6284
V-/EPA
1-
O
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Cf'ce of Water
Program Operations (WH-595)
i/Vashingtor, DC 20460
'n cooDorat'O" with the
Jnited States Department of
Housing and Urbiin Development
Water
March 1980
Residential
Water
Conservation:
An Annotated
Bibliography
FRD-16
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Disclaimer Statement
This report was prepared under contract to the U. S. Department of
Housing and Urban Development. The findings and conclusions are
those of the contractor, and do not necessarily reflect the policy
or views of the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development.
This bibliography has been reviewed by the Environmental Protection
Agency and approved for publication. Approval does not signify that
the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the
Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names
or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation
for use
NOTES
To order this publication, FRD-16, "Water Conservation: An
Annotated Bibliography" write to:
General Services Administration (8BRC)
Centralized Mailing List Services
Building 41, Denver Federal Center
Denver, Colorado 80225
Please indicate the FRD number and title of publication
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EPA
FRD-16
RESIDENTIAL MATER CONSERVATION:
AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 5, Library (5PL-16)
230 S. Dearborn Street, Room 1670
Chicago, IL 60604
Prepared for the
U. S. Department of Housing
and Urban Development
Office of Policy Development
and Research
Washington, D. C.
Published by the
U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Water Program
Operations
Washington, D. C.
Prepared under HUD Contract Number H-5091 by
Pabon, Sims, Smith and Associates, Inc.
1435 G Street N.W. Suite #603
Washington, D.C. 20005
February 6, 1980
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CONTENTS
EPA Comment i
Part One - Annotated Bibliography 1-44
Part Two - Summary of Data in Bibliography
Conservation Projects 45
Cost Savings 51
Energy Requirements 56
Energy/Water Savings 62
Sewerless Wastewater Disposal Devices .... 79
Regional Issues 83
Residential Water Use 85
Water Rates 97
Water Saving Tips 98
Subject Index by Bibliography Reference Number 109
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EPA COMMENT
On June 6, 1978 President Carter sent a Message to Congress
initiating a federal policy to "provide a new, national emphasis on
water conservation."
He said in part,
"Managing our vital water resources depends on a
balance of supply, demand and wise use. Using water
more efficiently is often cheaper and less damaging to
the environment than developing additional supplies.
While increases in supply will still be necessary, these
reforms place emphasis on water conservation and make
clear that this is now a national priority."
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the Department of
Housing and Urban Development have, as a result of this directive,
undertaken major efforts to produce and disseminate information about
residential water conservation. EPA and HUD will both publish books on
this subject in order to explain why, how, when and where individuals and
communities can conserve water and reduce wastewater flows; conserve
energy; and save money. EPA's booklet will be short, direct, and will
emphasize cash savings to individual households by the sound environmental
practice of water conservation. The HUD book will be larger. It will
give detailed advice for implementing many residential water conservation
measures.
This bibliography is the result of a literature search done for
the latter publication. I would like to thank HUD for permitting EPA
to publish this useful bibliography. Their cooperation and the efforts
of Joan Simons, HUD Government Technical Representative, and Barbara
Yeaman, Public Education Consultant on my staff have made it possible
to share this information with others working to implement the National
water conservation policy.
A search of five carefully selected subjects has produced a
comprehensive listing of publications on:
o Water conservation tips
o Water conservation devices
o Water conservation projects
o Economics
o Regional variables
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Other useful information is summarized from the references and
included on:
o Community water conservation projects
o Cost/savings
o Energy/water savings
o Residential water use
Sources of this information include:
o National Bureau of Standards
o Personal contacts with trade associations; local,
state and federal government officials; water
utilities; universities; environmental organizations;
and other knowledgeable individuals
o Literature review of libraries in Washington, D.C.
o Manufacturers' and distributors' information on
products and prices
Communities planning water conservation programs may find this
bibliography especially useful.
Unfortunately, a bibliography can never be complete or fully
current. EPA and HUD regret the omission of any publications,
manufacturers, distributors, or programs.
Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use by EPA or HUD. Approval of the
bibliography does not signify that the contents of all publications
listed necessarily reflect the views and policies of EPA or HUD.
William A. Whittington
Director, Facility Requirements Division
Office of Water Program Operations
US EPA
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PART ONE
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Abbott, H., K. G. Cook, and R. B. Sleight. Social Aspects of Urban Water
Conservation. August 1972.
1* - A survey of managers and customers of 17 eastern U.S. water
utilities that imposed short-term water use restructions was conducted.
The survey of customers revealed that most agreed that outside uses are
least essential. During a water shortage, cooperation was excellent and
continued even after the emergency ended. Water-saving measures achieved
from 18% - 50% reduction in water use with voluntary measures being as
effective as compulsory ones. Although most consumer respondents do
not want restrictions in normal times, half of the respondents were
not willing to pay 10% more for their water to insure adequate supplies.
Alley, D. Baumann, J. Boland, P. Carver, B. Kranzer, and J. Sims.
An Annotated Bibliography on Water Conservation. Institute of Water Resources.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, April 1979.
2 - The work documented in this report was conceived and planned in
response to the need by the U.S. Army Engineer Institute for Water
Resources (IWR) in the Spring of 1978. This effort represents a
survey of the currently available literature on water conservation
measures. The studies reported in this volume were selected as being
representative of the major problems involved in evaluating water
conservation: The technical effectiveness of available conservation
measures, the evaluation of economic efficiency, and the question of
social acceptability. For each source in this volume an effort was
made to describe the objective(s), to report the methodology, and to
summarize and critically appraise the salient findings.
American Water Works Association. Water Conservation At Home. Denver,
Colorado, 1975. 12 pp.
3 - This consumer booklet gives household water conservation tips
suitable for children as well as adults. It includes brief sections
on toilets and toilet maintenance, showers, kitchens, laundry, how to
detect and fix leaks, water-saving devices, shut-off valves and
emergencies, and outdoor water-saving.
Baily, Benoit, Dodson, Robb and Wallman. A Study of Flow Reduction and
Treatment of Waste Water from Households: Project Report for Federal
Water Quality Administration. Department of Interior, Advanced Waste
Treatment Research Lab, Cincinnati, Ohio. December 1969, U.S. Government
Printing Office.
4 - This study was conducted to find practical means of waste flow
reduction or waste treatment for the ordinary household. First, the
present water quality and quantity requirements were reviewed to
determine the areas where better water and waste management would be
most beneficial.
* Bibliography Reference Number
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Much helpful material was gathered from review of previous studies
on the problems of individual household waste treatment. More recent
information was obtained from manufacturers of plumbing devices and
waste treatment equipment who were surveyed for available water-saving
plumbing devices and individual waste treatment units. Also, the
literature on advanced water and waste treatment was reviewed for
processes that might be applicable for individual home usage.
The information collected was then analyzed to determine the most
practical method for decreasing the waste volume flow from individual
households. Homeowners, plumbers, architect-engineers, and equipment
manufacturers were surveyed to obtain representative opinions from the
people who would control the use of any flow reduction or treatment
schemes. The results of the study and the consumer survey show that
the water used in household functions such as bathing and toilet
flushing can be substantially reduced by the use of more efficient
appliances and plumbing devices. The use of most advanced waste
treatment techniques and the reuse of waste waters is not considered
practical except for cases of unusual problems and extremely high water
or waste disposal costs.
Baker, L. K. The Relationship "Between Water and Energy Use and
Conservation; Proceedings; 1976 Summer Vtorkshop on an Energy Extension
^Service, held at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratories, Unyiersityof California,
'Berkeley. Energy Resources Development Authority, May 1977, p. 329-334,
5 - The energy savings that result from water conservation may prove
to be of more significance than the water saved. Water heating
consumes far more energy than water supply or sewage treatment.
However, when a high degree of treatment is required, or large
pumping demands exist, significant savings in energy are obtained
through water conservation.
Reductions in household water use of 68% and water heating energy
consumption of 62% can be achieved by using new fixtures available
today. In order to achieve these significant reductions in flow
rate, the fixtures must be completely redesigned, and quite often
require different technology. The toilet, shower, and laundry use
84% of the inhouse water. The toilet and shower can be reduced by
approximately 90%, while the washing machine can be reduced by 40%.
The reduction of the bathing and laundry water reduces water heating
requirements.
Baker, L., and H. Bailey. Household Water Conservation Effects on Water
Energy and Wastewater Management; Proceedings; Conference on Water
Conservation and Sewage Flow Reduction with Water-Saving Devices.
Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, April 1975.
p. 71-87.
6 - Water conserving equipment for the household can have a significant
impact on water use, energy consumption, and wastewater treatment.
The process of water supply from acquisition through use, treatment,
reuse, and disposal is analyzed with emphasis on the role of the house-
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hold. Each water consuming element or function in the household is
analyzed on the parameters of water use, waste contribution, and energy
consumption.
Technology is immediately available for reducing household flows and
new technology can reduce flows by approximately 65 percent.
Associated energy reductions within the household are approximately
30 percent of the non-space heating and cooling requirements. Zero
discharge or recycling of a water stream requires treatment systems
which depend on chemical, physical, and/or biological processes, with
an associated energy driving force. Minimized water use implies more
concentrated waste. Treatment facilities can be designed more effec-
tively in lower hydraulic flow regimes. Implications for selected
advanced treatment unit processes are discussed.
Energy savings associated with reduced flow equipment have significant
economic ramifications. Dollar savings not only can offset first
costs, but contribute to the cost of treatment. An annual cost
economic analysis is performed on conventional systems with conven-
tional treatment versus reduced flow systems with advanced treatment.
It is concluded that the savings associated with reducing flows
contribute significantly to offsetting the increased costs of energy
consumption and resource depletion of advanced treatment systems
necessary to achieve zero discharge.
Bauman, D., J. Boland, J. Sims, B. Kranzer, and P. Carver. The Role of
Conservation in Water Supply Planning. Institute for Water Resources,
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Fort Belvoir, Virginia, April 1979.
7 - This is a report prepared by the Southern Illinois University,
Department of Geography for the Army Corps of Engineers. The report
has three major sections: First, it establishes a definition of
water conservation; secondly, it reviews the state-of-the-art
information on conservation measures; and finally, it identifies
requirements and needs for implementation. In its review of
conservation methods, residential, industrial and agricultural uses
are examined. Data are presented on the costs and potential savings
associated with various methods and mechanisms.
Bauman, D., D. Dworkin, S. Sebastian, B. Andrews, and D. Holtz.
Planning Alternatives for Municipal Water Systems. Hoi comb Research
Institute, Butler University, Indianapolis, Indiana, 1976. 67p.
8 - This report examines the supply and demand picture of water
supply, Once methods of reliably predicting demand have been
developed, and future supply has been defined, a number of planning
alternatives are presented. Planning methodologies examined include
improving system efficiency, reducing water demand, and reusing water.
Technological innovations in water supply are also examined.
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Bennett, Edwin R. Impact nf Flow Reduction on On-lot Sewage Systems;
Proceedings: Conference on Hater Conservation.grid Sewage Flow Reduction
with Water Saving Devices, Pennsylvania btate University.OTST-Uepartment
of Commerce, NTIS PB 250 999, July 1975. p. 39^-56
9 - Water saving appliances will have an important role in water
and sewage system planning in the arid southwestern and mountain
states of the U.S. The most timely applications of this concept
may involve individual, isolated homes in unsewered areas, because
of the costs and operational problems associated with on-lot sewage
disposal. Nearly one-third of the homes in the United States are
located in urrsewered areas.
A recent study at the University of Colorado has been directed
towards studying individual home water use and on-lot sewage
treatment systems. From this work, the normal water use patterns
are presented and used as a basis for estimating the benefits of
flow reducing appliances on operational parameters and costs of
on-lot systems.
Bishop, Walter. Field Experiences in Water Saving Programs of the WSSC;
Proceedings; Conference on Water Conservation and Sewage Flow
Reduction with Water SavTngDevices, VennsyIvani a state urnversity.
U.S. Department of Commerce, NTIS PB 250 999, July 1975. p. 39-56
10 - Various practices for saving water at the customer level are
in most cases mechanically and theoretically quite simple. The
documented evidence of laboratory studies and carefully controlled
field testing shows the relative ease with which reduction in water
consumption can be realized by using various appliances and retro-
fitted devices. However, in studies conducted by the Washington
Suburban Sanitary Commission over a period of four years, the results
have shown that water savings are not guaranteed. The distinction
between theory and field conditions and cases of success and failure
in water savings programs were discussed. The practical experiences
of WSSC concerning each type of case were presented.
Bollman, Frank, and M. Merritt. Community Response and Change in
Residential Water Use to Conservation and Rationing Measures, October 1977.
11 - A survey of 1,000 households in the Marin Municipal Water
District, California, showed that the 1976 ban on outside water
use achieved a 25% reduction in total water use. A "moderately
inconvenient" rationing plan achieved a reduction of 63%. Most
respondents felt they could conveniently live with a level of lOOgal./
person/day or less, as compared to an average pre-drought level of
125 gal./person/day.
Brigham, Arthur. "A Public Education Campaign to Conserve Water."
American Water Works Association Journal, 665-668, Dec. 1976.
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12 - A water-saving program started in 1971 by the Washington
Suburban Sanitary Commission (WSSC), including extensive publicity
and the mailing of water saving kits, resulted in a substantial
reduction in water use. Their first effort, the development of the
WSSC's water saving and waste reduction handbook, "It's Up to You,"
had trememdous response, and was distributed to the Commission's
220,000 customers. Another project, started in 1973, was the
"Bottle Leak Detection Kit" which was also aimed at all the resi-
dents of the area. Questionnaires were distributed to check the
effectiveness of the kits. Almost 70% indicated they tried the dye
test for toilet leaks, and 16% said they found leaks which were
adjusted or repaired. Following the bottle kit project, water
consumption was reduced almost 4.5% from the minimum projected
average daily consumption that might have been expected to occur
without the water-saving and waste-reduction program. Recent WSSC
activities include water conservation contests and the production
of a water conservation film which can be shown to groups and
schools.
Brigham, A. P. Public Education Campaign to Cut Water Use; Proceeding's;
American Water Works Association Conference, June 1975.
13 - The five-year project of the Washington Suburban Sanitary
Commission aimed at educating the public about water conservation
resulted in a 6-17% reduction in water use from 1973 through 1974.
Projects included a water-saving handbook, workshops, speaker
programs, and a media blitz.
Bruvold, W. H. Consumer Response to Urban Drought in Central California.
National Science Foundation Grant Final Report, June 1978. ;p.58-66.
14 - This paper evaluates San Francisco's response to drought and
concludes that the mild conservation programs were able to attain a
20% reduction in water use.
The study concludes that rationing should be mandatory, rather than
voluntary, and that rationing plans should be based upon the number
of people per household, rather than the previous average use, size
of lot, or ability to pay.
California Department of Water Resources. Are You Using Gray Water During
ye Drought? California Department of Water Resources, Sacramento,
California. 4 D,.
15 - Gray water is all wastewater which comes from a home except for
toilet water waste (black water). This article explains when gray
water can be reused and possible health hazards. It is recommended
that gray water be used for flushing toilets. Gray water can also
be used for outdoor watering needs. For landscape use, the order of
preference for gray water sources is; bath water, bathroom sink,
washing machine or clothes washing, dish washing, and kitchen sink water.
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The article also explains how to collect and transport gray water
from its source in order to use it, and the best way to apply gray
water to the landscape.
California Department of Water Resources. Automatic Clothes Mashers.
California Department of Water Resources, Sacramento, California,
February 1977.
16 - This bulletin lists the makes, model numbers, capacities and
water-using features of many automatic clothes washers available
on the market. An estimated average water use for washers is 40
gallons per cycle.
California Department of Water Resources. Automatic Dishwashers.
California Department of Water Resources, Sacramento, California,
February 1977.
17 - Average automatic dishwashers use 13-16 gallons for a 60-minute
cycle, while some new water-saving models use only 7.5 per load.
This bulletin lists the makes, model numbers, and capacities of
automatic dishwashers available on the market.
California Department of Water Resources. Faucet Flow Controls.
California Department of Water Resources, Sacramento, California,
February 1977.
18 - Using flow controls, faucet flow rates as high as 8-12
gallons per minute can be reduced to as little as 2 gallons per
minute. This could save about 4.5% of household water use. This
bulletin lists faucet flow controls available on the market and
discusses their water-saving capabilities.
California Department of Water Resources. Hints for Home Landscaping.
California Department of Water Resources, Sacramento, California,
May 1977.
19 - This bulletin discusses when and how to water lawns and
gardens and how much water is necessary. It also suggests ways to
cut frequency of watering. Included in the bulletin is a list of
information sources in the Bay Area, the South Coast, the Central
Valley Area, and the Central Coast Area of California where more
detailed information on drought-resistant plantings and demonstra-
tion gardens is available.
California Department of Water Conservation. Hints for Water Conservation.
California Department of Water Resources^Sacramento, California, February
1977.
20 - This bulletin lists many general ways for the homeowner, the
small farmer, and small businesses to conserve water. The list
includes tips, such as taking shorter showers, and devices which
may be helpful, such as installing a pressure reducer if the pressure
on one's line is greater than 50 pounds per square inch.
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California Department of Water Resources. Low Flush Toilets.
California Department of Water Resources, Sacramento. California^,
February 1977.
21 - Conventional toilets use 5-7 gallons per flush, but low-flush
toilets only use about 3.5 gallons per flush. This bulletin lists
the low-flush toilets available on the market.
California Department of Water Resources. Low-volume Shower Heads and
Adapters. California Department of Water Resources, Sacramento,
California, February 1977.
22 - Conventional showers use up to 10 gallons a minute. Flow
control inserts can cut this rate to 3 gallons per minute, resulting
in a 70% reduction of water use in showers. This bulletin lists
low-flow showerheads and adapters available on the market and
discusses their water-saving capabilities.
California Department of Water Resources. A Pilot Water Conservation
Program. Bulletin 191. California Department of Water Resources,
Sacramento, California, October 1978. 64 p.
23 - This bulletin reports on a study of the best and most cost
effective ways to introduce water conservation devices into homes.
It is based on pilot projects conducted during the summer and fall
of 1977 in six California communities of diverse characteristics and
settings.
California Department of Water Resources. A Pilot Water Conservation
Program; Appendix G:_ Device Testing. rAlifnrma Department of Water
'Resources, Sacramento, California, March 1978. 399 p.
California Department of Water Resources. A Pilot Water Conservation Program;
Appendix H: Device Selection. California Department of Water Resources,
"Sacramento, California, March 1978. 114 p.
24 - The purpose of the pilot water conservation program was to
determine the feasibility of implementing water conservation in
California households through the distribution of water saving toilet
and shower devices. Appendix G contains the bidding and testing pro-
cedures used in selection of water saving devices for use in the Pilot
Water Conservation Program. It also presents the performance data
developed during the testing of the shower and toilet devices.
An American National Standards Institute test procedure was used to
test all toilet devices submitted. The shower device testing
procedure developed was discussed with the National Bureau of Standards
Plumbing Laboratory staff as well as the staff of a California
Independent Testing Laboratory. The intent of Appendix H is to provide
the consumer and public or private agencies with an independent
analysis of water saving devices evaluated under the same test methods.
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The Department may not be cited as a testing agency or as approving
any device for any function without prior written approval.
California Department of Water Resources. A Pilot Water Conservation
Project: Letter Report. California Department of Water Resources,
bacramento, California, December 1977. 6 p.
25 - The purpose of the pilot study was to gather information on
the feasibility of implementing water conservation in California
households through the use of water saving shower and toilet devices.
To determine such feasibility the Department evaluated 1) the
effectiveness of various methods of distributing of water saving
devices to households; 2) the willingness of citizens to use various
types of shower and toilet devices; and 3) the effectiveness of the
various devices in reducing water and energy consumption.
Six communities with varying water conditions were chosen for the
study: San Diego, Santa Cruz County, the City of Sanger, the City
of El Segundo, the El Dorado Irrigation District, and the community
of Oak Park (near Ventura). Distribution of devices and follow-up
telephone or mail surveys were completed in all six communities,
and analysis is in various stages of completion in each area. _
California Department of Water Resources. Proceedings; An Urban Water
Conservation Conference. California Department of Water Resources.
Sacramento, California, January 1976.
26 - This report is a collection of presentation transcripts
covering the water conservation spectrum: Why, What, How, and Who.
While most articles are of a general nature, some summary data is
presented on water supply, use, associated energy use, specific
conservation mechanisms and programs, and some discussion of rate
alteration effects.
California Department of Water Resources. Save Every Last Drop!
California Department of Water Resources, Sacramento. California. 4 p.
27 - This folder includes many tips on various ways to save water
including how to fix a leaky faucet, how to use less water in the
toilet, water saving appliances, other devices and techniques to
save water in the home, how to read one's water meter, and home
landscaping tips.
California Department of Water Resources. Save Water. California
Department of Water Resources, Sacramento, California. 8 p.
28 - This report provides a general discussion for consumers of
indoor and outdoor possibilities for saving water. Household
tips discussed include water-conserving toilets, showers, clothes
washers and dishwashers as well as hot water pipe insulation.
Outdoor tips include garden watering methods, and best ways to design
and maintain a garden. Also included are ways that water utilities
8
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can reduce water waste and agricultural water savings. The
report concludes that a 10% reduction in water use through
reasonable conservation practices could save as much as 615
cubic hectometers of water a year in California. Energy
savings from reduced water use could also be substantial.
California Department of Water Resources. The 1976-77 California
Drought: A Review. California Departinent of Water Resources,
Sacramento, California, May 1978, '228 p.
29 - This report places the entire 2-year California drought
in perspective. It documents the impact of the drought and
details the response by Federal, State, and local governments
and the public. At the height of the drought, one-third of all
Californians were participating in mandatory programs and nearly
all the rest were involved in voluntary programs. California
urbanites conserved, on the average, over 20% of normal water
use--a remarkable achievement. It also discusses lessons learned
from the drought and suggests future actions to better use water
and includes an extensive bibliography.
California Department of Water Resources. Toilet Damming Devices.
California Department of Water Resources, Sacramento, California,
February 1977.
30 - Toilet dams save water by blocking off part of the toilet
tank and thereby requiring less water to fill the tank. Savings
can range as high as 2 gallons per flush, and devices can save
5-10% of the fresh water used within a home. This bulletin lists
toilet damming devices available on the market, and discusses
their water-saving capabilities.
California Department of Water Resources. Water and Energy Conservation
for the Boy Scouts of America. California Department of Water Resources,
Sacramento, California.
31 - This brochure is designed to help Boy Scouts qualify for a
water conservation badge. It teaches Boy Scouts the relation-
ship between water, energy, and the environment, and how everyday
activities affect water conservation.
California Department of Water Resources. Water Conservation. California
Department of Water Resources, Sacramento, California. 2 p.
32 - This very general brochure focuses on the potential savings
in residential water use. In California, 75% of the indoor
residential water used is in the bathroom. Substantial water can
be saved in existing homes by modifying in-pi ace fixtures (retro-
fitting). The brochure includes charts of potential energy and
water savings possible from shower and toilet modifications.
California Department of Water Resources. Water Conservation in
California. Bulletin 198. California Department of Water Resources,
Sacramento, California, May 1976. 95 p.
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33 - This is a detailed report on water use in California. The
report examines residential, industrial, and agricultural water
use patterns and a large number of mechanisms and strategies for
consumption reduction in each area. The report presents potential
savings of both water and energy associated with each of the
mechanisms presented. In its analysis, the report reviews and
compiles statistics on most toilet and shower devices available
as well as indoor and outdoor use reduction.
California Department of Water Resources. Water Pricing. California
Department of Water Resources, Sacramento, California, February 1977.
34 - The importance of water costs as they relate to conservation
are discussed. Included is a table of the various pricing systems
used in California, their effect on conservation, and their relative
equity. The Department recommends that local water agencies use
uniform peak/seasonal, or increasing block rates. The lifetime
rate should be included in the system so all basic needs are met
equitably. All means to increase efficiency of water use should
be examined and put into effect where they are reasonable and
prudent.
California Department of Water Resources, Office of Appropriate
Technology. Drought Garden Plant List. California Department of Water
Resources, Sacramento, California.
35 - This bulletin lists trees, shrubs and groundcover vegetation
that are drought-resistant and appropriate for Sacramento,
California's climate.
California Water Resources Center. What We Can Do Before The Well Runs Dry!
University of California, Davis, California. Aoril 1977, 16 p,
36 - This report summarizes some of the salient portions of Milne's
Residential Water Conservation. The sections covered include:
What can be done now, without cost; what can be done soon, with some
expenditures; and what yet needs to be done, requiring some changes in
laws and building codes. It includes indoor and outdoor water-saving
tips and systems that can be implemented to save water in the future.
Cassel, G. and J. O'Reilly. "PMI Seminar Promotes Water Conservation."
Supply House Times, 76-87, Nov. 1978.
37 - This article summarizes a 1978 conference of the Plumbing
Manufacturers Institute emphasizing the need for nationwide flow
rate standards. Enforcement of water conservation standards is
critical. However, since a water conservation showerhead looks
exactly the same as its conventional counterpart, it is almost
impossible for plumbing inspectors to make sure that water con-
servation products are being used. Some sort of uniform labeling
on the product itself is therefore essential.
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Chan, M. C. and Steve Heare. The Cost-Effectiveness of Pricing Schemes
and Water Saving Devices; Proceedings; Conference on Water Conservation
and Sewage Flow Reduction with Water Saving Devices. Pennsylvania State
University. U.S. Department of Commerce, NTIS PB 250 999. P. 23-38.
38 - The cost savings of various water-saving options to reduce
household wastewater flow and water consumption were enumerated in
this study. These options included the installation of water-
saving devices and the adoption of pricing schemes. Two computer
models were constructed. Water-saving devices were evaluated with
respect to cost savings to households, water utilities, and waste-
water industries. Pricing schemes were evaluated for various
climatic regions and housing types with respect to consumer surplus,
producer surplus, the sum of consumer surplus and producer surplus,
distributional effects across income classes, revenue adequacy,
ability to conserve water, and savings to water and wastewater
industries. Public acceptance and the legal constraints of these
water-saving devices and pricing schemes were also investigated. An
extensive literature review on the state-of-the-art of this problem
was also conducted.
Cole, C. A. Impact of Home Water Saving Devices on Collection Systems
and Waste Treatment; Proceedings; Conference on Water Conservation and
Sewage Flow Reduction with Water-Saving Devices, University of
Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania State University, April 1975. D. 47-5b.
39 - Water conservation using domestic water saving toilets will
have an impact on sewage collection and treatment if infiltration
is controlled. Sewer solids handling efficiency was evaluated for
toilets discharging 5.25 gallons per flush (U.S. average) and less.
It was concluded from calculations using Manning's formula that solids
transporting capacity of sewers and house connections would not be
substantially changed until the flush amount was reduced to 2.0
gallons per flush or less. Even lower gallons per flush would not
affect the solids handling capacity for sewers with over 500 popu-
lation contribution. The treatment plant hydraulic design capacity
would be substantially extended if all future toilet installations
were to be made with 3.5 gallon per flusii devices. These theoreti-
cal calculations should be verified by field demonstrations and
evaluations.
"Saving Water in the Home: 1. When You Flush the Toilet; 2. When you
Take a Shower." Consumer Reports. 43(5): 297-302, May 1978.
40 - Consumer Reports conducts thorough tests on 28 toilet water-
saving devices and ranks them according to costs and benefits.
Also included is a list of do-it-yourself means of reducing toilet
water use. Results indicate that none of the devices work any
better than the do-it-yourself methods.
Tests were also conducted on 28 low-flow showerheads and 19 flow
restrictors. Costs/benefits are discussed and devices are ranked.
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"Washing Machines." Consumer Reports. 572-577, Oct. 1978.
41 - Consumer Reports examines washing machines and ranks them
according to a number of criteria, including their economical
use of water and electricity.
"Water: Time To Start Saving?" Consumer Reports, 294-296,
May 1978.
42 - This article explains the importance of conservation and
how to live with less water. Consumer Reports tested 28 water-
saving devices for toilets, including dams, weights, dual-flush
units, air bleeds, replacement tanks, and flush valve stops.
However, they concluded that a bottle in the toilet tank or a
homemade weight (described in article) would be just as effective
as all the products tested, and therefore didn't recommend any of
them.
Consumer Reports also tested shower devices, such as flow restrictors,
regular low-flow showerheads, and aerating low-flow showerheads.
They concluded that a flow restrictor will conserve water, and
priced at $2 or less each, will cost less to buy than a completely
new showerhead. Low-flow showerheads, however, do not decrease
enjoyment of the shower as much as flow restrictors. Aerators,
although unadjustable, save more water than the regular low-flow
showerheads.
Copley International Corporation. An Evaluation of Alternative Methods
of pistributing Water Saving Kits. California Department of Water Resources,
La Jolla. California, Dec. 1.977. 203 p.
43 - The research project described in this report was conducted to
evaluate the effectiveness of the California Department of Water
Resources San Diego Pilot Water Conservation Project. The San Diego
Pilot Project was designed primarily to test three methods of
distributing the water saving kits. Approximately 180,000 water
saving kits were distributed through three methods:
Mass Distribution. Delivery of kits to each household in
the area by a private delivery service. No attempt was made
to contact the residents during delivery. The kits were
hung on door knobs.
a Door-to-Poor Distribution. San Diego area Boy Scouts and
other volunteers delivered kits in this sector. Rather than
placing the kits at every household, the kits were handed to
household members. If no one was home, a card was left which
indicated where a kit could be obtained.
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t Depot Distribution. Approximately thirty centrally located
points in the region were established as water kit depots.
Residents of selected zip code areas were asked to pick up
their kits at the depots.
Copley International Corporation. Foilow-Up Survey: Household Usage
Test for Five-Brands of Mater Conservation Kit's". Copley International
Corporation, La Jolla, California, June 1977. 37 p.
44 - This report summarizes the findings of a follow-up survey of
some 300 San Diego households selected for participation in a
product test program for the Department of Water Resources. The
results present data on removal of devices, long-run acceptance
and general comments on performance of toilet dams and shower flow
reducers.
Crisp, J. and A. Soboler. "An Investigation of the Performance of
Lavatories Using Spray Taps, and of Sanitary Accommodations in an
Office Building." Journal of Institute of Water Engineers, 13:513-575,
1959.
45 - This is a British study on installation of spray taps in office
building lavatories. Conclusions show 1/3-1/2 reduction in water
used per day. An investigation carried out in an office building
showed that if wash basins are fitted with spray-taps, the consumption
of water for washing is reduced by a half. The paper gives figures
for the frequency of usage of wash basins and W.C.'s, its variation
during the day, and indicates how the recorded water consumption of
10.7 g.p.d. can be reduced by 30 percent.
Davies, Dale and Bruce Haines. Some Political-Institutional Factors
Affecting Efforts to Conserve Water in Washington State, Washington
State University, Washington Water Research Center and Department of
Political Science, June 1978. 71 p.
46 - The extent to which administrative mechanisms are adopted and
successfully implemented depends in part on support and opposition
from water users and those who represent them. In this study relevant
perceptions and attitudes of individuals interested and/or influential
in Washington state water policy were surveyed by means of a mailed
questionnaire.
Most respondents agreed that water was becoming more scarce, and the
principal causes of scarcity were felt to be insufficient pre-
cipitation, deficient storage, inadequate monitoring, lack of
governmental planning and regulation, and wasteful practices by
agricultural, municipal/domestic and industrial users. Respondents
were most supportive of proposals to (1) institute voluntary
programs for improving conservation, and (2) impose negative incentives
on users who waste water. The least support was given to proposals
for positive incentives to encourage more efficient practices.
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Attitudes and perceptions of respondents from non-profit, development-
oriented associations were closer to those of state officials than to
the profit-makers whom they represented. This finding suggests that
efforts to promote conservation may be more effective if associations
of water users are encouraged to participate more actively in them.
Denver Water Department. 44 Ways to be Waterwise. Denver, Colorado.
47 - Tips for saving water in the bath, around the house, when
landscaping, and on lawns and gardens are listed. It includes
types of plants with low-water requirements and suggested cutting
lengths for a few types of grass.
"Conservation, Care and Control of Water." Domestic Engineering,
July 1978.
48 - The emphasis of the Plumbing Manufacturers Institute is
conserving water at the point of usethrough flow restricting
showerheads and aerator-type faucet attachments. Their standard
establishes a rated minimum flow rate for sink faucets and shower-
heads at 2.75 GPM. The standard also provides a recommended test
procedure which will permit independent agencies to conduct tests
in a standardized manner so that results will be comparable between
agencies. No standard is available yet for proper performance of
water closets with reduced water consumption.
"Water Can Be Conserved in Showers: But Consider the Safety Factor."
Domestic Engineering, July 1977.
49 - Contractors must consider safety when installing watersaving
devices to guard against water temperature extremes. A change in
water flow which makes a bather uncomfortable at 6 GPM will scald
the bather if he/she is using a low-flow showerhead of 2 GPM.
Therefore, flow controls should be used in conjunction with safety
type shower valves as part of a properly designed shower system.
East Bay Municipal Utility District Offices. Conservation Is Something
You Can Do. Oakland, California. 4 p.
50 - This small brochure describes how to install a water dam in a
toilet and how to install a water-reducing showerhead in the shower.
Since conventional toilet tanks use 3.5-6 gallons per flush, and
most showers use from 4-10 gallons per minute, reducing water use
in these two areas can be an important aspect of water conservation.
East Bay Municipal Utility District. Some Rather Unusual Ideas For
Saving Water. Oakland, California, 1977. 18 p,
51 - This booklet provides an extensive list of suggestions on
ways to save water inside and outside the home. Many of the
suggestions include water-saving devices and tips, many of which
are highly unusual. The areas covered include ways to wash, clean,
cook and drink; the use of the toilet; watering the lawn; and
pursuing other daily activities using less water.
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East Bay Municipal Utility District. Water Conservation Today and
Tomorrow. Oakland, California. 13 p.
52 - This booklet discusses general water-conserving tips for
homeowners applicable to both indoor and outdoor water uses.
Areas discussed include how to use less water per flush, toilet
maintenance, showers, how to fix leaky faucets, kitchen and
laundry tips, and garden and outdoor water use reduction tips.
It also provides a brief overview of a few water-saving devices.
Ecological Analysis, Inc. Water Supply Study for Montgomery and Prince
Georges Counties, Maryland. October 1977.
53 - Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission's (WSSC) evaluation/
publicity program and plumbing code changes resulted in water re-
ductions from 13%-26%. For the WSSC, a request of no outside water
use and appeals for conservation achieved a decrease of from 11%-
39%, depending on various factors. It is projected that banning
all outside water use, creating a crisis atmosphere and lowering
system pressure could achieve reductions of from 19% to 50%.
"A Chicago Suburb Conserves Water." Environmental Management, 5-6,
Aug. 1978.
54 - In its effort to reduce water consumption by 15%, the city of
Elmhurst, Illinois developed an ambitious public awareness program.
The program included:
a media blitz informing residents of the problem;
development of a newsletter;
t changing water rate structures;
modification of plumbing codes to require that all new plumbing
fixtures comply with minimum standards;
t distribution of displacement dams and showerhead attachments;
t limiting outdoor water use.
Although results are preliminary, so far they are very encouraging.
Farallones Institute. Gray Water Use in the Home Garden. Berkeley,
California, 1977. 11 p~
55 - This brochure answers some of the most commonly asked questions
concerning the use of household wastewater for garden irrigation.
The order of preferred use for gray water sources is; bath/shower
water, bathroom sink, washing machine, utiltty sink and kitchen sink
water. The brochure also explains precautions to be taken to protect
against damage to the soil resulting from long-term use of gray water,
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Fehrm, A. "Saving Water Safely With Shower Controls: Special Water
Conservation Report." Domestic Engineering, 1978/79.
56 - To protect the consumer at home, the proper jurisdictional
plumbing code should mandate that all shower/bath controls be of
the safety type to protect against water temperature extremes.
The average cost differential between a conventional control and
a safety type control is in the range of $5 to $25. The temperature
change problem is eliminated when safety-type showers are used.
Because of their basic function of controlling to a fixed
temperature, pressure-balancing on thermostatic valves are not
unduly affected by the installation of a flow-restricted 3 GPM
showerhead.
Feldman, Stephen L. A Handbook of Water Conservation Devices.
Applied Science and Research Applications, National Science Foundation,
Washington, D. C., Nov. 1977. 79 p.
57 - Current water supply problems and projected near future
shortages in the United States have created interest in methods
of reducing domestic water demand. The techniques included in
this handbook include education of consumers to alter their water
using behavior, metering, pricing, and/or installation of water-
saving devices. Devices included are: (1) water-saving toilets
and accessories, waterless toilets, bidets, and urinals; (2) flow
limiting devices for faucets and showers; (3) alternative plumbing
systems; (4) domestic recycling systems; (5) piping insulation;
(6) dishwashers and clotheswashers; and (7) lawn and garden
irrigation control systems. A description of each type of device
is followed by a list of manufacturers of that device, and any
special details that may pertain to their particular versions. The
handbook is intended to guide consumers in product identification
and selection.
Finkelstein, Hal. "Water Conservation: A Major Energy Saving Technique."
Building Systems Design, 71(7):37-38, June-July, 1974.
58 - Written for owners and engineers of buildings, this article
outlines construction and operation cost savings that are
available when water conservation techniques are utilized at the
design stage and details where the actual savings lie in building
operations. When using methods to restrict hot water use, including
spray faucets and low-flow showerheads, a multiple dwelling will save
30% of the energy that would normally be utilized for domestic hot
water. In New York City, for example, utilization of water conserving
devices could save 125 million gallons of water per day, obviating
the need to build one new large reservoir. The water conserving
devices would, thereby, save the city $28 million per year.
Fletcher, P., and W. Sharpe. "Water Conservation Methods to Meet
Pennsylvania's Water Needs." American Water Works Association Journal,
Washington, D. C., Nov. 1977. 79 p.
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Various water-saving devices are discussed, and it is concluded
that many are cost-effective, including shower flow controls,
toilet inserts, and dual-cycle modifications for toiletsall
designed for retrofit operations in existing housing. Water-saving
toilets appear to be cost-effective in new construction. There is
also some evidence that bath and laundry water recycle systems are
cost-effective in homes experiencing periodic on-site disposal-
system malfunctions. The rising demand for cost-effective and
environmentally safe on-lot sewage disposal alternatives will lead
to new technological developments employing water-saving devices.
As new products and techniques become better known in the plumbing
trade, their costs, especially for water-saving toilets, should
decrease. For new construction in much of rural Pennsylvania, water
conservation with water-saving devices seems the best approach in
the decades just ahead.
Powell, Andrew J., et al. "Water and Water Related Conservation in
Buildings." Water Supply and Drainage in Buildings, Department of
Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, Washinaton, D, C., ?i-^o
Aug. 1979. >->
60 - This is a presentation of an international symposium on
water supply which briefly outlines the nature of water supply
in the U.S. The report also outlines current usage statistics
and projects potential savings realized through two alternate
conservation scenarios.
Fulton, W. "How Elmhurst Cut Water Use." Innovations, 2(2):6-8,
Jan. 1978.
61 - A multimedia blitz made Elmhurst, Illinois residents aware
of the water supply and sewage treatment problems. The program
cost approximately $1.00/capita, and has been very successful.
It cut water use by 15%, increased existing sewage capacity by
4,800 people, and saved $400,000, which the city had planned to
use to build a deep well.
Gay, D. E. "Spray Faucets Save Water and Energy." Plumbing Systems
Design, 71(4):35-36, June-July 1974.
62 - The spray faucet is an effective device for conserving water;
it uses only 0.5 GPM as compared to the traditional basin faucet
which uses about 3.0 GPM. Spray faucets save about 55% of the
hot water normally used by traditional faucets. Depending on the
initial cost of the faucets, the pay-back period varies from two
to ten months.
Gilbert, J. B. and Associates. Water Conservation Reuse and Supply,
48 p.
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63 - The San Francisco Bay Area water conservation program is
described, including the conservation education program, devices
used, and the way in which different counties in the area responded.
Some of the programs discussed include consumer education, retrofit
device programs, programs for new construction, metering and pricing.
A chart of water conservation elements and potential savings and
costs is provided.
Graf, R. and G. Whalen. "Programmed Watering." Popular Mechanics, 92,
July 1977.
64 - Underground water sprinklers allow watering only when needed.
In such a system, pipes buried below the lawn are fitted with
sprinkler heads at strategic locations. The pipes are attached
to valves that are activated by a controller which the homeowner
can program. Residential underground sprinklers cost from $600 to
$1,200.
Grear, Michael James. Residential Water Conservation: The Suburban
Maryland Experience 1970-1975; Proceedings; Conference on Water
Conservation and Sewage Flow Reduction with Water Saving Devices,
Pennsylvania State University. U.S. Department of Commerce, NTIS PB
250 999, July 1975. p. 1-22.
65 - The Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission is a state
chartered bi-county public utility which provides water and
sewer service for over 1.2 million individuals living in a
1,000 square mile section of Suburban Maryland. In May of 1970
the WSSC found itself facing two major crises: A potential water
supply shortage, and a State Board of Health "sewer moratorium"
due to the lack of treatment capacity in local sewage treatment
facilities. These two crises, plus a genuine interest in the
improvement of the natural environment, in helping people to
help themselves to conserve water and energy, use water wisely,
eliminate wastage and reduce water and sewer bills, led to the
creation of a Water Conservation/Wastewater Reduction/Customer
Education Program.
There have been quite a few large and small projects within this
Water Conservation/Customer Education Program during the past five
years. Some have paid handsome dividends in reduced water con-
sumption and sewage flows, others have not produced measurable
results.
Some of the larger projects include: The assembly and distribution
of a Water Conservation Handbook; a water conservation device
test project covering 2,400 homes in the Cabin John, Maryland
area; the distribution of 300,000 toilet displacement "Bottle
Kits" and leak detection pills; the distribution of free shower
flow control devices and the assembly of a 20 minute water conserva-
tion film entitled "Drip."
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Griffith, F. I., Jr. "An Equitable Rate Struicture Relation to Conserva-
tion and Wastewater Flow Reduction", Nov. 1978.
66 - This paper describes Fairfax County Water Authority's develop-
ment and design of a rate structure that attempts to maximize the
economic and conservation benefits of the potential demand reduction
elasticity by concentrating on the peak season use. The paper
concludes that unless a community is ready to live with unrealisti-
cally high and probably unjustifiable water and sewage rates, it
will be working with approximately a 5% elasticity factor for
total annual demand.
Hamilton Township, New Jersey Department of Public Works. Water
Conservation Program, January 1978. 6 p.
67 - In an effort to extend the treatment capacity of its
already overloaded sewage treatment plant, the Township of
Hamilton, New Jersey, has undertaken an unusual water conservation
program. Through the distribution of water-saving showerheads
and toilet partitions, the Township hopes to save 2 million gallons
of water a day. After implementation, 65% of the respondents were
using their aerators and found them to give acceptable showers,
and 51% were using their toilet tank partitions. The project on a
whole seems to be successful on a short-term basis, and in time,
the Township should get a substantial return on the capital expended
for the project.
Hanke, Steve. "Some Behavioral Characteristics Associated with Residential
Water Price Changes." Water Resources Research, 6(5):1383-1386, Oct. 1970.
68 - This article describes how residential customers reacted to
the installation of meters. Of those sampled, 48% indicated they
had increased water conserving activities since metering. The
major types of response in order of sample frequency were:
(1) watching sprinklers more carefully; (2) ceasing to sprinkle
parts of the yard; (3) permitting the yard to turn brown; (4)
watering at night; and (5) repairing outside leaks. The conserva-
tion practices of 58% of the sample intensified over time, as
consumers learned how to make substitutions and use water more
efficiently.
Hanke, Steve. "Water Rates: An Assessment of Current Issues."
American Water Works Association Journal, 215-219, May 1975,
69 - Rate-making, which was once a relatively inactive function
within a water utility's operations, has become a very active
function. With rising costs, utilities are revising rates
regularly to obtain increased revenue. Also, consumer groups
want to encourage low-usage through price incentives, and environ-
mental groups favor utility rate modifications to encourage water
conservation. New rate structures that reflect temporal and
spatial variations, seasonal and zonal fluctuations, and impose
a surcharge for water used above a certain base rate may be more
equitable, and encourage conservation. This would increase the
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efficiency with which resources in the water sector of the economy
are used.
"Emerging Markets: Water Savers." Hardware Retailing, 133(3):76-77,
Sept. 1977.
70 - As consumer awareness increases, water-saving products will
sell increasingly better. This article makes retailers familiar
with some of the merchandise available on the market. These items
are very promotable. Promotion is very important since consumers
must be made aware that they can cut water consumption in half,
and that the merchandise will pay for itself in a few months.
Herr, L. A., M. B. Sonnen, P. L. Thompson, Co-Chairmen. Proceedings;
Conference on Water Conservation Needs and Implementing Strategies,
Washington, D. C.; Urban Water Resources Research Council, American
Society of Civil Engineers, July 1979. 138 p.
71 - This conference was directed at water conservation needs
and implementing strategies. In talking of water conservation,
two major aspects are defined. The first of these is the attempt
to achieve permanent changes in water use habits through various
conservation incentive programs. The second aspect is development
of contingency programs for periods of drought or low flow. It is
on this latter aspect that the conference focuses, examining many
instances of drought nationwide and the strategies that were
implemented at the time of, and in response to each.
Hoffman, M.v R. Glickstein, and S. Liroff. "Urban Drought in the San
Francisco Bay Area: A Study of Institutional and Social Resiliency."
American Water Works Association Journal, 71(7):356-363, July 1979.
72 - In San Francisco's successful conservation program, water
rationing was extremely important. One reason managers were
successful was because they considered the fairness of the
rationing program a higher priority than the ease of implementation.
Equity and public perception of rationing programs are very critical
in terms of public participation. Furthermore, most customers
prefer fixed allotments where they can determine their own priorities
rather than being told how to use their water.
Idaho Soil Conservation Commission, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Water Conservation Tips for Stretching Water for Yards and Gardens,
February 1977.
73 - This brochure lists many ways to keep yards and gardens
green while using less water. It points out that plants differ
in the amount of water they need and that this varies with climate
and changing weather conditions. It lists alternatives to conven-
tional watering, such as saving water for vegetable gardens, annuals
and other plants that won't survive well without water. It also
describes how to apply water efficiently by watering slowly, and
early in the morning. Moisture can be conserved by using mulch
and not mowing grass too short.
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Illinois Department of Transportation, Division of Water Resources.
Wise Meter Use: A Curriculum Supplement for Teachers.
74 - This booklet provides four curriculum guides for grade levels
K-12 dealing with:
water conservation tips;
t wastewater treatment processes;
how to inspect for leaks;
how the government addresses water conservation problems
through a variety of agencies.
Illinois Interagency Water Management/Conservation Commission. Don't
Let Your Toilet Waste Water. 1 p.
75 - This fact sheet describes how to determine if a toilet is
leaking and how to fix it. Dye pellets are attached to the
sheet to aid in detecting a leak. Most frequently, leaks in
toilets are caused by a defective flush valve, which is a flap
or ball plunger device that is supposed to act as a stopper in the
bottom of the toilet tank. Installation of an inexpensive replace-
ment valve or a complete replacement kit will repair these leaks.
Illinois Task Force on Drought. Drought in Illinois. Springfield,
Illinois, March 1977. 47 p,
76 - The report states the causes, extent and effects of the
1976-1977 drought, details the emergency measures, short and
long-term solutions, and attempts to disseminate these findings
to state and local governments and to the public. It includes a
chart of potential residential water savings and water savings
as a percentage of total indoor use. It also presents a dis-
cussion of local, state, and federal funding possibilities.
Lorkin, D. G. "Economics of Water Conservation." American Water Works
Association Journal, 470-474, Sept. 1978.
77 - The costs of mandatory water conservation to the East Bay
Municipal Utility District in 1976-77 are detailed. Since most
water utility costs are fixed, revenues do not vary significantly
with the amount of water sold. Therefore, any loss in revenues
due to conservation must be made up by increases in water rates.
Customers accepted higher water rates during the drought. However,
a citizen's committee has been appointed to review the rate structure
before another rate increase is implemented in 1979.
Lattie, J. "Public Education for Water Conservation." Community Water
Management for the Drought and Beyond: A Handbook for Local Government,
California Governor's Office of Emergency Service, Sacramento, California,
July 1977. p. 46-58.
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78 - This article stresses the importance of effective public
information in water conservation programs. Program elements
include direct mail of an insert or handbook using the news
media, making personal contacts, the use of special events,
and the development of other materials. The price range for
carrying out a short-term crisis program or setting up a long-
term program can start at $500 to $1,000. Total short-term or
annual program costs for a community of 25,000 residents could
range from $2,000 to $15,000, depending on the number of program
elements used.
Lawson, C. "Techniques for Saving Water in Homes and Businesses."
Community Water Management for the Drought and Beyond: A Handbook for
Local Government, California Governor's Office of Emergency Service,
Sacramento,"California, May 1977. p, 63-70.
79 - This article lists water saving techniques that have been
tried in California for toilet water savings, bath/shower/sink
savings, kitchen savings, laundry savings, landscape water
savings, and other outdoor savings such as washing the car and
driveway. Business water savings include serving water only upon
request in restaurants, turning off fountains, and reduced water
use for cleaning and maintenance. Some potential problems have been
presented such as toilet bottles floating and toilet dams not
fitting. A chart on how much water various conservation tactics
save is presented.
Marsh, A., et al. Drip Irrigation. Leaflet #2740. University of
California, Division of Agricultural Sciences, Sept. J975. 4 p.
80 - Drip irrigation, which can use up to 50% less water than other
methods of irrigation, is discussed. The amount of water applied
should be based on measured or carefully observed soil-water
conditions that reveal the balance between additions and with-
drawals. Possible problems and operational requirements of drip
irrigation are discussed.
McGhee, R., M. Reardon, and A. Shulman, Eds. Readings in Water
Conservation. \ National Association of Counties Research, Inc..
Washington, D. C. 332 p.
81 - This anthology presents a series of articles and comments
designed to acquaint the reader with the great range of issues
surrounding the topic of water conservation. It is intended to
be introductory rather than exhaustive. Section one presents the
federal laws and regulations pertaining to water conservation; it
also includes a representative sample of local ordinances and one
state law which promotes conservation. Section two reviews briefly
the hardware of water conservation and potential savings from each
type. Section three details the components of a public education
program which may be run by a water utility or local government.
Section four addresses a broad array of economic, management and
planning issues which arise from efforts to conserve water or alter
water use patterns. Section five is a case study of the water
conservation program developed by the city of Westminster, Colorado.
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Mclaughlin, Everett R. A Recycle System for Conservation of Water in
Residences; Proceedings; Conference on Water Conservation and Sewage
Flow Reduction with Water Saving Devices, Pennsylvania State University.
U.S. Department of Commerce, NTIS PB 250 000. p. 133-172.
82 - Water used in residences performs various functions which
have different requirements for initial purity and result in
different degrees of contamination. A study of the average use
of water reveals that the water may be used more than once in a
cascade system. Primary water may be used for laundry and the
resulting secondary water may be used for flushing the toilet.
Since the primary and secondary uses are at different rates, a
storage facility is required, as is a pump for pressurizing the
secondary water. Observations over a year show that a near balance
can be attained between the two uses and that approximately 30
percent of the water used can be recycled. This is a net saving
of 23 percent of the primary water that would be used if the system
were not in operation. Maintenance requirements are relatively minor.
The primary advantages of the system are reduced water requirements
and reduced disposal requirements. A relatively long amortization
period would be required, although proper sizing of the equipment
would reduce the initial cost to a minimum.
Marin Municipal Water District. "Marin Life Line." Newsletter, 8 p,
83 - A rationing program was implemented during the drought with
the goal of reducing water use by 57%. Tips, devices, how to read
one's water meter, how to use reclaimed wastewater and gray water
and reduce outdoor water use are the topics discussed in this
newsletter. A chart of billing procedures and water rates in Marin
County is provided.
Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. Water Savings. Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., Palo Alto,
California, May 1976. 180 p.
84 - The purpose of this report was to identify the various water-
saving methods and to evaluate them in terms of effectiveness,
costs, ease of implementation, and public acceptance. The results
were used to form a recommendation for the implementation of the
district's water conservation program.
The scope of this report included the following elements:
a summary of the water use pattern in Santa Clara County, including
residential, commercial, industrial and agricultural uses;
a survey of the water-saving methods available to domestic,
commercial, industrial, and agricultural users;
t a survey of the water conservation programs implemented by other
utilities in the nation;
an assessment of the effectiveness of various water conservation
methods in Santa Clara County;
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an assessment of the impact of water conservation programs on
water consumption, wastewater collection and treatment, and
public acceptance;
recommendations for general approaches to be taken for the
implementation of a water conservation program in Santa Clara
County.
Milne, Murray. Residential Water Conservation. California Water Resources
Center, University of California, Davis, California, March 1976.
468 p.
85 - This is intended to be a non-technical report for homeowners,
builders, developers, architects, planners, utility company managers,
plumbingware manufacturers, and lawmakers who are seeking ways to
reduce residential water consumption. A "typical" residential
consumption profile is presented, along with a brief history of how
water has been used in the home. Water conservation is not simply a
matter of inventing new fixtures; in fact there are four types of
constraints which must all be satisfied before any innovation in
water conservation can be implemented: Economic, institutional,
sociocultural, and technological. The impact of each of these
factors is discussed. Over four dozen commercially available devices
which affect water consumption in the home are evaluated. In an
attempt to discover future trends, a survey was made of the relevant
aerospace technology, including Apollo and Skylab systems, as well as
the systems installed in commercial jet aircraft, trains, and ships.
Recent patent applications were searched and dozens of new water-
conserving fixtures and appliances were discovered. Four scenarios
are laid out to show the homeowner different strategies for reducing
water consumption. Finally a series of recommendations is made
defining specific actions that can be taken by utility companies,
lawmakers, and plumbingware manufacturers to reduce residential
water consumption. The Appendix contains a 250-item annotated
bibliography and a directory of manufacturers.
Montgomery, Charles E. Water Savings with the Save-It Water Saver;
Proceedings; Conference on Water Conservation and Sewage Flow Reduction
with Water Saving Devices, Pennsylvania State University. U.S. Department
of Commerce, NTIS PB 250 999, July 1975, p. 173-174.
86 - The report summarizes a series of tests on a water-saving device
that fits around the flush valve in the toilet tankThe Model No.
SA-720 Watersaver. When the toilet is flushed, the water in the tank
is channelled into a smaller vertical area, producing more top pressure
or momentum, and therefore allowing for a complete flush, using 30 to
40 percent less water or about 2 to 2^ gallons. The Environmental
Protection Agency states that 36-45 percent of the water used in homes
results from toilet flushing and that an average family of 3.3 uses
approximately 42 percent or 881 gallons of water per week, just for
flushing the toilet. Today, if one of these water savers were
installed in every toilet tank in the U.S., it could save about
2 1/3 billion gallons of fresh water every day, or about 850 billion
gallons of water per year.
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Moses, Hal L. Research on Water Saving Devices at Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University; Proceedings; Conference on Water
Conservation and Sewage Flow Reduction with Water Saving Devices,
Pennsylvania State University. U.S. Department of Commerce, NTIS PB 250
999, July 1975. p.117-132.
87 - This paper describes some basic research on water saving
devices and the development of a simple but effective flow control
that can be used with conventional showers and faucets. Flow
characteristics, including cavitation of typical fixtures and
orifice or nozzle-type flow controls, are described along with an
approximate analysis. Possible flow instabilities and noise
associated with the devices are discussed and some experimental
results are presented.
Muller, John George. The Potential for Energy Savings Reductions through
the Use of Flow Reducing Devices and Other Conservation Measures.
Federal Energy Administration, Washington, D. C., November 1976, 55 p,
88 - This presentation of data reported in other studies deals
generally with use and potential savings from flow restrictors.
Some mention is made of aerators and spray valves. Mention is also
made of the human factors involved, including length, temperature,
and frequency of showers. A worksheet for energy savings due to
flow restriction is included.
National Bureau of Standards. Sewerless Devices Evaluation Basis:
Interim Compilation and Rating Letter Report. y?s. Department of Housing
and Urban Development, Washington, D. C., Sept. J979. 7 p.
\
89 - This compilation and evaluation of wastewater disposal devices
included the following activities:
literature search;
contacts with manufacturers and sales representatives;
t exhibits in institutes and conference halls;
field trips and observation of devices in actual use.
The limited number of similar installations available for evaluation
and the various advanced technologies applied to wastewater
disposal constrained the study within the time period allowed.
A larger study will be conducted to establish a substantiated data
base for sewerless devices evaluation.
Nelson, J. "Moving from Water Conservation to Water Management."
Community Water Management for the Drought and Beyond: A Handbook for
Local Government. California Governor's Office of Emergency Service.
Sacramento, California, May 1977. p, 70-77,
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90 - This article discusses the principal components of water demand
management, which are: Water metering, pricing policies, consumer
education, and water saving devices and techniques. Water savings
of 13% for single-family units can be achieved with an investment of
$35-$40, while a 30% water savings can result in an apartment for an
investment of $176. It concludes that water savings of 10% in
domestic use are relatively easy to achieve. Savings of 50-60%
can be achieved, but only with substantial hardship and adverse
economic impact.
Nelson, John. Northern California Rationing Lessons.
91 - The Northern Marin County Water District implemented water
rationing during the drought in 1976. This article discusses how
consumers responded to the rationing. In the West, where irrigation
makes up as much as 50% of annual domestic water requirements,
rationing can result in a 25-40% reduction in water use.
Nelson, John Olaf. Water Conservation, Here We Come! Presented at
7th Annual Lake Tahoe Seminar on Wastewater Treatment and Reuse,
November 1978. 26 p.
92 - Principal elements in water conservation programs, including
consumer education, water metering, pricing, devices, appliances,
lawn and irrigation techniques and regulation are described.
Estimates are given for the water savings potential of each. A
reasonable consumer education program would consist of the following:
Classroom water conservation materials, bill stuffers on conservation,
purchase and loan of water conservation films. Also, utility managers
or other public officials can readily volunteer to speak on water
conservation. Energy savings for reduced domestic hot water use were
estimated. The annual energy savings attributable to use of shower
devices for a family of 3.5 people is about $7.50.
North Marin County Water District. North Marin's Little Compendium of
Water Saving Ideas. Novato, California, March 1977. 273 p.
93 - This book is an extensive, non-technical discussion of
residential water-saving ideas, techniques and methods. The
report includes a detailed bibliography and a cross-referenced
list of manufacturers of water-saving devices, such as faucet
flow control devices, insulation for hot water pipes, pressure
regulating devices, shower flow control devices, reduced water
toilet devices and systems, and lawn and garden irrigation controls.
Other than devices, water conservation alternatives include consumer
education, water metering, water pricing, water saving appliances,
lawn and garden irrigation techniques, low-water use landscaping,
and mandatory regulation.
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Palla, Robert L., Jr. Evaluation of Energy Conserving Modifications
for Water Heaters. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Bureau of
Standards, Washington, D. C., July 1979. 42 p.
94 - The effects of various energy-conserving modifications on
water heating energy consumption were evaluated based on laboratory
tests. Nine storage-type residential water heaters, representative
of standard and "energy-saving" electric, gas, and oil fueled
models currently on the market, were obtained for testing.
Federally-promulgated water heater test procedures were used to
measure the energy consumption of each unit before and after
modifications. Energy-conserving modifications and corresponding
projected reductions in0energy consumption included: Reduced
thermostat settings (10 C); 12 percent savings for standard
electric, gas, and oil fueled water heaters (where appliance
performance does not degrade below an acceptable level, and water
heater capacity is still sufficient to meet hot water needs);
improved insulation, and 9 percent savings for all water heater
fuel types. Also considered for gas-fired units were reduced
pilot input rate from 220 W to 60 W (750 Btu/h to 200 Btu/h) -
less than 2 percent savings; use of thermal dampers - 3 percent
savings; use of intermittent ignition - 5 percent savings; and use
of intermittent ignition and mechanical flue dampers - 11 to 16
percent savings. Modifications to energy-saving models resulted
in somewhat smaller reductions. Multiple modifications were found
to offer energy savings slightly less than the sum of the individual
savings.
Palla, Robert L., Jr. The Potential for Energy Savings with Hater
Conservation Devices. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Bureau of
Standards, Washington, D. C., NSBIR 79-1770, July'1979.
95 - With the use of residential water saving devices, substantial
decreases in water consumption may be realized. Perhaps of even
greater significance, however, are the resultant reductions in
water-related energy requirementsfor water supply, wastewater
treatment, and water heating. Through a survey of water-related
energy use, a relationship between water usage and energy consumption
is developed. Results obtained indicate that energy requirements for
water heating far exceed those for water supply and wastewater
treatment. Based on estimates of residential water consumption with
and without water conserving products, the potential for energy
savings is assessed. Reduction in household water heating energy
consumption of about 35 percent are predicted with the use of
"conventional" water saving products. Also considered in this study
are the energy saving potentials of grey water recycling and grey
water heat recovery systems.
Palla, Robert L., Jr. A Product Class Evaluation of Domestic Water/
Energy Conservation Systems and Devices. National Burea of Standards,
Center for Consumer Product Technology, Washington, D. C., October
1978.
27
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96 - At the request of the National Bureau of Standards Office
of Energy Related Inventions (OERI) a study of energy use in
water supply, water treatment, and residential water heating was
undertaken by the Product Performance Engineering Division at
NBS. Also conducted was a survey of state-of-the-art water and
water-related energy saving devices. It was the purpose of this
study to provide guidance, data, and material for use by OERI
in evaluating inventions within this class in terms of energy
savings, and in identifying those inventions or devices which
warrant Department of Energy (DOE) support. Worthy devices
would be those that offer substantially greater energy savings
than currently available state-of-the-art devices.
Park Forest Recreation and Parks Department of Bloom Township.
Conserving Water in the Landscape: The Green Scene. 2 p,
97 - This small pamphlet lists tips to reduce water use in
lawns and gardens, and ways to keep lawns healthy. Trees and
shrubs should be watered slowly, deeply and infrequently.
Preparation and maintenance of the soil is the most important
aspect in maintaining a quality lawn and conserving water during
irrigation. Important soil qualities are soil structure, grading,
moisture content, and soil density.
Pennsylvania State University. Water Conservation and Waste-Flow
Rpdur.tinn in the Home. Special Circular #184. 9 p.
98 - This article explains why conservation is important and
how conservation saves money. A detailed discussion is presented
on the water cyclewhere water comes from, how it is treated
and what happens to it after it leaves our homes. Also described
are many different water-saving devices and methods, such as water
closet inserts, faucet aerators, spray taps, flow control devices,
improved float assemblies, shallow trap toilets, two-cycle toilets,
recycling wastewater, vacuum systems, incinerator toilets and low
water-use dishwashers and clothes washers. For each device or
method, cost estimates of the net savings per year for a family of
four are given.
"Impact of Water Saving Water Closets on Building Drains and Sewers."
Plumbing Engineer. November-December 1977. 20 pc
99 - This report concludes that not enough is known about the
use of water-saving water closets, and more research needs to be
done. Theoretical indications are that the utilization of water-
saving water closets should not cause problems in the building of
drains and sewage collection systems. The study also points out
that water demand is relatively inelastic and that only massive
price increases will significantly reduce usage. A promising rate
approach is peak level pricing, or charging significantly more for
use above a certain level during periods when demand is the highest.
This is designed not to raise additional revenue, but to reduce over-
all consumption.
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Plumbing Manufacturers Institute. How to Sell Hater/Energy Conservation
Products, 1977. 30 p.
100 - This article has suggestions, guidelines, and materials
for plumbers to help them sell water conserving devices and check
water conserving features in households. The heart of PMI's
suggested program is a water/energy conservation safety audit. A
checklist is provided for plumbers to check the bathtub/shower,
lavatory, water closet, kitchen sink, water heater, washing machine,
water softener, distribution/service, laundry tub, sillcocks,
sprinkler systems, and pumps. On the audit, the plumber can
indicate what condition these are in, what it would cost to repair
it, if necessary, and probably cost savings per year. Homeowners
can then decide whether they want the job done. Procedures for
promoting the audit are also suggested.
Powell, Evan. "PS Tests Bathroom Water-Savers." Popular Science,
211(2):120-122, 147, Aug. 1977.
101 - Popular Science tests, essentially subjectively, a number of
bathroom water-saving devices for shower and toilet. Shower mod-
ifications included water-saving showerheads and flow control
washers. Tests suggested that all shower water-reducing washers
were worthwhile and if replacement was warranted or even desired,
the flow-reducing showerheads were a very good, and relatively
inexpensive investment (both simple and dual flush). Toilet dams
and tank inserts were tested. The simple dam was found to flush
better than a regular toilet. Dual flush was difficult to install
and not as effective. Inserts of bricks or other displacement
objects were mentioned as undesirable, and water-saving and water-
less toilets were expensive and warranted only if replacement was
mandatory. Water-reducing faucets were recommended also if replace-
ment was needed.
Raabe, R. D. "Some Approaches to Water Conservation in the Garden."
Pacific Horticulture, Fall, 1977.
102 - There are many ways to save water in the garden. Hand
watering is much better than ditch irrigation or overhead
sprinklers because the water can be put where it is needed. Drip
irrigation systems are excellent for conserving water and can also
be used to water individual plants. Plants with low water require-
ments are listed. In general, the larger the plant, the larger the
root system available to explore for water, and the less watering
required. Removal of weeds is also important. Organic materials
such as leaf mold, decomposed manures, or compost can be worked into
the soil. Finally, grey water should be saved and used whenever
possible.
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Ramey-Smith, Ann and Jennifer L. Gaguon. An Investigation of Pre-
ferences for Various Types of Energy Cost Feedback.U.S."Department*of
Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C. February 1979.
103 - This study addressed the issue of consumer preferences for
various types of energy cost feedback for individual consumers.
Its purpose was to provide human factors recommendations to DOE
related to the performance characteristics of energy cost feed-
back meters. Simulation and interview techniques were used to
provide consumer reaction to cumulative, instantaneous, and pro-
jected feedback presented as dollar and cent values. A majority
of participants indicated a preference for cumulative feedback
types. All types of cumulative feedback are easily understood,
accurate in reflecting actual energy consumption and suitable to
several uses. Hourly instantaneous feedback was considered useful
for monitoring energy use of individual appliances. All participants
having two energy sources in their home expressed a preference for
having feedback presented as separate cost figures rather than as a
total cost. Recommendations for feedback types as well as some
performance characteristics of energy cost feedback meters for
further testing by DOE are discussed.
Reid, G. W. et. al. An Exploratory Study of Possible Energy Savings as
a Result of Water Conservation Practices.University of Oklahoma, Norman,
Oklahoma, July 1976.132 p.
104 - The objective of this study is to evaluate energy consumption
from the use of various alternatives of water conservation practices.
The amount of water saved from each alternative is first calculated.
Then, from each of these potential water savings, the amount of energy
involved and the economical effect of each alternative can be deter-
mined.
This study includes comparisons of eighty-one possible household
water conservation devices and reuse systems with conventional water
use methods and comparisons of flow reduction from residential uses as
results of the alternatives. Total monetary savings in energy of each
alternative, associated with pumping, heating, transmission and
operating for water production and wastewater treatment are compared
with the total monetary savings in water of the water-saving devices.
The report concludes with a cost-effectiveness analysis and the
ratings of the conservation alternatives in terms of both energy
and water saved.
Resources. Handbook for Community Water Management. May 1977.
105 - This handbook is written for local government officials to
help them solve drought-related problems using "demand management."
The major components of "demand management" are:
water metering;
pricing policies;
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consumer education;
water-saving devices and techniques.
Savings can vary from 10% to 60%, but increasing hardship and
adverse economic impacts result from reductions of over 40%.
Rice, I. M. and L. G. Shaw. "Water Conservation: A Practical Approach."
American Water Works Association Journal, 480-482, Sept. 1978.
106 - Dallas, Texas is trying to encourage water conservation by
changing the residential water rate structure. The approach used
involved imposing a surcharge for monthly water consumption above a
specified level during the summer months. The results of the first
summer's experience, although preliminary, were extremely encouraging,
According to these preliminary results, the new pricing policy may
have presented the Dallas system with the equivalent of a 50-75
mgd treatment plant at no cost.
Schatzberg, Jackson, Kelly, and Harris. Energy Conservation Through
Hater Resource Management: A Reduced Flow Bathing Shower. Naval Ship
Research and Development Center, Annapolis, Maryland. In-house article,
not referenced, p. 141-146.
107 - This is a study of reduced flow showersair assistaboard
ships to conserve potable water. The study points out "in bathing
with a shower, water must penetrate the boundary layer of the skin
to permit wetting down, soaping up, and rinsing off. In a conven-
tional shower, the motive force to achieve this comes from the
water pressure, which provides the spray droplets with the
necessary kinetic energy. In the RF shower, this motive force is
supplied by the air from the blower."
Tests proved very successful. Average water consumption per shower
was reduced from 12.1 to 1.7 gallons. User acceptance surveys
showed 90+% willing to use this type of shower on board a ship;
90% felt they could get sufficiently clean using an RF shower;
and 63% would be willing to use such a shower at home. Based on
cost of distilled water (shipboard use), units were seen to repay
costs of installation in two years.
Sharpe, William and Peter Fletcher. The Impact of Water Saving Device
Installation Programs on Resource Conservation. Research Publication 98.
The Pennsylvania State University, Institute for Research on Land and
Water Resources, University Park, Pennsylvania, July 1977. 44 p.
108 - This is an extensive survey of participants in the Washington
Suburban Sanitary Commission Program and plumbers. Public
acceptance is discussed in depth. Some water use/demand information
is presented as well as a short discussion of plumbing codes and
effects. The program focuses on toilet inserts and shower flow
reduction.
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Sharpe, W. and M. Grear. "An Evaluation of the Washington Suburban
Sanitary Commission's Plumbing Code Requirements for Water-Saving
Toilets." Southern Building. 34-36, Aug.-Sept. 1979.
109 - In the Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission service
area, plumbing codes requiring water saving devices have been
in effect since 1973. Surveys of plumbers and new homeowners
have not indicated any real problems with the codes. The required
watersaving fixtures have been well accepted by both installers and
users. Minor problems, mostly involving the flushing action of
water-saving toilets, are being resolved by the plumbing fixture
industry.
Sharpe, William E. Residential and Commercial Water Conservation and
Wasteflow Reduction with Water Saving Devices; Proceedings; Conference
on Water Conservation and Sewage Flow Reduction with Water Saving
Devices, Pennsylvania State University.U.S. Department of Commerce,
NTIS PB 250 999, July 1975. p. .8-30.
110 - The current state of water-saving device technology is
summarized and future research directions are recommended.
Water use trends and water supply shortage areas are discussed.
The legislative implications of the Federal Water Pollution Control
Act Amendments of 1972 with reference to wasteflow reduction are
outlined. A brief review of previous research and demonstration
work with various water-saving devices is also presented. Current
trends in the use and adoption of these devices are documented.
Sharpe, William E. "Water and Energy Conservation with Bathing Shower
Flow Controls." American Water Works Association Journal, 93-97,
Feb. 1978.
111 - Based on conflicting studies and disagreement over the
effectiveness and impact of shower flow controls, a study to
determine the amount of water saved was implemented in student
dormitories at Pennsylvania State University. One significant point
brought out is the importance of retrofitting flow controls into
existing systems. Variations in plumbing design were found to have
a significant impact on effectiveness. Significant reductions were
observed, on the order of 37% to 62% reduction. The conclusion stated
is that observed water-use reductions can, for the most part, be
attributed to the changes in flow rates attributable to the flow
control devices. However, mention is made of the theory that the
duration of an individual shower will increase as the flow of water
to the shower is decreased. Discussion of similar tests is included,
as well as cost figures.
Sharpe, William. "Why Consider Water Conservation?" American Water
Works Association Journal, 475-479, Sept. 1978.
112 - Water conservation can benefit both customers and utilities,
but planning and pricing policies must be geared to offset
potential adverse impacts on revenues. Inflationary costs seem to be
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a much more serious threat to revenue stability than conservation.
The proportion of rate increases necessary to offset conservation
has been minor in comparison to the total rate increases sought by
utilities impacted by water conservation. Customers penalized for
conservation will still save money because their conservation will
be subsidized by those not participating in the program, and be-
cause they will save money on energy, wastewater treatment charges,
and long-term inflationary cost increases.
She!ton, Theodore B., ed. Water Conservation with Water Saving Devices.
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection through Lewis M. Herman,
Labor Education Center, Cook College, Rutgers University, New Brunswick,
New Jersey, November 1976.
113 - This report examines the various means of residential water
conservation. The study examines use patterns, water heaters,
piping, heat recovery and devices used for water conservation in
showers, faucets, laundry, and dishwashers. Finally, the impli-
cations for energy savings in relation to water consumption are
discussed.
Shulman, A. More Help in Developing an Education Program. National
Association of Counties, o. 187-192
114 - Tips on how to develop a consumer water conservation handbook
are outlined. The area covered by this article includes:
general information to include;
e sources of information;
how to educate children;
other forms of media which can be employed.
Shulman, A. Public Participation: Support for Conservation Rates.
National Association of Counties, p. 193-196.
115 - New rates were developed by the Washington Suburban Sanitary
Commission to encourage conservation. The study concludes that the
sliding rate schedule supports the overall goals of conservation at
the least cost to the public. Commercial and industrial users,
however, must pay much more under the new rate schedule since many
of them have to pay at the higher rate. One effect of this is that
businesses are now more aware of their water bills.
Sittler, Edgar L. Further Research in Water Savings; Proceedings;
Conference on Water Conservation and Sewage Flow Reduction with Water
Saving Devices, Pennsylvania State University. U.S. Department of Commerce,
NTIS PB 250 999, July 1975. p. 175-183.
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116 - This paper presents some of the present activities in water-
saving devices at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University Industry Center. A short discussion of the Industry
Center's organization is provided. Briefly discussed are some
past experiences with water-saving devices which proved both
successful and unsuccessful. The major emphasis of this paper is
on the areas of investigation in device technology which are expected
to receive the most attention in the near future.
South Florida Water Management District. Landscaping Water Conservation,
1977. 11 p.
117 - This booklet lists 25 tips for conserving water outside
the home, such as proper watering techniques and planting native
vegetation. In South Florida, irrigation water use is highly
variable and therefore, average per-family water use can range
from 90 to 700 gallons daily.
South Florida Water Management District, Water Resource Center.
Water Saving Devices, 1978. 15 p.
118 - This booklet lists water conservation devices and systems
by brand name; name and address of the manufacturer or distributor;
and price information when known. Devices discussed include: water
meters, water pressure regulators, toilets,dual flush units, flush
valves, weights, air bleeds, replacement tanks, dams, low-flow
showerheads, aerators, flow restrictors, evaporation suppression,
advanced water treatment and irrigation systems.
State of Illinois Department of Local Government Affairs. Plumbing
Code Amendments.
119 - The Plumbing Manufacturers Institute recommends that faucet
and shower discharge be lowered to a point which will reduce water
consumption within limits acceptable to the consumer. They also
recommend that a maximum limit be established so that the manu-
facturer has maximum leeway in system or component design to meet
this standard. This way, the manufacturer is not burdened with a
large inventory of fittings and flow rates, thus allowing more
economical production and lower consumer prices.
Stone, Brian G. "Suppression of Water Use by Physical Methods."
American Water Works Association Journal, 483-486, Sept. 1978.
120 - Comprehensive and detailed discussion of conservation
economics. Potential savings through household water-saving
devices are outlined. Based on prior studies of water use and
reduction, a number of physical reduction means are suggested
which include meters, pressure regulators, flow restriction,
service diameter changes, hose meters and timers, moisture sensors,
landscape design and residential maximum day suppression. Data is
charted for various methods and savings.
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Water use suppression methods, if effective, can increase conserva-
tion and reduce required system peaking capacity. Outlined are
various physical methods to achieve these goals.
"Drip Irrigation." Sunset Magazine, 7, July 1975.
121 - This article describes how to use drip irrigation, how it
saves water, and how much it costs. Water saving is due chiefly
to the fact that evaporation with drip irrigation is reduced.
Measurements of water used on certain agricultural crops show
drip irrigation savings of 20% to 50% over conventional watering
methods. Units can cost between $6 and $30.
"Frugality with Garden Water." Sunset Magazine, 3, June 1976.
122 - This article gives many suggestions on how to help a lawn
or garden survive through a dry summer when watering is reduced.
Some of these tips include: Letting your lawn go brown; using
sprinkler systems; using drip irrigation; using soil saucers;
soil improvement; hand-watering; and using mulches. How to
determine when plants need water is outlined.
"Water Saving Planting Ideas." Sunset Magazine, 78-87, Oct. 1976
123 - Drought-tolerant plants suitable for gardens in western
states are listed. Their water needs vary, depending on climate,
but most can tolerate a total lack of water once they are estab-
lished. About 25% of the best drought-tolerant plants are native
to the arid West, mostly in California. Another 37% are from
the world's other Mediterranean climates. The plants include
flowering and foliage plants, vines, trees, and ground cover.
"Water-short Gardening: Here Are Some Guidelines." Sunset Magazine,
4-, Apr. 1977.
124 - This article suggests how to keep plants alive through a
second year of drought. Some of the suggestions are mulches,
sprinkler systems, drip systems, homemade systems, subsurface
irrigations, antitranspirants, and pruning. Also included is a
list of northern California's indigenous plants and how much
water each requires.
Tiemens, M. and P. Graham. Role of Water Conservation in the Construction
Grants Program. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, October 1978.
12 p.
125 - Tlvi.s paper presents potential savings of money, water and
energy attainable for typical households from installation of
cost-effective water-saving devices, including shower and toilet
water reducers. From broad water management and resource conserva-
35
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tion perspectives, resource savings, monetary cost reductions and
other benefits are significant. The increased treatment plant
efficiency attainable from water conservation will reduce mass
emissions of pollutants and, as a result, enhance water quality.
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Housing.
Water Conservation in Housing Assistance Programs. DRAFT proposed
report of task force no. 9., October 1978. 23 p.
126 - This report by HUD, the Veterans Administration, and Farmers
Home Administration addresses water conservation modifications to
housing assistance programs for both new and rehabilitation con-
struction. The report concludes that water usage in Federally
assisted housing might be reduced by as much as 15% within a 10-
year period. Approximately 50 possible actions to achieve resi-
dential water use conservation were studied, and were broken down
into actions which could be implemented immediately; actions which
require further study on a short-term basis; and actions which
require long-term study to justify implementation. Action possi-
bilities considered include modification to hardware requirements
for reisdential usage; development of new residential hardware that
would require less water; and modifications to Federal policies to
encourage conservation.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. National Conference on Water
Conservation and Municipal Wastewater Flow Reduction, November 1978.
127 - Abstracts of the papers presented at the conference are
compiled. The conference was geared to local officials. Most
water conservation issues, from public support for water conserva-
tion to plumbing codes, are discussed.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Drinking Water.
Water Supply: Wastewater Treatment Coordination Study. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D. C. August 1979. 352 p.
128 - This report was submitted to Congress by the U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency pursuant to the Safe Drinking Water Act
and the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, also known as the
Clean Water Act. It documents a national assessment and analysis
of issues related to: (1) the adequacy and dependability of safe
drinking water supplies, including quantity, quality, cost and
treatment processes; and (2) opportunities to coordinate water
supply and municipal wastewater treatment plans. The study builds
on recent data and results of public workshops held throughout
the country to address more specifically: (1) coordination
mechanisms available through major Federal programs; (2) advantages
and disadvantages of conservation and reuse; (3) contamination of
groundwater resources and management improvements needed; and
(4) problems unique to small water supply systems. Options for
modification of program emphasis, revision of existing legislation,
or appropriation of funds are also discussed. Major recommendations
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included: Strengthen the water quality management program;
designate a lead agency for municipal water conservation;
modify the construction grants program; coordinate assistance
to small water supply systems; and review state and local
incentives.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region I. Hater Conservation
in New England: It Begins At Home. June 1978. 20 p.
129 - This article lists general indoor and outdoor water
conserving tips for homeowners and explains why conserving
water is important even in New England where rainfall is
abundant. A recent study by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
projected that the excess daily demand on Massachusetts and
Rhode Island water supplies will exceed their capacity to
generate new water by 136 million gallons a day in 1980 and by
over 900 million gallons a day by the year 2020. Since residential
use accounts for approximately 40 percent of all water use in
New England, conservation measures adopted by individual house-
holds can go a long way in solving the area's overall water shortage
problems.
U.S. General Accounting Office. Municipal and Industrial Water
Conservation: The Federal Government Could Do More. April 1978.
67 p.
130 - Several techniques can help make more efficient use of
municipal and industrial water supplies. These include:
t domestic water-saving devices;
metering;
pricing;
* leakage control;
water pressure control;
education campaigns;
industrial conservation.
The Federal government should take the lead in obtaining, evaluating,
and disseminating information on conservation techniques, including
the establishment of a clearinghouse for such information. Federal
agencies should encourage water conservation techniques in the
programs they administer.
University of California, Division of Agricultural Sciences. Using
Household Waste Water on Plants. Leaflet #2968, April 1977.
131 - This report suggests guidelines on best ways to use gray
water. It gives warnings about possible public health dangers.
The safest household use of "gray water" is for toilet flushing.
37
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Since gray water may contain bacteria and viruses that could
cause illness, it's use is not recommended for irrigation of
edible plants. Gray water reuse should only be used as a
temporary measure during a water shortage crisis.
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. "Water Conservation."
Council Notes. 2,3,8, 1977.
132 - Citizens can conserve water in a number of ways, including:
stopping leaks, developing water-saving habits, and installing
water-saving devices. Devices described are:
faucets: aerators, spray taps, thermostatic mixing valves,
flow regulators;
toilets: plastic bottle, volume reducers, improved float
assemblies, dual flush, shallow trap toilet.
The amount of water used in various activities, both inside and
outside of the home, is listed, and water-saving tips for both
inside and outside of the home are presented.
Wallman, N. and G. Bonem. The Outlook for Water. Resources for the
Future, Washington, D. C., 1971. 286 p.
133 - This book projects the demand and supply of our water
resources and presents strategic choices to deal with the problems
of water shortages. The study concludes:
1. Rapid growth projections for the year 2020 suggest that
high-quality water resources on a wide scale will only be
possible if we can find new technologies.
2. Even in the more immediate future high growth combined with
high water quality targets have vastly expanded capital
and operating costs for facilities, primarily waste
treatment facilities.
3. The Southwest will remain a hard-core area of quantitative
water shortage in the upper Arkansas and perhaps several
other regions sharing this fate by 2020, even with medium
growth.
4. On a national scale, quality is a much, more difficult and
costly problem than quantity and large-scale investment in
water facilities will shift from its traditional home in the
irrigated West to the East.
"Water Shortage Everywhere." Washington Post Editorial. Washington, D. C.,
October 12, 1979.
134 - This editorial emphasizes how much water is wasted and how
38
-------
serious the repercussions of water waste can be. It points
out that Arizona, with only 10 inches of annual rainfall, ranks
among the top 10 states in per-capita water consumption. Although
the U.S. has the same amount of water available as it ever did,
the water is being used faster than it can be replenished. The
editorial suggests that price incentives would be a big help in
getting people to conserve.
Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission. Final and Comprehensive Report
on WSSC's Water Conservation/Wastewater Reduction Consumer Education and
Behavioral Change Program. Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission,
Washington, D. C., Nov. 1974.
135 - This is a complete overview of the Washington Suburban
Sanitary Commission's program which details outlays in dollars,
time, and labor; general results and conclusions; and all
correspondence related to the project.
Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission. How to Decrease the Demand
for Water Through Changes to the Rate Structure. Washington Suburban
Sanitary Commission, Washington, D. C., June 1977. p. 243-270.
136 - This report is an overview/analysis of alternative
rate structures and their potential effects on water use. Three
rate structures-- increasing block pricing, summer surcharge
system and excess use change, are examined as potential incentive
methods of reducing consumption.
Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission. It's Up to You: A Customer
Handbook on Water-saving and Wastewater Reduction, May 1976. 21 p.
137 - This "How To" handbook on saving water includes detailed
water conservation tips and discusses several water-saving
appliances. Household hints include how to save when hand-
dishwashing, using automatic dishwashers, cooking, using garbage
grinders, hand and machine clothes washing, bathing and engaged
in personal hygiene activities. It details how to save water
with the toilet, and how to maintain clear drains. Devices
described include showerheads and toilet devices. Also included
is a chart on how to water local trees, shrubs, gardens and grasses.
Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission. Water Demand Reduction Facts.
August 1978.
138 - This one-page fact sheet lists tips for conservation inside
and outside the home and includes a chart which shows average
levels of water consumption. The tips include ways to save water
with the toilet; when bathing, cooking, cleaning; and outdoors.
39
-------
Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission. Water Demand Reduction Plan.
November 1977. 10 p.
139 - This discussion details plans for conservation and rationing.
The program can be implemented in stages according to the
criticality of the problem. The stages go from a shortage alert
stage, where the goal is 5-10% reduction in water use, to an
intense emergency situation, where 60% reduction is the goal. Steps
to take under each scenario are listed,
Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission. Water Saying and Waste
Reduction Handbook for Apartment Residents. September 1976. 14 p.
140 - This booklet explains reasons to save water and gives many
household hints on ways to conserve water in apartments. Some
of the topics discussed are the care and maintenance of the toilet,
saving water in the laundry room, car-washing care, monitoring
how the lawn is watered, and disposing of items through the
toilet. The booklet also stresses that leaks should be reported
immediately to the building management. It states that the
management will do something about it because good maintenance is
important to economical operation of the property.
"Water-Saving Tips", (Front Page: Carter Orders Water Resources Council
To Do Project Review). Water Information News Service, 3(19):5-8,
Jan. 1979.
141 - This newsletter lists many general water conservation tips
for the homeowner to consider. The tips are applicable both
inside and outside the home, and include ways to save water when
cooking, bathing, flushing the toilet, cleaning, and gardening.
Water Resources Department. "Automatic Clothes Washers." Water
Conservation Bulletin, Water Resources Department, Salem, Oregon.
137 p.
142 - Automatic clothes washers use 25-50 gallons per load.
Washers with variable level controls allow the user to match
the amount of water used to the amount of clothes being washed.
This bulletin lists the makes, model numbers, capacities and
amounts of water used by many automatic clothes washers.
Water Resources Department. "Automatic Dishwashers." Water Conservation
Bulletin, Water Resources Department, Salem, Oregon. 139 p.
143 - For about the same cost, water-conserving dishwashers
can save about 50% of the water used by conventional dishwashers.
This bulletin includes a list of water-saving dishwashers on the
market, their capacities and the amount of water used by each.
40
-------
Water Resources. Department. "Conserve Water and Energy Inside and
Outside Your Home." Water Conservation Bulletin. Water Resources
Department, Salem, Oregon.
144 - This booklet gives many tips on various ways to save water.
It includes a chart showing the cost of different devices and how
much water they save. The devices on the chart appropriate for
new construction are:
t low-flush toilets;
low-flow showerheads;
low-flow kitchen and lavatory faucets;
pressure-reducing valves;
insulated hot water lines;
t low-flow clothes washers;
low-flow dishwasher.
Devices on the chart for existing housing are:
water closet inserts;
low-flow showerheads;
low-flow aerators on faucets;
t pressure-reducing valves;
insulated hot water pipes.
Water Resources Department. "Faucet Controls." Water Conservation
Bulletin, Water Resources Department, Salem, Oregon. 145 p,
145 - Water normally runs through a faucet at a rate of 3-12
gallons a minute. Low-flow faucets and faucet valves can
restrict the flow to less than 2 gallons a minute. Such faucets
usually cost $10, as compared to about $5 for a conventional faucet
Faucet aerators mix air with water and cost about $2. This
bulletin discusses the cost and water savings of a variety of
water-conserving faucet options and lists such faucets that are
on the market.
Water Resource Department. "Insulating Water Pipes." Water Conservation
Bulletin, Water Resources Department, Salem, Oregon, 147 p.
146 - Pipe insulation saves unnecessary running of water and
41
-------
costs about 50
-------
Waterbury Pressed Metal Division. Energy and Water Saving Products.
Waterbury, Connecticut.
151 - This folder discusses water-conserving products which
restrict water flow from a faucet or showerhead while providing
a constant rate of flow at varying water!ine pressures. The
aerator described reduces the flow rate from a typical 6 gallons
a minute to a rated maximum flow of 2-3/4 gallons per minutes.
The folder also includes a diagram of typical hot and cold house-
hold water usage.
Waterbury Pressed Metal Division. Waterbury Water Conservation
Attachments. Waterbury, Connecticut, January 1978.
152 - This article lists water and energy costs for an average
family of 4 in each of the 50 states; and annual water and energy
cost savings using water-conserving devices in each state.
Watts Regulator Company. 23 Questions and Answers About Water Pressure
Reducing Valves. Lawrence, Massachusetts.
153 - This question and answer booklet on pressure regulators
points out that they are not only water pressure controls, but
are actually "primary conservation controls" which automatically
conserve water and energy when used in high pressure areas.
Approximate cost for a regulator and its installation would be
$50.
Wentz, Robert J. A Plumbingware Manufacturer's Viewpoint on Water
Saving Devices; Proceedings; Conference on Water Conservation and
Sewage Flow Reduction with Water Saving Devices, Pennsylvania State
University.U.S. Department of Commerce, NTIS PB 250 999, July 1975.
189-208 p.
154 - The future of water-saving fixtures and fittings is more
encouraging today than five or ten years ago because of the recent
establishment of Federal specifications. In the past, Federal
and municipal codes have been very general. Manufacturers used
these general codes as guidelines in designing their products.
Although some water-saving devices have been used in the past,
they were confined primarily to public installations. Some
makeshift methods for reducing water usage have also been used;
however, these are not recommended. Today, there are many
different types of these devices being marketed. These include
water-saving water closets; flow control devices in supply fittings
for lavatories, sinks, and tub/showers; and water-saving urinals.
The future of such devices may include further modification of the
proverbial "Dear John" water closet, or more radical changes such as
a vacuum system, flush valves in homes, or chemical systems.
Effective water conservation in a community can be achieved by
adopting a three phase program. No amount of research and develop-
ment on water saving devices will be of any significance unless
consumers are first made aware of the importance of water conservation.
43
-------
Youngman, W. Keeping the Garden Green. Washington Suburban
Sanitary Commission, 1978. 42 p*
155 - This booklet, written by a botanist, gives detailed
gardening tips which save water. A watering chart for different
types of vegetation is included. The importance of mulches and
compost is explained, as well as ways to improve the soil so it
holds water more effectively. Different types of vegetation
annuals, perennials, shrubs, trees, vegetables, and othersare
explained, and methods to plant and care for them using less
water are detailed. This booklet is excellent for anyone
interested in maintaining a garden, whether in drought conditions
or not.
44
-------
PART TWO
SUMMARIES OF DATA IN BIBLIOGRAPHY
Conservation Projects .... 45
Cost Savings ........ 51
Energy Requirements ..... 56
Energy/Water Savings .... 62
Sewerless Wastewater
Disposal Devices ..... 79
Regional Issues 83
Residential Water Use .... 85
Water Rates 97
Water Saving Tips 98
45
-------
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CONSERVATION PROJECTS
Reference Number 78
Printed Materials Design Printing Quantity
Newsletter
Bill Inserts
Slogan Stickers
Lapel Buttons
Truck Decals
Key Chains
Litter Bags
Matchbooks
Posters
Bus Posters
$ 100-500
200-700
300-700
50-400
50-200
100-400
50-400
0-100
300-700
300-700
$ 25-300
6-25
16-20
70-100
1- 1.30
130-200
50- 55
13- 16
80-100
20-100
1000
1000
1000
1000
each
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
Broadcast Materials Production Per Print
Television Public Service
Announcement/30 seconds $ 400-15,000 $ 8- 12
Radio Public Service
Announcement/30 seconds 50- 200 1.50
Motion Picture/10 minutes 5000-25,000 50-100
49
-------
CONSERVATION PROJECTS
Ref
ACTIVITY
Meter all services
Eliminated declining block rates
Phasing out declining block rates
Have seasonal or peak demand rates
Active leak detection program
Assist consumer in leak detection
Pressure regulators required
Develop or purchase w. c. info:
Bill stuffers
Direct mail
Paid newspaper ads
Paid radio spots
Paid TV spots
Paid periodical ads
Demonstration booths
Community forums
Speakers bureau
Materials developed for schools
Retrofit devices:
Delivered free
Free at central location
Certain devices available at cost
New Constructioninside use:
Encourage use
Require use of certain devices
New Constructionoutside use:
Encourage use
Require use of certain devices
Drought-tolerant landscaping
Encourage use
Demonstration garden
Sought w. c. legislation
Sought building code changes
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COST SAVINGS
Reference Number
Water Saved
Water Bill Savings
Sewer Bill Savings
Energy Bill Savings
Total Cost Savings
Cost of System
Number of Persons
SYSTEM
Inserts
Vacuum Toilets
Wastewater Recycling Toilet
Showerhead Flow Control
Faucet Aerators
Shallow Trap Toilet
Water Recycling System
Pressurized Tank Toilet
Dams
57
100 gpd
$ 31/year
$325
4
57
24 gpd
$3.70/year
$3.90/year
$21.90/year
$29.50/year
$14.50 c install.
4
57
57
2 gpd 30 gpd
$ .31/year
$1.82/year
$ .32/year
$2.45/year $9.40/year
$3.00/2 aerators
4 4
51
-------
COST SAVINGS
Reference Number
57
10 gpd
57
106g/month
57
5.9 x 106g/year
Water Saved
Water Bill Savings
Sewer Bill Savings
Energy Bill Savings
Total Cost Savings $3.00/year $400/year $275/house/year
Cost of System 0 $3.68 @
Number of Persons 4 600 room hotel 200 homes
SYSTEM
Inserts X X
Vacuum Toilets X
Wastewater Recycling Toilet
Showerhead Flow Control
Faucet Aerators
Shallow Trap Toilet
Water Recycling System
Pressurized Tank Toilet
Dams
52
-------
COST SAVINGS
"57 57
Water Saved 6 x 10 g/year 79,000g/month
Water Bill Savings
Sewer Bill Savings
Energy Bill Savings
Total Cost Savings $5460/year $44/month-35%
Cost of System
Number of Persons 300 unit apt. bldg. 18 unit apt. bldg,
SYSTEM
Inserts
Vacuum Toilets
Wastewater Recycling Toilet
Showerhead Flow Control
Faucet Aerators
Shallow Trap Toilet X
Water Recycling System
Pressurized Tank Toilet x
Dams
53
-------
COST SAVINGS
Reference Number
57 82 86
Water Saved 20% 70 gpd 106g/month
Water Bill Savings $10.24/year
Sewer Bill Savings $10.56/year
Energy Bill Savings
Total Cost Savings $20.80/year $400/month
Cost of System $1300 $500
Number of Persons 331 unit apt. bldg. 3
SYSTEM
Inserts X
Vacuum Toilets
Wastewater Recycling Toilet
Showerhead Flow Control
Faucet Aerators
Shallow Trap Toilet
Water Recycling System X
Pressurized Tank Toilet
Dams X
54
-------
COST SAVINGS
Reference Number
98 98
Water Saved lOOgpd 30 gpd
Water Bill Savings $16.10/year $4.60/year
Sewer Bill Savings $15.30/year $4.80/year
Energy Bill Savings
Total Cost Savings $13.40/year $9.40/year
Cost of System $325 $100
Number of Persons 4 4
SYSTEM
Inserts
Vacuum Toilets
Wastewater Recycling Toilet
Showerhead Flow Control
Faucet Aerators
Shallow Trap Toilet X
Water Recycling System X for flushing
Pressurized Tank Toilet
Dams
55
-------
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
Reference Number
Energy Requirements for Water Heating
Water Heating Energy
Delivery Temperature Requirements Per liter
ฐC Wh
12.8A 0.0
21.1 22.0
37.8 65.9
40.6 73.3
ซ.
54.4 110
60.0 125
62.8B 132
A - Corresponds to outdoor water use
B - Average water heater thermostat setting on new models
Wh/liter
Water Supply 1.5
Wastewater Treatment 3.6
Water HeatingA ฐ"130
A - Dependent on water delivery temperature
Type Wash Water Temperature - ฐC Percent of Wash Loads
Hot 60.0 30
Warm 37.8 50
Cold 12.8 20
Continued...
56
-------
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
Reference Number 96. Continued
Current Water Usage and Corresponding Energy Consumption
Function
Volume (20) Delivery
Temperature
Energy Requirements Per household
Supply Heating WW Treatment Total
1
Tot let
Bathing
Clothes
Washing
Dishwashing
Cooktng
Drinking
Lavatory
Utility Sink
Total
iters/day
379
303
132
57
45
30
19
965
UC
21. 1B
40.6
40.6
60.0
21. 1B
40.6
40.6
kWh/day
0.57
0.45
0.20
0.09
0.07
0.05
0.03
1.46
4.17
22.21
9.68
7.13
0.50
2.20
1.39
47.28
1.36
1.09
0.48
0.21
0.16
0.11
0.07
3.48
6.10
23.75
10.36
7.43
0.73
2.36
1.49
52.22
A - based on estimates obtained in Section 3
B - Assumed to leave house at 21.1ฐC but pose a heating load for only six months
per year
57
-------
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58
-------
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
Reference Number 26
FAMILY OF FOUR DAILY WATER USE CHARACTERISTICS
Toilet
Bathing
Laundry
Dishwasher
Kitchen Sink
Lavatory
Utility
Total
5 gal/use
4 gal/min
50 gal/load
15 gal/load
100
80
35
15
12
8
5
255 gal
Amb.
107ฐ
120ฐ
140ฐ
105ฐ
55.998
30,624
17,163
8,076
5,384
105"
Amb.
Fixed Loss 79,214
196,460 Btu
Based on Ambient water temperature of 55ฐF (7)
Fixed loss is the amount of energy lost from a full sized water heater regardless of
water use.
Refe_r_ence_Jiiimber. 58
Domestic Hot Water Annual Fuel Savings with Use of Water Conservation
Faucets and Showerheads
Number of Apartments #2 Oil
#6 Oil
Gas
100
200
500
1,000
$ 1,180
2,360
5,900
11,800
$ 1,298
2,596
6,490
12,980
$ 1,050
2,100
5,250
10,500
#2 oil = 20c/gal. #6 oil (.3%) = 22c/gal. Gas = .147therm.
59
-------
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
Reference Number
2 showers/day x 10 gallons saved x 8.33 Ibs.
showergallon
1.0 x (105ฐ - 60ฐ) i 7.5 x 103 BTU saved/day, or 365 days/year x 7.5 x 103
BTU/day = 2.74 x 10ฐ BTU/year.
For a water heater fired by gas or oil with an efficiency of 50%, the fuel
saving is:
2:74 x 106 BTU/year = 5.48 x 106 BTU/year or 39.5 gallons of oil/year.
.50
For the nation as a whole this means a fuel savings of:
.85 x 44 x 106 homes x 5.48 x 106 BTU/year/home = 205 x 1012 BTU/year, or
96,000 BPD
For an electric water heater, the electricity saved per home is:
2.74 x 106 BTU/year x 1 KWH = .80 x 103
3413 BTU
KWH/home/year.
For the 16 million homes with electric hot water heaters the savings is:
.80 x 103 KWH/home x .95 x 16 x 106 electric homes = 12.2 x 109 KWH/year.
To serve a load of this magnitude the nation's power stations will consume
energy equal to:
12.2 x 109 KWH x 11,600 BTU = 142 x 1012
1 KWH
BTU/year = 67,000 BPD.
The total theoretical potential saving in fuel of all kinds is:
96,000 + 67,000 = 163,000 BPD including oil, gas, coal, hydro, nuclear.
About 33 percent of the electricity distributed by the nation's utilities is
derived from oil and gas, thus, the oil and gas saved in power stations is
approximately 1/3 x 67,000 = 22,000 BPD.
The total theoretical potential fuel savings in the form of oil and gas only is:
96,000 BPD + 22,000 BPD = 118,000 BPDOE as oil and gas.
Continued...
60
-------
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
Reference Number 88, Continued
Effect on Homeowner's Energy Expenditure
A 20 GPD reduction in the amount of warm water used in showers will result in
a noticeable drop in energy bills for the individual family.
Hot Water Heater
Gas fired
Annual energy savings
per home
Annual savings in energy
bill per home
gas at $1.50/therm
heating oil at 40 cents/gallon
55 therms
!.25
Oil fired
Electric
40 gallons
800 KWH
$16.00
electricity at 3.0 cents/KWH
$24.00
61
-------
ENERGY/WATER SAVINGS
Reference Number
7 Household Use
84
Shallow Trap Toilet
Pressurized Tank Toilet
Vacuum Toilet
Incinerator Toilet
Pressurized Flush Toilet
Wastewater Recycling Toilet
Oil Flush Toilet
Freeze Toilet
Packaging Toilet
Composter Toilet
Dual Flush Toilet
Water Closet Insert
Water Dams
Microphore Toilet
Toilet Flush Adapters
Flush Valve Toilet
Shower Mixing Valves
Shower Flow-Control Devices
Air-Assisted Showerhead
Pressure-Reducing Valves
Pressure-Reducing Valves & Toilet Inserts
Premixed Water System
Faucet Aerators
Faucet Flow Restrictors
Spray Tap
Pressure Balancing Mixing Valve
Repair Leaking Faucets
Hot Water (1 g.)
Water Recycling System
Front Loading vs. Top Loading Clotheswashers
Hot Water Pipe Insulation
Moisture Sensors
Landscape Design
Drip Irrigation
Swimming Pool Cover '
Low Water-Using Dishwasher
Low Flush Toilet
Thermostat!c Mixing Valve
Compressed Air Toilet
Minuse Shower
Low Flow Showerhead
Flow Limit Valves
Low Water-Using Clotheswasher
Pressure Regulation
7.5 gpcd-12%
22.5 gpcd
17.5 gpcd
2.5 gpcd-4%
5 gpcd-8%
7.5 gpcd-12%
6 gpcd
.5gpcd-.8%
.5gpcd-.8%
22.5 gpcd-35%
25 gpcd-39%
15.5gpcd-24%
7.5gpcd-12%
6 gpcd-9%
16gpcd-20%
.5gpcd-l%
.5gpcd-l%
for flushing 25 gpcd-39%
2 gpcd-3%
62
-------
ENERGY/WATER SAVINGS
63 115
Shallow Trap Toilet
Pressurized Tank Toilet
Vacuum Toilet
Incinerator Toilet
Pressurized Flush Toilet
Wastewater Recycling Toilet
Oil Flush Toilet
Freeze Toilet
Packaging Toilet
Composter Toilet
Dual Flush Toilet
Water Closet Insert
Water Dams
Microphore Toilet total use -5g/flush
Toilet Flush Adapters
Flush Valve Toilet
Shower Mixing Valves
Shower Flow-Control Devices 6.8gpcd-5.4%
Air-Assisted Showerhead
Pressure-Reducing Valves
Pressure-Reducing Valves & Toilet Inserts
Premixed Water System
Faucet Aerators .8gpcd-.6%
Faucet Flow Restrictors
Spray Tap
Pressure Balancing Mixing Valve
Repair Leaking Faucets
Hot Water (1 g.)
Water Recycling System
Front Loading vs. Top Loading Clotheswashers
Hot Water Pipe Insulation lgpcd-.8%
Moisture Sensors
Landscape Design
Drip Irrigation
Swimming Pool Cover
Low Water-Using Dishwasher
Low Flush Toilet
Thermostatic Mixing Valve
Compressed Air Toilet
Minuse Shower
Low Flow Showerhead
Flow Limit Valves
Low Water-Using Clotheswasher
Pressure Regulation
63
-------
ENERGY/WATER SAVINGS
Reference Number
45 57
15% total water
Shallow Trap Toilet 32% flushing water
Pressurized Tank Toilet 5Q?0-6Q%
Vacuum Toilet 94%
Incinerator Toilet
Pressurized Flush Toilet 90%
Wastewater Recycling Toilet
Oil Flush Toilet 100%
Freeze Toilet
Packaging Toilet 100%
Composter Toilet
Dual Flush Toilet
Water Closet Insert 33 1/3%
Water Dams
Microphore Toilet
Toilet Flush Adapters
Flush Valve Toilet
Shower Mixing Valves
Shower Flow-Control Devices 18%-20%
Air-Assisted Showerhead 83%-95%wa:ter,29%-48%energy
Pressure-Reducing Valves ^0%
Pressure-Reducing Valves & Toilet Inserts
Premixecl Water System 33% use hot water
Faucet Aerators
Faucet Flow Restrictors 70/0
Spray Tap
Pressure Balancing Mixing Valve l
Repair Leaking Faucets
Hot Water (l g.)
Water Recycling System
Front Loading vs. Top Loading Clotheswashers
Hot Water Pipe Insulation
Moisture Sensors
Landscape Design
Drip Irrigation
Swimming Pool Cover
Low Water-Using Dishwasher
Low Flush Toilet
Thermostatic Mixing Valve
Compressed Air Toilet
Minuse Shower
Low Flow Showerhead
Flow Limit Valves
Low Water-Using Clotheswasher
Pressure Regulation
64
-------
ENERGY/WATER SAVINGS
Reference Number
81 84 m 113
Shallow Trap Toilet
Pressurized Tank Toilet
Vacuum Toilet
Incinerator Toilet
Pressurized Flush Toilet
Wastewater Recycling Toilet
Oil Flush Toilet
Freeze Toilet
Packaging Toilet
Composter Toilet
Dual Flush Toilet
Water Closet Insert 12%-20%
Water Dams 40%
Microphore Toilet
Toilet Flush Adapters 50%
Flush Valve Toilet
Shower Mixing Valves
Shower Flow-Control Devices 12% 36%-45%
Air-Assisted Showerhead
Pressure-Reducing Valves 16%-24%
Pressure-Reducing Valves & Toilet Inserts
Premixed Water System
Faucet Aerators 25%
Faucet Flow Restrictors 25%
Spray Tap 50%
Pressure Balancing Mixing Valve
Repair Leaking Faucets
Hot Water (1 g.)
Water Recycling System
Front Loading vs. Top Loading Clotheswashers
Hot Water Pipe Insulation
Moisture Sensors
Landscape Design
Drip Irrigation
Swimming Pool Cover
Low Water-Using Dishwasher
low Flush Toilet
Thermostatic Mixing Valve
Compressed Air Toilet
Minuse Shower
Low Flow Showerhead
Flow Limit Valves
Low Water-Using Clotheswasher
Pressure Regulation
65
-------
ENERGY/WATER SAVINGS
Reference Number
120 100
Shallow Trap Toilet
Pressurized Tank Toilet
Vacuum Toilet
Incinerator Toilet
Pressurized Flush Toilet
Wastewater Recycling Toilet
Oil Flush Toilet
Freeze Toilet
Packaging Toilet
Composter Toilet
Dual Flush Toilet
Water Closet Insert
Water Dams
Microphore Toilet
Toilet Flush Adapters
Flush Valve Toilet 7C-n
Shower Mixing Valves 7.5 750-
Shower Flow-Control Devices 0-gpcd 0-12%
Air-Assisted Showerhead
Pressure-Reducing Valves ฐ-l6 9Pcd ฐ'
Pressure-Reducing Valves & Toilet Inserts
Premixed Water System
Faucet Aerators 1%:;0/gp
Faucet Flow Restrictors ฐ~20/0
Spray Tap
Pressure Balancing Mixing Valve u"^//0 750-5000q/year
Repair Leaking Faucets 220 watts or 750
Hot Water (1 g.)
Water Recycling System
Front Loading vs. Top Loading Clotheswashers . fi ,
Hot Water Pipe Insulation n~
Moisture Sensors
Landscape Design
Drip Irrigation
Swimming Pool Cover
Low Water-Using Dishwasher
Low Flush Toilet
Thermostatic Mixing Valve
Compressed Air Toilet
Minuse Shower
Low Flow Showerhead
Flow Limit Valves
Low Water-Using Clotheswasher
Pressure Regulation
66
-------
ENERGY/WATER SAVINGS
Reference Number
53 130 101 26
Shallow Trap Toilet
Pressurized Tank Toilet
Vacuum Toilet
Incinerator Toilet
Pressurized Flush Toilet
Wastewater Recycling Toilet
Oil Flush Toilet
Freeze Toilet
Packaging Toilet
Composter Toilet
Dual Flush Toilet
Water Closet Insert
Water Dams 50$
Microphore Toilet 68%-86%
Toilet Flush Adapters
Flush Valve Toilet
Shower Mixing Valves
Shower Flow-Control Devices 1.21-2% 12%
Air-Assisted Showerhead
Pressure-Reducing Valves
Pressure-Reducing Valves & Toilet Inserts 30%-37% 30%
Premixed Water System
Faucet Aerators
Faucet Flow Restrictors
Spray Tap
Pressure Balancing Mixing Valve
Repair Leaking Faucets
Hot Water (1 g.)
Water Recycling System
Front Loading vs. Top Loading Clotheswashers
Hot Water Pipe Insulation
Moisture Sensors
Landscape Design
Drip Irrigation
Swimming Pool Cover
Low Water-Using Dishwasher
Low Flush Toilet
Thermostat!c Mixing Valve
Compressed Air Toilet
Minuse Shower
Low Flow Showerhead
Flow Limit Valves
Low Water-Using Clotheswasher
Pressure Regulation
67
-------
ENERGY/WATER SAVINGS
Reference Number
95
Shallow Trap Toilet
Pressurized Tank Toilet
Vacuum Toilet
Incinerator Toilet
Pressurized Flush Toilet
Wastewater Recycling Toilet
Oil Flush Toilet
Freeze Toilet
Packaging Toilet
Composter Toilet
Dual Flush Toilet
Water Closet Insert
Water Dams
Microphore Toilet
Toilet Flush Adapters
Flush Valve Toilet
Shower Mixing Valves
Shower Flow-Control Devices
Air-Assisted Showerhead
Pressure-Reducing Valves
Pressure-Reducing Valves & Toilet Inserts
Premixed Water System
Faucet Aerators
Faucet Flow Restrictors
Spray Tap
Pressure Balancing Mixing Valve
Repair Leaking Faucets
Hot Water (1 g.)
Water Recycling System 39% toilet flushing
Front Loading vs. Top Loading Clotheswashers 60%-65%
Hot Water Pipe Insulation
Moisture Sensors
Landscape Design
Drip Irrigation
Swimming Pool Cover
Low Water-Using Dishwasher
Low Flush Toilet
Thermostatic Mixing Valve
Compressed Air Toilet
Minuse Shower
Low Flow Showerhead
Flow Limit Valves
Low Water-Using Clotheswasher
Pressure Regulation
68
-------
ENERGY/WATER SAVINGS
Reference Number
"S332122"
Shallow Trap Toilet 30%-33%
Pressurized Tank Toilet
Vacuum Toilet
Incinerator Toilet
Pressurized Flush Toilet
Wastewater Recycling Toilet
Oil Flush Toilet
Freeze Toilet
Packaging Toilet
Composter Toilet
Dual Flush Toilet
Water Closet Insert
Water Dams
Microphore Toilet
Toilet Flush Adapters
Flush Valve Toilet 3-4g/flush
Shower Mixing Valves
Shower Flow-Control Devices 9%-12%
Air-Assisted Showerhead
Pressure-Reducing Valves
Pressure-Reducing Valves & Toilet Inserts
Premixed Water System
Faucet Aerators
Faucet Flow Restrictors
Spray Tap
Pressure Balancing Mixing Valve
Repair Leaking Faucets
Hot Water (1 g.)
Water Recycling System
Front Loading vs. Top Loading Clotheswashers
Hot Water Pipe Insulation 2 gpcd
Moisture Sensors
Landscape Design
Drip Irrigation 20%-50/o
Swimming Pool Cover
Low Water-Using Dishwasher
Low Flush Toilet
Thermostatic Mixing Valve
Compressed Air Toilet
Minuse Shower
Low Flow Showerhead
Flow Limit Valves
Low Water-Using Clotheswasher
Pressure Regulation
69
-------
ENERGY/WATER SAVINGS
Reference Number
% of Interior Use
118 36 76
Shallow Trap Toilet 33% 18%
Pressurized Tank Toilet 55%
Vacuum Toilet 94%
Incinerator Toilet 100%
Pressurized Flush Toilet 100%
Wastewater Recycling Toilet 1ฐฐ^
Oil Flush Toilet 100%
Freeze Toilet 100%
Packaging Toilet 100%
Compos ter Toilet 100%
Dual Flush Toilet 20%
Water Closet Insert 5%-30% 18%
Water Dams
Microphore Toilet
Toilet Flush Adapters
Flush Valve Toilet
Shower Mixing Valves ,
Shower Flow-Control Devices .
Air-Assisted Showerhead *
Pressure-Reducing Valves
Pressure-Reducing Valves & Toilet Inserts
Premixed Water System
Faucet Aerators 2%
Faucet Flow Restrictors
Spray Tap
Pressure Balancing Mixing Valve
Repair Leaking Faucets
Hot Water (1 g.)
Water Recycling System
Front Loading vs. Top Loading Clotheswashers 5%
Hot Water Pipe Insulation 4%
Moisture Sensors
Landscape Design
Drip Irrigation
Swimming Pool Cover 100gpcd-20x40ft
Low Water-Using Dishwasher
Low Flush Toilet
Thermos tatic Mixing Valve
Compressed Air Toilet
Minuse Shower
Low Flow Showerhead
Flow Limit Valves
Low Water-Using Clotheswasher
Pressure Regulation
70
-------
ENERGY/WATER SAVINGS
Reference Number
92 113
Shallow Trap Toilet
Pressurized Tank Toilet
Vacuum Toilet
Incinerator Toilet
Pressurized Flush Toilet
Wastewater Recycling Toilet
Oil Flush Toilet
Freeze Toilet
Packaging Toilet
Composter Toilet
Dual Flush Toilet
Water Closet Insert
Water Dams
Microphore Toilet
Toilet Flush Adapters
Flush Valve Toilet
Shower Mixing Valves 50-70%=5.5g/person/day,2000/p/yr
Shower Flow-Control Devices 6.8gpcd-5.4%
Air-Assisted Showerhead
Pressure-Reducing Valves
Pressure-Reducing Valves & Toilet Inserts
Premixed Water System
Faucet Aerators .8gpcd-.6%
Faucet Flow Restrictors
Spray Tap
Pressure Balancing Mixing Valve
Repair Leaking Faucets
Hot Water (1 g.)
Water Recycling System
Front Loading vs. Top Loading Clotheswashers
Hot Water Pipe Insulation lgpcd-.8%
Moisture Sensors
Landscape Design
Drip Irrigation
Swimming Pool Cover
Low Water-Using Dishwasher
Low Flush Toilet
Thermostatic Mixing Valve
Compressed Air Toilet
Minuse Shower
Low Flow Showerhead
Flow Limit Valves
Low Water-Using Clotheswasher
Pressure Regulation
71
-------
ENERGY/WATER SAVINGS
Reference Number
113 113 113
Shallow Trap Toilet
Pressurized Tank Toilet
Vacuum Toilet
Incinerator Toilet
Pressurized Flush Toilet
Wastewater Recycling Toilet
Oil Flush Toilet
Freeze Toilet
Packaging Toilet
Composter Toilet
Dual Flush Toilet
Water Closet Insert
Water Dams
Microphore Toilet
Toilet Flush Adapters
Flush Valve Toilet
Shower Mixing Valves 16g/shower 15g/shower 18g/shower
Shower Flow-Control Devices
Air-Assisted Showerhead
Pressure-Reducing Valves
Pressure-Reducing Valves & Toilet Inserts
Premixed Water System
Faucet Aerators
Faucet Flow Restrictors
Spray Tap
Pressure Balancing Mixing Valve
Repair Leaking Faucets
Hot Water (1 g.)
Water Recycling System
Front Loading vs. Top Loading Clotheswashers
Hot Water Pipe Insulation
Moisture Sensors
Landscape Design
Drip Irrigation
Swimming Pool Cover
Low Water-Using Dishwasher
Low Flush Toilet
Thermostatic Mixing Valve
Compressed Air Toilet
Minuse Shower
Low Flow Showerhead
Flow Limit Valves
Low Water-Using Clotheswasher
Pressure Regulation
72
-------
ENERGY/WATER SAVINGS
Reference Number
113 113 113
Shallow Trap Toilet
Pressurized Tank Toilet
Vacuum Toilet
Incinerator Toilet
Pressurized Flush Toilet
Wastewater Recycling Toilet
Oil Flush Toilet
Freeze Toilet
Packaging Toilet
Composter Toilet
Dual Flush Toilet
Water Closet Insert
Water Dams
Microphore Toilet
Toilet Flush Adapters
Flush Valve Toilet
Shower Mixing Valves 50% Sgpcd 40gpd/home
Shower Flow-Control Devices
Air-Assisted Showerhead
Pressure-Reducing Valves
Pressure-Reducing Valves & Toilet Inserts
Premixed Water System
Faucet Aerators
Faucet Flow Restrictors
Spray Tap
Pressure Balancing Mixing Valve
Repair Leaking Faucets
Hot Water (1 g.)
Water Recycling System
Front Loading vs. Top Loading Clotheswashers
Hot Water Pipe Insulation
Moisture Sensors
Landscape Design
Drip Irrigation
Swimming Pool Cover
Low Water-Using Dishwasher
Low Flush Toilet
Thermostatic Mixing Valve
Compressed Air Toilet
Minuse Shower
Low Flow Showerhead
Flow Limit Valves
Low Water-Using Clotheswasher
Pressure Regulation
73
-------
ENERGY/WATER SAVINGS
Reference Number
% of Interior Use
120 76 92
Shallow Trap Toilet
Pressurized Tank Toilet
Vacuum Toilet
Incinerator Toilet
Pressurized Flush Toilet
Wastewater Recycling Toilet
Oil Flush Toilet
Freeze Toilet
Packaging Toilet
Composter Toilet
Dual Flush Toilet
Water Closet Insert
Water Dams
Microphore Toilet
Toilet Flush Adapters
Flush Valve Toilet
Shower Mixing Valves
Shower Flow-Control Devices
Air-Assisted Showerhead
Pressure-Reducing Valves
Pressure-Reducing Valves & Toilet Inserts
Premixed Water System
Faucet Aerators
Faucet Flow Restrictors
Spray Tap
Pressure Balancing Mixing Valve
Repair Leaking Faucets
Hot Water (1 g.)
Water Recycling System
Front Loading vs. Top Loading Clotheswashers
Hot Water Pipe Insulation
Moisture Sensors
Landscape Design
Drip Irrigation
Swimming Pool Cover
Low Water-Using Dishwasher 0.4%,0-6gpd 4% 9gpcd-72%
Low Flush Toilet
Thermostatic Mixing Valve lgpcd-1%
Compressed Air Toilet
Minuse Shower
Low Flow Showerhead
Flow Limit Valves l%-.5gpd
Low Water-Using Clotheswasher 0-5%,0-8gpd
Pressure Regulation 0-27%
74
-------
ENERGY/WATER SAVINGS
Reference Number
84
Shallow Trap Toilet
Pressurized Tank Toilet
Vacuum Toilet
Incinerator Toilet
Pressurized Flush Toilet
Wastewater Recycling Toilet
Oil Flush Toilet
Freeze Toilet
Packaging Toilet
Composter Toilet
Dual Flush Toilet
Water Closet Insert
Water Dams
Microphore Toilet
Toilet Flush Adapters
Flush Valve Toilet
Shower Mixing Valves
Shower Flow-Control Devices
Air-Assisted Showerhead
Pressure-Reducing Valves
Pressure-Reducing Valves & Toilet Inserts
Premixed Water System
Faucet Aerators
Faucet Flow Restrictors
Spray Tap
Pressure Balancing Mixing Valve
Repair Leaking Faucets
Hot Water (1 g.)
Water Recycling System
Front Loading vs. Top Loading Clotheswashers
Hot Water Pipe Insulation
Moisture Sensors
Landscape Design
Drip Irrigation
Swimming Pool Cover
Low Water-Using Dishwasher
Low Flush Toilet
Thermostatic Mixing Valve 2gpcd-3% 7.5gpcd-12%
Compressed Air Toilet 25gpcd-39%
Minuse Shower 14gpcd-22%
Low Flow Showerhead 7.5gpcd-12% 7.5gpcd-12%
Flow Limit Valves
Low Water-Using Clotheswasher
Pressure Regulation
75
-------
ENERGY/WATER SAVINGS
Reference Number
63 115
Shallow Trap Toilet
Pressurized Tank Toilet
Vacuum Toilet
Incinerator Toilet
Pressurized Flush Toilet
Wastewater Recycling Toilet
Oil Flush Toilet
Freeze Toilet
Packaging Toilet
Composter Toilet
Dual Flush Toilet
Water Closet Insert
Water Dams
Microphore Toilet
Toilet Flush Adapters
Flush Valve Toilet
Shower Mixing Valves
Shower Flow-Control Devices
Air-Assisted Showerhead
Pressure-Reducing Valves
Pressure-Reducing Valves & Toilet Inserts
Premixed Water System
Faucet Aerators
Faucet Flow Restrictors
Spray Tap
Pressure Balancing Mixing Valve
Repair Leaking Faucets
Hot Water (1 g.)
Water Recycling System
Front Loading vs. Top Loading Clotheswashers
Hot Water Pipe Insulation
Moisture Sensors
Landscape Design
Drip Irrigation
Swimming Pool Cover
Low Water-Using Dishwasher
Low Flush Toilet 9gpcd-7.1%
Thermostatic Mixing Valve lgpcd-1%
Compressed Air Toilet
Minuse Shower total use-.5g/min,
Low Flow Showerhead
Flow Limit Valves
Low Water-Using Clotheswasher
Pressure Regulation
76
-------
ENERGY/WATER SAVINGS
Reference Number
115
Shallow Trap Toilet
Pressurized Tank Toilet
Vacuum Toilet
Incinerator Toilet
Pressurized Flush Toilet
Wastewater Recycling Toilet
Oil Flush Toilet
Freeze Toilet
Packaging Toilet
Composter Toilet
Dual Flush Toilet
Water Closet Insert
Water Dams
Microphore Toilet
Toilet Flush Adapters
Flush Valve Toilet
Shower Mixing Valves
Shower Flow-Control Devices
Air-Assisted Showerhead
Pressure-Reducing Valves
Pressure-Reducing Valves & Toilet Inserts
Premixed Water System
Faucet Aerators
Faucet Flow Restrictors
Spray Tap
Pressure Balancing Mixing Valve
Repair Leaking Faucets
Hot Water (1 g.)
Water Recycling System
Front Loading vs. Top Loading Clotheswashers
Hot Water Pipe Insulation
Moisture Sensors
Landscape Design
Drip Irrigation
Swimming Pool Cover
Low Water-Using Dishwasher
Low Flush Toilet
Thermostatic Mixing Valve
Compressed Air Toilet
Minuse Shower Energy Savings 60%
Low Flow Showerhead
Flow Limit Valves
Low Water-Using Clotheswasher
Pressure Regulation
77
-------
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SEWERLESS WASTEWATER DISPOSAL DEVICES
Reference Number 89
SYSTEM
1. Compost Toilet - Large Volume
2. Compost Toilet - Small Volume
3. Oil Flush Toilet
4. Chemical Toilets
Site Conditions for Which System May Be
Considered Appropriate
Climate: moderate, warm (cold may be considered)
Home Setting: rural, rural remote
Means of Disposal: grey water only
Availability of water resources: water shortage
Home Layout:
Lot Size: small
Lot Topography: steep terrain
Soil Conditions: impervious, over bedrock
Demography:
Population Size: 1 family
Family Size: 1-10
Population Density: sparse
Population Background:
Population Education: high
Same conditions as in 1 except:
System restricted to 3 users. i
Application for Homes: questionable
System is designed for public use
(highway rest areas).
Application for Homes: questionable
System is designed for mobile homes, and
public facilities. May be used as
temporary arrangement to accommodate
1-4 people.
5. Microphor Toilets
Means of Disposal: total disposal (limited)
Availability of Water Resources: water shortage
Soil Conditions: slowly permeable soil
Continued.
79
-------
SEWERLESS WASTEWATER DISPOSAL DEVICES
Reference Number 89, Continued
SYSTEM
6. Incinerating Toilets - Electricity
Operated
7. Incinerating Toilets - Gas Operated
8. Pressurized Tank Toilet
9. Packaging Toilet
10. Freezing Toilet
11. Vacuum Toilets
Site Conditions for Which System May Be
Considered Appropriate
Home Setting: rural
Means of Disposal: no disposal, ground water only
Availability of Water Resources: water shortage
Home Layout:
Lot Size: small
Lot Topography: steep
Soil Conditions: impervious, over bedrock
Demography:
Population Size: 1 family
Family Size: 1-3
Population Density: sparse
Same as 6, and may be preferred as its incinerating
efficiency is higher.
May be applied anywhere with the potential of water
saving of 40% of toilet use water.
May serve an apartment house.
Information on the systems performance was not
obtained. The systems serve summer homes in
Sweden and Norway.
Home Setting: urban
Means of Disposal: grey water only
Availability of Water Resources: water shortage
Home Layout:
Lot Topography: steep terrain
Demography:
Population Size: 100-200 families
Population Density: dense
Population Background:
Population Education: moderately high
12. Suds Operated Toilet Means of Disposal: total disposal
Availability of Water Resources: water shortage
13. Macerator Toilet Means of Disposal: total disposal
Availability of Water Resources: water shortage
Continued. . .
80
-------
SEWERLESS WASTEWATER DISPOSAL
Reference Number 89, Continued
SYSTEM
Site Conditions for Which System May Be
Considered Appropriate
14. Recirculating Toilet
Means of Disposal: grey water only
Availability of Water Resources: water shortage
15. Dual Flush Toilet
Potential Water Savings 40%
16. Wash Down European Toilet
Potential Water Savings 50%
17. Grey Water Systems for Toilet
Reuse
Means of Disposal: total disposal
Availability of Water Resources: water shortage
18. Total Waste water System Toilet
Reuse
Means of Disposal: no disposal
Availability of Water Resources: water shortage
Home Layout:
Lot Size: small
Lot Topography: steep terrain
Soil Conditions: impervious, over bedrock
Demography:
Population Size: 6-20
Population Density: moderately dense to
NOTE: Population requirement is important to assure
the availability of maintenance personnel and
possible, to construct a community collective
system.
Population Income: high
19. Total Wastewater System for
Total Reuse
Same site conditions as for 18. -May be required for
very severe water shortage areas.
20. Septic Tank - Mound System
Home Setting: rural remote to suburban
Means of Wastewater Disposal
Degree of Disposal: total disposal
Point of Discharge: ground
Availability of Water Resources: adequate
Home Layout:
Lot Size: moderate
Lot Topography: level to moderately slopy
Soil Conditions: slowly permeable
shallow permeable
permeable with high
water table
Continued...
81
-------
SEWERLESS WASTEMATER DISPOSAL DEVICES
Reference Number 89, Continued
SYSTEM
Site Conditions for Which System May Be
Considered Appropriate
21. Aerobic Tank - Mound
Same as system 20. Aerobic system may be more
efficient in delivering effluent to the mound
of higher quality.
Comparison between system 20 and 21 needs further
study.
22. Aerobic Tank - E-T Bed
Geography-Climate: low to moderate precipitation
Degree of Disposal: no disposal
Availability of Water Resources: moderate
Home Layout:
Lot Size: medium, large
Lot Topography: level ground
Soil Conditions: impervious or when no percolation is
mandatory
Demography:
Population Density: sparse to moderately dense
23. Spray Irrigation
Same conditions as in 22.
24. Grey Water Disposal System
by Sand Filtration and
Disinfection
Used in conjunction with conposting toilet
82
-------
REGIONAL ISSUES
New England
Delaware and Hudson
Chesapeake Bay
Ohio
Eastern Great Lakes
Western Great Lakes
Upper Mississippi
Lower Missouri
Southeast
Cumberland
Tennessee
Lower Mississippi
Lower Arkansas-White-Red
Upper Missouri
Upper Arkansas-White-Red
Western Gulf
Upper Rio Grande-Pecos
Colorado
Great Basin
South Pacific
Central Pacific
Pacific Northwest
United States
Reference Number
Medium
Max. regulated
flow
60,895
28,629
46,657
99,457
33,278
30,283
46,125
16,211
186,030
14,647
40,389
35,207
57,661
25,600
7,053
25,900
3,000
11,400
6,934
815
45,478
134,570
1980
(b
3,177
6,486
6,025
4,154
4,800
10,639
3,350
957
25,451
1,810
3,019
3,130
3,099
15,912
6,730
17,235
5,507
16,950
6,251
8,135
26,834
25,068
2000
ill ion gallons
4,522
9,785
10,410
6,748
7,995
17,502
5,321
1,657
48,176
4,280
5,742
5,311
4,463
18,179
7,486
26,747
6,529
25,204
7,011
12,278
30,309
36,886
2020
per day)
6,474
14,627
17,767
11,055
13,482
30,641
8,275
2,896
87,941
9,088
10,381
8,536
6,064
24,084
8,969
44,441
8,921
42,643
10,046
18,055
37,267
58,005
956,219
204,719
302,541
470,658
High
2020
9,935
25,907
39,329
23,041
30,471
71,965
16,133
5,703
186,781
23,529
24,493
16,732
10,114
38,553
14,550
98,408
12,901
65,373
18,038
26,-,098
54,872
96,342
909,268
83
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87
-------
RESIDENTIAL WATER USE
Reference Number
54 63 83 100 61
Indoor Use 69%
Bathroom
Toilet Flushing 41% 45% lOOgpd lOOgpd 32gpd
Washing/Bathing 30% 30% SOgpd SOgpd 21gpd
Shower
Tub Bath
Shower or Bath
Toilets and Baths
Oral Hygiene
Bathroom Sink 8gpd 8gpd
Kitchen
Dishwashing 15gpd 15gpd
Dishwasher
Sink
Garbage Disposal
Cooking
Cooking/Washing/Drinking
Drinking/Cooking 5% 12gpd 12gpd 3gpd
Laundry/Dishwashing 20% 35gpd 14gpd
Laundry 35gpd
Utility Sink 5gpd 5gpd
Clotheswasher
Leaks
1 drop/sec.
steady drip
1/32" trickle
toilet tank leak
1/32" @ 40 psi
1/16" I? 40 psi
1/8" P 40 psi
Miscellaneous
Number of persons 441
Region/Area Bay Area
Total 255gpd 255gpd
Outdoor Use
Garden Hose
h"
5/8"
3/4"
88
-------
RESIDENTIAL WATER USE
Reference Number
151 26 127
Indoor Use
ToiletฐFlush1ng 41ซ-102g 39% 100gpd-39%
Washing/Bathing
Shower
Tub Bath
Shower or Bath
Toilets and Baths
Oral Hygiene
Bathroom Sink
Kitchen
Dishwashing 6/ฐ
Dishwasher
Sink
Garbage Disposal
Cooking t
Cooking/Washing/Drinking
Drinking/Cooking
hwashing 14% 39gpd_m
uility Sink
ClotheswasRer ซ> ^ hot & **' cold
Leaks
1 drop/sec.
steady drip
1/32" trickle
toilet tank leak
1/32" (3 40 psi
1/16" @ 40 psi
1/8" (a 40 psi
Miscellaneous
Number of persons
Region/Area
Total
Outdoor Use
Garden Hose
V
5/8"
3/4"
89
-------
RESIDENTIAL WATER USE
26 113 132 148
Indoor Use
Bathroom
Toilet Flushing 100g/5g/use-day 5g/flush
Washing/Bathing
Shower 29g 4g/minute
Tub Bath 30g
Shower or Bath 80g/4g/min.-day
Toilets and Baths
Oral Hygiene
Bathroom Sink 8g/day
Kitchen
Dishwashing
Dishwasher 15g/15g/load-day 14g/load
Sink 12g/day
Garbage Disposal
Cooking
Cooki ng/Washi ng/Dri nki ng
Drinking/Cooking
Laundry/Dishwashing
laundry 35g/50g/load-day
-.ility Sink 5g/day
Clotheswasher 50g/load
Leaks
1 drop/sec. 7g/day
steady drip 20g/day
1/32" trickle 200g/day 25g/day
toilet tank leak 200g/day
1/32" @ 40 psi
1/16" @ 40 psi
1/8" @ 40 psi
Miscellaneous
Number of persons 4
Region/Area nrr .,
Total 255g/day
Outdoor Use
Garden Hose
%"
5/8"
3/4"
90
-------
RESIDENTIAL WATER USE
Reference Number
40 81
Indoor Use
Bathroom
Toilet Flushing 14.7gpcd 4.1g/use 3.6use/day
Washing/Bathing
Shower 5-6g/minute
Tub Bath
Shower or Bath 8.7gpcd 27.2g/use .32use/day
Toilets and Baths
Oral Hygiene
Bathroom Sink
Kitchen
Dishwashing 15-25g/load
Dishwasher 7^-16g/load l.lgpcd 7g/use .15use/day
Sink 7.6gpcd 1.7g/use 14.5use/day
Garbage Disposal .Sgpcd 2.1g/use .4use/day
Cooking
Cooking/Washing/Drinking
Drinking/Cooking
Laundry/Dishwashing
Laundry
Utility Sink
Clotheswasher 25-50g/load 11.6gpcd 38.6g/use .3use/day
Leaks
1 drop/sec.
steady drip
1/32" trickle
toilet tank leak
1/32" @ 40 psi
1/16" 0 40 psi
1/8" @ 40 psi
Miscellaneous
Number of persons
Region/Area
Total
Outdoor Use
Garden Hose
h"
5/8"
3/4"
91
-------
RESIDENTIAL WATER USE
Reference Number
130
137
113
113
113
Indoor Use
Bathroom
Toilet Flushing
Washing/Bathing
Shower
r Bath
Toilets and Baths
Oral Hygiene
Bathroom Sink
Ki tchen
Dishwashing
Dishwasher
Sink
Garbage Disposal
Cooking
Cooking/Washing/Drinking
Drinking/Cooking
Laundry/Dishwashing
Laundry
Utility Sink
Clotheswasher
Leaks
1 drop/sec.
steady drip
1/32" trickle
toilet tank leak
i/32" ฎ 40 Ps1
1/16" @ 40 psi
1/8" @ 40 psi
Miscellaneous
Number of persons
Region/Area
Total
Outdoor Use
Garden Hose
h"
5/8"
3/4"
39%
31%
3%
31g/shower
80g/day/home
14/0
2%
92
-------
RESIDENTIAL WATER USE
Reference Number
113 113 113 113
Indoor Use
Bathroom
Toilet Flushing
Washing/Bathing
Shower 15-20g. 5 min. 30g/shower 30-60g. 15-25g
Tub Bath
Shower or Bath
Toilets and Baths
Oral Hygiene
Bathroom Sink
Kitchen
Dishwashing
Dishwasher
Sink
Garbage Disposal
Cooking
Cooking/Washing/Drinking
Drinking/Cooking
Laundry/Dishwashing
Laundry
Utility Sink
Clotheswasher
Leaks
1 drop/sec.
steady drip
1/32" trickle
toilet tank leak
1/32" @ 40 psi
1/16" @ 40 psi
1/8" @ 40 psi
Miscellaneous
Number of persons
Region/Area
Total
Outdoor Use
Garden Hose
%"
5/8"
3/4"
93
-------
RESIDENTIAL WATER USE
Reference Number
-8T
Indoor Use
Bathroom
Toilet Flushing 25gpcd-39%
Washing/Bathing
Shower 12gpcd-19%
Tub Bath 8gpcd-12%
Shower or Bath
Toilets and Baths
Oral Hygiene
Bathroom Sink Sgpcd- 5%
Kitchen 7gpcd-ll%
Dishwashing
Dishwasher
Sink
Garbage Disposal
Cooking
Cooki ng/Washi ng/Dri nki ng
Drinking/Cooking
Laundry/Dishwashing
Laundry
Utility Sink
Clotheswasher
Leaks 9gpcd-14%
1 drop/sec.
steady drip
1/32" trickle
toilet tank leak
1/32" @ 40 psi
1/16" @ 40 psi
1/8" @ 40 psi
Miscellaneous
Number of persons
246g/day 247g/day 233g/day 255g/day
Outdoor Use
Garden Hose
h"
5/8"
3/4"
94
-------
RESIDENTIAL WATER USE
Reference Number
138 b/ 79
Indoor Use
Bathroom
Toilet Flushing 45% 45%-sfh, 67%- apt.
Washing/Bathing 35%
Shower
Tub Bath
Shower or Bath
Toilets and Baths
Oral Hygiene
Bathroom Sink
Kitchen 8%
Dishwashing
Dishwasher 32%
Sink
Garbage Disposal
Cooking 4%
Cooking/Washing/Drinking
Drinking/Cooking
Laundry/Dishwashing 14%
Laundry
Utility Sink
Clotheswasher
Leaks
1 drop/sec.
steady drip
1/32" trickle
toilet tank leak
1/32" @ 40 psi
1/16" (<> 40 psi
1/8" (a 40 psi
Miscellaneous
Number of persons household
Region/Area
Total
Outdoor Use
Garden Hose
V
5/8"
3/4"
95
-------
RESIDENTIAL WATER
Reference Number
53 132
Indoor Use
Bathroom
Toilet Flushing
Washing/Bathing
Shower
Tub Bath
Shower or Bath
Toilets and Baths
Oral Hygiene
Bathroom Sink
Kitchen
Dishwashing
Dishwasher
Sink
Garbage Disposal
Cooking
Cooking/Washing/Drinking
Drinking/Cooking
Laundry/Dishwashing
Laundry
Utility Sink
Clotheswasher
Leaks
1 drop/sec.
steady drip
1/32" trickle
toilet tank leak
1/32" @ 40 psi
1/16" @ 40 psi
1/8" @ 40 psi
Miscellaneous
Number of persons
Region/Area
Total
Outdoor Use 31%
Garden Hose
h" 360g/hr
5/8" 600g/hr
3/4" 1140g/hr
96
-------
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97
-------
WATER SAVING TIPS
TOILET
Habits/Frequency of Use
t Don't use the toilet simply to flush away facial tissues, paper, and
other similar solid and liquid wastes (using a wastepaper basket is a
lot cheaper).
Flush the toilet less often. In most cases, several uses can be made
of the toilet for liquid wastes before flushing is required. A deoderant
and colorant block in the flush tank may make this practice aesthetically
more acceptable.
Maintenance/Leaks
Toilets are notorious for their hidden leaks, and they can waste thousands
of gallons of water a day undetected. A toilet will leak when it is out
of adjustment or when its parts are worn, so it is important to check it
periodically.
A toilet usually leaks at the overflow pipe or at the plunger-ball. If
it is at the overflow it is generally because the water level is too high,
though sometimes the overflow pipe develops a leak below the water level.
You should gently bend the float arm down so that the valve shuts off
1/2 inch below the top of the overflow pipe or at the level indicated
on the inside of the tank. Often the valve is worn and will run like
a leaky faucet, and it will probably need replacement. Overflow leaks
can be detected by a visual inspection, although they are not always
obvious.
Plunger-ball leaks are not as easy to see. The easiest way Is to drop
a little food coloring into the tank and wait to see if it shows up in
the bowl. If it does you probably have a leak at the plunger-ball,
either because the ball needs replacing, or because the mechanism is out
of alignment. Even if you don't see the color in the bowl you might
still have to replace the ball if you occasionally have to jiggle the
toilet handle or hear a low hum. Bent or scummy connecting rods can
hang up and cause leaks too.
ง Another simple way to check for a flush ball leak is to place a piece of
toilet paper on the dry part of the bowl just above the water line.
Since the water from the leak flows through the holes in the rim of the
bowl just above the water line, the paper will become wet if there is
a leak. The average life of a flush ball is seven years, and
as it becomes older, the possibility of a leak increases greatly. A
new flush ball can be purchased for less than $2, and it might be a good
policy to change the flush ball every 5 years just to be safe.
Infrequently, the valve seat is scarred and needs replacing. It can be
tested by running a finger around the seat to see if it is completely
smooth. It should be free of dirt or corrosion, which would prevent a
98
-------
WATER SAVING TIPS
complete seal. Original seats are generally brass and may be replaced
by a plumber. A kit which bonds a new seat to the old one with an ad-
nesive is available for do-it-yourselfers.
Obviously, if the toilet tank continues to make noise after the flush-
and fill cycle is completed, something is wrong within the tank. Usually
the problem is caused by the flush ball not fitting properly into its
valve seat. This misfit is often caused by a bent or corroded guide
wire or an improperly positioned guide arm. A replacement for the flush
ball is available which uses a flapper assembly, eliminating the need for
the guide wire and guide arm.
There are two other common causes of loss of water that can be detected
easily. If the water level in the flush tank is above the overflow tube,
water will continually run out. This problem occurs because the float
is set too high or the ball cock is leaking. The water level in the
tank should always be at least 1/2 to 1 inch below the overflow through
the refill tube. Lowering the float or repairing the leak in the ball
cock will prevent these losses.
t Another reason for the water to run out of the tank continually is a
defective float. If the float leaks, it will not rise high enough to
shut the water off after the tank refills, and water will overflow into
the bowl. You can test the float by taking it off and shaking it. If
you hear water inside, it should be replaced. Foam plastic balls cannot
become waterlogged.
Check the flush handle mechanism - it might be sticking and keeping the
stopper ball from going into place.
Inspect vertical overflow pipe for pitholes below the water!ine. Replace
if any are found.
Devices/Water Displacement
t Your present toilet can also be improved to cut down considerably the
amount of water needed for each flush. Commercial devices include a
simple flexible toilet dam made of moulded plastic and rubber and held
in place by suction. When wedged into the tank around the drain hole,
this device holds back 1 to 2 gallons per flush.
Home made devices can also be constructed to do the same thing. Plastic
bottles, filled with clean stones and water for ballast can be placed in
your tank to displace and save water. You may have to work with this a bit
to make certain you do not displace so much water that two flushes are
required to get rid of wastes. Please reconsider putting bricks in
your toilets since they can disintegrate over time and hurt the toilet
tank.
Partial/full flush systems are flooding the market. Two large brass washers
on the lower lift wire or on the flapper chain can give the homeowner the
same choice.
99
-------
WATER SAVING TIPS
t When remodeling or repairing, install low-flush toilets and shower and
faucet flow control devices.
BATHING & PERSONAL HYGIENE
Take shorter showers. Unless a shower lasts seven minutes or less, bathing
in the tub will use less water and will conserve energy. A kitchen timer
is a useful bathroom accessory. The "Navy" shower - use water to get wet,
turn off water while lathering, turn on water to rinse - uses the least
water. The amount of water used in a tub-shower is easily determined by
closing the drain during the shower.
A partially filled tub bath will use far less water than a long shower,
though a short shower may use less than a full tub.
Don't fill the bathtub too full. Usually, 1/4 of a tubful is enough to
cover the body and also float the kids toy boat or rubber duck! And,
it's best not to let little children fill their own tub...they'11 fill
to the brim every time!
When filling the tub, don't let water run down the drain until it gets
hot. Instead, close the drain before turning on the faucet. The water
will soon be hot and the temperature can be adjusted later as the tub
fills.
Turn off the water while brushing your teeth; this step can save a family
5 to 10 gallons per day (or 3650 gallons a year).
t Rinse hand razors in the filled sink rather than under running water.
When shampooing, turn off the water while lathering the hair.
t If your shower involves the adjustment of two hand controls (one for hot
and one for cold), be sure to turn the HOT handle FIRST and let it run
to get the water warm before turning on the COLD to mix for the "just
right" temperature. Thus, you will not be wasting water from the cold
feed while you're waiting for the hot feed to warm up.
Use inexpensive flow control devices which can save from one to four gallons
a minute (a 25 to 50% reduction).
t Reduce pressure in water flowing to shower or sink.
t Install low flow shower heads, or quick cut-off shower heads for "Navy"
showers.
Turn down hot water temperature to reduce mixing cold and hot.
Brush teeth first using cold water in hot-line while waiting for the hot
water.
Use glass of water to rinse your mouth rather than cleaning brush under
water flow repeatedly and brushing teeth several times. You'll save
100
-------
WATER SAVING TIPS
your teeth and water.
Consider shaving with an electric razor; it's cheaper than heating the
hot water for a safety razor shave.
DRINKING. COOKING & WASHING
A leaking faucet wastes more water than most people realize. A leak of
1 drop per second can waste 7 gallons per day. A steady drip will
waste 20 gallons per day.
Faucet leaks are easy to see and comparatively easy to repair. Installing
a new washer, a simple task, will usually correct the leak. If the faucet
begins leaking again soon after the washer is changed, it may be necessary
to replace the valve seat because it probably has a small scar on it
which cuts the washer. "Do-it-yourself" books or hardware store personnel
may provide useful advice.
When filling a kettle, try to estimate the exact amount needed; leaving
unused boiled water on the stove means that both water and energy have
been wasted.
Use plastic ice trays which permit the cubes to be loosened by twisting the
tray rather than running water over the tray.
t Keep a bottle of water in the refrigerator rather than letting water run
in the sink to get a cool drink.
t When cleaning vegetables, use a filled sink and a vegetable brush, and
wash all the vegetables for a meal at once.
Use only the minimum water to cook foods; flavor and food value may be
wasted along with water.
Do not use garbage disposals except at the end of cooking or clean-up
periods or when full. Whenever possible, don't use the disposal at all;
compost vegetable peelings for your garden or put them in the garbage can.
Run an automatic dishwasher only with full loads. Do not prewash dishes
unless necessary. To save energy, turn the dishwasher off at the start
of the dry cycle, open the door, and let the dishes air-dry.
Do not use the extra-long prewash and scrub cycles on the dishwasher un-
less absolutely necessary.
If you are in the market for a new dishwasher and are also interested in
saving water, shop around a bit and obtain information from manufacturers
on how much water their machines require for operation. Automatic dish-
washers last for a long time, so a saving of a few gallons per cycle
over a period of many yearscan add up to a lot of money. Spending a
few days to find the right water-saving buy in dishwashers will pay off
in the long run.
101
-------
WATER SAVING TIPS
Do not let faucets run for washing or rinsing. Always fill a container
with water for this purpose or use the sink by stoppering the drain.
Use a brush, wash cloth, or your hand to dislodge particles of dirt when
washing anything rather than relying on the force of the water to do the
job.
0 Some housewives suggest the addition of vinegar (1/4 to 1/2 a cup) to
wash water to prevent grease from clinging to dishes, pots and pans.
This apparently helps eliminate the use of strong, grease cutting
cleaners and cuts down on the required volume of rinse water.
Grease and oil should never be poured down the drain. Besides clogging
up the drain, you use a great deal of water rinsing them down.
When washing leafy vegetables (lettuce, spinach, kale), place them in
a container and cover them with water. Some housewives add a teaspoon of
salt. Allow the vegetables to soak for a few minutes. Then provide
a fast, crisping rinse. The soaking eliminates much of the need for
a lot of scrubbing and repeated rinsing.
When cooking, barely cover the food with water. Use a tight fitting
lid to conserve moisture...and there is no need to drain off and throw
away water used in cooking. Water boiled with vegetables contain nutrients
and can be utilized for soups and sauces.
Practice taking food from the freezer to thaw in plenty of time to avoid
the need for quick thawing. Some cooks who do not plan their schedules
to provide time for thawing at room temperatures, waste water by run-
ning it out of the spigot and onto the package to force-thaw frozen
foods.
In order to cut down on water needed to clean and scour aluminum pans
after boiling foods like spaghetti, some housewives suggest that 1/4
to one teaspoon of lemon juice be added to the cooking water. This makes
cleanup easier.
Remove ice cube trays from the freezer a few minutes before you need the
ice. The cubes will soon loosen at room temperature and eliminate the
need for expenditure of several quarts of water many family members
waste to obtain a quick separation of ice from the frosty tray.
Use an aerator or sink spray in the kitchen -- it will let you cover more
area with less water.
Run clothes washers only with a full load unless a reduced fill setting
is available. Use "warm" or "cold" settings if possible.
For hand laundering, put a stopper in the washtub for both washing and
rinsing, and don't let the water run.
t To save water, always wash a full load. If replacing a machine, shop
around to buy a new machine with water conservation design. Consumer
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WATER SAVING TIPS
Reports (available for perusal in public libraries if you are not a sub-
scriber) publishes good information on washer ratings.
Use the "suds-saver" on the washing machine if it has such a feature.
Allow small children to bath together.
Consider use of disposable diapers.
Know the capacity of your hot water heater. Much water can be wasted
trying to get hot water out of a cold tank.
Insulate the hot water pipes between the heater and the faucets to re-
duce the amount of water that must be run to get hot water. Smaller
hot water piping will have similar effect.
Locate the water heater near the points of most hot water use. Consider
a separate water heater for distant bathrooms.
OUTDOOR USE
Lawns/Gardens
The basic principle to follow when watering the lawn and garden is not to
give it more water than it needs. Some people irrigate their lawns with
double the water the lawn actually needs to thrive.
Rather than following a fixed schedule to water the lawn, water it only
when it showsthe first signs of needing it. You don't need to water
the lawn as often in cool weather and on cloudy days. Watch the weather
and the lawn before you decide to water it.
Heat and wind will rob your lawn of the water before it can use it. Avoid
watering on windy days and you will avoid having most of the water going
somewhere besides the garden. Water in the cool of the day, both to avoid
excess evaporation and the chance of harming the lawn.
Of course there are circumstances (large areas, limited time) where a
sprinkler system is essential. But if you can avoid it and put water on
by hand you will probably save water.
Make sure your sprinklers and hoses are adjusted to water just your lawn
and garden. Irrigating sidewalks and gutters will not make them turn
green, or grow either.
Water the lawn in the early morning to avoid evaporation losses.
For successful lawn irrigation, irrigate slowly, deeply, and infrequently.
t Do not allow sprinkler water to flow into a gutter.
Avoid sprinklers that produce a fine mist; too much water is lost in wind
and evaporation.
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WATER SAVING TIPS
Use an alarm clock or the stove timer to remind you to shut off the
sprinklers.
If you have an automatic sprinkler system, use a moisture sensing de-
vice to turn them on and off. With automatic timers, make sure there is
a manual override switch so your sprinklers are not watering when it is
raining.
Check hose washers at least annually.
Keep sprinkler heads clean to assure even distribution of water.
t Use pistol-grip nozzles (spring shut-off) on all hoses to avoid waste,
and always turn off the faucet tightly when through to prevent leakage.
A lawn that is 2 inches high can have a well maintained look and it holds
more dew and shades the root systems better than a low cut lawn.
Deep watering is more efficient than shallow watering and roots will be
encouraged to develop deeper and hence enjoy a greater "soil reservoir"
of nutrients and water from which to draw upon. The key is to get the
water to penetrate deeply and the best overall answer is slow application.
An ideal soil structure might consist of 45% mineral matter, 5% organic
matter, 25% air and 25% water. Air space (loose soil) is most important
for it provides the "water holding capacity."
Soil should have a gentle slope without high and low spots thus providing
for balanced distribution of water.
t Proper Density - The soil needs a sufficient amount of air spaces.
Compacted soil will hamper water penetration and root growth.
Smooth down lawn seed. Use a lawn roller and a straight-edge leveling
tool to produce a lawn bed free of high and low spots; otherwise uneven
irrigation results.
t Dig basins and troughs around trees and bushes to concentrate the water
and reduce runoff.
Water deep and less often. Shallow, frequent watering encourages shallow
roots, more evaporation loss and reduces moisture reservoir in the soil.
You can water with a drip-irrigating system and use approximately half the
water you'd use with aboveground sprinklers, furrows, or flooding. If you
have enough fresh water, consider a drip system for such uniform plantings
as vegetable gardens, beds of annuals, perennials, ground cover areas,
rose gardens, hedges and screens, camellia collections, or young orchards.
t Gray-water collecting and distributing systems that home owners have put
together take water from bathtubs, showers, sinks, and washing machines
and deliver it to big plastic garbage cans for storage. The water may be
siphoned to the cans or pumped through tubes by submersible electric
pumps that cost about $20 to $30. It can flow into the garden through
valves and fittings at the bottoms of the cans.
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WATER SAVING TIPS
If a drip-irrigation system challenges your mechanical ability or costs
more than you can afford, soil soakers ($4 to $10) offer you a simple, less
expensive and less efficient substitute. Attached to a hose end, these
long tubes of plastic or canvas seep or sprinkle water along their entire
length.
Just position the soaker (alongside a row of vegetables or flowers, beneath
a hedge, over the root systems of a series of shrubs or trees). Then attach
a hose and turn on the water. Turn sprinkle soakers with holes down to
avoid water loss from wind or evaporation. It's easiest if you can leave
each soaker in place all season.
t They have been on the market for years but became very popular suddenly
this year. They are rigid pipe and tube devices that you attach to the
end of a hose, push into the soil with your foot, and turn a valve to let
water out underground. Most people favor the type that's meant to be an
underground feeder. For this year, we recommend that you leave the fertilizer
changer empty and use the device just to deliver water to the roots.
Most garden plants would grow roots 1 to 5 feet beneath the soil surface if
they could find enough water there.
A soil-sampling tubea hollow coring device with a handle can remove a
core of soil 15 inches long. In it you can read and feel the state of the
soil to that depth. Dry powdery soil means there's not enough water to
support root growth. Golf course equipment firms sell the tubes for $11
to $15.
A long, skinny metal rod pushed into the soil can tell you in a crude way
how deep the water goesif the rod goes in, the soil is probably wet enough.
Occasionally, about 12 to 24 hours after irrigating, check soil with a
soil tube, auger, probe or spade and note depth of water penetration by
change in color and feel of soil. If any soil in the root zone is dry,
apply water longer in future irrigations.
Purchase and use a hand tensionmeter probe to check irrigation needs of trees
and shrubs. Probe 24 to 36 inches under trees and 12 to 24 inches under
shrubs. When gauge reads moderately dry (50 to 70 centibars) apply water
you think adequate. Check reading again 12 to 24 hours after irrigating.
If this reading is 5 to 15 centibars your irrigation was correct. If less
than 5, apply less water next time. If more than 15, apply more water
next time.
When irrigating clayey or tight soils, apply water over short periods se-
parated by a soaking-in period of at least twice the length of the application,
i.e. 10 minutes on, 20 minutes off, 10 minutes on, etc.
When irrigating sandy loam or open soils, apply water rapidly and in one
continuous period.
Treat steep slopes like you would a clayey (tight) soil area.
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WATER SAVING TIPS
Aerate lawn annually to avoid compaction and hence rapid run-off.
Fertilize your lawn with care. A well nourished lawn requires less fre-
quent sprinkling.
Take pains to make a happy home for new turf by building up soil with
nitrogen balanced sawdust, rice hulls or other organic amendment. The
time taken to build a good root zone will save many hours of irrigation
and produce a much more attractive lawn.
Be careful when planting flower beds and landscaping not to place a high
water using plant next to a low water using plant. You can't satisfy
both. Check with your nurseryman.
T
Reduce evaporation losses from flower and vegetable gardens by using
an organic mulch or plastic ground cover between rows.
Plant native plants or shrubs that require minimum amounts of water.
In arid areas, use desert landscaping which does not require watering.
Don't plant in a dry season.
Planting means watering. If your area is suffering any kind of water
shortage, forget about extensive or big-scale planting, hold off plant-
ing until fall.
All plants need water to get established, even drought resistant ones.
Delay regular watering of grass the first cool weeks of spring to encourage
deeper rooting.
If you are planting a garden, poke holes in the bottom of a big can or
plastic bottle; "plant" a can next to the seeds or little plant. To
water or fertilize, just put the liquid in the can; everything goes to the
root zone where it's needed.
t Punch 1/4-inch holes about one inch apart around each plant in your garden.
If the holes are 3 or 4 inches deep, filling them just once will give the
plant enough water.
Antitranspirants put a temporary moisture seal on the surface of leaves
to prevent moisture loss. They are good for protecting broad-leafed
plants from frost and for minimizing wilt during transplanting jobs. The ver-
dict of our panelists was that they aren't effective in reducing irrigation
during the summer.
a The hoe is a wonder implement. With it you can regularly chop off the tops
of emerging weeds which, if left to grow, could cause a major loss of your
valuable soil moisture.
t Containers may be water-wasteful.
When you water plants in containers, the excess water that goes through
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WATER SAVING TIPS
the drain holes is wasted unless It runs directly onto soil where other
plants have roots. Also, clay pots and wooden containers lose some water
through their sides. And container plants evaporate water faster than
plants in the ground because the isolated soil mass heats faster and
gets more wind.
Water 1 iftable containers by submerging them in a large tub until bubbles
stop rising. Then lift the container and let it drip into the tub.
When possible, move containers into a little more shade and a lot less wind.
Just grouping them close together makes them lose less moisture.
Clay pots are very porous (that's their desirable featurethey let roots.
"breathe"). To reduce water loss you can put one clay pot inside another
or spray their outsides with silicone sealer for one dry season (it wears
off), or bury them up to their rims in a garden bed. A mulch over the
soil surface in containers reduces water loss by evaporation, it should
be no-float material. Pebbles and gravel are good. Or, cut a circle or
square of plastic film to fit in the container and make a single slit
from edge to center. Open the slit around the stem to place the film on
the soil surface.
t Collect water from roof gutters to use for lawn and plant watering.
Dot water lawns or wash cars when water is in short supply.
Other Outdoor Uses
When washing the car, rinse it once, then use a bucket of soapy water to
wash it, and then give it one more quick rinse. Taking it to a car wash
may save water, since many commercial installations recycle their water.
Using a hose instead of a broom is wasteful also. It isn't the best use
of water to shoot it down the gutter, so use a rake and a broom to clean
up the leaves and debris on your sidewalks, yard, and gutters.
If you own a swimming pool, consider purchasing a cover to cut evaporation,
chemical and heating costs dramatically.
Keep pool water at least 6 inches down from edge of pool to reduce splash
loss.
And on those hot summer days when kids are just itching for a water fight,
we would suggest water ballon battles rather than garden hose fights, and
use the lawn as the field of valor.
WATER & SEWAGE
t Your water meter is the best detective in the home. It can tell whether you
have sizable leaks, as well as how much water various appliances are using.
All you have to do is learn its language.
Most meters record gallons just as your car's odometer records mileage.
However, some show cubic feet of water used. For these, you can multiply
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WATER SAVING TIPS
the figure shown by 7.5, the approximate number of gallons in one
cubic foot.
1. It is summer, turn on the sprinkler and watch the meter dial move
for precisely one minute. Multiply the number of gallons times
60 for quantity used per hour. Then estimate how long you usually
leave the sprinkler running. You may be shocked at the hundreds
of gallons going onto the lawn and garden every week.
2. Wait for a member of the family to step into the shower and follow
the same timing routine. Check the volume consumed in one minute
and multiply by the number of minutes a normal shower in your
family takes.
3. Watch the meter dial through a full fill cycle on the automatic
washer. And remember that each wash gets more than twice as much
for both wash and rinse.
4. For leak detection, turn everything off carefully so no water is
being used anywhere in the house. Then check the position of the
meter dial for about 15 minutes. If it hasn't moved, congratulations!
You have a relatively water-tight home. But if it has, start
checking hose connections, faucets, the toilet (with food coloring,
remember?).
Sometimes a meter located outside of the house et curbside will in-
dicate a leak when everything inside seems tighi. Trie leak may be
hidden underground in the pipes. Call a plumber for advice.
When you go on a vacation, turn off the water to the house; a leak while you
are away could be expensive and do a lot of damage. Be sure, however, to
turn off the water heater also. If it should begin to leak and drain dry,
it could burn out.
In case of a broken pipe or other "blow out", immediately shut down
nearest shut-off valve. Instruct family members on where shut-offs are
located and how to turn them off; also where the wrench is kept in case
they are stubborn.
t The foundation area under your house should remain powder dry.
isn't, check for a pitted pipe or a leaky joint.
If it
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SUBJECT INDEX BY BIBLIOGRAPHY REFERENCE NUMBER
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SUBJECT INDEX BY REFERENCE NUMBER
HATER CONSERVATION TIPS REFERENCE NUMBER
Toilet 3,20,27,47,51,52,55,56,74,75,
79,83,93,125,128,129,132,133,
135,137,138,140,141,143,147,
148,153
Bathing & Personal Hygiene .... 3,20,27,47,51,52,55,56,79,83,
93,125,128,129,132,133,135,
137,138,140,141 ,143,147,148,153
Drinking, Cooking, Washing .... 3,20,27,47,50,51,52,79,83,93,
125,128,129,132,133,135,137,
138,140,141 ,147,153
Water & Sewage 3,20,27,47,51,52,83,93,125,
128,129,132,135,137,140,141 ,
147,153
Outdoor Uses 3,15,19,20,27,28,35,47,51,52,
54,55,60,72,73,79,83,93,97,
101 ,102,117,122,123,124,125,
127,128,129,131 ,132,133,135,
137,138,140,141,146,147,148,
153,155
Other 3-How to read meter
WATER CONSERVATION DEVICES
Toilet 2,23,24,110,120,126,130
shallow trap toilets 36,40,51,52,56,57,79,84,85,
98,106,118,128,132,137
chemical 56,57,85,89
wastewater recycling 42,56,57,82,84,85,89^5,98
pressurized flush 23,24,36,40,56,57,85,106
pressurized tank 21,36,56,57,85,89,93
controlled volume flush .... 2,28,85,118,122,126,150
oil flush 36,56,57,84,85,89
composter 56,57,85,89
vacuum 2,36,84,85,89,93,98
packaging 36,56,57,85,89
freeze 36,56,57,85,89
incinerator 36,56,57,85,89,98
hydraulic odor vent 85
leak signalling ballcock .... 36,85
tank flushing valve ...... 23,24,40,85,89,93,106,118
110
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SUBJECT
REFERENCE NUMBER
variable flush attachment
dual flush
water closet inserts . .
. . 23,24,40,51,52,55,56,57,79,84,
85,106,128,132,145,150
. . 2,36,40,42,56,57,81,84,
85,98,100,101,106,116,118,
122,126,128,132,150
. . 2,23,24,26,28,30,32,36,40,42,
49,50,51 ,52,55,56,57,79,
81 ,84,85,86,93,98,100,101,
106,116,118,122,126,128,132,
137,144,149,150
Bathing & Personal Hygiene
flow controls 2,18,22,23,24,26,27,28,32,
40,41 ,42,48,49,50,51,52,55,
56,57,81 ,84,85,87,88,93,98,
100,101,106,111 ,113,116,118,
120,122,126,128,130,132,136,
137,140,142,145,147,150,151 ,
153,154
aerators & spray taps 23,24,26,28,36,40,41,42,45,48,
56,57,62,81,84,85,88,98,106,
113,116,118,120,126,128,130,
132,137,150,151
self-closing mixing valves 26,36,56,57,85,120
pressure-balancing mixing valves 26,36,56,57,85
thermostatically controlled
mixing valves 26,36,56,57,85,93,128,132
air-assisted shower heads. . . . 2,36,40,56,57,85,93,100,101,106,107
Sinks & tubs 81 ,85,138
whirlpool spas & communial
bathtubs 85,137
Drinking, Cooking & Hashing
bottled water 85
solar stills 85
chilled water dispenser .... 85
instant hot water tap 85
garbage grinders 84,85
automatic dishwashers 17,28,56,5781,84,85,98,120,
143
automatic clothes washers . . . 2,16,28,36,41,42,51,52,56,57,
81,84,85,98,113,120,142
Hater & Sewage
water meter 2,8,26,84,85,102,103,104
105,113,118,120,126,130
Water pressure reducing valve
111
55,56,57,85,93,118,120,122,
126,130,132,137,152
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SUBJECT REFERENCE NUMBER
water pipe insulation 36,85,93,141,146
hot water recirculating systems .36,56,57,85
electrically controlled
plumbing systems 56,57,85,93
water heaters 85
water filters & softeners . . . .2,85
grey water filters 85,122,126
evaporative air cooler 85
septic wastewater treatment . . .9,85,118
aerobic wastewater treatment . .9,85
community wastewater treatment. .39,40,85,118
Outdoor Uses
hose attachments 2,56,57,60,85,120,122,126,
132,137
instantaneous moisture indicators56,57,85,120
tensiometers 85
timer controlled lawn sprinklers 51,52,56,57,64,85,93,120,148
drip irrigation 2,48,56,57,60,80,84,85,101,102,
118,121,122,124
swimming pool covers 85,118
ECONOMICS
Cost of devices & appliances 2,7,33,40,85,93,100,101,107,
111,120,139,144,153
Possible cost-savings 2,5,6,7,23,25,26,33,57,58,59,
63,85,88,95,96,104,105,107,111,
120,121,124
Utility rate structures 2,8,26,28,34,39,54,66,68,69,
77,81,84,85,90,93,104,105,106,
112,115,122,126,130,131,134,
136,149
REGIONAL VARIABLES
Water demand/consumption 2,9,26,33,59,60,63,70,71,83,
85,95,108,117,120,124,125,128,
129,133,134,138,149
Water uses 2,9,26,33,63,70,71,81,85,88,
96,108,124,125,128,129
112
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SUBJECT
REFERENCE NUMBER
Water costs 2,33,85,92,95,125,129,134,
149,152
Energy costs . . 2,5,23,26,33,85,92,94,95,96,152
Local issues 2,33,38,39,54,58,59,60,83,85,
89,108,119,134,149
Region/area 9,70,71,134,149
WATER CONSERVATION PROJECTS
Development of consumer handbooks 2,10,12,65,78,81,108,114,
130,135
Public participation/education
efforts 12,13,23,25,26,29,31,39,43,
53,54,58,59,61,63,67,70,73,
74,75,76,78,84,85,91,92,105,
106,108,123,126,127,130,135,
154
Public acceptance of water
conservation 1,4,11,12,14,23,25,29,37,38,
44,46,52,53,58,59,63,67,68,
72,85,90,91,92,100,104,105,
108,109,111,126,130
Target audiences . 12,26,43,78
flU.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFIChi I 980-3 I !' I 32/34
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