
CHEMICAL TERMINOLOGY
Physical Properties
The successful use of health and
safety rescue guides, in addition to
understanding definitions, requires
knowledge of the chemistry of the
material. Chemicals by nature of their
intended use, react in a variety of ways
and demonstrate a wide degree of
physical characteristics, many of which
must be understood if they are to be
handled in a safe manner. One of the
most used information sources, the
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) relies
heavily on DOT definitions and the
physical properties of chemicals to
diagnose potential hazards.
1. Density/Specific Gravity
The density of a substance is
usually defined as mass per unit volume
or in somewhat less accurate but simpler
terms, the weight of a given substance
divided by the volume of the container
it is being measured in. The density of
1000 gms of water in a 1000 cm3
container is 1000 gms/1000 cm3 or 1 gm
per cm-3.
The significance of densities can
be noted when investigating or sampling
5-11
-------
NOTES
a drum or tank with an open top. If the
drum has been open to the accumulation
of rain water and the substance in the
drum is Benzene with a density of 0.879
gm per cm3, then the Benzene is lighter
or has less density than water and will
float on top. A sample taken from the
top will most likely include the
Benzene. Since Benzene is highly
flammable and very volatile, and to some
extent toxic, personnel working near the
container must be constantly on guard
for explosion, fire, or asphyxia.
If in the above example the
substance were Carbon disulfide with a
density of 1.274 gm/cm3, it would be
heavier than water and would sink to the
bottom of the container below the water
layer. A sampling device such as the
Coliwasa would be needed to take a true
representative sample of the container.
Little or no danger from fire,
explosion, or toxic fumes would be
present.
In sampling streams, sewers, or
ponds, if the density of the substance
is greater than 1.00 gm per cm3, then it
will be found on the bottom of the water
layer. If the density is less than 1.00
gm per cm3, then it will be found on
top. Table 5-2 is a list of some common
liquids and solids and their densities.
^ WATER
S& - i.oo
5-12'
-------
Densities of some common liquids and solids
Density Density
Substance (g/cm3 at 20°C) (Ib/ft3 at 68°F)
Acetone
Aluminum
Benzene
Carbon disulfide
Chloroform
Diethyl ether
Ethyl alcohol
Gasoline
Kerosene
Lead
Mercury
Silver
Sulfur
Turpentine
Water (4°C)
0.792
2.70
0.879
1.274
1.489
0.730
0.791
0.66-0.69
0.82
11.34
13.6
10.5
2.07
0.87
1.00
48.42
168.48
54.85
79.50
92.91
45.55
49.36
41.0-43.0
51.17
707.62
848.64
655.20
129.17
54.29
62.40
Vapor Density
In most cases, liquids or solid
density is compared to water. In the
case of vapors, density is compared to
air at standard atmospheric pressure and
density, or if a direct, comparison of
existing conditions, of the ambient air.
If the gas being measured is heavier
than air, it will have a tendency to
settle to the lowest physical point
before eventually dispersing.
If, on the other hand the gas being
measured is lighter than the ambient
air, it will rise and quickly disperse.
Gases with densities greater than
air create three hazards. First, if the
vapor displaces enough air to reduce the
atmospheric concentration of oxygen
below 16% (21% is normal) asphyxia
(death by suffocation) may result.
Second, if the vapor is toxic, then
inhalation dangers are present. Third,
if the gas is explosive, explosive
concentrations may accumulate in
depressions, ditches, wet wells sewers,
etc., where they are often overlooked or
out of normal scrutiny. Table 3-2 is a
5-13-
-------
NOTES
list of common gases that have been
compared to air = 1. Normal density of
air at Standard Pressure and Temperature
(STP) is .0012 gm per cm3.
-------
Vapor densities of some common gases
Gas
Density
(g/1 at 0°C)
Vapor Density
(air = 1)
Acetylene
Ammonia
Carbon dioxide
Carbon monoxide
Chloride
Fluorine
Hydrogen
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide
Hydrogen sulfide
Methane
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Ozone
Propane
Sulfur dioxide
1.16
0.76
1.96
1.25
3.17
1.70
1.09
1.63
1.21
1.52
0.714
1.25
1.43
2.14
1.96
2.86
0.899
0.589
1.52
0.969
2.46
1.32
0.07
1.26
0.938
1.18
0.553
0.969
1.11
1.66
1.52
2.22
Vapor Pressure
Vapor pressure is defined as the
pressure exerted by a vapor against the
sides of a closed container. The vapor
pressure of a substance is dependent on
temperature and is specific to that
liquid. As temperature rises, the vapor
pressure exerted on a closed container
increases, increasing the danger of
rupture. If the container is open, the
vapor pressure is relieved by rapid
vaporization. There is a direct rela-
tionship between the lower boiling point
of a lower density liguid and the
greater vapor pressure it will exert on
the container at a given temperature.
In somewhat simpler terms, the higher
the evaporation rate of a substance, the
greater the chances of a build-up of
pressure inside a heated container.
Values for vapor pressure are most
often given as millimeters of mercury
(mm Hg) at a specific temperature.
Table 5-4 gives the vapor pressure of
some common liquids.
5-15
-------
Vapor pressures of some commit liquids
Temperature
(oC,
-10
0 4.6
10
20
30
50
75
100
Water
(mm of Hg)
2.1
9.2
17.5
31.8
92.5
289.1
760.0
Ethyl Alcohol
(mm of Hg)
5.6
12.2
23.6
43.9
78.8
222.2
666.1
1,693.3
Benzene
(mm of Hg)
15
27
45
74
118
271
643
1,360
Boiling Point
The boiling point is the
temperature at which a liquid changes to
a vapor. A major consideration with
toxic substances is how they enter the
body. With high-boiling-point liquids,
the most common method of entry is by
body contact. With low-boiling-point
liquids, generally it is by inhalation.
Melting Point
The temperature at which a solid
changes to a liquid is the melting
point. This temperature is also the
freezing point.
A substance often exhibits marked
differences in properties depending on
the phase it is in. Liquids may be
explosive or highly reactive, while
solids may be relatively inert.
Personnel dealing with substances that
may exhibit a phase change should be
aware of the dangers.
Solubility
Solubility is defined as the
ability of a solid, liquid, or gas to
dissolve in a solvent. An insoluble
substance can be physically mixed or
blended in a solvent for a short time,
but is unchanged when it finally
separates. The solubility of a
substance is independent of its density
or specific gravity, but can be closely
5-16'
-------
NOTES
related to vapor pressure and boiling
point.
Solubility
Solubility is of particular
importance when determining the ability
of a substance to disperse or migrate
from one area to another, and to the
ability to locate, sample, or recover
hazardous materials. Insoluble liquids
for example, can be located in a
stratified layer in a container or on
the top or bottom of a lagoon. Soluble
materials, on the other hand, are
virtually impossible to locate, sample,
or recover once they have mixed with a
solvent.
Although solubilities vary greatly,
water is commonly referred to as the
universal solvent since nearly every
substance, at least to some degree, is
soluble in it. Solubility is measured
in parts per million (ppm) 1 ppm = .0001
%, approximately 1 mg/1.
Solubilities are often influenced
by external factors such as pH.
Insoluble heavy metal precipitates often
become quite soluble in water when the
pH is lowered. In some cases, pH can be
lowered by subsoil conditions.
Flashpoint
The definition of flashpoint is the
minimum liquid temperature at which a
spark or flame causes an instantaneous
flash in the vapor space above the
liquid.
The relative flammability of a
substance is based on its flashpoint.
An accepted relationship between the two
is:
High flammability - Flashpoint less than
100 degrees F.
Moderate flammability - Flashpoint
5-17-
-------
NOTES
greater than 100 degrees F but less than
200 degrees F.
Relatively inflammable - Flashpoint
greater than 200 degrees F.
Table 5-6 relates the physical
properties to the combustion of Butyl
alcohol and Xylene.
TABLE 3-4
Physical properties related to the combustion of
Butyl Alcohol and Xylene
Liquid
Boiling Flash Fire Autoignition Lower Upper
Point Point Point Temperature Expl. Expl.
(°F) (°F) (°F) (OF) Limit (%) Limit (%)
Butyl alcohol
Xylene
244
280
114
77
122
111.2
650
924
1.7
1.1
18.0
7.0
Table 5-7 is a list of the names of
general compounds and families that
exhibit the characteristics of
flammability.
TABLE 5-7
Flammable Compounds and Elements
Flammable Liquids
Aldehydes
Ketones
Amines
Ethers
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Aromatic hydrocarbons
Nitroaliphatics
Water-Reactive Flammable Solids
Potassium
Sodium
Lithium
Flammable Solids
Phosphorus
Magnesium dust
Zirconium dust
Titanium dust
Aluminum dust
Zinc dust
Flour
Pyrophoric Liquids
Qrganometallic compounds
Dimethyl zinc
Tributyl aluminum
5-18
-------
NOTES
Chemical Compatibility
The term chemical compatibility, at
least on the surface, appears to have a
relatively straight forward definition.
If two chemicals in contact with each
other do not react in any way, they are
said to be compatible. It should be
remembered however, that the speed of a
chemical reaction is dependent on
factors such as temperature,
concentration, and physical state.
Chemicals which appear to be compatible
may in fact simply be slow in reacting.
In the normal routine of Agency
personnel in field work, some mixing of
chemicals is inevitable. It is critical
for personnel working with a variety of
chemicals to know the compatibility of
these chemicals. The result of mixing
of incompatible chemicals could range
from the formation of highly toxic gas
to violent fire or explosion. Table 5-8
illustrates some of the results of
mixing incompatible chemicals.
TABLE 5-8
Hazards due to chemical reactions (incompatibilities)
- Generation of heat - e.g., acid and water
- Fire - e.g., hydrogen sulfide and calcium hypochlorite
- Explosion - e.g., picric acid and sodium hydroxide
- Toxic gas or vapor production - e.g., sulfuric acid and plastic
- Flammable gas or vapor production - e.g., acid and metal
- Formation of a substance with a greater toxicity than the reactants -
e.g., chlorine and ammonia
- Formation of shock- or friction-sensitive compounds
- Pressurization of closed vessels - fire extinguisher
- Solubilization of toxic substances - e.g., hydrochloric acid and chromium
- Dispersal of toxic dusts and mists
- Violent polymerization - e.g., ammonia and acrylonitrile
Understanding chemical
compatibility must not be left to
chance. A wide variety of resources
has been developed to assist field
5-19'
-------
NOTES
personnel in this task. Table 5-9 and
the J. T. Baker Chemical Company
Compatibility some of the possible
incompatible combinations.
TAEEZ 5-9
Non-compatible chemicals
DO NOT CONTACT
Alkali metals, such as calcium, potassium, and sodium with water,
carbon dioxide, carbon tetrachloride, and other chlorinated
hydrocarbons.
Acetic acid with chromic acid, nitric acid, hydroxyl containing
compounds, ethylene glycol, perchloric acid, peroxides and
permanganates.
Acetone with concentrated sulfuric and nitric acid mixtures.
Acetylene with copper (tubing), flourine, bromine, chlorine,
iodine, silver, mercury, or other compounds.
Ammonia, anhydrous with mercury, halogens, calcium hypochlorite or
hydrogen flouride.
Ammonium nitrate with acids, metal powders, flammable fluids,
chlorates, nitrates, sulphur and finely divided organics or other
combustibles.
Bromine with ammonia, acetylene, butadiene, butane, hydrogen,
sodium carbide, turpentine or finely divided metals.
Chlorates with ammonium salts, acids, metal powders, sulfur,
carbon, finely divided organics or other combustibles.
Chromic acid with acetic acid, napthalene, camphor, alcohol,
glycerine, turpentine, and other flammable liquids.
Chlorine with ammonia, acetylene, butadiene, benzene and other
petroleum fractions, hydrogen, sodium carbides, turpentine, and
finely divided powered metals.
Hydrogen peroxide with copper, chromium, iron, most metals or
their respective salts, flammable fluids, and other combustible
materials, aniline, and nitro-methane.
Hydrogen sulfide with nitric acid, or oxidizing gases.
5-20
-------
Table 5-9 Cont'd.
Aniline with nitric acid, hydrogen peroxide or other strong
oxidizing agents.
Iodine with acetylene or ammonia.
Mercury with acetylene, fulminic acid, or hydrogen.
Nitric acid with acetic, chromic and hydrocyanic acids, aniline,
carbon, hydrogen sulfide, flammable fluids or gases, and
substances that readily become nitrated.
Oxygen wil oils, grease, hydrogen, flammable, liquids, solids and gases.
Oxalic aicd with silver or mercury.
Perchloris acid with acetice anhydride, bismuth and its alloys, alcholol, paper,
wood and other organic materials.
Hydrocarbons, generally, withl fluorine, chlorine, bromine, chromic acid or
solium peroxide.
Phosphorus perntoxide with water.
Potassium permangante with glycerine, ethylene glycol, benzaldehyde, or sulfuric
acid.
Sodium peroxide with any oxidizable substances, for instance: methanol, glacial
acetic acid, acetic anhydride, benzaldehyde, carbon disulfide, glycerine,
ethylene lyol, ethyl acetate, furfural, and so on.
Sulfuric acid with chlorates, perchlorates, permanganates and water.
In the case of unknown chemicals,
chemical analysis by a laboratory is the
only way to determine with some degree
of certainty, possible incompatibility.
Care should be exercised not to assume
the results of a specific test are
sufficient to determine compatibility
for an entire site.
Response personnel who must
determine compatibilities should refer
to "A Method for Determining the
Compatibility of Hazardous Wastes (EPA
600/2-80-076)," published by EPA's
Office of Research and Development.
Field personnel may at times find
5-21'
-------
NOTES
it is impossible to ascertain laboratory
compatibility tests. In the absence of
such tests, as a minimum safeguard,
simple field tests should be performed.
The following tests represent a minimum
field testing for compatibility.
Water Reactivity and Solubility
Purpose - This method is designed
as a qualitative test for the reactivity
and solubility of unknown liquid wastes
with water.
Summary - A small volume of liquid
waste is mixed with water and observed
for miscibility, rise in temperature,
precipitation, and gas formation.
Sampling Procedure - The sample
should be collected and tightly sealed
from atmospheric reaction. Tests should
be performed as soon as possible.
Apparatus
Test tube
Liquid thermometer
10 ml disposable pipets
Glass stirring rods
Procedure
o Pipet 10 ml of water into
test tube. The test tube should be
clamped securely to a stand at a 45
degree angle to prevent splattering in
the event of a violent reaction.
o The temperature of the test
solution and water should be nearly
equal.
o Insert a thermometer and
record the temperature.
5-22'
-------
NOTES
o Slowly add 10 mis of test
sample to the test tube. The liquid
should drain slowly down the inside of
the test tube any addition should be
stopped if an immediate reaction occurs.
o Mix the sample with a glass
stirring rod.
o Observe mixture for
incompatibility signs such as
liquid/liquid phase separation, gas or
solids formation, color or temperature
changes.
Conclusion - Gases involved may be
toxic or explosive. Temperature rise is
an indication or exothermic rise is an
indication of exothermic activity that
might lead to spontaneous fire or
explosion. Color change or phase
separation is indicative of chemical
incompatibility that may have
deleterious effects.
pH
Purpose - To determine the hydrogen
ion concentration pH of a solution.
Apparatus - Small test tube or
beaker and pH range testing paper.
Sample Collection - Perform test
immediately.
Procedure
o Approximately 10 mis of
sample is placed in a small beaker or
test tube.
o The indicator strip of pH
paper (hydrion paper) is either immersed
in the sample or a drip of sample is
placed on the test strip.
o The color developed on the
test strip is compared to the color
chart supplied with the test package.
5-23-
-------
NOTES
Conclusion - Solution below pH 2.0
and above pH 12.5 should be handled with
care as acids and bases.
Compatibility of Liquid Waste/Liquid
Waste
Purpose - This test is designed to
determine the compatibility of liquids
of unknown composition at ambient
temperatures.
Sample Handling - Samples should be
collected in closed containers prior to
testing.
Apparatus
Small glass beaker
10 ml disposable pipets
Liquid thermometer
Glass stirring rods
Procedure - Pipet 1 ml of the first
unknown waste into a beaker. Place
thermometer in the liquid. Record
temperature. Add 1 ml aliquots of the
other waste to be tested, stirring after
each addition. Note any rise in
temperature, gas bubbles, or
precipitation of solids as each aliquot
is added.
Conclusion - Gases evolved may be
toxic or explosive. Temperature rise is
an indication of exothermic activity
that might result in spontaneous fire or
explosion. Solid precipitation
indicates chemical incompatibility that
may be deleterious effects.
Information Resources
In approaching any chemical hazard,
the single greatest danger is the
unknown. Safety precautions, protective
gear, and advanced planning all become a
matter of trial and error, or just plain
5-24
-------
NOTES
luck if careful analysis of the
hazardous substance is not undertaken.
As the result of public and
regulatory pressure for increased
knowledge of the hazards of chemical
compounds, an abundance of informational
resources has been developed. EPA
field personnel should be aware of the
various resources available, what
information can be ascertained from
them, and the format used by each. The
uniqueness of the format of many of
these resources requires prior exposure
and practice to utilize them to their
fullest advantage in the shortest
possible time. The following list
represents some of the data sources
currently available.
CHRIS: Chemical Hazard Response Information System, developed by
the U.S. Coast Guard. Access through the National Response
Center, telephone 800/424-8802.
"Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials," fourth edition
(1975), edited by N. Irving Sax, Van Nostrand Reinhold, Co., 135
W. 50th St., New York, NY 10020.
"Condensed Chemical Dictionary," Gessner G. Hawley, Van Nostrand
Reinhold Co., 135 W. 50th St., New York, NY 10020 (10th edition,
1981).
"The Merck Index," ninth edition (1976), Merck and Co., Inc.,
Rahway, NJ 07065.
"NIOSH/OSHA Occupational Health Guidelines for Chemical Hazards,"
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402.
"Fire Prevention Guide on Hazardous Materials," National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA), Quiney, MA 02269.
1984 Emergency Response Guidebook: Guidebook for Hazardous
Materials Incidents, 1984, U.S. Department of Transportation,
Materials Transportation Bureau, DMT-11, Washington, DC 20036.
"NIOSH/OSHA Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards," U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402.
Farm Chemicals Handbook, (1984), Richard T. Meister, editorial
director, Meister Publishing Co., 37841 Euclid Avenue,
Willoughby, OH 44094.
5-25'
-------
Materials Safety Data Sheets (MSDS); Department of Labor
Standardized Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS).
"Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values (TLV)," fourth
edition (1980), ACGIH Publications Office, 6500 Glenway Avenue,
Building D-5, Cincinnati, OH 45221.
Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances, 1980 edition,
two volumes, Richard J. Lewis, Sr., and Roger L. Tatken,
editors, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public
Health Service, Center for Disease Control, National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, OH 45226.
Emergency Handling of Hazardous Materials in Surface
Transportation, 1981, Bureau of Explosives, Association of
American Railroads, 1920 L Street, NW, Washington, DC 20036.
HMIS; Hazardous Materials Information System, developed by the
Department of Defense, Defense Logistics Agency, Defense General
Supply Center, Richmond, VA 23297.
5-26'
-------
NOTES
Chemical Hazard Warning Systems
There have been many attempts to
expedite or summarize vital information
found in the various data sources. Two
systems that have gained wide
recognition and acceptance are the
system of hazardous material placarding
and marking of large tanks and trucks,
devised by the Department of
Transportation (DOT) and the labeling
system found on smaller tanks and
containers, devised by the National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA).
DOT HAZARD EvMJDATICN SYSTEM
The DOT'S Hazardous Materials
Transportation Administration, is
responsible for the safe transportation
of over 1,400 chemicals. The system is
based on a series of regulations
summarized in the Code of Federal
Regulations 40 CFR. These regulations
spell out in definitive language the
proper shipping names, warning labels
and placards that must be present to
ship a hazardous material or hazardous
waste on the public highways. These
warning devices can prove extremely
valuable in Agency personnel work. A
summary of these requirements is found
in the Hazardous Material Tables 49 CFR
172.101 (see Table 5-10 for an example).
5-27
-------
bcnicne tilt*. Thirteenth in order of high-volume1
chemicals produced in U.S. (1975).
IV
Structure: I. Complete ring showing ill element!.
II. Standard ring showing double bonds only.
III. Simple ring without double bondt, with nu-
merals indicating position of carbon atoms to
which iubstituent atoms or groups may be at-
tached (2 = onho, ) - meta, 4 s para).
• IV. Generalized structure, with enclosed circle sug-
gesting the resonance of this compound.
These structures are also referred lo ai the benzene
nucleus.
Properties: Colorless to light-yellow, mobile, qonoolar
liquid of highly refractive nature; aromatic odor;
vapors burn with smoky flame; b.p. SO.I'C; m.p.
sfrotp f,. Q.g7«l (70/4*0: wt/fWjja Ib; re-
fraciive index (n 20/O) 1.30110: flash point (closed
eup) I2*F; surface tension 29 dynes/cm. Autoignilion
temp. 1044*F. Miscible with alcohol, ether, acetone.
carbon tetrachloride, carbon dijulfide, acetic acid;
slightly soluble in water.
Derivation: (a) Hydrodealkylation of toluene or of
pyrolyiis gasoline (q.v.); (b) transalkylation of tolu-
ene by disproportionalion reaction; (c) catalytic re-
forming of petroleum; (d) fractional distillation of
coal tar.
Grades: Crude; straw colon motor; industrial pure
(2*Q; nitration (I*C); thiophene-free; 99 mote %;
99.94 mole %; nanograde.
Containers: Drums; tank cars; barges.
Hazard: Flammable, dangerous fire risk. Exp|osive
limits in air 1,5 to g
-------
; i .1 ( nr ,•"•! .;H. '
M :t.- i -i , '•
Formula
PcfmNtifeia IW.H Phvweal Datcnphon | i Owmeal and Physical • , lneempat«i«»i
Lpowrt UnJl l»* • • J--
tK.
B«n>e<: CydohtMlrlani
Coal Tar Napntria. Pha>
•; 1 ppm , .
iri S ppmeM
2000
ppm
ColortalS Dowd «IWl
an aromalc odor , .
BP: 17«F, „ ,
So<: O.tt%
VMS mm
MP: 4» f
U6L.-71*
LEL- 1.3%
jitong extfuci;
ren
tiw;
C&:
OC:
U
f .7*••.'/ f( (
nd Ptotodton »nd St"*l«Mon
Rtipirttot S«l*elion
TiW«31
iW»4)
(>**4 B»p«tl proton^
Oo«««- n«i«on pre»
Wuft: Socp »M(I pnr
Soap.
i«: Any w«l ImnWj (t1amm|
tO ppnr SA/SC8A L
50 ppm; SAF/SCBAF
1000 ppnr SA.PO.PP.CF
JOOO ppnr SAF:PO.PP,CF
E.c.p. GMS/SCBA
Abs
Con
ty*Ujt haao. nati.
•laooarad 9at riQ, anor.
last: d«rm; ben* marrow
Soap wa«h
Bleed. CMS,tun.
An r«p
NO VOMIT
NrosH/oSHA docket Guide To CHfemltai Hazards-'
rrfl
j. ficnzcnc. Bentot; cyclohe»lnme. , t.9.: moi wi •
Till. C 92.23%. H 7.75%. DJicovcred by Faridty Id
eocnpreised oil |>f In 1425. Otuined In (he oolcmi of ooal
• nd in Ihc production or tlluminilini }•> from coal. r*un-
rtcaiiofi by w»hin( with water: Brll. pat. 4&J.7II (|9ol to
Schloven-Chernie and M. Kopptri GmbH)) C/4. 35, I697lf ••
(IWI). Lab prepn by diuoliulion of aniline, followed by
reduction of the diaxonium tail in NaOH tolri usin< Han- '
nout chloride: Caltermann.Wieland. Praxis oVf organixhrn •
Chtmlktr, (dt Cruyler. Berlin. 4Oth ed.. IWI) p 247. No-
duclion of pure benwne: French. /««t Cnrntiil 39, $-12 '
(1943). Toiicity: E. Browning. Totictty and Mtlabollsm of
Indutlrial Solitnu (Elsevier, New York. 1965) pp 3-<5
. • L f
Oear. colorleat. iiigkty Hammable liquid*: ctiaracleriilic
odor. dj» 0.1787 bp JO.I'. Solldit +S.r. ng \.SOtOt:
Thom« n at. Ind. Enj. Cfitm. Anal Ed. 17, 48) (1945)
ria«h pi 10-ir. Sol in I43O parti water; miicible wild alco-
hol, chloroform, ether, carbon diiulfide. carbon telrachlo-
ride. tlacial acetic acid, acetone, oil*. Ktrp in vfll-clcard
rmtoinm lit * cool plot* end away frrnn ftrt. LO,. orally la
ran (young adulli): 3.1 ml/kg. Kimura n at. Taxtcol AppL
rharmacol 1». 699 (1971).
Sodium deriv. C.II.Na. fhrnjl taJtHm. t»repn: Schlouer,
Angtw. Chtm. 76, 267 (1964). Solid man. dee by walav
acMi. alkalies. Sol In liquid ammonia. Ictrahydrofuran.
• ./'"m«It Tttlclty: Am* (from ingestion or Inhalatioo):
irritation of mucous manbrana. reille»ne». convulsion*.
excilemenl. depre»ion. Death may follow from rapiralory
failure. Chronic bone marrow depression ajid aplasia: rare-
ly, leukemia. Harmful amis may be »b«orbed through skin.
WE: Manuf of medicinal chrmicjJt. dyei and many other
organic compound!, anindal leather, linoleum, oil cloth.
airplwe dopes, varnishes, lacquen: aj solvent for waxes.
mint. oils. etc.
THERAr CAT rven: Datroyi icrewworm larvae In wound*.
The Merck Index
5-29
-------
BENZENE. Syhs: benzol, frheriyl hydride, coal hapfi-
iha. Clear colorlcsi liquid. C«1U, hiw: 78.11, mp:
$.$\°, bp: 80.093°-80.0948, flash p: l2°f (CQ, d:
0.8794 (g> 20°, lUloigrl. lemp..' I044"*7. lei: 1.3%, Uel:
7.1%, vap'. press: loo mM @ 26.1°, Vap. d: 2.77, ulc:
95-100.
THR = r'oisbriing' occUri hiost corhhionly (hrougfi
inhal of the vapor, though benzene cah pene
-------
BENZENfc - Skitt
1 25 ppm (Approximately 60
Benzene as an acute posion produces narcotic effect^ comparable to those of toluene. Chronic
Intoxication by benzene Is by far the hiost serious disease cails'ed by the comtnoh hydrocahbon
solvents. He action is priinarily on the bone marrow resulting In hUhierbus blood changes and, In
serious cases, aplastic anemia, wilh a frequently fatal outcome. It Is unique among the hydrocar-
bons as a rnyeloloxicftht, according to G^rarde(l), Elklns(2) stated that more than 140 fatal
cases of behzene poisoning had been recorded prior to 1959. Vlgllanl ind Saita(3) listed 26
deaths from chronic benzene poisoning in two provinces In Italy between i960 and 1963, Eleven
of these cases were diagnosed as leukemia, which frequently develops several years alter ces-
sation of exposure to benzene. '. •
Many of the deaths from benzene have f esulled from exposures bf the ofdef of 200 ppm or
more. Bowditch and Elklns(4) estimated that of eleven fatal cases, three resulted from concen-
trations In excess of 200 ppm, four from cohcentratlons betweeh 100 and 200 ppm, and three
from concentrations judged to be below 100 bphl (but Hot measUhed). GreenbUi-g et al.{5) de-
scribed nine cases, with one death, in the rotogravure printing Industry. Of 48 air analyses, 20
showed less than 100 ppni, and 15 more than 200 ppm. Savilahtl(6) foUnd that lO? of 141 workers
in a shoe factory revealed blood abnormalities. The source of the benzene was cement, and con-
centrations were reported to have ranged from 3l8 to 470 ppm (these seem high for shoe cement-
Ing operations). One death occurred.
Winslow(7), however, reported blood change's in workers where concentrations of benzene
vapor below 100 ppm were found. Heimann and Ford(8) found one death and three cases with blood
changes where air analysis for benzene showed a concentration of 105 ppm. Wilson(9) reported
three fatal cases in a plant where the average concentration of benzene vapor was 100 ppm. Hardy
and Elkins(lO) recorded one death and several cases of blood changes In a plant where hepeated
ail- analyses Indicated benzene vapor concentrations of about 60 ppm.
Blaney(ll) found little evidence of benzene intoxication In a group of 90 workers regularly
exposed to benzene for about 13 years. Concentrations were generally low, but Urinary phenol
measurements indicated some exposures of the order of 25 pphi(l2). Pagnotto et al.(l3) found
rubber spreaders exposed to benzene vapor concentrations ranging for the most part between 6
and 25 ppm. A limited number of blood studies showed some abnormalities but ho apparent cor-
relation with exposure. So far as is known, hone of this group developed serious blood dyscrasias.
A TLV Of 25 ppni is believed low enough to prevent serious blood changes, but this limit should
be considered a ceiling and exposure to higher concentrations not permitted.
Other recommendations: Cook (1945) 50 ppm; Smyth (1956) 35 ppni; Elkins (1959) 25 ppm;
ANSI (1969) 10 ppm; U.S.S.R. (1967) 6 ppm; Czechoslovakia (1969) 16 ppm.;
i
References:
1. Gerarde, H.W. ; Toxicology and Biochemistry of Aromatic Hydrocarbons, Elsevier Publish-
ing Co., New York (1960).
2. Elkins, H.B.: Chemistry of Industrial Toxicology, p. 103, Wiley & Sons'; New York (1959).
3. Vigliani, E.C., Saita, G.: New Eng. J. of Med. 271, 872 (1964).
4. Bowditch, M., Elkins, H.B.: J. Ind. Hyg. & Tox. 2jU 321 (1939).
5. Greenburg, L., Mayers, M.R., Goldwater, L., Smith, A.R.: J. Ind. Hyg. & Tox. 2i_, 395 (1939).
6. Savilahti, M.: Arch. Gewerbepath. u. Gewerbehyg. 15, 147 (1956).
7. Winslow, C.E.A.: J. Ind. Hyg. 9, 69 (1927).
8. Heimann, H., Ford, C.B.: N.Y. Ind. Hyg. Bull. p. 224 (Nov. 1940).
9. Wilson, R.H.: J. Lab. Clin. Med. 27, 1517 (1942).
10. Hardy, H.L., Elkins, H.B.: J. Ind. Hyg. 6 Tox. 30, 196 (1948):
11. Blaney, L.: Ind. Med. & Surg. 19, 227 (1950). '
12. Walkley, J.E., Pagnotto, L.D., Elkins, H.B1.: Am. Ind. Hyg. Assn. J. 22, 362 (1961)
13. r- -otto, L.D., Elkins, H.B., Brugsch, H.G., Walkley, J.E.t Am. Ind. Hyg. Assn. J. 22,
5-31
-------
BNZ
BENZENE
a «• ««ei. Ptamnoble. britallni vafoe • p
po«la)42«F
Av«d contact *rdl Kannd and vapet Keev paopte away
Wo» MM aid aril Bom»rt. fho antfldal rr*(nilim
If bmlhmi • dUTkwIt tjwoiy|en
UOUID
MIHhH K okm and eyet
Hamafnflfawallinaad
Remove conlanwaled dolhrmj >nd akoaa
Flank offenrd om Mrh plenty of ««•»
IP W EYES, hotl rrrtoa ope» ond fkah wirk pleirry o» ««ar
IF SWALLOWED and vim* • CON5CKXJ5. havo vtcttal dria* a
HAHMFUL TO AQUATIC LIFE IN VERY Low CONCENTRATIONS
l»ayl»toiaiiaaa«lle««CTwat»rnlabaa
Nonfy localhealrb am aildbjfe offvnak.
NMVy a
1. «ESPO«E TO DISCHMCE
3. CHEMICM. DESiGMTIOrlS
31
rfl'Ol
Ben/ote
32 Co«o< Oi»ardeaii»>ol»Jll»l ClaoaMcaflon
Aromjtic b^drocarhnn
33 ChamHal>o«Tm.lOi (.11.
3 4 MCO/IMM MMtoM HwTloracat
1 2/1114
i urn ^^^
«. ORStmrmt CHMKTEiisncs
41 ntr>«lc««lotoiH>ia1: Lkiuid
4 2 Cotaer Colorless
4 3 Odor Aromatic, rather pkdtjnl jrnmalic
odor charjclerivIK odor
S. HEUTH HUMDS
M>drocj(rMM vapnr cartelei
pallor
Hd hvdrncjrhon-.n^nluMe
rfhy (fu^hinf. wenkoe** Nej-Jache
S3 Ti
SKIN (lu%h *ich««ier fo)lo»ed b* sou|).rHl <>>.iief remove com.imin.Med
ckxhinf .f-d.»rnuiion wl>Mde% INHALATION
rt*mo»efrofneipnsiirci>n(nedt.iicl« (..II a phu-zun irhre.t.h.np ,<.irr«fuUr of Mopped -Ufl
reMfs47H.ii.on admtniMet o*«yen
54 TMicUr by HrfMUt..^ (Tin •.*•!< Lln-H V •*»•>: 1^ ppm
55 tH-.w1.Tt--.-i lnh»I.HHB UmnK T; ppm for JOmm
59 T».T*c*ty>>T'i.tliHiii. Grade! I D., M)to WOmf/kf
57 UM TMldlr Leukemia
58 Vaaj.w fO«.»| Irrtton* CMiaclaxUHe*. If present in hitbconcenlf*,!!,.-.* *ap«»«\ moy c.u^e i»nt»tion of
The effect « iempi(*.»y
59 L.«HiM •* MM IrrMnint Choac^Wte..; Mimmum hj/.rd ir^lledonclotliinf and allowed in remain
mj> c.iu^e Minninji and teddenmf of the «km
5 10 Ottor Tn^tMfwId: < Ml ppm
61
62
63
• 4
65
67
7 1
73
7 4
75
76
121
122
12.3 H
(. fin HUMOS
•tMelPtM: I2*FCC.
i n-in
foam, or carbon dtoirde
Water may be ineffective
Not pertinent
•llMlbjl hi HrK Vapor « heavier then air ant
may travel considerable distance to a
scarce of if nitron and (lash back
•MeMnlrUnr* Cl»s Hx-w^ tWInj Hr •«* Watur
CMVAfvy Billai(
Fire 1
Hearth
Vapor Irrtunl 1
LKpud or SoM Irritant 1
Ponom )
Water PolUjlion
Haman TonKHy 1
AOMOIIC Toircily 3
Aesthetic Effort 2
React tvrty
Other Chemical! 1
Water . 0
Self-React™. 0
RetK1.*riy4YHk>*, 0
t. rwrtu ronvTioN
at Aiiiiom. ToticHr
5ppm/6hr/minnot»/lethal/disnllcd»alrt
20ppm/24hr/uinri.h/TLm/lap».lcr
12 WalaitaarlTotlellr Djia not available
1 2lb/lb lOdat-
None
i SELECTED M«.HUMCTU»E»S
1 Common»earlh Oil Refimnf Co . Ine
Commonwealth PelrochemKjIsCo
Penuelas. Puerto Rico 00724
2 PnHHBt Pel rolcum (. o
PhiHtm Puerto Rrco Core Inc
Banco Popular Center
) Shell Chemical Co
Petrochemical* Otv
P 0 tVn24o3
Houston. Tew 77TJOI
It. SHIPPIK KFOIUKTION
Indntrial pore W»-»
ThioplreiK-hee Wf*
Nitration 99* ^
IndmirialVin |;»1
Reafent 99+%
10 2 ttoraaj* Tamaxi 111110.1 Ambient
10 4 VojlMIPNj: Pressure-vacuum
13. PHTSICM. MW CNEMICM. MOTEITIES
131 •*TO»cai«lo»ool1S-C«r>dl«tm; l«t»«)
13 2 Malieular Wo4«M: 71 1 1
133 Ilium fflnt M 1 otm;
I7»'F -HO PC- >M 1-K
420'F -!!•(.. 27K7-K
135 CrMcal Tovrnwrottaro:
5520'F .2M9'C-«2 I'K
13 • Crr»eolr>ran»a.
7IOpsia «4H 3 aim "4 R9MN/m;
11 7 tpialUa OratrKu: 0 «7« at M'C llmurdl
11 6 LleijM lu.toi.a Tinilan;
21 9 dynes/cm - 0 0219 s/m .1 WC
ill Ueajlal-Wotor Mrortoclol Tinilin.
3J Od)nes/cm - OOH N/m at 20T
1110 Voax. (tta»( talocHlt OrOTTTr 27
1311 Ho*la)«< tp»cMlc lloali 9! Voajay fQao,:
lOol
11 12 UotoM H»OI o« Vopoelmtaai;
ln9Btu/lh • 9Rcal/| • -40AOX Iff J/«f
1114 M««l «l Oaeam.O'rl'an; NM pertinent
1115 Mo*o<»«*rrfc»c N.n perlinenl
ROTES
REVISED 1978
5-32'
-------
TABLE OF PLACARDS AND APPLICABLE RESPONSE GUIDE PAGES
USE ONLY IF MATERIALS CANNOT BE SPECIFICALLY IDENTIFIED
THROUGH SHIPPING PAPERS OR MARKINGS.
I SOLID I
11F
\¥/
\s
Guide 38
/N
\
«FLAMJABLE»> <
1 SOLID
Guide 41
\
\
Guide 47
/
ORGANIC
PEROXIDE
\
\
\
V
Guide 52
Guide 55
Guide 63
f ,^ INTERNATIONAL
Guide 37
Guide 41
5-33
-------
TABLE OF PLACARDS AND APPLICABLE RESPONSE GUIDE PAGES
USE ONLY IF MATERIALS CANNOT BE SPECIFICALLY IDENTIFIED
THROUGH SHIPPING PAPERS OR MARKINGS.
Guide 11
Guide 15
5-34-
-------
TABLE 5-10
Hazardous materials table
l~»~Jic» «M. JW HHrcfl n i .nlBiJl
-------
NOTES
DOT Marking and labeling
Under DOT regulations, containers
up to 110 gallons must have one of the
1,400 proper shipping names listed in
the Hazardous Material Tables. In
addition, there must also be a 4" x 4"
diamond shaped label that contains a
warning of the hazards present (see
Figure 5-1).
FIGURE 5-1
DOT Hazardous Materials Warning Labels
Poison A'-V
Exoon
Not*: For us* li
Mdlllon to oth*r
required libals.
Export
-Domestic
Export
Domestic
EiOOrt
AIR TRANSPORT
Cargo Aircraft
Only
5-36
-------
EXAMPLE 5-1
ID Guide
No. No.
Name of Material
ID Guide
No. No.
Name of Material
1058 12 LIQUIFIED NONFLAMMABLE
GAS charged with
NITROGEN, CARBON
DIOXIDE or AIR
1060 17 METHYL ACETYLENE,
mixed with 15% to 20%
PROPADIENE, stabilized
1061 19 METIIYLAMINE, anhydrous
1061 19 MONOMETHYLAMINE,
anhydrous
1062 55 METHYL BROMIDE
1063 18 METHYL CHLORIDE
1064 18 METHYL MERCAPTAN
1065 12 NEON, compressed
1066 12 NITROGEN, compressed
1067 20 NITROGEN DIOXIDE
1067 20 NITROGEN TETROXIDE
1069 16 NITROSYL CHLORIDE
1070 14 NITROUS OXIDE
1071 22 OIL GAS
1072 14 OXYGEN, compressed
1073 23 OXYGEN, cryogenic liquid
1075 22 LIQUIFIED PETROLEUM GAS
1075 22 LPG, liquified petroleum gas
1075 22 PETROLEUM GAS,
liquified
1076 13 PHOSGENE
1077 22 PROPYLENE
1078 12 REFRIGERANT GASES, n.o.s.
1079 16 SULFUR DIOXIDE
1080 12 SULFUR HEXAFLUORIDE
1081 17 TETRAFLUOROETHYLENE,
inhibited
1082 17 TRIFLUOROCHLORO-
ETHYLENE
1083 19 TRIMETHYLAMINE, anhydrous
1085 60 VINYL BROMIDE
1086 17 MONOCHLOROETHYLENE
1086 17 VINYL CHLORIDE
1087 17 VINYL METHYL ETHER,
inhibited
1088 26 ACETAL
1089 26 ACETALDEHYDE
1090 26 ACETONE
1091 26 ACETONE OIL
1092 30 ACROUCIN, inhibited
1093 30 ACRYLONITRII.E, inhibited
1095 26 ALCOHOL, denatured
1096 26 ALCOHOL, industrial
28 ALLYL ALCOHOL
29 ALLYL BROMIDE
28 ALLYL CHLORIDE
1098
1099
1100
1101
37 DIETHYLALUMINUM
CHLORIDE
1102 37 ALUMINUM TRIETHYL
1103 37 ALUMINUM TRIMETHYL
1104 26 AMYL ACETATE
1105 26 AMYL ALCOHOL
1106 29 AMYL AMINE
1107 26 AMYL CHLORIDE
1108 26 AMYLENE
1109 26 AMYL FORMATE
1110 26 AMYL METHYL KETONE
1110 26 METHYLAMYL KETONE
1111 28 AMYL MERCAPTAN
1112 26 AMYL NITRATE
1113 26 AMYL NITRITE
1114 27 BENZENE
1114 27 BENZOL
1115 26 BENZINE
1118 27 BRAKE FLUID, HYDRAULIC
1120 26 BUTANOL
1120 26 BUTYL ALCOHOL
1123 26 BUTYL ACETATE
1125 29 BUTYLAMINE
MATERIALS IN HOLD ORANGE may require isolation or evacuation from spill areas.
Find the material by name in the tables immediately following the Guide pages.
5-37
-------
FIRE OR EXPLOSION
Will burn. May be ignited by heat, sparks and flames.
Flammable vapor may spread away from spill.
Container may explode in heat of fire.
Vapor explosion hazard indoors, outdoors or in sewers.
Runoff to sewer may create fire or explosion hazard.
HEALTH HAZARDS
Vapors may cause dizziness or suffocation.
Contact may irritate or bum skin and eyes.
Fire may produce irritating or poisonous gases.
Runoff from fire control or dilution water may cause pollution.
EMERGENCY ACTION
Keep unnecessary people away.
Stay upwind; keep out of low areas.
Isolate hazard area and deny entry.
Wear self-contained breathing apparatus and full protective clothing.
Isolate for 1/2 mile in all directions if tank or tankcar is Involved In fire.
FOR EMERGENCY ASSISTANCE CALL CHEMTREC (800) 424-9300.
Also, in case of water pollution, call local authorities.
FIRE
Small Fires: Dry chemical, CO2, water spray or alcohol foam.
Large Rres: Water spray, fog or alcohol foam.
Move container from fire area if you can do it without risk.
Stay away from ends of tanks.
Cool containers that are exposed to flames with water from the side until well
after fire is out.
For massive fire in cargo area, use unmanned hose holder or monitor nozzles.
Withdraw immediately in case of rising sound from venting safety device or
discoloration of tank.
SPILL OR LEAK
No flares, smoking or flames in hazard area.
Stop leak if you can do it without risk.
Use water spray to reduce vapors.
Small Spills: Take up with sand, or other noncombustible absorbent material,
then flush area with water.
Large Spills: Dike far ahead of spill for later disposal.
FIRST AID
Move victim to fresh air; call emergency medical care.
If not breathing, give artificial respiration.
If breathing is difficult, give oxygen.
In case of contact with material, immediately flush skin and eyes with running
water for at least 15 minutes.
Remove and isolate contaminated clothing and shoes.
5-38'
-------
OMIT 6
TOXICOLOGY
Educational Objectives
o The student should know the basic
approaches to toxicity testing.
o The student should be able to
illustrate a typical dose-response curve
for toxicological data.
o The student should be able to
define "LD^ and interpret such data.
o The student should realize the
difference between LD50 and I£50.
o The student should be able to
distinguish between acute and chronic
exposures.
o The student should be aware of
some of the shortcomings of ID50 data.
o The student should be familiar
with factors which influence toxicity.
o The student should know different
ways in which two different chemicals
can affect each other's toxicity when
present in the body together.
o Students should know the
difference in effects caused by
carcinogens, mutagens, and teratogens.
6-1
-------
UNIT 6
NOTES
Introduction
Toxicology is the science of
poisons. If is the study of how
chemical and physical agents interact
with biologic systems to produce some
negative response in affected organisms.
Responses are measured and evaluated
according to the amount of substance
administered (DOSE) and the route of
exposure.
Essentially all substances are
poisons. The difference between a
substance being toxic, non-toxic, or
beneficial is determined by the dose.
Toxicity is a measure of a substance's
capacity to produce injury in living
organisms.
It is important that response
personnel become aware of toxicological
data and how they are obtained. Route
of entry and target organs of chemicals
in the body determine how personnel
should be protected in addition to
maximum exposure limits. By knowing and
understanding the fundamentals of
toxicology, employees will be better
able to determine the hazards they are
faced with at the work site. Employees
should ask themselves the following
questions prior to entering any
worksite:
- What toxic agents are present?
- How will they enter the body?
- How will they affect the body?
- How toxic are they?
Toxicity Tests
In order to gain information on the
human toxicity of substances, controlled
laboratory tests are run on animal
species which, hopefully, can be
correlated to human responses. The
design of toxicity tests involves
6-2
-------
NOTES
selection of :
- A test organism (which can range
from cellular material to higher order
plants and animals.)
- A biological endpoint (observable
or measurable response) which can range
form subtle physiological or behavioral
changes to death.
- A test period (exposure time)
- A dose or series of doses
Test Organisms
Test organisms obviously vary
significantly in physiology from humans.
The proper selection of test animals
requires a knowledge of which species
most closely resembles humans with
respect to the chemical of interest.
The goal of animal toxicity tests is to
predict chemical effects on humans.
Thus, the fate of a chemical in humans,
as well as its fate in various animal
species, must be known in order to
choose the best suited test species for
a particular chemical.
In addition, the endpoint of choice
plays a role in determining test
species. If, for instance, the
carcinogenicity of a chemical is being
tested, the test orgamisn of choice will
be one with a short life span. It would
be impossible economically to study
carcinogenic effects in an organism
whose life span is twenty years.
Valuable research time would be lost,
essentially wasting 20 years worth of
human lives waiting for results from a
single study. Man cannot afford to wait
this long to determine if chemicals he
is being exposed to are carcinogenic or
not. Expenses would be prohibitive
also.
HOOKS
6-3
-------
NOTES
Mutagenic effects can also be
measured and extrapolated into possible
carcinogenic effects. In this case
species with extremely short life spans
can be used to measure genetic effects.
Once a test species has been
chosen, individual organisms are used
which show as little variation among
themselves as possible. Organisms are
chosen of equal age, sex, and strain.
They must be healthy prior to testing so
that harmful responses can be judged
objectively. Controls are always used
in toxicity tests.These organisms are
treated exactly like test organisms with
the exception that the dose administered
does not contain the chemical being
tested. At the end of the testing
period, controls and test organisms are
compared to see if controls remained
healthy throughout the testing. If so,
all detramental effects observed in the
test animals are attributed to the
chemical tested. There will be
variation in response among tested
organisms. Given identical doses, the
majority of organisms will have a
particular response, but a few will have
little or no reaction and a few will
have an extreme reaction.
Another consideration when choosing
a test orgaism is population size. It
is imperative that a large population
size be used for toxicity tests in order
to ensure statistically sound data.
Financially, this limits the species of
choice (rabbits chosen over dogs, for
example) to smaller, easy to care for
ones.
BIOLOGICAL ENDPOINT
The most common endpoint of choice
in toxicity testing is death. One
reason for this choice is its
objectiveness. Many other endpoints,
such as dermatitis or liver damage,
leave room for judgement error. In
addition, the chosen endpoint must be a
6-4
-------
NOTES
reproducible reponse. That is, in test
after test, the same endpoint should be
obtainable in response to the same
dose(s).
Test data are plotted on a dose-
response curve. If is from this curve
that the dose (generally measured in
milligrams (mg) of test substance per
kilogram (Kg) of body weight of the test
organism) which killed a certain
percentage of test organisms is
calculated. This calculated amount is
called the lethal dose. The majority of
toxicity tests (sometimes called
bioassays) are designed to calculate the
exact dose which kills 50% of the test
organisms. This is called the median
lethal dose, or LD50 and is a relative
measure of toxicity. For example, if
substance B has an LD50 =1000 mg/Kg,
and substance A has an IJD50 * 500 mg/Kg,
given equal doses, substance A is more
toxic than substance B (Figure 1).
Other lethal doses (LD20 and LD80, for
example) are sometimes used in addition
to the LD50 to judge the toxicity of
chemicals at different doses. As seen
in Figure 2, some chemicals (D) are very
toxic at low doses and then, as the
dose increases, toxicity increases only
slowly. The opposite can also occur,
where a chemical has a low toxicity at
low doses, but as the dose increases
slightly, toxicity increases greatly
(C).
Lcra/w. CONCENTRATION
6-5
-------
FIGURE 1
100 -i-
UJ
«/1
Z
o
UJ
Q£
10
01
V
>
50
DOSE (mg/kg)
This illustration indicates that compound A is more toxic
than B- that is, A gives the same response (50% deaths)
as B at a lower dose.
FIGURE 2
100
ui
VI
5
10
Q. t-
ui «a
ae. •—
50
20
DOSE (mg/kg)
From this illustration, compound C could be assumed to be
more toxic than compound D, based on LDrn- This could
be misleading because at lower doses the situation is
reversed: at LD20, 0 is more toxic than C.
6-6
-------
NOTES
When chemicals are dosed into the
organism's environment rather than into
the organism itself - as with airborne
contaminants (for inhalation testing),
or aquatic toxicity testing (where the
test chemical is dosed into the water
column), measurement of relative
toxicity is based on median lethal
concentration, or LC^°.
Terms often encounterred when
evaluating toxicity data include:
Median Lethal dose (LD50): A
calculated dose of a chemical which is
expected to kill 50% of an entire
defined experimental population.
Median Lethal Concentration (LC50):
A calculated concentration of a
substance in air, water, or feed,
exposure to which, for a specified
period of time, is expected to kill 50%
of an entire defined experimental
population.
Lethal dose low (ID*0): The lowest
dose, other than LD50, of a substance
introduced by any route which has been
reported to cause death in the species
of interest.
Toxic dose low (TDl0): The lowest
dose of substance introduced by any
route over a given period of time which
is reported to produce any toxic effect
in humans or carcinogenic,
neoplastigenic, or teratogenic effects
in animals or humans.
Toxic Concentration low (TCl0): The
lowest concentration of a substance in
air, water, or feed to which humans or
animals have been exposed for a given
time period which produced any toxic
effect in humans or carcinogenic,
neoplastigenic, or teratogenic effects
in animals or humans.
6-7
-------
NOTES
EXPOSURE TIME
Toxic effects are produced by acute
or chronic exposure to chemicals:
o Acute exposure - a single
exposure or multiple exposure occuring
within a short time (24 hours or less).
Usually it is a large single dose.
o Chronic exposure - several small
doses over a longer period of time
(usually months to years).
Exposures may also be of an
intermediate length, termed subacute,
subchronic, or short term exposure:
o Subacute exposure - exposure
usually lasts 3 to 5 days.
o Short term exposure - exposure(s)
usually lasts one to two weeks.
o Subchronic exposure - exposure (s)
generally lasts three months.
DOSE - DOSES
The frequency of administration of
a chemical also adds to characterization
of its exposure. Generally speaking,
fractionating the dose reduces the
effect. Where a single large dose of a
substance produces a given severe
effect, halving the dose and
administering it in two equal, separate
doses may produce less than half of the
original effect. In addition , dividing
the original dose into ten doses may
cause no ill effects at all. This
decrease in additive effects occurs when
metabolism or excretion takes place
between successive doses of the toxic
agent, or when the injury produced is
partially or fully reversed between
administrations of the agent.
When chronic effects occur, it is a
sign that the agent accumulates in the
body (absorption exceeds metabolism and
loo ec
6-8
-------
NOTES
of excretion) or that effects caused by
the agent are irreversible.
Accumulation can also be a result of the
frequency of dosing - there many not be
time enough for recovery between doses.
DOSE-RESPCNSE RELATIONSHIP
The most fundamental concept in
toxicology is the dose-response
relationship. This relationship is
based on assumptions:
o The effect (response) is a result
of the known toxicant administered.
o The response is, indeed, related
to the dose through this reasoning:
1. The response is a function of
the concentration of toxicant at a
specific site,
2. the concentration of toxicant at
this specific site is a function of the
dose administered, and
3. therefore, response and dose are
causally related.
It is this correlation between the
degree of a chosen response of the test
organism's biologic system and the
amount of toxic substance delivered that
forms the basic dose-response
relationship. _When plotted graphically,
this relationshup forms the classic
sigmoid curve time and time again (as
seen in Figures 1 and 2) which is
indicative of toxicity test results.
As stated previously, the median
lethal dose (LD50) is the most
frequently used endpoint in toxicity
testing. This relative toxicity is
measured for virtually every new
chemical which is manufactured. Mice or
rats are the most frequently used test
animals for such testing.
6-9
-------
NOTES
The concept of LD'g is not
without its shortcomings. The great
majority of LD^O data are calculated
based on acute bioassays. Chronic
toxicity cannot be extrapolated from
these data because nothing is known with
reqard to distribution, bioaccumulation,
metabolism, or excretion of the chemical
in the body. For example,
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were
found to be relatively non- toxic in
acute toxicity tests, but time has
proved PCBs to be highly toxic after
chronic exposure. This lack of chronic
toxicity testing has taken it toll on
human health in the past.
Another shortcoming of LD data is
that there is often little information
to go on for choosing a test species
that mimics human exposure. Each
chemical affects the body differently
and thus it is difficult to pick a
species which is affected similarly and
with the same sensitivity as humans.
For example, nearly all chemicals known
to be carcinogenic in man are also
carcinogenic in animals. One exception,
however, is arsenic, which, although a
human carcinogen, is not carcinogenic to
animal species.
In addition, as seen if Figure 2,
the LD50 is a single dat point and does
not indicate the exact shape of the
dose-response curve. The interval
between a non-toxic dose and a lethal
dose is not defined without further
testing. It would be easy to get the
wrong impression about the toxicity of a
chemical from such data.
6-10-
-------
TABLE 1
TOXICITY RATING CHART
Probable Oral Lethal Dose for Humans
Toxicity Rating or Class
Dose
For Average Adult
1. Practically nontoxic
2. Slighty toxic
3. Moderately toxic
4. Very toxic
5. Extremely toxic
6. Supertoxic
>15 g/kg
5-15 g/kg
0.5-5 g/kg
50-500 mg/kg
5-50 mg/kg
<5 mg/kg
More than 1 quart
Between pint & quart
Between ounce & pint
Between teaspoonful
& ounce
Between 7 drops
& teaspoonful
A taste (less than
7 drops)
Source : Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons, p. 12,
second ed., Doull, Klaassen & Amdur (eds.), 1980.
RELATIVE INDEX OF TOXICITY
When trying to interpret animal
toxicity data as they apply to humans,
it is necessary to use a conversion
factor. To do this, LD50's (mg/kg) from
animal studies are multiplied by 70 kg
(the average weight of man) to give a
rough estimate of human toxicity. This
conversion is used assuming that humans
have sensitivity to that of the test
species to the chemical tested.
All toxicity test data, (i.e.,
, yield information pertaining to
the relative toxicity of tested
substances. Some chemicals are capable
of producing death in microgram
quanitities while others are essentially
harmless in gram quantities.
Toxicologists often classify chemicals
based on computed LD^O's. categorizing
chemical toxicities, makes it clearer
when the toxicologist answers the
question, "How toxic is this chemical?"
An example of such a classification
scheme is given in Table 1.
6-11'
-------
NOTES
The LD^O of various chemicals can
vary widely depending on their relative
toxicities, as seen in Table 2.
TABLE 2
Approximate Acute LD^° of a selected variety of chemical
agents (for test animals).
Agent LD50 Toxicity Class*
mg/kg
ethyl alcohol 10,000 Slightly toxic
sodium choloride 4,000 Slightly toxic
ferrous sulfate 1,500 Moderately toxic
morphine sulfate 900 Moderately toxic
phenobarbitol sodium 150 Moderately toxic
DDT 100 Very toxic
Picrotoxin 5 Extremely toxic
Strychnine sulfate 2 Extremely toxic
nicotine 1 Extremely toxic
D-tubocurarine 0.5 Extremely toxic
Hemicholinium-3 0.2 Supertoxic
Tetrcdotoxin 0.10 Supertoxic
Dioxin (TCDD) 0.001 Supertoxic
Botalinus toxin o.00001 Supertoxic
* There has been no conversion here from animal data to potential human
toxicity. This column is used here to illustrate how toxicity classes
(Table ) are related to actual LD50 data for various chemicals.
Source:Toxicology; The Basic Science of Poisons, second
ed, Doull, Klaassen & Amdur (eds.), 1980.
FACTORS INFLUENCING TOXICITY
Many factors affect the dose-
response relationship and should be
considered not only when designing
toxicity test but also when interpreting
toxicity data in specific situations.
Some of these factors attribute to
differences in the absorption,
distribution, metabolism or excretion of
toxic substances. These factors can be
divided into the following categories:
o factors related to the toxic
substance
6-12'
-------
UNIT 10
HAZARDS OF AIR SAMPLING
Educational Objectives
o The student should know what
safety details should be discussed with
work crews before traveling to the site.
o The student should be able to
list the necessary precautions to follow
before using a ladder.
o The student should be able to
recognize safety procedures to protect
workers below a working platform.
o The student should be able to
describe safety precautions to prevent
crew members from falling from heights.
o The student should be able to
define precautions and procedures for
erection of scaffolding.
o The student should be able to
list procedures and precautions for
hoisting equipment and supplies, and
personnel.
o The student should be able to
recognize safety precautions and
procedures due to power line, static and
lightening dischargers.
o The student should be able to
list the situations requiring
communications equipment and the type to
use for these situations.
o The student should be able to
describe the types of safety gear a
stack sampling crew might need and the
situations where it might be needed.
10-1
-------
NOTES
Introduction
Stack sampling and source
inspection present some safety and
health problems that may not be
encountered in other sampling
environments. Stack sampling and source
inspection often take place in complex
industrial environments with many
unexpected dangers, and sampling often
requires working at heights. Stack
sampling operations can also create
hazards which may endanger plant
personnel as well as sampling personnel.
This Unit will emphasize the
hazards of working at heights,
particularly in industrial environments,
and the procedures and precautions that
can and should be followed for safety.
Responsibilities
As the first step for preparing to
work in an industrial environment,
sampling crew members need to find out
what hazards in the plant may endanger
them and what the crew can do to protect
themselves. (Some recommendations for
gathering information on industrial
plant hazards are discussed in detail in
another Unit.)
Many industrial plants will provide
safety and health information on
request, and many have taken measures to
guard and control hazards in their
plants. However, you cannot rely upon
industrial plants to provide safe
working conditions for sampling
personnel, even though plant management
is responsible for providing a place of
employment which is free of recognized
hazards that are likely to cause serious
physical harm. Sampling crews may have
to work in plant areas that are not used
by plant employees or that have
unrecognized hazards, and crews may have
to work in areas that have hazards that
are not controlled or guarded.
Therefore, sampling crews may have to
10-2
-------
NOTES
take more precautions and use more
persona] protective equipment than plant
employees do.
Sampling crews also have an
important responsibility to organize and
conduct sampling operations so that they
do not endanger crew members or plant
employees, or cause damage to sampling
equipment or plant property.
The sampling crew should provide
control of any hazards that may be
created as part of the sampling
operation or source inspection,
including hazards that may endanger
plant employees or property. For
example, the sampling team should rope
off or barricade any area where tools or
equipment may fall when they are being
hoisted or used.
If any construction work has to be
done to meet sampling requirements, such
as erection of a scaffold or cutting a
sampling port in a duct, an effort
should be made to see that the work is
done in ways that make subsequent
sampling as safe as possible. For
example, if a railing must be cut to
provide for access of the sampling
probe, the sampling organization should
provide specifications for guarding the
new openings in the railing with chain,
rope, or strong temporary railings. If
a new platform must be built or
scaffolding erected, the new
construction should have standard height
guard railings, toeboards, and other
safety features.
If you are assigned to be a project
officer for stack sampling operations
that are done by a Federal contractor,
you will have a responsibility to see
that the sampling is done according to
the contract. Since all Federal
contracts require compliance with
Federal safety regulations and OSHA
Standards, part of your responsibility
is to advise the contractor informally
•e
^Hr±ir
10-3
-------
NOTES
if safety precautions are not being
followed and the contractor does not
seem to be in compliance with Federal
safety regulations. However, as a
project officer you must not give
directions to the contractor because any
directions about contract performance
must come only from EPA contract
officers (otherwise you may become
liable for the cost of the work done at
your direction).
Ladders and Climbing
Since almost any source inspection
or stack sampling activity will require
crew members to climb fixed or portable
ladders, this section begins with basic
information on inspecting ladders for
safety. Next is important information
on how to climb ladders safely, and how
to place them for safe climbing.
Inspection of Ladders
All ladders should be in good
repair without any cracks or damage that
will weaken the ladder. Fixed ladders
attached to a structure should be
securely fastened to the structure, and
portable ladders should be positioned
safely for use. All ladder rungs or
cleats should be sound, securely
fastened to the rails, and evenly
spaced.
If ladder rungs and cleats are not
evenly spaced, the ladder will be
hazardous to climb. An even climbing
rhythm depends on even spacing of rungs.
Uneven spacing of rungs may cause a
misstep which can result in loss of
balance or grip and the possibility of
falling. Climbing ladders with unevenly
spaced rungs will require extra
attention to avoid injury.
Climbing Ladders
Persons who are going to climb
ladders should wear sturdy well-fitted
10-4
-------
NOTES
gloves, sturdy boots in good repair, and
clothing that is snug enough so that it
is not likely to catch on the ladder.
Climbing and descending should be
done facing the ladder. The foot should
be placed on the rung so that the front
edge of the heel is against the rung to
prevent slipping, particularly on wet,
oily or slippery rungs. The hands
should firmly grasp the rungs, not the
rails. Gripping the rungs for climbing,
as firefighters are trained to do,
provides greater control and less change
of slipping than gripping the side rails
of a ladder; the climbing rhythm
followed so that at any time one had has
a firm grip on a rung while the other is
reaching for the next rung up or down.
Safe climbing requires both hands
to be free for gripping the rungs of the
ladder. Nothing should be carried in
the hands while climbing. If tools and
small equipment cannot be hoisted, they
should be carried up ladders only in
backpacks, on shoulder straps, or on
belts. Care should be taken to prevent
tools or equipment (in backpacks, in
pockets, or on tool belts) from catching
on a rung or rail and throwing the
climber off balance, or from becoming
dislodged from the pack and falling to a
lower surface.
Portable ladders should be checked
for total weight capacity. Never have
more than one person climbing the ladder
at one time. Check that there are no
bows, bends, cracks, or rotted wood in
the ladder. Never use a make-shift
ladder constructed on site. Never use
ladders as scaffolding or bridges to
cross open areas. Ladders are designed
to have part of the weight distributed
in downward compression on the rail
members. Use of a ladder as a scaffold
or bridge may exceed its design
strength.
Use only ladders that have cleated,
non-skid feet or bottom pads. The
single most frequent accident involving
10-5
-------
NOTES
portable ladders is the bottom slipping
outwards away from the vertical support
surface. Make sure the bottom c lea ted
pads rest on a non-slip, level surface.
Beware of gravel, grass, smooth wet
concrete, or oily slippery surfaces.
Before climbing a portable ladder,
position a crew member at the foot of
the ladder to stabilize the bottom while
climbing is taking place.
Make sure the ladder is perfectly
vertical before climbing. Never attempt
to shift or move a ladder while still on
it. Remove all equipment hanging from
the rungs before shifting position of
the ladder. When moving a ladder,
position one crew member on each side to
firmly grasp and stabilize it. Position
the ladder with the base a safe distance
from the vertical surface it is up
against. If the base is too close to
the vertical surface, there is the
danger of the weight of the climber
causing the ladder to fall backwards.
If the base is too far from the surface,
there is increased strain on the
structural members of the ladder and a
tendency for the bottom to slip away
from the vertical surface. Table 10-1
gives recommended distances for given
lengths of ladders.
10-6
-------
TABLE 10-1
PITCH OF FIXED LADDERS
Substandard Pitch Fixed ladders shall be considered as substand-
ard if they are installed within the substandard pitch range of
60 and 75 degrees with the horizontal. Substandard fixed ladders
are permitted only where it is found necessary to meet conditions
of installation. This substandard pitch range shall be consid-
ered as a' critical range to be avoided if possible.
Pitch Greater Than 90 Degrees Ladders have a pitch in excess of
90 degrees with the horizontal are prohibited.
Maintenance All ladders shall be maintained in a sale condition.
All ladders shall be inspected regularly, with the intervals
between inspections being determined by use and exposure.
SAFETY REQUIREMENTS FOR SCAFFOLDING
General Requirements for all Scaffolding Scaffolds shall be
erected in accordance with this standard for persons engaged in
work that cannot be done safely from the ground.
The anchorage for scaffolds shall be sound and capable of car-
rying the maximum intended. Unstable objects shall not be used
to support scaffolds.
Guardrails should all be 2 x 4 inches, installed no less than 36
inches or no more than 42 inches high, with a midrail, when
required, of 1 x 4 inch lumber. Supports should be at intervals
not to exceed ten feet. Toeboards shall be a minimum of 4 inches
in height.
Scaffolds shall be capable of supporting 4 times the maximum
intended load.
Scaffolds shall not be altered or moved horizontally while they
are in use of occupied.
Any scaffold damaged or weakened from any cause shall be immed-
iately repaired and shall not be used until repairs have been
completed.
Scaffolds shall not be loaded in excess of the working load for
which they are intended.
10-7
-------
NOTES
Make sure the length of the ladder
is adequate for the job. Reaching from
a ladder that is too short is a prelude
to disaster.
Protecting Areas BElow Work
Platforms
Areas in the "impact zone" below
sampling operations and hoisting
operations should be roped off or
barricaded to keep people out of the
area where parts or equipment may fall.
Flooring of Work Platforms
Open-grating platforms used for
stack sampling should be floored (with
plywood) to prevent small tools and
parts from falling through the grating.
(This will help keep all the gear
together, as well as keeping it from
falling onto persons or equipment
below.) If tools, equipment or hardware
fall from a ladder or platform, the
impact can cause damage or injury. If
solid flooring and toeboards cannot be
provided, tool belts and other devices
should be used to prevent material
falling from sampling areas.
To minimize tripping hazards in
elevated locations, the flooring should
be flat and level, and tape, tools, and
small objects should be stored so that
they do not clutter the work platform.
Umbilicals and wires should be run so
that they are kept out of the working
path. Tripping hazards that cannot be
eliminated should be minimized and
marked to help reduce their danger.
Toeboards
Toeboards should generally be
provided as curbs around the edges of
working platforms to prevent equipment,
small tools, and other gear from being
pushed or kicked over the edge.
Toeboards are not required if nothing in
use can be dropped or if no one can walk
10-8
-------
NOTES
under the platform or close enough to
the "impact zone" to be hurt.
Toeboards should generally be four
inches in height from the top edge of
the toeboard to the top of the working
surface. Lumber that is 1" x 4" or 2" x
4" nominal is acceptable for toeboards.
Tools
It is important to prevent tools
and other work material from falling off
of elevated work platforms both for
safety and for working without
unnecessary interruption. Although
toeboards and solid flooring will help,
other measures may be needed.
If tools or other equipment are
used beyond the edge of the working
platform, it is advisable to take
special precautions to prevent them from
falling. In some situations, it may be
desirable to tie tools to the platform
or other superstructure. For example, a
tie line should definitely be attached
to any wrench used to loosen a tight
plug in a sampling port, in case the
wrench slips and falls.
Protection Against FalIs from
Heights
Working platforms and scaffolds
usually are built with standard guard
railings, but roofs and temporary
working surfaces seldom have any sort of
railing. This section describes the
standards for permanent and temporary
guard railings, where railings are
needed, and situations where safety
lines may be needed.
Working platforms and elevated
walkways should have guard railings high
enough to prevent workers from falling
off the elevated surfaces. If you find
that the height of a guard railing is
below your waist level or center of
gravity, you will need to be aware of
10-9
-------
NOTES
that deficiency and use extra caution
while you are working on the platform.
If you find that you have to work
on a scaffold or platform that does not
have a guard railing, you should find a
way to get a temporary railing installed
or use some other method to protect
yourself, such as a fall-protection
harness.
Standards for Guard Railings
Standard guard railings are
generally required for any walking and
working surfaces that are four feet or
more above another level. Standard
guard railings have a top rail that is
42-inches above the working surface, and
a midrail that is about 21 inches above
the working surface. (Midrails are
intended to prevent workers from falling
under the guard railings.)
Guard railings should be able to
withstand a 200 pound force applied in
any direction at any point on the top
rail, in order to provide reliable
protection. If a guard railing appears
too weak to support you if you fall
against it, do something to strengthen,
supplement or replace the railing before
you begin work on the platform or scaf-
fold. If you decide to test a railing
for any reason, try NOT to do it so that
you fall if the railing fails.
Openings in Guard Railings
If sections of existing guard
railing must be removed to provide
access to sampling ports for long
probes, there should be some alternative
guarding of the opening in the railing.
One alternative would be a temporary
railing above and below the path of the
sampling train.
Another alternative would be a
protective railing that projects out
beyond the opening and provides
10-10'
-------
NOTES
protection against falls.
If you encounter an unprotected
opening in a guard railing, you should
protect yourself by making a temporary
railing with rope or other material.
If guard railings have openings for
hoisting, stairs, or ladders that are
near areas used for sampling operations,
try to close the openings with a snap
chain, rope or other temporary barrier
to falling.
Since sampling operations must
often be carried out in locations not
designed for protection of work
operations, existing railings may need
to be augmented and temporary protection
of openings may need to be added to
prevent falls.
Temporary Guard Railings
If there is frequent need to walk
or work near the unprotected edge of
roofs or other elevated surfaces, a
temporary guard railing can be installed
to prevent falls. Such a railing can be
provided by tightly-strung rope or cable
at 21 and 42 inches above the surface.
If rope or cable is used as a temporary
guard railing, the rope or cable should
have less than six inches of sway under
a 200 pound force and no more than three
inches of sag between supports. Strong
vertical supports should be installed
(safely) at intervals that do not exceed
eight feet, so that the rope or cable
can provide reliable protection.
On some high surfaces it may be
desirable to provide a temporary guard
railing or rope even if sampling
personnel do not plan to work near the
edge. If the surface slopes or is rough
or slippery, there is need for a safety
guard railing or rope or a safety line.
In such hazardous situations, the 21-
inch high mid-rail is particularly
important to prevent someone from
10-11'
-------
NOTES
slipping or sliding under the 42-inch
high rope or guard railing.
Alternatives to Guard Railings
Although guard railings are usually
required for walking and working
surfaces that are four feet or more
above another level, there are some
situations where the risk of falling
does not seem to justify the expense and
hazards of erecting a temporary railing.
For example, consider a one-story flat
roof where sampling operations are
twelve feet or more from the edge.
Although sampling personnel can walk
over to the edge, they will usually be
working far enough away so they would
not be likely to fall from the roof.
During set-up and take-down
operations when the crew is hoisting
equipment over the edge of the one-story
roof, the hazard of the height is likely
to be so obvious that the crew will pay
great attention to the hazard and take
precautions to avoid falling over the
edge. However, if extra attention alone
does not seem to provide great enough
safety, some additional protection will
be needed. If providing a temporary
railing is hazardous, inconvenient or
expensive, or if it interferes with
hoisting operations, some other safety
measure may be needed.
Under some extreme conditions,
where guard rails or guard ropes cannot
be provided for the work area and where
fall distances could cause serious
injuries, personnel should wear safety
harnesses connected to well-rigged
safety lines. Safety harnesses that
provide protection against falls are the
type with loops around the shoulders,
legs and waist. Safety lines for fall
interruption must be equipped with
shock-absorbing devices to prevent
serious or fatal injury from the impact
of a sudden stop at the end of the rope.
Lowering
suspension
harness
Class IV
10-12'
-------
NOTES
Inspection and Erection of
Scaffolding
If you are going to work from
scaffolding, this section will list some
important things to check before you go
up on the scaffold. This section is
also intended to give you some
specifications and recommendations if
you are responsible for supervising
scaffold erection or contracting for it.
Inspection of Scaffolding
Portable scaffolds should be
erected so that they are secure enough
to minimize horizontal movement and to
prevent them from tipping over due to
wind, load, or working stresses.
Scaffolds over twenty feet high should
be secured or tied off at least at every
twenty feet of elevation.
Working surfaces on scaffolding
should obviously be strong enough to
support personnel and equipment. If the
floor of the platform is built of boards
or sheets of plywood, they should not
slide or fall off of the supports. If
the floor is built of planks that
overlap, they should overlap at least 12
inches or be nailed down or secured
against movement. It is important that
all plywood and planking be secured
against wind forces which may move or
lift them.
Before using a scaffold, use this
safety checklist for the condition of
the scaffold:
1. Are barricades or signs needed
to prevent the scaffold from being
struck by vehicles, and are they
provided?
2. Is the feel of the scaffold
stable and firm?
10-13'
-------
NOTES
3. Is there an access ladder that
is either built-in and continuous; or a
temporary ladder lashed firmly?
4. Are all other connections made
firm, either with pins, bolts, or nested
construction?
5. Are there secure cross braces
to prevent the scaffold from tipping?
6. Are the scaffold platforms at
least twenty-two inches wide?
7. Are the scaffold platforms
secured against teetering and being
blown off by the wind?
8. Do the platforms have 42-inch
high guard rails with midrails, or does
the cross-bracing give equivalent
protection?
9. Do
toeboards?
the platforms have
10. Are the toeboards of sufficient
height (3-1/2 inches or more) to prevent
tools and equipment from falling?
Erection of Scaffolding
Scaffolds should be cross-braced
and erected on solid footings to avoid
sinking into the ground or into the
roof. Cross-braces serve the important
function of keeping the scaffold erect
by preventing it from tipping over or
collapsing. Most sections of
scaffolding should have the cross-braces
connected, and the connections should be
secured to keep the braces in place.
Scaffolds should be erected so the
vertical sections are at right angles to
each other to provide a rectangular area
for the platform and greater strength.
Scaffolds with built-in ladder
sections should be erected so that all
the ladder sections are in a straight
10-14'
-------
NOTES
run. This will facilitate use of the
ladder and prevent injuries which may
occur if personnel are unaware of, or
forget shifts in the position of ladder
sections.
If the scaffold is erected where it
may be struck by vehicles, barricades
and signs should be installed.
If you are responsible for erection
of scaffolding, use the Checklist in the
safety booklet as part of the
specifications. The Checklist can also
be used as informal safety information
for anyone who may erect scaffolds
Agency personnel may have to use.
Hoisting
Stack sampling usually necessitates
raising equipment and replacement probes
and supplies up to sampling sites, and
lowering equipment and other material
after the tests. Hoisting and lowering
stack sampling equipment safely
requires: rope, gloves, a clear path, a
reliable method of stopping or
controlling the rate of descent, a
pulley or block and tackle for lifting
heavy equipment, support for the
hoisting device, methods of attaching
loads, and reliable hooks and ropes.
This section will discuss these
requirements and the advantages provided
by block and tackle.
Safe use of rope requires sturdy
gloves for protection of the hands and
for getting a secure grip on the rope.
Gloves which have leather palms are
effective.
Hoisting and lowering loads safely
also requires communication and
coordination between the person hoisting
the load and the person guiding or
receiving the load. If distances are
great and ambient noise levels are high,
the crew may need to have both visual
and audible signals.
10-15'
-------
NOTES
Clear Path
Hoisting equipment up to a sampling
site requires a clear vertical path that
is unobstructed and wide enough for safe
passage of the equipment that has to be
hoisted. If there is no clear path that
can be used for hoisting, it will take a
lot more effort to carry equipment up to
the sampling site without risk of
damage. As preparation for hoisting
equipment and supplies up the sampling
site, find out if there is a clear path
for hoisting or what route will have to
be followed. This information should be
obtained as soon as possible, either
during the initial visit or as a part of
a ore-sampling or preliminary survey.
Hoisting Procedure
Before lifting any loads up to the
sampling site, the hoisting area should
be roped off or marked to warn
passersby. Access to the hoisting area
should be limited to the crew members
doing the hoisting or guiding the load,
who should definitely be wearing hard
hats.
(The rope or signs should be
removed after the hoisting has been
completed and there is no danger of
tools or equipment falling, or after the
sampling has been completed. You may
have to remove the signs and barricades
around the hoisting area right after you
complete the hoisting if the plant needs
to use the area for work or for
traffic.)
No one should be directly under a
load being hoisted, even if block and
tackle are being used.
If possible, when loads are lifted,
the hoisting line should be directly
above the load so that the load is
lifted straight up from its resting
position. Pulling a load sideways as it
is being lifted may cause it to swing
10-16'
-------
NOTES
and damage the load.
To keep loads from swinging or
blowing while they are being hoisted, a
tail line or guide line is recommended
for control. The tail line or guide
line is controlled by the crew member on
the lower level at the hoisting site.
Controlling the Rate of Descent
Controlling the rate of descent of
a load is important to prevent damage to
the load or injury to personnel. If
equipment is lowered directly on rope by
hand or over a simple pulley, personnel
could lose their grip and drop the load
or burn their hands on the rope as the
load accelerates downward. Although the
rate of descent can be controlled best
by use of a power-driven hoist or a
block and tackle, a load can be lowered
safely on a rope if the controlling end
of the rope is looped around a support
so that friction can be used for
braking.
If equipment is going to be lowered
directly, it is possible to provide
excellent control by looping the rope
around a railing or post.
Control of the pull on the running
end of the rope can control the friction
of the rope around the railing or post
and make it easy to lower the load
gradually and safely with very little
effort. (If a capstan or a capstan-like
device is available to loop the rope
over, it has the advantage that a loop
may be thrown over the capstan without
having to find the end of the rope.)
Pulleys and Block and Tackle
Although hoisting without pulleys
has been common in stack sampling work,
use of one or more pulleys is
recommended. Using a pulley for
hoisting a load will usually reduce the
strength required for hoisting, and may
10-17'
-------
NOTES
allow the person hoisting the load to
work from a safer position. Pulleys and
rigging should be standard equipment for
stack sampling crews.
Sites over fifty feet high and
those which are sampled regularly should
have a pulley support installed. Some
companies have installed gallows frames
and pulleys permanently in such
locations.
The condition of frames and
supports should be checked before using
them, particularly in corrosive
atmospheres.
A block and tackle is a combination
of rope and two pul leys used to reduce
the amount of force needed for lifting.
If heavy loads need to be lifted to
stack sampling sites, or controlled
carefully on long lifts, the job can be
done with less stress on the crew by use
of block and tackle. The reduction of
force required to lift a load with block
and tackle is offset by the need for
longer rope and the time to pull it
through the pulleys.
Rigging block and tackle is done by
placing the blocks or pulleys close
together in the same relative position
as they will be used, and threading the
end of the coiled rope through the
pulleys to the connecting point on one
of the pulleys. Then the blocks can be
pulled apart as needed without kinking
or tangling the line.
The recommended storage procedure
for rope used in block and tackle is to
pull the blocks together, coil the rope,
and store the coiled rope with the end
on the bottom and the block and tackle
on top. With this procedure, the block
and tackle are ready to use without
tangling or kinking of the rope.
10-18'
-------
NOTES
Hooks and Other Devices for Attaching
Loads
Hoisting ropes should be provided
with hooks to be used for attaching
loads. All hooks used for hoisting
should have safety catches to keep loads
attached to the hook until the safety
catch is released. The safety catch is
designed to prevent the load attachment
or supporting eye or line from slipping
out of the eye of the hook.
The hook used for hoisting loads
should be strong enough to hold the load
without bending out of shape. (As a
rule of thumb, the load in tons that can
be carried safely by a hook is equal to
the square of the diameter of the eye.
As a rough estimate, a hook with a half-
inch diameter eye could safely carry a
one-quarter ton load and a hook with a
one-inch diameter eye could carry a one
ton load safely.)
Loads to be hoisted should have
well-attached connections (such as an
eye or sturdy handle) for the hoisting
hook or the hoisting line.
If loads do not have connections,
the loads should be supported in slings
or be lashed so that the load will not
shift or drop during the hoisting and
lowering. When hoisting probes or other
equipment without a specific attachment
point, it is safer to provide a separate
sling or binding rope than to use the
hoisting rope to wrap or tie the load.
The most commonly used sling is composed
of two lengths of rope with a galvanized
eye spliced into each end of each rope.
To use the sling, one length is passed
under each end of the load and the four
eyes are hooked onto the tackle hook of
the hoisting line.
If a connecting device such as a
shackle or clevis is used in the sling,
the safe load in tons is estimated to be
the diameter of the pin in I/4-inches
10-19-
-------
squared and divided by three. For NOTES
example a half-inch diameter clevis pin
is two quarter-inches, and two squared
and divided by three is 4/3 or 1-1/3
tons.
(These rules of thumb are not
suggested as a substitute for accurate
tables and reference material from
manufacturers of hooks and connecting
devices, but they may be useful as a
safety check while in the field.)
Rope
Rope needs to be strong enough to
support the load to be lifted, and large
enough in diameter to allow a firm grip
for the load to be lifted. For example,
rope that is 1/4-inch in diameter is not
large enough to allow a firm grip for a
heavy load; 1/2-inch or 3/4-inch
diameter rope will allow a firm and
comfortable grip.
The estimated safe load for manila
rope not larger than one-inch in
diameter, in tons of weight-bearing
capacity, is obtained by squaring the
diameter of the rope in inches. For
example, a one-inch rope could safely
carry a load of one ton, and a 1/2-inch
rope could carry a load of 1/4 ton.
Sisal rope can carry only one-third the
afe load of manila rope.
Care should be taken to avoid
kinking or dmaging rope, getting it wet,
or dragging it in the dirt. If rope
gets direty, it should be hosed off and
then loosely coiled to dry. If rope
must be passed over sharp corners or
edges, the charp corners or edges should
be padded or protected (with chaging
gear) to prevent damage to the rope.
Rope should be routinely inspected
for wear, breaks or other defects either
prior to each use or after each use (to
save time when the rope is needed).
Manila and sisl rope may need to be
10-20'
-------
NOTES
replaced every year if used often or
wetted frequently.
Rope that is rotten, frayed, or
severely worn is not reliable and should
not be used.
Elevators and Manlifts
Elevators
Passenger elevators are usually
well maintained and regularly inspected
where the passenger load and frequency
of use are great, as in office and
commercial buildings. However, small
industrial elevators and hoists may
seldom be used or inspected regularly
and may be poorly maintained. Before a
hoist or small elevator is going to be
used for access to tall stacks, the
sampling crew should test the operation
of the hoist or elevator and test the
alarms and phones to see if they work
and if someone will respond to them.
The crew should also check out what
escape routes may be available if the
elevator or hoist stops during use.
(Before performing these tests, notify
plant personnel.)
If the hoist or elevator seems to
be unreliable, the sampling crew should
see what maintenance or emergency
assistance can be provided. If alarms
do not work, or phones are not reliable,
the crew should carry a radio or other
signaling device so that assistance can
be obtained if the hoist or elevator
stops between landings. If there is the
possibility that the hoist or elevator
may stop between landings, find out
whether it is possible to get out of the
car and whether there is any safe way to
get to a ladder or other route to the
ground.
Manlifts
Manlifts are vertical conveyor
belts for moving people from floor to
10-21
-------
NOTES
floor in less space and time than
required by stairs. Manlifts are old-
fashioned, dangerous and not designed to
move equipment or freight. Do NOT use a
manlift unless it cannot be avoided.
At the top of any manlift there
should be two automatic safety devices
which cut off the power and set the
brake if the person does not step off
the manlift at the top platform. (If
there were no safety devices and you did
not let go, you would go up over the top
pulley and down the other side!) At the
platform there should be a grab bar to
permit the rider to swing free and on to
the top landing if the emergency stops
fail to operate at the top of the man-
lift.
Before riding a manlift, check to
be sure that:
1. the emergency stop at the top
of the manlift operates,
2. the emergency stop rope or rod
beside the manlift operates,
3. there is a permanent ladder
accessible at the side of the manlift,
4. the underside of the floors or
platforms and cone-shaped guards to
guide the ascending person through the
floor opening,
5. there is sufficient
illumination to see the platforms and
stops,
6. there are instructions posted
on each landing,
7. the belt has not been spliced
and does not show wear, and
8. the top landing has a sign
designating it as the top landing and to
get off.
To ride a manlift safely:
1. Never carry tools or objects in
your hands or protruding from your
pockets or belt—they may catch in the
floor openings.
10-22'
-------
NOTES
2. Face the belt and get ready to
grab the handhold and place your feet on
the step quickly.
3. Do not leap to catch a step
that has passed the floor landing.
4. Hold on to the handholds firmly
with both hands.
5. Put both feet squarely on the
step, quickly.
6. Be ready to get off quickly at
the floor level you want.
7. Step away quickly to make room
for the next person getting off the
lift.
Electrical Hazards
Electrical hazards in stack
sampling operations can come from three
major sources: current leakage from
line-powered electrical equipment,
static electricity, and lightning.
Current Leakage from Equipment
Sampling personnel may be exposed
to serious shock hazards from line-
operated electrical equipment which does
not have a safe and effective grounding
connection.
Ungrounded electrical equipment can
be deadly because exposed metal parts
will be "hot" (at line voltage) if the
"hot" side of the line has short
circuited to the case or other exposed
metal parts. If sampling personnel were
to touch these exposed metal parts at
the same time they touched a grounded
metal object such as a pipe, they could
be electrocuted. The hazard is
insidious because such a short circuit
will not necessarily keep the equipment
from operating.
If the metal case or exposed parts
10-23'
-------
NOTES
are connected to a grounding circuit,
any internal short-circuit will trip the
circuit breaker rather than injure
someone. If grounding circuits cannot
be provided, or if tests by the crew
show that the grounding connection is
not grounded, the crew should use a
portable ground fault circuit
interrupter (GFCI).
If any sampling apparatus has a
noise-filtering capacitor, the apparatus
will not operate on a circuit with a
Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI)
because the capacitor will trip the
GFCI. If you have this type of
apparatus, a grounded circuit or
connection to ground must be provided
for safety.
Static Electricity
Sampling personnel may also be
exposed to shock hazards if they are
sampling a process stream which carries
a significant charge of static
electricity from particulates in the
process stream or from an electrostatic
precipitator. Sampling probes should be
grounded to remove static electricity
and prevent shocks to sampling
personnel.
Shocks from static electricity may
cause discomfort or injury, or may
startle sampling personnel and cause
them to jump back and fall from an
elevated platform.
Lightning
Sampling personnel working on
stacks or other elevated structures are
exposed to increased hazards from
lightning, particularly if they are
working with grounded electrical
equipment. Personnel in such situations
should be alert to approaching storms,
since lightning may strike in advance of
a storm. Sampling operations should be
discontinued when there is a hazard of
10-24'
-------
NOTES
lightning. In order to anticipate
lightning hazards, sampling personnel
should use a portable a.m. radio to
monitor local weather reports and listen
for static interference which may
indicate lightning discharges in the
vicinity.
Connunications
There are three types of
communication that are important for
safe stack sampling operations:
communications between members of the
sampling crew, a communications link
with plant personnel, and a portable
receiver to monitor local stations for
weather reports and for static which may
indicate approaching storms.
If sampling sites are in locations
where there may be flammable
concentrations of gases or vapors,
electrical equipment and radios should
not be taken in without first finding
out from plant personnel that they are
safe or can be adapted to work safely in
hazardous atmospheres.
Communication Between Members of the
Crew
Rapid and effective communication
is needed between members of sampling
teams for routine operations and for
emergency and safety-related messages.
Delay or confusion in communication
during setup and breakdown or during
hoisting operations can result in damage
to equipment and injury to personnel.
Good communication is especially
important for safe and effective
operations that are not routine, that
are carried out or assisted by another
crew, or that require close cooperation
between people who may not be used to
working together.
Radios are recommended for
communication between sampling team
members, for carrying out routine
10-25'
-------
NOTES
monitoring tasks, and for communicating
about safety problems that may arise.
Radio communication is effective for
conveying special directions during
setup and breakdown, and for describing
emergencies and the type of help needed.
EPA field experience has been that FM
radios are needed, because CB channels
are used so much that it is difficult to
communicate quickly and without
interference.
It may be possible to communicate
effectively in sampling operations by
means of shouting, if distances are not
too great, winds are not too high, and
noises in the sampling area are not too
great. However, voice communication is
easily interfered with by equipment
noise, passing trains and other
vehicles, and concentration on the work.
Hand signals and gestures can be used
for simple messages such as "move the
probe," but usually some audible signal
is needed to attract attention to the
visual message.
Inexpensive whistles, horns or
bells can be used either to call
attention to visual signals or send
audible signals. Where distances or
ambient noise levels are too great for a
hand bell or mouth-powered whistle or
horn to carry clearly, there are Halon-
powered hand-held horns that can be used
effectively.
Communication Between the Crew and the
Plant
It is also desirable to have a
means of communicating with plant
personnel in case of any emergency. In
some cases it may be possible to borrow
a radio that is on the plant frequency.
If an emergency occurs in or near
the sampling operations (such as
observation of lightning, or high winds,
or damage to equipment, or injury to
personnel) sampling personnel need to
10-26
-------
NOTES
have some means of communicating this
emergency and obtaining the help that is
needed.
In case of a plant emergency, such
as a fire, tornado warning, or
unexpected release of toxic chemicals,
it is imperative that sampling personnel
know the plant emergency signals and how
to respond promptly and correctly.
Communication for Weather Information
It is desirable to have a portable
receiver to monitor local stations for
weather reports and for static which may
indicate approaching storms.
Protective and Emergency Equipment
Protective Equipment for Routine
Hazards
Stack sampling personnel should be
sure to have the personal protective
equipment that may be needed for
exposures in sampling operations. Such
equipment will include the personal
protective and safety equipment for the
routine exposures expected, and it may
include emergency breathing equipment as
a special precaution. (See Units
pertaining to these subjects)
Under some conditions, stack
sampling personnel may need air-
purifying respirators, and under other
conditions they may need self-contained
breathing apparatus.
Approved air-purifying respirators
provide acceptable protection only, for
exposures to irritating or toxic gases
and vapors in concentrations that are
known to be within the limits of
protection provided by the respirators.
(See Units pertaining to these subjects.)
10-27'
-------
NOTES
Emergency Equipment
Emergency equipment should be
provided at the working elevation for
the types of emergencies which may occur
there, because there will be a delay in
emergency response from personnel at a
different elevation. For example, if
corrosive chemicals can be splashed in
the eyes or on the skin, or if heat
stress is severe, a supply of emergency
water is needed at the working
elevation. Adhesive bandages may be"
needed for minor cuts, and emergency
lighting may be needed in case of power
failure during night operations or
operations inside of windowless
buildings.
Approved self-contained breathing
apparatus or air-line respirators must
be provided and be within immediate
reach of the crew if there are hazards
of exposure to concentrations that are
either unknown or beyond the limited
capacities of filter-type respirators.
Such breathing apparatus should also be
provided if there is the possibility of
release of high concentrations of deadly
gases such as hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen
cyanide, or hydrofluoric acid.
If unique hazards such as hydrogen
sulfide, hydrogen cyanide, or
hydrofluoric acid may be present in high
concentrations, the sampling crew may
need to have special protective and
emergency medical equipment.
Weather Hazards
Snow, rain, and dust storms are
likely to interfere with communication
and cause other problems that will
prevent safe sampling operations. Such
storms may also reduce visibility and
mobility and increase hazards to the
extent that sampling operations will
need to be stopped. If ladders, stairs,
platforms and other walking and working
surfaces are covered with ice or snow,
or are icing up from a freezing rain,
there should be no climbing (except to
10-28'
-------
NOTES
"retreat") and no work at elevations.
Weather conditions can also affect
sampling equipment and personnel working
outside and increase the hazards of the
sampling operation and the needs for
protective equipment.
Heat Hot weather and direct
sunlight can contribute to the heat load
from process equipment and from physical
activity, so that it may be necessary to
monitor for signs of heat stress. High
temperatures may also cause samples to
volatilize and to pressurize sample
containers so that there is risk of a
leak or spray from the container. Metal
in direct sunlight may become hot enough
to cause thermal burns to unprotected
skin. Heat stress may require special
protective clothing, extra drinking
water or other fluids, and monitoring of
personnel for sunburn or symptoms of
heat exhaustion, or heatstroke.
Cold Cold weather, wet clothing
and wind can cause frostbite,
hypothermia, or other adverse effects.
Low temperatures may also freeze lines
and cause sampling equipment to
malfunction.
10-29'
-------
STUDENT EXERCISE I
Examine Figure 1. List as many safety violations as can be
found. (Hint: There are at least 10)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10..
10-30
-------
10-31'
-------
STUDENT EXERCISE II
a. Will a hook with an eye of 1/2" safely support a load of
1,000 Ibs?
b. Will a 1/4" clevis pin safely support a load of 1,000 Ibs?
c. Will a manila rope of 3/4" diameter carry a load of 1,000
Ibs?
10-32'
-------
UNIT 11
INSPECTION SAFETY FOR WATER AND WASTEWATER PLANTS
Educational Objectives
o Students should be able to list
the most frequent types of accidents
that occur at water and wastewater
plants.
o Students should be able to
identify where most accidents occur in
water and wastewater plants.
o Students should be able to list
the physical dangers of grit chambers,
screens and comminutors.
o Students should be able to
summarize the chemical hazards of grit
chambers, screens and comminutors.
o Students should be able to
recognize the essential safety
precautions to be followed prior to
entry into grit chambers, screens and
comminutors.
o Students should be able to
recognize the physical and chemical
hazards of clarification and aeration
facilities.
o Students should be able to list
the minimum safety precautions to be
followed before inspection of clarifiers
and aeration tanks.
o Students should be able to
identify the safety hazards associated
with chlorine.
o Students should be able to list
the safety precautions to be followed
prior to entering a chlorine
disinfection room.
o Students should be able to list
the safety precautions to be followed
when inspecting lagoons and ponds.
11-1
-------
NOTES
o Students must be able to
recognize specific health hazards
associated with common chemical names
found in laboratories.
o Students must be able to
summarize safety precautions that should
be followed in a laboratory.
o Students should be able to
recognize and define confined space.
o Students should be able to list
potential hazards of confined spaces.
o Students should be able to
describe the confined space environment
classified as Class A, Class B, and
Class C.
o Students should be able to list
safety precautions to be followed for
each class of confined space environment.
o Students should be able to
demonstrate a knowledge of ambient air
quality standards.
o Students should be able to
recognize the physical hazards
associated with confined space entry.
o Students should be able to list
minimum safety equipment necessary for
confined space entry.
o Students should be able to
recognize and evaluate chemical hazards
associated with wastewater.
o Students should be able to
demonstrate a knowledge of the hazards
of specific gases and vapors associated
with wastewater.
o Students should be able to list
diseases and symptoms commonly
associated with wastewater.
o Students should be able to
summarize the personal protection
11-2
-------
NOTES
necessary to reduce contact with
pathogenic organisms.
o Students should be able to
describe the personal hytriene required
co prevent infection.
11-3 •
-------
UNIT 11
1NSPBCTICN SAFETY FOR WATER AND WASTEWATER FACILITIES
Introduction
The safety and health of agency
employees entering water and wastewater
plants can be best analyzed by examining
the overall hazards that exist at these
plants. In the routine of a thorough
inspection of such plants, agency
personnel face, on a limited basis, all
the potential dangers encountered by
daily operations personnel.
Operational techniques used by
various systems such as trickling filter
plants or activated sludge plants pose
unique hazards. It is not within the
scope of this course to single out
particular plant types. The possible
hazards present at each of these types
of plants will be handled collectively.
As routine inspections will most likely
include a wide variety of plant types.
Inspectors should thoroughly aquaint
themselves with all the hazards that may
be encountered.
Types of Accidents and Frequency
The following is a summary of the
types and locations of accidents and
hazards routinely reported in water and
wastewater plants (see Figure 11-1).
11-4
-------
NOTES
FIGURE 11-1
Percentage (No. Injuries) Reported by Location of Accident
No. Systems Reporting: 1408
„ . , . a _ _ . ___.
Mo. Injury Location. Reported! 3021
tobontory 1.7% (501
etoetrle»t««»ulD«n«nt1.7%(S1)
•qulpmant2.7%(182)
tanks 01
settling
basins/oils/
ponds
5.8X
pipm valvoa
and futures 8.1% (1851
sludge handling eauipmenl
motor
.vehicle
8.5% (195)
operations related
maintenance related
11-5
-------
NOTES
Table 11-1 indicates a reversal in
accident rates. Prior to 1983, the
industry was recording a gradual decline
in accident rates. The year 1983 saw
the rate beginning to climb. Statistics
indicate that at the present accident
rate, one in every 10 workers will
receive an injury requiring lost work
time. In the last year seven fatalities
were reported as a result of job related
accidents at water and wastewater
facilities.
"*W(n». — •'t
—v<\ *tif
Cong Term Injury Rat* for Itaatment Plants and Collection Systanu
5 100
90 -
80-
70-
60
SO
40
30
20
10
Itoctnwnt Planti
AHSyvtam
i n n
®4-UB@i n 111111
.... 1111111111111
11111111111111111
111 i 111111 i i • 111 •
1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 197S 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983
11-6
-------
TABLE 11-1
1983 Personnel injuries in wastewater vorks
U.S. and Canada (as determined from WPCF 1984 Safety Survey)
A BCDEFGH
Collection systems only
< 10 255 1175 592 846.76 32 37.79 247.2
> 10 to 25 141 2346 676 1182.14 51 43.14 407.0
I
291.9
344.3
> 25 to 100 157 7654 1580 3111.58 241 77.45 3319.2 1066.7
> 100 48 18503 2550 4813.24 347 72.00 4553.0
Total 601 29676 5498 9959.72 671 67.37 8526.4
Treatment plants only
< 10 341 1692 1140 2137.94 51 23.35 525.2
> 10 to 25 212 3605 1593 3281.88 79 24.07 1090.0
> 25 to 100 192 9632 3664 7303.56 294 40.25 3723.5
> 100 76 32510 6899 13806.66 769 55.70 7676.2
Total 821 47339 13296 26530.04 1193 44.97 13014.9
Others-reported only as collection and treatment
< 10 299 1116 1054 1713.18 54 31.52 488.5
> 10 to 25 70 1169 639 1264.65 45 35.58 619.5
> 25 to 100 59 2886 1468 2900.23 139 47.93 1423.0
> 100 39 31531 10295 19818.41 1007 50. SI 15276.6
Total 467 36702 13456 25696.47 1245 48.45 17807.6
All systems
< 10 700 3002 2886 4697.38 137 29.16 1260.8
> 10 to 25 304 5070 2908 5728.67 175 30.56 2116.5
> 25 to 100 262 14000 6711 13316.38 674 50.62 8405.8
> 100 122 68104 19744 38444.31 2123 55.22 27505.8
Total 1408 90176 32249 62186.24 3109 49.99 39348.9
A: Population Size Group (X 10~3)*
B: Number of Reports
C: Population Served (X 10~3)*
D: Total Number of Employees
E: Total Man-hours (X 10^)
F: Total Disabling Injuries
G: Injury Frequency per 10^ Man-hours
H: Total Days Lost
I: Severity Rate (days lost from work per 106 man-hours)
J: Fatal Cases
944.8
856.1
245.7
332.1
509.8
556.0
490.6
285.1
489.9
490.7
770.8
693.0
268.4
369.5
635.8
715.5
632.8
J
0
0
1
0
1
-\
u
0
-)
^.
2
5
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
3
4
7
*Population served is partly composed of industrial waste population
equivalents
*Totals do not add up because of duplication in above groups
*A fatality represents 150 days lost as recommended in the National
Council's "1983 Accidents Facts" manual
Safety
-------
NOTES
It is evident from reported
statistics that water and wastewater
plants represent a persistently
dangerous workplace. Table 11- 2
summarizes personnel disabling
injuries, in 1983, wastewater works by
U.S. EPA Region.
TABLE 11-2
1983 Personnel disabling injuries in wastewater works by O.S. EPA Region
B
D
H
I
I 96 2629 1279
II 178 12099 3513
III 153 9242 4038
IV 113 6512 3820
V 411 24836 9180
VI 77 4607 1990
VII 107 5245 1902
VIII 52 3119 934
IX 70 16880 3800
X 46 3285 1076
Total 1302 88454 31532
A: EPA Region
B: Number of Reports
C: Population Served (X 10~3)
D: Total Number of Employees
E: Total Man-hours (X 10~3)
F: Total Disabling Injuries
2519.195
6719.333
8079.715
7591.865
17888.014
3958.465
3505.581
1788.352
6871.774
2075.527
60997.821
165
342
293
368
873
238
173
69
452
79
3052
66.50
50.90
36.26
48.47
48.80
60.12
49.35
38.58
65.78
38.06
50.03
2954
3641
4517
4054
10917
2952
2058
750
5508
1207
38558
1172.6
541.9
559.1
534.0
610.3
745.7
587.1
419.4
801.5
581.5
632.1
0
0
1
2
1
1
2
0
0
0
7
G: Injury Frequency per 10° Man-hours
H: Total Days Lost
I: Severity Rate (days lost from work per
J: Fatal Cases
10~6
Man-hours)
Note: States contained in particular regions are as follows:
I Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, Ne-w Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont
II New Jersey, New York
III Delaware, DC, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia
IV Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi, North Carolina, South
Carolina, Tennessee
V Illinois, Indiana, Michigan. Minnesota, Ohio, Wisconsin
VI Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas
VII Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska
VIII Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, Wycming
IX Arizona, California, Hawaii, Nevada
X Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, Washington
11-8
-------
NOTES
Statistics also indicate that the
severity of injury increases as the size
of the plant increases; even though
studies also indicate that the larger
the plant is, the more likely it is to
have safety equipment available and
safety programs in place. Increased
personnel and opportunity for accident
are the most probable causes for this
disparity.
Figure 11-1 and Table 11-3 are
summaries of the types of injuries
suffered by personnel in the wastewater
industry. Since the frequency of
exposure of agency personnel to some of
these types of injuries is less than
others, concentration will be made on
the following areas representing the
most immediate threats:
1. Grit chambers, screens and
comminutors.
2. Clarification and aeration
facilities.
3. Disinfection
4. Lagoons and ponds
5. Sampling
6. Laboratory
7. Confined spaces (digesters),
wet wells
8. Chemical hazards
9. Aerosols and microorganisms
10. Gases and vapors
11-9
-------
FIGURE 11-1
Percentage (No. Injuries) Reported by Type of Injury
No. System*: 14O8
No. Injuries: 3118
tfi«rnwlbunt1.6%(S1)
chemical bum 1.9% (58)
respiratory 2.5% (79)
irritation 2.9% (90)
oceup*Uonj|
IKn«*s3,0%(921
'fOfvlQn Dooy
5.4% (168)
TABLE 11-3
Incidence of disabling injury by cause of accident.
Cause of Accident
Sprain strain in lifting, pulling, or pushing
objects
Sprains strains caused by awkV/ard position
or sudden twist or slip
Struck against stationary ot moving object
Struck by falling or flying objects
Falls on same level to working surface
Falls to different level from platform, ladder.
stairs, etc.
Struck by sharp or blunt object
Caught in, under, or between objects
Contact with radiations, caustics, toxic, or
noxious substances
Occupational illness (vaccination reaction.
typhoid, etc.)
Contact with temperature extremes (fire,
frostbite, scalding, etc.)
Rubbed or abraded
Motor vehicle
Animal or insect bites
Contact with electric current
Total
Wo.
Disabling
Injuries
772
546
264
259
250
243
183
169
157
67
55
53
51
40
8
3117
%
Total
248
175
85
83
80
78
59
54
50
2.1
18
17
1,6
13
03
U-10
-------
NOTES
Grit Chambers, Screens and
Comminutors
Volatile Gases and Oxygen
Deficiency - Grit chambers, screens and
comminutors generally serve the same
purpose of reducing or removing
objectionable material in raw
wastewater. Depending on plant
hydraulics and design, the devices are
located jn buildings often under ground,
with limited ventilation. In extensive
collection systems serving large
metropolitan areas, wastes often arrive
in a septic state containing industrial
volatiles such as gasoline. The
conditions prevailing in the housing
building may be identical to wet wells
or other confined space entry
structures. The dangers and precautions
discussed in the previous section on
Confined Space Entry, should be followed
in detail.
Physical Hazards - In addition to
dangerous gas and oxygen deficiency,
grit chambers, screens, and comminutors
also present additional hazards.
Generally, these areas remain constantly
wet, with large amounts of grease and .
oil present. The combination of oils
and greases with ladders, rails, and
open fast moving machinery present
formidable safety hazards.
Flammable Liquids - Due to the
construction design of grit chamber
inflow channels, oils and greases often
accumulate in these areas prior to
entering the main plant. In the case of
gasoline, fuel oil, or other flammable
materials that have been dumped or
leaked into the drains, dangerous
accumulations may be present at the grit
chamber channels, with little or no
evidence at other parts of the plant.
Agency personnel are cautioned to be
particularly alert and observant during
these emergencies. Flew channels are
usually designed to decrease incoming
wastewater velocity by widening the
11-11'
-------
NOTES
channel. It is at this point that
volatiles usually accumulate.
Safety Precautions - As a mind mum,
the following safety precautions and
gear should be adhered to before
entering grit chambers, screens and
chambers:
1. Confined area should be checked
for appropriate ventilation.
2. Confined area should be
monitored for explosive gases, toxic
fumes, oxygen deficiencies. (See
section on Confined Spaces Entry.)
3. Entry, work, and inspection
areas should be checked for missing
ladder wrungs, hand rails, poor
lighting, missing machine guards,
overhead conveyor belts, standing water,
or grease.
4. As a minimum, the following
safety gear should be worn:
a. Hard hat
b. Safety splash goggles
c. Rubber gloves
d. Rubber soles, steel teed
boots
O
o
If conditions
protections;
warrant further
e. Close fitting slicker or
water repellent outerwear(loose or
floppy fitting rain gear with
drawstrings should be avoided when
entering areas containing moving
machinery)
boots
f. Knee-high rubber safety
11-12'
-------
NOTES
g. Dust or organic vapor
respirator
Clarification and Aeration Facilities
Flammable Liquids - The open design
of clarifiers and aeration tanks
generally precludes the dangers of
confined space entry. Flammables and
otter volatiles may, however, be present
in sufficient quantity to explode or
ignite. Sources of ignition such as
cigarettes, matches, or lighters should
be prohibited in these areas,
.particularly in times of known spills.
Physical Hazards - The open nature
of these tanks should be guarded by
extensive hand rails. Life poles, life
jackets, and life rings should all be
present, when entering these areas.
Sample collections or D.O meter reading
in the tank area should include the
wearing of a life vest and the presence
of a second person.
Safety Precautions - As a minimum,
the following safety equipment should be
worn by agency personnel entering into
the clarifier or aeration areas:
1. Hard hat
2. Rubber gloves
3. Rubber soled safety boots
4. Splash goggles
In the case of sampling:
5. Life vest
Particular caution should be
exercised during the winter months.
Inclement weather may result in
treacherous conditions on the walk-ways
above clarifiers and aerators.
Personnel are often heavily dressed for
warmth during these times. The shock of
cold water during a fall into a tank,
11-13'
-------
coupled with the weight of wet clothes
could result in disaster.
Disinfection
Storage Facilities - The use of
gaseous liquids, or solid chlorine as a
disinfectant and odor suppressant is
common place. For most facilities over
cylinders containing one ton of chlorine
and having an accumulative weight of
3,700 Ibs. Such large amounts of a
highly toxic and reactive chemical pose
problems in storage and safety. Stored
cylinders should be kept under roof away
from direct contact with liquids. When
chlorine gas comes in contact with
moisture, it forms highly corrosive
hydrochloric acid. Such acid is not
only a threat to the worker and the
inspector, but can accelerate the rate
of leakage by further eroding the
structural integrity of the cylinder.
Chlorination Room Safety
Chlorine as a gas is heavier than
air and as a result, will accumulate at
floor level or in manholes or
depressions. Chlorination rooms should
be separate from other facilities.
Before entering such rooms, agency
personnel should examine the exterior
for floor level ventilation and power
exhaust systems. If windows are
available, a visual examination of the
interior may provide evidence of the
yellowish appearance of leaking chlorine
gas. Many facilities have chlorine
warning systems or instruments that can
detect chlorine at 0.5 mg/1. Full face
respirators should be found near the
entrance to the chlorinator building.
Never enter a chlorinator building
alone. After satisfying oneself that
ventilators are present, power exhaust
systems are working, and no visual signs
of chlorine can be seen, one person
should enter the room and the other
remain outside for rescue purposes until
the all-clear has been reported.
Exposure to even minute quantities of
chlorine generally can be detected by
smell and watering and irritation to the
eyes and nose. Any such occurrence
11-14'
-------
MOOES
should be cause to exit the room
immediately. Minute leaks can often be
detected visually by checking for
droplets of moisture on the underside of
connections and valves. Chlorine's
affinity for water usually results in
moisture accumulation near t-he leak.
Safety Precautions - At a minimum,
after exercising all previously
discussed precautions, Agency personnel
should wear the following safety gear
when entering a chlorinator room:
1. Hard hat
2. Rubber gloves
3. Safety glasses
4. Rubber soled safety shoes
If chlorine in any amount is
detected, no entry should be attempted.
Rescue attempts should be made with a
full face SCBA.
Sludge Digestion
Anaerobic sludge digesters
represent a formidable safety hazard.
During the normal operations of the
digester, sludge is converted to, among
other products, methane and carbon
dioxide. Methane, when combined with
oxygen at a ratio of 5:1 to 20:1, is
highly explosive. Entry into an active
digester requires specific training and
certification in confined space entry.
The scope of this course does not allow
specific detailed description of this
type of training.
Lagoons and Ponds
Physical Hazards - Agency personnel
in the normal inspection procedure,
visit the sites of lagoons and ponds.
All such ponds should have a protective
fence surrounding the immediate area.
Safety rings, life preservers, life
11-15
-------
NOTES
poles and boats should be found adjacent
to these structures. When sampling,
precautions should be taken to prevent
slipping and falling down banks.
Inclement weather, animal burrows and
other such hazards may provide unstable
footing. Wastewater ponds range from 4
feet to 10 or more feet deep. Such
ponds represent a real threat to
drowning as well as the ever present
exposure to pathogens. When sampling is
necessary, a second backup person should
be present to effect a rescue if
necessary.
Safety Precautions - As a minimum,
agency personnel should wear the
following safety equipment:
1. Hard hat
2. Splash goggles
3. Rubber gloves
4. Knee high rubber safety boots
Laboratory Health and Safety
Chemical Hazards - Agency personnel
involved in water and wastewater plant
inspections will normally be required to
enter laboratories. Such laboratory
visits do not normally require agency
personnel to perform laboratory work.
Even so, certain hazards are present by
nature of the presence of the inspector
in the laboratory environment. Routine
laboratory analysis requires a wide
array of chemicals, many of which pose
certain hazards. The names and formulas
of certain common acids should be known:
Hydrochloric Acid - HCl
Sulfuric Acid - H2sc>4
Nitric Acid - HN03
Chromic Acid - ^304 +
11-16
-------
NOTES
"Phosphoric Acid - H3P04
Not all acids react at the same
speed; exposed personnel should not
procrastinate if an accident occurs
Eyes exposed to acid splashes should be
rinsed in an emergency eye wash for a
minimum of 15 minutes. Acid splashes on
skin or clothing should be counteracted
by first removing all contaminated
clothing and thoroughly flushing the
skin with water. Never attempt to
neutralize acids splashed on the body
with bases or other chemicals.
Bases are also corrosive and
readily react with acids, organic
solvents, clothing and skin.
Frequently, skin contact with bases is
not immediately noticed by the
individual until significant damage is
done. As with acids, exposure of the
skin or eyes to bases should be
countered with continuous flushing with
clean water.
The names and formulas of common
bases are listed below:
Sodium Hydroxide NaOH
Potassium Hydroxide KOH
Ammonium Hydroxide
(ammonia)
Sodium Carbonate
(soda ash)
Sodium Bicarbonate
Calcium Hydroxide Ca (OH) 2
(slaked lime)
Calcium Oxide CaO
(quick lime)
Although there are many chemicals
that are commonly found in a water and
wastewater laboratory, only one other
group shall be discussed as representing
11-17
-------
NOTES
a significant hazard to Agency
personnel, that of a group identified by
the family name as oxidizers.
Oxidizers by nature react with
organic substances such as skin,
clothing, and organic solvents. The
speed and intensity of the reaction
depend on the specific combination of
oxidizer and organic material, and the
physical conditions surrounding the
site. The reaction can be quite violent
with spontaneous combustion or
explosions resulting. By law, labels
must clearly identify oxidizers. As a
rale, oxidizers should be kept separate
from any contact with organics.
Listed below are some of the common
names and formulas of oxidizers
frequently used in water and wastewater
analysis:
Potassium dichromate
Sodium Thiosulfate
Calcium Hypochlorite Ca(OCl)3
Chlorine Cl2
Sodium Persulfate Na2S2Cg
Nitric Acid HNO3
Sulfuric Acid H2S04
Perchloric Acid HC1O4
Physical Hazards - To the visitor
or inspector, physical hazards to be
found in the laboratory are generally
classified as chemical splashes or
contact, cuts from glassware, slips or
falls.
Be cautious of liquids in unmarked
glassware. Always assume its an acid or
other hazardous chemical. Stay clear of
glassware such as flasks and test tubes
that are being heated. They have a
11-18'
-------
NOTES
tendency to suddenly spurt their
contents out in the direction they are
pointed. Assume any wet spot on a lab
surface or on the outside of a reagent
bottle to be hazardous. Many reagents
such as basses, are as slippery as soap.
3e cautious of slipping when laboratory
floors are wet. When enrering a
laboratory, make note immediately of -he
location of safety showers, eye washes
and other safety devices.
Safety Precautions - Agency
personnel entering a laboratory snould,
as a minimum, wear the following safety
equipment:
1. Splash goggles
2. Rubber soled safety shoes
If the inspection will require
close proximity to active experiments,
the following safety gear should be
added:
1. Full face splash shield
2. Rubber apron
3. Rubber gloves
For other information regarding chemical
properties and hazards, see units
pertaining to Chemical Hazards and on
Chemical Safety and Evaluation.
Confined Spaces
Definition - A "confined space" is
defined as any enclosed or semi-enclosed
space that has limited openings for
entry and exit, that is not intended for
continuous employee occupancy, and that
does not have sufficient natural or
mechanical ventilation to prevent the
build-up of a hazardous atmosphere.
Typical confined spaces in the
wastewater industry are manholes,
sewers, metering stations, valve or
siphon chambers, pump stations, empty
tanks, pits, or any other area in the
system that has direct contact with
11-19-
-------
wastewater, sludge, or sludge gas, or
conduits carrying these substances.
As wastewater is collected and
treated, chemical and biological process
changes take place, releasing or
increasing the concentrations of toxic
and combustible gases. Even when toxic
or comoustibie gases are not present in
concentrations nigh enough to cause
physical harm, the biological or
chemical changes may use up the oxygen
in the atmosphere, creating an oxygen
deficiency which will cause asphyxiation.
Potential Hazards - Since confined
space entry has resulted in more deaths
and injury that any other source in the
wastewater industry, it is essential to
recognize the dangers and carefully
evaluate the situation prior to entry.
The following list comprises the most
serious hazards encountered in confined
space entry:
o Explosive gases
o Toxic gases
o Oxygen deficiency (asphyxiation)
o Falling
o Bumping into obstructions
o Vehicular traffic
o Suffocation
Safety precautions exercised before
entry into a confined space are
dependent upon the conditions that exist
in that space. Oxygen level,
f lammability and toxicity all must be
measured before any decisions can be
intelligently made. Over protection
limits the type, amount of work, and
time a worker may remain in the space.
Under protection, of course, endangers
the health and safety of the worker.
Tablell-4 describes the minimum
preparation required for three classes
of confined space entry. Where
11-20
NOTES
-------
NOTES
information on the table coincides with
the actual work environment, the
recommendations should be followed
carefully. If the conditions in the
space have the potential to change,
monitoring must be done frequently and
changes in safety and" health
requirements changed with the conditions.
TABUS 11-4
Confined space classification table
Parameter - Class A~
Characteristics:
Immediately dangerous to life-rescue procedures require the entry
of more than one individual fully equipped with life support
equipment—communication requires an additional standby person
stationed at the confined space
16% or less
(a) 16.3 kPa (122 mm Hg) or greater than 25%
(b) 25.3 kPa (190 mm Hg)
Flammability Characteristics
20% or greater of LEL
Toxicity
(b) IDLH
Parameter - Class B
Characteristics
Dangerous, but not immediately life threatening—rescue
procedures require the entry of no more than one individual fully
equipped with life support equipment; indirect visual or auditory
communication with workers
11-21-
-------
TABLE 11-4 Cont'd.
Oxygen
16.1% to 19.4%
(a) 16.3-19.6 kPa (122-147 mm Hg) or 21.5% to 25%
21.7-25.3 kPa (163-190 mm Hg)
Flammability Characteristics
10%-9% LEL
Toxicity
Greater than contamination level, referenced in 29 CFR Part 1910
Sub Part Z (OSHA) --- less than (b) IDLH
Parameter - Class C
Characteristics
Potential Hazard — requires no modification of work procedures;
standard procedures; direct communication with workers from
outside the confined space
19.5% to 21.4%
(a) 19.7-21.7 kPa
(148-163 mm Hg)
Flammability Characteristics
10% T.FT. or less
Toxicity
Less than contamination level referenced in 29 CFR Part 1910 Sub
Part Z (OSHA)
(a) Based upon a total atmospheric pressure of 100 kPa (769 mm
Hg) (sea level)
(b) Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH) — as referenced
in NIOSH
Registry of Toxic and Chemical Substances, Manufacturing
chemists data sheets industrial hygiene guides or other
recognized authorities.
Routine often results in
carelessness. Plan every confined space
entry with rescue in mind, even if the
entry is to be a brief inspection.
Asphyxiation or the effects of toxic
gases require only seconds to render an
11-22'
-------
NOTES
inspector unconscious. Rescue
procedures should be designed for each
entry. If a confined space has an A or
3 classification from Table 11-4, there
should be a trained standby person with
a fully charged, positive pressure,
self-contained breaming apparatus
(SC3A) at hand. Additional duties of
the standby person are to maintain
unobstructed life lines and
communications to all employees within
the confined space and to summon rescue
personnel if needed. Under no
circumstances should the standby person
enter the confined space until he is
relieved and is assured that adequate
assistance in present.
It is evident that safe confined
space entry is highly dependent on
instrument monitoring of ambient air
quality. See the unit of this manual
which provides an overview of monitoring
equipment availability and function.
All sewers and underground
structures should be considered
dangerous until they are adequately
tested. Tests should be taken of the
ambient air quality in the manhole
before removing the cover. Most manhole
lids have small openings in the cover to
allow an instrument probe to be
inserted. The principal tests are
oxygen deficiency, explosion range and
toxic gases. If Agency personnel are
to remain in the hazardous environment
for a prolonged period of time,
continuous monitoring will be required.
There have been instances, such as the
arrival of spill material, when the
nature of the atmosphere has changed
quickly in a hazardous condition.
If a hazardous atmosphere is found,
determination or correction of the
source is mandatory before entry, or if
the confined space has already been
entered, exit must be undertaken
immediately.
11-23'
-------
NOTES
Entry into a confined space should
not be attempted when tests indicate the
concentration of flammable gases in the
atmosphere is greater than 25% of the
lower flammable limit (LFL), such as
found in anaerobic digestors and some
sewer conditions. It is necessary to
determine the oxygen level prior to
measuring the range of flammability to
make necessary corrections in the
flammability measurements. It is
absolutely necessary that personnel be
completely familiar with the operation,
maintenance, calibrations, and
limitation of equipment before using it
to test life threatening environments.
The percentage of oxygen for entry
into a confined space should be no less
than 19.5% or greater than 25% at 100
kPa (760 mm Hg). At sea level, the
normal atmospheric pressure for air
(20.9% 02 + 78.1% N2 + 1% Ar + trace
amounts of other gases) is 100 kPa (14.7
psi or 760 mm Hg) absolute. The partial
pressure of oxygen (p 02) at sea level
will be approximately 21.3 kPa (160 mm
Hg); pO2 can be reduced by reducing the
02 level in air.
Oxygen deficiency resulting in
anoxia is an insidious killer. The
initial effects result in a
psychological attitude that is
manifested by the feeling of lassitude
and well being and that will generally
result in the inability of the victim to
discern the need for help. At any
indications of lassitude symptoms like
those of intoxication, or decrease in
alertness, the victim should be removed
from the area immediately.
Not all manholes are vented or have
holes for probes. In some cases,
monitoring equipment does not have
probes. Manhole covers should be lifted
with care to avoid any sparks. When the
cover has been removed, further testing
of the atmosphere for combustible gases
and/or toxic gases and oxygen deficiency
11-24-
-------
NOTES
must be made, particularly at the lower
levels where gases with densities
greater than air will accumulate.
Before entering a confined space,
inspect the access ladder for missing
rungs, accumulations that will make
footing and grasping difficult,
obstructions that might interfere with
passage and mechanical equipment without
proper guards. Remember, wet wells may
accumulate flammable liquids on their
surface. Never enter any type of
confined space with cigarettes, matches
or a lighter. 3e sure there is adequate
lighting available, and, if entering a
street manhole, that adequate traffic
control has been instituted.
Safety Precautions
Confined space entry is one of the
most hazardous priorities to be
encountered in a wastewater plant.
Advanced planning and training are
absolute prerequisites before attempting
entry. It is only within the scope of
this course to give the basic
fundamentals of confined space entry.
Further training and certification is
required before agency personnel should
attempt entry.
At a minimum the following safety
gear should be available for agency
personnel:
o Atmospheric-testing equipment to
guard against oxygen deficiency and
combustible gases and toxic hydrogen
sulfide (H2S) gas.
o Self-contained air breathing
apparatus for each person going
underground and for the standby rescue
crew.
o Protective clothing, including
rubber boots, gloves, rain gear, hard
hats with chin straps, and face shields
or goggles.
11-25-
-------
MOTES
o Explosion-proof lights.
o Communication equipment if the
scope of the work makes it necessary.
o First aid kit (including amyl-
nitrite capsules for H2S exposure).
V
o Harness and individual life lines
for each person going underground and
for the standby crew above ground.
Table 11-5 is a summary of
considerations for entry in confined
spaces as described by Table 11-4.
11-26'
-------
TABLE 11-5
Check list of considerations for entry, vrorking in, and exiting
confined spaces
Item
Permit
Atmospheric testing
Monitoring
Medical surveil lance
Training of personnel
Labeling and posting
Preparation
Isolate/ lockout/ tag
Purge and ventilate
Cleaning processes
Requirements for special
equipment/ too 1 s
Procedures
Initial plan
Standby person
Conriunications/observation
Rescue
Work
Safety equipment and clothing
Head protection
Hearing protection
Hand protection
Foot protection
Body protection
Respiratory protection
Safety belts
Life lines, harness
Class A
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
0
X
X
X
X
X
X
0
0
0
0
0
0
X
X
Class B
X
X
0
X
X
X
X
X
0
X
X
X
X
X
X
0
0
0
0
0
0
X
0
Class C
X
X
0
0
X
X
0
0
0
0
X
X
X
X
X
0
0
0
0
0
X
Rescue equipment
Recordkeeping/exposure-
X
X
X
X
X - indicates requirement
0 - indicates determination by the qualified person
Class A-Atmosphere immediately dangerous to life-oxygen
deficiency, explosive, toxic, flammable.
Class B-Could cause injury or illness that can be protected
against-not immediately dangerous to life or health.
Class C-Confined space hazard requiring no work procedure modification.
11-27
-------
NOTES
Chemical Hazards
Normally, wastewater should not
contain any significant amounts of
hazardous chemical materials. If
significant levels are found, they
usually originate from normal industrial
discharge, accidental spillage or
illegal dumping.
The types of chemicals, chemical
compounds and chemical mixtures that may
be present in wastewater are endless.
Wastewater plants serving industrial
communities have a much greater
probability of significant chemical
content that do others. As industrial
pretreatment standards come into effect,
agency personnel may increasingly be
exposed to a host of chemicals at the
industrial treatment facility. Two of
the most common exposures are to
corrosive and solvent wastes.
Corrosive Wastes
Pretreatment facilities that are
treating their wastes for pH often
receive the wastes in a potentially
harmful state of below pH 5.0 or pH
above 9.0. Strong chemicals such as
hydrochloric acid (HC1) and sodium,
hydroxide (NaOH) are used to neutralize
these wastes. High or low pH solutions
are not only hazardous due to their
corrosive effects on human tissue, but
also are often responsible for the
release of toxic gases such as hydrogen
cyanide, ammonia and chlorine. The
neutralization process itself is an
exothermic process (gives off heat) and
can result in local eruptions and
splattering.
Small spills of should be treated
with a buffering substance such as
sodium bicarbonate. Never attempt to
neutralize an acid with a base or vise-
versa. The neutralizing is very
exothermic and often results in
splattering.
11-28-
-------
MOTES
Solvent Wastes
Nearly all common solvents can be
linked to some form of health hazard.
Chlorinated solvents such as
trichlorethylene have been identified as
suspected carcinogens. Highly volatile
solvents such as xylene and acetone can
burn, explode, asphyxiate, or emit
poisonous vapors. In addition, most
flammables have a defatting effect on
the skin that removes the protective oil
film and leaves it susceptible to attack
by weather, bacteria, or other chemical
agents. Before entering any confined
space such as wet wells, pump stations,
grit or comminutor rooms, a thorough
check, of ambient air quality should be
undertaken. In the case of the
anticipation of spilled material
arriving at a plant, air monitoring
should be continuous.
Gases and Vapors
Gases and vapors are the normal
products of bacterial action on waste
products as well as a result of
industrial discharge of entrained gases
into the treatment system. Of
particular concern to agency personnel
is that of significant levels of gases
that are found in confined spaces, that
exhibit the properties of explosiveness,
f lammability or toxicity. Due to the
physical design of wastewater plants
such as wet wells, as well as physical
processes such as aeration, uncommonly
high levels of these gases and vapors
may be found. Table U-6 lists the
characteristics of gases common to the
wastewater industry.
11-29
-------
TABLE 11-6
Characteristics of gases common to the wastewater industry
Gas and chemical formula
Ammonia NH3
Specific gravity
0.59
Explosive limits - LET. UEL
16 25
Maximum safe 60-min exposure (% vol. in air)
0.03
Maximum safe 8-hr exposure (% by vol. in air)
0.01
Common properties
Colorless, sharp, and pungent
Physiological effects
Irritates eyes and respiratory tract; toxic at 0.01% •
Location of highest concentration
Up high
Most common sources
Sewer gas
Simplest and safest method of testing
Oxygen deficiency indicator; odor
Gas and chemical formula
Carbon Dioxide CE^
Specific gravity
1.53
Explosive limits - T.FT. UEL
Nonflammable
Maximum safe 60-min exposure (% vol. in air)
4.0-6.0
Maximum safe 8-hr exposure (% by vol. in air)
0.5
Common properties
Colorless, odorless, nonflammable; may cause acid taste in
large quantities
Physiological effects
Acts on respiratory nerves; 10% cannot be endured for more
than a few minutes
Location of highest concentration
[Down low but may rise if heated
Most common sources
Sludge, sewer gas, combustion carbon and its compounds
Simplest and safest method of testing
Oxygen deficiency indicator
Gas and chemical formuli
Carbon Monoxide CO
Specific gravity
0.97
11-30'
-------
Explosive limits - TiFTi UEL
12.5 74.2
Maximum safe 60-min. exposure (% vol. in air)
4.0
Maximum safe 8-hr exposure (% by vol. in air)
0.005
Common properties
Colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-irritating; flammable,
explosive, poisonous
Physiological effects
Combines with hemoglobin of blood causing oxygen starvation;
fatal in 1 hr. at 0.1%; unconsciousness in 30 min. at 0.25%
and causes headaches in a few hours at 0.02%
Location of highest concentration
Up high specifically if in presence of illuminating gas
Most common sources
Manufactured fuel gas, flue gas, combustion and fires
Simplest and safest method of testing
CO indicator
Gas and chemical formula
Chlorine C12
Specific gravity
2.49
Explosive limits - LEL UEL
Nonflammable
Maximum safe 60-min. exposure (% vol. in air)
0.0004
Maximum safe 8-hr exposure (% by vol. in air)
0.0001
Common properties
Yellow-green color; irritating, pungent odor; nonflammable
and supports combustion
Physiological effects
Irritates respiratory tract, causes irritation and burning
of the skin, coughing and pulmonary edema in small
concentrations
Location of highest concentration
Down low
Most common sources
Chlorine cylinder and feed line leaks
Simplest and safest method of testing
Chlorine detector
Gas and chemical formula
Ethane C^^
Specific gravity
1.05
Explosive limits - T.ET.
3.1 15
11-31-
-------
Maximum safe 60-min. exposure (% vol. in air)
No limit provided oxygen percentage (at least 12%) is
sufficent for life
Common properties
Colorless, odorless, tasteless, flammable, explosive, non-
poisonous
Physiological effects
Acts mechanically to deprive tissues of oxygen; does not
support life
location of highest concentration
Down low
Most common sources
Natural gas
Simplest and safest method of testing
Combustible gas indicator, oxygen deficiency indicator
Gas and chemical formula
Gasoline C5H12-C9H20
Specific gravity
3.0-4.0
Explosive limits - T.PT. UEL
1.3 7
Maximum safe 60-min. exposure (% vol. in air)
0.4-0.7
Maximum safe 8-hr exposure (% by vol. in air)
Varies
Common properties
Color, flammable, explosive, odor noticeable at 0.03% concentration
Physiological effects
Symptoms of intoxication when inhaled, difficult breathing
and convulsions; fatal at 2.43%
Location of highest concentration
[Down low
Most common sources
Service stations, storage tanks and dry cleaning operations
Simplest and safest method of testing
Combustible gas indicator; oxygen deficiency indicator
Gas and chemical formula
Hydrogen Sulfide H2S
Specific gravity
1.19
Explosive limits - TPT, UEL
4.3 46
Maximum safe 60-mi. exposure (% vol. in air)
0.02-0.03
Maximum safe 8-hr, exposure (% by vol. in air)
0.001
Common properties
Rotten egg odor in small concentrations; colorless,
flammable and explosive
11-32
-------
Physiological effects
Paralyzes the respiratory system; lessens the sense of smell as
concentration increases; rapidly fatal at 0.2%
Location of highest concentration
Down low; can be higher if air is hot and humid
Most common sources
Coal gas, petroleum, sewer gas and sludge gas
Simplest and safest method of testing
Lead acetate paper, lead acetate ampoules, I^S detector
Gas and chemical formula
Methane CH4
Specific gravity
0.55
Explosive limits - TiET. UEL
5 15
Maximum safe 60 min. exposure (% vol. in air)
No limit providing sufficient oxygen (at least 12%) is present
Common properties
Colorless, odorless, tasteless, explosive, flammable, and
non-poisonous
Physiological effects
Deprives tissues of oxygen; does not support life
Location of highest concentration
At top, increasing to certain depth
Most common sources
Digestion of sludge
Simplest and safest method of testing
Combustible gas indicator; oxygen deficiency indicator
Gas and chemical formula
Nitrogen N2
Specific gravity
0.97
Explosive limits - rjrr. UEL
Nonflammable
Common properties
Colorless, tasteless, odorless, and nonflammable
Physiological effects
In very high concentrations, reduces oxygen intake? does not
support life
Location of highest concentration
Op high and sometimes in low areas
Most common sources
Sewer and sludge gas
Simplest and safest method of testing
Oxygen deficiency indicator
Gas and chemical formula
Oxygen (in air) 62
Specific gravity
1.11
Explosive limits - LEL UEL
11-33'
-------
Nonflammable
Common properties
Colorless, odorless, tasteless; supports combustion
Physiological effects
Normal air contains 20.93% O2. Below 19% considered
deficient; 13% dangerous; below 5%-7% fatal
Location of highest concentration
Variable at different levels
Most common sources
Oxygen deficiency from poor ventilation and chemical
combustion of 02
Simplest and safest method of testing
Oxygen deficiency indicator
Gas and chemical formula
Sludge gas
Specific gravity
varies
Explosive limits - LKL UEL
5.3 19.3
Maximum safe 60-min. exposure (% vol. in air)
Varies with composition
Common properties
Flammable, practically odorless, and colorless
Physiological effects
Will not support life
Location of highest concentration
Up high
Most common sources
Digestion of sludge
Simplest and safest method of testing
Combustible gas indicator, oxygen deficiency indicator
Pathogenic Hazards
Aerosols
Aerosols and mists generated at
wastewater treatment facilities can be
responsible for the spread of a host of
diseases caused by viruses, bacteria,
(see Tables 11-7 and 11-8) and fungi
(see Table 11-9).
11-34
-------
TABLE 11-7
Diseases Associated with Human Fecal Waste
Bacterial infections
Typhoid fever
Paratyphoid fevers
Cholera
Shigellosis (bacillary dysentery)
Viral infections
Poliomyelitis
Coxsackie infection
Infectious hepatitis
(very many other enteric viruses exist)
Protozoal infections
Entamoeba histolytica
Helminthiasis
Fish tape worm
Beef tapeworm
Pork tapeworm
Pinwormv
Roundworm
Whipworm
Hookworm
TABLE 11-8
Diseases Associated with Animal Fecal Waste
Salmonellosis
Infection from pig intestinal protozoan
(Balantidium coli)
Helminthiasis
Pig ascaris
Animal tapeworms
Hydatid worm
11-35-
-------
TABLE 11-9
Fungus Diseases (Mycoses) Associated with Solid ffastes
Coccidioidomycosis
Sporotrichosis
Histoplasmosis
Candidiasis
Workers can be infected directly by
inhalation or indirectly by droplets
settling on clothing. Sources of
aerosols include aeration tanks, weirs,
and flumes, spray and irrigation sites.
Indoor areas where aeration occurs are
likely to have the highest aerosol
concentrations.
Table 11-10 lists factors that may
affect bacterial and viral survival in
aerosols. By understanding the
conditions for increased survival,
Agency personnel may be better able to
protect themselves.
11-36'
-------
TABLE 1-10
Factors that affect the survival and dispersion of bacteria and viruses
in wastewater aerosols
Factor
Remarks
Relative humidity
Wind speed
Sunlight
Temperature
Open air
Bacteria and most enteric viruses
survive longer at high relative
humidities, such as those occuring
during the night. High relative
humidity delays droplet evaporation
and retards organism die-off.
Low wind speeds reduce biological
aerosol transmission.
Sunlight, through ultraviolet
radiation, is deleterious to
microorganisms. The greatest
concentration or organisms in aerosols
from wastewater occurs at night.
Increased temperature can also reduce
the viability of organisms in aerosols
mainly by accentuating the effects of
relative humidity. Pronounced
temperature effects do not appear
until a temperature of 80 degrees F
(26 degrees C) is reached.
It has been observed that bacteria and
viruses are inactivated more rapidly
when aerozolized and when the captive
aerosols are exposed to the open air
than when held in the laboratory.
Much more work is needed to clarify
this issue.
Parasitic Diseases
Parasitic diseases such as hookworm
and ringworm can also be spread by
contact with contaminated material and
ingestion through the mouth, usually
while eating or smoking, or contact with
exposed skin.
Safety Precautions
Use of proper protective equipment
such as rubber gloves and washable or
disposable coveralls will prevent
11-37'
-------
NOTES
contact with contaminated surfaces.
Washable coveralls should not be washed
with other non-work related clothing or
in the family washer. A washer
dedicated to contaminated work clothes
should be made available at Agency
headquarters. Disposable clothing
should be placed in a plastic disposable
trash bag and sealed before being
disposed of. Boots, gloves, and other
non-disposable equipment should be
thoroughly scrubbed in a strong soapy
solution containing a bactericide such
as tincture of Roccal or Wesccdine.
Above all, care must be taken to
institute a comprehensive program of
personal hygiene. After contact with
wastewater or inspection of a wastewater
facility, agency personnel should shower
before leaving for home. Never eat,
drink, or smoke before thoroughly
scrubbing hands. In high aerosol areas
wear gauze-type respirators to reduce
inhalation of pathogens. Always launder
reusable clothes after each day of
contact. Never wear disposable clothes
more than once. Dispose of these
clothes properly. Report any illness or
infection promptly to your supervisor.
Receive medical check-ups regularly.
11-38
-------
STUDENT EXERCISE 1
Directions:
The following exercise is broken into four sections. Each
section corresponds to a specific location in a typical wastewater
facility. The student is to examine the given information (drawings
and descriptions) and complete the exercise pertaining to that
section's information. A list of available equipment is given at the
beginning of the exercise.
General Description:
The plant to be inspected is a typical 3.0 mgd activated sludge
plant located in Eau Claire, Wisconsin. The plant serves a small city
of 100,000 with a fairly large manufacturing base consisting of
electrical appliance manufacturers, rubber tire manufacturers, leather
product manufacturrers and breweries. The outfall is a large river.
The plant was built in the 1930's, with some improvements since. The
date is late February, with a large accumulation of snowfall but very
little melt-off.
Available Equipment:
30-minute airpack (SCBA)
Organic vapor respirator
Full face shield
Splash goggles
Safety goggles
Rubber safety boots
Rubber soled safety shoes
Hard hat
Rubber gloves
Rain gear (coat and hood)
Disposable water resistant overalls
Safety line and harness
2-way portable radio
Totally enclosed acid suit
H2S monitoring equipment
02 meter
Explosive gas monitor (LEC meter)
First aid kit
Flashlight
Denim work overalls
Leather gloves :
Disposable gauze face mask
Leather soled work shoes
11-39-
-------
STOBENT EXERCISE 2
A. After examining Figure 11-1, list at least 10 safety hazards
that can be spotted.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
B. List at least 3 hazards that may be present but cannot be seen.
1.
2.
3.
C. What safety precautions would you follow before entering an area
similar to the one diagrammed?
3.
D. At a minimum, what safety equipment would you take before entering
into an area similar to the one diagrammed?
1.
2.
3.
4.
11-40'
-------
\ \
-------
-------
STUDENT EXERCISE 3
A. After examining Figure 11-2, chlorine disinfection room, list at
least 10 safety hazards that can be spotted.
10.
B. For each of the hazards listed above, list in the corresponding
number what should be done to eliminate the hazard.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7. .
8.
9.
10.
U-43'
-------
STUDENT EXERCISE 4
A. After examining Figure 11-3, list at least 10 different
safety hazards than can be seen.
10.
B. Explain your actions if the following laboratory accidents were to
occur:
1. Acid is spilled on you:
2. A chemical gets into your eyes:
3. Acid is spilled on the floor:
11-44'
-------
\\-\\ \
-------
-------
STUDENT EXERCISE 5
Examine Figure 11-4. An industrial site upstream is suspected of
dumping a large quantity of toxic, highly volatile, chemicals
into the sanitary sewer.
A. Using appropriate informational resources, determine if this
situation is a Class A, B or C confined space.
Answer
3. Give the rationale for your choice in A:
C. List 10 safety precautions that should be taken before
entering the manhole:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
D. List the appropriate safety equipment that should be
available before entering this Class of confined space:
11-47
-------
UNIT 12: MINE SAFETY
OUTLINE NOTES
1. Introduction
2. Vehicles and Machinery
3. Cave-in, Slides, and Supports
4. Hazards of Blasting
5. Mine gases and Oxygen Deficiency
6.Protective Clothing, Equipment and
Respiratory Protection.
7. Mine Communications
12-1
-------
UNIT 12: MINE SAFTEY
EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES NOTES
o Students should understand how to
enter and inspect surface or undergound
mines safely.
o Students should know how to
inspect mine supports and surfaces, for
signs of danger.
o Students should know how to stay
clear of dangerous areas or equipment.
o Students should have some
knowledge about mine gases and oxygen
deficiency.
o Students should know how to
choose and use protective clothing and
equipmetn, especially gas masks and
respirators.
o Students should be aware of mine
communication systems.
12-2
-------
NOTES
INTRODUCTION
Both surface and underground mines
are regulated very strictly to assure
the safest practical working conditions.
EPA personnel who need to enter and
inspect a mine should have comprehensive
awareness of the dangers, and the rules,
procedures, and equipment that are used
to make this dangerous environment
safer.
If you know what a well-run mine
should look like, and know how to look
for commonly occurring dangers, you will
have a good basis for judgment about
whether the mine is operated with safety
in mind. If you have as much concern
for the attitudes of management as for
specific environmental problems, it will
be helpful to you to know what to look
at in a mine.
The mine operator must inform
workers, and visitors of any need for
special clothing or safety equipment and
must provide safety orientation to tell
all visitors (and employees) about the
mine's safety precautions. The mine
operator must provide the necessary
special clothing and equipment for the
employees. The mine management may lend
you the clothing and equipment needed,
but the management is not required to do
so. Ask, in advance, if the mine
operator will provide personnel with
what is needed. In any event, personnel
should provide their own hard hat,
safety glasses, and safety footwear,
even if the mine provides the other
necessary items.
The hazards in mining include the
possibility of earth slides or cave-ins,
toxic gases, the use of explosives, a
possible inadequacy of oxygen, and
proximity to powerful machinery,
including narrow gauge railroading,
massive earth moving equipment,
elevators and hoists.
12-3
-------
NOTES
Moving Vehicles and Machinery
Mining regulations stress equipment
safety. Moving equipment must have
safety and warning devices. All
equipment operators and their
supervisors must be trained people, and
they must use signals before putting the
equipment in motion.
Equipment maintenance or repaiir
may take place only after power has been
shut off and the equipment has been
blocked to prevent movement. All
machinery must be inspected regularly
and maintained in safe condition.
Loading and hauling equipment must be
inspected before each use. Defective
equipment or machinery may not be used
until it hass been repaired.
Underground mine tunnels must serve
both hauling equipment and people.
There must be at least 30 inches o_f_
£i£a££JH££ between the sTdes of the
hauling equipment and the walls, or else
shelter holes at leasst four feet wide,
inches of clearance must be
and they must be marked clearly
reflectors, or luminous
with 40
provide,
with lightss,
paint.
In coal mines the shelteer holes
must be at least 4 feet wide, 5 feet
deep, and 6 feet (or the height of the
seam, whichever is less) high, and
located every 105 feet. The elevators
and hoists are inspected daily, in
underground coal mines, and the safety
catches are tested bi-monthly.
In other underground mines,, hoists
and elevators are inspected, tested, and
maintained systematically, and records
must be retained for three yearss.
Underground shuttle cars and mining
equipment must have strong canopies or
cabs to protect the operators from
anything that might fall. All air
compressors and boilers must be
12-4
-------
NOTES
inspected and maintained to meet the
national safety standards. Finally,
good housekeeping is required in all
mines. Loose material, garbage, and
unneeded gear must be kept away from
machinery and equipment, and must be
regarded as a hazard to be kept away
from the work areas.
Hazards from Unstable Surfaces
A Federal regulation requires that
inspections and testing of mine sur-
faces, in all mines, must occur as often
ass necessary to insure safety. The
mine operators must examine and test
potentially dangerous surfaces before
any work may begin or any machinery be
started. Nevertheless, falls of rock
from unstable mine surfaces (face, roof,
and ribs) are the primary cause of
injuries and deaths in mines.
In a mine, the ceiling is called
the roof or back. The walls may be
called walls, ribs, pillars, or the
face. The face is the surface being
mined, sometimes called the working
face. The floor is called the floor,
but it may also be the roof of the level
below. In a coal mine, the roof
directly (closest) overhead is called
the "immediate roof" and the rock bed or
beds above that are the "main roof."
The immediate roof and the beds above
are the "strata" (of layers of
sedimentary rock in which the material
being mined is found), and the material
above the (coal, ore, etc., bearing)
strata is called the "overburden."
If the immediate roof is not
supported, its own weight (possibly
enhanced by the weight above it) may
cause the immediate roof to sag, crack
or collapse. When that happens, methane
gas may escape, or a space may be
created where water can collect to
weaken the roof further.
Coal mines use three systems to
12-5
-------
NOTES
support the roof: bolting, in which
roof bolts are the only supports;
conventional, in which posts, timbers,
jacks, cribs, sills, or beams are used
in various combinations; and the combi-
nations system which uses roof bolts
plus other means of support. Roof con-
trol plans are required, but we will not
take time to consider all the possible
variations that can be employed.
Temporary supports must be
installed before attempting the
installation of permanent supports. No
one should go beyond a temporary support
unless it is within five feet of a
permanent support, and only workers
installing temporary supports may go
beyond the last permanent support. Only
experienced workers should attempt to
recover roof supports during retreat
mining and pillaring, and roof supports
should be left in place if there is any
sign of roof weakness.
Visual inspection of supports may
reveal undue load on the supports (and
thus roof weakness) if any of the
following can be observed:
o bending or decayed timbers,
posts, or crossbars;
o small chips or barK broken from
supporting timbers;
o roof bolts showing stress; or
o caps squeezed down and over many
posts.
Other danger signs are: slips,
fractures, cleavages, or crumbling of
coal, rock or ore; changes in the rock
texture; or any moisture appearing in
the roof after supports have been
installed; or any wetness in a spot that
previously was dry.
The roof may be tested audibly by
12-6
-------
NOTES
striking it. A solid, clear, ringing
tone signals a sound, solid roof. A
drum-like sound results when rock layers
have separated ands the roof is loose.
A loose thud signals loose rock or coal,
and reveals a very dangerous condition
that must be corrected immediateely.
An experienced worker will:
o test while standing under a
supported roof;
o be sure there is a safe line of
retreat;
o never turn away from the ribs,
but always face them;
o always wear goggles;
o never assume someone else tested
the roof; and
o examine the roof frequently
during the working shift.
The most frequent falls come, not
from roof, but from ribs or walls, when
the roof pressure above causes pieces of
coal, ore or rock to break off and fall
or roll. Eternal vigilence might be the
best motto for the miner. When "ground
falls," or falls of material from the
roof, are discovered, it is obvious that
a dangerous situation exists. it must
be corrected before work can continue in
that part of the mine.
In surface mining, you will
encounter some of the largest earth-
moving equipment developed by our race.
•Pit design is an important
consideration. The sides must not be so
steep that the walls might slide or
collapse, even in a torrential rain
storm. Benches (level areas) may be
incorporated in the walls, to provide
roads on which equipment can enter or
leave the pit. If the movement of
material might occur and present a
12-7
-------
NOTES
hazard, barriers should be provided.
Loose and unconsolidated material
must be moved back (stripped) at least
10 feet from the top of the pit (or
quarry walls). Overhanging material, or
hazardous banks, must be taken down so
that nothing can fall on the workers (or
visitors).
As a visitor, avoid dangerous banks
or other possible unsafe ground, and
don't v/alk between pit walls or banks
and pieces of equipment—where you might
be trapped in case of a fall or slide.
Hazards from Blasting Operations
Drilling and blasting are hazardous
operations. Explosives are used only by
miners who have been trained to use
them. Explosives must be packed into
blastholes and then non-combustible
stemming (packing) material must be
tamped in place. If the charge is not
packed properly, a shot may blow out,
and dust or gasses may ignite and
explode—a much larger explosion than
was planned. If the blasting material
burns instead of exploding, toxic gases
may form and be circulated by the
ventilation system. The toxic gases may
include
o carbon monoxide (CO), a very
poisonous gas; and
o nitric oxide (NO), a toxic gas
generated when explosives burn. When NO
reacts with oxygen (0^) in the air,
nitrogen dioxide (N02) is formed, and it
is potentially fatal when inhaled.
Explosives must be kept dry, and
the detonators must be stored well away
from the explosives. They all should be
stored in secure containers until just
before use.
When explosives are taken to the
site where they will be used, they are
12-8
-------
NOTES
to be transported in closed containers
of non-conductive material. In
underground coal mines, explosives are
moved on belts, in locomotive- or rope-
towed cars, in shuttle cars, or in
specially designed safety equipment. In
other underground mines and surface coal
mines, explosives are moved in separate
vehicles and are separated from the
detonators by at least four inches or
hardwood or its equivalent.
A few words about explosives may be
helpful. TNT (trinitrotoluene) is an
excellent military explosive. It is
powerful, but a Corps of Engineers
blasting cap is required to make it
explode. A common form consists of
quarter-pound blocks, like hard plastic
blocks. You can shoot at TNT with a
rifle bullet going 3000 ft/sec, chop TNT
with an axe, pound it to powder with a
hammer, burn it in a fire, or explode
black powder next to it; none of these
will make it explode. It will seldom
explode by accident, Nitroglycerine, in
contrast, is a liquid that may explode
if you drop the vial. Nitroglycerine
was made safer by soaking it into saw-
dust; that form is called dynamite.
Fresh dynamite is quite safe, but if
dynamite is stored for a long time, the
nitroglycerine may drain to the bottom,
and old dynamite is about as unstable as
plain nitroglycerine. Dyanamite is used
frequently by miners, well diggers, and
some terrorists. A new favorite explo-
sive is ammonium nitrate (Scott's Turf
Builder). In quantities of a few
pounds, it is extremely safe, unless it
is mixed with heavy oil. That slurry
will conform to the shape of an uneven
blasthole, and a blasting cap will set
it off. Many miners, demolition men,
and some terrorists, use ammonium ni-
trate. A very large quantity of
ammonium nitrate can be exploded by a
spark, even without the oil, as some
unfortunate people found out while
unloading fertilizer from a freighter
off the Texas coast, but small
12-9
-------
NOTES
quantities are quite safe, until the oil
is mixed in. There are many other
explosives. These are simple examples
that may aid your understanding of
explosives and their uses, advantages,
and dangers.
Only explosives handlers may ride
in a vehicle carrying explosives, and
then only if they are specifically
needed. No other material may be
carried in the vehicles that are
carrying explosives, and those vehicles
should be identified clearly and never
left unguarded.
Regulations on explosives include
the following:
o The areas around explosives must
be cleared, guarded, barricaded, and
marked clearly to warn miners and mine
visitors.
o A warning must be given before
any explosive is detonated.
o Smoking is prohibited within 25
feet of explosives or detonators.
o After blasting, searches must be
made for fires and undetonated charges.
Smoking is always prohibited in
coal mines and gassy mines (those with
methane). Underground coal mines re-
quire special precautions:
o Methane tests must be made in
underground anthracite mines before
blasting; the methane level must be
below one percent; and
o Combustible material must not. be
used to stem the blastholes.
Hazards of Mine Gases
The presence of toxic gases and the
absence of sufficient oxygen are the
twin hazards for those who breathe the
12-10'
-------
NOTES
atmosphere in an underground mine.
The list of Dangerous Gases is
usually headed by methane. Methane is
flammable in air at concentrations from
5 to 15 percent/ and it explodes very
readily. Any mine in which methane can
be detected is a "gassy mine," and the
maximum allowable concentration is one
percent. I£ methane exceeds one percent
in any area, several things must happen
(or NOT happen).
o No electrical equipment may be
energized, operated, or taken into the
mine.
o No blasting is permitted.
o No pillar recovery or intentional
roof fall is permitted.
o Ventilation must be increased.
Air used for ventilation may not contain
more than 0.25 (one-quarter) percent
methane.
o Power must be shut down.
Coal mine operators must conduct
tests for methane three hours (or less)
before each shift and at least once
during each shift, in every work sector.
any
Gassy Mines: As stated earlier,
mine in which methane is found is a
considered to be gassy. Smoking is
prohibited in all gassy mines. Welding
requires continuous methane testing
before and during the welding job.
Correct door positions (Open or Closed)
during ventilation must be identified
clearly. Methane monitors are requiired
on the mining equipment. And, all
working areas must be tested for methane
within three hours before a new work
shift enters the mine.
If the methane concentration
exceeds one percent within 12 inches of
12-11-
-------
NOTES
the back, face, or rib, work must stop;
and all equipment must be shut down
until the methane concentration is
reduced below one percent. If the
methane concentration reaches 1.5
percent, or if the ventilation fans
stop, the miners must be evacuated from
the area, and all electrical power must
be shut down.
In coal mines, methane monitors on
such equipment as continuous miners,
longwal1 and face cutting equipment, and
loading machines must be as close to the
working surface as possible, and they
should be set to give an automatic
warning if the methane concentration
should reach one percent, and to shut
off the equipment automatically if the
methane reaches two percent or if the
monitor malfunctions.
Other dangerous gases may occur:
Carbon monoxide (CO) results from
blasting, fires, or incomplete
combustion or oxidation. It binds to
hemoglobin ands prevents blood from
carrying oxygen; it produced headache,
nausea, v/eakness, confusion and death.
It also burns. The Permissible Exposure
Limit (PEL) is 50 ppm.
Nitric Oxide (NO) was discussed
under blasting. It can be fatal. PEL =
25 ppm.
Nitrogen dioxide (N02> comes from
gasoline or diesel engines, welding,
blasting, or electrical discharges. PEL
= 5 ppm.
Carbon dioxide (CO2> is formed in
fires and explosions, and released by
the action of acid on carbonate rocks.
It is mainly dangerous if itss formation
removes too much oxygen from the air and
thus causes suffocation. The PEL = 5000
ppm.
Hydrogen
flammable, with
(H2) is extremely
a lower explosive limit
12-12'
-------
NOTES
(LED of 4 percent, and an upper
explosive limit (UEL) of 75 percent. It
is released when storage batteries are
charged, and in some high temperature
reactions.
Hydrogen sulfide (I^) has the smell
of rotten eggs, and it is very deadly.
PEL = 20 ppm. It also will burn.
Welding may release, or cause the
formation of, toxic metal fumes (from
zinc), arsenic, or phosgene. Good
ventilation is important to safe
welding.
Oxygen deficiency is considered to
exist if the oxygen drops from tHe
normal value of about 21 percent in air
to 19.5 percent or lower. Oxygen can be
consumed by combustion (fires, Iciuid
fuel engines, &c) or can be displaced by
various other gasees such as carbon
dioxide, methane, or hydrogen. Mine
operators are required to test for
oxygen frequently, and to stop work and
take corrective action if the
concentration should drop below 19.5
percent.
Personal Protection involves the use of
propeer clothing and equipment, and the
availability of suitable respirators or
masks to permit survival in a toxic
atmosphere.
Even mine clothing is regulated by
Federal Law. Hard hats are mandatory
wherever falling objects may threaten
the safety of workers or visitors. If
deep water exists within a mine, life
jackets or safety belts must be
available. Seat belts must be used if
there is a possibility for a vehicle to
turn over, and where roll-over
protection is provided. Snug clothing
must be worn around machinery or
equipment that moves. Wherever special
hazards of radiation, chemicals,
mechannical irritants, or toxic or
corrosive materials may occur, suitable
12-13
-------
NOTES
protective clothing or equipment must be
worn or used. Miners in underground
mines must wear personal cap lamps and
carry portable electric lamps.
Respiratory Protection is an
absolute necessity if people are to
escape from dangerous atmospheres.
Self-rescue devices have a filter
that reacts with carbon monoxide and
will protect for one hour against CO
concentrations up to one percent. A
self-rescuer will enable a miner (or
visitor) to get out of a mine that is
contaminated with carbon monoxide. It
will not supply oxygen nor protect
against other toxic gases.
A self-contained breathing appratus
(SCBA) with a tank of compressed air
will protect against any dangerous
atmosphere (but will not, of course,
prevent an explosion). Another version
is the self-contained oxygen-generating
breathing device. It provides a 60-
minute supply of oxygen.
Abandoned mines will, obviously,
present a wide range of possibly unsafe
conditions. Toxic gases or inadequatee
oxygen are obvious possibilities, and
weakened roof supports are another
danger. If you must enter an abandoned
underground mine, take SCBA equipment,
atmosphere monitors, especiially
explosive gas detectors, and don't go
alone. Proceed with great caution,
while a rescue team waits outside, or
well back, to get you out if danger
overtakes you.
Mine Communications
A mine operator must always know
the location of every miner and visitor
in the mine. Every mine worker must be
able to contact any, or all, of the
others. The surface (of an underground
mine) must have communication with all
parts of the mine, and the connection(s)
12-14'
-------
NOTES
above ground must be attended at all
times, and they should be located within
500 feet of the mine entrance. The
communication system should have its own
power source, independent of the
electrical system for the mine.
Hoists and elevators require two
signalling systems; one must be a
telephone or speaking tube. Trolleys
and railroads may have two-way radios or
trolley phones. They may need their
own, independent, power source. Some
mines use time clocks or boards to
record people entering (and their
destination) and leaving. Other mines
use two metal tags for each person
entering; the worker keeps one tag and
leaves the other with the cage man.
Surface mining communications needs
are simpler, but any miner working in a
hazardous area must be able to
communicate with others. Federal
regulations define other communicaticn
needs according to conditions.
Mining is a dangerous occupation,
and underground mines are danerous
places to enter and inspect. Use this
presentation as a beginning of
understanding, and pay close attention
to the orientation that will explain the
safety precautions in any mine you may
need to enter.
12-15'
-------
STUDENT EXERCISES
1 (a) You are looking at the roof support in a 5-year-old mine
tunnel, to see if the roof is sound. What should you look for?
1 (b) If the roof, walls, and supports look gocd, you can still
make an audible test. Describe that test, the possible results,
and their meaning and significance.
12-16-
-------
2. Which dangers of underground mining are absent from surface
mining or quarrying?
3. What do you think are the three greatest hazards of surface
mining?
12-17
-------
4. When blast holes were drilled into a mine face, some methane
seeped out, but the methane monitor was acting very erratic, and
the methane concentration was unknown. The new blasting expert,
who started work a day earlier, said, go on and blast, becausse
the blast would disperse that "little bit" of methane, and the
ventilation system would carry it away. Discuss this situation.
12-18-
-------
5 (a) In an underground coal mine, a gasoline-powered generator
for welding is running badly and making bad smells. Monitors
show 20 ppm of carbon monoxide and 10 ppm of nitrogen dioxide,
measured one foot from the exhaust pipe. Should the welding job
be finished before the generator is sent "up" for repair?
Explain your answer (no credit for a lucky guess).
5 (b) Can welding continue for another half hour if all the
workers wear "self-rescue" masks? Explain why.
12-19-
-------
UNIT 13
DEFENSIVE DRIVING
EDUCATICNRL OBJECTIVES NOTES
o The student should be able to
determine whether an accident is preventable
or not.
o The student should be able to
determine how to avoid a collision with a
vehicle ahead.
o The student should be able to
determine how to avoid a collision with a
vehicle behind.
o The student should be able to
determine how to avoid a collision with an
oncoming vehicle.
o The student should be able to
determine how to avoid a collision at an
intersection.
o The student should be able to
determine how to avoid a collision while
passing or being passed.
o The student should be able to
determine how to avoid other common types of
collisions.
13-1
-------
Traffic accidents affect the well-being
and safety of literally every man, woman and
child in the United States because everyone
at one time or another is a driver, passenger
or pedestrian.
Traffic accidents are the leading cause
of accidental death, killing nearly 50,000
persons a year, causing two million
disabling injuries and economic loss of
about $20 billion dollars. Note from the
accompanying table that the number of traffic
deaths for one year is almost as many as the
number of U. S. Military casualties in the
entire Viet Nam war. Here are some other
traffic accident facts:
Accident Facts:
* Traffic accidents are the leading
cause of death among youths under 25 years of
age.
* Traffic accidents are the leading
accident killer of U. S. workers.
* Every 12 minutes someone dies in an
automobile accident—five die every hour, 129
every day.
* Driver failure is a contributing
factor in an estimated 85 percent of all
traffic accidents. Many individuals and
organizations are involved in controlling
this tremendous human and economic waste,
including the federal government, the
governor of your state, the mayor of your
community, licensing authorities, your police
department, traffic courts, traffic
engineers, your schools and your national and
local safety councils. As a driver, you too
are involved both in the problem and in the
solution.
NOTES
War
Total
Revolutionary War (1775-83) ....
War of 1812 (1812-15)
Mexican War (1846-48) . . .
Civil War (1861 -65)
Union Forces . .
Spanish-American War (1898) . . .
World War I (1917-18)
World War II (1941-45)
Korean War (1950-53) ... .
Vtel N»m War (1961-74)
Death*
Total | Battle
1,155.000t 840.421
4.435 4.435
2.260 2 260
13.283 1 733
364511 140414
133 821 74 524
2.446 385
116.708 53513
407 316 292 131
54.246 33.629
56,737 46.397
f Other* •
so«,aoot
N A.
N.A.
11.550
224.097
59.297
2.081
63.195
115.185
20.617
10.340
Nontelal
Wound*
1,580,000*
6.188
4.505
4,152
281.881
N.A.
1.862
204.002
670 846
103.284
303,569
13-2
-------
NOTES
How To Measure Safe Driving
Safe driving can be measured in terms of
quantity and quality. A unit of driving is
the trip. This is measured in terms of the
distance between the point where you get into
your card, drive to your destination, secure
your car and leave it. The trip can be long
or short, but it is the quality of the trip
that is important. This, also, can be simply
measured. The trip can be perfect or less
than perfect. Perfect driving means that you
complete every trip without accidents,
without traffic violations, without vehicle
abuse, without excessive schedule delays and
without discourtesy.
Preventability—Possible and Reasonable
Perfect driving involves the ability to
operate a motor vehicle in such a manner as
to avoid being involved in a preventable
accident. Most accidents are preventable by
one or both of the drivers involved, even
though this sometimes involves letting the
driver in the wrong have the right-of-way.
The idea that most accidents are
preventable makes it important to distinguish
between the possible and reasonable
precautions a motorist can take to avoid
being involved in a traffic mishap. The most
obvious possible precaution would be not to
drive at all, but that's not a reasonable
solution.
This course is designed to make you
aware of the various reasonable precautions
that relate to driving and to teach you how
to apply them.
The Art of Driving To Stay Alive
Defensive driving is a key concept in
the Driver Improvement Program. It
represents an approach to the driving task
that, when applied, can lessen your chances
of being involved in a motor vehicle
accident. Defensive Driving means driving so
as to prevent accidents in spite of the
actions of others or the presence of adverse
driving conditions.
13-3
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NOTES
Building a defensive driving technique
involves improving your habits of
Observation, Communication, Coordination,
Navigation and Consideration. It will
increase your ability to predict the outcome
of traffic situations earlier and more
accurately and thus, to a degree, control
that outcome so that no collision results.
The Standard Accident Prevention Formula
In order to do this, you'll need to know
and apply the standard accident prevention
formula, which involves three interrelated
steps:
1. See the Hazard: Think about what is
going to happen or what might happen as far
ahead of encountering a situation as
possible. Never assume everything will be
"all right."
2. Understand the Defense: There are
specific ways to handle specific situations.
Learn them well so you can apply them when
the need arises.
3. Act in Time: Once you've seen the
hazard and decided on the defense against it,
act! Never take a "wait-and-see" attitude.
How to Avoid Collision with the Vehicle Ahead
An extremely frequent, and costly
accident, in terms of liability suits, is the
collision with the vehicle ahead.
There are four simple steps that will
help you avoid being involved in a collision
with the car ahead:
1. Stay alert: Watch for signs from
the driver ahead as to what he intends to do.
Is his turn signal on? Are his brake lights
lit? Has he been gradually drifting to the
right or the left as if to prepare for a
turn?
2. Stay ahead of the situation: Look
beyond the driver ahead to see situations
13-4
-------
NOTES
that may force him to act quickly and thereby
become a threat to you. Are there vehicles
in the roadway or on the shoulder? Are the
intersections marked or unmarked? Are there
parked cars, pedestrians or livestock
present?
3. Stay back: Allow one car length for
every ten miles of speed—more in adverse
weather or road conditions. The best way to
do this is to use the Two-Second Rule to make
sure that you have the correct following
distance. If you stay two seconds behind the
car in front, you will have the correct
distance no matter what your speed. It works
like this: Watch the vehicle ahead pass some
definite point on the highway, such as a tar
strip or overpass shadow. Then count to
yourself "one thousand and one, one thousand
and two." That's two seconds. If you reach
the mark before you finish saying those
words, you are following too closely.
4. Start stopping sooner: Slow down
and touch your brakes the instant you see a
hazard developing that may require you to
stop or take evasive action. Failure to do
this is known as "delayed braking," a serious
flaw in defensive driving technique. A
defensive driver should rarely if ever have
to make a panic stop.
The time it takes you to stop depends
upon your speed, the condition of the road,
the condition of your car, and how alert you
have been. Expressed as a formula:
Reaction Distance + Braking Distance =
Total Stopping Distance
13-5
-------
STOPPING ABILITY OF STANDARD
PASSENGER CARS
ON DRY, CLEAN, LEVEL PAVEMENT
Speed
mph
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
(1)
Driver
Reaction
Distance
ft.
22
28
33
39
44
50
55
61
66
72
77
83
88
(2)
Braking Distance
15-85 Percentile
Range
ft.
18-22
25-31
36-45
47-58
64-80
82-103
105-131
132-165
162-202
196-245
237-295
283-353
334-418
(3)
Total
Stopping Distance
Range
ft.
40-44
53-59
69-78
86-97
108-124
132-153
160-186
193-226
228-268
268-317
314-372
366-436
422-506
NOTES
Knew Accident Conditions
Throughout the Defensive Driving Course
we will be discussing various types of
accidents in terms of preventability. There
are six principle conditions that play some
role in accidents. These are light, weather,
road, traffic, vehicle and driver.
It is possible to think of an accident
situation in which all six of these
conditions are unfavorable. Yet it is
important to realize that in most accidents,
all conditions except driver condition are
favorable. This points up the importance of
driver condition. Even so, the student of
defensive driving must become an expert on
all conditions and how to adjust to them.
Light Condition
The first requirement of safe driving is
to see and be seen. This ability is affected
13-6
-------
NOTES
by light condition—the presence or absence
of natural or artificial light. You can have
too little light, or too much light. The
hazard of too little light is found in the
fact that the nighttime fatal accident rate
is more than double the daytime rate.
Here are some things you can do to
adjust to adverse light conditions:
1. Be sure all lights on your vehicle
are in good working order.
2. Keep headlights clean and properly
aimed.
3. Turn on lights promptly at the onset
of darkness—even in midday if it becomes so
dark that visibility is decreased.
4. Switch headlights to low beam when
meeting another vehicle and when following
another vehicle within 300 feet.
5. Do not look directly into
approaching headlights.
6. Never wear sunglasses for night
driving.
7. Be extra watchful for pedestrians
and cyclists at night.
8. Always reduce speed at night.
9. When there is too much light, such
as when driving directly into sun glare in
the early morning or late afternoon, wear
sunglasses and use your sun visor. A good
pair of sunglasses is also helpful in
preventing snow blindness when snow-glare is
present. Ask your eye specialist for
prescription sunglasses if necessary; they
are worth the investment.
10. Remember that under adverse light
conditions others also have difficulty
seeing, so take care that they can see you.
11. Never drive with only your parking
lights on.
13-7
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NOTES
Weather Condition
Bad weather can affect traction,
visibility and vehicle control.
Rain, snow and ice can make road
surfaces slippery. Adverse weather can
obscure your vision with rain, snow, fog or
road splatter, as well as steam up glass with
interior vapor. Other drivers find it harder
to see you, and pedestrians hide behind
umbrellas so they fail to see cars
approaching. High winds make steering
difficult and cause vehicles to veer to the
wrong side of the road.
Here are several defensive actions you
can take to adjust to adverse weather
conditions:
1. Clean windshield and all windows of
accumulated snow or ice if your car has been
outside. Don't try to see through a
peephole.
2. In cold weather be sure your motor
is warmed up enough to insure reliable
performance. Turn on heater before you start
to avoid sudden fogging of glass.
3. At the onset of rain, fog, sleet or
snow, adjust your speed immediately to the
changed conditions.
4. Be sure your windshield wipers,
washers and defroster are in good working
condition.
5. Turn headlights on low beam in fog,
rain, extreme cloudiness or snow storms, even
in the daytime.
6. Be sure your tail lights, brake
lights and directional signals are working.
7. If ice or snow accumulates on
windows, windshield or lights, stop in a safe
place to clear it off.
8. Sometimes weather can get so bad
that the best thing to do is get completely
off the road until conditions improve.
13-8
-------
NOTES
That's especially vital in heavy fog or rain.
If you have to stop on the shoulder get as
far away from the road as possible and turn
off all exterior lights except flashers.
9. The early phase of rain is most
dangerous because it raises a soapy-slick
film of oil and grease drippings. After 20
to 30 minutes of hard rain, the slippery
residue is washed off and the pavement has
better traction. So at the onset of rain,
slow down.
10. Bad weather by itself doesn't cause
accidents. Accidents are caused by drivers
who do not take immediate measures to adjust
to the special hazards brought about by bad
weather.
Road Condition
Road condition refers to the total
roadway and the type and condition of the
road surface. These can affect your ability
to steer, stop and maneuver.
Adverse road conditions can be produced
by weather. Conditions change from one kind
of road to another—from a side street to a
thoroughfare, from secondary road to a main
highway, from a two-lane road to an
expressway. Any trip may involve a number of
different road conditions, each requiring
adjustment in your driving.
Here are ways to cope with adverse road
conditions:
1. Adjust your speed to road surface
conditions. Posted speed limits are for
ideal conditions only.
2. On snow or ice you must reduce your
speed, not only to avoid skidding but also to
make certain your stopping distance will be
within your clear sight distance ahead.
3. On slippery surfaces, slow down
sooner so you can use your brake sparingly,
start braking sooner, and use less power in
starting and accelerating.
13-9
-------
NOTES
4. To avoid locked-wheel skids, pump
your brakes when stopping on slippery roads.
Jab and release them quickly once or twice a
second. This gives alternate intervals of
braking and steering control. With disc
brakes, application should be less rapid.
5. If you skid, steer in the direction
the rear of the vehicle is sliding.
6. Wet leaves are very slippery, so use
care.
7. Remember that ice forms more quickly
on bridges, that shady spots remain icy
longer, that concrete pavement usually ices
up faster than warmer blacktop roads, and
that "wet" ice at about 30 degrees is more
slippery that ice at zero temperature.
8. Experience shows that accidents due
to icy or wet streets most often occur soon
after the sudden onset of the hazardous
condition. If conditions are bad when
drivers start a trip, they usually are on
guard. But if the bad weather starts during
the trip, drivers try to maintain their
normal speed too long and get into trouble.
9. Speed, standing water on the
pavement and tires with worn tread make a
combination that can cause hydroplaning, a
complete loss of steering and reduced
traction. A wedge of water can build up
between the front tires and the road and
literally lift the tires from good contact
with the pavement. Slow down in heavy rain
that leaves standing water.
10. When starting out on a slippery day,
test the traction by lightly applying the
brakes at slow speed to get the "feel" of the
road.
Traffic Condition
Traffic conditions are created by the
number of vehicles and pedestrians using the
same road or street at the same time you are,
and to a large extent by how well the road
has been engineered to accommodate the amount
of traffic present at a given time. More
13-10
-------
NOTES
cars mean more conflict in traffic and more
change for a collision.
Traffic conditions are influenced by the
tine of day, day of the week, even time of
year in the case of holiday periods, and by
the nature of the environment, such as a
shopping center, sports arena, factory or
school.
Here are ways to adjust to traffic
conditions:
1. Remember that pedestrians and
bicyclists may not always have the right of
way, but cars must always yield right of way
to a pedestrian.
2. Motorcycles are undersized and often
overlooked. Allow them as much road space as
you would another vehicle.
3. Be ready for wind turbulence when
passing large trucks or campers.
4. Plan your driving routes to avoid
congestion as much as possible and select the
best regulated routes.
5. Speed zones are often established
after observing the normal pace of most cars
on a given stretch of street or highway. The
defensive driver conforms to this pace.
Driving faster or slower than traffic in
general will create unnecessary passing
movement, and passing increases the change
for mistakes.
6. Dim your lights well in advance of
oncoming cars, and never look directly into
an approaching car's lights. If they are on
high beam, flick yours as a signal. If the
driver leaves them on high, keep yours on low
beam and look to the right edge of the road
or lane marker until the car is past. Never
switch on your high beam in retaliation; that
just compounds the danger.
7. Because traffic conflicts can
trigger emotional reactions among drivers,
the defensive driver seeks to influence
others by showing courtesy and consideration
13-11
-------
NOTES
to other motorists at all times.
Vehicle Condition
Vehicle condition affects your ability
to control your vehicle, your ability to see
and be seen, and to communicate with other
drivers and pedestrians. Your chances of
staying out of an accident are better with a
vehicle in tip-top condition that they are
with one that has operational defects.
You are the only one who knows when
something isn't working right. Only you can
spot possible vehicle defects and either
repair them or get them corrected by a
qualified mechanic.
Here are several points to remember
about vehicle condition:
1. Worn or poorly adjusted brakes cause
trouble when the driver is faced with the
necessity for stopping quickly.
2. Defective turn signals or brake
lights can confuse other drivers about your
intentions and cause a collision.
3. Worn tires increase the possibility
of skidding or hydroplaning. A blowout can
throw your car out of control. Good tire
care is one of the essentials of a safe car.
4. A broken or burned-out headlamp not
only cuts down your visibility, but makes it
difficult for other drivers to judge the
position of your car in a lane. Keep your
headlamps aimed correctly.
5. Broken windshield wipers or worn-out
wiper blades can mean the difference between
life and death on a rain-swept highway.
6. The horn can be an important safety
device. . Horns should be used sparingly, but
if you need to sound a warning and the horn
won't work, the results can be serious.
7. A defective muffler and exhaust pipe
often results in filling the vehicle with
carbon monoxide. While the concentration may
13-12
-------
NOTES
not be enough to cause death, it can cause
drowsiness and may be the unseen,
undiscovered cause of many accidents.
8. A lap belt and shoulder harness
should be worn at all times. If safety belts
are in bad condition or stuffed behind the
seat, they are of no use to even the most
safety-minded occupant in an accident.
9. The interior of your vehicle can
contribute to the "second collision" in the
event of a crash. Heavy or sharp objects
stowed on the rear shelf of your car can
become lethal projectiles.
10. When renting a car or borrowing
someone else's, take time to get familiar
with the vehicle, the location of all
controls and its operating characteristics.
Driver Condition
Driver condition refers to your
physical, mental and emotional fitness to
drive. It is the most important of the six
accident conditions, because a driver in top
physical, mental and emotional shape can
adjust to all the other conditions and to the
errors of other drivers as well.
Here are some important points to
remember about driver condition:
1. Be as objective as possible about
your fitness to drive, whether the trip is
long or short. When you don't feel up to it,
be willing to postpone the trip or have
someone else drive.
2. The most dangerous physical
condition is being under the influence of
alcohol. The best rule is not to drive after
drinking, but if you must drive, do so only
if you understand how alcohol affects your
capabilities. Know your limit.
3. Age is a special driver condition
for those under 25 and over 65. The younger
driver has good physical condition but lacks
experience and mature judgment. The older
driver has experience and, hopefully, good
13-13
-------
NOTES
judgment, but his physical and sensory
faculties may have deteriorated. Each group
can compensate for these weaknesses by
knowing and adjusting to them.
4. The taking of prescription drugs, as
well as illegal drugs, can affect driving.
Medicines taken in combination, or when used
with alcohol, can have a multiplying effect.
Ask your physician about the effect
prescription drugs may have on your driving
ability. Needless to say, illegal drugs and
driving are a dangerous mixture.
5. Emotions such as anger and worry can
blot out the alertness needed to drive
safely. If you are upset and unable to
concentrate, don't drive. And never allow
aggressive driving to become an outlet for
anger and frustration.
6. Fatigue and sleepiness are other
dangerous driving conditions. When you find
yourself dozing at the wheel, don't fight it.
Pull of the road for coffee, exercise and
fresh air. If necessary, take a nap or let
someone else drive.
7. Certain physical impairments, such
an uncorrectable vision, uncontrollable
epilepsy, hear disease or diabetes, add to
driving risk. Discuss these with your
physician, and have the wisdom to forego
driving if he advises you to do so. .
How to Deal with Tailgaters
It is sheer foolishness to take the
legalistic position that "any driver who hits ^_
my vehicle from behind is in the wrong." An *~
attitude like that can literally break your
neck. You have a responsibility to the
driver following you. You have to let him
know what you are going to do in order for
him to know what to do.
There are four measures you can take to
avoid being hit from behind:
1. Signal your intentions. Use your
directional signals (or arm signals) and
brake lights.
13-14
-------
NOTES
2. Stop smoothly. Once in a while, you
have no choice but to jam on the brakes.
Most of the time that shouldn't be necessary.
If you follow the rule for avoiding a
collision with the vehicle ahead, you will
reduce at the same time the chance for a
collision with the vehicle following.
3. Keep clear of tailgaters. Don't let
a tailgater rile you. Just slow down. This
will eliminate the hazard by:
a. Encouraging him to pass you.
b. Increasing the following
distance between your car and the car ahead
so you won't have to brake suddenly and be
hit by the tailgater.
c. Forcing him to slow down,
thereby making it easier for him to stop
safely when you stop.
4. Avoid a rear-end collision when
stopped. Being struck from the rear while
stopped in traffic accounts for 70 percent of
rear-end collisions. This may happen to you
when you are stopped behind a driver who
intends to make a left turn. These
precautions are recommended to avoid being
struck in the rear while stopped in traffic:
* Keep foot on the brake to activate the
brake lights.
* Stop at least 10 feet behind the car
ahead to prevent any domino effect. A good
way to do this is to stop so you can see the
rear tires of the car ahead.
* Keep lights on at dusk or in rain and
snow.
Defensive Driving: A Matter of Attitude
If you practice defensive driving, it's
unlikely that you'll find yourself involved
in a collision with a vehicle following your
own. After all, defensive driving is largely
a matter of attitude—the determination on
your part to do everything reasonably
possible to avoid being involved in a
13-15
-------
NOTES
preventable accident, regardless of what the
law says, what the other driver does, or the
adverse driving conditions you encounter.
There are a number of attitudes that
characterize the defensive driver. How many
do you display?
1. Knowledge: Do you know the traffic
rules and regulations of your state? Are you
aware of proper procedures for passing,
yielding the right of way and other maneuvers
you'll be called upon to perform when you're
behind the wheel?
2. Alertness: Are you aware of what's
going on around you? Are you conscious of
traffic conditions ahead? Do you
occasionally glance from side to side, and at
the side and rear-view mirror?
3. Foresight: Do you "look ahead" when
you drive? Can you predict what is likely to
happen? Foresight includes both short and
long-range predictions, such as getting ready
to stop when you see a traffic light ahead
and making a pre-trip mental inventory of
driving conditions.
4. Judgment: Another word for good
"horse sense." Judgment involves knowing
what to do and doing it at the right time—
every time.
5. Skill: Do you know how to handle
your car? How to start, stop, turn, go
forward and in reverse and how to execute
various emergency maneuvers? Research has
shown that skill is not simply the result of
practice, but the result of training, plus
practice.
Head Restraints Reduce Whiplash
Each year there are an estimated
3,800,000 rear-end vehicle crashes. In
these, as many as one million drivers and
passengers claim whiplash injury, one of the
most common of crash casualties.
Since 1969, when head restraints were
required as standard equipment in new cars,
13-16
-------
NOTES
nearly one-fifth of whiplash injuries have
been eliminated. This despite the fact that
a large number of adjustable head restraints
have been found to be improperly adjusted.
Some pointers for head restraints:
* The padded section should be adjusted
to fit against the back of the skull, and not
against the base of the neck. Restraints
left in their lowest position may actually
increase certain whiplash injuries by serving
as a fulcrum over which the head snaps in
rear-end collisions.
* The front seat head restraints should
not increase the change of injury to back-
seat passengers in the event of an accident.
HOW TO AVOID A COLLISION WITH AN ONCOMING
VEHICLE
The deadliest of all collisions is one
that occurs with an oncoming vehicle. A
number of factors contribute to the
fatalities that result from such accidents.
* In a head-on collision, the cars
involved stop almost instantly;
unfortunately, their occupants keep hurtling
forward—right into the windshield and
dashboard.
* Since most head-on collisions occur
slightly off center, one or both cars spin
and their occupants often are thrown out of
the car. This is where safety belts are
really effective in saving lives.
Recovering from a Pavement Dropoff
Your efforts to steer back onto the road
after your front wheel has dropped off the
pavement can send you swerving into the path
of an oncoming vehicle unless you follow
these steps:
1. Don't panic and don't brake.
2. Slow down to a safe speed, keeping
the car on a straight course.
13-17
-------
NOTES
3. Check for an opening in traffic and
steer slowing back onto the pavement at a
sharp angle.
Coping with Curves
The best way to take a curve is to slow
down before you enter it. On curves to the
right, keep to the right edge of the
pavement. On left curves, stay in the middle
of your lane. Apply light power to the
wheels while in the curve.
The relative danger of a head-on
collision in a curve depends on which
direction the curve takes.
* On right curves. Never allow you car
to drift into the other lane; centrifugal
force will tend to pull it to the left toward
the center line.
* On left curves. Be alert to the other
vehicle's tendency to drift into your lane,
since centrifugal force pulls him to the left
toward you.
How to Avoid an Oncoming Vehicle
More times than one wants to experience,
an oncoming motorist is found in your lane.
Several things may account for this: the
driver may have fallen asleep, he may wrongly
have entered a one-way street, or he may have
lost control of his auto trying to pass
another driver. Whatever the reason, it
presents a truly dangerous problem. Several
steps should be taken:
* Read the Road Ahead: Be alert for an
auto or pedestrian about to enter your lane
or trying to pass in your lane.
* Ride to the Right: Never drive to the
left. The oncoming driver may decide to
swerve right to avoid you and hit you head-
on.
* Reduce Speed: Reducing speed reduces
distance traveled and impact force.
* Ride Right Off the Road: If
13-18
-------
NOTES
necessary, veer to the right and go off the
pavement. Give him your lane—always avoid a
head-op crash.
HOW TO AVOID AN INTERSECTION COLLISION
One-third of all traffic accidents
happen at intersections and about 40 percent
of all urban accidents occur there. Unless
turns are prohibited, there are three things
a driver can do at an intersection:
1. Make a right turn.
2. Go straight through.
3. Make a left turn.
The four general rules for intersection
safety are:
1. Know your route and plan ahead.
2. Slow for intersections and expect
the unexpected.
3. Show your intentions by position and
signals.
4. Go with care.
Rules for Making a Right Turn at an
Intersection
1. Get in the extreme right lane well
in advance.
2. Turn on your right turn signal no
less than 100 feet before the turn.
3. At the turn position place your
vehicle so as to block out any vehicle that
might try to squeeze between you and the
curb.
4. Make sure that you have the right of
way and that there is no cross traffic.
5. Make your turn when it is safe to do
so.
13-19
-------
NOTES
Rules for Going Straight Through an
Intersection
1. Be sure you have the right of way.
2. Slow down and be prepared to stop.
3. As you approach the intersection,
have your foot off the accelerator and on the
brake pedal to give yourself that extra split
second of reaction time you need to stop if a
vehicle or a pedestrian tries to cross in
front of you.
4. Look first to the left, then to the
right, because traffic coming from the left
is closer to you and would cross your path
first.
5. Accelerate through the intersection
when it is safe to do so.
Rules for Making a Left Turn at an
Intersection
1. Get in the left lane well in
advance.
2. Turn on your left turn signal no
less than 100 feet before the turn.
3. Stop and yield right of way to cross
traffic and vehicles approaching from the
opposite direction and close enough to
present a hazard.
4. When it is safe, make your turn in
such a manner as to enter the cross street on
the right side of the center line in the lane
nearest to the center line.
5. In meeting other vehicles also
turning left, be sure to pass them so that
they are on your right.
THE ART OF PASSING AND BEING PASSED
The final two positions of the two-car
crash to be discussed are those that involve
(1) your vehicle being overtaken and passed
by another, and (2) your own passing
maneuver.
13-20
-------
NOTES
Both positions—passing and being
passed—are potentially dangerous because
they can result in head-on collisions,
sideswipes or run-off-the-road accidents.
How to Be Passed
There are a number of things you can do
to prevent accidents that can happen when
other cars pass you:
1. Help the other driver pass. Check
oncoming traffic. Slow down if the passing
car will need more room to get back in line
in front of you.
2. Before you change lanes, check your
side and rear-view mirror and glance back to
make sure your blind spot is clear. Use your
land-change signal. Move over only when lane
is clear.
3. Get into the proper lane for a turn
early. When turning right stay close to the
right curb to block anyone from passing on
the right. Use your turn signal early.
4. Don't nose out of a parking space to
check for oncoming traffic. Take a good look
before you move. Signal your intentions,
wait for a break in traffic and pull out
slowly.
Hew to Pass
There are a number of reasons why you
may want to pass another vehicle: You may
feel it is going too slowly, you may be in a
hurry, or you may simply want to be the front
runner. There is nothing wrong with passing
for the right reason, but it isn't likely to
save you much time. And since passing often
entails risk, the best rule is: When in
doubt, don't!
In any passing maneuver, there are 12
things to do:
1. Decide if the pass in necessary.
2. Make certain you have maintained a
safe following distance.
13-21
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NOTES
3. Check traffic ahead. If your
vehicle and an oncoming car are both
traveling at 55 mph, you are closing the gap
between you at the rate of 1.8 miles per
minute. Since it takes about 10 seconds to
complete a pass, the oncoming car should be
at least one-half mile away.
4. Check the traffic behind you before
changing lanes. First check your mirrors,
then your blind spot.
5. Signal before you change lanes.
6. Move into the left lane.
7. Accelerate as you move left.
8. Signal the vehicle you are passing
by tapping your horn or flashing your lights.
9. Signal your intention to return to
the right lane.
10. Return to the right lane when you
can see all of the passed vehicle in the
rear-view mirror.
11. Cancel your directional signal.
12. REsume cruising speed as soon as you
have completed your passing maneuver.
HOW TO AVOID OTHER TYPES OF ACCIDENTS
You and the Motorcyclist
Motorcycles are more numerous on the
nation's streets and highways with each
passing year. With them comes an added
responsibility on the part of the motorist.
Half of the accidents that occur between the
automobile driver and the cyclist are the
fault of the autoist. Here are some tips to
remember regarding motorcyclists:
Sharing the Road
Many motorists think motorcycles require
less space on the road that do other
vehicles, just because the cycle is smaller.
That is not true. A cyclist is entitled to a
13-22
-------
NOTES
full lane, just as is any four-wheeled
vehicle. Do not try to crowd him in any way,
or try to force him to the edge of the road.
Respect him as a fellow driver.
Re-Train your Eyes
Most cycle-auto accidents occur because
the motorist simply doesn't see the cyclist.
Often a cycle is hidden in the car's blind
spot. Outside rear-view mirrors are not
enough to rely upon; when changing lanes, it
is a good policy to take a quick glance over
your shoulder. Be alert for the presence of
a cyclist on the outer edge of your traffic
lane, especially on turns. A cycle often is
screened by another car. Aware of his low
visibility, the safety-conscious cyclist
often keeps his single headlight on, even in
daytime, to warn you of his presence.
Consider the cyclist as being less
protected that you are, and watch his
driving. He must contend with many more
hazards than you do. Be especially cautious
when passing a cyclist; the buffeting created
by your windstream may cause him to wobble
and lose control. The inexperienced cyclist
should be given a wide berth. You can
recognize him if his cycle jerks when making
gear changes, or if he is hesitant in making
decisions in traffic. Always give him plenty
of room and be prepared to stop if something
goes wrong.
judging Distance
Because a cycle is smaller, it may
appear to be farther away that it actually
is, and it may seem to be moving slower.
Always allow yourself more following distance
when overtaking one. To judge your following
distance, it is a good idea to add an extra
second to the two-second rule of defensive
driving: count to "one thousand and three."
But this three-second interval is only for
ideal conditions. Add to it for adverse
conditions.
Watch for Cycle Hazards
Hazards for the cyclist can entrap the
13-23
-------
NOTES
auto driver, too. A cyclist ahead can lose
control of his machine when sand, gravel, wet
leaves or water are on the pavement. Always
be aware of conditions that may cause him to
spill. Give him plenty of room, and slow
down.
How to Drive on Expressways
If you travel any distance, you'll be
using limited-access highways. The technique
for driving on them is different from that
used on regular roads.
Here are driving hints for expressway
safety:
1. Start with a full gas tank and check
the tires. Study the map before you start?
be sure you know your correct exit.
2. Entering an expressway, speed up in
the acceleration lane so you can match the
speed of through traffic and blend right in.
3. Never slow down abruptly in a
traffic lane. Stay with the pace set by the
majority.
4. Don't stop, and never back up. If
you miss an exit, go on to the next one. In
case of vehicle breakdown, pull as far onto
the shoulder as you can.
5. When passing or changing lanes, use
your turn signals, check to the rear and get
into position early. After passing, wait
until you can see the vehicle you've passed
in your mirror before returning to your
former lane.
6. Keep widely spaced. Stay well
behind vehicles ahead as a precaution against
chain-reaction crashes.
7. Read the signs; they are all
important. You have little change for
second-guessing.
8. When leaving the expressway, slow
down in the deceleration lane to ramp speed.
Believe your speedometer, not your senses.
13-24
-------
NOTES
Watch out for fatigue in expressway
driving, and fight monotony with a rest at
least every two hours. Keep your eyes
moving, open the windows often, check the
instruments, sing and chew gum.
If you must make an emergency stop on an
expressway, pull completely off the road to
the farthest edge of the shoulder. For help,
raise the hood and tie a white cloth on the
radio antenna or traffic-side door handle.
Superhighways tempt you to overdrive your
headlights at night. Remember, good lights
illuminate about 450 feet.
That is a skimpy margin of safety for
any evasive action you might need to take.
In bad weather, expressways can be more
dangerous than ordinary roads because of
higher speeds. Adjust your driving to bad
weather.
*Note: This section contains excerpts from
the National Safety Council Defensive Driver
Handbook.
13-25
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UNIT 14 - OPERATIONS AND USE OF BOATS
EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
o Students should learn the legally
required safety equipment, load limits,
registration, and related inspections.
o Students should learn about other
recommended equipment, other inspections
and precautions.
o Students should learn how to
prepare for boating.
o Students should learn about
loading and boarding a small boat.
o Students should learn about boat
handling.
o Student should learn the
rudiments of nautical rules of the road.
o Students should become aware of
essential emergency procedures.
NOTES
14-1
-------
BOATING SAFETY
Legal requirements
Complimentary Inspection
If a complimentary inspection is
requested, a member of the Coast Guard
Auxiliary will examine a boat for
compliance with Federal regulations and
any additional recommendations the local
Auxiliary many consider desirable for
safety. If the boat passes the inspec-
tion, a decal will be affixed, to the
boat, to show that the boat has passed
the examination. If the boat fails, a
confidential list of deficiencies will
be provided to the boat owner.
A Registration Number will usually
be assigned by the state, or occasional-
ly by the Coast Guard. The number is a
handy identification, even for boats
that may be exempt from the legal
requirement.
The Load Capacity should be dis-
played on a plate mounted in the boat.
A certificate of compliance for an out-
board motorboat will show the manufac-
turer's rating of maximum horsepower of
an engine that can be used, safely, on
the boat. A combination capacity plate
will also list the maximum number of
persons and the maximum weight of per-
sons that can be carried safely, as
well as the maximum weight (of persons,
motor, and gear) that can be carried
safely by the boat. The certificate of
compliance and the capacity may be shown
on separate plates.
The load carrying capacity of the
boat should not be exceeded, or the boat
may not sail well, may ride too low in
the water, and may take on water over
the sides and swamp or capsize. If
rough weather is expected, the boat
should be loaded more lightly to let it
ride higher and make it less likely to
be swamped by waves. If samples are to
be collected, their estimated weight
should be included in the total
NOTES
14-2
-------
estimated weight load.
NOTES
RECOMMENDED EQUIPMENT, INSPECTIONS, AND
PRBCADTICNS
Every motorboat should have a Fire
Extinguisher approved for fighting elec-
trical fires or burning liquids (e.g.,
gasoline fires). Fire extinguishers
must be approved by the Underwriters
Laboratories or another reputable test-
ing laboratory. A 2.5 pound dry chem-
ical extinguisher will satisfy the re-
quirement, on boats under 26 feet long,
but a 6 pound dry chemical extinguisher
will offer a greater chance of putting
out a liquid fuel fire. HaIon extin-
guishers are as satisfactory as the dry
chemical type. An additional fire
extinguisher should be located in the
fueling area to put out spill fires.
Audible Signals
Boats from 16 to 26 feet long must
carry a whistle or horn that can be
heard for at least a half mile. A po-
lice whistle will meet this requirement.
Boats from 26 to 40 feet long must carry
a bell for use.in fog, and a whistle or
horn that can be heard for at least a
mile. The whistle or horn can be oper-
ated by hand or power. Boats over 40
feet long must have a power operated
whistle or horn.
The signaling devices should be
used in fog, or in any other weather
condition that obscures normal
visibility.
Boats with enclosed spaces where
spilled fuel or fuel vapors can accumu-
late must have powered ventilation to
clear away the fuel vapors. This
requirement does not normally apply to
open boats.
Wearable Flotation Devices (life
jackets) are required for each person
aboard the boat. Boats over 16 feet
long must carry a wearable flotation
device for each person, and also one
throwable flotation device, for the
14-3
-------
boat.
NOTES
Although flotation devices of types
I, II, III, IV, and V are approved for
EPA field activities, only types I and
II and V are designed to save an
unconscious person from drowning because
those are the only types that will turn
an unconscious person from a face down
position in the water. The type I
device is the one that provides maximum
flotation, and thus, maximum protection
in rough water.
The type V device is a work vest
that will float an unconscious person
face up. It is designed for work
activities, but it is not approved for
use on recreational boats and is not
available in stores that sell only
recreational boating equipment.
Float coats or exposure suits,
approved by the Coast Guard, are
recommended for cold water operation.
Wet suits can also be used, preferably
with an additional flotation device.
Visual Distress Signals are re-
quired in boats 16 feet or longer (26
feet for sailboats), and are strongly
recommended for any boat that may need a
distress signal in any forseeable
circumstance.
Non-pyrotechnic Devices are a
special flag (for daytime use) and a
special electric signal that flashes SOS
signals four to six times a minute, for
night use. These devices do not set
spilled fuel afire if they are
accidentally activated.
Pyrotechnic Devices include hand-
held orange smoke signals, floating
orange smoke distress signals that last
5 to 15 minutes, hand-held red flares,
and pistol-launched parachute red
flares. Rocket propelled flares are
also available for night use. Pyrotech-
nic devices should be replaced 42 months
from the date of the manufacture, and
they are more common on larger boats.
14-4
-------
LIGHTS
NOTES
Specified lights are required on
any boat that is out on the water in the
dark. Boats at anchor must show an
anchor light: a white light, visible in
all directions for at least one mile.
Vessels under way must show at
least three lights:
-A white light visible for two
miles, in all directions; two white
lights are required in international
waters, and many boats will show two (or
more) white lights regularly.
-A green light, visible from
directly ahead through an arc of 112.5
degrees on the starboard (right) side.
That 112.5 degree arc marks the zone in
which your boat must yield the right of
way to other vessels; any vessel that
can see your green light has the right
of way over your boat.
-A red light, visible from directly
ahead through an arc of 112.5 degrees on
the port (left) side of the boat. Boats
that can see your red light should yield
the right of way.
It is important to know that, out-
side of designated shipping channels,
sailboats have the right of way over
power boats. Don't expect a sailboat to
get out of your way just because it can
see your red light. That boat might be
becalmed, might have tangled its rig-
ging, or might have run its keel
aground.
It is legal, but unwise, to expect
very large ships (such as oil tankers)
to yield to small boats, and you are
required to stay out of their way in a
shipping channel.
RECOWENDED ADDITIONAL EQUIPMENT
In order to operate the boat with
reasonable safety, you will also want to
carry
14-5
-------
-a recent chart (or charts) of the NOTES
area in which you will be boating
-a compass
-paddles or oars
-a boat hook; and
-a bailing bucket or bilge pump.
It is also prudent to carry an anchor
(and anchor rope), a first aid kit, food
and water, a radio with weather band
reception, a flashlight, tools and spare
parts, and a radiophone or CB radio for
emergency communications. The anchor
rope should be seven times as long as
the greatest water depth you will
encounter. Many types of anchors will
work better if a three foot length of
chain is attached to the anchor, to hold
it down in a horizontal position; it
holds better that way.
PREPARATION FOR BOATING
More inspections; Before a boat is
taken out for a trip or a long job, it
should be inspected to assure that
everything works, that lights and motor
are likely to keep on working, and that
tools and spare parts are adequate and
accessible. The Coast Guard Auxiliary
has many helpful publications about this
and other aspects of boating.
Refueling Precautions; Gasoline is
very flammable. There are four basic
rules for handling fuel:
-Keep all sources of ignition away
from fuel vapors.
-Keep the nozzle of the fuel hose
in contact with the fuel tank opening to
avoid static sparks.
-Never overfill the tanks.
-Fill portable fuel tanks OUTSIDE
the boat (never in the boat); fill them
on the dock or at another location.
Inboard engines require special
ventilation equipment. Use it.
Preparation for Boating
Plan your trip. Get the weather
forecast; look at the charts and plan
14-6
-------
your route; collect and weigh the
passengers' personal gear, the sampling
apparatus, and all other "stores" going
aboard. Load the gear so that it will
not roll or slide when the boat rocks or
tosses.
If the weather forecast is somewhat
unfavorable, load the boat lightly so
that it will float high in the water.
If a storm is predicted, postpone the
trip. When rough weather can capsize a
small boat, it takes quite an athlete
to swim home.
If your course takes you out of
sight of land, a_t least one person
aboard should know how to navigate. At
least 2 people should know how to read
charts and located sandbars, shallows,
rocks, rapids, etc.
The Coast Guard recommends that you
file a "float Plan" with someone who can
request a search if you don't return as
expected. The float plan should give a
detailed description of the boat and its
planned course, to aid a search. It
should list the people aboard, the type
and frequencies of the emergency radio,
and the names and phone numbers of the
Coast Guard or other agency personnel
who should be notified if you fail to
return as expected.
Personal gear should include shoes
or boots with anti-skid soles and foot-
wear that will be suitable for the samp-
ling or other work to be done outside
the boat, if that is part of the plan.
Water repellent clothing and sufficient
warm clothing should be taken along, and
a change of dry clothing is often
needed. If water temperatures below 60
degrees F are expected, take a wet suit
or other suitable protective, immersible
clothing.
Everyone should practice putting on
the flotation devices before you set
out. Life jackets should be stored so
that they can be retrieved quickly and
conveniently if the boat capsizes or
swamps. This writer once had sailing
NOTES
14-7
-------
students out in a small sailboat that
capsized. The life jackets were secured
under shock cord below the deck. When
the boat capsized, it was righted
immediately, but no one could get the
wet life jackets free from the wet shock
cord! A disaster was averted, first, by
clinging to the boat which could not
sink, and second, by the fact that every
student had to pass a swimming test
before being admitted to the sailing
school. Nevertheless, the incident
stands as an object lesson in inadequate
planning. YOU should try to do better.
If any passenger is a non-swimmer,
that passenger should wear a life jacket
whenever the boat is in water deep
enough to drown in. That includes
shallow water in which holes or
depressions may be found. In a stream,
the current may undercut a sandbar so
that the water may be 8 feet deep 18
inches from the edge of the sandbar.
Plan your sampling procedures
before you get out in the boat. If a
boat has two passengers, and they both
lean over the same side to set out 50
pounds of equipment, they may need to
demonstrate their swimming skill. Swim-
ming downstream, fully clothed, in pur-
suit of gear that floated away, is not a
demonstration of good sampling technique.
LOADING AND BOARDING
When you board a small boat, try to
grasp both sides of the boat and then
step into the middle. If you put all
your weight on the side nearest the
dock, you may well push that side under
water. If you step down and push the
boat away, the boat may move away before
you get into it; you may fall in, but at
least the boat won't capsize. It helps
to have someone else steady (hold) the
boat while you step in, but
understanding the problem helps even
more. One last caution here: it's easy
to jump lightly down into the
center of the boat — and then drop
to the opposite side and tip the
NOTES
14-8
-------
boat (and yourself) away from the dock.
Don't do that either.
NOTES
When one person is in the boat, a
second person can pass gear and supplies
to the one in the boat. If the cargo
being passed over is heavy, watch your
(and the boat's) balance! Distribute
the weight evenly, and secure all cargo
so it can't move when the boat rocks,
Remember to keep the flotation devices
accessible—or simply wear them.
BOAT HMB3LING
At least one person should know how
to handle the boat, and that person
should instruct the others as quickly as
possible. A boat does not handle like
any land vehicle (with the possible
exception of an ice boat). Techniques
such as towing, going through locks or
dams, and handling the boat in high
waves, like the knack of knowing when to
stop the motor and how to come in to a
dock without hitting it, must be learned
by doing. One or more of you must get
some instruction in boat handling before
you take the boat out. Reading is
recommended, but it cannot substitute
for hands-on experience.
You charts will show the location
of storm warning display stations, and
your radio will carry weather bulletins.
A small craft warning means winds may
reach 38 mph (33 knots) or conditions
dangerous for the sort of boats
generally used by EPA. A triangular red
pennant, displayed at a storm warning
display station, signals a small craft
warning.
Two triangular red flags signal a
gale warning; winds form 39 to 54 mph
(34 to 47 knots).
A single square red flag with a
black center, displayed at a storm
warning display station, signals a
storm warning: winds of 55 to 73 mph (48
to 63 knots).
14-9
-------
Two square red flags with black NOTES
centers signal a hurricane or tropical
cyclone, with winds in excess of 74 mph
(63 knots).
BOLES OF TOE ROAD
The first International Rules of
the road for preventing collision at sea
were established in 1889. The USA has
adopted similar rules for all U.S.
waters.
The person in command of the boat
is expected to know the rules for opera-
tion and navigation, local regulations,
and rules of the road. The rules of the
road cover three topics: lights, signals
used to identify course and position in
fog, and action to avoid collision with
other vessels.
The vessel that has the right-of-
way is called the "Stand On vessel"
(formally the privileged vessel). The
stand on vessel has a right to maintain
its course and speed. It has a duty to
maintain course and speed so that the
other vessel can base its actions on
known conditions. However, if a
collision becomes imminent, the stand by
vessel no longer has the right-of-way or
any privilege.
The vessel that does not have the
right of way is the "give way vessel",
formerly called the "burdened vessel."
When the give way vessel approaches
another closely enough to create a
possibility of collision, the give way
vessel must slow, turn, or take other
positive action to keep out of the way.
In a Meeting Situation, two vessels
are approaching head on or nearly so,
and neither has the right-of-way. Both
must alter course to the starboard
(right) so that they will pass port to
port (left side to left side). A vessel
will signal its intent to alter course
to the starboard with a "course indica-
tion signal" of one or two short blasts
of a whistle or horn. The other vessel
will return the same signal to
14-10
-------
indicate understanding and agreement, or NOTES
will signal four short blasts (danger
signal) to indicate its lack of
understanding or agreement. [In
international Waters, no response is
required, and the danger signal is five
short blasts.]
In a Crossing Situation, when two
vessels approach at an angle, the vessel
on the right (starboard) has the right-
of-way. Your vessel must give way to
any vessel that approaches from the
112.5 degree arc in which your vessel
shows its green light at night. The
give way vessel must slow or alter
course to avoid a collision. The stand
on vessel should maintain course and
speed.
In an overtaking situation, the
overtaking vessel is burdened; it must
give way until the overtaken vessel has
been passed safely.
If the overtaking vessel wishes to
alter course and pass to the starboard
of the overtaken vessel, the overtaking
(give way) vessel should give one short
signal of whistle or horn. The signal
to pass on the port side is two short
blasts of whistle or horn. The stand on
vessel must signal agreement (one or two
short blasts) or disagreement (four
short blasts).
If you see the white light of
another vessel at night, you are
overtaking that vessel and must follow
the rules for overtaking.
In a narrow channel, your boat
should keep to the right side of the
channel. When you near a bend> signal to
any vessel that may be out of sight by
giving a long (four to six seconds)
warning blast on a whistler or horn. A
small vessel must yield the right-of-way
to large, deep draft ships that may not
be able to maneuver, or stop, quickly.
In general, right-of-way must be
given to sailing vessels, fishing
vessels, working vessels, and very large
14-11
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vessels. NOTES
Fog signals are required if the
visibility is obscured, day or night, by
mist, fog, rain or snow—in order to
avoid collisions. A power vessel must
sound one prolonged blast on the
whistle, at least every minute. A
vessel anchored outside a designated
anchorage must ring its bell, or sound
its horn or whistle, rapidly for five
seconds, at least once each minute.
Towing vessels underway must sound a
series of three blasts (one long and two
short blasts) in succession, once each
minute.
Navigation aids, on navigable waters of
the United States, consist of markers,
buoys, and lights. They mark channels
and constructions, provide direction,
and show exact position.
The basic system uses red,
triangular buoys or markers, with even
numbers, to mark the right side of the
channel when the vessel is moving
upstream, against the current, returning
from the sea ("red right returning").
The other side of the channel (on your
starboard side going downstream) is
marked with black, rectangular buoys or
markers, with odd numbers. In the Great
Lakes region, going west, or to the
source of the lakes, corresponds to
going upstream from the sea. On the
Intracoastal Waterway and in coastal
water, "upstream" is marked from New
Jersey going south to Florida and west
to Texas. On the Pacific coast,
"upstream" is from California to Alaska.
On the Intracoastal Waterway, buoys
and markers are marked with a yellow
band, strip, square, or triangle. The
yellow band or square identifies the
buoy as being on the Intracoastal
Waterway.
Regulatory markers may provide
information or give warning (e.g., boat
speed restriction).
Lightships or Texas Towers provide
14-12'
-------
warning and guidance in waters that are NOTES
to deep for other navigation aids. A
Texas is a large navigational buoy
that has primary and standby generators
to operate a high intensity light, a
radio beacon, and a fog signal. It also
monitors meterological conditions, air
and water temperature, wind speed and
direction, and other data. Texas Towers
are replacing lighthouses at major har-
bor entrances.
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
If your boats capsizes, or collides
with a solid object or another boat, or
if the motor quits, or someone has a
medical emergency, you should call for
help. Use your radio, whistle, horn, or
visual signals. On the radio, send
"Mayday" on VHF channel 16 or 2182
kilohertz. Give this information:
Boat ID and call letters;
Location;
Nature of distress;
Number of persons aboard and the
condition of any who are injured;
Estimated seaworthiness of the boat
(how long you may stay afloat);
Descriptive details of boat;
Any other information that may help
rescuers find you.
If you have no radio, show visual
distress signals.
If you hear or see a distress
signal, give what aid you can. Use your
radio to notify the Coast Guard on VHF
Channel 16, or notify any listener on CB
Channel 9. There is a "Good Samaritan"
clause in the Federal Boat Safety Act of
1971 that protects from liability anyone
who provides or arranges towing, medical
treatment, or other assistance that any
reasonably prudent person would provide
under the circumstance.
If you have only pyrotechnic
distress signals, save them until there
is someone out there who can see them.
If your boat capsizes, stay with
it. Boats have flotation chambers; they
14-13'
-------
will not sink. If you can right the NOTES
boat, get into it. That may be warmer
than staying in the water. If the water
is cold, it is important to conserve
body heat. Get out of the water if you
can; if you can't; curl up. If several
people are in the water, they should
huddle close together. Don't swim for
shore unless it is quite close or there
is no chance of rescue. A boat is
easier than a swimmer for rescuers to
find.
-------
STUDENT EXERCISES
1. Power boats must show at least three lights when traveling at
night. Describe those lights and their significance.
2. Name 10 items of equipment, other than food, that should be
carried on the boat. (If food were allowed, 10 food items would
count as only one "item" of equipment.)
14-15'
-------
3. What are the four basic rules for refueling/fuel handling?
4. A storm warning display station is flying two triangular red
signal flags. What do they mean?
What action should you take if you have already set out for a
day's work in the boat?
14-16'
-------
5. You are sailing up the middle of a channel, and a cabin
cruiser is coining toward you, also in the middle of the channel.
You signal with 2 short blasts on the whistle. The other vessel
replies with 4 short hoots of a horn.
(a) What does your signal mean?
(b) What does his signal mean?
(c) What do you think you should do?
(d) Do you have a comment about the skill of the two boat
captains?
14-17'
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UNIT 15
USE OF AIRCRAFT
EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES NOTES
o Students should understand all
passenger responsibilities in chartered
aircraft.
o Students should be aware of pilot
responsibilities and be able to monitor
pilot performance and obtain complete
pilot cooperation.
o Students should be capable of
good advance planning: charter of a
suitable aircraft with a capable pilot,
knowledge of flight plan requirements,
and ability to acquire and prepare
suitable personal (including sampling)
gear.
o Students should know how to
prepare EPA materials for shipment by
air or for stowing aboard a working
aircraft. They must know how to
approach and enter aircraft safely.
o Students must be aware" of
emergency preparations and procedures.
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INTRODUCTION
NOTES
The Environmental Protection Agency
uses aircraft frequently, for passenger
flights, for the shipment of samples,
and through the use of chartered
aircraft to reach remote areas, make
observations, including photographs, to
collect air (or airborne) samples, or to
spread materials over areas that need
such treatment to remedy environmental
damage.
When chartered aircraft are used,
the EPA personnel involved must
understand all aspects of the planning,
operation, and use of small aircraft, of
both fixed wing and helicopter types.
This part of the EPA Field Training
Course will provide an introduction to
the use of aircraft.
PASSENGER RESPONSIBILITIES
Passenger flights with the
scheduled airlines have been made so
simple that no advice is needed for
flying the "friendly skies." Arranging
and participating in a charter flight in
a small aircraft is, however, a less
casual affair.
You will be the expert who decides
just what needs to be done, and if you
arrange the charter, it will be your
responsibility to choose a competent
pilot and a satisfactory aircraft for
the EPA mission. The next section deals
with Pilot responsibility, and that will
guide you in choosing a pilot. As the
working passenger (or one of a few), you
will need to provide the pilot with the
information needed for the flight plan
(The Federal Aviation Administration
[FAA] requires a flight plan.):
- the number of passengers and
their weight;
- the weight of all the equipment
and supplies to be carried;
- the destination, or the territory
to be overflown;
- the time needed at, or over, the
sampling or observations site.
15-2
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It will be your responsibility to
pack or supervise the packing, of the
equipment and supplies. A subsequent
section will discuss packing and
stowing, but this may be the time to
remind you that if any hazardous
material (small tanks of hydrogen,
strong acids, etc.) is to be carried,
the pilot should be informed.
EPA field personnel should take:
- Clothing suitable for the
expected weather, terrain and
activities;
- survival gear for the weather,
terrain and mission;
- motion sickness medicine and any
other maintenance medicine that any
member of the team may need.
Your should also confirm that, if
the flight passes over water, suitable
flotation devices are aboard, and that
the aircraft is equipped with distress
signals, an Emergency Locator
Transmitter, and any other emergency
gear that could be needed.
RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE PILOT
The pilot is responsible for
filing and choosing the flight plan(s)
and for checking the fuel supply, radio,
compass and other navigation equipment.
The pilot will also see that cargo is
properly secured and is loaded to comply
with weight and balance requirements of
the aircraft. The FAA requires the
completion of a weight and balance plan.
Before take-off, the pilot should
brief all the passengers on:
- no smoKing and seat belt rules;
- location and use of emergency
exits;
- emergency signals;
- emergency procedures in case of
emergency landing or ditching;
-the use of emergency equipment
(life jackets, life rafts, distress
signals, etc.).
NOTES
15-3
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The pilot should check the weather NOTES
conditions and forecast along the flight
route and at the destination. The
pilot can get detailed weather
information when the flight plan is
filed at the FAA Flight Service Station.
The weather maps are updated frequently.
He wil 1 use the weather information to
plot a route for the flight that is
acceptable, given the known performance
characteristics of the aircraft.
If weather conditions are
unfavorable, the pilot may (and should)
decide to postpone the trip. Don't
argue. High winds or fog may make
flying unsafe, and charter planes are
likely to be quite small and unable to
fly high enough to rise above a storm.
Your flight may also be going into an
area or airport without all the safety
systems of a modern airport for
scheduled airlines. When small boats
head for port, small planes should stay
on the ground!
The acceptable wind and weather
conditions for helicopters are defined
by the manufacturer. One concern of a
helicopter pilot in turbulent weather,
is the need to start and stop the main
rotor blades without having them hit the
tailboom. As a passenger, you might
want to ask the helicopter pilot about
the manufacturer's limitations with
respect to weather conditions. If the
pilot says "Don't go," acquiesce. If he
says "Ok to go," it can't hurt to check
to be sure he, your pilot, isn't, trying
to be a hero (heroine?). Your aim is to
choose a pilot who is cautious, not
intrepid.
Helicopter operations usually are
limited to daylight hours.
PLANNING
Aircraft charter and choice of
pilot are the most critical part of your
advance preparation. Your safety
depends on the skill and judgment of the
pilot, and the reliability and
15-4
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adequacy of the aircraft for the planned
mission. If the charter company has met
the qualifications for a Federal
Aviation Regulations (FAR) Part 135
Certificate, that certificate will be
displayed in the company office. It
signifies that the aircraft have FAA
Certification and that the pilots have
FAA certification for charter service.
The pilots will have at least 1500 hours
of flight time, will have annual
training in every aircraft used by the
charter company, will have completed an
FAA check ride every six months, and
will be qualified on instruments if they
fly multi-engine aircraft. The pilots
of multi-engine aircraft will be
qualified to navigate under Instrument
Flight Rules (IFR) and Visual Flight
Rules (VFR). Pilots of single engine
aircraft need not be rated for IFR
navigation.
The EPA has an inter-agency
agreement with the Department of
Interior for flight services. That
department should be the first choice
for air transport. The second choice
would be a charter service that meets
the FAR Part 135 regulations.
Obtaining use of aircraft through
other Federal agencies, or a flight
school, will not guarantee FAA
certification or pilot experience
equivalent to FAR Part 135.
It is inadviseable to rent an
aircraft directly from a flight school
and hire a pilot to fly it. Liability
insurance is likely to be inadequate,
and the pilot's qualifications could be
minimal. FAA regulations require flight
plans for all flights by certified
charter companies; flight plans are
recommended but not required for private
pilots and non-charter (or non-
commercial ) f1ights.
Flight Plans are very important for
your safety. The flight plan includes
information on the number of passengers
and the amount of fuel; that determines
NOTES
15-5
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NOEST
the maximum flying time. A flight plan
is recorded on a form that is completed
(closed) after the flight arrives at its
destination. The information includes:
1. the type of flights;
2. the identification of the
aircrafts;
3. the type of aircrafts;
4. the airspeed of the aircraft;
5. the point of departure;
(numbers refer to the flight
plan form)
8. the flight route;
9. the destination;
10. the estimated time en route.
The reverse side of the flight plan has
a preflight check list for weather and
meteorological information.
The pilot is responsible for filing
the flight plan, for reporting any
change in the flight plan, and for
reporting arrival at the destination,
which closes the flight plan.
If the aircraft fails to reach its
destination within a short time after
the Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA), the
flight plan will provide the information
necessary to guide a search for you. If
your flight makes a forced landing
without being able to radio for help, a
search will be initiated quickly. When
your aircraft is 30 minutes overdue, the
FAA Flight Service Station serving your
destination will call the station
serving your point of origin to learn
whether you returned there. If not, the
station serving your destination will
obtain the information from your flight
plan; that will indicate how far you
could have gone (if lost) and where to
look for you.
When you are 60 minutes overdue, a
message will be sent to all Flight
Service Stations along your route to see
if you have been heard from. Airports
where you could have landed will be
checked, physically, to see if your
aircraft landed but failed to report.
15-6 •
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The pilot's home will also be called to NOTES
see if he returned home without closing
the flight plan.
If your aircraft has not been
located within 90 minutes of your ETA,
search planes will fly over your route
to look for you! The search will
continue, during daylight hours. If
your plans should change, it is clearly
important that your pilot should notify
the nearest Flight Service Station so
that an unnecessary air search will not
be initiated.
Personal gear for flights over water or
low levels, should include equipment
recommended by the Coast Guard and
Department of Interior such as flotation
devices and wet suits or other
protective clothing to protect against
hypothermia in the water, if the water
temperature is below 60 degree F, if the
surface air temperature is below 32
degrees F, or if the combined air and
water temperature readings are less than
120 F. All aircraft flying over water
must carry one personal flotation device
for each person aboard. The pilot may
require the wearing of life vest at any
time during the flight.
For low level flights, the
recommended equipment includes a flight
helmet to protect the head and protect
hearing, and a Nomex flight suit to
provide some protection against fire.
Anyone who must lean out of the
aircraft (e.g., when taking pictures)
should use safety harness.
PREPARING AND LOADING
Packing and stowing of hazardous
materials must conform to DOT
regulations for packaging and shipping.
Aircrafts must not be damaged by
exposure to chemicals or to samples
collected. Chemicals and samples should
be put into clean (why?) containers,
protected by a plastic covering, and
packed to prevent (or contain) leakage.
15-7 •
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NOTES
Sample containers would be enclosed,
and sampling equipment should be
decontaminated or enclosed before being
loaded back into the aircraft.
Weighing and weight distribution
have already been discussed. Cargo
should be placed wherever the pilot
designates that it should go. Do not
drop heavy objects on the floor of the
cargo area or the li? of the door;
costly repairs and delays could result.
Helicopters; The chin section of a
helicopter is thin plastic (in front of
the front passenger's feet). Don't
place or drop anything there. If is
better to load a helicopter when the
rotors are stopped, but under no
circumstances should you approach the
helicopter with an object longer than 4
feet while rotors are turning.
Approaching an Aircraft requires
the application of considerable common
sense, or else attention to several
rules:
- Always keep out of the way when a
plane is taxiing and wait for the
propellers to stop before you approach.
- Approach any aircraft in view of
the pilot, or as directed by the pilot.
-Stay clear of a plane's
propellers or a helicopter's rotors,
whether they are turning or not.
- Stay 100 feet from helicopters at.
all times unless you must go nearer.
- If you must approach a
helicopter, stay clear of the tail boom
and avoid walking under or near the tail
rotor blades.
- If you must approach while the
rotors are turning, do so in full view
of the pilot and under his direction.
Approach from the same level as the
helicopter; an approach from a higher
level might bring you too close to the
blades.
15-8
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If you approach when the main rotor
is turning, run in a crouched position;
the main rotor blades can be blown below
their normal operating level.
Pilots, passengers, and crew,
around a helicopter, should wear
protective helmets, hearing protection,
and goggles to protect the eyes from
dust and grit stirred up by the rotors.
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
Emergencies in an aircraft can take
many forms, as any television watcher
can attest. If an emergency cannot be
coped with in the air, the aircraft will
make an emergency landing, usually
successfully.
During a forced landing, follow the
pilot's instructions. The pilot will
tell you when, where, and how to exit
from the aircraft. The pilot may ask
you to jettison doors, inflate flotation
equipment, don protection gear, or
assist the injured. You may be asked to
help activate emergency signaling
equipment.
If the plane comes down on (in) the
water, life vests can be inflated by
using a gas cartridge, or by blowing
into a red tube on the shoulders of the
vest. This type of vest fits over your
head and has straps to be tightened,
securely, around your waist.
The two cell inflatable life vest
should be inflated after you are in the
water, by jerking on red activating tab
(or both). It will provide buoyancy,
but you must keep your own face out of
the water. One side can be inflated
alone, or both can be inflated. Try it
to see how much buoyancy you need.
Emergency Locator Transmitters (ELT)
are activated automatically in the event
of a crash. An ELT has a range of 150
miles on a UHF frequency of 234.0
megahertz.
NOTES
15-9
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FAR Part 135 requires helicopters NOTES
that operate offshore to carry an
inflatable life raft with an ELT, food,
and other survival gear such as fishing
gear and a compass. The raft should
also have a flare kit, day/night flares,
a strobe signal light, a signal mirror,
marking dye, and a whistle. A police
whistle can be heard for a half mile or
more over water. Signaling devices are
similar to those used in boating. Some
produce colored smoke, and some make a
burst of light that can be seen at
night. The dye marker is a fluorescent
powder that can be seen, as a bright
patch in the water, from a great
distance away.
Offshore helicopters may have
inflatable pop-out gear or fixed
flotation gear, such as pontoons.
HELICOPTER DITCHING SURVIVAL
Helicopter ditchings (emergency
landings into water) are rare, but they
have occurred as a result of bad
weather, lack of fuel, or mechanical
failure. The pilot will consider
several factors:
- the distance to a landing site on
shore, or close to a source of
assistance (platform, ship, or other
aircraft);
- the expected time delay before
rescue;
- the condition of the helicopter;
- the veather conditions;
- the water and air temperatures;
and
-availability of survival
equipment.
Before ditching, passengers should
secure all tool boxes, cargo, and other
loose equipment, and they should then
fasten seat belts, locate the exits, and
follow the pilot's instructions.
The problem when the craft hits the
water may include:
15-10'
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NOTES
- inrushing water that tends to spin
passengers around, force them into rear
corners of the cabin, and cause
disorientation;
- difficulty finding where the
personal flotation gear is stowed;
- difficulty locating latches and
opening exits. Emergency exit releases
should be located before going under
water;
- difficulty getting to the surface
because the water is dark or murky; and
- problems that result from damage
to the aircraft or from spilled fuel.
If you expect to do much flying, by
helicopter, over water, it would be wise
to get further information and training.
The U.S. Geological Survey has a
videotape, but hands-on training, if
that can be arranged, should be much
better.
15-11'
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STOEEOT EXERCISES
1. Define
FAA:
FAR
IFR
VFR
ETA
ELT
2. You must fly over an area where industrial fumes have killed
much vegetation, and take pictures from a height of about 300
feet. We know you need a camera. What other equipment should
you use to do your job safely?
15-12
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3. Your ETA was 10:30 a.m., and the personnel at the FAA Flight
Service Station that serves your destination are awaiting your
aircraft. At 11:00 a.m. your pilot has not reported in. What
will the FAA Flight Station personnel do?
At 11:30 a.m., your aircraft has still not been heard from. What
will the station people do now?
Your plane is still missing at noon. What action will be taken
on your behalf?
15-13
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UNIT 16
SELECTION AND USE OF PIPE EXTINGUISHERS
Educational Objectives
o Students should understand the
classes of fires that they may
encounter.
o Students should understand the
mechanisms by which fires can be
extinguished.
o Students should know the types of
fire extinguishers, and how they are
identified.
o Students should know how to
select the most suitable fire
extinguisher for any situation, and how
to use that fire extinguisher on each
sort of fire that might occur in any
work area.
o Students should know the
precautions to be observed before a fire
extinguisher is used, and the
precautions to observe when fighting a
fire.
16-1
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NOTES
Introduction
A fire is an oxidation process. It
requires fuel and an oxidant, usually
the oxygen in the air. The fuel must
(usually) be in a gaseous state before
it will combine with oxygen to produce a
fire. If that combustion can produce
enough heat to vaporize more fuel, the
fire will continue until the fuel or
oxidizer is gone, or until some other
process intervenes. We will be most
interested, in this unit, in the
intervention equipment, procedures, and
mechanisms.
Even if fuel and a good oxidizer
are present, a source of ignition energy
is usually required. Spontaneous
combustion can occur, and it will be
discussed in the unit on chemical
hazards; this unit is concerned with
stopping the combustion process.
Once again, a fire needs enough
heat to vaporize the fuel, an oxidizer
(usually oxygen in the air), and a
source of ignition. We can stop a fire
if we cool the fuel below the
vaporization point, or if we separate
the fuel vapor from the oxidizer, which
will happen naturally if either the fuel
or the oxidizer is all used up.
Classes of Fires
There are four classes of fires:
Class Ar_ Ordinary combustible fuel such
as wood, paper, cloth, and rubber. The
fires burn into the material, but the
solids must be heated to the point at
which they vaporize if fire is to
continue.
Class B_r_ Flammable (combustible)
liquids or gases such as gasoline,
kitchen grease, fuel oil, propane gas,
alcohol and many others. The fuel is
vaporized and burns above the surface of
a liquid, or near the point at which a
gas escapes from confinement.
16-2
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NOTES
Class £:_ Electrical equipment. In
addition to the fire hazard, there is
danger of an electrical shock, until the
current has been turned off
(disconnected).
Class D:_ Combustible metals that burn
vigorously ands react violently with
water or some other extinguishing agent.
Examples are sodium, potassium,
magnesium, titanium, and zirconium.
Types of Fire Extinguishers
For Class A fires, the most common
method of putting out the fire is to
cool the fuel below its vaporization
temperature. Water works very well,
because such a lot of heat energy is
used up in converting liquid water to
steam. Steam won't (usually) burn, and
the steam excludes oxygen, and thus
stops combustion, while the vaporization
of the water cools the fuel. Dry
chemicals such as Halon 1211 or baking
soda can also put out the fire, but they
are less effective than water as cooling
agents.
Solid fuel may come in large chunks
that get quite hot, and even if the
surface is cooled and the fire goes out,
heat from within may reheat the surface,
evaporate any water, and reignite the
fuel. Fire departments soak Class A
fires thoroughly, and firemen often stay
in a burned house for many hours, to put
out any fire that may reignite.
Unskilled, or careless, firemen
sometimes soak a burned house and leave
— and such houses have been known to
reignite and burn a second time.
Class B fires burn above the
surface of a liquid, or near the point
at which a gas escapes. They are
extinguished by excluding oxygen from
the surface of a liquid fuel, or by
interrupting the jet of gas. Water may
not work on burning liquid. If the
16-3
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NOTES
liquid is lighter than water, it will
float on top of the water, and continue
to burn. The water may only serve to
spread (float or splash) the fuel over a
larger area. Compressed carbon dioxide,
dry chemicals, foam, Halon 1301 and
Halon 1211 often work well. In the case
of a burning jet of gas, even a hard
blast of air may disperse and cool the
fuel long enough to stop the fire.
However, if the fire has heated any
nearby surface, that hot surface may
reignite the fuel again.
These are probably the sort of
fires that inspired the rule: Never
turn your back on a fire that has just
gone out. This writer once watched a
safety supervisor (who was conducting a
fire school) turn his back after
extinguishing some gasoline burning in a
metal pan. The pan stayed hot; the
gasoline reignited; and the instructor
made an impressive standing broad jump
to get his overheated backside away from
the fire. Many flammable liquids
release flammable vapors constantly at
normal temperature and pressure.
A Class C (electrical) fire results
when the electric energy is converted to
heat (thermal) energy, and when that
heat vaporizes and ignites any handy
fuel. The first step is turn off the
electricity, unless the fire, short
circuit, etc., has already melted the
wires. In any event, you should turn
off the current to avoid touching a
"live wire" capable of producing a dead
person.
Your next concern should be the
fact that much electrical equipment is
massive, and it can get very hot and
stay hot for a long time. Metal
transmits heat very well, so the mass of
overheated equipment may be quite large.
These fires can be fought by excluding
oxygen, by interrupting the flame
reaction, or by cooling the hot
equipment, preferably with agents that
16-4
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NOTES
don't conduct electricity. Dry
chemicals, C02 gas under pressure, Halon
1301, and Halon 1211 have all been used
successfully.
If you are sure the current is off,
you can use water to cool the hot
equipment, but remember that water may
cause further problems when it is time
to turn the electricity back on! Think
before you act.
Class D (burning metal) fires
should not be doused with water; that is
likely to make matters very much worse.
The agents to be used are called "dry
powders" (NOT dry chemicals, which are
different). Dry powders may include
graphite, sodium chloride, or special
materials, all treated to make them free
flowing. You will need to know the
combustion characteristics of the
burning agent and have the proper
extinguishing agent available. The use
of water might cause an explosion, and
the use of CC>2 maY accelerate the rate
of combustion.
If no proper extinguishing agent is
available, try to isolate the fire and
let it burn itself out.
Fire Extinguisher Identification
Unfortunately, there are two
systems in use to mark fire
extinguishers. You may find either one
when you look at the equipment.
The old system uses the letters, A,
B, ,C, or D, to indicate which type of
fire the extinguisher is intended to put
out, but there is more than that.
Class A will have "A" in a
triangle, and the color green, with the
words "ordinary combustibles" written
just below the symbol.
The new system uses pictographs. A
Class AFire is fought with an
16-5
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NOTES
extinguisher showing a burning
wastebasket and a bonfire.
From now on, we will simply say
"New:" to indicate the pictograph
system, and "Old:" to indicate the old
system. Because the old system uses the
same letter as the type of fire for
which the extinguisher is intended, we
need only specify the old system, and
you will know what sort of fire it's
good for.
Like this:
Old: Class A, triangle,
green, "ordinary combustibles."
New: Burning wastebasket and bonfire.
OK?
Old: Class B, square, red,
"flammable liquids."
New: Container pouring liquid, and a
fire.
Old: Class C, circle, blue,
"electrical equipment."
New: Electrical plug and a receptacle
with flames.
Old: Class D, star, yellow,
"combustible metals."
New: No pictograph.
The pictograph (new) system will
show the types of fires on which the
extinguisher should not be used by
showing the pictograph with a red,
diagonal slash through it: forbidden,
just like the pictograph for "no left
turn."
Fire extinguishers may have
multiple ratings. A carbon dioxide
(C02) extinguisher carries both "B" and
"C" ratings; it. can be used safely on
16-6
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NOTES
both types of fire.
Please remember that any one type
of Class D extinguisher is not suitable
for all the different Class D fires.
Choose the fire extinguisher for an area
where a burning metal fire might occur
with care and intelligence, and use it
only for those metal fires for which it
is recommended.
Precautions for Fighting Fires
Before you start to extinguish any
fire, you should warn others so that the
area can be evacuated. You must also
call the local fire department; if you
go ahead on your own, and then find that
you can't put the fire out with the
equipment on hand, it may then be too
late for the local fire department to
save the situation.
The third precaution is that you
should judge the situation and decide
whether you can fight the fire without
endangering yourself. The fourth
precaution is that you may be wiser to
first contain the fire; prevent its
spread, and then see if you can put it
out completely. At least it won't (we
hope) be out of control when the firemen
arrive.
How can you accomplish these
things? You warn others by shouting,
turning in an alarm, or both.
You call the fire department,
usually, with a telephone call. In many
areas, that will be a 911 call. When
you reach the fire department, you will
need to tell them where the fire is;
think about that.
If you are driven away by smoke and
heat, shut the doors behind-you as you
retreat. Don't, try to go back!
If you believe you can fight, the
fire safely, these are some safety
16-7
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NOTES
considerations:
o The fire extinguisher should have
the rating and size for the fire. An
extinguisher that's suitable for a
wastebasket won't help much if two whole
rooms are on fire.
o Have someone with a second
extinguisher back you up, in case you
get into trouble.
o Don't enter a burning building
unless you are wearing fire repellent
clothing and self-contained breathing
apparatus. Of course, you will need
some back-up protection there if you get
in trouble.
Selection and USE of a Fire Extinguisher
You are facing a fire. What sort
of fire is it, wood — paper — trash?
Then it's Class A. Find that class of
fire extinguisher, by Class A label or
pictograph. If the closest extinguisher
is the wrong type, keep looking.
You have now found the right sort
of fire extinguisher. Take it off the
hook, or out of the cabinet. As you
approach the fire, get the extinguisher
ready for use: There should be a
locking pin near the head of the
extinguisher; pull out the pin. If
there is a simple nozzle, aim it at the
base of the fire. If there is a hose
(or tubing) in a holder, take it out of
the holder and aim the nozzle or horn at
the base of the fire. If there is a
horn on a tube, raise it and then aim it
at the base of the fire.
Squeeze the release trigger once
before you get too close, to see how
much extinguishing material comes out,
and how far it may shoot. If the fire
extinguisher doesn't work, go look for
one that does. If the fire has now
grown too big, you should leave, closing
doors behind you. Let the firemen
16-8
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NOTES
handle the big jobs.
If you have an ordinary Fire Hose,
the stream of water should reach about
30 feet. You can stand well back and
aim the water at the base of the fire.
If you get too close, the force of the
stream might scatter the fire and spread
it. A pressurized water extinguisher is
a smaller version of the same sort of
fire fighting method. You may be able
to shoot intermittent jets of water by
working the trigger.
If you have an old soda-acid type
of extinguisher, turn it upside-down to
mix the chemicals and start it
squirting. It will tend to keep
shooting out its stream until it is
exhausted. If you tip it back up, it
may stop, eventually.
With a small, aqueous charged,
extinguisher, if it is not too powerful,
as the fire grows smaller, you may be
able to use your finger to spread the
stream into a fan shaped fine spray.
Dry Chemical Extinguishers eject a
fine powder at high speed. The powder
may be as simple as sodium bicarbonate
which gives off C02 when it gets hot.
The dry powder has much more fire-
fighting capacity than the compressed
(liquid) carbon dioxide that is often
used in small fire extinguishers. Dry
chemical extinguishers are usually
painted red (except for the label), and
they should have a hose and nozzle, and
may have a gauge on the top — or a
cartridge cover on the side. They will
be pressurized. The pressure is needed
to push out the high-speed spray of
powder. Dry chemical extinguishers are
usually rated "B" and "C," but some are
rated "A," "B," and "C." Shoot your
powder at the base of the fire, using a
sweeping motion, from side to side.
Cover a Class A fire with powder. Start
spraying a Class B fire at the side
closest to you and work away until the
16-9
-------
NOTES
fire is out, then watch for possible
reignition (backflash). Don't get too
close; you might splash the liquid
around with the force of your high-
velocity spray.
Liquid CX^ Extinguishers discharge
gaseous carbon dioxide at low velocity.
Expanding gas gets cold, and you may
have some artificial snow in the
discharge, too. The flow of cold gas
past the nozzle or horn will generate
static electricity. It may also get
cold enough to freeze your hand; hold
the insulated handle and keep your hands
off the cold part.
The discharge has an effective
range of only two to four feet; you will
have to get close. Don't use it on a
BIG fire.
A Foam type of Extinguisher will
use a cartridge and will mix in air to
discharge an aqueous foam that will
cover the surface of solvent fires to
suppress vapors and keep away the air.
It is effective on Class B or A fires.
They use lots of foam at airports if a
plane catches fire. Foam works well on
fairly large fires.
More Precautions
These rules and methods should
sound simple and obvious as you read
this. When you are choking on smoke,
and being blistered by heat, and the
fire keeps reigniting as fast as you put
it out, it's hard to keep cool
(figuratively and literally). You
really need to practice with the
different kinds of fire extinguishers.
Take advantage of every opportunity to
get some practical experience before
you fight your first real, unplanned
fire.
Review all the previous
precautions, then note these too:
16-10
-------
NOTES
1. If you are fighting a fire
outdoors, keep the wind at your back;
let it carry the smoke away from you and
carry the fire-fighting substance to the
fire. Inside a building, there still
may be a draft. If moving air is
carrying the fire toward you, inside or
out, get out of there — FAST!
2. When you approach a fire, be
sure you can retreat rapidly, in a
straight line, if the need arises.
Don't climb obstacles in your intrepid
eagerness to get close to the fire; they
may slow your retreat. As they always
say, "Don't make an ash of yourself."
3. Never turn your back on a fire,
nor on the place where the fire just
was. It might reignite.
4. Remember, never use water on
combustible metals, flammable liquids,
or on electrical fires while the current
is on.
He who fights fire from far away
May fight fire again some other
day.
The best fire fighting strategy is
fire prevention, but if you must fight a
fire, do it safely.
16-11'
-------
STUDENT EXEH-I5E5
1. List and define the 4 classes of fires, and give 2 examples
of typical fuel for each type.
2. When you discover a fire, you should keep 4 precautions in
mind. List them.
16-12-
-------
3. When you call the fire department to report a fire, you will
be asked for the location of the fire. As a visitor to the site,
you may not know just where you are! What do you think you could
do, or should have done?
4. The wrong action is usually worse than no action in fighting
a fire. List three wrong actions that we mentioned, or that you
think we should have mentioned.
16-13'
-------
CHIT 17
HAZARDS GF E1AMMAHEE GR EXPLOSIVE ATM06FBTOE5 OR MATERIALS
Educational Objectives
o The student should be recognize
and list the observations which indicate
possible fire explosion or atmospheric
hazards.
o The student should be able to
determine the degree of hazard
represented by on-site investigations
o The student should know what,
when and how to use basic atmospheric
monitoring equipment.
o The student should be able to
recognize chemical names and groups that
have serious potential for fire or
explosion.
o The student should be able to
list the steps to follow to prevent or
limit the probability of fire or
explosion.
o The student should define the
emergency procedures to follow in the
event of fire or explosion.
17-1
-------
OUT 17
HAZARDS OF FMWMABEZ OR EXPENSIVE AOMOSEHERES OR MA3ERIALS
Introduction
Fire, Explosion, and Atmospheric
Hazards
Fire, explosion and atmospheric
hazards such as asphyxiation are risks
which are encountered in many EPA field
activities. To understand and react
appropriately to these risks it is
necessary to be able to; recognize the
risk and the degree of hazard it
represents? respond; control and if
possible prevent an emergency from
occurring.
Recognition
The single greatest danger faced by
any agency personnel is the unknown.
Before entering a confined space or
hazardous environment take the time to
carefully evaluate the dangers that
might possibly exist.
First attempt to find our what
substance you will be handling.
Shipping invoices, safety data sheets,
labels, manifests, company employees,
marking and place cards are all
extremely useful in determining the name
of the product. Once the name is known
refer to hazard reference sources such
as those discussed in the unit on
chemical recognition. These reference
sources offer an abundance of safety
information. Always check these sources
before handling materials. Names such
as benzene and benzidine sound very
similar but have distinctly different
hazards and degrees of hazards. Never
try to simply recall hazards. Check and
confirm.
Be sure that all personnel understand
the information that is given in the
hazard reference source. The Chemical
Hazard Recognition Unit on the Chemistry
of Hazardous Materials should be
17-2
-------
NOTES
reviewed to relate vapor pressure, flash
point, combustible material and
flammable material to the data obtained
on the hazardous material to be handled.
Degree of Hazard
Informational resources such as the
Coast Guard's Chemical Response
Information System (CHRIS) provide
valuable information on possible hazards
of chemicals. These systems however
cannot define the specific degree of
danger present at the individual site.
That evaluation must be done by agency
personnel, using impartial observations.
Substances may change their degree
of hazard according to the state they
are in. Kerosene and diesel fuel in
bulk quantities such as a drum are not
readily ignited by an ordinary ignition
source such as a spark, match or
cigarette. These same substances
volatialized, vaporized, sprayed or
spread over a large area such as might
be found in a spill can be come highly
flammable or explosive. As the surface
area of the substance is exposed to
greater quantities of oxygen, the
ability to ignite increases. Seemingly
harmless substances such as flour, coal,
or even the metals; aluminum and iron
become highly explosive when small
particles are heavily dispersed in air.
Sites such as coal handling facilities
and flour mills have a potential for
devastating explosions. Solvents such
as 1,1,1 trichloroethane which is
normally considered inflammable
becomes flammable when sprayed as a fine
mist.
The same effect as spraying can be
achieved by applying the material to a
cloth or rag. Although kerosene in a
drum will not readily ignite, clothing
covered with kerosene will easily
ignite. If a material is combustible,
there is a excellent chance that its
flammablity will increase as its
17-3
-------
NOTES
surface area exposed to oxygen increases.
Flashpoint is discussed in the unit
on chemical hazards of hazardous
materials. To review; the flashpoint of
a liquid is the temperature at which it
will give off enough vapor to allow a
flame to travel or propagate through the
vapor-air mixture.
The flashpoints of a material is
important as an immediate indication of
the potential hazard of a material for
producing a flammable concentration.
The lower the flashpoint or the higher
the immediate ambient temperature the
more hazardous the material.
Kerosene has a flashpoint of 100 F
while gasoline has a flashpoint of 45 F.
Normally we think of gasoline as being
much more hazardous than kerosene. In
ambient temperature of 100 F and above,
they both represent high fire or
explosion hazards.
Ignition temperature at which a
substance at its flashpoint will ignite,
is another factor to consider. While
these temperatures vary considerably
from switches, motors, cigarettes, and
matches all have sufficiently high
temperatures to ignite most common
materials at their flashpoint.
The following table represents the
more common flammable materials found a
field work.Another factor contribution
to the degree of hazard is concentration
of oxygen and the concentration of the
flammable material present in an
atmosphere.
TABLE 1
FLAMMABLE MATERIALS
Flammable Liquids
Aldehydes
Ketones
17-4
-------
Amines
Ethers
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Aromatic hydrocarbons
Alcohols
Nitroaliphatics
Flammable Solids
Phosphorus
Magnesium dust
Zirconium dust
Titanium dust
Aluminum dust
Zinc dust
Water-Reactive Flammable Solids
Potassium
Sodium
Lithium
Pyrophoric Liquids
Organometallic compounds
Dimethyl zinc
Tributyl aluminum
It is necessary to have a proper
fuel-to-air (oxygen) ratio (% fuel in
air) to allow combustion. There is a
range of fuel concentrations in air,
at which each material can be ignited
and sustain combustion. This is called
the Flammable or Explosive Range. The
lowest concentration of fuel in this
range is the Lower Flammable Limit(LFL)
or Lower Explosive Limit (LEL).
Concentrations less than the LET, are not
flammable because there is too little
fuel to support combustion. The highest
ratio that is flammable or explosive is
the Upper Flammable Limit (UFL) or Upper
Explosive Limit (UEL), concentrations
greater than the UEL are not flammable
or explosive because there is too much
fuel displacing the oxygen or simply
there is not enough oxygen to support
combustion. Fuel concentrations between
the TRT. and UEL are optimum for starting
and sustaining fire. The LEL for
benzene is 1.3% (13000ppm). The UEL is
7.1 (71000 ppm), thus if an atmosphere
contains a benzene concentration as
monitored by a explosion meter, between
1.3 and 7.1% fire or explosion is a
possibility. Concentrations below 1.3%
do not represent and immediate threat
17-5
-------
NOTES
due of fire or explosion. Concentrations
above 7.1% do not represent an immediate
fire or explosion hazard, but they could
possibly represent a danger of
asphyxiation due to the deficiency of
oxygen.
Atmospheric Monitoring Instruments
Several field instruments are used
to analyze ambient air. Due to the
limit of the scope of the Basic Field
Activities Course, only a few basic
monitoring instruments will be
discussed. A greater variety of instru-
ments will be covered in greater depth
in the intermediate and advanced safety
courses. At no time should EPA field
personnel attempt to use or rely on a
reading taken from an instrument unless
sufficient training and practice have
been completed.
Combustible
Explosimeters
Gas Indicators or
The combustible gas indicator
should be one of the first instruments
used when attempting to analyze the
danger of fire a explosion. It measures
the concentration of flammable vapor or
gas in the air, indicating the results
as percent of the Lower Explosive Limit
(LEL) of the calibration, gas or vapor.
To get accurate results it is not only
necessary to calibrate this instrument
before use, but also to correctly
interpret the results against the chart
of the calibration gas measured and the
gas present in the atmosphere.
Depending on the manufacturer and
model, the meter needle indicator of 1.0
or 100% reveals that the test atmosphere
contains a concentration of flammable
material- in the air at the LEL. This
environment could ignite or explode in
the presence of an ignition source. A
meter reading of 0.5 or 50% indicates
that the air contains approximately one
half of the LEL. Generally any
17-6
-------
NOTES
concentrations in excess of 0.25 or 25%
of the T.KT. are considered dangerous. In
addition, the needle can climb to 1.0
(100%) pass it and then fall to zero or
below. This does not indicate the
monitoring device is malfunctioning or
that the atmosphere contains no vapors.
It indicates that the concentration of
vapor a gas-in-air exceeds the Upper
Explosive Limit (UEL) of the calibration
gas. Such a situation calls for rapid
evaluation due to explosion danger or
the lack of oxygen. (See Figure 1.)
FIGURE 1
100
%LEL
100
%LEL
too
LEL
If the needle swings to 1.0 (100%)
and remains in that position, it means
the Explosive limit is between LEL and
UEL. This is the optimum condition for
explosion or fire and great care must be
exercised to evacuate the area.
Oxygen Meters
Explosimeters and oxygen meters
should be used in conjunction with each
other. Explosive meter
readings are based on the assumption
there is the normal 21% oxygen present.
Greater or lesser amounts can change the
LEL and UEL of many gases, making the
meaning of the reading on the explosive
meter questionable. If possible utilize
and explosemeter/02 meter combination
that integrates the two readings. Never
enter an atmosphere with 02 reading
below 19.5%. Table 2 illustrates the
results of oxygens deficiency.
17-7
-------
TABLE 2
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF OXYGEN DEFICIENCY
% Oxygen (by volume)
At Sea Level
Effects
21
16-12
14-10
<6
N&thing abnormal.
Increased breathing volume.
Accelerated heartbeat. Impaired
coordination.
Very faulty judgment. Very poor
muscular coordination. Muscular
exertion brings on rapid fatigue
that may cause permanent heart
damage. Intermittent respiration.
Spasmatic breathing. Convulsive
movements. Death in minutes.
Direct-Reading Colorimetric Indicator
Tables
Quick, relatively accurate
quantitative measurements of organic
vapor and gas can be ascertained by use
of devices using a color-change
principle. Glass tubes filled with
colormetric substances are used to
interpret ppm or % concentrations of a
variety of substance.
Colormetric indicators tubes
consist of a glass tube impregnated with
an indicating chemical. The tube is
connected to a piston cylinder or
bellows. A measured volume of
contaminated air is drained into the
tube, producing a color change whose
length is proportioned to the
contaminant's concentration. The tubes
used are specific to the contaminant to
be tested and have a printed shelf life.
Care must be exercised to keep tubes
current and use the correct tube.
Accuracy of the colormetric tubes may
vary from 35% to 1 to 5 times depending
on the concentration. See Appendix E
for the types of tubes available.
17-8
-------
NOTES
Qxidizers
Most combustion must be supported
by sufficient oxygen. Glowing or
smoldering may continue with oxygen
reaching concentrations as low as 8-10%.
In some chemical combinations however,
atmospheric oxygen may be completely
absent and combustion is still supported
by substance known as oxidizers. Such
chemical substances are able to supply
oxygen chemically or to supplement
oxygen with other substances to support
combustion. In many instances
combustion is spontaneous, rapid and
often explosive. Agency personnel
should be particularly careful when
handling substances that are identified
or known to be strong oxidizers. Fires
supported by oxidizers are often
extremely difficult to control or
extinguish. Of particular concern are
mixtures of oxidizers and organic
compounds. In these situations,
combustion is usually spontaneous or
requires no ignition source to ignite.
Table 3 is a list of common oxidizers.
TABLE 3
COMCN QXIDIZERS
Nitrates
Perchloiates
Permanganates
Peroxides
Dichromates
Nitric Acid
Chlorine
Persulfates
Hypochlorites
Thiosulfates
Sulfuric Acid
Perchloric Acid
Prevention and Hazard Reduction
Prevention, and reduction of fire
and explosion hazards can be accomplished by:
Control of ignition sources, and
Control of quantities & concentrations
17-9
-------
NOTES
Control of Ignition Sources
Where you cannot control fuel
sources, you need to control ignition
sources as much as possible. Since many
chemicals and petrochemicals are highly
flammable, ignition sources should be
excluded or carefully controlled during
sampling and when handling flammable
samples.
Sources of ignition include matches
and cigarette lighters, electrical
switches, electrical equipment, welding
sparks, engines, catalytic converters on
motor vehicles, and static electricity.
If you will be working in an
industrial plant, it is important to
find out if there are areas where there
may be flammable concentrations of gases
or vapors and where sources of ignition
are not permitted. (Many plants do not
allow employees or visitors to carry
matches or lighters into the plant.)
Instruments and Equipment for Hazardous
Locations
There are some particularly
important fire safety requirements for
any electrically-powered equipment which
is to be used in atmospheres which may
contain flammable concentrations of
dusts, vapors, or gases. In order to
prevent ignition and explosion, heating
elements, sparking motors or other
ignition sources must be protected from
contact by the flammable atmosphere.
All electrical equipment, sampling
apparatus, portable instruments, and
other possible sources of ignition must
be safe for use in such atmospheres.
The EPA and OSHA standard for a
hazardous atmosphere, based on extensive
industrial experience, is one that
contains a concentration of combustible
gas, vapor or dust greater than 25% of
the lower explosive limit of the
material. Do not take any ignition
source into any area where there is a
-------
NOTES
concentration of flammable vapors
greater than 25% of LEL.
Most EPA field equipment and
instrumentation that is battery - or
line-powered is not safe for use in
flammable atmospheres because the
electrical elements are not protected
from exposure to flammable vapors or
gases or combustible dusts. Only the
instruments used to test for flammable
concentrations of gases or vapors are
safe to use in certain flammable
atmospheres.
To determine whether there is a
need to take special steps to prevent
ignition of flammable vapors, gases, or
dusts in hazardous locations or
atmospheres, see if the plant being
visited has identified hazardous areas
and specified precautions. If not, an
assessment of the hazards must be made
and a decision reached as to whether
ignition sources need to be protected or
kept out. In some situations, a test of
the atmosphere is necessary to find out
if ignition sources must be excluded.
Hazardous locations for ordinary
electrical equipment are those in which
fire or explosion hazards may exist due
to concentrations of flammable gases,
vapors, or dusts. Hazardous locations
are classified by the type of material
present, and by the likelihood that a
combustible concentration is present.
Enclosure and Ventilation
Since most EPA electrically-powered
field sampling equipment is not safe to
use in hazardous atmospheres (whether it
is powered by batteries or by line
voltage), the equipment will have to be
enclosed and ventilated as explained
below. To provide enclosure and
ventilation for sampling equipment,
first identify all points where
electrical connection, switches, motors,
heaters, or other devices may provide
17-11'
-------
NOTES
sufficient energy to ignite flammable
mixtures of the material that may be
present. Next provide, around the
ignition sources, a relatively tight
enclosure which can be ventilated with
fresh air or purged with inert gas to
prevent any flammable mixture from
reaching the ignition sources.
Finally provide fresh air
ventilation or inert gas purge, and
interlock the equipment's source of
electrical supply with the ventilation
or purging flow so that if the flow is
interrupted the equipment will be de-
energized.
Equipment Approval
Electrical equipment which has been
manufactured to be safe for use in
hazardous locations will have attached a
label specifying the Class and Group of
atmospheres in which the equipment can
.safely be used. Electrical equipment
which has been tested and approved by
Underwriters Laboratories or Factory
Mutual Laboratories will be listed in
their publications of approved
equipment. Each listing is specific,
and equipment cannot safely be used in
atmospheres for which it is not rated.
Control of Static Electricity
since static electricity can provide
sufficient ignition energy to set fire
to flammable concentrations of gases or
vapors, it is important to recognize
activities that can generate static
electricity and to know what can be
done to prevent accumulation and
discharge of this energy.
Static electricity is generated by
contact and separation of materials,
such as particulates moving though a
stack, gas issuing from a nozzle at high
velocity, pouring or spraying of non-
conducting liquids or solids. Static
electricity is also generated when
materials flow through pipes, hoses, or
ducts, when a belt runs over a pulley,
17-12
-------
NOTES
and when a person walks across a floor.
Static electricity accumulates
higher voltages in atmospheres with low
humidity and during dry weather.
As examples of the hazards that can
be caused by development of static
electricity, pouring solvents can (under
some circumstances) generate enough
charge to ignite the vapors present,
and a person can accumulate a static
charge (by walking or by working near a
process that generates static
electricity) with sufficient energy to
ignite flammable vapors and gases. (A
person can easily build up a charge of
100,000 volts, which could release more
than 40 times the energy needed to
ignite hydrocarbon gases and vapors, and
more than 1000 times the energy to
ignite acetylene and hydrogen.
Practical measures to prevent
accumulation or discharge of static
electricity in field activities include:
-grounding all probes used for stack
sampling;
- providing a bonding connection
between metal containers when flammable
gases or liquids are transferred or
poured; and
- wearing footwear which has adequate
conductivity for the hazardous
conditions.
Conductivity is more critical in
atmospheres which can easily be ignited,
such as those with flammable
concentrations of acetylene, hydrogen,
ethyl ether, or hexane. If you are
going to be working in such atmospheres,
try to find out more about the hazards
and the precautions needed. For
example, rubber-soled footwear may allow
the wearer to build up to great a charge
of static electricity.
17-13'
-------
NOTES
Emergency Procedures and Responses
In any field activity where there
is a possibility of a fire, you should
be prepared to deal with the emergency
to protect yourself and other members of
your crew. You need to know what to do
in case of a clothing fire, and when and
how to get quickly out of or away from
an area where there may be a serious
fire hazard or where a fire may endanger
you. If the site you are visiting has
an emergency plan and procedures and an
alarm signal, find out before you begin
work what the alarm signal sounds like
and what emergency procedures to follow.
Everyone should know the emergency
procedure to follow in case of a
clothing fire. The procedure is
recommended by the National Fire
Protection Association:
1. Stop (do NOT run).
Stopping prevents a person
from fanning the flames and making
injuries much more serious.
2. Drop (to the floor or other
horizontal surface).
Dropping gets a person's face
and nose out of the path of smoke and
hot gases, and prevents the flames from
spreading rapidly upward. Dropping will
lessen (but not prevent) injury from a
clothing fire.
3. Roll (to smother the fire).
Rolling helps snuff out the
flames and cool the burning clothing.
Try to prevent anyone from running
while on fire, or from going to a fire
blanket or safety shower. If a fire
blanket is available, bring it to the
victim.
If there is an emergency shower
nearby, use it only after the clothing
17-14
-------
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HAZARDS OF FIELD SAMPLING
Educational Objectives
o The student should be able to
determine if equipment is packed safely.
o The student should be able to
handle heavy equipment safely.
o The student should know the
correct handling techniques for
compressed gas cylinders.
o The student should be able to
determine if electrical equipment is
safe from electrical shock.
o The student should be able to
determine if sampling equipment is
approved for certain industrial
environments.
o The. student should be able to
determine the proper electrical cord
size for particular needs.
o The student should be able to
determine safe practices for sampling.
o The student should know how to
pack and transport samples and sampling
reagents.
18-1
-------
HAZARDS OF FIELD SAMPLING
NOTES
Introduction
Field sampling represents one of
the largest responsibilities of EPA
field crews. As such, the probability of
facing a hazardous condition is large.
The diversity of environments, equipment
used, pjpersonnel awareness and training
all to a large extent, play a role in
the type and severity of the hazard.
It is not possible to prepare field
personnel for every eventuality. Crews
must depend on alertness, planning and
common sense for the unexpected.
This unit will help sharpen the
backgrounds of personnel to enable them
to have confidence in preparing and
preventing accidents while sampling.
Two major areas will be covered:
1. Phys ica1
Sampling Environment
Hazards of the
2. Hazards of Sampling
The specific topic of sampling
drums is covered in the unit on
Hazardous Waste Sites.
Physical Hazards of the Sampling
Environment
Sampling Equipment Instructions
Sampling equipment is manufactured
in an endless variety of sizes and
shapes. In some cases, equipment has
been modified or even built by Agency
personnel. The Coliwasa has for many
years been the mainstay for sampling
liquids. Yet until a few years ago,
there were no commercial manufacturers
of the Coliwasa and units had to be
built in-house.
Manufactured equipment usually
comes with precise instructions as to
procedures for safe set up and
operation. It should become common
18-2
-------
NOTES
practice to thoroughly read these
instructions before attempting to use
the equipment. Instructions should be
placed in clear plastic covers to
protect them from inclement weather,
chemicals, dirt and wear. If possible,
the sheets should be taped to the
inside covers of the carrying cases or
if in multiple sheets or booklet,
attached to the equipment by a light
chain or durable string.
In the event of modifications to
manufactured equipment, special use for
which the equipment was not originally
designed or in-house designed equipment,
Standard Operating Procedures (SOP)
should be developed before the equipment
is authorized for field use. Copies of
the SOP should be protected and attached
to the equipment or carrying case. SOP
should also be sent to all personnel
that may have use for the equipment.
The SOP should make special note o-f
limitations or hazards that might exist.
In some obvious cases, special note
should be made on the outside of the
carrying case to alert the individual of
important hazards. Examples of these
hazards are:
1. The carrying case
hazardous chemicals.
contains
2. There exists breakable parts or
containers inside.
3. There is the danger of shock or
explosion if used improperly or in
certain hazardous conditions or
atmospheres.
4. Improper use or mixing may
generate a dangerous condition.
Carrying Equipment
Injuries to the back and abdominal
muscles from lifting heavy loads is one
of the most common injuries reported.
Such injuries can range from relatively
18-3
-------
NOTES
mild strains to major permanently
disabling injuries. Lifting heavy
equipment should be approached with
though as to:
1. Overall weight
2. Distribution of weight
3. Unwieldiness or awkwardness
4. Distance to be carried
5. Obstacles to be negotiated such
as slippery banks, rocking boats and
ladders.
6. Conditions such as wind, snow,
ice and slippery surfaces.
7. Visibility
Whenever possible, assign two
individuals to carry equipment. Simply
the weight alone should not be the only
consideration. A large sheet of plywood
may not be particularly heavy but is
awkward, blocks the view of the person
carrying it, and can be extremely
hazardous in high, gusty winds. Two
individuals carrying two sheets together
is a much safer practice than two
individuals each carrying one sheet
apiece. The incidence of individuals
being blown from roofs and ladders while
carrying large sheets is all too
frequent.
Before lifting a case, check to see
if equipment stored inside is secure. A
sudden shift in weight while the case is
being carried may throw the individual
off balance and result in a dangerous
fall.
Experimentally lift a corner of the
equipment to be carried to determine
its approximate weight. Check to see if
carrying handles are fastened securely
to the container and are in good
condition. Check to see that tops,
18-4
-------
NOTES
drawers, etc., are securely fastened
closed. Never lift equipment by
makeshift strings or ropes. If
equipment seems heavy, request help
before lifting. Strains and hernias are
usually caused during the initial strain
of lifting. If passing a heavy piece of
equipment to another individual, warm
them of the approximate weight before
handing them the equipment. Strains and
hernias are often caused by improper
position or stance, rather than by
sheer weight.
Heavy equipment should be lifted by
using the power of the leg muscles,
rather than the back, stomach, or arm
muscles. Approach the container so as
to have it evenly balanced. Never bend
over when lifting. The back should be
kept straight and the arms nearly
vertical with the body. The knees
should be bent to grasp the load.
Lifting should be by straightening the
legs, with the back remaining in a
nearly vertical position. Setting down
the load is the reverse of lifting.
Never climb ladders while carrying
a heavy load. Ladders require the use
of both hands. Loads not only tie up the
hands, but unbalance the body. Loads
should be lifted by winch or pulley.
Never attempt to lift a heavy load
from a small boat with only one person.
The unstability of the boat along with
the shifting weight, may result in the
boat tipping over or a severe strain of
the bodies of the lifters.
Likewise, never attempt to lift a
heavy weight over a dock down into a
boat. Not only is the strain severe,
but the uneven weight may cause the
individual to fall headlong into the
boat or water. Heavy equipment should
be set on the side of the dock within
reach of personnel in the boat. Two
individuals in the boat should grasp the
equipment while steadying the boat. Be
18-5
-------
NOTES
sure the boat is securely tied at both
ends to prevent the boat from pushing
away from the dock while equipment is
being lifted.
Compressed Gas Cylinders
Compressed gas cylinders are
frequently used for analytical equipment
or for recharging SCBA air tanks. These
tanks represent a multitude of hazards.
The empty tanks themselves are extremely
heavy and due to their elongated shape,
easily tipped over. Tanks should be
carried on special dollys designed to
hold cylinders. These dollys have a
saddle to hold the tanks and an
adjustable strap to prevent the tank
from tipping forward when the dolly is
lifted upright.
Never move or transport a tank
without the protective threaded cap or
top being in place. When full, the
tanks are under extreme pressure,
striking the valve at the top of the
tank may shear off the valve assembly,
venting the pressurized gas. In
addition to the potential of fire or
explosion, the velocity of the
existing gas may propel the cylinder at
extremely hazardous speeds.
When transporting the tank or when
setting the tank up for use, securely
chain or fasten the tank in an upright
position to prevent shifting or falling
over. In some cases such as acetylene,
it is dangerous to lay the tank on its
side. Such a practice may cause a
separation of the acetone, acetylene
mixture.
Always check tanks for pitting and
rusting. Any sign of deterioration
should be reported immediately and the
tank removed from service. Never assume
that the color of the tank indicates the
contents. Color schemes are strictly
the preogative of the company that
moves the cylinders.
18-6
-------
NOTES
Never add adaptors or other gear to
a regulator to make equipment fit. Often
special threads and sizes are put on
regulators to forewarn or prevent
certain types of equipment from being
used or attached to the tanks. These
precautions shoulds be carefully heeded
by field personnel.
Threads on tanks are often reversed
from the normal directions used in
common equipment. Never atempt to
force threads or nuts. If a thread
won't give, stop and analyze the
direction you are attempting to turn the
nut. In most cases, the threads will
turn off in the opposite direction.
Never store tanks in direct
sunlight or near excessive heat. Non-
flammable gas such as carbon dioxide may
rupture with a force equal to or greater
than that of flammable gases.
The Sampling Environment
Before setting up and using
sampling equipment, attempt to determine
the type of environment you will be
testing. In many cases, this is best
done by contacting a plant
representative such as a safety officer.
Explain fully the nature of the test and
exactly the type of sampling equipment
to be used. Make sure the type of
equipment is approved for the
environment that you will be in. In
most cases, electrical sampling
equipment is approved for certain types
of environments.
Certification
National groups such as
Underwriters Laboratories (UL), Factory
Mutual (FM), and the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI), together
with NFPA, developed test protocols for
certifying explosion-proof,
intrinsically safe, or purged devices to
meet minimum standards of acceptance.
18-7
-------
An electrical device certified
under one of these test methods carries
a permanently affixed plate showing the
logo of the laboratory granting
certification and the Class(es),
Division(s), and Group(s) it was tested
against.
Certification means that if a
device is certified as explosion-proof,
intrinsically safe, or purged for a
given Class, Division, and Group, and is
used, maintained, and serviced according
to the manufacturer's instructions, it
will not contribute to ignition. The
device is not, however, certified for
use in atmospheres other than those
indicated.
Three methods exist to prevent a
potential ignition source from igniting
a flammable atmosphere:
o Explosion-proof: Encase the
ignition source in a rigidly built
container. "Explosion-proof"
instruments allow the flammable
atmosphere to enter. If and when an arc
is generated, the ensuing explosion is
contained within the specially designed
and built enclosure. Within it, any
flames or hot gases are cooled prior to
exiting into the ambient flammable
atmosphere so that the explosion does
not spread into the environment.
o Intrinsically Safe: Reduce the
potential for arcing among components by
encasing them in a solid insulating
material. Also, reducing the
instrument's operational current and
voltage below the energy level necessary
for ignition of the flammable atmosphere
provides equal protection. An
"intrinsically safe" device, as defined
by the National Electrical Code, is
incapable "of releasing sufficent
electrical or thermal energy under
normal or abnormal conditions to cause
ignition of a specific hazardous
atmospheric mixture in its most easily
ignited concentration. Abnormal
conditions shall include accidental
damage to any.. .wiring, failure of
18-8
-------
electrical components, application of
over-vo 11age, adjustment and
maintenance operations and other similar
conditions."
o Purged: Buffer the arcing or
flame-producing device from the
flammable atmosphere with an inert gas.
In a pressurized or "purged" system, a
steady stream of, for example, nitrogen
or helium is passed by the potential
arcing device, keeping the flammable
atmosphere from the ignition source.
This type of control, however, does not
satisfactorily control analytical
devices that use a flame or heat for
analysis such as a combustible gas
indicator (CGI) or gas chromatograph
(GO .
There are six possible environments
in which a hazardous atmosphere can be
generated. However, not every type of
control will prevent an ignition in
every environment. To adequately
describe the characteristics of those
environments and what controls can be
used, the National Electrical Code
defines each characteristic:
o Class is a category describing
the type of flammable material that
produces the hazardous atmosphere:
* Class I is flammable vapors
and gases, such as gasoline, and
hydrogen. Class I is further divided
into groups A, B, C, and D on the basis
of similar flammability characteristics
(see Table 1).
* Class II consists of
combustible dusts like coal or grain and
is divided into groups E, F, and G.
* Class III is ignitable
fibers such as produced by cotton
milling.
o Division is the term describing
the "location" of generation and release
of the flammable material.
* Division 1 is a location
where the generation and release are
18-9
-------
NOTES
continuous, intermittent, or periodic
into an open, unconfined area under
normal conditions.
* Division 2 is a location
where the generation and release are in
closed systems or containers and only
from ruptures, leaks, or other failures.
Using this system, a hazardous
atmosphere can be routinely and
adequately defined. As an example, a
spray-painting operation using acetone
carrier would be classified as a Class
I, Division 1, Group D environment.
Additionally, an abandoned waste site
containing intact closed drums of methyl
ethyl ketone, toluene, and xylene would
be considered a Class I, Division 2,
Group D environment. Once the
containers begin to leak and produce a
hazardous atmosphere, the environment
changes to Class I, Division 1, Group D.
18-10
-------
TABLE 1
Chemicals By Gr
Group A Atmospheres
Acetylene
Group B Atmospheres
Acrolein (inhibited)
Arsine
Butadiene
Ethylene oxide
Hydrogen
Manufacturer gases containing
more than 30% hydrogen
(by volume)
Propylene oxide
Propylnitrate
Group C Atmospheres
Acetaldehyde
Allyl alcohol
n-Butyraldehyde
Carbon monoxide
Crotonaldehyde
Cyclopropane
Diethyl ether
Diethylamine
Epichlorohydrin
Ethylene
Ethyleneimine
Ethyl mercaptan
Ethyl sulfide
Hydrogen cyanide
Hydrogen sulfide
Morpholine
2-Nitropropane
Tetrahydrofuran
Unsymmetrical dimethyl hydrazine
(UDMH, 1-, 1-dimethyl hydrazine)
Group 0 Atmospheres
Acetic Acid (glacial)
Acetone
Acrylonitrile
Ammonia
Benzene
Butane
1-Butanol (butyl alcohol)
2-Butanol (secondary
butyl alcohol)
n-Butyl acetate
Isobutyl acetate
di-Isobutylene
Ethane
Ethanol (ethyl alcohol)
Ethyl acetate
Ethylacrylate
(inhibited)
Ethyl diamine
Ethylene dichloride
Ethylene glycol
monomethyl ether
Gasoline
Heptanes
Hexanes
Isoprene
Isopropyl ether
Mesityl oxide
Methane (natural gas)
Methanol (methyl alcohol)
3-Methyl-l-butanol
(isoamyl alcohol)
Methyl ethyl ketone
Methyl isobutyl ketone
2-Methyl-l-propanol
(isobutyl alcohol)
2-Methyl-2-propanol
(tertiary butyl alcohol)
Octanes
Petroleum naphtha^
Pentanes
1-Pentanol (amyl alcohol)
Propane
l-Propanol(propyl
alcohol)
2-Propanol (isopropyl
alcohol)
Propylene
Pyridine
18-n
-------
TABLE 1 Cont'd.
Group 0 Atmospheres
Styrene
Toluene
Vinyl acetate
Vinyl chloride
Xylenes
Source:National Electrical Code, Vol. 70, Table 500-2.
National Fire Protection Association, 470 Atlantic Avenue,
Boston, MA 02210 (1981).
1A saturated hydrocarbon mixture boiling in the range 20° - 135°C
(68° - 275°F). Also known by the synonyms enzine, ligroin,
petroleum ether, or naphtha.
Electrical Hazards
Sampling often requires Agency
personnel to reach remote or
inaccessible places. In many cases
such areas may contain electrical wires
or transformers. Great caution should
be exercised in these areas. Where
practical, power should be cut to remove
the danger. Where this is not possible,
highly conductive equipment such as
aluminum ladders, metal probes, and
other metal sampling gear should be
avoided if possible. Electrical
insulating protective gear such as hard
hats and gloves should be worn.
Of particular danger are overhead
wires. Before raising or carrying
ladders, check to see that equipment
will clear. If there is danger Of
contact, do not attempt to enter tha
area.
A great deal of sampling equipment
requires a source of electrical power to
operate it. It some cases, an
electrical power outlet may be some
distance away. If possible, arrange for
the company to provide power. Long
extension cords may be a source of
potential overheating and fire if a
proper cord size is not selected.
18-12'
-------
NOTES
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Extension Cords
If an extension cord is needed to
bring power to field sampling equipment
or lights, there are important
guidelines for selecting a cord that
will be safe and serviceable.
Extension cords should have three wires,
two for power and one to provide a
separate grounding circuit for safety.
The wires need to be large enough in
diameter to carry the needed power over
the length of the cord without either
significant voltage drop or overheating.
A long extension cord should have
large enough diameter wires so that
resistance in the cord will not lower
the voltage more than 3 percent over the
length of the extension cord. If the
voltage supplied by the cord is too low,
your analytical results may not be
accurate and your equipment may not
operate safety. Motors can burn out if
the supplied voltage drops too low.
The other important requirement for
wires is that they be of adequate size
to carry the current drawn by your
equipment, so that the cord does not
overheat, damage the insulation, and
possibly start a fire. (The current
required by your equipment could
overload the current-carrying capacity
of an extension cord having wires of
inadequate diameter without tripping the
circuit breaker to which your cord is
connected. In such a case the circuit
breaker will not protect the extension
cord from damage.)
Localized overheating can also
occur if there is too small an area of
contact between any plug blade and its
socket connection. The effectiveness of
surface contact areas can be estimated
by use of a device with tests the
tension provided by the contact blades
within an outlet.
18-13
-------
NOTES
The procedure for selecting an
extension cord will depend on whether
you will use a cord that is available,
or whether you are going to have an
extension cord made up for a particular
sampling activity.
In both cases you will need to know
how much power is required by the
equipment you will be using, what the
voltage will be at the power source, and
how far your equipment will be from a
power outlet.
The basic steps for assessing or
specifying an extension cord are as
follows:
1. First find the total number of
watts required for all of the equipment
and lights that you plan to connect to
the extension cord.
2. Find the lowest line,voltage
that can be expected at the outlet to
which the cord will be connected during
the time personnel will be working.
Personnel can inquire, test the voltage,
or make a rough estimate.
If there is no data and the actual
voltage cannot be measured on a line
with a nominal voltage of 110 or 115,
use the value of 100 volts for the
calculation of the amperage the wires
must carry.
3. Next, find out how many amperes
the cord will have to carry by dividing
the total number of watts of the
equipment to be used by the line voltage
expected at the outlet. Watts divided
by volts equals the number of amperes of
current to be carried by the cord.
4. Find out how long an extension
cord will be needed to reach from an
available outlet to the location of the
equipment. Be sure to allow enough
length so that the cord can go over or
around obstructions or passageways.
-------
NOTES
Precautions for Use of Electrical
Equipment
If personnel will be using any
electrically-powered equipment, there
are two precautions you should follow.
The first is to see that there is no
damage to the electrical insulation of
the equipment or its cord, and the
second is to be sure that you cannot
touch uninsulated electrical conductors
or metal parts which may be "hot" or
energized.
There are four important
requirements for electrical cords. The
first is that electrical cords should
have no breaks in the insulation.
Cords should be inspected
periodically, with the cord disconnected
from the power source.
Electrical cords should have plugs
which keep the terminals insulated and
which assure safe connection of wires to
the terminals.
The fourth important requirement
for electrical cords is continuity of
the grounding wire.
If equipment with a grounding wire
and a workable three-prong plug is
connected to a two-wire extension cord,
the grounding wire cannot perform its
safety function.
Portable Electrical Equipment
With portable electrical equipment
there are three practical steps that can
be taken to prevent touching "hot" or
energized metal parts. Any one of these
steps will provide protection against
electrical shock from the equipment:
1. Be sure that all exposed metal
parts of electrical equipment are
connected to an effective grounding
circuit, or
18-15-
-------
NOTES
2. Provide a Ground Fault Circuit
Interrupter in the line, or
3. Use power tools which are
"Double Insulated" to prevent any
exposed metal surface from providing
contact with a "hot" wire.
Grounding Exposed Metal Parts of
Electrical Equipment
If personnel connect electrical
equipment to an effective grounding
circuit, they must be sure they they are
grounding all exposed metal parts.
Ungrounded electrical equipment
with only a two-wire electrical cord
will usually continue to operate even
if the hot wire comes into contact with
the metal shell or exposed metal parts.
If such equipment is held by a person
who is also in contact with the earth or
some grounded metal object, the
individual could be shocked seriously
and perhaps fatally.
If a hot wire in a piece of
electrical equipment touches metal
parts that are grounded (by connection
to the green grounding wire), there will
be a direct short circuit which will
trip the circuit breaker and de-energize
the electrical equipment. Electrical
equipment will not continue to operate
if there is a short circuit from the hot
wire to metal parts that are grounded.
To assure that exposed metal parts
of electrically-powered equipment cannot
become electrically "hot" as a result of
damage to the insulation of the hot
wire, it is necessary to have a separate
connection between exposed metal parts
and the ground. This is usually
accomplished by using equipment which
has a third wire connecting the metal
shell through the cord to a grounding
connection in the electrical outlet. As
an extra precaution you can check
electrical equipment for leakage
18-16-
-------
NOTES
currents between the metal parts and a
grounded conductor.
In addition to having all of the
equipment provided with a connection to
the grounding wire, personnel must have
a three-wire cord with a three-prong
plug. It is also necessary that the
grounding connection in the electrical
outlet be attached to a ground. Outlets
should be tested before use to see
whether they do have an effective
connection to ground or whether an
alternative grounding method must be
used.
Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters
If it is not possible to provide
effective grounding for portable
electrical equipment,, Ground Fault
Circuit Interrupters can prevent injury
if someone makes contact with a hot wire
and the ground. When the device detects
unbalanced current in a circuit, it will
interrupt the current flow within a few
milliseconds and prevent further flow of
an injurious amount of current.
Portable ground fault circuiit
interrupters (GFCI) are available for
field use. They are recommended
particularly in wet locations where the
hazard of current flow to the ground is
great. (Ground fault circuit
interrupters do have the drawback that
they will interfere with operation of
any apparatus which uses a capacitor
across the line as a noise filter.)
Double Insulated Electrical Tools
Electrically-powered tools are
available with "Double Insulation"
designed to prevent any exposed metal
part from becoming energized and causing
a shock to the user.
E 1 ectrica 11 y - powered tools
identified by the manufacturer as being
"Double Insulated" are considered
18-17
-------
NOTES
reasonably safe to use in locations
where the user may contact either the
ground or grounded equipment. Such
tools should be in good condition with
undamaged parts. As an additional
precaution, such equipment should be
checked to see that use or repairs have
not damaged insulation and allowed
exposed metal parts to come into contact
with hot wires.
If personnel ever have to work on
or enter electrically-powered equipment,
be sure the power is shut off and the
shutoff switch is locked so that no one
can inadvertently turn the power on.
Sampling
Never open containers, tanks,
mixers, etc., without first seeking the
advice or approval of plant personnel.
In many cases such containers may be
under pressure or have extreme
temperatures.
Drums should be moved only after
careful observation of their condition.
A normal filled drum weighs close to 500
pounds. Steel-toed shoes should be worn
and equipment such as dollys, or fork
lifts used to lift or tote barrels. A
barrel tipped on its edge is highly
unstable and difficult to control. A
shift in its contents may cause the
barrel to go out of control causing
personal injury and increasing the risk
of leaks, fire or explosion. Never
stand or walk on containers to reach
remote containers. If containers that
must be sampled are not accessible, have
company employees clear a path or move
barrels.
Sample Size
Generally laboratories require very.
small quantities of samples. Take only
the amount of sample needed to complete
analysis. Containers of samples
represent hazards. The larger the
18-18-
-------
NOTES
sample size, the greater the hazard.
Sample containers must be checked
for compatibility with the material
sampled. Flammable liquids, corrosives
and other highly hazardous materials
should not be placed in glass containers
unless the containers have special
coatings to prevent shattering.
Bakelite or PVC tops should be used in
place of metal tops. Before the samples
are removed from the sampling site, a
check should be made to insure the tops
are correctly and securely fastened.
Decontaminate the outside of the sample
container thoroughly before packing for
transit. Never carry sample containers
in Agency vehicles without securing them
from rolling or bumping. A case
designed for this purpose or a stout
container filled with an inert packing
absorbent such as vermiculite will
prevent breakage, bumping or rolling
about while in transit. If the material
is to be shipped, special precautions
must be exercised. (See unit on Sample
Labeling and Shipping.)
Sampling procedures often require
chemical reagents. Reagent bottles
should be packed in absorbent,
cushioning material to prevent bumping
and leakage. Labels for reagents should
be of indelible material and care taken
to separate incompatible chemicals. In
many cases, the reagent chemicals
themselves represent a more serious
threat of harm than the materials
sampled. SOP's outling test procedures,
as well as sampling hazards and chemical
incompatibilities should be included
with testing chemicals. In cases where
reagents must be measured out, equipment
contamination such as pipettes must be
solved by disposables or decontaminating
solutions.
Reagents such as concentrated acids
and bases are hygroscopic (attract
water). Small drops on the outside of
bottles will quickly dilute, running
18-19-
-------
NOTES
become diluted, running down the sides
of bottles and pooling at the bottom.
Such pools can lead to unknowing skin
contamination or eye burns.
18-20
-------
Exercise I
Locate as many safety hazards as visible in the following
diagram:
-------
Exercise II
A piece of electrical sampling equipment draws 120 volts and
uses 280 watts. The electrical source is 90' away. What size
wire is needed?
Exercise III
Sampling is to be done in a closed environment that normally
contains acetone. What type of approval must the equipment have
to be safe in this type of environment?
Is the following Instrument approved for this environment?
AA5A
Combustible Gas and 0, Alarm
mmM 260 part no. 449900
calibritri for
Penbane
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M*O. BY
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18-22
-------
UNIT 19 NATURAL HAZARDS
Educational Objectives
o The student should be able to
recognize poison ivy and poison oak.
o The student should be able to
define the treatment for poison ivy and
poison oak.
o The student should be able to
recognize the common poisonous insects.
o The student should be able to
recognize the various poisonous snakes.
o The student should be able to
recognize the characteristics of rabid
animals.
19-1
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NATURAL HAZARDS
NOTES
EPA responsibilities require Agency
personnel to enter remote, seldom
visited, locations. Such places are the
natural habitat of a variety of plants
and animals, some of which pose a threat
to personnel. It is the objective of
this unit to familiarize personnel with
these threats so that steps may be taken
to avoid, as much as possible, contact
with these hazards. In some cases a
limited remedial action will be
discussed.
Plants
There are very few types of plants
that pose a threat to field personnel.
Unfortunately, the ones that do are very
common.
Poison Ivy and Poison Oak
Poison ivy is a vine that can be
recognized by its three shiny green
leaves and at certain times of the year,
by clusters of white berries. It can be
found growing up the sides of trees or
building or as a dense ground cover 18"
- 24' high. During the winter time the
plant loses its leaves but the vines, if
broken, may still pose a hazard. For
highly sensitive people, smoke from the
burning plants may be sufficient to
trigger a reaction,
Medical tests indicate all
individuals are allergic to poison ivy
to some degree. If personnel have
knowledge or suspicion of contact with
poison ivy or poison oak, they should
wash with strong soap within two to
three hours of contact. The infecting
agent in poison ivy is suspended in an
oil base found on the leaves. Scrubbing
with strong soap will eliminate or
reduce the severity or spread.
If the blisters and itching,
characteristic of poison ivy appear,
medical attention should be sought.
Secondary infection may be more serious
I
19-2
-------
NOTES
than the poison ivy itself.
Animals
Ticks
The natural habitat of the wood
tick is bushes 18-36" in height. This
parasitic insect usually burrows into
the skin of its victim and sucks blood.
Ticks are carriers of a number of
diseases including the sometimes fatal
disease of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever.
Personnel leaving a tick infested area
should institute a search of themselves
as well as other crew members. Ticks
found burrowing under the skin should be
removed by rubbing the area with rubbing
alcohol. (Using a lighted cigarette or
a hot needle is highly discouraged.) If
the insect fails to be removed, or if
the head of the insect breaks off,
medical help should be sought. If fever
or infection should set in, medical help
should be obtained.
Snakes
Nearly every section of the country
has a variety of poisonous snakes.
Water Moccasons, rattle snakes,
copperheads, and coral snakes all have
potent venom that can be fatal. Most
snake bites occur on the ankle or hand.
When when enter an area known to have
poisonous snakes, knee high boots,
leather gloves, and snake bite kits
should be considered an absolute
necessity.
Most snakes are timid animals that.
strike only in defense. When suprising
a snake, slowly back off and give the
animal a chance to escape. Never
attempt to kill, capture or molest a
cornered snake. Never assume the snake
is harmless.
If the snake does strike, have the
victim rest quietly. Ice packed in the
area will reduce circulation, slowing
19-3
-------
the spreading of the venom. If a
pressure point can be located, cut or
slow the circulation to the affected
area. Get the victim to help as quickly
as possible. If a snake kit is
available it should be used with care.
The practice of cutting the wound with a
knife and sucking the venom out is no
longer recommended.
Spiders
There are only three types of
dangerously poisonous spiders in the
United States: the brown recluse, the
black widow and the tarantula. The
tarantula is generally found in the
desert southwest. It is a large (2-4"),
slowing moving spider characterized by
its size and hairy body. The tarantula
seldom bites unless provoked. Its bite
is painful but seldom serious. Bites
should be treated by medical personnel
as quickly as possible.
The brown recluse is a small (1")
brown spider found generally west of the
Mississippi. It is secretive and
prefers dark secluded areas. Although
generally not fatal, its bite is quite
serious, requires a long painful
treatment, and often results in
permanent scars.
The black widow is a fairly common
spider of the mid-eastern and
southeastern United States. It is
easily identified by its 1-1/2" shiny
black body, with a characteristic red
hour-glass spot on the underside of the
abdomen. It is a secretive creature
that is often found in dark secluded
places and under wood piles and barrels.
The black widow bite is generally not
fatal to adults, but the wound is
painful, and medical attention should be
sought immediately.
Bees-Wasps
Bees and wasps can be found nesting
in a variety of habitats from rafters,
NOTES
19-4
-------
NOTES
bushes, insides of barrels ,andunder
ground. Agency personnel with known
reactions to bee/wasp stings should let
it be known that they are affected by
stings, they should carry an emergency
bee sting kit. In the absence of
immediate help, the victim should be
kept quiet, the stinger removed if
possible, and the area of the sting
packed with ice. For individuals that
are highly allergic, bee stings may be
fatal. Help should be summoned
immediately. If unconsciousness occurs,
nearby individuals should stand ready to
administer CPR (see unit on First Aid).
Scorpions
In both the southeast and the
southwest, scorpions represent a threat
to field personnel. Scropions usually
are found under rocks, barrels, trash,
etc. Care should be exercised before
reaching under these areas. While few
scorpion stings are fatal to adult
humans, the sting can result in a
painful disabling injury. Poison
similar to that found in ants and bees
is injected under the skin. For
individuals allergic to insect stings, a
scorpion sting may be fatal if not
treated immediately. Individuals that
suffer from allergic reactions to in-
sects should warn other team members of
this problem and carry an anti-sting
kit. If an allergic individual is
stung, medical help should be sought
immediately. If unconsciousness occurs
before help arrives, CPR may be
necessary (see unit on First Aid).
Fire Ants
Fire ants have become a serious
problem in the southeastern part of the
United States. Fire ants are identified
by their characteristic 6-12" mound of
dirt. The ants are small, ^reddish-brown
insects that are very aggressive when
disturbed. Their painful sting usually
leaves a red welt or blister. Many
individuals are highly allergic to the
19-5
-------
NOTES
stinging substance (Formic Acid).
Those individuals known to be allergic
should be rushed to a medical center for
treatment. If unconsciousness occurs
before help arrives, CPR may be required
(see unit on First Aid).
Rabid Animals
Prior to the early 1980's, rabies
was seldom encountered. Rabies vaccines
for pets have virtually eliminated the
threat in domesticated animals.
Recently however, there has been an
alarming upsurge in the number of
reported cases of rabies in wild
animals. Rabies can infect any warm
blooded animal, from racoons to bats.
Agency personnel should be alert for
wild animals that show a lack of fear or
a certain aggressiveness. Other
characteristics are drooping head, a
peculiar trotting gait, or any other
unusual behavior.
If a victim is bitten and the skin
is broken, you should seek medical
attention immediately. Without medical
attention, the mortality rate for rabies
is nearly 100%.
19-6
-------
-------
-------
PROTECTIVE CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT
Educational Objectives
o The student should know how to
select protective clothing for chemical
resistance.
o The student should know how to
select protective clothing based on the
need for strength.
o The student should know how to
select protective clothing based on
thermal units.
o The student should know how to
select equipment based on the need for
decontamination.
o The student should know the role
of economy in selecting equipment.
o The student should be able to
list the performance standards for hard
hats .
• o The student should be able to
define the safety standards for eye and
face protection.
o The student should be able to
determine appropriate standards for
proper foot protection.
o The student should be able to
list the types of ear protection.
o The student should be able to
determine correct hand protection.
20-1
-------
PROTECTIVE CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT
NOTES ^i
Protective clothing is a collective
term that includes all outerwear worn
for the purpose of protecting the head,
eyes, ears, torso, and feet. In the
normal demands of field work, Agency
employees will face a wide variety of
hostile environments and situations.
The opportunity for injury ranging from
minor cuts and abrasions to major
chemical burns, are numerous. It should
be evident that taking steps to evaluate
these hazards and provide for protection
against them is in the very best
interest of EPA and the employee.
Department of Labor statistics indicate
that over 60% of the work related
injuries occur during routine job
assignments. In many of these injuries,
lack of enforcement by supervisors and
lack of concern by the individual
resulted in accidents that either could
have been avoided or minimized by the
wearing of correct protective clothrng *i
or equipment. ^
Selection g_f Protective Clothing
Agency employees faced with the
necessity to select proper protective
equipment can be quickly overwhelmed
with the vast variety of equipment
available. Unlike some areas of the
work environment, protective equipment
has few regulations or standard's by
which accurate judgement can be made.
It is up to the individual to exercise
caution, good sense, and proper
judgement in making final determinations
of worker protection.
Rationale for Selection
Personnel protection must never be
left to guesswork. It is imperative
that the hazards to be faced are
evaluated in every way possible. A wide
variety of safety data sheets, CHRIS
Manuals and the like are available to
assist personnel in selecting equipment. m
However, they all depend on knowing what ^
hazards the wearer is to face. It is
20-2
-------
equipment. However, they all depend on
knowing what hazards the wearer is to
face. It is the unknown or the
unexpected that can pose the greatest
threat.
In all casesr review histories,
talk to experienced personnel, check
shipping papers, and test the testing or
monitoring equipment to help select
proper equipment. When facing an
unknown, always prepare for the worst
possible situation.
Before leaving for a field site,
check the available inventories to be
sure the correct type of equipment can
be procured. A last minute substitution
of proper equipment can leave personnel
unprotected for the hazards at hand, If
the proper equipment is not in Agency
stock, attempt to borrow the equipment
from another Region or office. If the
proper equipment cannot be obtained,
cancel the field activity until the
proper gear can be found.
Have all crew members fit tested
before leaving for the activity.
Equipment or clothing that is too large
or too small will not only make work
difficult or uncomfortable, but may
neutralize the protection of the
equipment or be dangerous.
Criteria for Selection
Before a rational decision can be
made as to the type of protective
clothing needed, certain criteria must
be considered.
L* Chemical Resistance - Before
any other criteria can be considered, an
analysis must be made of the type of
material that will resist the chemical
effects of the substance to be handled.
Consideration must be given to the
ability of the material to protact the'
wearer during splashes or contact
without Losing structural integrity.
20-3
-------
NOTES
Consider the expected extent of exposure
to the chemical. Sampling usually will
result in small splashes or spills,
whereas cleanup may
result in a longer and larger exposure.
Many types of materials can withstand
chemical contact for short periods, but
fail over longer periods of time (see
Table 18-1).
TKHE£ 18-1
EExectiveness ox yrotecnve VBCE
Generic Class
Alcohols
Aldehydes
Amines
Esters
Ethers
Fuels
Halogenated
li. >!..,, i , >.!_ .••.
nyorocaxDons
Hydrocarbons
Inorganic
acids
Inorganic bases
and salts
Ketones
Natural fats
and oils
Organic acids
(1) E - Excellent
G - Good
Butyl
rubber
E
E-G
E-F
G-F
G-F
F-P
G-P
F-P
G-F
E
E
G-F
E
F -
P -
Poiyvinyl
chloride
E
G-F
G-F
P
G
G-P
G-P
F
E
E
P
G
E
Fair
Poor
Tim iff afft*T>ffT
Ic Class) (1)
Neoprene
E
E-G
E-G
G
E-G
E-<3
G-F
G-F
E-G
E
G-F
E-G
E
Natural
rubber
- E
E-F
G-F
F-P
G-F
F-P.
F-P
F-P
F-P
E
E-F
G-F
E
20-4
-------
NOTES
Protective gear should be checked
routinely for signs of softening,
brittleness, swelling, or permeation.
If such conditions are noticed, a record
of the effective duration of protection
should be made for future reliability of
the product.
Chemical resistance may also depend
on factors other than the type of
material used to make the gear.
Permeability is directly related to the
thickness of the material. Increased
thickness is in turn related to the loss
of flexibility and dexterity. It is
obvious a compromise must be made
between protection from permeability of
chemicals and ability to work
effectively and efficiently in the
protective gear.
Another- factor to consider in the
overall chemical penetrability of the
gear is its construction. Irregardless
of the permeability of the material,
button holes, zippers, cuffs, rips and
punctures, unprotected stitches and
seams all may compromise the overall
protection provided by the gear. Before
selecting protective clothing,, consider
the task to be performed and the
likelihood of contamination. Have crews
familiarize themselves with gear before
going out in the field. Literature and
pictures may conceal drawbacks that can
be guickly spotted with a pre-field
review. Such factors as drawstring
cuffs around the wrists requiring two
hands free of protective gloves may be a
real disadvantage when the strings come
untied while working in a contaminated
environment.
2- §l££H2Hl ~ Tne ability of
protective gear to withstand the rigors
of field activities must be considered
in the overall selection process.
Materials with outstanding permeability
characteristics such as Viton may have
20-5
-------
NOTES
very little ability to resist tears or
punctures. In some cases, double layers
of material must be worn to resist
permeability, as well as wear and tear.
Comparative physical characteristics
Key: E—excellent; G—good; F—fair; P—poor
Particular attention should be made
of areas such as knees and elbows where
excess wear usually occurs. In some
protective clothing, extra protection is
provided in these areas.
Disposable clothing meant for
single use before being thrown away are
usually designed as light-weight
protection. Vigorous physical activity
may quickly exceed the design strength
of the material. Manufacturers of such
disposable clothing have provided a wide
selection of materials from paper coated
with vinyl, reinforced cloth or paper-
cloth combinations to light-weight VPC
material. Although the economics of
such material varies appr opr i te 1 y ,
selection of the material should be
based on the overall protective and use
expected. •
iiilBitl ~ Protective
clothing must also be selected for its
thermal properties. In some materials,
the protection factor is lost, instantly
if the material comes in contact with a
hot surface. In others, exposure to
cold may render the material brittle and
subject to cracking. Since there are at
present no uniform manufacturing
standards for protective clothing, it is
up to Agency personnel to experiment, or
research the effectiveness of protective
clothing in weather extremes or under
conditions where there may be contact
with hot surfaces.
The comfort and health of the
wearer of protective clothing must also
be considered. When temperatures drop
to freezing or above 70 degrees
Farenheit, personnel are subjected to
extreme discomfort which may be
hazardous to their health or detrimental
to their overall efficiency. (See Unit
on Heat and Cold Stress.) Generally,
Characteristic
Tensile strength
Elongation
Tear resistancd
Abrasion resistance
Ozone resistance
Sunlight aging
Shelf-life aging*
Neoprene
G
E
F
G
E
E
F
Natural
latex or
rubber
G
E
G
G
F
F
E
Milled
nitrite
F
G
F
E
P
G
E
Butyl
G
G
G
G
E
E
E
20-6
-------
NOTES
the higher the protection factor, the
more temperature stress can be expected
on the wearer. Many manufacturers have
made modifications to help regulate
internal temperatures. Such
modifications as ventilation holes must
be carefully investigated as to possible
compromise of protection.
In the case of encapsulating
suites, cooling vests may be worn to
help prevent heat stress and increase
the overall efficiency of the wearer.
Where such suits are required for vapor
or splash protection and cooling vests
are not available, short work periods
with corresponding periods of rest are
recommended.
4. Decontamination
Protective gear selection must also
be based on ease of decontamination or
cleaning. Such cleaning may involve a
risk factor to personnel. It may also
be expensive to thoroughly clean the
gear than to select gear which is
disposable.
Prolonged contact with the
hazardous chemical may result in
absorption into the material itself. In
such cases, decontamination is virtually
impossible.
5. 2£cmp_my - Protective clothing
may cost from a few dollars to many
hundreds of dollars. Selection of such
gear must be made with all of the above
factors considered, as well as the
overall cost. Although cost is never
considered before safety, getting the
most versatile, cost-effective gear
available is in the best interest of
all. Life expectancy, repair,
maintenance and frequency of use must
all be considered before final
selections are made.
20-7
-------
NOTES
Types of Protective Clothing
The types of protective gear that
Agency field personnel should wear is
based on anticipated hazards to be
faced. It is important to stress that
most accidents occur in routine work
when the individual least expects it.
Whatever gear is selected, it should be
worn as a part of daily dress. Like
seat belts in an automobile, habits
should be developed which when broken
leave the individual with a feeling of
insecurity.
It is no chance of fate that, most
accidents occur to individuals not
wearing the proper safety gear.
1, Head Protection - Hard hats (or
safety helmets) are designed to provide
protection against impact, flying
particles and electrical shock, and to
provide shielding agaTnst the sun. Most
hard hats provided for EPA field
personnel will withstand an impact of 40
foot pounds, as well as insulation
against electrical shock from voltages
up to 2200. Hard hat standards of
performance are set by the American
National Standards on hard hats Z89.1-
1981 and are tested by SEI or Safety
Equipment Institute.
Hard hats should be used during
field activities whenever there is the
possibility of impact from falling
objects or contact- of the head with
stationary objects such as pipes or
overhangs. It should be remembered that
hard hats provide limited protection.
There can be no substitute for the pre-
caution of staying out from under areas
where work is going on overhead.
A great deal of the protection
afforded by the hard hat comes from the
separation of the head from the
underside of the hard hat. The head
band or suspension strap should be
adjusted so that when worn there is
about one inch separating the head and
20-8
\
v^>r.r*
•- •* •'.*.',*'••. -»
..•:•-. :*•!?<•>.:*:•.
C*J^j/. f-B'jL ' ' * X J
-------
NOTES
The one-inch provides cushion
with the hat. Hard hats
can also be equipped with insulating
liners for protection from the cold and
i-hin d-t-r-an to prevent wind from blowing
when leaning over.
the hat.
from impacts
chin strap
off hats or
The common practice of carrying the
hard hat in the back window of a vehicle
can be a detriment to the strength of
the hard hat. Plastic material may
become brittle if allowed to be exposed
to the sun for long periods of time.
Store the hard hat out of the direct
rays of the sun.
2- HZ®. and Face Protection - Eye
and face protection should be worn in
all field activities where there is
danger from flying or falling particles
or chemical splashes. Such eye and face
protection should meet the standards set
by OSHA Z87.1-1981 and the American
National Standards for industrial eye
protection. These vigorous standards
preclude standard glasses as a form of
protection'.
Although all prescription glasses
sold in recent years are required by FDA
standards to resist some impact, glasses
made to those standards will not provide
the impact resistance or thickness
requirements of the standards for
industrial eye protection established by
ANSI and required by OSHA.
Where eye glasses are required by
Agency personnel, safety goggles or face
shields covering the glasses or lenses
placed in the goggles, or prescription
safety glasses meeting OSHA standards
should be attained.
Safety glasses and eye protection
which meet ANSI standards for industrial
eye protection will also have frames
designed to hold the lens in place
against impact. If the frames are not
metal, the material will be slow-
burning. New safety glasses will have
the lenses and frames marked with the
20-9
-------
standard number to show compliance with
the ANSI standard.
NOTES
Contact lenses have sometimes been
considered a safety hazard in activities
where chemical dusts, vapors or gases
may be encountered; however, the only
Federal prohibition is that they must
not be worn under any type of
respiratory protection.
Hard
considered
contact lenses are n_£t.
to provide acceptable eye
protection against impact. Hard contact
lenses do not seem to aggravate chemical
splash injuries according to information
published in the Journal of_ Occupational
Medicine.
Soft contact lenses are susceptible
to absorption of vapors and may
aggravate some chemical exposures,
particularly if they are worn for
extended periods. Manufacturers of soft
lenses generally recommend they not be
used in certain atmospheres.
^' —— — — Z £. P. i £ £ JL i °_ H ~ Foot
protection should be selected with the
type of protection in mind. The
following types of protection should be
considered:
o toe or foot damage due to impact
o penetration of nails or other
shop objects
o contamination by chemicals
o ankle twists and sprains
o slippery surfaces
o cold
o static electricity
Toe or Foot Damage Due to Impact
Impact resistant footwear, such as
safety shoes or safety boots are
recommended for any field activity in
which heavy objects (such as drums) may
drop on the foot or injure the toes.
Such safety shoes, may be required to
enter industrial plants.
20-10
-------
NOTES
Safety shoes or boots provide
impact resistance by the steel cap built
into the toe of the footwear. The
footwear can be ordered in various
degrees of protection 'depending on
expected hazards.
Penetration of Nails or other Sharp
Objects
Normal street shoes provide very
little protection from penetration of
the soles by nails and other sharp
objects. Construction sites, landfills,
and many industrial sites have a wide
variety of foot hazards. Agency
personnel should never enter sites
without proper foot protection. Most
industrial work boots have reinforced
soles or heavy rubber soles that will
resist penetration of sharp objects. If
such sharp objects do penetrate the
foot, medical attention should be sought
at once.
Contamination by Chemicals
The type of footwear and the
material it is made of must be selected
based on anticipated chemical hazards.
No other portion of the body is as
likely to be contaminated with chemicals
as are the feet. Although leather is
the most common material in the
manufacture of footwear, it is the least
desirable where there is danger of
chemical contact. Leather, due to its
absorption capacity, is almost
impossible to cleanse or decontaminate
and most likely the footwear will have
to be disposed of.
If there is an obvious chance of
contamination, footwear worn over safety
shoes should be selected. Such footwear
includes pull-over boots, shoe covers,
booties, or safety pull-on boots. Keep
in mind that penetration of footwear
with a contaminated object such as a
nail, may lead to rapid and serious
health effects.
20-11'
-------
NOTES
Ankle Twists and Sprains
One of the most common injuries
involving the feet are ankle twists and
sprains. When Agency personnel are
required to work on hazardous footing
such as are found in construction sites
or landfills, hightop industrial work
shoes should be chosen. This type of
shoe laces up the ankle providing extra
support while walking. Such shoes,
while not attractive, provide support-
low top or street shoes do not give.
Slippery Surfaces
No other industrial accident is
more frequent or results in more
disabling accidents than slipping and
falling. Sprains, dislocations, broken
bones, contact with dangerous machinery
and drowning all are often attributed to
unsure footing. On many wet or slippery
surfaces, leather or smooth soles are
treacherous. Material and design of
soles should be selected with
anticipated hazardous surfaces in mind.
It is rare indeed when shoes appropriate
to office wear are appropriate for field
work.
Non-skid soles made of substances
such as reinforced rubber are generally
the best choice. Where particularly
hazardous surfaces, such as those coated
with ice are encountered, clamp-on ice
spikes may be used.
Cold
EPA field personnel are often
required to spend long hours in the
field during cold weather. Footwear for
this type of work should be selected
with high insulation ratings and
somewhat over-sized (1/2 size) to
provide room for heavy thermal socks.
Cold weather is usually associated ice,
snow and wind. Outer surfaces of
footwear should be made of winter-proof
materials or treated to make the
material impervious to water. Wet, cold
20-12'
-------
NOTES
feet can quickly lead to frost bite.
Frost bite of the toes is a serious
condition and can result in disabling
injuries. (See Unit on Cold and Heat
Stress.)
Static Electricity
Due to various conditions such as
low humidity, ribbing clothing, contact
with certain surfaces, the body may
build r mounts of static electricity.
Voltage in excess of 10,000 volts are
not uncommon. Such high voltage results
in the shock common on cold, dry winter
days. Such high voltage may also
provide the energy to trigger explosions
or fires in areas where these dangers
exist. Rubber soled shoes act as an
insulator preventing the static
electricity build up in the body from
escaping into the floor. When
conducting surfaces are touched, such as
the rim of a metal barrel, a discharge
of electricity in the form of a spark is
generated. In the right conditions,
such sparks could be disastrous.
Special non-insulating shoes are
manufactured to prevent static buildup.
Devices that attach to the leg and
special soles worn over rubber soles
shoes also prevent static buildup. In
some industrial settings such as the
manufacture of explosives, these shoes
are required before entry is permitted.
Ear Protection
Hearing protection may be necessary
at some field sites to prevent temporary
loss of hearing. Long-term exposure to
high levels of sound can cause permanent
loss of hearing in many frequency ranges
as a result of nerve damage, and short
exposures can cause temporary loss.
A simple test you can make to see
if you need hearing protection is to try
speaking to a person standing beside
you. If you have to shout to
communicate, you need hearing protection
20-13
-------
NOTES
to reduce the amount of sound reaching
your ears. Although hearing protectors
reduce the sound level in many frequency
ranges, they can actually improve speech
communication under noisy conditions by
reducing the interference caused by the
noise.
Earmuff hearing protectors
generally provide the most effective
protection. If glasses, sideburns or
long hair prevent effective use of
earmuff protectors, the next best
protection is a set of earplugs.
Earplugs provide' varying degrees of
sound attentuation. The most effective
earplugs are custom-molded to an
individual user, and the least effective
consist of a small wad of synthetic
fibers which is shaped as it is inserted
into the ear canal. The effectiveness
of ear protectors is reduced by loose
fit and work activities which allow
leakage of sound. Actual protection
seldom matches the rated protection
recorded under test conditions.
Hand Protection
The second most common area of
probable chemical contamination next to
the feet and the most probable area for
injury are the hands.
A wide variety of glove types are
manufactured that provide protection
against injury. When glove selection is
to be made, the following list of
considerations should be consulted:
o Injury due to abrasion, bruises,
lacerations, splinters and other
mechanical hazards
o Chilling, freezing or burns
o chemical and biological
contaminants
o Dirt, grease, oil
20-14'
-------
NOTES
o Electrical shock
When a variety of conditions
existsr it may be necessary to select
more than one pair of gloves to wear
together. Viton for example, is
relatively impervious to polychlorina'ted
biphenyls but tears easily. A second
pair of highly durable gloves may be
worn over the Viton gloves to provide
mechanical protection. Illustration 1
presents a few of the available types.
Table 2 provides information for the
type of material needed to resist
chemical absorption.
20-15'
-------
TTTJTgTRATTfM 18-1
DISPOSABLE GLOVES
TXU-TOUCH AMBI
AU-PURFOSI VINn
rich*
h i
"••
34-100
O
I
f W
: Own-** 100
ofomrim
Ota-iw Sot: Comai* 300 ftam
THU-TOUCH*$HEfH
for
J7-80* Mm
274011
Mf.
POtY-O'pOlYETHYLENC LINI
Tt» POLY-0 QLOVt I
for food •* pt%»Mo«i ptiti
aim tupihtr tovdi MHiHt»Hv.
_ aM't nw«
Pltl dtfMr Swd. Oto-
am te
pwrtn«
••
.0012V* *•*•. SlM 3. M. L.
Ol^mar SOB: CanwfeM 1000
ftoM. .0012V «M«. «««• SJX.U.
38.121 No* Canvfew 1000 *«M* .0012**
•N^'taMS.M. L.
3*. 137 -teNt Canmkm 2i 0o«M. .0017V
. i*+», 3-T l«r-jm. Stai l_
31.180 *!•«: C«raHni SO ^vt^ .001 7V
.0017V
.0017V
3B.183 *(«* CantalM 100
fH-p.'1-ai<,M,U
«au«a.SBM*.M.t-
QENERAL PURPOSE
GLOVES
KSI VINYl COATfO/KNIT UNB)
Vwy n«M. rt-«IMc..
_ . •! I I •
, fonwn*
KiHt
IU»UJM» M • VW« fit Y«4ta»»
3IOMVI. Mm11 M. L a Ex-i.
23418* S1^^4t^ Wanvcv't MAI
' • • "- • * »•— • aalufiMll I
VINn IMPREGNATED
eattoii «id foatakbi. OwtM-an •
4MM*HM •• ^^*^*t A M 1 f*M >Mnte4l8l
aBTBDW n JB**8M*I 9 B8V I V8V VWBpm
27403:
27409: **imf» «aa.
27407: Mm
buff.
11.103: Pwfarrad t»f^«i. W«crwn*i M * L
•1.183: Nrtarrarf*
Hot 2»U72>
STYISS
MONKEY CRIP vtNn COATED
tnd dry
flMv wvn^ ttwvvt COMTS
•1.101: 9II-MM. Wttwwfi M « U
•1.103: KnltMH-t. Wemw i Mat.
11.181: Slo-xv Nton't M • C.
•1.182: (Cnrtwrt-t. Vtan'i M • U
3430: Mm oorad b-nd «« M«f i d
COTTON-30UTHIBN
WEXX-UTI VINYl IMPR6CNATTO
^^^^^A t^B*
^^^nv 1^1
3 :• 1 on
i of touch wid pi* P«r t*»
«MM i*«t»bl». Calar: TOT.
41.141:
41.171: S1lo-an. Wonwn'i M.
HYNIT
NM IMMECNATED/KNIT LINED
1 iwtlMr «ia«M for
«a, U-
r. *y |ri». cut
but not IkmMpraaf.
Ca«ar!
I
KO-10CT: htan't
la*.
ADVANCE PCRMATEX*
QLOVES
HYCXON NSR COATED
-------
TRELE 18-2
Glove Selector Chart
Determine the chemical or physical
requirements of your job. Example:
Nitric 10%, or abrasion resistance and
flexibility. Then in the proper chart,
chemical or physical, select the glove
that is listed as best for your particular
needs.
CHEMICAL RESISTANCE SELECTOR CHAHT
PHYSICAL raOFEHTICS SELECTOR CHART
ALCOHOLS
Methanol/Butyl/ Alcohol/
Glycertna/Elhanol/
Isopropanol
CAUSTICS
Ammonium Hydroxide. 38%/
Sodium Hydro»lde 50%/
Potaaiium Hydroildc 50%
CHLORINATED SOLVENTS
Carbon Tetracritorld*/
Percniorelhylene/
Trlcnlorelhylene
KETONES
Methyl Ethyl Kalone/
Methyl Itobulyl Kelono/
Action*
PETROLEUM SOLVENTS
While Gaaollne/Naohlha/
Mineral Thlnner/Kero*ene
ORGANIC ACIOS
CHrlc/Formlc/
Tannle/Acallc
INORGANIC AGIOS
Hydrochloric 38%/
Hydrochloric 10%/
Sulolwrie '0%/
Nllrie 10%/
Chromic
Sulphuric 98%/
Nlinc 70%
HYOROCAR8ONS
Sloddird Solver)!/
Toluene/Benzene/
Xylene
Coal Tir Distillate
Styrene
MISCELLANEOUS
Lacquer Thinner
Culling OH
Battery Acid
Phenol
Insecticide*
Priming Ink
Dye* lull*
Penla
Formaldehyde
Vegetable Oil
Animal Fat
Acrylonllrlle
Steam
Aniline
Hydraulic Fluid
Turpentine
Lln«eed Oil
Soya Sean Oil
Carbon Oljulllde
C'eosot*
Ptlnt & Vemi«ri Remoter
-as
.ST..
a
E
F
F
E
E
E
E
E
E
a
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
a
E
E
N.R.
a
F
N.R.
G
E
F
F
G
F
E
E
a
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
G
E
E
E
E
G
0
F
G
F
N.R.
Q
E
E
G
E
E
E
E
E
E
e
Q
E
6
E
B
a
a
F
a
F
N.R.
N.R.
G
G
G
G
E
E
a
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
F
G
F
G
N R.
NH.
N R
N R.
F
N.R.
F
a
a
F
F
E
F
E
a
G
E
E
E
F
F
N.R.
F
a
f
N.R.
N.R.
0
E
F
F
G
F
E
E
G
E
F
E
E
E
E
E
G
E
E
E
E
G
G
F
a
F
MSA GLOVE
MEOPRENE
PYTHON NEOPRENE
RippLE-THxruHe
ALL-PURPOSE
UTILITY
FLEXIBLE
VINYL PLASTIC
SUPER FLEXIBLE
VINYL PLASTIC
"*3r
a
a
G
e
6
E
E
.
E
E
E
N.H.
N.R.
N.R.
N ft.
-
E
E
E
0
a
G
a
..
a
a
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F
F
F
F
.»«.
e
E
E
a
r
0
E
MR
a
a
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w
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a
E
E
E
E
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w*
f
E
E
E
T
E
G
E-6Jieellent 0—Good F-Fair N.R.-Nol Recommended
•Coaled fabric glove* are generally not recommended lor continual eiooture
to hoi oblecl* became (he heal build* up in th* coatmq *nd do«* not
dluioal* rapidly. For periodic handling ol hot oblecll m • heal range
under 250 F. they are *all*lactory,
GLOVE LENGTHS CHART
Fully Coaled Xnlrwf i*t
Palm Coated Knttwml
Fully Coated Salely Cull
(Band Top)
Palm Coaled Salary Cull
Fully Coaled 1CT Gauntlet
(10* Selety Gulf)
Fully Coaled 17* Gauntlet
Fully Coaled U" Gauntlet
Fully Coated 1C Gauntlet
E-Eicetl*nl G-Cood F-F*ir N R -Not Recommended
Fully Coated 11* Gauntlet
(Cadel Slitl
Fully Coaled Knilwml Miiien
20-17'
-------
NOTES
Gloves should also be selected
according to how they fit and the
dexterity needed to do the job. It may
be necessary to buy a variety of gloves
to meet the needs of a field operation
or to replace those with tears or that
have become contaminated.
Donning and Doffing Protective Clothing
Realizing complete benefits from
protective clothing depends on the
techniques used for donning and doffing
the clothing. In general, care must be
taken to avoid tearing or puncturing the
materials particularly when using gear
such as SCBA units and avoiding
contaminating the inside of the
garments.
One of the basic precautions for
donning protective clothing is to keep
the inside of the clothing clean and
uncontaminated before putting the
garment on and while it is being put on.
If protective clothing or equipment is
stored where it can become contaminated,
it may contaminate rather than protect
personnel. It is a common habit to
store all contaminated equipment in one
place, allowing cross-contamination
between, for example, boots and the
inside of an encapsulated suit.
In a similar fashion, if the
clothing or equipment becomes
contaminated in the process of putting
the equipment on, personnel wearing the
gear may be in contact with the
contamination all the time they are
wearing or using the equipment.
Minimizing penetration of
contamination into your protective
clothing can be accomplished by a number
of techniques. It is recommended that
the pants of the protective clothing be
pulled down over the boots and taped or
a rubber band be placed around the
bottom. This procedure reduces the
chance of contaminants falling into the
tops of the boots. Likewise, sleeves
20-18'
-------
NOTES
should be tucked into cuffs of gloves
and taped or pulled down over the wrists
and taped. This prevents liquids from
dribbling down the open sleeve when the
arms are raised or falling into the tops
o'f the gloves.
Always have at least one assistant
to help don the clothes. Not only do
they help in the actual work, but they
can inspect the suit and gear to quickly
spot rips and tears. Complex and bulky
gear, a hot, sticky perspiring body, add
up to a great deal of stress and strain
on the individual and equipment which
can lead to unforseen damage that may
endanger the worker or abort the
mission.
Using and Removing Gloves
Before putting on protective
gloves, remove any jewelry that may
puncture the material of the gloves.
If the material of the gloves is
fragile, it may be' important to trim
your fingernails to avoid puncturing the
gloves while you are putting them on,
using them or taking them off.
If you are going to be dealing with
known hazardous materials, try to obtain
and use gloves made of a material that
will provide predictable resistance to
damage or permeation by the hazardous
material.
If you are going to be dealing with
un_kn£wn hazardous materials, try to
obtain and use gloves that will resist
damage or permeation by a wide range of
materials and consider using two pairs
of gloves with different qualities. It
may also help to don gloves if the hands
or gloves are sprinkled with talcum
powder.
Removing Gloves
Removing gloves without
contaminating the hands takes a
20-19'
-------
NOTES
technique that can easily be learned
with a little practice.
1. Loosen both gloves by pulling
lightly on each fingertip of the gloves.
2. Be sure not to touch your skin
with the outside of either glove.
3. Remove the first glove either
by pulling on the fingertips or by
grasping it just below the cuff on the
palm side and rolling the glove off the
fingers.
4. Remove the second glove by
inserting the ungloved fingers inside
the cuff on the palm side without
touching the outside of the glove and
pushing or rolling the glove off the
fingers.
Using and Removing Boots
Before putting on protective boots
over shoes-, be sure the shoes do not
have any sharp spots or adhering
material which may puncture or abrade
the protective boots.
If only known hazardous materials
are to be handled, try to obtain and use
boots made of a material that will
provide predictable resistance to damage
or permeation by the hazardous
materials.
If there is the possibility of
dealing with HUJSHH^n hazardous
materials, try to obtain and use boots
that will resist damage or permeation by
a wide range of materials. Consider
using protective boot covers or a second
pair of boots over the first.
Removing boots without
contaminating the hands or feet requires
an easily-learned technique which is
similar to that used for removing
gloves.
1. Gloves are needed to avoid
20-20'
-------
NOTES
contaminating the hands unless the boots
are very loose.
2. Loosen the boots by pulling
them lightly with the gloved hands.
3. Be sure not to touch bare skin
with the outside of either glove.
4. Remove the first boot either by
pulling on the toe, or by grasping it at
the heel and pulling it off the foot
with a gloved hand or a bootjack.
5. Remove the second boot in the
same way or by inserting the ungloved
fingers inside the boot and pushing it
off without touching the outside of the
boot .
£s__irig ££id
Encapsulating Suits
In atmospheres where there is a
need for complete protection of the body
from splashes or contact by vapors or
gases, it is necessary to wear a fully-
encapsulating suit over self-contained
breathing apparatus. Use of fully-
encapsulating suits requires special
preparation for donning and doffing and
special precautions for safe use of the
suits and breathing apparatus.
Safe use of full protective
equipment requires a team of persons who
are physically fit and who are trained
and practiced in use of self-contained
breathing apparatus and use of the
complete suits.
The team must include standby
personnel who are equipped and prepared:
1. to carry out an emergency
rescue if necessary, as well as
2. to assist the wearers get into
the breathing apparatus and the suits.
The team must also be prepared:
20-21'
-------
NOTES ^
3. to decontaminate the outside of
the suit before it is removed, so that
wearers are not exposed while they are
getting out of., the equipment.
Finally, the standby team must be ready:
4. to assist the wearers get out
of the suits, both routinely and in an
emergency such as running low on
breathing air.
In preparation for sue of fully-
encapsulating suits, all of the
necessary gear should be assembled in a
clean change area. In addition to
trained personnel to assist and observe,
use of fully-encapsulating suits
requires :
1. SCBA for the suit wearers and
the standby personnel
2. Fully-encapsulating suits for ^
the team entering the hazardous area . ™
3. Extra protective clothing and
equipment for the team, and
4. Protective clothing for the
standby personnel, such as gloves, boots
and disposable suits or coveralls.
Each suit and breathing apparatus
should be thoroughly inspected and
checked to see that everything is in
operating order. Any suit which has
holes, rips, malfunctioning closures,
cracked masks or other deficiency must
not be used.
Since use of an encapsulating suit,
use of self-contained breathing
apparatus, and gathering samples all
require physical exertion, the person
wearing the equipment usually should
strip down to a minimum of clothing to
reduce heat stress. This is
particularly important if the sampling ^
takes place in the sun or near hot •
equipment, or during warm weather or
20-22'
-------
NOTES
under high ambient temperatures within
an industrial plant. A light weight
suit of cotton should be worn to absorb
the sweat and increase the surface area
that evaporation can take place on, thus
increasing natural cooling. The cotton
garment also prevents chaffing and
clinging of the protective gear. A
thorough dusting of talcum powder will
assist the donning operation and reduce
possible damage to protective clothing.
Procedure for Donning Full Protective
Gear
Donning a fully-encapsulated suit
is a complex procedure requiring the
coordination and assistance of a team of
individuals. The following brief
summary does not take the place of more
advanced training required for
certification.
1. Before attempting to don a
fully-encapsulated suit, a review should
be made of what equipment is needed.
The equipment should be laid out within
quick and easy reach of the team. A
check list and practice will assist a
team in preparing for an actual event.
Cotton undergarments
Encapsulating suit
Antifog spray
Boots
Tape
Talcum powder
Stool
Plastic clean sheet
Plastic bags for disposal or
storage
Brushes for decontaminating
Sprayer for decontaminating
Knife or other device for
emergency opening of suit
Intrinsic Communication System
Lifeline
SCBA Units
Buckets for decontaminating
solutions
20-23'
-------
PROCEDURE FOR DONNING FOTIi PROTECTIVE GEAR
20-2^'
-------
PROCEDURE FOR DCNHN6 FULL PROTECTIVE GEAR (Cont'd.)
14
20-25'
-------
NOTES
tables. Boots will track contaminants
to auto, office and home. Contaminated
pencils and clipboards will transfer
materials to unprotected hands,
clothing, steering wheels, friends and
family.
It is obvious that the magnitude of
the problem can be immense. It should
also be obvi.ous that control of
contamination requires careful thought
and planning.
Controlling the Spread of Contaminants
The first step in controlling the
spread of contaminants is to carefully
plan and practice the field activities
that can lead to contact with
contaminants. Lay out activities such
as sampling in a manner that will reduce
or keep to a minimum, contact with
contaminated surfaces. Part of this
technique depends on planning your
activities to limit the number of ob-
jects you have to touch, and part de-
pends on setting aside specific areas
for activities such as packaging samples
and changing out of protective clothing.
The degree of effort necessary to
set up "clean areas," and dirty change
or contaminated area is a function or
result of the amount of work or contact
with the contaminants and the degree of
hazard of the expected contaminants.
In the more advanced field training
courses offered by EPA, detailed
techniques will be covered which cover
all situations that might be faced by
Agency personnel. In this unit a basic
program as would be needed for sampling
will be covered.
To convey the basic principles of
preventing contaminants from leaving a
work site and entering an Agency
vehicle, consider what would be
necessary to prevent mud covered work
overalls and boots from soiling a clean,
20-26'
-------
NOTES
new automobile. It is quite obvious
that just removing boots or gloves would
be insufficient. Nor would taking off
outerwear and boots while standing in
mud solve the problem.
A better plan would be to find a
clean, dry area free of mud and remove
all gloves, outerwear, and boots that
have been exposed to mud. Locate a
pathway from this clean, dry area to the
automobile that does not require
exposing the clean clothes and footwear
to mud. Prevent covering the trunk or
back seat with mud from the removed
outerwear by cleansing the gear. A
second alternative would be to cover
them or place them in a bag or container
that will isolate them from their clean
surroundings. A last precaution; hands
must be thoroughly scrubbed to remove
mud and a visual inspection made of
likely areas of contamination such as
knees, shoes, seat of the plants, elbows
to ensure accidental contact has not
been made. This activity would also
extend to any passengers that intend to
ride in the vehicle.
While chemical contaminants may riot
be so obvious as mud, the procedure for
preventing spread of these chemicals is
based on the same procedures.
Basic Steps to Prevent Contamination
1. Place a
closely adjacent
work area.
clean plastic sheet
to the contaminated
2. Notify crew members or post
warning signs as to the intent of the
plastic change area.
3. Clearly establish "dirty"
pathways from the plastic change or
transition area to the work area, and
"clean" pathways from the plastic change
area to the outside.
4. To minimize traffic to the
change area, carefully plan and equip
20-27'
-------
NOTES
the area with tools, samplers,
containers, decontamination equipment,
safety gear, and disposal containers
before work begins. Arrange to have
clean equipment set on tables to lessen
the chance of contamination while
cleaning or decontamination is taking
place. If decontamination is to be
accomplished by sprayers, set the clean
equipment table up wind of the area to
be used for spraying. Make plans to
collect decontamination solutions so
they do not run into the clean area.
All decontamination solutions and gear,
such as brushes and buckets, should be
regarded as hazardous waste and either
disposed of on site or disposed of in
the proper manner as a hazardous waste.
Decontamination solutions should be
designed to react with and neutralize
the specific, potential contaminants
known to be at the site. In many
instances, a s.trong solution of hot
soapy water is all around the best
decontamination solution.
If however, the contaminants are
unknown, it may be necessary to use
decontamination solutions that, are
effective for a variety of substances.
Several of these general purpose decon-
tamination solutions are listed below:
DECON SOLUTION A - A solution
containing 5% sodium carbonate (Na2 €63)
and 5% trisodium phosphate (Na-j P04>.
DECON SOLUTION B - A solution
containing 10% calcium hypochlorite (Ca
(C10)2)•
DECON SOLUTION C - A solution
containing 5% trisodium phosphate (Na3
P04). This solution can also be used as
a general purpose rinse.
DECON SOLUTION D -
solution of hydrochloric acid
A dilute
(HC1).
20-28'
-------
NOTES
Cleaning or Disposing of Protective Gear
In instances where protective gear
is of the disposable type, large double
thickness plastic bags should be used to
contain the gear. The bags should be
sealed with tape and a hazardous waste
warning sticker applied. These extra
precautions will discourage scavanging
of contaminated gear that is awaiting
disposal.
Gear that is to be cleaned should
be done so immediately before
contaminants dry or soak into equipment.
Always clean the gear with the thought
that the next person using the gear is
trusting their health to the
effectiveness of your work.
In most instances, hot soapy water
is best for cleansing of protective
gear. Never use solvents or other
solutions without consulting equipment
manufacture date for directions. Many
manufacturers sell disinfectants :
specifically for their equipment.
Before packing equipment away,
allow the equipment to thoroughly air
dry. Wet equipment not only may be
damaged by being stored while wet, such
conditions also can lead to unsanitary
or unpleasant conditions such as the
growth of molds or fungus.
Storage of Equipment
Everyone has experienced the
frustrating task of putting something
back into its original package. In the
case of expensive protective gear, the
investment in time and frustration of
storing gear properly will undoubtedly
result in longer life, reduced
maintenance and increased availability
of critical gear. In many cases, proper
storage eliminates the stress of
handling and transporting gear, reduces
the change of cross-contamination with
contaminated gear, and punctures and
tears from gear stored near by.
20-29'
-------
STUDENT EXERCISE
Using tables, illustrations, and data included in this Unit,
select the proper protective clothing for the job described.
A series of 55-gallon barrels have mysteriously shown up at
a sanitary landfill. They were uncovered by heavy equipment
leveling a pile of trash. Some of the barrels may have been
damaged. Workmen report the following names on the barrels:
Freon, Methyl Acetate, and Benzyl Alcohol. All work has stopped
until the wastes can be sampled and the hazards of the contents
can be ascertained. Weather conditions are sleet mixed with
rain; temperature at 32°F; winds at 5-10 mph.
Body Protection
Rationale
Head Protection
Rationale
Hand Protection
Rationale
Foot Protection
Rationale
Eye and Face Protection
Rationale
20-30'
-------
~~~ NOTES
DECON SOLUTION D - A dilute
solution of hydrochloric acid (HC1).
Cleaning or Disposing of Protective Gear
In instances where protective gear
is of the disposable type, large double
thickness plastic bags should be used to
contain the gear. The bags should be
sealed with tape and a hazardous waste
warning sticker applied. These extra
precautions will discourage scavanging
of contaminated gear that is awaiting
disposal.
Gear should be cleaned
immediately, before contaminants dry or
soak into the equipment. Always clean
the gear with the thought that the next
person using the gear is trusting her
(or his) health to the effectiveness of
your work-
in most instances, hot soapy water
is best for cleansing of protective
gear. Never use solvents or other
solutions without co'nsulting the
equipment manufacturer's data for
directions. Many manufacturers sell
disinfectants specifically for their
equipment.
Before packing equipment away,
allow the equipment to thoroughly air
dry. Wet equipment not only may be
damaged by being stored while wet, but
such conditions also can lead to
unsanitary or unpleasant conditions such
as the growth of molds or fungus.
Storage of Equipment
Everyone has experienced the
frustrating task of putting something
back into its original package. In the
case of expensive protective gear, the
investment in time and frustration of
storing gear properly will undoubtedly
result in longer life, reduced
maintenance and increased availability
of critical gear. In many cases, proper
storage eliminates the stress of
handling and transporting gear, reduces
-------
NOTES
the chance of cross-contamination with
contaminated gear, and avoid punctures
and tears from gear stored near by.
-------
STOEENT EXERCISE
Using tables, illustrations, and data included in this Unit,
select the proper protective clothing for the job described.
Several 55-gallon barrels have mysteriously shown up at a
sanitary landfill. They were uncovered by heavy equipment
leveling a pile of trash. Some of the barrels may have been
damaged. Workmen report the following names on the barrels:
Freon, Methyl Acetate, and Benzyl Alcohol. All work has stopped
until the wastes can be sampled and the hazards of the contents
can be ascertained. Weather conditions are sleet mixed with
rain; temperature at 32°F; winds at 5-10 mph.
Body Protection
Rationale
Head Protection
Rationale
Hand Protection
Rationale
Foot Protection
Rationale
Eye and Face Protection
Rationale
2-33
-------
-------
-------
-------
ONIT 21
RESPIRATOR PK7TECTICN
Educational Objectives
o The student should be able to
recognize potentially hazardous
atmospheres that may require respirator
protection.
o The student should be able to
define and apply to respirator
selection, the terms Threshold Limit
Value (TLV) and Immediately Dangerous to
Life and Health (IDLH).
o The student should be able to
define OSHA regulations for respirator
use.
o The student should be able to
define EPA policy on respirator use.
o The student should be able to
recognize the markings of approval on
respirator equipment.
o The student should be 'able to
calculate the relationship between
protection factor (PF) and allowable
concentrations of contaminants.
o The student should be able to
list the steps to proper fit testing.
o The student should be able to
define the types of air-purifying
respirators.
o The student should be able to
evaluate and select the proper air
purifying respirator and cartridge.
o The student 'should be able to
define the types of air-supplying
respirators.
o The student should be able to
describe the proper steps to cleaning,
inspection, and storage of respirators.
-------
-------
RESPIBA3OR PROEECTICN
NOTES
Introduction
In the day-to-day field activities
under EPA jurisdiction, Agency employees
are confronted with a vast variety of
varying and sometimes hostile
conditions. Few conditions are so
immediately or potentially dangerous as
hazardous atmospheres. While it is the
policy of EPA to avoid sending personnel
into life-threatening conditions, there
are times when such danger cannot be
anticipated or avoided. It is the
objective of this unit to prepare Agency
personnel with the basic information
needed to make intelligent decisions as
to when, where and how to use
respiratory protective devices. The
knowledge conveyed in the following unit
does not take the place of the more
comprehensive units given in the
intermediate or advanced levels of
training, which must be taken to work in
certain anticipated hazardous
conditions..
Recognizing Potentially Hazardous
Atmospheres
Respiratory protection is needed if
personnel must enter any area in which
there may be either a deficiency of
oxygen or a high concentration of
hazardous material in the air. In such
atmospheres, life or health may depend
on using respiratory equipment which can
provide a supply of breathing air.
Respiratory hazards may exist at
spill scenes, in the vicinity of
discharge or emission sites, within
industrial plants, and at hazardous
waste sites. EPA policies require
respiratory protection when there has
been a release of toxic gases or vapors,
when there is a high potential for a
sudden release of such material, or when
it is necessary to enter an environment
where toxic airborne contaminants are
either known to be present or are likely
21-1
-------
NOTES
to be present.
Not all dangerous atmospheres are
obvious. Some toxic gases have no odor
nor visible sign of their presence. The
need for respiratory protection may not
be apparent.
The behavior of others may not be a
good indication of the need for
respiratory protection. For example, if
you make a walk-through inspection of a
plant, do you need to wear a respirator
if the company representative does not
wear one? The company representative
who guides the Agency personnel may or
may not be a good example to follow. He
or she may not be aware of or believe
there are hazards that require
respiratory protection, or may not be
willing to acknowledge that there are
dangerous concentration of toxic
materials in the air.
Even if hazards are recognized, if .
personnel plan to spend considerable
time in the plant taking samples or
making observations, they may need
respiratory protection where others are
not wearing it.
Some employees may have developed a
tolerance to irritating materials, and
others may have developed allergies and
been transferred to other work areas.
The reaction of EPA personnel to a
particular atmosphere may be different
from the reaction of employees who work
there regularly.
Agency personnel may also need
respiratory protection because the areas
where they will be working may have
higher concentrations of airborne toxic
material than areas where employees work
routinely.
Personnel in the sampling routine
may be required to visit many different
variety of toxic materials than someone
21-2
-------
NOTES
who works in only one place.
Respiratory Hazards
Oxygen Deficiency
When it is necessary to enter
a confined space, one of the most
important considerations is whether
there is sufficient oxygen in the
atmosphere to enter and work safely in
the space. An oxygen deficiency and
high concentration of hazardous
materials may occur in unventilated and
confined spaces such as the interiors of
tanks, vats, pits, trailers, sewers,
grain elevators, unventilated rooms and
abandoned buildings.
Oxygen deficiency qan occur if
vapors or gases displace part of the air
in pits and open tanks, or in other
types of confined spaces. Oxygen
deficient atmospheres can occur when air
is displaced by gases and vapors, or
where the oxygen is removed by oxidation
processes such as fire, rusting, or
aerobic microbial action. The effects
of oxygen deficiency on a person can
range from minor to extremely serious.
(Table 19-1)
21-3 •
-------
TRHLE 19-1
Physiological effect of oxygen deficiency
% Oxygen (by volume)
At sea Level Effects
21 Nothing abnormal.
16-12 Increased breathing volume.
Accelerated heartbeat. Impaired
attention and thinking. Impaired
coordination.
14-10 Very faulty judgment. Very poor
muscular coordination. Muscular
exertion brings on rapid fatigue
that may cause permanent heart
damage. Intermittent respiration.
10-6 Nausea. Vomiting. Inability to
perform vigorous movement, or loss
of all movement. Unconsciousness,
followed by death.
<6 Spasmatic breathing. Convulsive
movements. Death in minutes.
NOTES
Physiological effects of oxygen
deficiency are not apparent until the
concentration decreases to 16%. The
various regulations and standards
dealing with respirator use recommend
that percentages ranging from 16-19.5%
be considered indicative of an oxygen
deficiency. Such numbers take into
account individual physiological
responses, errors in measurement, and
other safety considerations. for
hazardous response operations, 19.5%
oxygen in air is the figure that decides
between air-purifying and atmosphere-
supplying respirators. EPA standards
require special respiratory protection
for entry in any atmosphere containing
less than 19.5% oxygen.
21-4
-------
NOTES
Aerosols
Aerosol is a term used to
describe fine participates (solid or
liquid) suspended in air. Particulates
include dust and other minute particles
such as found with coal an asbestos,
mists, fogs, smoke fumes, and sprays.
The effect of aerosols range from
irritation and inflammation to systemic
poisons.
Gaseous or Toxic Materials
Gases or vapors containing
toxic materials may have immediate or
delayed health affects on the
individual. Inhalation of certain toxic
gases may have acute and deadly effects
with as little as a few short breaths.
No danger is more immediate, nor effect
more persistent, than the action of
toxic materials that enter by way of the
respiratory tract. The following list
gives the chemical classification of
dangerous toxic substances that may
enter through the respiratory track:
Chemical Classification
o Acidic: substances that are
acids or react with water to form acids.
o Alkaline: substances that
are bases or react with water to form
bases.
o Organic: carbon compounds
which may range from methane to
chlorinated organic solvents.
o Organometal1ic: organic
compounds containing metals.
o Hydrides: compounds in which
hydrogen is bonded to another metal.
o Inert: no chemical
reactivity.
21-5
-------
NOTES
Groups, of these substances, based on
phjysiological (toxicological) activity
include:
o Irritants: corrosive
substances which injure and inflame
tissue.
o Asphyxiants: substances
which displace oxygen or prevent the use
of oxygen in the body.
o Anesthetics: substances
which depress the central nervous
system, causing intoxication or a loss
of sensation.
o Systemic poisons:
substances which can cause pathology in
various organ systems.
Measurements of Respiratory Hazards
Two values are used to
describe respiratory hazards. The
first, the Threshold Limit Value (TLV),
is a time-weighted average concentration
for a particular substance. Almost all
workers can be exposed to this level 40
hours a week without suffering adverse
health effects. The TLV is recommended
by the American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists
(ACGIH). Table 19-2 illustrates a
summary of TLV's of some common
hazardous materials.
21-6
-------
TRELE 19-2
SELECTED IDLH Si 1984-85 TLV VALUES
Com Bound
acetaldehyde
acetic acid
acetic anhydride
acetone
acryloni tri 1 e
ammonia
arsine
benzene
benzyl chloride
bromi ne
2-butanone (MEK)
carbon dioxide
carbon disulfide
carbon monoxide
carbon tetrachloride
chlorine
f 1 uori ne
formic acid
hexane
hydrasine
hydrogen chloride
hydrogen cyanide
hydrogen fluoride
hydrogen peroxide
hydrogen sulfide
isoamyl acetate
isopropyl alcohol
liquified petroleum gas (LPG)
methyl alcohol
methylene chloride
naphthalene
ni tri c aci d
pentaborane
pentane
phenol
phosgene
phosphorous trichloride
propane
styrene
toluene
toluene-2,4-di i socyanate
trichloroethylene
turpenti ne
xylene
1DLH
ppm
10000
1000
1000
20000
4000
500
6
2000
10
10
3000
50000
500
1500
300
25
25
100
5000
80
100
50
20
75
1 300
3000
20000
19000
25000
5000
500
100 '
3
5000
100
^
50
20000
5000
2000
2000
1000
1900
10000
JLVrJWA.
ppm
100
10
5 C
750
2 skin
25
0.05
10 (A2)
1
0. 1
200
5000
10 skin
50
5 skin
1
1
5
50
0.1 ski
5 C
10 C ski
3
1
10
100
400
1000
200 skin
100
10
2
0.005
600
5 skin
0. 1
0.2
- E
50
100
0.005
50
100
100
(A2)
(A2)
n (A2)
n
TLV notes:
C - ceiling TLV
Ala - human carcinogen with assigned TLV
Alb - human carcinogen without assigned TLV
. A2 - suspected human carcinogen
E - simple asphyxiant
21-7 •
-------
NOTES
IDLH can be based not only on toxicity,
but also on other characteristics such
as f lammability. An atmosphere which is
within the flammable or explosive limit
of the contaminant is also considered
IDLH.
EPA has further defined or
simplified th meaning of IDLH as:
"Any atmosphere that poses an
immediate hazard to life or produces
immediate irreversible effects on health
that will be debilitating."
Respirator Use
The Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA) is the
policy formulating regulatory agency
for worker respiratory protection. The
source of OSHA's policy is found in 29
CFR Part 1910.134 and is summarized as
follows:
1. Written standard operating
procedures governing the selection and
use of respirators shall be established.
2. Respirators shall be selected
on the basis of hazards to which the
worker is exposed.
3. The user shall be instructed
and trained in the proper use of
respirators and their limitations.
4. Where practical, the
respirators should be assigned to
individual workers for their exclusive
use.
5. Respirators shall be cleaned
and disinfected regularly. Those issued
for the exclusive use of one worker
should be cleaned after each day's use,
or more often if necessary. Those used
by more than one worker shall be
cleaned and disinfected thoroughly after
each use.
21-8
-------
NOTES
6. Respirators shall be stored in
a convenient, clean, and sanitary location.
7. Respirators used routinely
shall be inspected during cleaning.
Worn or deteriorated parts shall be
replaced. Respirators for emergency use
such as self-contained devices shall be-
thoroughly inspected at least once a
mcnth and after each use.
8. Appropriate surveillance of
work area conditions and degree of
employee exposure or stress shall be
maintained.
9. There shall be regular
inspection and evaluation to determine
the continued effectiveness of the
program.
10. Persons should not be assigned
to tasks requiring use of respirators
unless it has been determined that they
are physically able to perform the work
and use the equipment. The local
physician shall determine what health
and physical conditions are pertinent.
The respirator user's medical status
should be reviewed periodically (for
instance, annually).
It is EPA policy to provide
appropriate respiratory protective
devices for EPA employees, and to
require use of such protective devices
whenever they are necessary to protect
employee health. Employees are entitled
to wear respiratory protection if they
are irritated by any material aven
though the concentrations of material
may not be expected to cause any adverse
health effects, ands even though the
concentrations do net seem to effect
others nearby in a similar way.
EPA policy requires use of
respiratory protection in four
situations: .
• _ 1. When there is a high potential
21-9 •
-------
NOTES
for a sudden release of toxic gases or
vapors or there has been such a release.
2. When preparing to enter
hazardous environments or locations such
as waste or spill sites, where it is
known, or there is a reasonable belief,
that toxic airborne contaminants are
present.
3. When preparing to enter
confined spaces, such as manholes and
unventilated buildings where there may
be an oxygen deficiency.
4. During infrequent but routine
operations where it is not feasible to
limit concentrations of toxic material
to safe levels by engineering controls.
Respirator Selection
Before selecting a respirator
for use, check to ensure it has been
approved by a recognized agency such as
the Mine Safety and Health
Administration (MSHA) or the National
Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health Administration. (NIOSH) .
Approvals for respirators are based on
tests conducted at the National
Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH) Testing Laboratory.
All respirators built to the same
specifications will have an approval
designation displayed on the respirator
or its container. The designation will
consist of the letters TC (for Testing
and Certification) and two groups of
numbers which indicate the type of
equipment and the specific approval.
The approval label will also include the
names of the certifying agencies.
Respirators that meet Federal
design and test standards will have an
approval designation showing joint
approval by the Mine Safety and Health
Administration (MSHA) and NIOSH, and the
respirators will be included in the
21-10'
-------
NOTES
NIOSH Certified Equipment List.
If a respirator is approved and
listed for protection against organic
vapors, remember that the approval is
only for organic vapors with adequate
warning properties.
Recently-approved cartridges and
canisters will show MSHA and NIOSH on
the approval label.
(Note to Instructor: Older
respirators may show the Mining
Enforcement and Safety Administration
(MESA) or the Bureau of Mines as the
approval agency.)
A listing of all approved
respirators and respirator components is
available in the NIOSH Certified
Equipment List. Editions and
supplements are issued periodically.
Chemical cartridge or canister
respirators do not provide reliable
protection against organic vapors
without adequate warning properties, and
such respirators must not be used for
protection against such vapors.
The only organic vapors for which
an air purifying respirator is approved
or acceptable are those which provide a
reliable odor or a noticeable irritation
at a concentration which is at or
slightly below the permissible exposure
limit. Organic vapors are not
considered to have adequate warning
properties if they cause olfactory
fatigue, or if they cannot be detected
until their concentration exceeds the
permissible exposure limit. They are
also not considered to have adequate
warning properties if they can be
detected at extremely low
concentrations, so that they are
detected long before their concentration
presents any hazard.
Periodically, NIOSH publishes a
list of all approved respiratory and
21-11
-------
NOTES
respirator components. The list is
entitled the NIOSH Certified Equipment
List. Respiratory apparatus can be
divided into two general types:
Air-purifying - those that filter
out contaminants.
Air-supplying - those that supply
air by means of a cylinder of compressed
gas or oxygen or by an air-line.
All respirators are composed of two
main components, the facepiece and the
device which supplies or purifies air.
The facepiece comes in three
configurations which relate to the
amount of protection the respirator
affords:
o Quarter Mask (Type B - Half Mask)
fits from nose to top of chin and
utilizes two-or four-point suspension.
o Half Mask (Type A - Half Mask)
fits under chin and over the nose and
must have four-point suspension.
o Full Facepiece - covers all of
the face from under the chin to the
forehead. It provides the best
protection because it is more easily
fitted on the face.
Respirator Fit-testing
One of the most important
requirements of respiratory protection
is proper fit-testing of respirators.
Not all respirators fit everyone, so
each individual must find out which
facepiece fits best. To be approved, a
respirator must be fit-tested utilizing
accepted fit-test media and procedures.
There are two types of fit-tests,
quantitative and qualitative. The
quantitative test is an analytical test
which measures the concentrations
outside and inside the facepiece. The
relative differe n*c e between
21-12.
-------
NOTES
concentrations, termed the Protection
Factor (PF), is used in conjunction with
the accepted Threshold Limit Value (TLV)
to determine the maximum concentration
the user may be exposed to while wearing
the tested respirator.
Table 19-3 lists all types of
respirators and the PF's.
21-13
-------
TJJELE 19-3
Selected respirator protection factors
Type of Respirator PF (Qualitative Test)
Air-purifying
quarter-mask . 10
Half-mask 10
Air-line
quarter-mask 10
haIf-mask 10
Hose mask
full facepiece 10
SCBA, demand
quarter-mask 10
half-mask 10
Air-purifying
full facepiece 100
Air-line, demand
full facepiece 100
SCBA, demand
full facepiece ICO
Air-line, pressure-demand,
with escape provision
full facepiece (no test required) 10,000+
SCBA, pressure-demand or
positive pressure
full facepiece (no test required) 10,000+
The following example using PF
information indicates the degree of
difference between half-face masks and
full-face masks:
If a respirator passes the
qualitative test, it can be worn in
concentrations determined by the
assigned Protection Factor (PF). The
maximum concentration is calculated by
multiplying the TLV of the contaminant
by its PF. PF's for cartridge and
canister respirators are:
o Half-face mask, 10X
o Full-face mask, 100X
21-14
-------
NOTES
Example: Protection (ppm) = PF x TLV
= 10 x 10
= 100 ppm
Thus, for substance x with a TLV of 10,
the half-mask respirator provides
protection up to concentration of 100
ppm of the substance.
Fitting a Respirator and Testing the
Seal
Each person who may be expected to
wear an air purifying respirator (or a
demand type of air supplying respirator)
for any field activity should have an
opportunity before going into a field
situation to find a facepiece that
provides a good tight seal with his or
her face. This requires trying on
facepieces to find one that seems to
fit, and then testing the seal to be
sure the fit is adequate.
Fitting a Respirator
Not all sizes and shapes of
faces can be fitted with a respirator
facepiece that will provide the tight
seal necessary for protection. Each
person should be allowed to choose the
most comfortable facepiece that provides
a satisfactory fit. Respirators should
be assigned to individual employees for
their exclusive use, if possible. It a
person cannot find a facepiece that fits
tightly, the only way to get respiratory
protection is to use equipment which
provides a continuous flow of air or a
positive pressure.
Each time a person puts on an air
purifyiung respirator, the fit of the
facepiece should be checked to be sure
that the seal will provide as much
protection as possible.
A tight seal is difficult or
impossible to achieve if there is
TLV(X)
PF
= 10 ppm
= 10
21-15'
-------
NOTES
anything which gets between the
facepiece and the skin, such as parts of
eyeglass frames, long hair, long
sideburns, a beard or beard stubble.
(In one EPA operation, standard
procedures specified that male employees
shaveevery day to assure optimum fit
of the facepiece.) A tight seal is also
difficult to achieve if a person chews
gum or tobacco, or is missing one or
both dentures!
Testing the Seal
Testing the fit of the
facepiece seal is required with all
negative-pressure respirators every time
they are used. Negative-pressure
respirators include all air purifying
respirators except those that are
powered. Any air supplying respirator
that is operated in the demand mode
should be tested for fit each time it is
used. Three tests should be used to get
maximum protection from a respirator.
Either the negative pressure test
or the positive pressure test is
required every time a negative-pressure
respirator is used. The qualitative fit
test is required only before the initial
use of each different type of negative-
pressure respirator and again annually.
To prepare for testing the fit of a
respirator, place the respirator over
the face and draw up the straps, one at
a time, beginning first with the bottom
straps. The straps are drawn up so that
the facepiece fits securely, without
being so tight that it causes
discomfort.
Negative Pressure Test
The purpose of the negative
pressure test is to see if the facepiece
is tight enough to maintain a negative
pressure without leakage.
21-16
-------
NOTES
Close off the cartridge or canister
inlet with the palm of your hand.
Inhale gently for about ten seconds
so that the facepiece is drawn against
your face.
If you feel a flow of air along the
edge of the facepiece, the inward air
flow indicates leakage.
If you have leakage, tighten the
straps and try the test again.
If the leakage continues, get
another type of facepiece or another
type of respirator.
If you are testing the fit of an
air supplying respirator, such as an
SCBA, close off the facepiece hose with
the palm of your hand before you connect
the hose to the regulator. Inhale
gently to feel if there are any leaks of
air into the facepiece along its edges.
This test is optional if the apparatus
will be operated in the positive
pressure-demand mode.
Positive Pressure Test
The positive pressure test
will determine whether the facepiece is
tight enough to maintain a positive
pressure.
Take a breath and hold it briefly
while you take the next step.
Close off the exhalation valve with
the palm of your hand.
Exhale gently for about ten seconds
to build a positive pressure within the
facepiece.
If a positive pressure cannot be
built up and there is an outward flow of
air, there is leakace.
21-17-
-------
If you have leakage, you can
tighten the straps and try the test
again.
If the leakage continues, get
another type of facepiece or another
type of respirator.
On an air purifying respirator,
such as this one, the exhalation valve
is usually the bottom valve. It opens
when you exhale. The upper valve is the
inhalation valve, which closes when you
exhale into the facepiece.
Qualitative Fit Test
The qualitative fit test
determines whether the fit is tight
enough to prevent leakage of a
detectable odor in through the seal.
Respirators with particulate filters are
tested by exposure to an irritant such
as smoke, and those with chemical
sorbent filters by exposure to an
odorant such as isoamyl acetate (banana
oil).
The test material is released close
to the edges of the sealing surfaces of
the facepiece, to find out if the wearer
is able to detect any odor. First the
leakage is tested with the wearer
remaining sedentary for about a minute;
then the wearer performs head and face
movements that might occur naturally.
If leakage is detected, tighten the
straps and retest.
If the leakage continues, get
another type of facepiece or another
type of respirator.
A variation of the qualitative test
uses a test chamber, consisting of a
special plastic bag or tent-like hood
which can be filled with a concentration
of the test material, and into which the
wearer can insert her or his head while
wearing the respirator. Leakage is
-------
NOTES
tested first with the wearer remaining
sedentary for about a minute; then the
wearer performs exercises simulating
work, such as bending over and running
in place.
Qualitative fit tests are
recommended annually and whenever EPA
employees are going to be entering or
working in particularly hazardous
exposures .
RESPIRATOR TYPES
Air-Purifying Respirators
I . Introduction
Any respirator is used because the
concentration of a contaminant is high
enough to cause some type of health
effect. This may range from respiratory
irritation through systemic damage to
death. The guidelines used to decide
the need for a respirator are the
Threshold Limit Values. A concentration
greater than the TLV requires
respiratory protection. If the
____ _ ___
concentration use limits £f an air-
purifying respirator, then that type may
be used. rf i_t i£ greater, then an
atmosphere supplying apparatus must be
worn.
Air-purifying respirators can be
used only under the following
circumstances :
o The identity and concentration of
the contaminant are known.
o The oxygen content in air is at
least 19.5%.
o The contaminant has adequate
warning properties.
o Approved canisters for the
contaminant and concentration are
21-19'
-------
NOTES
available.
o The concentration does not exceed
the IDLH.
Individuals who use air-purifying
respirators must wear a respirator which
has been successfully fitted to their
faces. Most individual respirators will
fit only 60% of the working population.
But with the variety of respirators
available, at least one type should be
found to fit an individual. An
improperly fitted respirator delivers
little of the protection promised.
II. Requirements for respirator
selection.
A. Identification and Measurement
Before the appropriate air-
purifying device can be selected, the
contaminant must be identified and
measured. This requires sampling and
analysis. Selection of a device is
based on the highest possible
concentration of the contaminant.
Once a respirator has been selected
and worn in the contaminated
environment, the atmosphere must be
monitored periodically. Otherwise,
increased contaminant levels may present
a hazard the respirator is not capable
of handling.
B. Oxygen Content
The normal atmosphere contains
approximately 21% oxygen. The
physiological effects of reduced oxygen
begin to be evident at 16%. Without
regard to contaminants, the atmosphere
must contain a minimum of 19.5% oxygen
to permit use of an air-purifying
respirator. This is a legal requirement
of 30 CFR Part 11 and a recommendation
of ANSI Z88.2 - 1980. BElow 19.5%
oxygen, atmosphere-supplying respirators
must be used instead.
21-20
-------
•—- • NOTES
C. Warning Properties
A warning property is a sign that a
cartridge or canister in use is
beginning to lose its effectiveness. At
the first such signal, the old cartridge
or canister must be exhanged for a fresh
one. Without a warning property,
respirator efficiency may drop without
the knowledge of the wearer, ultimately
causing a health hazard.
A warning property can be detected
as an odor, taste, or irritation. Most
substances have warning properties at
some concentration. A warning property
detected only at dangerous levels —
that is, greater than TLV — is not
considered adequate. An odor, taste, or
irritation detected atr extremely low
concentrations is also not adequate
because the warning is being given all
the time or long before the filter
begins to lose its effectiveness. In
this case, the wearer woulds never
realize when the filter actually becomes
ineffective.
The best concentration for a
warning property to be detectable is
around the TLV. Table 19-4 lists odor
thrsholds for a number of substances and
their respective TLV's (shown under the
"adopted values TWA column). For
example, toluene diisocsocyanate has a
TLV of 0.005 ppm. The odor threshold,
2.14 ppm, is over 400 times the TLV,
obviously not an adequate warning
property. An odor threshold of 4.68 ppm
for benzene, versus a TLV of 10 ppm, is
an adequate warning property.
Dimethuylformamide has a TLV of 10 ppm
and an odor threshold of 100 ppm. An
odor threshold 10 times greater than the
TLV is not adequate.
If a substance causes olfactory
fatigue (that is, the sense of smell is
no longer effective), its odor is not an
adequate warning property. For example,
upon entering an atmosphere containing
hydsrogen sulfide, the odor is quita
21-21'
-------
NOTES
noticeable. After a short period of
time, it is no longer detectable.
21-22
-------
TABLE 19-4
Odor Thre5ho.ds In Air as Compared to Threshold Limit Value, (1979)
Compound
Acetaldehyde
Acetic »cid
Acetone
Acrolein
Acrylonitrile
Allyl Chloride
Amin« dimethyl
Amine. monomethyi
Amine. Trimethyl
Ammonia
Aniline
Benzene
nryf chloride
,4nty< sulfide
Bromine
Butyric acid
Carbon disulfide
Carbon tetrachloride
(chlorination of CS:)
Carbon Tetrachloride
K 'chlorination of CH.)
(oral
lorine
Dimethylacetamide
Dimethylformamide
Dimethyl sulfide
Oiphenylether (perfume grade)
OiphenyJ sulfide
Ethanol (synthetic)
Ethyl icryfate
Ethyl mercaotan
Formaldehyde
Hydrochloric acid gas
Hydrogen sulfide (from Nt-S)
Hydrogen sulfide gas
Melhano4
Methyl chloride
Methylene chloride
Methyl ethyl ketone
Methyl isobutyl ketone
Methyl mercaptan
Methyl methacrylate
inochlorobenxene
. .irobeniene
Piracresoi
Pir*xylene
Parehloroethylene
ppm
0.21
1.0
too.o
0.21
21.4
0.47
0.047
0.021
0.00021
46.3
1.0
4.68
0.047
0.0021
0.047
0.001
0.21
21.4
100.0
0.047
0.314
40.8
100.0
0.001
0.1
0.0047
10.0
0.00047
0.001
1.0
10.0
0.0047
000047
100.0
(above lOppm)
2140
10.0
0.47
0.0021
0.21
0.21
0.0047
0.001
0.47
4.S8
Odor Description
Green. Sweet
Sour
Chemical sweet, pungent
Burnt sweet, pungent
Onion-garlic pungency
Garlic-onion pungency, green
Fishy
Fishy, pungent
Fishy, pungent
Pungent
Pungent
Solvent
Solvent
Sulfidy
Bleach, pungent
Sour
Vegetable sulfide
Sweet pungent
Sweet
Bleach, pungent
Amine. burnt, oily
Fishy, pungent
Vegeable sulfide
Burnt rubbery
Sweet
Hot plastic, earthy
Earthy, sulfidy
Hay (straw-like) pungent
pungent
Eggy sulfide
Sweet
Sweet
Sweet
Sulfidy. pun^-nt
Pungent, sulfidy
Chlorinated, moth balls
Shoe polish, pungent
Tar-like, pungent
Sweet
Chlorinated solvent
. Adopted
Values
TWA
ppm mg/m
100
10
750
0.1
(a)
1
10
—
—
25
2
1CXb)
1
—
0.1
—
10
S(b)
-_ |,
1
10
10
^
-
-_,-
w>
5
0.5
2(e)
^_
10
SO
100
200
100
0.5
100
i^—
1
^^
100
180
25
1780
0.25
3
18
—
—
18
10
—
5
_
0.7
_
30
30
.
3
35
30
^m
m
_ _
_
20
1
3
n^
15
105
360
590
410
1
410
5
870
Tentative
Value*
STEL
ppm mg/m
150
15
10OO
0.3
2
—
—
—
35
5
—
_
__
0.3
_
_
20
.
3
15
20
^
_
_
_
25
2
_
15
100
500
300
125
125
2
ISO
27$
37
2375
0
6
—
-
—
37
20
_
_
_
2
_ .
__
125
_
9
SO
6C
10C
2
_~
27
203
170C
38!
51C
51C
1C
inor
Anwfieiii Imiiiitrwl HIV*I« Allocution JOVJfWAl
21-23
-------
TRBUE 19-4 Gottt'd.
Odor thresholds !n Air as Compared to Threshold Limit Values (1979) (con't)
Adopted
TWA
•n pound
•nol
ugene
;tphioe
«ftnu
rene (inhibited)
rene (uninhibited)
lur diehloride , . ,
'ur dioxide . ,
jene (from coke)
jene (from petroleum)
'iene diisocyanati
-'loroethylene
ppm
0.047
• l.o
0.021
0021
0.1
0.047
.. . 0.001
047
4 aa
2.14
. 2-14
11.4
: Odor b ascription
Medicinal
'' May-lilt*
bniony. mustard
burnt, pungent, diamine
Solventy. rubbery
Solventy. rubbery, plasticy
.,,. Sulftdy
-*-!••
L \
Floral, pungent, solvenly
Moth balls, rubbery
Medicated bandage, pungent
' . Solventy
ppm
5
0.1
0.3
6
50
—
2
. 100
—
0005
50
mfl/m'
19
0.4
04
15
215
—
S
375
—
004
270
Tentative
Values
STEU
ppm
10
—
1
10
100
—
5
150
—
002
150
mg/m?
38
—
1
30
425
—
15
560
—
0 15
805
-uman carcinogen*. Substance recognized to have carcinogenic potential without an assigned TLV
:>iemical substance suspected of Inducing cancer based on either (1)limiied«pidemiologic evidence, exclusive o( clinical repori of single cases.
?r (2) demonstration of carcinogenesis in one or more animal species by appropriate methods.
i U expected thai this Substance will soon b4 classified in category (bl above.
21-24
-------
NOTES
D. Limits of Cartirdges or
Canisters
Cartridges or canisters used to
clean breathing air do not remove the
contaminant efficiently forever.
Eventually, they will no longer filter
or sorb the contaminants. The higher
the concentration, the faster the
cartridge is used up. To avoid quick
wearing out and afford longer service,
cartridges are assigned a maximum use
concentration above which they should
not be used.
E. IDLH
An air-purifying respirator can be
worn in atmospheres up to the
concentration limits placed on its
cartridge. This remains true as long as
the maximum use concentration is not
immediately dangerous to life or health
(IDLH) — that is, one that causes
irreversible damage to life or health
within 30 minutes by toxic action. An
atmosphere which is within the flammable
or explosive limits of the contaminant
is also considered IDLH. If the
concentration is at an IDLH level for
any reason, and still within the use
limits approved for the cartridge, no
air purifying respirator can be worn.
Only an approved positive pressure self-
contained breathing apparatus is
allowed.
III. Types of Air-Purifying Devices
Basically, respiratory hazards can
be broken down into two classes:
particulates, and vapors and gases.
Particulates are filtered by mechanical
means, while vapors and gases are
removed by sorbents that react
chemically with them. Respirators using
a combination of mechanical filter and
chemical sorbent will effectively remove
both hazards.
21-25
-------
NOTES
A. Particulate-Removing Filters
Particulates can occur as dusts,
fumes, or mists. The particle size can
range from macroscopic to microscopic,
and their toxicological effects range
from severe or innocuous. The hazard
posed by a particulate can be determined
by its TLV. A nuisance particulate will
have a TLV of 10 mg/ml, while a toxic
ve TLV well below
mg/m=.._
Mechanical filters are classified
according to the protection for which
they are approved under schedule 21C of
30 CFR Part II. Most particulate
filters are approved only for dusts
and/or mists with TLV's equal to or
greater than Q.05 mg/mJ^ These duest
are usually considered to produce
pneumoconiosis* and fibrosis but are not
toxic. Such filters have an efficiency
of 80-90% for 0.6 millimeter (mm)
particles.
*(chronic fibrous reaction)
Respirators approved for fumes are
more efficient, removing 90-99% for 0.6
mm particles. This type of respirator
is approved for dusts, fumes and mists
with TLV's equal to or greater than 0.05
mg/rrr.
Finally there is a high efficiency
filter, which is 99.7% effective against
particles 0.3 microns in diameter. It
is approved for dusts, mists and fumes
with a TLV less than 0.05 mg/m^.
Mechanical filters load up with
particulates as they are used. As they
do they become more efficient, but also
become more difficult to breathe
through. When a mechanical filter
becomes difficult to breathe through, it
should be replaced.
B. Vapor- or Gas-Removing
Cartridges
21-26
-------
NOTES
Sorbents are manufactured to remove
a specific chemical or group of
chemicals. In contrast, particulate-
removing filters remove particulates
regardless of their composition.
Sorbents are available to remove
specific organic vapors, acid gases, and
ammonia, among others. Each sorbent has
a maximum concentration use limit for
that specific contaminant. Once a
sorbent has been filled up with the
contaminant, it will "breakthrough" —
that is, it will allow the full ambient
concentration of the contaminant to
enter the facepiece. Again, in
contrast, particulate-removing filters
become more efficient (but harder to
breathe through) as they fill up. There
is no breakthrough.
Chemical sorbents also vary in
their ability to remove contaminants
(Table 19-5). For example, vinyl
chloride takes only 3.8 minutes to reach
a 1%% breakthrough — that is, for 1% of
the ambient concentration to enter the
facepiece. In comparison, it takes 107
minutes for chlorobenzene to reach 1%
breakthrough. Thus, chlorobenzene is
removed much more efficiently than vinyl
chloride. Cartridge efficiencies (Table
19-5) should also be considered when
selecting air-purifying respirators.
Studies of cartridge efficiencies are
referenced in the Appendix.
21-27
-------
19-5
Effect of Solvent Vapor on Respirator Cartridge Efficiency1
Time to Reach 1% Breakthrough (10 ppm)
Solvent Minutes
Aromatics
Benzene 73
Toluene 94
Ethyl benzene 84
m-Xylene 99
Cumene 81
Mesitylene 86
Alcohols3
Methanol 0.2
Ethanol 28
Isopropanol 54
Allyl alcohol 66
n-Propanol 70
sec-Butanol 96
Butanol 115
2-Methoxyethanol 116
Isoamyl alcohol 97
4-Methyl-2-pentanol 75
2-Ethoxyethanol 77
Amyl alcohol • 107
2-Ethyl-l-butanol 76.5
Monochlorides
Methyl chloride 0.05
Vinyl chloride 3.8
Ethyl chloride 5.6
Allyl chloride 31
1-Chloropropane 25
1-Chlorobutane 75
Chlorocyclopentane 78
Chlorobenzene 107
1-Chlorohexane 77
o-Chlorotoluene 102
1-Chloroheptane 82
3-(Chloronethyl heptane) 63
Dichlorides3
Dichloromethane 10
trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene 33
1,1-Dichloroethane 23
cis-1,2-Dichloroethylene 30
1,2-Dichloroethane 54
1,2-Dichloropropane 65
1,4-Dichlorobutane 108
o-Dichlorobenzene 109
21-28
-------
TAEE£ 19-5 Cont'd.
Time to Reach 1% Breakthrough (10 ppn)
Minutes 2
Solvent
Trichlorides3
Chloroform 33
Methyl chloroform 40
Trichloroethylene 55
1,1,2-Trichloroethane 72
1,2,3-Trichloropropane 111
Tetra- and Pentachlorides^
Carbon tetrachloride 77
Perchloroethylene 107
1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane 104
Pentachloroethane 93
Acetates
Methyl acetate 33
Vinyl acetate 55
Ethyl acetate 67
Isopropyl acetate 65
Isopropenyl acetate 83
Propyl acetate 79
Allyl acetate 76
sec-Butyl acetate 83
Butyl acetate 77
Isopentyl acetate 71
2-Methoxyethyl acetate 93
1,3-Dimethylbutyl acetate 61
Amyl acetate 73
3-Ethoxyethyl acetate 80
Hexyl acetate 67
Ketones
Acetone 37
2-Butanone 82
2-Pentanone 104
3-Pentanone 94
4-Methyl-2-pentanone 96
Mesityl oxide 122
Cyclopentanone 141
3-Heptanone 91
2-Heptanone 101
Cyclohexanone 126
5-Methyl-3-heptanone 86
3-Methylcyclohexanone 101
Diisobutyl ketone 71
4-Methylcyclohexanone 111
21-29
-------
TABLE 19-5 Cont'd.
Time to Reach 1% Breakthrough (10 pen)
Solvent in Minutes^
Alkanes
Pentane 61
Hexane 52
Methylcyclopentane 62
Cyclohexane 69
2,2,4-Trimethylpentane 68
Heptane 78
Methylcyclohexane 69
5-Ethylidene-2-norbornene 87
Nonane 76
Decane 71
Amines'*
Methyl amine 12
Ethyl amine 40
Isopropyl amine 66
Propyl amine 90
Diethyl amine 88
Butyl amine 110
Triethy1 amine 81
Dipropyl amine 93
Diisopropyl amine 77
Cyclohexyl amine 112
Dibutyl amine 76
4
Miscellaneous materials
Acrylonitrile 49
Pyridine 119
1-Nitropropane 143
Methyl iodide 12
Dibromomethane 82
1,2-Dibromoethane 141
Acetic anhydride 124
Bromobenzene 142
^Nelson,G.O.,and C.A.Harder.Respirator Cartridge
Efficiency Studies, University of California, Livermore. 1976.
2 Cartridge pairs tested at 1000 ppm, 50% relative humidity, 22°
C, and 53.3 liters/minute (equivalent to a moderately heavy work
rte). Pair cartridges preconditioned at room temperature and 50%
relative humidity for at least 24 hours prior to testing.
^ Mine Safety Appliances Cartridges.
American Optical Cartridges.
21-30
-------
NOTES
Chemical sorbent cartridges and
canisters have an expiration date. They
may be used up to that date as long as
they were not opened previously. Once
opened, they begin to sorb humidity and
air contaminants whether or not they are
in use, and their efficiency and service
life decrease. A cartridge should be
discarded after it is used.
Cartridges are selected for the
particular chemical they remove by a
color coding system outlined in 29 CFR
19.0.135, Table 19-6.
TABE£ 19-6
Atmotpherle contaminant* to be protected Color* assigned*
against
Add ****** - — ——-.--.•.-——-—-•- Whit*.
Hydrocyanic acid gas Whlt« with H-lnch green strip* completely
around th* canister near th* bottom.
Chlorine gaa. Whit* with ft-Inch yellow strip* completely
around th« canister near th« bottom.
Organic vapor* . .....—.. — Block.
Ammonia ga*..........«......._.....••..•.• Green,
Add gase* and ammonia ga* Green with <4-lneh white ttrlpe completely
around the eanUter near tb« bottom.
Carbon monoxide Blue.
Acid cans and organic vapors....... .. Tellow.
Hydrocyanic acid gas and chloroplerta Taper. TeJlow with H-lnca blu* strip* completely
around the canister near the bottom.
Add gase*. organic vapor*, and ammonia Brawn.
Radloactlv* material*, excepting tritium and Purple (Magenta).
noble gase*.
Paniculate* (dost*, fume*, mist*, fog*, or Canister color for contaminant, as designated.
smokesi in combination with any of tb* above, with K-lnch gray ttripe completely
above gaae* or vapor*. around th* canister near the top.
Afl of th* abov* atmospheric contaminant*.. Red with K-lnch gray urlpe completely
around tb* canister near the top.
•Gray (ball not h« assigned a* th* main color for a canister designed to remove acids or
vapor*.
Nor*: Orang* shall b* uMd a* a complete body, or strip* color to represent gases not
Included In this table. Th* user will need to refer to th* canister-label to determine th*
degree of protection tb* canister will afford.
21-31
-------
NOTES
IV. Respirator Construction
The facepiece is one of two major
components of an air-purifying
respirator (the air-purifying devide
being the other). Essentially four
types of f acepieces and devices may be
used:
-Half-mask with twin
cartridges,
- Full-face mask with twin
cartridges,
- Full-face mask with chin-
mounted canister, and
- Full-face mask with harness-
mounted canister (gas mask).
The facepiece is the means of
sealing the respirator to the wearer.
Attached to the facepiece is the lens
(in the case of the full-facepiece) and
the suspension for holding the mask to
the face. An adapter is attached to the
cartridge or canister. With the adapter
and the mask is an inhalation check
valve, which prevents exhaled breath
from coming back through the cartridge
or canister. An exhalation valve
permits the xhaled breath to be
exhausted and prevents air from entering
it during inhalation. Some respirators
provide an integral speaking diaphragm
which is air-tight. Each respirator has
different ways of assembling and
attaching parts. This prevents
hybridizing two different makes into
one, which immediately voids its
approval.
The recommended facepiece to use
with cartridges or canisters is the
full-facepiece. It provides eye
protection, is easier to fit, and has a
Protection Factor of 100X. The half-
mask has a Protection Factor of 10X.
Cartridges and canisters used" in
conjunction with the full-facepiece vary
mainly in the sorbents and the
21-32
-------
NOTES
concentration of atmospheric contaminant
that can be removed. (See Tables 19-7a
and 19-7b.)
Organic vapors can be removed by
appropriate cartridges, chin canisters,
or the larger harness-mounted canisters.
Cartridges are approved for use in
atmospheres up to 1,000 ppm (0.1%) of
organic vapors, chin style canisters up
to 5,000 ppm (0.5%), and harness-mounted
canisters up to 20,000 ppm (2.0%). Keep
in mind that no air-purifying device is
permitted in IDIH atmospheres. Using a
cartridge or canister at lower
concentrations effectively increases its
service life.
The wearer should be familiar with
the respirator to be used. The parts
should be easily identified by function,
which also is important in maintenance
and cleaning.
Selection and Use
Approved respiratory
protective equipment must be selected to
provide protection against the hazards
to which the user may be exposed.
If possible, respirators should be
assigned to individual employees for
their exclusive use. This will be
important particularly for air purifying
respirators in which a good tight fit of
the facepiece has a greater effect on
the protection factor than it does for
air supplying respirators whichh operate
in the continuous flow or positive
pressure-demand mode.
Hazardous conditions in the work
area must be kept under surveillance,
and the degree of employee exposure or
stress must be observed and kept to
saffe levels. When work areas have or
may have an oxygen deficiency or other
exposure which is immediately danerous
to life or health, EPA policy and other
Federal standards require standby
21-33
-------
NOTES
personnel on the scene who are trained
and equipped to carry out a rescue
immediately. Surveillance and ready
assistance are also necessary if EPA
personnel are using air purifying
respirators in areas which contain
concentrations of hazardous material
above the Permissible Exposure Limits
(PEL). Close observation of employees
working in hazardous conditions is
important for limiting their exposure to
hazardous materials by skin contact and
for minimizing any adverse effects of
heat stress.
Standard operating procedures for
typical field activities must be
developed by each working group. These
procedures for selection and use of
respiratory protective equipment must be
in written form and must be implemented
so that EPA employees will have
effective protection from respiratory
hazards. Standard operating procedures
are needed particularly for entry of
atmospheres which are immediately
dangerous to life or health.
Work in dangerous atmospheres
requires development of a standard
operating procedure that will be
understood and used by everyone entering
or working in atmospheres which are
dangerous to life or health. Working
safely in such atmospheres also requires
thorough training, and the presence of a
buddy and a backup. It is important to
recognize that the actual duration of
protection provided by the breathing
apparatus may be considerably less than
the rated capacity because of heat
stress, work rate, body weight and the
wearer's training and ability to control
his or her breathing rate.
Selection of adequate espiratory
protection for field activities depends
on the:
nature of the hazardous operation
or process;
-------
NOTES
contaminant, type of hazard,
concentration, and effects on the body
activities to be conducted in the
hazardous area;
length of time that respiratory
protection will be needed;
time required to get out of the
hazardous area to the nearest area
having respirable air; and
specific characteristics of the
respiratory protective devices that are
available within the Agency or than can
be purchased.
The initial step in selecting
adequate rspiratory protection for a
particular activity is to consider the
nature of the activity and the type of
respiratory hazard that will exist or
that is likely to exist. There are
three basic types of hazards for which
respiratory protection is needed:
Oxygen deficiency
Flammable concentrations of
combustible gas, liquid or dust
contaminants in concentrations
immediately dangerous to life or health
(IDLH), and concentrations above
Permissible Exposure Limits and below
IDLH. The choice of respirators is very
limited if the working atmosphere is
oxygen deficient or contains a
concentration of contaminants that are
flammable or otherwise immediately
dangerous to life or health. If an
oxygen deficiency exists or is possible,
the choice of adequate respiratory
protection is limited to:
Self-contained breathing apparatus,
or
Air-line respirator with an
auxiliary self-contained air supply.
Flammable Gas, Liquid or Dust
21-35
-------
NOTES
It is EPA policy to measure
flammable concentrations of gases and
vapors before entering an area where
such maerial may be present in hazardous
amounts, and not to enter any area which
has in excess of 25 percent of the lower
explosive limit of any material present.
However, unexpected spills or leaks may
make entry of such hazardous areas
necessary for rescue or other emergency
reasons.
If it is every necessary to
approach or enter areas in which
flammable vapors or gases are present or
possible in high concentrations, the
respiratory protection must be either:
Self-contained breathing apparatus,
or an
Air-line respirator with an
auxiliary self-contained air supply.
Toxic Contaminant Exposures
Exposure to toxic contaminants can
be divided into three broad categories,
depending on the degree of hazard:
These three degrees of hazard are
related to the concentrations of toxic
materials which are present:
those immediately dangerous to life
or health (IDLH),
those above Permissible Exposure
Limits (but below IDLH),
those below Permissible Exposure
Limits.
Selection of respiratory proection
depends initially on which category of
toxic hazard is present or is
anticipated.
Concentrations Immediately
Dangerous to Life or Health
21-36'
-------
NOTES
There are several definitions of
what atmospheres are considered
"Immediately Dangerous to Life or
Health." The NIOSH/OSHA Pocket Guide to
Chemical Hazards describes IDLH as a
concentration from which one could not
endure for 30 minutes without any
irreversible health effects.
The Federal standard on rspiratory
protection defines IDLH as conditions
that pose an immediate threat to life or
health or severe exposure to
contaminants which are likely to have
adverse cumulative or delayed effects on
health.
EPA has defined "immediately
dangerous to life or health" as:
"Any atmosphere that poses an
immedite hazard to life or produces
immediate irreversible effects on health
that will be debilitating."
If an atmosphere is or may become
"immeditely dangerous to life or
health," the choice of adequate
respiratory protection is limited to:
self-contained breathing apparatus,
or
air-line respirators with an
auxiliary self-contained air supply.
Concentrations above Permissible
Exposure Limits but below IDLH
Approved respiratory
protection is requirred for exposures to
hazardous materials in airborne
concentrations which are above the
Permissible Exposure Limits. The
Permissible Exposure Limit for a
hazardous material is the maximum
concentration believed to cause no
adverse effect in most people if inhaled
during regular five-day work weeks.
21-37
-------
NOTES
Respiratory protection is also
required for exposure to hazardous
materials in concentrations which may be
expected to cause chronic toxic effects
afer repeated exposure, or acute adverse
physiological symptoms after prolonged
exposure.
Concentrations below Permissible
Exposure Limits (and below IDLH)
When concentrations of
hazardous material are below the
Permissible Exposure Limits or judged to
be at concentrations below such limits,
respiratory protection is not required.
However, respiratory protection may be
needed or desired to prevent physical
discomfort, irritation, sensitization,
or other adverse health effects.
Respiratory Proection for
Concentrations Not Immediately Dangerous
Since air purifying
respirators are lighter, less cumbersome
and less expensive to use than air
supplying respirators, air purifying
respirators will usually be considered
first for protection against hazrdous
material concentrations not immediately
dangerous to life or health. If there
is no approved air purifying respirator
that will provide the protection needed,
it will be necessary to use an air
supplying respirator.
Selection of an air purifying
respirator for protection against
hazardous atmospheres is limited to
those in which the identity and
concentration of material are known to
be within the purification limits of the
respirators. For safety and health
reasons the concentration must be
determined before and during use of the
type of respirator. This basic
limitation is EPA policy as well as a
Federal standard.
The first steps in selection of
21-38
-------
" ~~~~ NOTES
air purifying respirators are to:
1. Identify the contaminant or
contaminants which are present,
2. Determine the Permissible
Exposure Limit, warning properties and
whether the wrning properties are
adequate,
3. Determine the maximum
concentration present in the working
area.
The next steps in the selection of
a respirator are based on the
concentration and warning properties of
the contaminants present:
4. If the concentration is below
the Permissible Exposure Limit
respirator use is optional;
5. If the concentration is above
the Permissible Exposure Linit
respirator use is required;
6. If the contaminant has adequate
warning properties, an approved air
purifying respirator may be worn.
Select a respirator with a ffiltration
system which will provide adequate
protection and time for the
concentration measured in the working
atmosphere.
7. If the material has no warning
properties or inadequate properties, an
air supplying respirator is required.
8. If the concentration is above
the level considered IDLH, a self-
contained breathing apparatus is
strongly recommended.
Summary of Factors for Selection of
Type of Respiratory Protection
Air Purifying Respirators
Air purifying respirators may
be used under the followinc conditions:
21-39
-------
NOTES
1. the concentration of oxygen in
the hazardous atmosphere is known to be
19.5 percent or more (but not more than
25 percent); and
2. the concentration of airborne
toxic material is not immediately
dangerous to life or health; and
3. the concentration of airborne
toxic material does not exceed the
capacity of the filter or
cartridge/canister unit as marked on the
unit or the respirator approval; and
4. the airborne toxic material
does have adequate warning properties
(irritation or odor) to signal failure
of the cartridge/canister or filter
unit. Some materials which do have
adequate warning properties are ammonia,
chlorine and sulfur dioxide.
Air Supply Respirators
Atmosphere-Supplying Respirators
Atmosphere-supplying respirators
provide from five minutes to several
hours of breathing air. The amount of
protection provided is based on two
factors: the tupe of facepiece and its
mode of operation. The full-face mask
provides the best protection. Of the
three modes of operation, continuous,
demand, and pressure-demand, the
pressure-demand mode provides the best
proection.
On the basis of construction, there
are four types of atmosphere-supplying
respirators: oxygen-generating, hose
mask, airline, and self-contained
breathing apparatus.
Modes of Operation
a. Continuous
In the continuous mode, air is
constantly flowing to the respirator.
Model 401
Pressure
Oemgnd
Air Mask
21-40'
-------
NOTES
user, usually from an air compressor or
compressed air tank. The flow must be
regulated so that the user gets as much
air as he needs.
b. Demand
In the demand mode, a negative
pressure is required inside the
facepiece to open a valve and permit air
to enter the respirator. The negative
pressure may draw contaminated air
through any gaps in the facepiece-to-
face seal. This mode uses less air than
the continuous mode.
c. Pressure-demand
The pressure-demand mode
establishes a positive pressure inside
the facepiece. Any leaks around the
facepiece allow good air to enter from
the tank. It continues to flow until a
high positive pressure is built up by
exhaling. When the internal pressure
drops, more good air is admitted. Some
positive pressure is always present
inside the -facepiece. This mode also
conserves air because with a proper seal
only the air that is exhaled is
replaced.
Types of Devides
a. Oxygen-generating
The oldest respirator is the
oxygen-generating respirator, which
utilizes a canister of potassium
superoxide. The chemical reacts with
exhaled CC^ and water vapor to produce
oxygen. Oxygen-generating respirators
have been used in the military and for
escape purposes in mines.
b. Hose mask
The hose mask uses a maximum
75-foot long, large-diameter hose to
transport clean air from a remote area.
The user breathes the air in, or it is
21-4T
-------
NOTES
forced in by a blower. The user can
over-breathe this source.
Airline Respirators
The airline respirator is
similar to the hose mask, except that
the air is compressed. The mode of
operation may be any one of three
previously described. The air source
must not be depletable. No more than
300 feet of airline is allowed.
Self-contained Breathing Apparatus
The self-contained breathing
apparatus (SCBA) allows the wearer to
carry a cylinder of compressed air or
oxygen without the restriction of a hose
or airline.
Depending upon the source of air,
the SCBA can be either open or closed-
circuit. Closed-circuit devices mix
pure oxygen from a small cylinder with
exhaled breath (COn removed) to provide
breathing air. This type of device,
also referred to as a rebreather, is
approved only as demand-type
respirators.
Open-circuit SCBA's are approved as
either demand or pressure demand.
Demand SCBA's are being phased out of
production because of the greater
protection afforded by pressure-demand
apparatus.
An escape SCBA must have at least
five minutes of breathing air stored in
a small cylinder or coiled stainless
steel tube. Some devices on the market
have 15 minute air supplies.
Under no circumstances are escape
devices to be used for entry into
hazardous atmospheres.
21-42'
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NOTES
Modes of Operation
A. Demand
In the demand mode, a negative
pressure is created inside the facepiece
and breathing tubes when the wearer
inhales. This negative pressure draws
down a diaphragm in the regulator in an
SCBA. The diaphragm depresses and opens
the admision valves, allowing air to be
inhaled. As long as the negative
prssure remains, air flows to the
facepiece.
The problem with demand operation
is that the wearer can inhale
contaminated air through any gaps in the
facepiece-to-face sealing surface.
Hence, demand apparatus is assigned a
Protection Factor of only 100, the same
as for a full-face air-purifying
respirator.
B. Pressure-Demand
An SCBA operating in the
pressure-demand mode maintains a
positive pressure inside the facepiece
at all times. The system is designed so
that the admission valve remains open
until enough pressure is built up to
close it. The pressure builds up
because air is prevented from leaving
the system until the wearer exhales.
Less pressure is required to close the
admission valve than is required to
openm the spring-loaded exhalation
valve.
At all times, the pressure in the
facepiece is greather than the ambient
pressure outside the facepiece. If any
leakage occurs, it is outward from the
facepiece. Because of this, the
pressure-demand SCBA has been assigned a
Protection Factor of 10,000.
21-43
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NOTES
TYPES OF APPARATUS
A. Closed-Circuit
The closed-circuit SCBA,
commonly called the rebreather, was
developed especially for oxygen-
deficient situations. Because it
recycles exhaled breath and carries only
a small oxygen supply, the service time
can be considerable greater than an
open-circuit device, which must carry
all of its breathing air.
The air for breathing is mixed in a
flexible breathing bag. This air is
inhaled, def latring the breathing bag.
The deflation depresses the admission
valve, allowing the oxygen to enter the
bag. There it mixes with exhaled
breath, from which carbon dioxide has
just been removed.
Most rebreathers operate in the
demand mode. Several rebreathers are
designed to provide a positive pressure
in the facepiece. The approval schedule
13F under 30 CFR Part 11 for closed-
circuit SCBA makes no provisions for
testing "demand" or "pressure-demand"
rebreathers. The approval schedule was
set up to certify only rebreathers that
happen to operate in the demand mode.
Thus, rebreathers designed to operate in
the pressure-demand mode can be approved
strictly as closed-circuit apparatus.
Since regulations make no distinction,
and selection is based on approval
criteris, rebreathers designed to
maintain a positive pressure can only be
considered as a demand-type apparatus.
Rebreathers use either compressed
oxygen or liquid oxygen. To assure the
good quality of air to be breathed, the
oxygen must be at least medical grade
breathing air which meets the
requirements set by the "U.S.
Pharmacopeia."
21-44
-------
NOTES
B. Open-Circuit
The open-circuit SCBA requires
a supply of 21% oxygen and 78% nitrogen
breathing air. The user simply inhales
and exhales. The exhaled air is
exhausted from the system. Because the
air is not recycled, the wearer must
carry the full air supply, which limits
a unit to the amount of air that the
wearer can carry easily. Available
SCBA's can last from five to 60 minutes.
Units which have 5-to-15 minute air
supplies are only applicable to escape
situations. The wearer must have at
least 30 minutes of air to enter a
hazardous atmosphere.
The air used in open-circuit
apparatus must meet the requirements in
the Compressed Gas Association's
Pamphlet G-7.1, which calls for at least
"Grade D." Grade D air must contain
19.5 to 23.5% oxygen with the balance
being predominantly nitrogen. Condensed
hydrocarbons are limited to 5 mg/m ,
carbon monoxide to 20 parts per million
(ppm) and carbon dioxide to 1,000 ppm.
An undesirable odor is also prohibited.
Air quality can be checked using an
oxygen meter, carbon monoxide meter, and
detector tubes.
Wien to Dse SCBA
Air supplying respirators must be
used to be sure of adequate proection TT
any one of these five special conditions
exists or may reasonably be expected to
exist:
1. the concentration of oxygen in
the hazardous atrmosphere may have been
ree fom the normal concentration of
about 21% to 19.5% or less; or
2. the concentration of airborne
toxic material exceeds a concentration
which would be immediately dangerous to
life or health; or
21-45'
-------
NOTES
3. the concentration of airborne
toxic material exceeds the limited
ability of the filter or
cartridge/canister unit, as marked onthe
unit or the respirator approval or
4. the concentration of airborne
toxic material is not known to be less
than the limited ability of the filter
or cartridge/canister unit, as marked on
the unit or the respirator approval; or
5. the airborne toxic material
does not have adequate warning
properties (irritation or odor) to
signal failure of the cartridge/canister
or filter unit. Some examples of
materials which do not have adequiate
warning properties are methyl bromide,
dimethylformamide and phosgene.
Cleaning, Inspection and Storage of
Respirators
Obtaining dependable protection
from respirators requires cleaning,
inspection and storage to maintain them
and prevent damage or deterioration.
Respirators must be cleaned and
disinfected after each day's use and
more often if necessary. They must be
cleaned and disinfected before they re
used by another person.
In general, the cleaning procedure
is to disassemble the respirator
(without using tools) , wash the
facepiece and breathing hoses in cleaner
and sanitizer solution mixed in warm
water, rinse completely and dry in a
clean area.
Most respirator manufacturers
distribute cleaner-sanitizer material
for cleaning their equipment. A mild
detergent will usually do a satisfactory
job, either with or without a mild
bactericidal agent.
Part of the maintenance
respirators is regular inspection.
of
21-46'
-------
• NOTES
Respirators must be inspected
during cleaning, and worn or
deteriorated parts must be replaced.
Each person using a respirator should
inspect the respirator before each use
to be sure that it .is in working
condition.
Respirators for emergency use must
be inspected after each use, and at
least once a month between uses.
Storage for respirators must be in
a convenient, clean, and sanitary
location, or in a container which will
keep them clean. If they are packaged
in tight plastic bags and transported on
field trips, protect the bag from being
abraded or punctured. The respirators
should also be protected against
temperature extremes and exposure to
direct sunlight for prolonged periods.
Training Requirements for Respiratory
Protective Equipment
1 EPA standards require six hours of
initial training for users of
respirators, and two to four additional
hours annually after the initial
training. Records of training and fit
testing of employees are to be
maintained by the supervisor.
Safe use of respiratory protective
equipment depends on thorough training.
Every employee who may use a respirator
needs to know: when it is needed, which
type is needed, and the capabilities and
the limitations of the equipment for
specific exposures.
Every user of respiratory
protective equipment needs to learn how
to put on the equipment to be used, how
to adjust it for a comfortable fit, and
how to test the seal between the
facepiece and the face to see that the
equipment fits thightly enough to
provide needed protection.
In addition, every user needs to
have the opportunity to wear the
21-47
-------
NOTES
equipment in normal air for a period of
familiarization, and then to wear the
equipment in a test atmosphere.
The final selection of rrespirator
type is based on a number of factors
including the protection factor (PF),
the Threshold Limit Value (TLV), the
Immediate Danger to Life and Health
(IDLH) and Agency policy. The following
condensed charts will provide some
assistance in helping field crews select
the proper respirator type.
TABU: i9-7a
Selection of Respirators for Emergency or Short-Term Use
on the Basis of Hazard and Expected Concentration (Gases and Vapors)
Toxicity
Low
Moderate
High
Expected Concentrations of Gases or Vapors
Two to five
times TLV or
up to 1000 ppm
No respirator,
or chemical
cartridge needed
Chemical car-
tridge
Canister gas
mask
Five to ten
times TLV or
1000-5000
ppm
Canister gas
mask
Canister gas
mask or air-
line respirator
Air- line res-
pirator
Above (en
times TLV or
5000-20,000
ppm
Canister gas
mask or air-
line respirator
Air-line or
self-contained
air or oxygen
Self-contained
air or oxygen
Oxygen defi-
ciency, emer-
gency or above
20,000 ppm
Self-contained
air or oxygen
Self-contained
air or oxygen
Self-contained
air or oxygen
NOTS:
(1) TLV refers to the Threshold Limit Values Tor • number of substances published by
MM American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (see Section I and
lection 12).
(2) See Sections I and 2 for • discussion of toxicity ratings and their relation (o TLV.
(3) When unavoidable conditions necessitate using respirators Tor longer periods (above
1 hour), use equipment in a higher protective category than shown above.
(4) Subject to lirnitiations (Table 11), hose-type respirators, may be used in place of air
line
21-48
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TABLE 19—7b
Selection of Respirators for Emergency or Short-Term Use
on the Basis of Hazird and Expected Concentration (Participates)
Toxicity
Expected Concentrations of Paniculate Matter
(Dusts, Fumes and Mists)
Low
Moderate
or High (tox-
icity no
greater
than lead)
Extremely
High (toxicity
greater
than lead)
Two to five
times TLV
Respirator not
usually needed
Filter
Filter or air-
line respirator
Five to twenty
times TLV
Filter
Filter or air-
line respirator
Air-line res-
pirator
Above twenty
times TLV
Filter or air-
line respirator
Air-line or
self-contained
air or oxygen
Self-contained
air or oxygen
Oxygen defi-
cient, emer-
gency, highly
corrosive
Where expo-
sure is to
extremely
corrosive
dusts or to
dusts in an
oxygen defi-
cient atmos-
phere, a self-
contained air .
or oxygen
respirator
must be used.
Noras:
(1) TLV refers to the Threshold Limit Values for a number of substances published by the
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (Sections 1, 12).
(2) See Sections 1 and 2 for • discussion of toxicity ratings and (heir relation to TLV's.
(3) Expected concentrations of paniculate matter have been shown only as multiples of (he
threshold limit values. Where these values are not available, the following concentrations
may be used as a guide:
Mineral Dusts
2 to J (TLV) up to 50 mppcf •
5 to 20 (TLV) JO to 1000 mppcf*
Above 20 (TLV) above 1000 mppcf •
(4) When unavoidable conditions necessitate using respirators Tor longer periods (above I
hour), use equipment in a higher protective category than shown above.
(5) Subject to limitations (Table 2.1), hose-type respirators may be used in place of air line
• Mppcf - millions of particles per cubic foot.
Other Dusts. Fumes, and Mists
Up to 0.3 milligrams per cubic meter
0.3 (o 10 milligrams per cubic meter
Above 10 milligrams per cubic mete
21-49
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STUDENT EXERCISES
*
The following exercise has been developed to provide
practical experience for field crew selection of respirator and
cartridge type. Students should refer to charts and tables found
in the unit.
An EPA crew has been sent to a now defunct solvent recycling
company. A number of samples from a variety of environments must
be taken. Determine the respirator type, cartridge if
applicable, and rationale used for each selection.
I. Building A
Building A was used for storage and recyling of the
nonchlorinated solvent acetone. Air monitoring indicates the
oxygen level to be 20.1%, with the LEL for acetone at .30 or 30%.
A. Air-purifying type respirator (rationale)
B. Cartridge type (rationale)^
C. Expected breakthrough time (rationale)
D. PF of type selected
E. Maximum ppm this respirator is good for_
Calc.
F. Degree of warning properties - odor
G. Air-supplyuing respirator (rationale)
II. Building B
Air monitoring indicates ammonia to be present at 50 ppm,
oxygen to be 19.8%.
A.
B.
C.
21-50
-------
H.
II. Building C
Air monitoring indicates perchlorothylene at 93 ppm, oxygen
at 19.0%.
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F. ,
G.
H.
21-51
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-------
-------
CNIT 22
SAMPLING AT HAZARDOUS WASTE SITES
Educational Objectives
o The student should be able to
list the essential steps in planning
sampling at a hazardous waste site.
o The student should be able to
list the conditions for each level of
personnel protection (A, B, C).
o The student should be able to
describe a hazardous waste site
decontamination plan.
o The student should be able to
define the preliminary steps necessary
for a site survey.
o The student should be able to
list equipment included in each level of
personnel protection.
o The student should be able to
select the necessary personnel
protection for a known and unknown
waste.
o The student should be able to
define terms used in sampling drums.
o The student should be able to
describe the various methods of opening
drums safely and when to use each.
o The student should be able to
describe the procedure for sampling a
drum.
o The student should be able to
list the steps in cleaning and
decontaminating a coliwasa.
o The student should know the
hazards involved with sampling ponds and
lagoons.
o The student should know the
hazards involved with the sampling of
waste piles.
22-1
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OMIT 22
SAMPLING AT HAZARDOUS WASTE SITES
NOTES
It is the opinion of many that
sampling at a hazardous waste site
represents the most dangerous
environment faced by field crews. Often
crews are faced with a multitude of
unknowns, in various physical states,
often in highly concentrated amounts and
in a variety of containers in dubious or
poor condition.
Such combinations of threats and
unknowns must be met with proper
planning, training and practice.
It is fitting to say that nearly
every unit in the Basic Field Training
Course can be put to use when preparing
to enter and sample a hazardous waste
site.
Planning and Preparation
Planning and preparation for an
investigation at a hazardous waste site
may in some cases take more time than
the investigation itself. There are
three essential activities in planning
work at a site.
Three essential activities in
planning work at a site are to:
* Obtain information about hazards
at the site.
* Decide on the personal protection
needed in different areas.
* Define the boundaries of
contaminated and decontamination areas.
As preparation for an investigation
of a hazardous waste site, personnel
need to:
* Prepare safety procedures and
jt.
Gather all needed equipment
22-2
-------
NOTES
* Provide training and practice in
use of equipment and procedures.
* Conduct a preliminary survey to
get more detailed information.
The number of field personnel that
should be assigned to a hazardous waste
site investigation depends on the number
needed for safe use of protective
equipment, the length of time each
person can work under the particular
stresses of the job, and on the time
available for the investigation.
For example, a team of at least
three people is required for safe and
effective use of respiratory protection
and a team of five persons for use of
encapsulating suits, because of the
requirements for teamwork and stand-by
assistance. Working in air supplying
respirators will require a compressed
air supply, and extra cylinders or a
special compressor. Rest periods are
also required to reduce fatigue and heat
stress that are generated by the work
and by the use of the protective
equipment and clothing. The amount of
working time is also limited by the
activities of getting into and out of
protective equipment and decontaminating
it.
Obtaining Information
The first step in a waste site
investigation is obtaining information
about the hazard expected at the site
and about off-site sources of emergency
assistance and supplies.
Information About Site Hazards and
Conditions
Planning begins with gathering as
much information as possible about the
materials dumped at a site. The effort
may include a long search through
records, and interviews with former
employees and people living near the
22-3
-------
site. After information is gathered on
the identity of materials dumped, it may
be necessary to find out what is known
or suspected about the characteristics
and hazards of those materials.
Information about physical
conditions at the site should include
geologic and topographic maps, road
maps, and aerial photographs if
available. Data on the prevailing wind
and weather conditions expected at the
site can be very important for carrying
out the investigation safely.
Information should also be gathered
about conditions, at the site, which may
present safety and sampling problems,
such as soft or marshy areas, large or
unstable piles, and heaps of building
materials or large pieces of reinforced
concrete.
Off-Site Emergency Assistance and
Resources
Obtain information concerning off-
site emergency assistance and resources
at a hazardous waste site before the
investigation begins.
Find out if emergency medical
assistance is available, such as an
ambulance service or a fire department
paramedic team. Find out how to request
assistance and how to identify your
location.
Find out which nearby hospital has
Emergency Room service, and whether
there are laboratories nearby that can
perform useful tests in case of a
chemical exposure emergency.
If there is any possibility of fire
at the site, find out which fire
department will respond (if any), how to
contact the fire department that will
respond, and how to identify the site so
that they know where to respond.
Call all emergency numbers to find
if they are accurate and up-to-date,
NOTES
22-4
-------
NOTES
since hazardous waste sites are often
remote from usual sources of supplies
and protective equipment. Find a source
of replacement supplies near the site or
take extra supplies. If there are
supplies that will be expended in great
quantity at the site, try to find a
company that stocks the items that will
be needed.
Routine replacement of compressed
breathing air should be arranged by
finding a fire department or company
that can provide a reliable supply. If
possible, get a sample of the air that
can be supplied and have it tested for
quality.
Deciding on Levels of Protection
Deciding on levels of protection to
be used at a hazardous waste site is an
important but difficult process based on
assessment of the known or suspected
hazards at the site. For the purpose of
choosing protective equipment, the
hazards can be grouped in three
categories: unknown or severe
respiratory hazards plus severe skin
exposure hazards; severe respiratory
hazards without severe skin exposure
hazards; and moderate respiratory
hazards with skin exposure unlikely.
Several categories of hazards and
the protection needed for each are as
follows;
For convenient reference, special
groupings of protective equipment have
been designated as different "levels of
protecion." EPA guidelines for
evaluating hazards and selecting
protective equipment are described in
detail later in this unit.
22-5
-------
TABLE 1
Hazards Level Protection Needed
Unknown or Severe Hazards A SCBA + Encapsulating Suits
Respiratory and
Skin Contact Hazards
Unknown or severe hazards which include respiratory and skin
contact hazards, require Level A protection which consists
essentially of SCBA and fully-encapsulating suits.
Unknown or Severe Hazards B SCBA + Protective Clothing
Respiratory Hazards
Little or no skin hazard
Unknown or severe hazards which include respiratory hazards
but little or no skin hazard, require Level B protection which
consists essentially of SCBA and protective clothing.
Moderate Hazards C Air-Purifying Respirators
Respiratory Hazards + Protective Clothing
Skin exposure unlikely
Moderate hazards which include limited respiratory hazards
but skin exposure is highly unlikely, require Level C protection
which consists of air purifying respirators and protective
clothing.
For ordinary work environments which do not have any unusual
chemical hazards, Level D protection consists of ordinary work
clothing.
22-6
-------
NOTES
Defining Special
Contamination Control
Areas for
An important part of planning an
investigation and the protective
equipment needed is defining special
areas for contamination control. This
requires defining the boundaries of the
contaminatd site and the location of the
decontamination area. For safety and
convenience, only one level of
protection should be required in each
special area. Unprotected personnel
should be excluded from these areas, by
procedure, by marking the areas or by
erection of a fence.
Preparation
Preparation should include
developing special operating safety
procedures,'gathering necessary safety
and protective equipment, and training
personnel in use of protective
equipment.
Getting in and out of bulky
protective equipment, using it while
collecting samples, and following
emergency procedures should be practiced
in advance of actual work. Practice
will make it easier to carry out tasks
in the limited time provided by special
breathing apparatus. Practice will also
make it easier to work in special
protective equipment, with less stress.
If the planned sampling activities
require field personnel to carry out
operations that are not familiar, the
operations should be rehearsed,
particularly if they are hazardous or
critical,
Conducting a Preliminary Survey
Before an investigation begins at a
hazardous waste site, before collecting
hazardous waste samples or working at
the site, a preliminary survey should be
conducted to get the detailed
information needed for developing
22-7
-------
NOTES
specific safety and health plans and for
completing preparations. As one part
of the survey, it is important to
observe physical hazards, measure
atmospheric concentrations of
contaminants and gather other
information which can be used for
selecting the levels of protection that
will be required for subsequent sampling
and investigation.
Assessing Physical Hazards
A preliminary survey should include
a thorough inspecton to assess physical
hazards at the site and make efforts to
identify hazardous materials from
container markings.
Look for and record problems such
as rough terrain, open waste ponds or
lagoons, unstable piles, bulged or
leaking drums, confined spaces, dead
vegetation, discolored soil, or standing
water.
Monitoring the Atmosphere
Part of the preliminary survey is
monitoring the atmosphere at the site
for concentrations of the contaminants
known, or likely, to be present in the
air at the site. If the contaminants
are not known, samples should be taken
for laboratory analysis.
Measure the concentrations of
organic vapors, including concentrations
of combustible gases and vapors, and
measure any ionizing radiation. Wind
speed and direction should also be
monitored.
Concentrations of organic vapors
can be measured by a combination of two
field instruments, an organic vapor
analyzer and a photoionizer. The
organic vapor analyzer is a portable
hydrocarbon analyzer with optional
capabilities for gas chromatography. It
can be used for monitoring total
22-8
-------
NOTES
concentrations of hydrocarbons.
The response time of the organic
vapor analyzer is relatively long. It
does not respond fast enough to detect
vapors at a rapid walking speed.
.Personnel using the analyzer and not
walking slowly, could walk into a high
concentration of vapors before the meter
could respond.
The photoionizer has a wide
detection range, but it too has a
relatively long response time, and it is
highly directional and must be held
close to a source before detection is
possible. High humidity and wind can
cause the photoionizer to give false
readings.
In the absence of other
information, the total vapor
concentrations measured during the
initial survey can be used to decide the
level of personal protection needed at a
hazardous waste site and in the
decontamination area.
If the total vapor concentrations
are unexpectedly high in areas outside
of that tentatively designated as the
contaminated area, the boundaries may
need to be enlarged.
Measuring Wind Speed and Direction
Wind speed and direction should be
measured during the initial survey and
during subsequent activities at a
hazardous waste site. The wind
indicator should be visible from all
points in the contaminated area at which
there may be leaks, so that personnel on
site can see which way to evacuate in
case there is a leak of vapor or gas.
If there are buildings or large piles of
waste on the site, there may be
microenvironments in which the wind does
not blow in the same direction as it
does on most of the site.
22-9 •
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NOTES
Levels of Protection
Protecting personnel from contact
with, or exposure to, chemicals at a
hazardous waste site depends to a large
extent on protective clothing and
equipment. Crew members should select
and use the combination of equipment
that will provide adequate protection,
without encumbering them any more than
necessary.
Definitions of how much protective
equipment is "necessary" are likely to
vary subjectively from "everything" by
an overly cautious person, to "very
little" by someone who is not concerned
about either immediate or delayed
consequences of exposure.
Personal Protective Equipment for
Hazardous Vfeste Sites
The personal protective equipment
recommended for work at hazardous waste
sites'consists of several types of
protective equipment or clothing:
1. Respiratory Protection, either
Air supplying or Air purifying.
2. Protective Clothing for Body
Protection.
3. Gloves and Boots for Hand and
Foot Protection.
4. Eye and Face Protection.
5. Head Protection.
6. Communication Equipment.
The major difference in the level
of protection recommended for different
degrees of hazard is in the selection of
respiratory protection and protective
clothing. •
The maximum level of protection
available is called Level A, and it
includes:
22-10'
-------
NOTES
SCBA that operates in the Positive
Pressure-Demand mode.
Fully-Encapsulating Suit with
Gloves and boots attached.
Second Set of Gloves.
Second Set of Boots.
Two-Way Radio.
The conditions requiring Level A
protection include the following:
Unknown Concentrations of Hazardous
Material.
Vapor Concentrations from 500 to
1000 ppm.
Concentrations Immediately
Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH).
Material that Could Affect Skin or
Eyes.
Toxic Amounts of Material that
Could be Absorbed.
An Oxygen Deficiency.
Necessity to Enter Confined
Spaces or a Hazardous Environment
The next lower level of protection is
called Level B, and it includes:
SCBA operating in the Positive
Pressure-Demand Mode.
Hooded Suit that is Chemical
Resistant.
Gloves and Boots.
Second Set of Gloves.
Second Set of Boots.
Two-way Radio.
22-n
-------
NOUS
The conditions requiring Level B
protection include:
Unknown Concentrations with a Skin
Risk that is Slight.
Vapor Concentrations from 5-500
ppm.
Concentrations Immediately
Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH).
Concentrations Too High for an Air
Purifying Respirator.
Toxic Amounts that Could NOT Be
Absorbed Through Skin.
Oxygen Deficiency.
Confined Spaces or Hazardous
Environment.
The minimum acceptable level of
protection at a hazardous waste site is
Level C, and it includes:
Air Purifying Respirator with a
Full-Face Mask.
Escape Mask.
Fire Resistant Coveralls.
Gloves (optional).
Cover Boots Over Shoes or Boots.
Eye Protection if for any reason a
full-face mask is not used.
Conditions requiring Level C protection
include vapor concentrations of less
than 5 ppm, in which an air purifying
respirator is acceptable.
Remember that the term "Level of
Protection" describes a combination of
equipment and clothing that should
provide protection against a particular
group of hazards. The levels of
22-12
-------
NOTES
protection provided should change if
hazards change. It is appropriate to
increase the level of protection
required in an area if the hazards
increase after a level of protection has
been chosen for work in that area.
Known Materials and Known Concentrations
Selection of appropriate
protective equipment to prevent contact
with or inhalation of excessive amounts
of toxic chemicals is relatively easy if
personnel know what chemicals they will
be exposed to and at what
concentrations. Then it is possible to
pick a respirator which will protect
against the inhalation hazard and the
clothing which will protect against skin
contact.
However, simply selecting
protective equipment for a known
exposure concentration may lead to
problems. Concentrations can change.
Containers can rupture or leak and
release more material, the wind can
shift or change velocity and the sun can
increase the pressure within containers
and increse evaporation from exposed
liquids. Using equipment with very
little margin for safety or with
protection against only a limited range
of materials could lead to trouble if
concentrations increase or if other
materials should be released into the
immediate environment.
Unknown Materials or Unknown
Concentrations
It is much more difficult to select
an appropriate level of protection if
the potential exposures are to unknown
hazardous materials, or to unknown
concentrations. To prepare for these
situations, EPA has developed some
guidelines for judging the hazards and
selecting protective equipment.
At a waste site, the basic
presumption is that there can be
22-13
-------
NOTES
exposure to hazardous materials and that
protective clothing and equipment must
be used. (Any assumption otherwise
should be made only if there is strong
evidence that there is no hazard of
adverse exposures to the respiratory
system, skin or eyes.)
If the potental exposure includes
both inhalation and skin contact
hazards, the basic protection required
is SCBA and fully-encapsulating suits,
which are designed to prevent
penetration even of vapors and gases.
SCBA and fully-encapsulating suits are
part of Level A protection.
• If the potential exposure hazard is
limited to inhalation hazards only, the
basic protection required is self-
contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) ,
which is part of Level B protection.
Special Hazardous Areas
Level A or B protection is required
for entry into special hazardous areas
such as confined spaces, oxygen-
deficient atmospheres, and
concentrations of toxic materials that
are Immediately Dangerous to Life or
Health.
Vapor
IE orgnnic vaporn of unknown
identity are present in total
concentrations greater than 5 ppm, Level
A or B protection is required. Level B
protection is required for
concentrations from 5 to 500 ppm, and
Level A protection is required if the
total organic vapor concentration is
over 500 ppn.
Experience with use of portable
that vapor concentrations around 5 ppm
result when the measurements are taken
close to a main source of contamination,
22-14'
-------
NOTES
and that the concentration will not
routinely approach or exceed 500 ppm
except inside a closed building or
in a contaminant spill area.
Protection for Preliminary Surveys
The minimum protection recommended
for a preliminary survey of a hazardous
waste site is self-contained breathing
apparatus and Level B protection. This
assumes that exposure of areas of the
skin unprotected by Level B protective
clothing is expected to be either
unlikely or not hazardous. If materials
are present which are likely to be
absorbed through the skin, Level A
protection is recommended.
The only conditions where limited
protective clothing (Level C) may be
acceptable at a hazardous waste site
are:
1. Taking environmental samples or
making environmental measurements in the
vicinity of the site, but out of areas
likely to be highly contaminated.
2. Making preliminary surveys
where the hazards of the waste are known
and there is not likely to be any
significant contact because the material
is confined, ventilated by the wind, or
does not release hazardous
concentrations under conditions at the
time of the survey.
Work Limitations in Protective Equipment
In assigning work and assesing its
effects, keep in mind the work
limitations in protective equipment.
Wearing any protective clothing or
equipment increases the weight carried,
the breathing effort and the heat load.
The incrased heat load from working in
an encapsulating suit is great enough to
require careful attention to prevent
severe heat stress effects. (Guidelines
for assessing environmental and
physiological factors and managing heat
22-15'
-------
NOTES
stress are provided in the unit on heat
and cold stress.)
Using protective equipment may make
it necessary to reduce the maximum
working period between breaks and the
total working time per day. The working
time for which it is safe to allow a
person to wear protective equipment
depends on the physical work load and on
the heat load. Under "normal"
conditions, it is recommended that
personnel work in respirators and
protective suits for no more than about
three hours in one day. Under hot
conditions, the on-site working time may
be as little as 20 minutes at one time,
and as little as 2 hours in one working
day.
Contamination Control Areas
One means of simplifying the choice
of personal protective equipment
required at a hazardous waste site is to
establish clearly-marked contamination
control areas in which contamination
levels will be considered uniform. If
these areas are defined and used
correctly, only one level of protection
will be required in each area.
The first special area to be
established is the contaminated area.
If the hazardous waste and exposure to
the waste can be kept within a fenced
area, defined as the contaminated area,
protective equipment for that exposure
hazard will not need to be used outside
of the fence.
Since walking, sampling and working
in the contaminated area of a hazardous
waste site can contaminate shoes,
sampling equipment and other equipment,
there should be a decontamination area
to reduce the spread of hazardous waste
beyond the boundaries of the controlled
areas.
One of the important reasons for
22-16'
-------
NOTES
marking the boundaries of the
contaminated area and controlling entry
and egress is to prevent tracking and
transfer of hazardous material into
areas that are cleaner.
The third special area that needs
to be designated for work at a hazardous
waste site is the clean area, or the
support area, which can be kept
uncontaminated for storage of supplies
and for communication and control
activities.
Contaminated Area
There will be a problem of setting
boundaries when the site includes waste
containers which, if opened, can release
hazardous vapors. If space is
available, the contaminated area can be
made large enough to provide adequate
distance for vapors to dissipate. If
space is limited, sampling activities
will have to be conducted in a way that
will minimize evaporation.
Boundaries of the contaminated area
may have to be changed if more hazardous
waste is uncovered at the site or if
operations begin to spread contamination
beyond the boundaries.
Access to the contaminated area
should be limited to one or two points
at which protective equipment will be
put on when entering and removed when
leaving. Part of the access area should
be reserved for clean equipment and part
for decontamination.
Decontamination Area
A decontamination area should be
set up at the point of entrance to and
exit from the contaminated area, so that
everything coming out of the
contaminated area can be cleaned to
prevent spread of contamination.
22-17-
-------
NOTES
Support Area
Supplies, showers, generator and
other equipment for work at the waste
site should be in a support area located
where it will remain uncontaminated and
"clean." No protective clothing should
be needed in the clean area.
The support area should be located
where it is accessible to the
decontamination area and where it can be
reached from a road. Generally, the
support area should be upwind and uphill
from the contaminated area.
Control and Connunication Area
In the clean support area there
needs to be a location that is
identified and equipped for
communication and for control of
activities at the hazardous waste site.
(This location is sometimes referred to
as the Command Post.)
Decontamination
An important but difficult task at
a waste site is preventing or reducing
the spread, of hazardous material, by
sampling and other activities at the
site. Ideally, all contamination that
is picked up on samples, sampling
apparatus, protective equipment and
other items used at the site is removed
at the site and left there.
Decontamination is difficult even
if the contaminants are known and
effective cleaning materials are
available. Protective clothing, gloves,
and boots can sometimes absorb and
retain contamination, making
decontamination difficult or impossible.
If this is a problem, disposable
protective clothing or protective
coverings are recommended.
While it would be ideal if all
contamination could be removed within
the decontamination area at the waste
22-18
-------
site, it may only be possible to remove
NOTES
major contamination or to reduce the
contamination to a level that is
reasonably safe. Equipment can be
packaged for subsequent testing and
decontamination.
Since it is virtually impossible to
prevent transfer of contaminants from
protective clothing to the wearer, even
though careful techniques are used, one
of the important ways of protecting
personnel is to decontaminate the
protective clothing before it is
removed. This difficult task requires
protectiwe equipment for the personnel
who assist, and it requires speed if a
person in a fully-encapsulating suit has
little breathing air left.
Unless the contamination is severe,
the level of protection required for
helpers working in the Decontamination
Area will probably be Level C with air
purifying respirators.
If the waste at a site is
considered extremely toxic, personnel
should have an opportunity to wash and
shower, preferably at the site.
Decontamination generally consists
of washing the contaminated item,
followed by rinsing or a series of
rinsings. The washing should be done
with a cleaning material which will most
effectively remove the contamination.
If the contaminant is known, the
cleaning solution should be one which
will dissolve or react with the
contaminant to change its form,
composition or solubility (without
destroying the protective material). If
the contaminant is unknown, the solution
will probably have to be detergent and
water.
22-19'
-------
NOTES
Contaminated Solutions and Equipment
The appropriate steps for handling
contaminated solutions and equipment are
to collect them for proper disposal,
store them within the contaminated area,
and decontaminate or package them for
later decontamination.
Decontaminating solutions should be
collected fo proper disposal.
The solutions and supplies such as
brushes and sponges can be stored within
the contaminated area (if it is fenced).
Protective equipment can be cleaned
in the decontamination area, and
cleaning solutions can be collected and
disposed of properly.
It is generally appropriate to
leave the decontaminating solutions and
supplies in the contaminated area at the
waste site since the quantity of
hazardous waste at the site is not
changed significantly by doing so. If,
however, the decontaminating solutions
are solvents which when used become
hazardous waste, they must be disposed
of as required by the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act. (This
should be planned for in advance so that
the waste can be packaged and disposed
of safely and conveniently.)
Equipment which cannot be
decontaminated or which has been
contaminated with extremely toxic
material may have to be packaged at the
site and decontaminated later under
controlled conditions.
Collection of Samples
Generally, the most intermittent
and immediate exposure to hazardous
chemicals comes during the process of
sample collection. Both the immediate
dangers of fire, explosion, injury or
splash, and of contamination are highest
at this point. Personnel should
22-20
-------
NOTES
carefully plan the collection activity
to minimize danger as well as contact.
A carefully thought out and practiced
procedure will insure proper equipment,
and help foresee difficulties and
hazards.
Not all sampling situations can be
foreseen or discussed. This Unit will
concentrate on the most frequent and
most hazardous situations normally
encountered by EPA personnel.
Drums
The 55-gallon drum has become
synonymous with hazardous waste
disposal. It is the most frequently
used container for disposal. Because of
the drum's frequent appearance at
hazardous waste dump sites and the
number of problems associated with
sampling it, special precautions and
techniques must be followed.
Safety
Safety considerations for these
operations must be considered. During
puncturing and sampling, the operator
must be protected from accidents. The
following safety equipment is a minimum
requirement: rubber boots, rubber
gloves, safety glasses, and a hard hat.
Equipment for puncturing has been
designed to remove the operators from
the puncturing area to a distance of at
least 50 feet, where they may be
protected by barriers. Material
handling equipment — backhoes, fork
lift trucks, tractors, etc., should be
shielded to protect the operators from
any spraying or spillage of the- chemical
in the drum.
Equipment
All tools used for drum opening
should be of non-sparking construction,
i.e., drum hand wrench, and air or
22-21
-------
NOTES
hydraulic operated tools. A trade-off
was made on the drum plungers described
elsewhere in the Unit. Stainless steel
was chosen instead of bronze because it
is more durable. However, stainless
steel is more capable of generating a
spark, and for that reason, the minimum
recommended distance for operators from
the plunger during operations is
greater.
Air and hydraulic equipment should
have hoses of such a length as to
remove the operators to a safe area.
All drum handling equipment —
backhoes, fork trucks, tractors, etc.,
shculd have polycarbonate or comparable
shields to prevent operators from being
injured by a release. The drum handling
equipment would be more efficient if a
utility type industrial tractor were
used. These tractors can be designed
to be equipped with the following
attachments: backhoe, a drum handling
attachment with the ability to invert a
drum, a front-end bucket, and an
attachment for the front-end bucket.
which would allow the use of forks fcr
equipment loading and unloading.
Operators shall wear prescribed
safety equipment when opening or
sampling drums , as described in an
earlier section of this Unit.
layout
The drums at the site should be
placed in a marshaling area cr arranged
in a manner which will allow sampling
personnel to work at the task of
sampling without moving the drums.
Rows, usually two drums deep with an
aisle space between, are adequate.
Drums that can be opened with hand
tools should be opened and sampled in
place.
22-22'
-------
NOTES
Those drums that cannot be opened
with hand tools must be opened with a
puncturing device.
At no time should an operator work
alone in an area where sampling or
puncturing is being performed.
Only the large bung will be removed
for sampling.
Drums are to be arranged in a
vertical position for puncturing and
sampling.
Definitions
Structurally Sound Drum - A drum
which can be handled wit.h mechanized
equipment without rupturing or
puncturing.
Structurally Unsound Drum - High
risk drum which is capable of being
handled but with extreme caution, and is
in one of the following categories:
a. A drum which has a bulged
head which is most likely due to
internal gas pressure.
b. A drum which is bulged on
the side or bottom most likely due to
freezing and expansion of the contents.
c. A drum which has been
deformed due to mishandling.
Drum with No Structural Integrity -
A drum which has corroded tc the extent
that only portions of the drum re-main
or with the drum liner exposed.
Marking - A system of marking the
drum and the sample collected frcrr. the
drum fcr later reference.
Identification Marking - A system
of marking the drum which identifies the
contents of the drum, to assist in the
task of consolidation.
22-23'
-------
Small Drum Site - A disposal site
with one to 300 drums that does not
warrant the use of a mechanized sampling
system.
Medium Drum Site - A disposal site
of 300 to 700 drums that warrants the
use of mechanized equipment, but not so
large as to require a production type of
operation.
Large Drum Site - A disposal of
over 700 drums which will require the
use of production type of puncturing
procedures.
Controlled Area - Designated area
where drums can be sampled and/or
punctured while:
a. limiting access to only
personnel involved with sampling or
puncturing,
b. providing for the ability
to recover the contents j f the drum
should rupture, and
c. providing adequate fire
and safety precautions for perscrinel as
crescibed by the site manager.
Puncturing Methods
All of the methods listed below are
designed to remove the operators from
the equipment area for maximum safety.
Remote Drum Conveyor Method - The
remote drum conveyor method is
recommended for large drum sites (see
Figure 1). It is net recommended tbct
drums be adjacent to each other during
puncturing in case fire cr explosion
should occur. A pan is included with a
drain to recover any liquid spilled from
a ruptured drum. The pe.n should be
emptied after each spillage.
Backhoe Method - The backhoe method
is a modification of t^e standard single
drum grabber nr.echanis;rr. A hydraulic
cylinder (see Figure 2) has been added
NOTES
22-24
-------
NOTES
with a frame to provide a plunger to
puncture the top of the drum. The
backhoe v/ould grab a drum, relocate it
over a spill containment, pan and
puncture the drum. The par: would
recover any spillage or the contents of
a drum in case of rupture. The pen
shculd be emptied after each spillage.
22-25
-------
FIGURE 1
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FIGURE 2
22-27
-------
MOTES
Portable Drum Opening Method - The
portable druni opener can be attached to
the top lip of a drum if it has not
corroded away, or it. can be banded
around the drum as shown in Figure 3.
This method should be used only if the
drums are structurally sound, or are in
an area where a spill due to rupture
could be controlled easily and
recovered. If puncturing occurs in the
field, all personnel must, be notified
and cleared from the area before
puncturing. The hoses for t_he portable
opener should be at least 50 feet long
to remove the personnel from the drum to
be opened. Other drums should not. be
relied upon to shield personnel.
22-28
-------
FIGURE 3
SOFT. MINIMUM
* AIR/HYDRAULIC
CYLINDER WITH
6 IN, STROKE
ADJUSTABLE
SLIDE
REMOTE
LOCATION
DRUM LIP
CLAMP
SPLASH PLATE
_ __ __ „_ V N. __ Js
CHAIN BAND
ATTACHMENT
(USE WHEN DRUM
LIP CLAMP WON'T
HOLD DUE TO
LIP CORROSION)
REPLACEABLE 316
STAINLESS STEE
TpO CONICAL PLUNGE!
(3 IN. DIA.X 4IN.L(
ADJUSTABLE
TENS10NER
CLAMP
— FIG,3 -
PORTABLE DRUM PLUNGER
22-29'
-------
NOTES
Assessment of Each Drum - Fc>ch drum
should be checked fcr bulges, buckling,
deformations, and corrosion. If a drum
has beer, subjected to any of the
aforementioned abuses, the drum wi] 1 be
classified as a high risk drum.
Treatment of the high risk drums will be
addressed later. All other drums can be
classified as structurally sound drums.
Structurally Sound Drums - These
drums present the least amount of risk
of rupture during mechanical handling.
A responsible member of the sampling
party should determine whether the drums
can be opened or punctured and sampled
in place. This dec: si en will be based
on the extent of clean-up in case of
rupture, the danger involved in a
rupture and othe.r factors such as the
size of site and drum spacing. Whenever
possible, it is safest t.o puncture or
sample in a controlled area.
Opening the Drum - The first step
is to use the manual hand wrench. Only
the large bung should have to be
removed. Caution must be te>.ein to avoid
causing a spark which would detonate an
explosive gas mixture in the drum.
Slowly Ic-oo^n the bung to allow any gas
pressure to escape. Once the bung is
removed, the drum is ready to be
sampled. If the bung cannot be removed,
the drum will have to be punctured.
Sampling the Drum - See the section
on Sampling Procedures.
Puncturing and Sampling in the
Field - After it has been determined
that the bung cannot be opened, the drum
will have to be punctured. The met beds
for puncturing are listed below based on
site size.
Small Drum Site - If the number of
drums js snail, the method most cost
effective would be the po: table plunger
method (see Figure '•). This mechanism
can be attached tc the top drum lip or
banded around the drum body. Hoses of
22-30
-------
NOTES
approximately 50 feet long enable the
operator to stand clear of the drum
during puncturing. (All personnel
should evacuate the area during this
operation due to the possibility of an
explosion.) After purcturing, the dium
is ready to be rumpled.
Medium Drum Site - When the number
of drums is between 300-700, the backhoe
method will be the most effective
method. With t.he backhce trained shcv/n
in Ficure 2, the pur.cturing can be done
with the drum sitting in a pan to catch
any liquid if the drum ruptures. Care
must be taken to insure that no
personnel are in the area during
puncturing. After puncturing, the drum
can be situated for the sampling team to
complete the sampling procedure.
Large Drum Site - If the number of
drums is large, a mechanized conveyor
method is recommended for puncturing
drums (see Figure 1). With the conveyor
method, drums should not be adjacent to
each other while being punctured for
safety reasons in case of an explosion
or fire.
Structurally Unsound Drums - These
drums are high risk drums; that is, they
could rupture during mechanical
handling. Therefore, extreme caution
and safety methods should be used when
sampling these drums. Due to the high
risk nature, all of these drums should
be punctured and sampled in a controlled
area. The controlled area should be
away from any other drums in case of an
explosion or fire, it should have
limited access both for personnel and
traffic and it should have stringent
fire and safety precautions. Puncturing
of high risk drums should be done in a
catch pan for safety and ease of clean-
up in case of a drum rupture. The
methods of puncturing are the same as
for the structurally sound drums.
22-31
-------
NOTES
Drums With No Structural Integrity
- These are drums which have little of
the drum shell left due to corrosion or
punctures. These drums may have liners
which are easily ruptured. The use of a
vacuum system to remove a sample and the
contents of the drum is the optimum
method of handling these drums. In
preparation for this, if there is any
room around the drum, dig a "moat" to
contain the contents of the drum. If
the drum ruptures during the attempt to
get a sample, the sample can be
obtained from the moat, and the
remaining liquid can be pumped into a
new drum.
Sampling Procedures - Wear
necessary protective clothing and gear.
Choose the plastic or glass
COLIWASA for the liquid waste to be
sampled, and assemble the sampler as
shown in Figure 4.
Make sure that the sampler is
relatively clean. Any solids should be
removed and the sampler drained to
prevent reactions before further
sampling is attempted.
Check to make sure the sampler is
functioning properly. Adjust, if
necessary, the locking mechanism to make
sure the neoprene rubber stopper
provides a tight closure.
Put the sampler in the open
position by placing the stopper rod
handle in the T-position and pushing the
rod down until the handle sits against
the sampler's locking block.
Slowly lov/er the sampler into the
liquid waste. Lower the sampler at a
rate which permits the levels of the
liquid inside and outside the sampler
tube to be about the same. If the level
of the liquid in the sampler tube is
lower than that outside the sampler, the
sampling rate is too fast and a
nonrepresentative sample will be
obtained.
22-32'
-------
FIGURE 4
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Q O -7 ^ O 0
o "- ' ^ * ^ >
/>•* r/*-|CQ 2? n _^
f* .*~ tt rO|OD . .- — *• "• CT
V- V or ^ > cr or ^ .
*7cD^ ^2 ^2 ^°co
-1*. 22 Q.CJ u CL ^
^^ & «n ^
-------
NOTES
When the sampler stopper hits the
bottom of the waste container, push the
sampler tube downward against the
stopper to close the sampler. lock the
sampler in the closed position by
turning the T-handle until it is upright
and one end tightly rests on the locking
block. (It should be noted that this
sampler will not sample the botton one-
two inches of the drummed material, nor
will it sample solids.)
Slowly withdraw the sampler from
the waste container with one hand while
wiping the sampler tube with a
disposable cloth or rag with the other
hand. Place the cloth into an
appropriate container.
Carefully discharge the sample into
a suitable container by slowly opening
the sampler. This is done by slowly
pulling the lower end of the T-handle
away from the locking block while the
lower end of sampler is in the sample
container.
Sample Container - Be sure the
sample container has a wide-mouth large
enough for the Coliwasa to fit into and
the container size is sufficient to hold
the volume contained in the Coliwasa.
Also be sure the sample container
material and its cap are compatible with
the collected waste. Polyvinyl chloride
sample bottles should be used for acids
and bases and other water soluble
materials. Glass, preferably with a
safety plastic coat, should be used for
hydrocarbons and solvents. Bakelite
tops with Teflon seals should be used
with glass bottles.
After the sample bottle has been
securely closed, invert the sample
bottle a few times to check for leaks.
Regardless of whether visible leaks
are detectable or not, wipe the bottles
with rags to remove any wastes on the
outside. The rags should be disposed of
at the site, as are other hazardous
22-34
-------
NOTES
wastes. All sample bottles should be
thoroughly decontaminated in the proper
area before being shipped off site.
Marking the Sample and Drum - After
the sample has been taken, cap the
sample container, attach the label, and
mark the drum with paint or other
indelible marking system. The marking
system should correspond to the proposed
laboratory sample marking protocol. Put
a plastic cap over the drum, or
reinstall the bung, to prevent any
liquid (rain, etc.) from entering. Do
not mark the cover as it may be blown
off by wind.
Sampler - Although the Coliwasa and
its improved models remain the most
frequently used sampler for liquids, the
problem of cleaning and decontamination
have yet to find simple solutions.
Court cases and Agency enforcement
actions are highly dependent on the
integrity of the sample, hence the
sampling procedure and the cleanliness
of the equipment used are very
important. Furthermore, subsequent
handlers of sampling equipment seldom
have protective gloves on during the
initial handling, storing, and
transporting of equipment. Agency crev;
members should take care to practice
Coliwasa decontamination procedures
before entering a site. The following
steps are recommended between each
sampling and before leaving the site:
1. Select the type of body tube
that is compatible with the suspected
material to be sampled. PVC tubes are
best for acids, bases, or other water-
based substances. Glass is best for
hydrocarbons such as solvents. The
Coliwasa tube is designed to be
economical enough for disposal if
cleaning and decontamination prove to be
difficult or impractical. Always take
extra tubes with the sampler.
22-35
-------
NOTES
2. While raising the filled
Coliwasa from the barrel, wipe the
excess from the outside with a
disposable rag. Hold a rag under the
tube as it is lifted to the sample
container.
3. Secure the sample bottle from
tipping over. Slowly release the
Coliwasa T-handle to prevent the
contents from splashing.
4. Using a long-handled brush,
rags, and a solvent, clean the tube both
inside and out.
5. Using a separate brush and
rags, wash with soap and water, then
rinse with clean water.
6. Before sampling again, inspect
the tube for signs of deterioration due
to chemical incompatibility.
7. All wash materials must be
decontaminated or disposed of on site as
a hazardous waste.
Ponds and lagoons
The threat from ponds and lagoons
comes from both chemical hazards and
physical hazards such as drowning.
Representative sampling procedures
usually require five or six samples that
include both the aqueous phase and the
bottom sludge material. During the
sampling, it is common practice to lean
or reach as far away from the bank as
possible, increasing the danger of
slipping or falling into the pond. The
following safety precautions should be
observed:
1. Wear protective gear including
boots, gloves, and splash goggles.
2. Always sample with two people
present.
3. Wear a life preserver or a
safety line held by an assistant.
22-36
-------
NOTES
4. Remember, a sample container
when full, particularly at the end of a
long pole, will weigh considerably more
that when empty. Such an unanticipated
strain may cause the sample taken to
over-balance and fall into the pond.
If possible, lift samples straight up,
using the power of the legs rather than
the back or arms.
If the sampling is being done over
the side of a boat, the added weight of
a full sampler may be sufficient to
cause the boat to tip or rock
dangerously. Notify other passengers in
the boat when you are about to lift the
full sampler. Such warnings will allow
passengers to prepare to counterbalance
the affects of the weighted sample being
lifted.
Samplers should be emptied into
sample containers in a spill pan to
catch spillage, drippings, or overflow.
Such pans facilitate cleanup and
decontamination. Gear such as samplers
and sampler lines, should be stored in
the pans, rather than the bottom of the
boat where decontamination and cleanup
are difficult.
Waste Piles
Hazardous materials stored in waste
piles are frequently of a small granular
size, such as sand and dust. The
particles frequently are easily blown,
as dust, when the hazardous materials
are disturbed, or dropped into the tops
of open boots or shoes. Agency crews
should wear, as a minimum, protective
gear including air purifying,
particulate removing, respirators;
protective coveralls; boots that can be
laced up and taped inside of pant legs;
gloves, and protective eye gear.
Waste piles should be approached
from up wind. Large piles, or piles
near or inside of buildings with open
sides, are prone to whirlpool or
22-37'
-------
NOTES
multiple-direction gusts. Efforts
should be made to disturb the pile as
little as possible, minimizing the
amount of dust.
While you are in the vicinity of
pile, clothing, boots, and other gear
contaminated with the dust should be
thoroughly rinsed down to remove dust.
22-38'
-------
STUDENT EXERCISES
For sampling at the following hazardous waste sites,
describe the type of protective gear and the rationale used for
the selection.
A. 1. Known Waste - Hydrogen Cyanide
2. Vapor Concentration - 3 ppm
3. Oxygen - 21%
4. Wind - 20 mph
5. Site - Open Field
6. Containers - Drums
Rationale
Protective Gear
Level
B. 1. Unknown
2. Vapor Concentration - 25 ppm
3. Oxygen - 18.1%
4. Wind - 0
5. Site - Building
6. Containers - Drums
22-39
-------
Rationale
Protective Gear
Level
C. 1. Known Waste - Trichloroethane
2. Vapor Concentration - 4 ppm
3. Oxygen - 21%
4. Wind - 10-15 mph
5. Site - Open
6. Containers - Tank
Rationale
Protective Gear
Level
22-40'
-------
D. 1. Known Waste - Chloroacetic Acid
2. Vapor Concentration - 0
3. Oxygen - 21.1%
4. Wind - 5-10 mph
5. Site - Open
6. Containers - Drums
Rationale
Protective Gear
Level
If all of the above were represented at the same site:
Rationale
Protective Gear
22-41'
-------
UNIT 23
SHIPPING REGULATIONS FOR CHEMICALS AND SAMPLES
Educational Objectives
o The student should know how to
use the Hazardous Material Tables.
o The student should know how to
label a Hazardous Material Sample.
o The student, should know the
definitions needed to ship a hazardous
material properly.
o The student should know how to
ship Environmental Samples.
o The student should know the Rules
for Placarding.
o The student should know the DOT
Hazard Label Priority.
o The student should know the rules
prohibiting certain types of hazardous
materials.
23-1
-------
UNIT 23
SHIPPING REGULATIONS FOR CHEMICAIS AND SAMPLES
NOTES
Introduction
Preventing spills, fires and
explosions of hazardous materials during
transportation is a major goal of the
U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT).
In order to protect the environment, the
public, and transportation employees
from such incidents, the DOT has
developed and adopted rigorous standards
for packaging and identifying hazardous
materials that are shipped by any mode
of transportation.
The DOT standards must be followed
if you ship hazardous chemicals or
samples by any means of transportation
other than an EPA vehicle. DOT stan-
dards must also be followed for any
chemical, sample or hazardous material
you may take with you (or check in your
baggage) on a flight by scheduled or
chartered aircraft. Some materials
(such as nitric acid) are considered so
hazardous that they are totally
prohibited from being shipped or carried
on aircraft.
The DOT standards can serve as a
useful guide for handling field samples
and the chemicals and solvents needed
for field activities. Familiarity with
the principles of the regulations can
help you package and identify hazardous
materials for your protection even if
they are not regulated by DOT.
There is another use that can be
made of information in the DOT
standards. If personnel ever have to
respond to a transportation spill of
hazardous materials, they can obtain
important information about the identity
of the materials carried in the vehicle
from the DOT-required shipping papers,
placards and identification numbers.
New DOT regulations require cargo tanks
and tank trucks to be marked on all four
sides with a four-digit number
23-2
-------
NOTES
identifying the specific material being
carried, and the DOT has published a
list of the numbers and corresponding
hazardous materials.
This unit will outline the general
requirements of DOT regulations that may
apply to Agency personnel:
classification of hazards, packaging,
marking and labeling, shipping papers,
and loading and placarding vehicles.
This unit will also describe how EPA has
interpreted the regulations for handling
environmental samples and hazardous
waste samples.
General Requirements
DOT regulations specify that no
person may offer a hazardous material
for transportation by any commercial
carrier within the United States unless
that material meets a series of specific
safety requirements.
The regulations list materials
which must not be shipped by or carried
on aircraft, and some that are so
sensitive to explosion that they cannot
be shipped by any mode of
transportat ion.
Shipments of hazardous material
must first be properly classified for
their hazards. The DOT regulations
require that "each person who offers a
hazardous material for transportation
shall describe the hazardous material on
the shipping paper," and shall include
details on the classification of the
material. Hazardous materials must be
prepared and packaged safely for ship-
ment, and the packages and shipping
containers must be marked and labeled to
show the hazards of the contents.
The DOT regulations also include
requirements for loading vehicles and
for marking vehicles with warning
placards and material identification
numbers.
23-3
-------
NOTES
The DOT has established specific
definitions of Hazardous Materials, and
has recently broadened its regulations
to define and regulate Hazardous
Substances and Hazardous Waste. DOT
regulations for hazardous materials that
are shipped in low concentrations or
small quantities are not as restrictive
as the regulations for commercial
concentrations or quantities.
"Hazardous material" is defined as
a substance or material which has been
determined to be capable of posing an
unreasonable risk to health, safety, and
property when transported in commerce,
and which has been so designated by the
Secretary of Transportation.
"Hazardous substance" is a category
that has been added to the DOT
regulations in cooperation with the
Environmental Protection Agency.
Substances which have long term health
effects in the environment, such as
PCB's, have been added to the DOT
regulations. Such substances are
identified in DOT tables by an E, and
their reportable quantities in case of
spill have been listed.
"Hazardous waste" is defined as any
material subject to the hazardous waste
manifest requirements of EPA
regulations, or any that would be
subject to those requirements if there
were no interim authorization to a
state.
"Passenger-carrying aircraft" is
defined as an aircraft that carries any
person other than a crewmember, company
employee, an authorized representative
of the United States or a person
accompanying the shipment.
"Cargo-only aircraft" is defined as
an aircraft that is used to transport
cargo and is not engaged in carrying
passengers.
23-4-
-------
NOTES
"Vessel" includes every description of
watercraft used or capable of being used
as a means of transportation on the
water.
"STC" or single-trip container is a
container that may not be refilled and
reshipped after having been previously
emptied, except as provided in DOT
regulations.
"NRC" or non-reusable container is
a container whose reuse is restricted in
accordance with the provisions of DOT
regulations.
"Carrier" means any person, group
or company engaged in the transportation
of passengers or property by civil
aircraft, or by land or water, as a
common, contract or private carrier.
Classification of Hazards
Safe shipment of hazardous material
depends on packaging and handling which
provide protection for the specific
hazards of the material. In order to
provide appropriate protection, it is
necessary to identify the hazards.
Samples which must be transported
for laboratory analysis may, if a
reasonable doubt exists as to the hazard
class and labeling requirements, be
given a tentative classification based
upon the:
o definitions of hazards in the DOT
regulations
o highest. ranked hazard
classifications in which it fits, and
the
o shipper's knowledge of the
material.
Although the DOT regulations list
and define twenty different hazard
classifications, all of them fit within
two broad categories:
23-5-
-------
NOTES
Fire and explosion hazards,
Health hazards,
Fire and explosion hazards include
the following classes of material:
Explosives,
Radioactive materials that
could be explosive,
Flammable gases, liquids, and
solids (including those that are
spontaneously combustible or water-
reactive) ,
Pyrophoric liquids,
Combustible liquids,
Oxidizers and organic
peroxides, and
Compressed gas cylinders.
Health hazards include the following
classes of material:
Poisonous materials (gases,
liquids, solids),
Etiologic agents (disease
microorganisms or toxins),
Radioactive materials,
Corrosive materials, and
Irritating materials.
The DOT regulations define each
classifications of hazardous materials
and provide convenient Tables listing
the classifications for many commonly-
used materials. However, the
regulations apply to all materials which
meet any of the specific definitions,
whether or_ not they are listed in the
Tables. In preparing to ship a material
which may be hazardous, first look to
see if it is listed in the Tables; if it
23-6
-------
NOTES
is not, then determine whether it is
hazardous by any DOT definition.
In order to classify the major
hazard, or hazards, of materials which
are not listed in the Tables, the DOT
regulations establish a priority order
of hazards. The classification of
hazards is listed here in a tabulation
with the more serious hazards having the
lower numbers.
The highest DOT hazard
classification is explosive material,
material that is designed to function by
explosion.
Since EPA should not be shipping
any military ordnance, the listing
starts with Radioactive Material,
followed by (READ LIST):
DOT Classification of Hazards of
Materials
1. ' Radioactive material
2. Poison A
3. Flammable Gas
4. Non-flammable Gas
5. Flammable Liquid
6. Oxidizer
7. Flammable Solid
8. Corrosive material that is
liquid
9. Poison B
10. Corrosive material that is
solid
11. Irritating materials
12.Combustible liquid in
containers exceeding 110
23-7
-------
NOTES
gallons
(DOT has additional classifications but
they include materials of types and
quantities not likely to be shipped by
EPA, such as organic peroxides and
etiologic agents.)
Following are instructions to
explain how this information could be
used. For example, if personnel
determine that a material not listed in
the Tables matches the definitions for
Poison A, Oxidizer, and Corrosive
Liquid, how sould they classify it?
Because Poison A appears on the
priority list before the other two
hazards, they must classify the material
as Poison A. (See section on Labeling)
These twelve classes of hazards can
be grouped into five broad categories:
Radioactive Material
Poisonous, Corrosive and
Irritating Materials
Flammable Gas and Non-
flammable Gas
Flammable Liquid, Flammable
Solid, and Combustible Liquid
Oxidizer.
Consider the definitions for
materials in the three categories of
radioactive material; poisonous,
corrosive and irritating materials; and
oxidizers. (Flammable and combustible
materials are discussed in the unit on
Fire and Explosion Hazards.)
Radioactive Material
Agency personnel are not likely to
be shipping any radioactive material
unless they encounter it in an unusual
environmental or hazardous waste site
sample. Based on DOT regulations, a
23-8
-------
NOTES
sample would not be classified as
Radioactive Material if the estimated
specific activity is not. greater than
0.002 microcurie per gram of material,
and if the radioactivity is essentially
uniformly distributed through the
material.
If the estimated specific
radioactivity is greater than 0.002
microcurie per gram, or not distributed
uniformly, the sample should be
classified as Radioactive Material and
packaged and labeled accordingly. If
personnel expect to encounter
radioactivity in their field work, and
take samples that will be classified as
radioactive material, they should plan
to take to the field the special
equipment needed to identify the hazard
and the packaging required for the
sample.
Poisonous Materials and Corrosive
Material
There are four classifications of
hazard in the grouping of poisonous
materials and corrosive material.
Poisonous materials are divided
into three groups, according to their
hazard in transportation. The mutually
exclusive groups, in descending order of
hazard, are: Poison A, Poison B, and
Irritating material (known previously as
Poison C).
Poison A Materials - Materials
classified as Poison A (or extremely
dangerous poisons) must be labeled as
Poison Gas. Poison A materials are
defined as "poisonous gases or liquids
of such nature that a very small amount
of the gas, or vapor of the liquid,
mixed with air, is dangerous to life."
Ten materials are listed in the
text of the DOT regulations and ten
others are listed in the Tables. The
ten examples given in the text of the
regulations include bromoacetone,
23-9
-------
NOTES
cyanogen, cyanogen chloride, hydrocyanic
acid, phosgene, and nitrogen tetroxide-
nitric oxide mixtures containing up to
33.2 percent of nitric oxide by weight.
Most of the ten materials have uses in
organic syntheses; several are reported
elsewhere as military poison gases. The
ten other materials classed in the
Tables as Poison Gas include arsine,
germane, nitric oxide, phosphine and
several insecticides, including two
liquids shipped in combination with
compressed gas.
Poison B Materials - Materials
classified as Poison B are liquids or
solids which "are known to be so toxic
to man as to afford a hazard to health
during transportation" or which are
presumed to be toxic to man because of
the toxic effects shown when tested on
laboratory animals.
If you have to decide whether a
hazardous material must be classified as
a Poison B material, you can do so by
comparing the toxicity information
reported in the NIOSH Registry of Toxic
Effects of Chemical Substances with the
DOT criteria for Poison B material.
(Test data and the DOT definitions may
differ slightly.)
There are three tests which define
a Poison B material: oral toxicity,
inhalation toxicity, and skin absorption
toxicity.
Oral Toxicity: A material is
classified as a Poison B material if in
the oral toxicity tests, a single dose
of 50 milligrams or less per kilogram of
body weight, administered orally, causes
death within 48 hours in half or more
than half of a group of 10 or more white
laboratory rats weighing 200 to 300
grams .
I_n h a__l_a_ t__i_o ri T£ x_i c__i t_y_ : A
material is classified as a Poison B
material if a continuous exposure of one
hour or less , at a concentration of
23-10
-------
NOTES
vapor, mist or dust of 2 milligrams or
less per liter, produces death within 48
hours in half or more than half of a
group of 10 or more white laboratory
rats weighing 200 to 300 grams.
Skin Absorption Toxicity; A
material is also classed as a Poison B
material if, in skin absorption toxicity
tests, a dosage of 200 milligrams or
less per kilogram of body weight,
administered by continuous contact with
the bare skin for 24 hours or less,
produces death within 48 hours in half
or more than half of a group of 10 or
more rabbits.
There is an exception that if
experience shows that the physical
characteristics of a material, or the
probable hazards to humans, will not
cause serious sickness or death, the
material does not need to be classified
as a Poison B material, even if test
data would otherwise require such a
classification.
Examples of materials which are
classified as Poison B include: aldrin,
mecuric chloride, methyl bromide, sodium
cyanide, and almost all pesticides.
The only materials classified as
Irritating Material are tear gas and
four compounds described as being usable
as tear gas.
Corrosive Material
A corrosive material is a
liquid or solid that causes visible
destruction or alteration of human skin
tissue at the site of contact, or that
has a severe corrosion rate on steel. A
material is considered to be corrosive
if specified tests on rabbit skin
destroy, or irreversibly change tissue
at the site of contact after an exposure
period of 4 hours or less, or if the
corrosion rate on steel exceeds 1/4-inch
per year in a specified test.
CORROSIVE
23-11
-------
NOTES
Examples of corrosive materials
include hydrochloric acid, nitric acid
in a concentration of 40 percent or
less, sodium hydroxide, and sulfuric
acid.
Nitric acid in a concentration of
more than 40 percent is also classified
as an Oxidizer, and is required to be
labeled as both an Oxidizer and
Corrosive.
Oxidizer
DOT defines "oxidizer" or
"oxidizing material" as one which yields
oxygen readily to stimulate combustion
of organic materials.
Examples of materials classified as
oxidizers by DOT are chlorates,
permanganates, nitrates, and inorganic
peroxides.
DOT classifies as "organic
peroxide" any organic compound
containing a bivalent oxygen structure
which is considered a derivative of
hydrogen peroxide. However, the
classification excludes some peroxides.
Examples of materials classified as
organic peroxides by DOT are acetyl
peroxide solutions containing not over
25% peroxide, benzoyl peroxide, lauryl
peroxide, and methyl ethyl ketone
peroxide solution containing not over 9%
active oxygen. (DOT prohibits shipment
of acetyl peroxide solutions containing
over 25% active oxygen, and methyl ethyl
ketone peroxide solutions containing
more than 9% active oxygen.)
Packaging of Hazardous Materials
"Packaging" is defined as the
assembly of one or more containers and
any other components necessary to assure
compliance with the minimum packaging
requirements of DOT regulations.
Packaging, as defined by DOT, includes
23-12'
-------
NOTES
containers, portable tanks, cargo tanks,
and tank cars including tanks with
multiple compartments.
DOT specification for packaging to
be used for shipping hazardous
materials, is required to be designed
and constructed, and to have contents
limited, so that under normal
transportation conditions:
There will be no significant
release of the hazardous materials to
the environment,
The effectiveness of the packaging
will not be substantially reduced, and
There will be no mixture of gases
or vapors, in the package which could
rupture the packaging.
The DOT regulations contain
elaborate and detailed specifications
for hundreds of different types of
containers, ranging from bottles to tank
cars to barges. Although many of the
specifications include details that
Agency personnel do not need to be
familiar with, such as the quality of
lumber, thickness of steel, and
container construction features, there
are some general requirements that may
apply to shipment of field samples.
Closures must be adequate to
prevent inadvertent leakage of the
contents under normal conditions of
transportation. Gasket closures must be
fitted with gaskets of efficient
material which will not deteriorate in
contact with the contents of the
container.
Polyethylene used for containers
must be compatible with the material
placed within the container, and must
not be so permeable that a hazardous
condition could be caused during
transportation and handling.
In order to prevent rupture of
23-13
-------
NOTES
containers of liquids due to thermal
expansion, DOT regulations specify that
packagings must not be completely
filled. The regulations specify that
sufficient expansion space, or outage,
must be provided within the container so
that it will not be liquid full at 55°C
(130°F).
All containers must be tightly and
securely closed, and inside containers
must be cushioned to prevent breakage or
leakage. Samples generally can be
shipped in non-specification containers,
if the quantities are limited to about
one pint, and if the containers are
tightly closed and securely cushioned to
prevent breakage.
Marking and Labeling
Marking and labeling regulations
require that each person who offers, for
transportation a hazardous material in a
package having a rated capacity of 110
gallons or less shall mark and label the
package to meet DOT requirements.
The required marking must include:
1. the proper shipping name
of the material, and
2. the identification number
assigned to the material.
It must also include:
3. the EPA-required markings
if the material is a hazardous waste,
and
4. special markings if the
package contains liquid materials.
Required marking must include:
5. the required hazard label
or labels, and
6. the Cargo Aircraft Only
label, if required because the shipment
23-14
-------
NOTES
is not permitted aboard passenger-
carrying aircraft.
Proper Shipping Name
The "proper shipping name" for a
hazardous material is the name which has
been assigned and listed in the DOT
regulations. The proper shipping name
is usually the technical name for the
material, but there are some exceptions.
It is necessary to check the DOT listing
and use the name specified there.
If the proper shipping name for a
mixture or solution that is a hazardous
substance does not identify the
constituents making it a hazardous
substance, the name or names of such
hazardous constituents must be entered
with the proper shipping name shown on
each package.
Identification Number
The package is to include the four-
digit identification number listed in
the DOT Hazardous Materials Tables,
preceded by UN or NA as appropriate.
(The numbers preceded by UN are
associated with descriptions considered
appropriate for both international and
domestic shipments, and those preceded
by NA are associated with descriptions
appropriate for shipments within the
United States and Canada.)
Hazardous Materials Tables
See the Hazardous Materials Table
in Section 172.101 (or Appendix A, Table
2); this is the basic reference for
using the DOT shipping regulations.
Column 1 has four coded
designations, the most significant of
which is the letter E which identifies
materials which are subject to the
requirements pertaining to hazardous
substances if the concentration of the
23-15'
-------
NOTES
material 10%, or a lower concentration,
depending on the quantity.
Column 2 lists the proper shipping
name of materials designated as
hazardous materials.
Column 3 contains a designation of
the hazard class corresponding to each
proper shipping name. A material for
which the entry in this column is
"Forbidden," is prohibited from being
offered or accepted for transportation
unless the materials are diluted,
stabilized, or otherwise modified to
reduce the hazards to an acceptable
level.
Column 3A lists the identification
numbers assigned to hazardous materials.
Column 4 specifies the label
required to be applied to each package.
Column 5 references the applicable
packaging section of the DOT
regulations. Exceptions are noted in
Column 5A, and reference to specific
packaging requirements and certain
additional exceptions are noted in
Column 5B.
Column 6A specifies the maximum net.
quantity permitted in one package, for
transportation by passenger-carrying
aircraft, and Column 6B specifies the
maximum quantity permitted in one
package, for transportation by cargo-
only aircraft. Notice that the quantity
allowed in cargo-only aircraft is
greater.
Look now at the specific
information for acetone, the eighth
entry on the part of the page shown.
In Column 2 it can be seen that the
proper shipping name for acetone is
acetone.
In Column 3 it can be seen that
23-16'
-------
NOTES
acetone is classified as a flammable
liquid. The identification number for
acetone is UN1090. The required label
is Flammable Liquid. The packaging
exceptions are listed, and it is seen
that the maximum net quantity of acetone
allowed in one package in a passenger-
carrying aircraft is one quart. If
personnel had to ship a large quantity
of acetone to a field site, they would
be permitted to ship up to ten gallons
in one container in an aircraft that
carried cargo only.
Marking for Hazardous Liquids
Liquid hazardous materials must be
packed with closures upward and the
outside package must be legibly marked
"THIS SIDE UP" or "THIS END UP" to indicate the upward position of the
inside packaging. (There is a limited
exemption from this requirement for
ground transportation of packages
containing Class 1C flammable liquids in
containers of one quart or less.)
Hazard Warning Labels
Each package must be clearly
labeled with the required diamond-shaped
hazard warning label. Labels generally
must be placed on the surface of the
package near the proper shipping name.
(Labels may be placed on a securely
attached tag, or affixed by other
suitable means to compressed gas
cylinders, to packages with very
irregular surfaces that would prevent
affixing a label, and to packages which
have dimensions less than those of the
required label and which contain no
radioactive material.)
When labeling is required, labels
must be displayed on at least two sides
or two ends of, each package containing
radioactive material, and each package
having a volume of 64 cubic feet or
more.
23-17
-------
NOTES
Warning labels are usually required
for only one hazard.
Although most hazardous material
packages are required to be labeled to
signal only one class of hazard, there
are some materials with more than one
hazard, which require labeling of two
classes of hazard.
For example, any material that is
classed as Explosive A, Poison A or
Radioactive and that meets the
definition of another class as well,
must be labeled as required for each
class.
Any material classed as Poison B
material that also meets the definition
of a Flammable Liquid must be labeled as
both: POISON B and FLAMMABLE LIQUID.
Any material classed as Oxidizer or
Flammable Solid that also meets the
definition of a Poison B material must
be labeled for both hazards.
OXIDIZER and POISON
FLAMMABLE SOLID and POISON
A material classed as a Flammable
Solid, that also meets the definition of
a water reactive material, must have two
labels attached:
FLAMMABLE SOLID and DANGEROUS WHEN
WET
Since July 1, 1983, there are five
other combinations of hazards that
require packages to bear two different
classes of warning labels:
CORROSIVE
POISON
FLAMMABLE
LIQUID
FLAMMABLE
SOLID
OXIDIZER
and
and
and
and
and
POISON
CORROSIVE
CORROSIVE
CORROSIVE
CORROSIVE
23-18'
-------
NOTES
Here are four examples of some of
the materials currently required to have
two labels:
Fluorine, which is in the hazard
class of nonflammable gas, is required
to be labeled with Poison and Oxidizer
hazard labels.
Germane is required to have the
Poison Gas and the Flammable Gas hazard
labels.
Nitric acid with a concentration
over 40%, which is classed as a
corrosive liquid, has to be labeled as
an Oxidizer and as a Corrosive.
Fuming nitric acid has to be
labeled as an Qxidizer and as a Poison.
Material
TABLE 1
Class of Hazard
Required Labels
Fluorine
Germane
Nitric acid,
over 40%
Nitric acid,
fuming
Nonflammable Gas POISON and OXIDIZER
Poison A
POISON GAS and FLAMMABLE
GAS
Corrosive Liquid OXIDIZER and CORROSIVE
Oxidizer
OXIDIZER and POISON
Shipping Papers
Each person who offers a hazardous
material for transportation must
describe the hazardous material on the
shipping paper in an exact and specific
manner.
The shipping paper must include:
o proper shipping name for the
material
23-19'
-------
NOTES
o identification number for the
material (2 letters and 4 digits), and
o hazard class (unless the
hazard is included in the shipping name)
If any solid or liquid material in
a package meets the definition of a
poisonous material, notwithstanding the
class to which the material is assigned
by DOT regulations, the word "Poison"
must be entered on the shipping paper in
association with the shipping
description.
If the hazardous material is to be
offered for transportation by air, and
the regulations prohibit transportation
aboard passenger-carrying aircraft, the
words "Cargo Aircraft Only" (or Cargo-
Only Aircraft) must be entered on the
shipping paper after the basic
description of the material.
The shipping paper must show the
total quantity of the hazardous material
being shipping.
The shipping paper must also
include a certification that the
hazardous materials listed on the ship-
ping paper are properly classified,
described, packaged, marked and labeled,
and in proper condition for
transportation according to DOT
regulations.
The shipping paper must include the
shipper's signature.
See Figure 1 for an example of a
commercially-available shipping paper.
On shipping papers, hazardous materials
must be given prominent attention,
usually be being entered first, or
possibly in a contrasting color, or by
an X in a special column for noting
hazardous materials. The second column
on this shipping paper with the HM is
for noting Hazardous Materials.
23-20
-------
NOTES
See Figure 2 for another example of
a shipping paper with the second column
for hazardous materials highlighted in
red. There is a reminder in the third
column to be sure to enter the proper
shipping name for any hazardous
material. The next column is for the
hazard class, and the last column shown
is for the identification number
required.
Placarding of Vehicles
DOT regulations require shippers to
provide, and carriers to use, placards
for vehicles transporting more than 1000
pounds of hazardous material in one
load. Placards are required on both
sides and both ends of vehicles and
railcars carrying more than 1000 pounds
of hazardous materials.
Placards on railroad cars can
provide important information,
particularly if the car has been
derailed.
Cargo tanks and tank cars are
required to have the contents identified
with a four-digit hazard identification
number. The numbers may be placed
within the placard, except for Poison
Gas, Radioactive Material, and
Explosives. If the numbers are not
placed within the placard, they are to
be 4 inches high on an orange background
located below the placard.
The DOT has published an Emergency
Response Guidebook for Hazardous
Materials, which is available through
the Government Printing Office and book
stores. The Guidebook lists the
materials alphabetically with their
identification numbers, and also lists
all numbers in numerical order to
provide a cross-reference to the
shipping names of materials.
23-21
-------
NOTES
loading of Vehicles
DOT regulations for loading
vehicles can be used as guidelines for
EPA field activities. Any container or
package of hazardous material placed in
a vehicle should be secured against
movement within the vehicle in which it
is being transported, and should be
braced or secured to prevent movement
against other containers of hazardous
material.
Reasonable care should be taken to
prevent undue rise in temperature of
containers and their contents during
transit.
All reasonable precautions must be
taken to prevent dropping of containers,
or batteries, containing corrosive
liquids. Storage batteries containing
any electrolyte should be loaded so they
are protected against other material
falling onto or against them.
Shipping Samples
DOT regulations were not intended
to cover shipment of samples collected
by Agency personnel. However, the
Agency has deemed it prudent to comply
with the regulations for shipment of all
samples which may be hazardous.
The designation of samples as
"hazardous" is based on judgement of the
conditions where the sample is taken and
the possibility that the sample may be
hazardous , in transportation , or to
personnel receiving the samples in the
laboratory. If a sample can be
hazardous in transportation, as defined
by the DOT regulations, it must be
packaged and identified according to the
regulations.
If the sample does not meet DOT
definitions but may, nonetheless, be
hazardous to personnel handling and
receiving it, it should be packaged and
23-22
-------
NOTES
identified to the same standards.
Environmental Samples
In general, "environmental samples"
are those that are not expected to be
grossly contaminated with high levels of
toxic or hazardous materials. Examples
of environmental samples are those taken
from streams, ponds, or wells and from
the ambient air.
Environmental samples that are
preserved with hazardous materials such
as nitric acid or sulfuric acid will in
most cases have such dilute
concentrations of the preservative that
the sample will not have to be handled
as a hazardous sample.
Environmental samples should be
packaged just as securely as hazardous
samples, mainly to protect the integrity
of the sample. However, no DOT labeling
should be used, no DOT shipping papers
are required, and there are no
restrictions on the mode of
transportation (unless dry ice is used
for preservation).
Hazardous Samples
"Hazardous samples" are those that
are taken where high concentrations of
hazardous materials are likely. For
example, soil or water at spill sites or
hazardous waste sites, samples from
drums or tanks, leachates from hazardous
waste sites, and water sources that are
likely to be highly contaminated such as
pits, ponds, lagoons and sampling wells.
Samples of hazardous materials must
first be classified into the DOT
categories of hazards. Then the samples
must be packaged, and marked and
labeled. Finally, the samples must be
shipped as specified in DOT regulations.
If the material in the sample is
known, or can be identified in the
23-23
-------
NOTES
field, determination of the DOT hazard
class and required labeling can be done
simply by reference to the DOT
regulations. If, however, the specific
hazards of a sample cannot be determined
with certainty in the field, informed
judgement must be used.
Procedure to Judge Hazard Class of
Unknown Suspected Hazardous Material
There are several steps which
should be taken to judge the appropriate
DOT class of a material that is
suspected of being hazardous. The
following is a generalized procedure for
classification of hazards, including the
simplified steps that can be used by
agreement between EPA and DOT.
This procedure should be used only
when reliable identification of the
material cannot be made in the field.
The purposes of using this procedure are
to meet DOT regulations as well as to
provide protection for field and
laboratory personnel. If a material
fits within the definition for a
particular class of hazard, the sample
should be classified accordingly and
subsequent handling, packaging, labeling
and shipment should comply with the
corresponding DOT regulations for that
class.
Here is a simple outline of the
order of judgement or determination
necessary to classify the hazard of a
sample:
If the material is likely to be an
Explosive, it is classified as an
Explosive.
If it is not, is it a radioactive
material? If it is, classify it
accordingly.
If not, is the material likely to
be a compressed gas which may fall into
the category of a Poison Gas, a
23-24-
-------
NOTES
Flammable Gas, or a Non-flammable Gas?
If a material does not fit into any
of these classes of hazard, a field
sample can be classified as a Flammable
Liquid, by agreement between EPA and
DOT.
Use of the flammable liquid
classification avoids the need for field
testing, which might be almost
impossible in some situations. The
packaging that is required for a
Flammable Liquid will provide all of the
protection required for any material
with a lesser hazard. Using the
flammable liquid label is acceptable for
samples which have no greater hazard.
However, frequent use of the flammable
liquid hazard label for materials which
are not flammable liquids may eventually
create problems in the laboratory if the
label comes to be considered
meaningless.
Classification of Hazards
1. Is the material likely to be an
Explosive?
If the sample has been taken from
the waste stream or effluent of a plant
manufacturing explosives, it would be
prudent to handle, package and ship the
sample as if it were an Explosive
Material.
2. Is the material likely to be
Radioactive?
If the sample has been taken from
an area known to be naturally
radioactive, or to be contaminated with
radioactive waste, and it is not
possible to make radiation
measurements, it would be prudent to
handle, package, and ship the sample is
if it were a Radioactive Material.
3. Is the material likely to be a
Poison Gas, or a Poison Liquid in a
23-25-
-------
NOTES
pressurized container?
Most of the materials classified as
Poison A are gases, or liquids packaged
under compressed gas, or liquids with
very low boiling points. Poison A
materials are usually shipped in
cylinders, rather than in drums or drum-
type containers.
If the material is in a compressed
gas cylinder, or is for any reason
suspected of being in the class of
Poison Gas, precautions must be taken
before sampling to prevent release of
any of the extremely dangerous material.
Protection must be provided for the
person taking the samples and for
everyone else who may be exposed if the
poisonous material is released while a
sample is being taken.
Samples of materials known to be,
or suspected of being, in the class of
Poison Gas must be packaged in a
compressed gas cylinder for handling and
shipment.
4. Is the material likely to be a
compressed gas,, which could be a
Flammable Gas or a Non-flammable
Compressed Gas?
If the material is not in a
compressed gas cylinder or other
pressurized container, the material is
not likely to be a compressed gas in
either hazard class. If the material
_is_ likely to be a compressed gas, judge
whether it is a Flammable Gas or a Non-
flammable Gas, and handle, package and
ship it as required for a material in
that hazard class.
For samples containing unknown
materials which may be hazardous but
which do not fall into any of the
previously listed classes, EPA generally
will classify, package and ship them as
a Flammable Liquid.
23-26
-------
NOTES
5. Is there any way to be certain
that the material is not a Flammable
Liquid.
If you can afford the time, we
recommend that you try to use the
labeling that will, in your judgement,
most accurately describe the hazard of
the sample, if it can be determined not
to be a flammable liquid. Use of a
hazard label that is reasonably
descriptive of the expected hazards of
the samples will assist in safe handling
of the sample in the laboratory and will
avoid encouraging a disregard of the
Flammable Liquid hazard label.
You can be reasonably sure that a
sample is not a flammable liquid by
testing the material carefully with an
explosimeter or other meter which gives
readings in Percent of L.E.L. (lower
explosive limit).
You may be able to make a judgement
that a material to be sampled from a
container or source that has been open to
the atmosphere for some time is not
likely to be a flammable liquid, based
on the likelihood that any flammable
liquid in the material would have
evaporated during the time that the
material was exposed to the atmosphere.
6. If the material is considered
hazardous, but has none of the
previously listed hazards, it should be
packaged as flammable liquid, but it-
should be classified in one of the other
DOT hazard classes:
o Oxidizer
o Flammable Solid
o Corrosive liquid
o Poison B
o Corrosive solid
o Irritating material
o Combustible liquid
23-27
-------
NOTES
Cocimunication about Hazards of Sanples
For protection of both field and
laboratory personnel we believe it is
important for every person taking a
sample to notify others about the
hazards of the sample. DOT labels do
not give enough information about
combinations of hazards or unique
characteristics of field samples.
Therefore, we recommend the use of
several channels of communication about
unusual or particularly hazardous
samples: Precautionary information such
as a written note accompanying the
sample or information written on the
outer container holding the sample, a
phone call to the laboratory which will
receive the sample, or use of a hazard
signal system.
Samples and Hazardous Materials to be
Shipped or Taken on Aircraft
Samples and chemicals to be shipped
or taken on aircraft deserve special
attention. DOT regulations prohibit
shipment of certain hazardous materials,
and Federal law forbids the carriage of
hazardous materials aboard aircraft in
your luggage or on your person.
Violations can result in severe
penalties, up to $25,000 and five years
imprisonment.
Hazardous materials include
explosives, compressed gases, flammable
liquids and solids, oxidizers, poisons,
corrosives and radioactive materials.
There are exceptions for small
quantities of medicinal and toilet
articles carried in your luggage and
certain smoking materials carried on
your person. If you need further
information, contact your airline
representative.
Dry Ice, or solid carbon dioxide,
has a limited hazard classification if
used to preserve samples shipped by
aircraft. Packaging must be marked with
23-28
-------
NOTES
the designation ORM-A and arrangements
to ship dry ice must be made in advance
with the carrier.
Any chemicals or solvents that need
to be transported to or from a field
site rapidly can be shipped by aircraft
only if you can comply fully with DOT
regulations. Samples and materials that
cannot be shipped by any passenger-
carrying aircraft can, in many cases, be
shipped by cargo-only aircraft.
Although there are many companies
that ship air freight on cargo-only
aircraft, shipment may depend on
available space, and delivery time may
not be predictable. If you select a
shipping company that specializes in
rapid shipment and delivery of small
packages, be sure you know what
limitations they have for accepting
hazardous materials.
Recommendations
Taking solvents and analytical
chemicals to the field, and bringing
samples back to the laboratory, entails
the risk of having a container break or
leak during the trip. If this occurs
there can be loss of material, risk of
injury to personnel, and contamination
of equipment and the environment.
Packaging hazardous materials to
prevent spills or leakage is as
important for protection of Agency
personnel as it is for carrier
employees. Marking and labeling
packages and containers of hazardous
materials should be routine within EPA,
even for materials which may never be
shipped by a carrier.
It is believed that it would be
appropriate for every EPA vehicle which
carries hazardous materials or hazardous
samples to have a list of hazardous
materials being carried in the vehicle.
In case of an accident, the list would
23-29
-------
NOTES
provide information on hazardous
materials in the vehicle, just as
shipping papers are used for information
on hazardous materials involved in large
transportation incidents.
23-30'
-------
STUDENT EXERCISES
The following samples are to be shipped. Answer the
following questions concerning each.
1. What is the proper hazardous material label for 40% nitric
acid?
2. If a material is a flammable liquid as well as a Poison B,
what is its proper hazard label?
3. If a substance is both a corrosive and a flammable liquid,
what is its proper label?
4. Environmental samples do not require what three things for
shipping?
5. If a substance is unknown, but is not believed to be
explosive, corrosive, or poisonous, what is its DOT hazard class?
23-31
-------
APPENDICES TABLE OF CONTENTS
Appendix A Figure 1
Hazardous Materials From Non-specific Sources Pages, 3-7
Appendix A Figure 2
CERCLA List, Page 9-13
Appendix A Figure 3
Toxic Pollutants, Page 15
Appendix A Figure 4
Basis for Listing Hazardous Waste, Page 17
Appendix A Figure 5
Hazardous Constituents, Page 19-23
Appendix B
Guide to Compatibility of Chemicals, Page 25-38
Appendix C
Material Safety Data Sheet, Page 40-41
-------
APPENDIX A FIGURE 1
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS FROM NON-SPECIFIC SOURCES
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APPENDIX A FIGURE 2
CERCLA LIST
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APPENDIX A FIGURE 3
TOXIC POLLUTANTS
14
-------
TABLE I.-SECTION 307-TOXIC POLLUTANTS
Acenaphthene
Acrolein
Acrylonitrile
Aldrin/Dieidrin
Antimony and compounds*
Arsenic and compounds
Asbestos
Benzene
Benzidine
Beryllium and compounds
Cadmium and compounds
Carbon tetrachloride
Chlordane (technical mixture and metabolites)
Chlorinated benzenes (other than dichlorobenzenes)
Chlorinated ethanes (including 1,2-dichloroethane,
l.l.l-trichloroethane, and hexachloroelhane)
Chloroalkyl ethers (chloromethyl. chloroethyl, and
mixed ethers)
Chlortnated naphthalene
Chlorinated phenols (other than those listed elsewhere:
includes uichlorophenols and chlorinated cresols)
Chloroform
2-chlorophenol
Chromium and compounds
Copper and compounds
Cyanides
DDT and metabolites
Dichlorobcnzenes (1.2-. I.J-. and 1.4-dichlorobenzencs)
Dichlorobenzidine
Dichloroethylenes (1,1- and l,2-dichloro«thylene)
2,4-dichlorophenol
Dichloropropane and dichloropropene
2,4-dimethylphenol
Dinitrotoluene
Diphenylhydrazine
Endosulfan and metabolites
Endrin and metabolites
Ethylbenzene
Fluoranthene
Haloethers (other than those listed elsewhere: includes
chlorophenylphenyl ethers, bromophcnylphenyl ether,
bis(dischloroisopropyl) ether, bis-(chloroethoxy)
methane and polychlorinaled diphenyl ethers)
Halomethanes (other than those listed elsewhere: in-
cludes methylene chlorid methylchloride, methyl-
bromide, bromoform, dichlorobromomethane, tri-
chlorofluoromethane, dichlorodifluoromethane)
Heptachlor and metabolites
Hexachlorobutadiene
Hexachlorocyclohexane (all isomers)
Hexachlorocyclopentadiene
Isophorone
Lead and compounds
Mercury and compounds
Naphthalene
Nickel and compounds
Nitrobenzene
Nitrophenols (Including 2.4-dinitrophenol) dinitro-
cresol)
Nitrosamines
Pentachlorophenol
Phenol
Phlhalate esters t
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCSs) '
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (including benzan-
ihracenes. benzop\rcncs. bcniofluorsnthcnc. chry.
senes. dibcnzanlhracenes. and indenopyrenes)
Selenium and compounds
Silver and compounds
2J.7.8- Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD)
Tetrachloroethylene
Thallium and compounds
Toluene
Toxaphene
Trichloroelhylene
Vinyl chloride
Zinc and compounds
* The term "compounds" shall include Offanic tad inorganic com-
poundi.
15
-------
APPENDIX A FIGURE 4
BASIS FOR LISTING HAZARDOUS WASTE
16
-------
BASIS FOR LISTING HAZARDOUS WASTE
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KOM.
KM 7
X093 .
KOM
KMS
bwuin*. n«Knioree<«i»n«.
cMond*.
»* nusrdou*
...I«NO.
K020.
X02i
i.i.i.menioro«in«o«.
i.i.2-mcNoro«m«o«.
(1.1.2.2-l«welMoro«ui»n« ind
ncnioraMtyiww. ejmxi itirieniond*.
cfllorotann. im/t cMond*. «ny*a«lMn«. »«»« ew«i3iie
Ftiosonowxdlhoe Jnd one»o*womoc iod
•lies.
Pryyai*. l.
Toiao««o«.
M«iac«kxoe«««o«. ormo-»ew««n.
M«rcurr
eareon
XOM..
*. n«oiacnior
w
2.4-*ewaroon«oo(. 2.4 «.rv>yM
l.l.2-tnen«x4> 'I '*"i in< r»i 'w -rv,
cn4ract*nioc o' qntiaofcfv corrofMiry. or /
17
-------
APPENDIX A FIGURE 5
HAZARDOUS CONSTITUENTS
18
-------
HAZARDOUS
CONSTITUENTS
Acetonitrtle (Ethanenltrile)
Acetophenone (Ethanone. 1-phenyl)
3-< alpha-Acetonylbenzyl )-4-
hydroxycoumarin and salts (Warfarin)
2-Acetylaminofluorene (Acetamide. N-OH-
fluoren-J-ylM
Acetyl chloride (Ethanoyl chloride)
I-Acetyl-2-thlourea (Acetamide. N-(amin-
othioxomethyl)-)
Acroleln (2-Propenal)
Acrylamlde (2-Propenamlde)
Acrylonitrile (2-Propenenitrlle)
Aflatoxins
Aidrin (1.2,3.4.10.10-Hexachloro-
1.4,4a.5.8.8a.8b-hexahydro-endo.exo-
1.4:S.8-Dlmethanonaphthalene)
AUyl alcohol (2-Propen-l-ot)
Aluminum phosphide
4-Aminobiphenyl (tl.l'-BlphenylM-amine)
S-AnUno-l,Ia.2.3.Sa.Sb-hexahydro-8-
(hydroxymethyl)-8a-methoxy-S-methyl-
carbamate azirino(2'.3':3.4]pyrroloU.2-
a]lndole-4.7-dtone, (ester) (Mltomyctn C)
(Azirino(2'3-:3.4Jpyrroloa.2-a)lndole-4.7-
dlone. 8-amino-8-(((amino-
carbonyi )oxy >methy I ]• 1.1 a.2.3.8a.3b-
hexahydrc-8amethoxy-5-methy-)
5--) 4-Aminopyri-
dine (4-Pyridlnamlne)
Amltrole UH-1.2.4-Trtazol-3-amlne)
Aniline (Benzenamlne)
Antimony and compounds. N.O.S.*
Aramtte (Sulfurous acid. 2-chioroethyl-. 2-
U-phenoxyM-
methylethyl ester)
Arsenic and compounds. N.O.S.*
Arsenic acid (Orthoarsenlc acid)
Arsenic pentoxlde (Arsenic (V) oxide)
Arsenic trioxlde (Arsenic (III) oxide)
Auramlne (Benzenamlne. 4.4'-
carbonimldoylblsCNJI-Dlmethyl-. mono-
hydrochlortde)
Azaserine (L-Serlne. dlazoacetate (ester))
Barium and compounds. N.O.S.*
Barium cyanide
BenztcJacrtdlne (3.4-Benzacridtne)
BenzCalanthracene (1.2-Benzanthracene)
Benzene (Cyclohexatriene)
Benzenearsonlc acid (Anonlc acid, phenyl-)
Benzene, dlchloromethyl- (Benzal chloride)
Benzenethlol (Thlophenol)
Benzldlne(tl.li-Blphenyn-4.4'dlamlne)
BenzotblHuoranthene (2.3-Benzonuoranth-
ene)
BenzoCJinuoranthene (7.8-Benzonuoranth-
ene)
BenzoCalpyrene (3.4-Benzopyrene)
p-Benzoqulnone (1.4-Cyctohexadlenedlone)
Benzotrichloride (Benzene, trtchloromethyl-
)
Benzyl chloride (Benzene, (chloromethyl)-)
Beryllium and compounds. N.O.S.'
Bts(2-«hloroethoxy(methane (Ethane, l.l1-
Cmethylenebls(oxy)lbls(2-<:hloro-])
Bts(2-chloroethyl) ether (Ethane. 1.1'-
oxybis(2-chioro-))
N.N-Bl3<2-chloroethyl>-2-naphthylamine
(Chlomaphazine)
Bls(2-chloroisopropyl) ether (Propane. 2.2'-
oxybis(2-chloro-])
Bts(chloromethyl) ether (Methane.
oxybisCchloro-1)
Bls(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (1.2-
Benzenedlcarboxyllc acid. b!s(2-ethyl-
hexyl) ester)
Bromoacetone (2-Propanone. 1-bromo-)
Bromomethane (Methyl bromide)
4-Bromophenyl phenyl ether (Benzene, 1-
bromo-4-phenoxy-)
Bniclne (Strychnldln-10-one. 2.3-dimethoxy-
2-Butanone peroxide (Methyl ethyl ketone.
peroxide)
Butyl benzyl phthalate (1.2-
Benzenedlcarboxyllc acid, butyl phenyl-
methyl ester)
2-sec-ButyM.S-dlnltrophenol (DNBPi
(Phenol. 2.4-dlnRro-6-(l-methylpropyl)-)
Cadmium and compounds. N.O.S.*
Calcium ehromate (Chromic acid, calcium
salt)
Calcium cyanide
Carbon dlsulflde (Carbon bisulfide)
Carbon oxyfluoride (Carbonyl fluoride)
Chloral (Acetaldehyde. trlchloro-)
Chlormmbucil (Butanolc acid. 4-(bis(2-
chloroeth y I )amlno ] benzene-)
Chlordane (alpha and (amma Isomers) (4.7-
Methanolndan. 1.2.4.5.8.7.8.3-octachloro-
3.4.7.7a-tetrahydro-> (alpha and (amma
Isomers)
Chlorinated benzenes. N.O.S.*
Chlorinated ethane. N.O.S.'
Chlorinated Huorocarbons. N.O.S.*
Chlorinated naphthalene. N.O.S.*
Chlorinated phenol. N.O.S.*
Chloroacetaldehyde (Acetaldehyde. chtoro-)
Chloroallcyl ethers. N.O.S.*
p-Chloroanlllne (Benzenamine. 4-chloro-i
Chlorobenzene (Benzene, chloro-)
Chlorobenzilate (Benzeneacetic acid. 4-
chloro- aipha-(4-chlorophenyl)-alpha-
hydroxy-, ethyl ester)
p-Chloro-m-cresol (Phenol. 4-chloro-3-
methyl)
l-Chloro-2.3-«poxypropane (Oxirane. 2-
(chloromethyl)-)
2-Chloroethyl vinyl ether (Ethene. (2-chlor-
oethoxy)-)
Chloroform (Methane, trlchloro->
Chloromethane (Methyl chloride)
Chloromethyl methyl ether (Methane.
chloromethoxy-l
2-Chloronaphthalene (Naphthalene, beta-
chloro-)
2-Chloroohenol (Phenol, o-chloro-)
l-(o-Chlorophenyl)thiourea (Thiourea. (2-
chloroohenyl)-)
3-Chloropropionitnle (Propanenitnle. 3-
chloro-)
Chromium and compounds. N.O.S.*
Chrysene (1.2-Benzphenanthrene)
Citrus red No. 2 (2-Naphthol. 1-U2.5-
dlmethoxy phenyl )azo ]•)
Coal tars
Copper cyanide
Creosote (Creosote, wood)
Cresols (Cresyllc acid) (Phenol, methyl-)
Crotonaidehyde (2-Butenal)
Cyanides (soluble salts and complexes).
N.O.S.'
Cyanocen (Ethanedlnltrtle)
Cyanogen bromide (Bromine cyanide)
Cyanogen chloride (Chlorine cyanide)
Cycasin (beta-D-Glucopyranoside. (methyl-
ONN-azoxy (methyl-)
2-Cyclohexyl-4.6-dimtrophenol (Phenol. 3-
cyciohexyM.S-dimtro-)
Cyclophosphamide (2H-1.3.2,-Ori2aphos-
phorme. (bts(2-chloroethyl)aniinoj-cetra-
hydro-. 2-oxide)
19
-------
»lpha-L-lyxo-hexopyranosyl)oxy J-7.8.9.JO-
tetranydro-«.8.11-trihydroxy-l-methoxy-)
ODD (Dtchlorodlphenyldlchloroethane)
(Ethane. U-dichloro-2.2-bts
Dlbenzta.h]anthracene (1.2,3.8-Dlbenzanth-
r&cene)
TH-Dlbenzo(c.g-Jcarbazole <3.4.5.S-Dlbenzcar-
baeole)
Dlbenzo(a.elpyrene(1.2.4.3-Dlb«nzpyrene)
Dlbenzo(a.hJpyrene < 1.2.3.8-Dibenzpyrene)
DlbenaXaJlpyrene (1.2.7.8-Dibenzpyrene)
l,2-Dibromo-3-chloropropane (Propane. 1.2-
dlbromo-3-chloro-)
1.2-Dtbromoethane (Ethylene dlbromide)
Dtbromomethane (Methytene bromide)
Dl-n-butyl phthalate (1.2-
Benzenedlcarboxylie acid, dlbutyl ester)
o-Dlchlorobenzene (Benzene. 1.2-dichloro-)
m-Dichlorobenzene (Benzene. U-dlchloro-)
p-Olehlorobenzene (Benzene, 1.4-dlehioro-)
Dtchlorobenzene. N.O.S.* (Benzene.
dlchloro-. N.O.S.*)
3.3'-DlchiorebenzJdlne ([l.r-BlphenyM-4.4--
dlamlne. 3.3'-dlchloro-)
1.4-Dlchloro-2-butene (2-Butene. 1.4-dlch-
loro>)
OlehJorodl/luoromethane (Methane, dlch-
lorodlfluoro-)
1.1-Dlchloroethane (Ethylldene dlchloride)
1.2-Dlchloroethane (Ethylene dlchloride)
tnns-l.2-Dlehloroethene (1.2-Dlchloroethy-
lene)
Dlchloroethylene. N.O.3.* (Ethene. dlch-
loro-. N.O-S.*)
1.1-Dlchloroethylene (Ethene. 1.1-dichloro-)
Olchloromethane (Methylene chloride)
2.4-Olchlorophenol (Phenol. 2.4-dichloro-l
2.6-Olchlorophenol (Phenol. 2.8-dlchloro->
2.4-Olchlorophenoxyacetic acid (2.4-O). salts
and eaters (Acetic acid. 2.4-dlcWorophen-
oxy-. salts and esters)
Olchlorophenylarsine (Phenyl dlchloroar-
sine)
Dfchloropropane. N.O.S.* (Propane, dlch-
loro-. N.O.S.*)
1.2-Dlchloroprooane (Prooylene dlchloride)
Olchloropropanol. N.O.S." (Propanol. dlch-
loro-, N.O.S.")
Olchloropropene. N.O.S.* (Propene. dlch-
loro-. N.O.S.')
1.3-Dlchloropropene (1-Propene. l.3-dlch-
loro-)
Dleldrtn (1.2.3.4.10.:0-hexacbJoro-«.7-«poxy-
1.4.4a.S,4.7.8.8a-octa-hydro-«ndo-.exo-
1.4:S.3-Dtraethanonaptuhalene>
1.2:3.4-Dlepoxybutane (2.2'-Sloxirane)
Dlethylarsine (Anme. dlethyl-)
(Hydrazlne. 1.2-
N.N-Dlethylhydr«zlne
dlethyl)
O.O-DI«ihyl S-methyl ester of phosphoro-
dlthlolc acid (Phoaphorodlthlole *eid.
O.O-dlethyl S-methyl ester
O.O-Dlethylphosphorlc acid. O-p-nltro-
phenyl ester (Phosphoric acid, dlethyl p-
nltrophenyl ester)
Olethyl phthalate <1.2-Benzen«dlcarboxyllc
acid, dlethyl ester)
O.O-Dlethyl O-2-pyrazlnyl phosphoroth-
loate (Phosphorothlolc acid. O.O-dlethyl
O-pyrazlnyl ester
Dlethylstllbesterol (4.4'-Stilbenedlol.
alpha.alpha-dlethyl. bls(dlhydrofen phos-
phate.
Dlmethylcarbamoyl chloride (Carbamoyl
chloride, dimethyl-)
1.1-Dtmethylnydrazine (Hydrazine. 1.1-dl-
methyl-)
1.2-Dtaethylhydrazlne (Hydrazine. 1.2-dl-
methyl-)
3.3-Olmethyl-l-(methylthio)-2-butanone. O-
C(methylamino) carbonylloxime (Thio-
fanox)
alpha.alpha-Olmethy Iphenethylamlne ( Eth-
anamine. l.l-dimethyI-2-phenyl-)
2.4-Dimethylphenol (PhenoL 2.4-dlmethyl-)
Dimethyl phthalate ( 1.2-
Benzenedlcarboxylic acid, dimethyl ester)
Dimethyl sulfate (Sulfurie acid, dimethyl
ester)
Dtnttrobenzene. N.O.S.' (Benzene, dlnitro-.
20
4.6-Dtnitro-o-cresol and salts (Phenol. 2.4-
dlnitro-4-methyl-. and salts)
2.4-Dlnitrophenol (Phenol. 2.4-dtmtro-)
2.4-Olmtrotoluene (Benzene, l-methyl-2.4-
dlnitro-)
2.8-Dlnitrotoluene (Benzene. l-methyl-2.A-
dlnltro-)
Dl-n-octyl phthalate (1.2-
Benzcnedicarboxylle acid, dloctyl ester)
1.4-DtQxane (1.4-Olethylene oxide)
Diphenjriamme (Benzenamme. N-phenyl-)
1.1-Diphenylhydrazme (Hydrazine. 1.2-dl-
Phenyl-)
Dl-n-propylnltrosamlne (N-Nltroso-dl-n-pro-
pylacnine)
Olsuifoton (O.O-dlethyl S-(2-
(ethylthlo)ethyll phosphorodlthloate)
2.4-Dlthlobluret (Thloimidodlcarbonlc dla-
mlde)
EndosuKan ( S-Norbomene. 2.3-dlmethanol.
1.4.3.6,7.7-hexachloro-. cyclic sulflte)
Endrin and metabolites (1.2.3.4.10.10-hex-
achloro-«.7-epoxy- 1.4.4a,5.8.7.8.8a-
octahydro-endo.endo-1.4:S.8-
dlmethanonaphthalene. and metabolites)
Ethyl carbamate (Urethan) (Carbamic acid.
ethyl ester)
Ethyl cyanide (propanenltrlle)
Ethyleneblsdlthiocarbamlc acid, salts and
esters (1.2-Ethanedlylblscarbamodithlole
acid, salts and esters
Ethyleneimcne (Aziridlne)
Ethylene oxide (Oxlrane)
Ethylenethlourea ( 2- (midazolldlnethione >
Ethyl methacrylate (2-Propenoic acid. 2-
methyl-. ethyl ester)
Ethyl methanesulfonate (MethanesuUonic
acid, ethyl ester)
Fluoramhene (Benzotj.kinuorene)
Fluorine
-------
2-Fluoroacetamlde (Acetamide. 2-/luoro->
Fluoroacetlc acid, sodium salt (Acetic acid.
fluoro-, sodium salt)
Formaldehyde (Methylene oxide)
Formic acid (Methanoic acid)
Olycidylaldehyde (l-Propanol-2.3-epoxy>
Halomethane. N.O.S.*
Heptachlor (4.7-Methanc-lH-lndene.
l.4.S,8.7.8.8-heptachlorc-3a.4.7,7a.
tetrahydro-)
Heptachlor epoxfde (alpha, beta, and
tamma Isomers) (4.7-Methano-lH-indene.
l.4.5.a,7,8.8-heptachloro-J.3-epoxy.3a.4.7.7-
tetrahydro-. alpha, beta, and gamma Isc-
men)
Hexachlorobenzene (Benzene, hexachloro-)
Hexachlorobutadtene (1.3-Butadlene.
1,1.2,3.4.4-hexachloro-)
Hexachlorocyclohexane (all Isomers) (Un-
dane and Isomers)
Hexachlorocyclopentadiene (1,3-Cyclopen-
tadlene. 1.2,3.4,5.5-hexachloro-)
Hexachloroethane (Ethane. 1.1.1.2.2.2-hex-
achloro-)
l.2.3.4.10.10-Hexachloro-l.4.4a.5,8.8a-
hexahydro-1.4:5.3-endo.endo-
dlmethanonaphthalene
(Hexachlorohexahydro-endo.endo-
dimethanonaphthalene)
Hexachlorophene (2.2'-Methylenebls<3.4.8-
trichlorophenol))
Hexachloropropene (1-Propene. 1.1.2.3.3.3-
hexachloro-)
Hexaethyl tetraphosphate (Tetraphos-
phorlc acid, hexaethyl ester)
Hydrazine (Dlamine)
Hydrocyanic acid (Hydrogen cyanide)
Hydrofluoric acid (Hydrogen fluoride)
Hydrogen sulflde (Sulfur hydride)
Hydroxydlmethylarslne oxide (Cacodyllc
acid)
Indeno
Lasiocarplne (2-Butenolc acid. 2-methyl-. 7-
C(2.3-dlhydroxy-2-(i-methoxyethyl>-3-
methyl- l-oxobutoxy)melhyU-2.3.5.7a-
tetrahydro-lH-pyrrollzin-l-yl ester)
Lead and compounds. N.O.S.*
Lead acetate (Acetic acid, lead salt)
Lead phosphate (Phosphoric acid, lead salt)
Lead subacetate (Lead. bls(acetato-
O Hetrahydroxytrt-)
Maleic anhydride (2.5-Furandlone)
Malelc hydrazide (1.2-Olhydro-3.S-pyridazln-
edlone)
Malononltrile (Propanedlnitrile)
Melphalan (Alanine. 3-Cp-bls(2-
chloroethyDaminolphenyl-. L-)
Mercury fulminate (Fulminlc acid, mercury
Mernrr arid irjopo-jnis, X.O.S.*
Methacrytonitrile (2-Propenenitrtle. 2-
methyl-)
Me thanethlol (Thiomethanol)
Methapyrilene (Pyrtdlne. 2-((2-
dlmethylamino)ethyl]-2-thenylamino-)
Metholmyl (Acetlmldlc acid. N-
«methylcarbamoyl)oxy]thlc~. methyl
ester
Methoxychlor (Ethane, l.l.l-trichloro-2.2'-
bls«p-methoxyphenyl)-)
2-Methylazlndtne (l.2-Propylenlmine)
3-Methylcholanthrene
(BenzUlaceanthrytene. 1.2-dlhydro-3-
methyl-)
Methyl chlorocarbonate (Carbonochloridlc
acid, methyl ester)
4.4'-Methy lenebU( 2-chloroanlllne ) ( Benzen-
amine. 4.4'-methylenebls-(2-chloro->
Metbyl ethyl Icetone (MEK) (2-Butanone)
Methyl hydrazine (Hydrazine. methyl-)
2-Methyllactonitrile (Propanenitrile. 2-hy-
droxy-2-methyl-)
Methyl methacrylate (2-Propenoic acid. 2-
methyl-, methyl ester)
Methyl methanesuUonate (Methanesulfonic
acid, methyl ester)
2-Methyl-2-(methylthio)propionaldehyde-o-
(methylcarbonyl) oxime (Propanal. 2-
methyl-J-(methylthto)-. O-
«methyUmino)carbonyUoxime)
N-Methyl-N'-nitrc-N-nttrosoguanidlne
(Guanidlne. N-nltroso-N-methyl-N'-nitro-)
Methyl parathion (O.O-dlmethyl O-<4-nitro-
phenyl) phosphorothioate)
Methylthiouracil (4-tH-Pyrimidlnone. 2.3-
dlhydro-a-methyl-2-thioxo-)
Mustard gas(Sulflde. bis(2-chloroethyl)-)
Naphthalene
1.4-Naphthoqufnone ( 1.4-Naphthalene-
dlone)
1-Naphthylamine (alpha-NAphthylamlne)
2-Naphthylamine (beta-Naphthylamine)
l-Naphthyl-2-thlourea (Thlourea. 1-naphth-
alenyl-)
Nickel and compounds. N.O.S.*
Nickel carbonyl (Nickel tetracarbonyl)
Nickel cyanide (Nickel (II) cyanide)
Nicotine and salts (Pyrldlne. (S)-3-(l-
methyl-2-pyrrolldlnyl)-. and sails)
Nitric oxide (Nitrogen (II) oxide)
p-Nltroanillne (Benzenamme. 4-nllro-)
Nltrobenzine (Benzene, nitro-)
Nitrogen dioxide (Nitrogen (IV) oxide)
Nitrogen mustard and hydroehlortde salt
(Ethanamine. 2
-------
5-Nltro-o-toluidine (Benzenamine. 2-methyl-
5-nitro-)
Octametnylpyrophosphoramlde (Dlphoa-
phoramide. octamethyl-)
Osmium tetroxide (Osmium (VIII) oxide)
7-OxabtcycloC2.2.1]heptane-2.3-dlcarboxyUe
acid (Endothal)
Paraldehyde (1.3.5-Trtoxane. 2.4.S-tri-
methyl-)
Parathlon (Phoaphorothloic acid. O.O-
dlethyl O-(p-nltrophenyl) ester
Pentachlorobenzene (Benzene. pentaehloro-
)
Pentachloroethane (Ethane, pentachloro-)
Pentachloronitrobenzene (PCNB) (Benzene.
pentachloronitro-)
Pentachlorophenol (Phenol, pentachloro-)
Phenacetln (AeeUmlde. N-<4-ethoxy-
phenylV)
Phenol (Benzene, hydroxy-)
Phenylenedfamlne (Benzenedlamlne)
Phenyimercury ueute (Mercury. acetate-
phenyl-)
N-Phenylthlourea (Thiourea. phenyl-)
Phosgene (Carbonyl chloride)
Phosphine (Hydroten phosphide)
Phosphorodlthlole acid. O.O-dlethyl 3-
C(ethylthlo>methyl] ester (Phorste)
Phosphorathloie acid. O.O-dlmethyl O-Cp-
«dlmethylamino)sulfonyl)phenyl] ester
(Famphur)
Phthailc acid esters. N.O.S.* (Benzene. 1.2-
dicmrboxylte acid, esters. N.O-S.")
Phthailc anhydride (1.2-
Benzenedlcarboxyllc acid anhydride)
2-Ptcoline(Pyndlne. 2-methyl-)
Polychlorinated biphenyl. tf.OJS.*
PoUasium cyanide
Potassium silver cyanide (ArtentateU-). dl-
cyano-. potassium)
Promunide (3.5-Dlchloro-N-< l.l-dlmethyl-2-
propynyDbenzamlde)
1.3-Propane sultone (1.2-Oxathiolane, 2.2-
dioxide)
n-Propylamlne (1-Propanamlne)
Prapylthiouracil
(Undecajnethylenedianune. NJT-bls(2-
chlorobenzyix dlhydrochloride)
2-Propyn-l-ol (Propargyl alcohol)
Pyridlne
Reserpine (Tohlmban-l«-carboxyllc acid.
11.17-dlmethoxy-18-((3.4.5-
trimethoxybenzoyDoxy]-. methyl ester)
R«3orcinol (1.3-Benzenedlol)
Saccharin and salts (1.2-Benzolsothlmzolln-3-
one. 1.1-dioxide. and salts)
Salrole( Benzene. 1.2-melhylenedioxy-4-
allyl-)
Selenious acid (Selenium dioxide)
Selenium and compounds. N.O.S.*
Selenium suUlde (Suliur selenide)
Selenourem (Carbamimtdoselenoic acid)
Silver and compounds. N.O.3.*
Silver cyanide
Sodium cyanide
Streptozotocin (D-GIucopyranose. 2-deoxy-
2-<3-methyl-3-nitrosoureido)-)
Strontium sulflde
Strychnine and salts (Strychnidln-ID-one.
and salts)
1.2.4.5-Tetrachlorobenzene (Benzene.
1.2.4.S-tetrachloro-)
2.3.7.3-Tetrachlorodlbenzo-p-dloxin (TCDD)
(Dlbenzo-p-dloxln. 2,3.7.8-tetrachlorc-)
Tetrachloroethane. ^f.O.S.• (Ethane, te-
trachloro-, M.O.S.'l
1.1.1.2-Tetrmchlorethane (Ethane. I.J.1.2-te-
Crachloro-)
1.1.2.2-Tetrachlorethane (Ethane. 1.1.2.2-te-
trachloro-)
Tetrachloroethane (Ethene. l.l.2.2-tetrach-
loro-)
Tetrachloromethane (Carbon tetrachloride)
2.3.4.8.-Tetrachlorophenol (Phenol. 2.3.4.8-
tetrachloro-)
Tetraethyldlthlopyrophosphate (Dlthlopyr-
ophosphoric acid, tetraethyl-ester)
Tetraethyl lead (Plumbane. tetraethyl-)
Tetraethylpyrophosphate (Pyrophosphoric
acide. tetraethyl ester)
Tetranltromethane (Methane, tetranitro-)
Thallium and compounds, N.O.S.'
ThaUlc oxide (Thallium (III) oxide)
Thallium (I) acetate (Acetic acid, thallium
(I) salt)
Thallium (I) carbonate (Carbonic acid, dlth-
alllum (I) salt)
Thallium (I) chloride
Thallium (I) nitrate (Nitric acid, thallium
(I) salt)
Thallium selenlte
Thallium (I) suUate (SuUuric acid, thallium
(I) ialt)
Thioacetamlde (Ethanethioamide)
Thlowmicarbazlde
(Hydnzinecarbothioamide)
Thiourea (Carbamide thlo-)
Thiuram (BUtdlmethylthtocarbamoyl) dt-
sulflde)
Toluene (Benzene, methyl-)
Toiuenedlamlne (Olamlnotoluene)
o-Toluidlne hydrochloride (Benzenamine. 2-
methyl-, hydrochloride)
Toiylene dllsocyanate (Benzene. 1.3-dIlso-
cyanatomethyl-)
Toxaphene (Camphene. oetachloro-)
Tribromomethane (Bromoform)
1.2.4-Trichlorobenzene (Benzene. 1.2.4-trich-
loro-)
1.1.1-Trichloroethane (Methyl chloroform)
1.1.2-Trichloroethane (Ethane. 1.1.2-trich-
loro-)
Trichloroethene (Trichloroethylene)
Trichloromethanethtot (Methanethlot.
trichloro-)
Trichloromonofluoromethane (Methane.
trichloro fluoro-)
2.4.S-Trichiorophenol (Phenol. 2.4.5-trlch-
loro>)
2.4.8-Trichloraphenol (Phenol. 2.4.8-trich-
loro-)
2.4.5-Trichlorophenoxyacetlc acid (2.4.S-T)
(Acetic acid. 2.4.2-Crichlorophenoxy-)
2.4.2-Trlchlorophenoxypropionic acid (2.4.5-
TP) (Sllvex) (Proplonoic acid. 2-<2.4.5-
trichlorophenoxy >- >
Trichloropropane. M.O.S.* (Propane, trich-
loro-. N.O.S."!
1.2.3-Triehloropropane (Propane. 1.2.3-trtch-
loro-l
O.O.O-Trteihyl phosphorothloate (Phos-
phorothlole acid. O.O.O-triethyl ester)
sym-Trinltrobenzene (Benzene. l.3.5-(r phosohate (1-Pro-
panol. 2.3-dlbromo-. phosphate)
Trypan blue (2.7-Naphthalenedlsulfonlc
acid. 3.3'-{(3.3'-
-------
APPENDIX B
GUIDE TO COMPATIBILITY OF CHEMICALS
24
-------
GUIDE TO COMPATIBILITY OF CHEMICALS
The Guide is based in part upon information provided to the Coast Guard by
the National Academy of Sciences - U.S. Coast Guard Advisory Committee on
Hazardous Materials and represents the latest information available to (he Coast
Guard on chemical compatibility.
The accidental mixing of one chemical cargo with another can in some cases
be expected to result in a vigorous and hazardous chemical reaction. The genera-
tion of toxic gases, the heating, overflow, and rupture of cargo tanks, and fire nnd
explosion are possible consequences of such reactions.
The purpose of the Compatibility Chart is to show chemical combinations
believed to be dangerously reactive in the case of accidental mixing. It should be
recognized, however, that the Chart provides a broad grouping of chemicals with
an extensive variety of possible binary combinations. Although one group, gener-
ally speaking, can be considered dangerously reactive with another group where
an "X" appears on the Chart, there may exist between the groups some combina-
tions which would not dangerously react. The Chart should therefore not be used
as an infallible guide. It is offered as an aid in the safe loading of bulk chemical
cargoes, with the recommendation that proper safeguards be taken to nvoid
accidental mixing of binary mixtures for which an "X" appears on the Chart.
Proper safeguards would include consideration of such factors as avoidance of the
use of common cargo and vent lines and carriage in adjacent tanks having a
common bulkhead.
The following procedure explains how the Guide should be used in determin-
ing compatibility information:
(1) Determine the reactivity group of a particular product by referring
to the alphabetical list in Tnhle 7.1.
(2) Enter the Chart with the reactivity group. Proceed across the pugc.
An "X" indicates a reactivity group that forms an unsafe combina-
tion with the product in question.
For example, crotonaJdehyde is listed in Table 7.1 as belonging in Group 19
(Aldehydes). The Chart shows that chemicals in this group should be segregated
from sulfuric and nitric acids, caustics, ammonia, and all types of amines (aliphatic.
alkanol, and aromatic). According to note A, crotonaJdehyde is also incompatible
with non-oxidizing mineral acids.
25
-------
It is recognized there are wide variations in the reaction rates of individual
chemicals within the broad groupings shown reactive by the Compatibility Chart.
Some individual materials in one group will react violently with some of the
materials in another group and cause great hazard; others will react slowly, or not
at all. Accordingly, a useful addition to the Guide would be the identification of
specific binary combinations which are found not to be dangerously reactive, even
though an "X'r appears on the chart for those two chemicals. A few such
combinations are listed in Table 7.3; other safe combinations will be listed in
subsequent revisions.
26
-------
COMPATIBILITY CHART
VI
i
a
in
u
<
Uf
;o cnaurs
OM-OXIOItlMO MINIMAL ACIOS
JLFUMIC ACIO
ITAiC ACIO
nCAMiC ACIOS
AUSTICJ
MMONIA
UrHAlIC AMINtt
L«AMOV.AMIN(!
•OMATIC AMINIS
MIOCJ
nCAMiC AMHYOfllOf {
iOCYAMAlt!
iwv\. ACtTAII
4J»m
•'ifwtio ALLYLS
L«Y(.CNI OXIOCt
riCIUOHOMYORIN
(TOMJ
lOtHVOCI
I.COHOI.S. GLYCOlS
MtUQLi. CntSOvS
A^not.ACTAM iOturiON
UM*S
ArtAIMNJ
nOMATIC HYOMOCAHtONi
HSCILUANtOUS HTOnoCAHOOH MIXTUNIS
STCHS
'INYV HALIOCt
. ALCOHOLS.
_t_
t
X
X
X
JO
o
M/
c
u
p«
X
X
X
11
a
II). CAFMOIAC
SOll/IION
X
X
X
X
JJ
21
-------
NOTES TO COMPATIBILITY CHART:
REACTIVITY DIFFERENCES (DEVIATIONS) WITHIN CHEMICAL GROUPS
A Acrolein (19), Crotonaldehyde (19), and 2-Ethyl-3-propy1
acrolein (19) are not compatible with Group 1, Non-Oxi-
dizing Mineral Acids.
B Isophorone (18), and Mesityl Oxide (18) are not compatible
with Group 8, Alkanolamines.
C Acrylic Acid (4) is not compatible with Group 9, Aromatic
Amines.
D Allyl Alcohol (15) is not compatible with Group 12, Iso-
cyanates.
E Furfuryl Alcohol (20) is not compatible with Group 1,
Non-oxidizing Mineral Acids.
F Furfuryl Alcohol (20) is not compatible with Group 4,
Organic Acids.
G Dichlbroethyl Ether (36) is not compatible with Group 2,
Sulfuric Acid.
H Trichloroethylene (36) is not compatible with Group 5,
Caus tics.
I Ethylenediamine (7) is not compatible with Ethylene Di-
chloride (36).
28
-------
ALPHABETICAL LISTING OF COMPOUNDS
Group
Name No.
Acetaldehyde 19
Acetic Acid 4
Acetic Anhydride 11
Acetone 18
Acetonitrile 37
Acrolein (inhibited) 19
Acrylic Acid (inhibited) 4
Acrylonitrile
(inhibited) 15
Adiponitrile 37
Allyl Alcohol 15
Allyl Chloride 15
Aminoethy 1ethanolamine 8
Ammonia, Anhydrous 6
Ammonium Hydroxide
(28^ or less) 6
Ammonium Nitrate, Urea,
Water Solutions
(containing Ammonia) 6
Ammonium Nitrate, Urea,
Water Solutions (not
containing Ammonia) 43
Amy 1 Acetate 34
Amyl Alcohol 20
Amyl Tallate 34
Aniline 9
Asphalt 33
Asphalt Blending Stocks:
RoofersFlux 33
Straight Run Residue 33
B e n z ejn e 32
Benzene, Toluene
Xylene (crude) 32
Butadiene (inhibited) 30
Butane 31
Butyl Acrylate
(inhibited) 14
Butyl Acetate 34
Butyl Alcohol 20
Butylamine 7
Group
Name No.
Butyl Benzyl Phthalate 34
Butylene 30
1,3-Butylene Glycol • 20
Butylene Oxide 16
Butyl Ether 41
Butyl Methacrylate
(inhibited) 14
Butyraldehyde 19
Butyric Ac id 4
Camphor Oil (light) 18
Caprolactatn Solution 22
Carbolic Oil 21
Carbon DisuLfide 38
Carbon Tetrachloride 36
Caustic Potash Solution 5
Caustic Soda Solution 5
Chlorine *
Chlorobenzene 36
Chloroform 36
Chlorosulfonic Acid *
Corn Syrup 43
Creosote, Coal Tar 21
Cresols 21
Cresylate Spent Caustic
Solution 5
Crotona1dehyde 19
Cumene 32
Cyc loa1iphatic Resins 31
Cycloh e xane 31
Cyclohexanol 20
Cyclohexanone 18
Cyclohexylamine 7
Cymene 32
Decaldehyde 19
Decane 31
Decene 30
Decyl Alcohol 20
Decyl Acrylate
(inhibited) • U
29
-------
ALPHABETICAL LISTING OF COMPOUNDS (Continued)
Decylbenzene 32
Dextrose Solution 43
Diacetone Alcohol 20
Dibutylamine 7
Dlbutyl Phthalate 34
Dichlorobenzene 36
Dichlorodifluoromethane 36
1,1-Dichloroethane 36
Dichloroethyl Ether 41
Dichlororaethane 36
1,1-Dichloropropane 36
1,2-Dichloropropane 36
1,3-Dichloropropene 15
Dicyclopentadiene • 30
Diethanolamine 8
Dlethylamine 7
Dlethylbenzene 32
Dlethylene Glycol 40
Diethylene Glycol Mono-
butyl Ether 40
Diethylene Glycol Mono-
butyl Ether Acetate 34
Diethylene Glycol Mono-
ethyl Ether 40
Diethylene Glycol Mono-
methyl Either 40
Die thylanetriamine 7
Die thy1eChanolamina 8
Diheptyl Phthalate 34
Diisobutylene 30
Diisobutyl Carbinol 20
Diisobutyl Ketone 18
Diisode-cyl Phthalate 34
Diisopropanolamine 8
Di isopropylamine 7
Dimethylamine 7
Dimethylethanolamine 8
Dimethylformamide 10
Dinonyl Phthalate 34
.Dioctyl Phthalate 34
1,4-Dioxane 41
Diphenyl-Diphenyl Oxide 33
Diphenylmethane Diiso-
cyanate 12
Di-n-propylamine 7
Dipropylene Glycol 40
Distillates:
Straight Run
Flashed Feed Stocks
Diundecyl Phthalate
Dodecane
Dodecanol
Dodecene
Dodecylbenzene
Epichlorohydr in
Ethane
Ethano lamine
Ethoxylated Alcohols
Ethoxy Triglycol
Ethyl Acetate
Ethyl Alcohol
Ethyl A^crylate
(inhibited)
Ethylaraine
Ethyl Benzene
Ethyl Butanol
Ethyl Chloride
Ethylene
Ethylene Chlorohydrin
Ethylene Cyanohydrin
Ethylened iamine
Ethylene Dibromide
Ethylene Dichloride
Ethylene Glycol
Ethylene Glycol Mono-
butyl Ether
Ethylene Glycol Mono-
butyl Ether Acetate
Ethylene Glycol Mono-
ethyl Ether
Ethylene Glycol Mono-
ethyl Ether Acetate
Ethylene Glycol Mono-
methyl Ether
Ethylene Oxide
Ethyl Ether
Ethylhexaldehyde
2-Ethyl Hexanol
2-Ethylhexyl Acrylate
(inhibited)
33
33
34
31
20
30
32
17
31
8
40
40
34
20
14
7
32
20
36
30
20
20
7
36
36
20
40
34
40
34
40
*
41
I?
20
14
30
-------
ALPHABETICAL LISTING OF COMPOUNDS (Continued)
Ethyl Hexyl Tallate
Ethyl Methacrylate
(inhibited)
2-Ethyl-3-Propyl
Acrolein
Formaldehyde Solution
(37-507.)
Formic Acid
Furfural
Furfuryl Alcohol
Gas Oil:
Cracked
Gasoline Blending Stocks
Alkylates
Reformates
Gasolines:
Cas ingh ead
Automotive
over 4.23
per gallon)
Aviation (containing
not over 4.86 grams
lead per gallon)
Polymer
Straight Run
Glutara 1dehyde Solution
Glycerine
Glycol Diacetate
Glyoxal Solution
(natural)
(containing
grams lead
34
14
19
19
4
19
20
33
i
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
19
20
34
19
Heptane 31
Hexamethy1 eneimine 7
Hexane 31
Hexanol 20
Hexene 30
Hexylene Glycol 20
Hydrochloric Acid 1
Hydrofluoric Acid 1
Isophorone 18
Isoprene (inhibited) 30
Jet Fuels:
JP-1 (Kerosene)
JP-3
JP-4
JP-5 (Kerosene,
Kerosene
Heavy)
33
33
33
33
33
Latex, Liquid Synthetic 43
Mesityl Oxide 18
Methane 31
Methyl Acetate 34
Methyl Acetylene, Pro-
padiene Mixture
(Stabilized) 30
Methyl Acrylate
(inhibited)- 14
Methyl Alcohol 20
Methyl Amyl Acetate 34
Methyl Amyl Alcohol 20
Methyl Bromide 36
3-Methyl Butyra 1 dehyde 19
Methyl Chloride 36
Methyl Ethyl Ketone 18
2-Methyl-5-Ethyl
Pyridine " 9
Methyl Formal (Dimethyl
Formal) 4 1
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone 18
Methyl Isobutyl Carbinol 20
Methyl Methacrylate
(inhibited) 14
(alpha-) Methyl Styrene
(inhibited) 30
Mineral Spirits 33
Monochlorodifluoro-
methane 36
Morpholine 7
Motor Fuel Antiknock Com-
pounds Containing Lead
Alkyls ' *
31
-------
ALPHABETICAL LISTING OF COMPOUNDS (Continued)
Naphtha!
Coal Tar
Solvent
Stoddard Solvent
Varnish Markers'
and
Painters' (75Z)
Naphthalene (molten)
Nitric Acid (70Z or
less)
Nitric Acid (95Z)
Nitrobenzene
1- or 2-Nitropropane
Nitrotoluene
Nonane
Nonene
Nonyl Alcohol
Nonyl Phenol
Nonyl Phenol
(ethoxylated)
Octane
Oc tene
Octyl Alcohol
Octyl Aldehyde
Octyl Epoxytallate
Oils:
Clarified
Coal Oil
Crude Oil
Diesel Oil
Fuel Oils:
1 (Kerosene)
1-D
2
2-D
4
5
6
No
• No
No,
No,
No,
No,
' No.
Residual
Road
Trans former
Edible Oils, including:
Castor
Coconut
Co t ton Seed
Fish
33 Lard . 34
33 Olive 34
33 Palm 34
Peanut 34
33 Safflower 34
32 Soya Bean 34
Tucum - 34
3 Vegetable 34
* Miscellaneous Oils,
4 3 includ ing:
43 Absorpt ion 33
43 Aromatic 33
31 Coal Tar 33
30 Heartcut Distillate 33
20 Linseed 33
21 Lubricating 33
Mineral 33
40 Mineral Seal 33
Motor 33
Neatsfoot 33
31 Penetrating 33
30 Range 33
20 Resin 33
19 Resinous Petroleum 33
34 Rosin 33
Sperm 33
33 Spindle 33
33 Spray 33
33 Tall 34
33 Tanner's 33
Turbine 33
33 Oleum *
33
33
33 Pentadecanol 22
33 Pentane 31
33 Pentene 30
33 Pentyl Aldehyde 19
33 Perchloroethylene 36
33 Petrolatum 33
33 Petroleum Naphtha 33
Phenol 21
34 Pentachloroethane 36
34 Phosphoric Acid 1
34 Phosphorus *
34 Phthalic Anhydride
(molten) • 11
32
-------
ALPHABETICAL LISTING OF COMPOUNDS (Continued)
Polybutene 30
Polyethylene Glycols 40
Polymethy'l.ene Polyphenyl-
isocyana t e 12
Polypropylene 30
Polypropylene Glycol
Methyl Ether 40
Polypropylene Glycols 40
Propane 31
Propanolaraine 8
Propionaldehyde 19
Propionlc Acid 4
Propionic Anhydride 11
PropylAcetate 34
Propyl Alcohol 20
P ro pylamine 7
Propylene 30
Propylene Butylene
Polymer 30
Propylene Glycol 20
Propylene Oxide 16
Propylene Tetramer 30
PropylEther 41
Pyridine 9
Sodium Hydrosulfide
Solution (45*^or less) 5
Sorbitol 20
Styrene (inhibited) 30
Sulfolane 39
Sulfur (raolten) *
Sulfuric Acid 2
Sulfuric Acid, Spent 2
Tallow 34
Tallow Fatty Alcohol 20
1,1,2,2-Tetrachloro-
ethane 36
Te tradecanol 70
Tetradecene 30
Tetradecylbenzene - 32
Te traethy 1ene Glycol 40
Tetraethy 1enepentamine 7
Tetrahydrofuran 41
Tetrahydronaphthalene 32
Tetrasodium Salt of
EDTA Solution 43
Toluene 32
Toluene Diisocyanate 12
1 , 2 , 4-Trichlorobenzene 36
Trichloroe thylene 36
Tridecanol 20
Tridecene 30
TridecyIbenzene 32
Triethanolaraine 8
Triethylamine 7
Triethyl Benzene 32
Triethylene Glycol 40
Triethylenet€tramine 7
Tripropylene Glycol 40
Turpentine 30
Undecanol 20
Undecene 30
UndecyIbenzene 32
Valeraldehyde 19
Vinyl Acetate
(inhibited) 13
Vinyl Chloride
(inhibited) 35
Vinylidene Chloride
(inhibited) 35
Vinyl Toluene
(inhibited) 30
Xylene 32
* Because of very high reactivity or unusual conditions of
carriage, this product is not included in the Compatibility
Chart. If compatibility information is needed for a ship-
ment, contact Commandant (G-MHM-1 /83) , U.S. Coast Guard,
400 Seventh Street, S.W., Washington, 0. C. 20590.
33
-------
REACTIVITY GROUPS
li Non-Oxidizing Mineral Acids
Hydrochloric Acid
Hydrofluoric Acid
Phosphoric Acid
2. Sulfuric Acids
Spent Sulfuric Acid
Sulfuric Acid (98Z or less)
3. Nitric Acid
Nitric Acid (70Z or less)
4. Organic Acids
Acetic Acid
Butyric Acid
Formic Acid
Propionic Acid
Acrylic Acid (inhibited)
5. Caustics
Caustic Potash Solution
Caustic Soda Solution
Cresylate Spent Caustic Solution
Sodium Hydrosulfide Solution
(45% or less)
6. Ammonia
Ammonia, Anhydrous
Ammonium Hydroxide (282 or less)
Ammonium Nitrate, Urea, Water
Solutions (containing Ammonia)
7. Aliphatic Amines
Butylamine
Cyclohexylamine
Olbutylamine
Diethylamine
Diethylenetriamlne
Diisopropylamine
Oimethylamine
Di-n-propylamine
Ethylamine
Ethylenediamine
Hexamethyleneimine
Methylamine
Morpholine
Propylamine
Tetraethylenepentamine
Triethylamine
Triethylenetetramine
8. Alkanolamines
Aminoethylethanolamine
Diethanolamina
Diethylethanolamine
Diisopropanolamine
Dimethylethanolamine
Ethanolamine
Propanolamine
Triethanolamine
9. Aromatic Amines
Aniline
Pyridine
2-Methyl-5-Ethylpyridine
10. Amides
D ime t hy1fo rmam id e
34
-------
REACTIVITY GROUPS (Continued)
11. Organic Anhydrides
Acetic Anhydride
Phthalic Anhydride
Propionic Anhydride
12. Isocyanates
Diphenylmethane Diisocyanate
Polyphenyl Polymethylene-
isocyanate
Toluene Diisocyanate
13. Vinyl Acetate
Vinyl Acetate (inhibited)
14. Acrylates
Butyl Acrylate (inhibited)
Butyl Methacrylate (inhibited)
Decyl Acrylate (inhibited)
Ethyl Acrylate (inhibited)
2-Ethylhexyl Acrylate (inhibited)
Ethyl Methacrylate (inhibited)
' Methyl Acrylate (inhibited)
Methyl Methacrylate (inhibited)
15. Substituted Allyls
Acrylonitrile (inhibited)
Allyl Alcohol
Allyl Chloride
1,3-Diphloropropene
16. Alkylene Oxides
Propylene Oxide
Butylene Oxide
17. Epichlorohydrin
Epichlorohydrin
18. KeEones
Acetone
Camphor Oil
Cyclohexanone
Diisobutyl Ketone
Isophorone
Mesityl Oxide
Methyl Ethyl Ketone
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone
19. Aldehydes
Acetaldehyde
Acrolein (inhibited)
Butyraldehyde
Decaldehyde
Ethylhexaldehyde
Formaldehyde
Glutaraldehyde Solution
Glyoxal Solution
Methylbutyraldehyde
Octyl Aldehyde
Pentyl Aldehyde
Propionaldehyde
Valeraldehyde
20. Alcohols, Glycols
Amyl Alcohol
Butyl Alcohol
1,3-Butylene Glycol
Cyclohexanol
Decyl Alcohol
Diacetone Alcohol
Diisobutyl Carbinol
Dodecanol
Ethanol
Ethoxylated Alcohols
35
-------
REACTIVITY GROUPS (Continued)
Ethyl Alcohol
Ethylbutanol
Ethylene Chlorohydrin
Ethylene Cyanohydrin
Ethylene Glycol
2-Ethyl Hexanol
Furfuryl Alcohol
Glycerin
Hexanol
Hexylene Glycol
Methanol
Methyl Alcohol
Methylaroyl Alcohol
Methylisobutyl Carbinol
Octyl Alcohol
Honyl Alcohol
Pentadecanol
Propyl Alcohol
Propylene Glycol
SorBltol
Tallow Fatty Alcohol
Tetradecanol
Tridecanol
Undecanol
21. Phenbls and Cresols
Carbolic Oil
Creosote, Coal Tar
Cresols
Nonyl Phenol
Phenol
22. Caprolactam Solution
Caprolactam Solution
23 - 29. Unasslgned
30. Olefins
Butadiene (inhibited)
Butene
Butylene
Oecene
Dicyclopentadiene
Diisobutylene
Dodecene
Ethylene
Hexene
Isoprene (inhibited)
Methyl Acetylene, Propadiene
Mixture (stabilized)
(alpha-) Methyl Styrene
(inhibited)
Nonene
Octene
Pentene
Polybutene
Polypropylene
Propylene
Propylene Butylene Polymer
Propylene Tetratner
Styrene (inhibited)
Vinyl Toluene (inhibited)
Tetradecene
Tridecene
Turpentine
Undecene
31. Paraffins
Butane
Cycloaliphatic Resins
Cyclohexane
Decane
Dodecane
Ethane
Heptane
Hexane
Methane
Nonane
Octane
Pentane
Propane
36
-------
REACTIVITY GROUPS (Continued)
32. Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Benzene
Benzene, Toluene, Xylene (crude)
Cumene
Cymene
Decylbenzene
Diethylbenzene
Dodecylbenzene
Ethylbenzene
Naphthalene
Tetradecylbenzene
Tetrahydronaphthalene
Toluene
Tridecylbenzene
TriethyIbenzene
Undecylbenzene
Xylene
33. Misc. Hydrocarbon Mixtures
Asphalt
Asphalt Blending Stocks
Diphenyl - Diphenyl Oxide
Distillates
Gas Oil, Cracked
Gasoline Blending Stocks
Gasolines
Jet Fuels
Kerosene
Mineral Spirits
Naphtha
Oils, Crude
Oils, Diesel
Oils, Coal
Oils, Fuel (No. 1 thru No. 6)
Oils, Residual
Oils, Road
Oils, Transformer
Petrolatum
Petroleum Naphtha
Esters
Arayl Acetate
Amyl Tallate
Butyl Acetate
Butyl Benzyl Phthalate
Castor Oil
Coconut Oil
Cottonseed Oil
Dibutyl Phthalate
Diethylene Glycol Monobutyl
Ether Acetate
Diheptyl Phthalate
Diisodecyl Phthalate
Dinonyl Phthalate
Dioctyl Phthalate
Diundecyl Phthalate
Ethyl Acetate
Ethylene Glycol Monobutyl
Ether Acetate
Ethylene Glycol Monoethyl
Ether Acetate
Ethylhexyl Tallate
Fish Oil
Glycol Diacetate
Lard
Methyl Acetate
Methyl Amyl Acetate
Octyl Epoxy Tallate
Olive Oil
Palm Oil
Peanut Oil
Propyl Acetate
Safflower Oil
Soybean Oil
Tallow
Tucum Oil
Vegetable Oil
35. Vinyl Halides
Vinyl Chloride (inhibited)
Vinylidene Chloride (inhibited)
36. Halogenated Hydrocarbons
Carbon Tetrachloride
Chlorobenzene
it
37
-------
REACTIVITY GROUPS (Continued)
Chloroform
Oichlorobenzene
1,1'Dichloroethane
Dichloroethyl Ether
Dichloromethane
1,1-Dichloropropane
1,2-Dichloropropane
Ethyl Chloride
Ethylene Dibromide
Ethylene Dichloride
Methyl Bromide
Methyl Chloride
Pentachloroethane
Perchloroethylene
1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene
Trichloroethylene
37. Nitriles
Acetonitrile
Adiponitrile
38. Carbon Disulfide
39. Sulfolane
Ethylene Glycol Monomethyl
Ether
Nonylphenol, Ethoxylated
Polyethylene Glycols
Polypropylene Glycols
Polypropylene Glycol Methyl
Ether
Soybean Oil*, Epoxidized
Tetraethylene Glycol
Triethylene Glycol
Tripropylene Glycol
41. Ethers
Butyl Ether
1,4-Dioxane
Ethyl Ether
Methyl Formal (Dimethyl
Formal) .
Propyl Ether
Tetrahydrofuran
42. Hitrocpropounds
(mono-) Nitrobenzene
1- or 2-Nitropropane
Nitrotoluene
40. Glycol Ethers
Diethylene Glycol
Diethylene Glycol Monobutyl
Ether
Diethylene Glycol Monoethyl
Ether ,
Diethylene Glycol Monomethyl
Ether
Dipropylene Glycol
Ethoxy Triglycol
Ethylene Glycol Monobutyl
Ether
Ethylene Glycol Monethyl
Ether
43. Miscellaneous Water Solutions
Ammonium Nitrate, Urea, Water
Solutions (not containing
Ammonia)
Corn Syrup
Dextrose Solution
Latex Solutions
Tetrasodium Salt of EDTA
Solution
38
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APPENDIX C
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET
cliP'i1 pr
39
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Environment a 1 Protection Agency '
BASIC FIELD ACTIVITIES SAFETY TRAINING
Post Test
1-1. The basic level of field training consists of all the following
except:
a. 24 hours of classroom training
b. 36 hours of field training with experienced employee
c. 8 hours of respiratory and protective gear training
d. Al1 of the above
1-2. Employee reports of hazardous work conditions must be
investigated within: *
a. 24 hours for ^imminent dangers
b. One week if potentially serious
c. 30 days for other conditions
d. None of the above
2-1. Which is the best procedure when preparing to visit, a site for
, the first time:
• . -
a. Let the highest ranking person take charge; others listen
,,,,,, and obey.
b. Let the person with the most experience at similar sites
take charge; others listen and obey.
c. Let one person record every team member's suggestions.
Then consider the task as a team and make your plans
jointly.
3-1. Treat third degree burns and "burn shock" by
and other appropriate procedures)
a. Use -of ice
bi - Giving fluids to drink (if patient is conscious)
c. Removing all burned, hot clothing, with any adhering skin
d. All of the above
3-2. Which CPU technique should not be practiced on a classroom
volunteer?
a. Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation
b. Opening and clearing'the airway
c. Feeling for pulse at the carotid artery
d. ' Cardiac compression
, o
4-1. Your team will be working in the sun, in 95 F heat, in
encapsulating suites, without cooling vests. Work periods should last
not longer than:
a. 15 minutes c. 60 minutes
b. 30 minutes d. 2 hours
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4-2. Normal activities will be disrupted if the internal temperature
drops only . (,
..,.!—.. i....,. i __.— ^(,1 ^
a. 2 degrees F
b. 5 degrees F ' '
c. 10 degrees F
d. 19.6 degrees to 80 degrees F
4-3. Heat cramps are caused by .
a. Insufficient sweating . '
b. Loss of electrolytes "
c. Erratic blood pressure and pulse
d. Hard work in hot sun
4-4. When heat stress is anticipated, which fluids are recommended1:
a. White wine
b. Gatorade '
c. Weak salt solution
d.. Sweetened, hot coffee
e. b and c
f. a and d
5-1. A spilled substance with a specific gravity of 0.80 and a vapor
pressure of 600 mm/hg at ambient air temperature . , "' '
a. Would evaporate readily *,
b. Sink to the bottom of a pond
c. Be found in high concentration in low lying areas
d. Would likely be very flammable
5-2. Which of the following is not a characteristic of a^ hazardous
waste? S
i
a. combustible liquid ,
b. Corrosivity
c. Reactivity
d. E.P. toxicity
e. None of the above
6-1. Acute dosage tests are preferred to chronic tests because:
a. They are cheaper
b. The are faster
c. They have an easily recognizable endpoint
d. None of the above
e. a, b, c
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6-2. The potency of a poison is determined by
a. A select committee of OSHA
b. The design of the experiments used to determine it ;
c. The use of standard white mice
d. Al1 of the above
e. None of the above
'i
6-3. The common mechanism linking cancer, mutation, and teratogenic
effects is .
a. Modification of NDA
b. Modification of tRNA
c-j ,, Modification of mRHA
d. Sister chromatid exchange <
7-1. An allergy is .
a. A kind of chronic toxic effect.
b.. A kind of acute toxic effect.
c. A malfunction of the immune system.
d. A product of the imagination, without physical cause.
i
7-2. The site of action of a toxic chemical is
a. The geographic location where the chemical gets loose.
b. The identity of the chemical process for which the
chemical was intended to be used.
c. The target organ or system, within an animal.
d. The molecular structure to which the chemical attaches to
,,,. . effect its detrimental action
7-3. Chronic use of alcohol results in increased biosynthesis of
liver alcohol dehydrogenase. This is an example of .
a. Target organ damage.
b. Drug addiction.
c. An adaptive mechanism.
d. An immune reaction.
8-1. OSHA defines PELs, which are
a. Protective environmental limits
b. Permissible exposure limits
c. Probably endangered lives
d. Protective environmental laws
8-2. TLV-STEL levels are the concentration to which a worker
a. May never be exposed to
b. May be exposed to over 40 hours
c. May be exposed continuously for 15 minutes without harm
d. May be exposed to for a shot term of less than 8 hours
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8-3. In which of the following areas are toxic chemicals most easily
absorbed:
a. Hands c. Face r>
b. Feet d. Arms
1
9-1. Many hazards are invisible. Which jet or stream of high
pressure gas is easiest to see:
a. Carbon dioxide, from a liquid CO fire extinguisher
: • , 2
b. 600 psig heated steam
c. lOOpsiair • • . ?
-. -,,, t
10-1. You are preparing to climb a 30 foot ladder, and when you
finish climbing, you will need a hammer, chisel, screwdriver, and
vice-grip wrench. Which is best?
a. Put them in your pockets or tool vest to keep your hands
free • • . -
b.. Put them in a tool box to be carried in one hand
c. Put them in a back pack
d. Put them in a closed container that will be hoisted up to
you after you climb the ladder.
' • 11 . f
10-2. Scaffolds should be secured at least every feet of
elevation n
a. 8 b. 12
c. 20 d. 30
, f
10-3. Standard guard rails have top- and mid-rails how high?
< , " ' 1 , ;
a. 54 and 27 inches c. 36 and 18 inches
b. 42 and 21 inches d. 30 and 18 inches
11-1. Grit chambers, digesters, and wet wells are places where which
hazard may. exist?
a. Insufficient oxygen
b. Slippery spills of water, grease and oil
c. Flammable liquids or vapors
!'d. , /Ml of the above
i ),-
11-2. In these plants, the on-site locations with the highest
percentages of accidents are . ' ;•
a. .Sludge handling and manholes
b. Maintenance shop and preliminary treatment
c. Pump stations, and wet or dry wells !
d. Settling tanks and laboratory
, N
11-3. When chlorine gas leaks out and combines with water, it forms
4
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<'? 'a'. Hydrogen peroxide
b. Sodium hypochlorite
c. Hydrochloric acid
d. Polychlorinated biphenyls
12-1. The list of dangerous gases in a mine is usually headed by .
a. Methane
b. Propane
c. Hydrogen
d. Hydrogen sulfide
13-1. If a car going 40 mph can stop in 65 feet on dry concrete, what
is the estimated stopping distance at 40 mph in snow?
*nna. 85 feet c. 275 feet
b. 200 feet d. 400 feet
13-2. If a car going 25 mph can stop in 40 feet, after the brakes'
have been applied, a car going 50 mph can stop in about
a'. 65 feet c. 120 feet
1 b. 80 feet d. 160 feet
13-3. The distance between your car and the one in front is
a. Separation c. Maneuvering space
b. Interval d. Reaction space ' '
14-1. A storm warning center is displaying a single square red flag
with a black center, and the radio says there is a storm warning.
What should you do?
a. Proceed cautiously, but not get out of sight of shore, in
case a small craft warning is issued.
'•'b. Go shore and stay ashore until the weather clears.
c. Proceed with your mission, but radio the Coast Guard to
let them where you are.
d. Don life jackets, but continue sailing if you know how to
navigate with a compass.
14-2. You are using a 20-foot cabin cruiser, and there is a fishing
boat trawling for fish, on a course that may take it across your bow,
but a- .collision seems likely, or else you may get your propeller
fouled in his net. You should .
a. Sound your horn repeatedly to tell the fisherman to get
out of your way, because you are on government business.
b. Get on the CB radio and try to contact the other boat.
c. Yield the right of way.
d. Make him yield the right of way, because your boat is
bet ter.
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15-1. You have collected 12 liquid samples of hazardous materials, in
glass jars. For your return flight with the samples, in your
chartered aircraft, what packing and stowing precautions should you
observe?
a. None, that's why you used a chartered aircraft. ' ^
b. Enclose bottles in plastic bags to contain spills. •' *'"'
,9,. - Observe (b) and stow the case of bottles so it can't
slide or overturn.
d. Observe (b) and (c) and stow, as directed by the pilot to'1
maintain proper balance in the aircraft
n
15-2. You have filed a flight plan, and now your chartered plane
develops engine trouble. The pilot glides in, roughly but safely, ott
a meadow in a wilderness area. The radio is dead. Your estimated ,
time of ;arrival is ll:00a.m. When will a search for your plane be
initiated?
a. at ll:30a.m.
b., at noon
c. at 12:30p.m.
d. When your wife, or boss, or someone else misses you and
starts phoning the airport from which you left.
e. Never, unless you took out air search insurance,
16-1. A fire extinguisher has these pictures on its a flaming waste
basket and a bonfire, a container pouring liquid and a fire, and an1
electrical plug and receptacle with a red slash running diagonally
through them. That extinguisher can be used on which fires?
a. Types A, B, and C
b. Types B and C j
c. Types A and B ' (
d. ( Types A !and C
16-2. You open the door to see what's in the room, and you discover'a
brisk fire burning. You should .
a. First sound (or shout) the alarm, then call the fire dept
b.. Sound the alarm, and use the nearest fire extinguisher
c. Grab the biggest of the 3 fire extinguishers on the wall,'
and try to put out the fire. • < <-.
17-1. The flashpoint of a flammable substance is .
a. The point of ignition ' ,,,.,;
b. The temperature at which enough vapor is released to • '
' allow a flame to propagate in the vapor-air mixture.
c. A guide in choo'sing a fire extinguisher. .<-? -* r
\r it
17-2. The UFL is the .
* ' r\ l' '•
a. Upper flammable limit , •rJo«H
b. Unidentified flammability level
c. Unrequited flaming love
d. Unignited flammable liquid
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17-3. The LEL is the
a. Least explosive level
,,{b, Lowest environmental liability
c. Lower explosive limit
; Lowest explosive level
. . \
17-4. Faulty judgement, poor coordination, and rapid fatigue occurs
at what percentage of oxygen?
a. <6% c.16 - 18%
b,,5 , 10 - 14% d.19 - 23%
18-1. Coliwasa stands for .
O M t i ' ' ' '
a,., , Surface water (wasa) contaminated with fecaj Escheriichia
f '• '££JJ:
b» v .Collected, integrated, waste sampler
c. Composite liquid waste sampler
d. Collected liquid waste saver
18-2. A GFCI is a
a. General Fire Containing Inclosure
b. General Flammable Chemical Index
c. Gas Flame Caused Implosion ' ,
d. Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter l
,-., 1 •«
18-3. Combustible dusts of coal, grain, etc., are what "Class" bf!
flammable
a. I b. II c. HI
19-1. Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever is caused by bacteria! (rdckettsia)
and transmitted by _ . "
a. ticks c. lice , . !
b. :mosquitoes d. sewage
• ' .; '. " ' '
19-2. Another creature that can cause a life-threatening. allefgic
reaction is the . fi ;.
- , i
s i * ' * v
a. StsTi'ped bass c. Rattlesnake
b. Rabid fox d. Wasp or bee ,,,-.-.
19-3. The most poisonous spider venom in the U.S. comes from the __ _ '.
a. Brown recluse spider c. Tarantula ! '
b. Black widow spider d. Widow-maker spider • '
20-1. Which shoe or boot material is almost impossible tb
decontaminate?
, T
a. Leather c. PVC , '
b. Neoprene d. Biityl rubber '
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2C-2« What material has the greatest 'resistance to dgradation by_.
fuels-?. ,
•»*•
a.
b.
Butyl ruBBer
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
c. Neoprene .
d. Na tuta 1 r ubber,
20-3. According to Dept of Labor stats, what
ing rputine job assignments?
% of Work
75%
c.
d.
60%
45%
20-4. What material has the greatest resistance to mineral acids'f**^-l:
a. Bwfc;yl r^ubbsr c. Neoprene ''TZ""
b. Pjoty vinyl chloride 4
•*»*x«*>- - * • •* •-,,_..
21-1. I
${EfWrini£:ri atmosphere that is IDLH, you mus
:tNLfJL i.;ml •-
. With* harness-mount^dfeca -4s
a.
b. A SCBA "
c. An airline respirator with auxiliary self-contained air
supply
a, b, or c '
ttpr qfagx*,,.,
.iw'V''1.
21-2. All toxic gases can be detected by
a. Siight color 6T~ Visible haze
b. Odor 3C
d. A11 of' tfie" above^
e. Nune 'of"-fe-ho above
TW*** P\v\]\
.Jb?":<
"r TQ;«? ^^-'^ •
f ;f----iA> VTir.>:3- y
\ U. j-
'•'~ JIBU.T-. r--.
22-i. About 50 unsound drums, "mostly with no""fftructurrai
are sitting close together, outside, in disorderly rows.. There
.-Jt'i •tdJHwfc.^t* •- ii \H» r*. it* r o .^ok^fc. .*„--_—*. _» . ^ _ « • • •«
no
a.
you sample ,th|>jn?
~ef^Tr-G;rum-r»retuii/, with a bac«R3e, J .____„.
^iin^area and puncture over catch basins. «b».u tr-'-ss-rr Ti^«o (^,) v-\,-, •{ • *•
a. ,
b.
c. --- Tffir
d. The NIOSH Registry of Hazardous Materials
£2^,1-300^ «
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CHEMIOVLS
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET
'' J/f. Baker Chemical Co., 222 Red School Lane, Phillipsburg, NJ. 08865
1 SECTION 1 . IDENTIFICATION OF PRODUCT
CHEMICAL NAME
Acetic Add, Glacial
SYNONYM OR CROSS REFERENCE
Methane earboxylfe acid; Ethaxtafe Acid
* '" '' ' »
FORMULA
CHjCOOH
CAS NO:
EPA NO:
1 SECTION II . HAZARDOUS INGREDIENTS I
MATERIAL NATURE OF HAZARD
i f
SECTION III . PHYSICAL DATA 1
BOILING POINT J4(rc
VAPOR PRESSURE «2(rC. 1Umm
VAPOR DENSITY (AIR=1) ^ Q?
WATER SOLUBILITY e . . .
ooiuoie
, i *
MELTING POINT . p p gr(S
SPECIFIC GRAVITY ^ 0S
PERCENT VOLATILE BY VOLUME (%)
EVAPORATION RATE
A PPEARANPP
r.ri-c«r.(-.i><^c, ,
co|or|MJ liquid with itrong punqtnt odor of vinegar.
SECTION IV . FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA
FLASH POINT (method used)
"
103^. (oc>
FLAMMABLE LIMITS
Lower
54%
Upper
16%
FIRE EXTINGUISHING
Wattr spr*y. dry chemical or carbon dioicidt.
SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES
UNUSUAL FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD
Gives off flammable vapor above its flash point.
THRESHOLD LIMIT VA\UE< "l ' '
SECTION V . HEALTH HAZARD
10 ppm orl-rat LDSO : 3310 mg/kg
HEALTH HAZARDS
Cause* severe burn*. POISON May be fatal if swallowed. Harmful if inhaled.
FIRST AID PROCEDURES
6-19
Call a physician. If swallowed, do not give ametics. Give tap water, milk or milk of magnesia. Give white) of eggs
beaten with water. If inhaled, remove to fresh air. In case of contact, immediately flush eyes or skin with plenty of
water for at leatt 15 minute* while removing contaminated clothing and shoe*. Wash clothing before re-use.
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SECTION Vt, REACTIVITY DATA
STABILITY
STABLE
Can react vigorously with oxidizing material.
INCOMPATA8ILITY (materials to avoid)
Carbonates; Hydroxides; many oxide* and phosphates, ate.
HAZARDOUS DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS
HAZARDOUS
^flf POLYMERIZATION
MAY OCCUR
WILL NOT OCCUR
CONDITIONS TO AVOID
SECTION VII'SPILL AND DISPOSAL PHOCEDlinPc
SPILLS
Eliminate all sources of ignition. Cover contaminated surfaces with soda ash or sodium bicarbonate. Mix |nd add
water if necessary. Scoop up slurry and wash neutral (make litmus test} waste dy*n
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