^                     March  31,  1987
                              820K87003
                           TRANS-1,2-DICHLOROETHYLENE

                                Health Advisory
                            Office  of Drinking Water
                      U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency
I. INTRODUCTION
        The Health Advisory  (HA) Program, sponsored by the Office of Drinking
   Water (ODW),  provides  information on  the  health effects, analytical method-
   ology and treatment  technology  that would be useful in dealing with the
   contamination of  drinking water.  Health  Advisories describe nonregulatory
   concentrations of  drinking water contaminants at which adverse health effects
   would not be  anticipated  to  occur over specific exposure durations.  Health
   Advisories contain a margin  of  safety to protect sensitive members of the
   population.

        Health Advisories serve as informal  technical guidance to assist Federal,
   State and local officials responsible for protecting public health when
   emergency spills  or  contamination situations occur.  They are not to be
   construed as  legally enforceable Federal  standards.  The HAs are subject to
   change as new information becomes available.

        Health Advisories are developed for  One-day, Ten-day, Longer-term
   (approximately 7 years, or 10% of an individual's lifetime) and Lifetime
   exposures based on data describing noncarcinogenic end points of toxicity.
   Health Advisories  do not  quantitatively incorporate any potential carcinogenic
   risk  from such exposure.   For those substances that are known or probable
   human carcinogens, according to the Agency classification scheme (Group A or
   B), Lifetime  HAs  are not  recommended.  The chemical concentration values for
   Group A or B  carcinogens  are correlated with carcinogenic risk estimates by
   employing a cancer potency (unit risk) value together with assumptions for
   lifetime exposure  and the consumption of drinking water.  The cancer unit
   risk  is usually derived from the linear multistage model with 95% upper
   confidence limits.   This  provides a low-dose estimate of cancer risk to
   humans that is considered  unlikely to pose a carcinogenic risk in excess
   of  the stated values.  Excess cancer risk estimates may also be calculated
   using the One-hit, Weibull,  Logit or Probit models.  There is no current
   understanding of  the biological mechanisms involved in cancer to suggest that
   any one of these  models is able to predict risk more accurately than another.
   Because each  model is based  on differing assumptions,  the estimates that are
   derived can differ by several orders of magnitude.

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    trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene
                                                                 March 31,  1987
                                       -2-
         This Health Advisory is  based on information presented in the Office
    of Drinking Water's Health Effects Criteria Document (CD) for the Dichloro-
    ethylenes (U.S. EPA,  1984a).   The HA and CD formats are similar for easy
    reference.  Individuals desiring further information on the toxicological
    data base or rationale for risk characterization should consult the CD.  The
    CD is available for review at each EPA Regional Office of Drinking Water
    counterpart (e.g.,  Water Supply Branch or Drinking Water Branch),  or for a
    fee from the National Technical Information Service, U.S. Department of
    Commerce, 5285 Port Royal Rd.',  Springfield,  VA   22161,  PB #86-117785/AS.
    The toll-free number is (800) 336-4700; in the Washington, D.C. area: (703)
    487-4650.
II. GENERAL INFORMATION and PROPERTIES
CAS No.
              156-60-5
    Structural Formula
            1,2-DCE;  trans-1,2-DCE;  1,2-dichloroethene
         0  In a mixture with the cis-1,2- isomer,  as captive intermediates in
            the production of other chlorinated solvents.

    Properties  (Irish,  1963; Windholz et al., 1976)
            Chemical Formula
            Molecular Weight
            Physical State
            Freezing Point
            Boiling Point
            Melting Point
            Density
            Vapor Pressure
            Specific Gravity
            Water Solubility
            Log Octanol/Water Partition
              Coefficient
            Taste Threshold (water)
            Odor Threshold  (water)
            Odor Threshold  (air)
              1 mg/L
              1 ppm
                                     C2H2C12
                                     96.95
                                     clear, colorless liquid
                                     -49.4°C
                                     47°C
                                     265 mm Hg (25°C)
                                     1.27 (25°C)
                                     6300 ug/L (25°)
                                     Not available
                                     Not available
                                     1,100 ppm (Lehmann and Schmidt-Kehl, 1936)
                                     252 ppm  (25°c and 760 Torr.)
                                     3.97 mg/m3 (25°c and 760 Torr.)

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trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene                                       March 31, 1987

                                   -3-


Occurrence

     0  The 1,2-dichloroethylenes are synthetic chemicals with no known natural
        sources (U.S. EPA, 1983).

     0  There is little information on the current production and use of the
        1,2-dichloroethylenes.  The production volume for 1,2-dichloroethylene
        (mixed isomers) was 1,000 Ibs or less in 1978 (U.S. EPA, 1978).

     0  The major releases of the 1,2-dichloroethylenes are from the manufac-
        turing plants in the Gulf Coast region of the U.S.,  where they used
        as captive intermediates.  Releases are expected to be small.  The 1,2-
        dichloroethylenes, particularly the cis- isomer, have been identified
        as degradation products of trichloroethylene and tetrachloroethylene
        in ground water (Parsons et al.,  1984; Vogel and McCarty,  1985).

     0  There is little direct information on the fate of the 1,2-dichlo-
        roethylenes in the environment.  However,  the behavior of  these
        compounds has been estimated based upon the information on similar
        chlorinated compounds (U.S. EPA,  1979).  1,2-Dichloroethylenes
        released to the atmosphere are expected to degrade chemically in
        a matter of hours; when released to surface waters,  they are expected
        to volatilize rapidly to air.  1,2-Dichloroethylenes are chemically
        stable in water and mobile in soils.  Once  released  to land,  1,2-di-
        chloroethylenes are expected to migrate with ground  water.   1,2-Di-
        chloroethylenes have been shown to degrade  biologically to  vinyl
        chloride in some groundwaters.  These compounds  are  not expected
        to bioaccumulate in plants or animals.  Based upon their similar
        physical properties,  the two isomers of 1,2-dichloroethylene are  not
        expected to behave differently in the environment.

     0  Monitoring studies have found that the 1,2-dichloroethylenes occur
        as widespread,  but relatively rare,  contaminants of  ground  water.
        The cis- isomer has been reported to occur at higher levels than  the
        trans- isomer.   The majority of the 1,2-dichloroethylenes has been
        found to co-occur with trichloroethylene.   Levels of the 1,2-dichloro-
        ethylenes are greater than 0.5 ug/L in approximately 1 % of all
        ground  waters.   Levels as high as 300 ug/L  have  been reported for the
        trans- isomer,  while  levels of 800 ug/L have been reported  for the
        cis- isomer.  The 1,2-dichloroethylenes occur in surface water at
        lower  amounts.   The 1,2-dichloroethylenes  in air are in the opt range
        except near production sites where they may reach the low  ppb range.
        Based  upon their volatility and limited use,  levels  of 1,2-dichloro-
        ethylenes in foo'd are expected to be negligible  (U.S. EPA,  1983).

     0  The major source of exposure to the 1,2-dichloroethylenes  is from
        contaminated water except in the  areas near production sites where
        air exposures may dominate.

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     trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene                                        March 31,  1987

                                        -4-


III. PHARMACOKINETICS

     Absorption

          0  trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene is a neutral,  low molecular weight, lipid
             soluble material which should be readily absorbed by any route (oral,
             inhalation,  dermal)  at the levels expected to be encountered in
             contamination incidents (U.S. EPA, 1984a).

     Distribution

          0  Kinetic data to define the tissue distribution of trans-1,2-dichloro-
             ethylene after oral  exposure are not available.  If this isomer follows
             the same absorption  and distribution pattern as 1,1-dichloroethylene,
             the highest concentrations would be expected to be found in the liver
             and kidney (McKenna  et al.,  1978).

     Metabolism

          0  The metabolic end products of chlorinated ethylenes are predominantly
             alcohols and carboxylic acids.  In rat liver microsomal preparations,
             supplemented with NADPH,  trans-1,2-dichloroethylene was transformed to
             2,2-dichloroethanol  and 2,2-dichloroacetic acid  (Costa and Ivanetich,
             1982).  Presumably,  these products were formed by reduction or oxidation
             of 2,2-dichloroacetaldehyde.

          0  The positions of the chlorine moieity on the chlorinated ethylenes
             appear to play an important role in metabolism.  Trans-1,2-dichloro-
             ethylene (which possesses a relatively greater degree of asymmetry)
             was metabolized at a slower rate than cis-1,2-dichloroethylene in an
             in vitro hepatic microsomal system (Costa, 1983).
     Excretion
             No data concerning the excretion of trans-1,2-dichloroethylene are
             available.  If it is similar to 1,1-dichloroethylene, then the rate
             of elimination will be relatively rapid,  with most of a single dose
             being excreted in the urine within 24 to 72 hours after cessation of
             exposure (Jaeger et al.,  1977).
IV.  HEALTH EFFECTS
     Humans
             At high concentrations,  the dichloroethylenes,  like other chlorinated
             ethylenes, possess anesthetic properties (Irish, 1963).  It appears that
             the trans- isomer is about twice as potent as the cis- isomer in
             depressing the central nervous system (Albrecht, 1927).

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trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene                                       March 31,  1987

                                   -5-


Animals

Short-term Exposure

     0  The oral LD5Q in the 200 g rat was 1,300 mgA9 (Freundt et al., 1977).
        When administered intraperitoneally, the LD50 was six-fold higher
        (7,800 mg/kg).

     0  At high exposure (8,000 to 16,000 ppm) levels, trans-1,2-dichloroethylene
        can cause narcosis and death in rats in four hours (Torkelson and Rowe,
        1981).

     0  No significant immunological effects were observed in male mice
        exposed by gavage to 22 or 220 mg/kg for 14 consecutive days (Munson
        et al., 1982).  In addition, no changes in body or organ weights
        (liver, kidney, thymus and lung) were observed.

Long-term Exposure

     0  Freundt et al.  (1977) exposed Wistar rats to air containing trans-1,2-
        dichloroethylene at 0, 200, 1,000 or 2,000 ppm (0 to 7,940 mg/m3).
        Brief  (8-hour) or prolonged (8 hours/day, 5 days/week for 1, 2, 8 or
        16 weeks) exposure at 200 ppm produced slight degeneration of the
        liver  lobule and lipid accumulation in the Kupffer cells.  At 8 and
        16 weeks of exposure, severe pneumonic infiltration was observed.
        Exposure at 1000 ppm for 8 hours resulted in significant reductions
        in serum albumin, urea nitrogen and alkaline phosphatase.  Eight-hour
        exposures at both 200 and 1,000 ppm produced a significant decrease
        in the number  of leucocytes.

Reproductive Effects

     0  No information was found in the available literature on the potential
        of trans-1,2-dichloroethylene to produce reproductive effects.

Developmental  Effects

      0  No information was found in the available literature on the potential
        of trans-1,2-dichloroethylene to produce developmental effects.

Mutagenicity^

      0  trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene at a medium concentration of 2.3 mM  was
        not mutagenic,  with  or without  microsomal activation,  when  assayed
        in £.  coli K12 (Greim et al., 1975).

      0  trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene did  not  cause point mutation,  mitotic  gene
        conversion or  mitotic recombination in a diploid  strain of  Saccharomyces
        cerevisiae,  with  or  without microsomal activation (Galli  et al. (1982a).
        They  also  reported  that it had  no genetic effects in  an in  vivo (intra-
        venous host-mediated assay) mutagenicity study  (Galli  et  al.,  1982b).

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   trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene                                    March  31,  1987

                                      -6-


   Carcinogenicity

        0  No information was found in the available literature on the  carcinogenic
           potential of trans-1,2-dichloroethylene.


V. QUANTIFICATION OF TOXICOLOGICAL EFFECTS

        Health Advisories (HAs) are generally  determined  for  One-day, Ten-day,
   Longer-term (approximately 7 years) and Lifetime  exposures if adequate data
   are available that identify a  sensitive noncarcinogenic end point of toxicity.
   The HAs for noncarcinogenic toxicants are derived using the following formula:

                 HA = (NOAEL or LOAEL) X (BW)  . 	   /L  (	   /L)
                        (UF) x (	 L/day)

   where:

           NOAEL or LOAEL = No- or Lowest-Observed-Adverse-Effect-Level
                            in mg/kg bw/day.

                       BW = assumed body weight of a child (10 kg)  or
                            an adult (70 kg).

                       UF = uncertainty factor (10,  100 or 1,000),  in
                            accordance with NAS/ODW  guidelines.

                	 L/day = assumed daily water consumption of a child
                            (1 L/day) or an adult (2 L/day).


   One-day Health Advisory

        Freundt et al. (1977) reported the effects of  trans-1,2-dichloroethylene
   after inhalation by mature female Wistar rats (180 to  200g) at 200 ppm (800
   mg/m3, the currently established TLV/MAC in many  countries) or at 1000 or
   3000 ppm (4000 or 12000 mg/rn3,  respectively). A  brief (8  hour)  exposure at
   200 ppm did not result in significant adverse effects  on the liver.   There
   was slight pulmonary capillary hyperemia and distention of the alveolar
   septum.  This effect was, most likely, transitory in nature and  would not
   occur after oral administration.

        A number of biochemical and hematological parameters  also were  tested.
   No changes in serum cholesterol, albumin, uric acid, urea  nitrogen,  glucose,
   alkaline phosphatase,  SCOT or  SGPT were observed  after the single 8-hour
   exposure at 200 ppm.  Exposure at 1,000 ppm for  8 hours resulted in  significant
   reductions in serum albumin, urea nitrogen and alkaline phosphatase.  Eight-
   hour exposures at both 200 and 1,000 ppm caused  a significant decrease in the
   number of leucocytes.   Since  leucocyte count may  be affected by  external
   stimuli  [physical exertion, stress and food intake  (Lentner, 1984)], the
   number of leucocytes in this study (2.5 x 103) appears to  be lower than normal
   for rats [6 to 17 x 103/mm3 (Harkness and Agner,  1983)] and there is no dose
   response noted in the 200 and  1,000 ppm groups,  it is  difficult to evaluate

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trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene                                       March 31, 1987

                                   -7-


the reported decrease in leucocytes.  Accordingly, this parameter will not be
used in setting the NOAEL.  Clinico-chemical parameters were not studied at
the 3,000 ppm exposure level.

     A NOAEL of 200 ppm over a single 8-hour exposure was identified for
trans-1,2-dichloroethylene based upon the normal biochemical parameters and
on the slight liver effects in only 1 of 6 rats.

     The One-day Health Advisory for the 1 0-kg child is calculated as follows:


Step 1:  Determination of the total absorbed dose (TAD)

           TAD = 200 x 3.97 (mg/m3) x 0.006 (m3/hr) x 8 = 2QQ    -
                               (0.19 kg)                       y/ y

where:

        200 x 3.97 (mg/m3) = total absorbed dose converted from ppm to mg/m3.

                     0.006 = conversion factor to obtain m3/hr for 190 g rats,
                             i.e., 100 ml/min x 60 min/hr divided by 1,000,000
                             (ml to m3).

                         8 = duration of exposure in hours.

                      0.19 = average weight in kg of exposed rats.


Step 2:  Determination of a One-day Health Advisory

        One-day HA = (200 mg/kg/day) (10 kg) = 2Q.O mg/L (20,000 ug/L)
                         (100)  (1  L/day)

where:

        200 mgAg/day = TAD.

                10 kg = assumed body weight of a child.

                  100 = uncertainty factor,  chosen in accordance with NAS/ODW
                        guidelines for use with a NOAEL from an animal study.

              1 L/day = assumed daily water consumption of a child.


Ten-day Health Advisory^

     Appropriate studies for the calculation of the Ten-day  HA are not available.
The Longer-term HA for a 10 kg  child (1.43 mg/L)  is recommended as a conservative
estimate for a ten-day exposure.

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trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene                                    March 31,  1987

                                   -8-


Longer-term Health Advisory

     Freundt et al. (1977) also studied the effects of administering trans -
1,2-dichloroethylene at 200 ppm (8 hr/day for 5 days/week) for 16 weeks.
They found slight to severe fatty infiltration in the parenchymal and Kupffer
cells of the liver (5 of 6 rats) and severe pneumonic infiltration (3 of 6
rats).

     Based on the liver and lung effects, a LOAEL of 200 ppm was identified
for trans-1,2-dichloroethylene.

     The Longer-term HA is calculated as follows:

Step 1:  Determination of the total absorbed dose (TAD)

                       TAD = 200 mgAg (see One-day HA)

Step 2:  Determination of a Longer-term HA for a 10-kg child

    Longer-term HA = (200 mg/kg/day) (5) (10 kg) = U43   /L (1,43o Ug/L)
                        (1,000) (7) (1 L/day)

where:

        200 mg/kg/day = LOAEL for hepatic and pulmonary effects.

                  5/7 = correction factor for 5 day/week dosing regimen.

                10 kg = assumed body weight of a child.

                1,000 = uncertainty factor, chosen in accordance with NAS/ODW
                        guidelines for use with a LOAEL from an animal study.

              1 L/day = assunved daily water consumption of a child.

     A Longer-term HA for a 70-kg adult is calculated as follows:

      Longer-term HA =  (200 mg/kg/day)  (5) (70 kg) = 5   /L (5,000 ug/L)
                          (1,000)  (7)  (2 L/day)

where:

        200 mg/kg/day = LOAEL for hepatic and pulmonary effects.

                  5/7 = correction factor for 5 day/week dosing regimen.

                70 kg = assumed body weight of an adult.

                1,000 = uncertainty factor, chosen in accordance with NAS/ODW
                        guidelines for use with a LOAEL from an animal study.

              2 L/day =-assumed daily water consumption of an adult.

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trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene                                       March  31,  1987

                                   -9-


Lifetime Health Advisory

     The Lifetime HA represents that portion of an individual's total exposure
that is attributed to drinking water and is considered protective  of noncar-
cinogenic adverse health effects over a lifetime exposure.  The Lifetime HA
is derived in a three step process.  Step  1 determines the Reference Dose
(RfD), formerly called the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI).  The RfD is an esti-
mate of a daily exposure to the human population that is  likely to be without
appreciable risk of deleterious effects over a lifetime, and is derived from
the NOAEL (or LOAEL), identified from a chronic (or subchronic) study, divided
by an uncertainty factor(s).  From the RfD, a Drinking Water Equivalent Level
(DWEL) can be determined (Step 2).  A DWEL is a medium-specific (i.e., drinking
water) lifetime exposure level, assuming 100% exposure from that medium, at
which adverse, noncarcinogenic health effects would not be expected to occur.
The DWEL is derived from the multiplication of the RfD by the assumed body
weight of an adult and divided by the assumed daily water consumption of an
adult.  The Lifetime HA is determined in Step 3 by factoring in other sources
of exposure, the relative source contribution (RSC).  The RSC from drinking
water is based on actual exposure data or,  if data are not available,  a
value of 20% is assumed for synthetic organic chemicals and a value of 10%
is assumed for inorganic chemicals.  If the contaminant is classified as a
Group A or B carcinogen, according to the Agency's classification scheme of
carcinogenic potential (U.S. EPA,  1986), then caution should be exercised in
assessing the risks associated with lifetime exposure to this chemical.

     Lifetime toxicity data for trans-1,2-dichloroethylene do not exist
at this time.  Data from the chronic drinking water study in rats as used
for the Lifetime Health Advisory for 1,1-dichloroethylene will be used in-
stead.  The same caveats and assumptions as were described above for the
Longer-term HA also apply here.

     The Lifetime HA is calculated from a 2-year chronic study in rats (Quast
et al., 1983).  1,1-Dichloroethylene, at concentrations of 0, 50,  100 or 200
ppm (0 to 20 mg/kg/day) in drinking water,  was administered to animals of
both sexes.  No consistent treatment-related changes were observed in any
parameter measured.  The only histopathology observed was in the livers of
both sexes receiving the highest dose,  changes characterized by a minimal
amount of mid-zonal fatty change.   No liver degeneration was noted.  A LOAEL
of 100 ppm (10 mg/kg)  was identified,  based upon a trend towards increased
fatty deposition in the liver.

     A Drinking Water Equivalent Level  (DWEL)  and  Lifetime HA for  the  70-kg
adult are calculated as follows:


Step 1:  Determination of the Reference  Dose (RfD)

                    RfD = (1° nig/kg/day) =  0.01  mg/kg/day
                             (1,000)

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     trans-1, 2-Dichloroethylene                                       March 31,  1987

                                          -10-


     where:

             10 mgAg/day = LOAEL.

                    1,000 = uncertainty factor,  chosen in accordance with NAS/ODW
                            guidelines for use with a LOAEL from an animal study.


     Step 2:   Determination of  the  Drinking Water Equivalent Level (DWEL)

                 DWEL = (0.01 mg/kg/day)  (70 kg) = 0<35   /L (350   /L)
                               (2 L/day)

     where:

             0.01  mg/kg/day = RfD.

                      70 kg = assumed  body weight of  an adult.

                    2 L/day * assumed  daily water consumption of an adult.


     Step 3:   Determination of  the  Lifetime Health Advisory

                 Lifetime HA =  (0.035  mg/L) (20%) = 0.07 mg/L (70 ug/L)

     where:

             0.35 mg/L = DWEL.

                   20% = assumed  relative  source contribution from water.


     Evaluation of Carcinogenic  Potential

          0   There are no data  available which describe the carcinogenic potential
             of trans-1,2-dichloroethylene.

          0   Applying the criteria  described in EPA's guidelines for assessment of
             carcinogenic risk  (U.S.  EPA,  1986), trans-1,2-dichloroethylene is
             classified in Group  D:   Not classified.   This category is  for agents
             with inadequate animal evidence of carcinogenicity.


VI.  OTHER CRITERIA,  GUIDANCE AND STANDARDS

          0   The Threshold Limit  Value (TLV)  in the occupational setting for the
             1,2-dichloroethylene isomer mixture is 200 ppm (790 mg/m^)  (ACGIH,  1982)

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 trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene                                         March 31,  1987

                                         -11-


 VII. ANALYTICAL METHODS

           °-  Analysis of trans-1,2-dichloroethylene is by a purge-and-trap gas
              chromatographic procedure used for the determination of volatile
              organohalides in drinking water (U.S. EPA, 1984b).  This method calls
              for the bubbling of an inert gas through the sample and trapping of
              1/2-dichloroethylenes on an adsorbant material.  The adsorbant material
              is heated to drive off the 1,2-dichloroethylene onto a gas chromato-
              graphic column.  This method will differentiate between the two
              isomers of 1,2-dichloroethylene.  This method is applicable to the
              measurement of 1,2dichloroethylene over a concentration range of
              0.03 to 1500 ug/L.   Confirmatory analysis for 1,2-dichloroethylene is
              done by mass spectrometry (U.S.  EPA, 1985a).  The detection limit
              for confirmation by  mass spectometry is 0.2 ug/L.


VIII. TREATMENT  TECHNOLOGIES
              Very few data are available concerning the removal of trans-1,2-
              dichloroethylene from drinking water.   However,  the available data
              suggest that both granular activated carbon (GAC)  adsorption and
              aeration will be somewhat effective in reducing the levels of this
              chemical in water.

              Dobbs  and Cohen (1980)  developed  adsorption isotherms for trans-1,2-
              dichloroethylene.  It was reported that Filtrasorb® 300 carbon
              exhibited adsorptive  capacities of 0.95 mg,  0.29 mg and 0.09 mg
              trans-1,2-dichloroethylene/gm carbon at equilibrium concentrations of
              100,  10 and 0.1  ug/L,  respectively. No field  data are available on
              the  adsorption of trans-1,2-dichloroethylene from  contaminated water.

              Theoretical considerations  indicate that trans-1,2-dichloroethylene
              is amenable to treatment  by aeration on the basis  of its Henry's Law
              Constant of 225 atm  (U.S.  EPA 1985b,c).   In a  laboratory study,
              distilled water containing  217 ug/L of trans-1,2-dichloroethylene
              was  passed through  a  diffused-air aeration column.  A 97% reduction
              of the compound was reported  in a countercurrent operation at an
              air-to-water ratio  of 15:1  (U.S.  EPA,  1985b,c).

              Air  stripping is an effective, simple  and  relatively inexpensive
              process for removing  trans-1,2-dichloroethylene  and other volatile
              organics  from water.   However, the use of  this process then transfers
              the  contaminant directly  into the air  stream.   When considering use
              of air stripping as a treatment process,  it is  suggested that careful
              consideration be given  to the overall  environmental occurrence,  fate,
              route  of  exposure and various  hazards  associated with the chemical.

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    trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene                                      March 31,  1987

                                         -12-


IX. REFERENCES

    Albrecht,  P.  1927.   Arch.  Klin.  Chir.   146:273.

    ACGIH.  1982.  American Council  of Government Industrial Hygienists.  TLVs.
         Threshold limit values  for  chemical substances  and physical agents in
         the workroom environment.  Cincinnati,  OH.

    Bonse, G.,  T. Urban,  R. Montessano and L.  Tomatis.  1975.  Chemical reactivity,
         metabolic oxirane formation and biological  reactivity of chlorinated
         ethylenes in the isolated perfused rat  liver preparation.   Biochem.
         Pharmacol.  24:1829-1834.

    Costa, A.K. 1983.  The chlorinated ethylenes:  Their  hepatic metabolism and
         carcinogenicity.  Diss. Abst. Int. [B].  44(6):1797-B.

    Costa, A.K. and K.M. Ivanetich.   1982.  The  1,2-dichloroethylenes:  Their
         metabolism by hepatic cytochrome P-450  in vitro.   Biochem. Pharmacol.
         31:2093-2102.

    Dobbs, R.A.,  and J.M. Cohen.  1980.  Carbon  absorption isotherms for toxic
         chemicals.  Cincinnati, Ohio.  EPA-600/3-80-023.

    Filser,  J.G., and H.M. Bolt.  1979.  Pharmacokinetics  of halogenated ethylenes
         in rats.  Arch. Toxicol. 42:123-136.

    Freundt, J.J., G.P. Liebaldt and E. Lieberwirth.  1977.  Toxicity studies  on
         trans-1,2-dichloroethylene.   Toxicology.  7:141-153.

    Freundt, J.J., and J. Macholz.  1978.  Inhibition of mixed function oxidases
         in rat liver by trans-and cis-1,2-dichloroethylene.  Toxicology.
         10:131-139.

    Galli, A.,  C. Bauer, G. Brenzetti, C. Corsi,  R.  Del  Carratore,  R. Nieri and
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