DOCUMENT 1
SESSION 1 - GENERAL TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATION
UNDERSTANDING ENERGETIC COMPOUNDS
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DOCUMENT 2
SESSION 1 - GENERAL TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATION
VOLUME II - DEMILITARIZATION ALTERNATIVES TO OPEN BURNING/OPEN
DETONATION (OB/OD) TECHNOLOGY COMPILATIONS
USE OF WASTE ENERGETIC MATERIALS AS A FUEL SUPPLEMENT
IN UTILITY BOILERS
COMPOSTING EXPLOSIVES CONTAMINATED SOILS
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VOLUME II
DEMILITARIZATION
ALTERNATIVES TO
OPEN BURNING/OPEN DETONATION
(OB/OD)
TECHNOLOGY COMPILATIONS
PROJECT NUMBER
DEV12-88
JUNE 1990
EVALUATION DIVISION
SAVANNA, ILLINOIS 61074-9639
US ARMY
ARMAMENT
MUNITIONS
CHEMICAL COMMAND
US AMMT OULNSL AMMUNITION
CENTER AND SCHOOL
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REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE
1« REPORT SECURITY CLASSIFICATION
Unclassified '
2«. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION AUTHORITY
2b DECLASSIFICATMDN/ DOWNGRADING SCHEDULE
4 PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NUMBER(S)
6« NAME OF PERFORMING ORGANIZATION
U.S. Army Defense Ammunition
Center and School
60. OFFICE SYMBOL
(H tpplxt&t)
SMCAC-DEV
6c ADDRESS (Oty, 5f«rc. «nd UPCodt)
^avanna, IL 61074-9639
i
g« NAME OF FUNDING /SPONSORING
ORGANIZATION
AMCCOM
80. OFFICE SYMBOL
(K •ppftctDfe)
AMSMC-DSM-D
ftc ADDRESS (Oty, 5UW, »nd IIP Cot*)
Rock Island, IL 61299-6000
10 RESTRICTIVE MARKINGS
Form Approve^
OMB No 07Q4-0 188
-
3 DISTRIBUTION /AVAILABILITY OF REPORT ^H
Volume I is restricted ^
Volume II and III is unrestricted
s MONITORING ORGANIZATION REPORT NUMBERS)
7«. NAME OF MONITORING ORGANIZATION
70. ADDRESS (Oty. St«rt, tnd ZIFCodt)
9. PROCUREMENT INSTRUMENT IDENTIFICATION NUMBER
10 SOURCE OF FUNDING NUMBERS
PROGRAM PROJECT TASK
ELEMENT NO. NO. LAR NO.
8-78165
WORK UMT
ACCESSION NO.
n. TITLE (/nc/ud* S*cwnty a*aifx»tion)
Demilitarization Alternatives to Open Burning/Open Detonation (OB/OD) DEV 12-88
12 PERSONArAUTHOR(S)
Mr. Gayle T. Zajicek and Mr. Ed Ansell
13» TYPE OF REPORT
Study
136. TIME COVERED
FROM Oct 88 TO Jun 90
14 DATE OF REPORT (Xt«r. Montft. 0*yJ
1990 June 30
15. PAGE COUNT
6. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTATION
Prepared in Cooperation with Government Agencies and Private Firms.
17
Ti COD'S
liLLU
SUB-CROUP
'8 SUBJECT TERMS (Conttnut on /wi>n« it n*c»wy «"<* identify toy 6/OC*
Washout, Heltout, Reclamation, Controlled Incineration,
Disassembly, Electrochemical Reduction, Chemical Conversion,
Detonation Chamber, Super/Sub Critical Extraction. Oxidation
19. ABSTRACT (Continue on rtv*r» if rwcuwry and dtntity by Mock numo*r) Biodegradation.
U.S. Army Defense Ammunition Center and School was tasked by AMCCOM, AMSMC-DSM-D, the
Demilitarization and Technology Office, to identify alternative demilitarization
technologies to OB/OD. The statement of work (SOW) of this study was to encompass the
existing, emerging, and theoretical technology that would be applicable to the
demilitarization of SMCA-managed munitions and compile this data into a final report.
This final report consist of three volumes, the 1st volume contains the recommendations and
iunding requirements for the demilitarization office to pursue the investigations of the
potential technologies that are applicable. The 2nd and 3rd volumes contains the
technology data sheets and other pertinent information compiled within this report.
20 DISTRIBUTION /AVAILABILITY OF ABSTRACT
B UNCLASSIFICOUNUMITED D SAME AS RPT n OTIC USERS
22f NAME OF RESPONSIBLE INDIVIDUAL
Mr. Gayle T. Zajicek
21. ASSTRAa SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 1
Unclassified ^H
ffl3TJ«S»4B?B&«i£8i
22C OFFICE SYMBOL ^Hj
' SMCAC-dev ^]
)0 Form 1473. JUN 86
frewoui roVf/ons *r* ooio/crr
SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE
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The Authors gratefully acknowledge the dedicated support by nettoers of the
U S ArmyDefense Antnunition Center and School (USADACS) staff Vte would
like to thank Ms. Teresa Moore, USADACS, for her efforts ^
information into a cohesive and ccrprehensive format; Ms. Sally
for her outstanding technical illustrations; and Ms. Mary
for her editorial review. Last, but not least, we would
Government agencies and private firms who unselfishly
contributed information on their respective technologies.
GA*IZ T. ZMICEK
Mechanical Engineer
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
EXECUTIVE SOWftKf ................................................ 1
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
Introduction [[[ 1-1
Authority [[[ 1-1
Study Approach ................................................. 1-2
CHAPTER 2 PAST TECHNOLOGIES
Washout [[[ 2-1
Meltout [[[ 2-11
Reclamation [[[ 2-14
Controlled Incineration ........................................ 2-21
Disassembly [[[ 2-23
CHAPTER 3 EXISTING TECHNOLOGIES
Washout [[[ 3-2
Meltout [[[ 3-10
Reclamation [[[ 3-17
Controlled Inineration ......................................... 3-26
Disassembly [[[ 3-53
Electrochemical Reduction ...................................... 3-57
Chemical Conversion ............................................ 3-60
Detonation Chamber ............................................. 3-61
CHAPTER 4 EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES
Washout [[[ 4-1
Reclamation [[[ 4-4
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LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
FIGURES
1 Solvent Washout /Reclamation Apparatus .................... 2-2
2 Solvent Washout /APF ...................................... 2-5
3 Photof lash Reclamation Technique ......................... 2-7
4 Flow Diagram of Inf ra-Red Demil Pilot Plant .............. 2-9
5 Pyrotechnic Separation Pilot Plant Flow Diagram .......... 2-10
6 AP Propellant Washout Process Schematic .................. 2-15
7 AP Propellant Hydraulic Macerator ........................ 2-16
8 Reclaimed A? Resale Values/Production Rates .............. 2-17
9 Plant Investment Required for Wet Cake AP Propellant ..... 2-19
10 Pyrotechnic Combustion Production Facility ............... 2-20
11 Large Item Flashing Chamber System ....................... 2-22
12 Explosive Washout Plant (APE 1300) ....................... 3-3
13 Water Reclamation System (APE 1300) ...................... 3-4
14 Hydraulic Cleaning Washout System ........................ 3-8
15 Conceptual Arrangement of the South Tower (WAD?) ......... 3-9
16 Conceptual View of a Melt-Drain Autoclave (WADF) ......... 3-11
17 Conceptual Arrangement of the Meltout Process (WADF) ..... 3-12
18 Steamout Process (CAAA) .................................. 3-15
19 Explosives Steamout Process (WADF) ....................... 3-18
20 Steamout Equipment Arrangement (WADF) .................... 3-19
21 PTP System With AP recovery Feed Preparation ............ 3-21
22 PTP System Schmetic .................. . . .................. 3-22
23 PTP System With AP Recovery .............................. 3-23
24 White Phosphorous Conversion Plant Flow Diagram .......... 3-25
25 APE 1236 Deactivation Furnace ........................... 3-27
26 APE 1236 Upgrade Configuration ........................... 3-28
27 APE 2210 Deactivation Furnace ............................ 3-32
28 Equipment Arrangement in Decontamination Building (WADF) . 3-33
29 Equipment Installation Layout (CWP) ...................... 3-35
30 Flashing Furnace System (WADF) ........................... 3-38
31 Pershing Rocket II Motor Test Stand ...................... 3-40
32 Arrangements of Incinerator Relative to the Bulk
Explosives Disposal Building (WADF) .................... 3-42
33 Process Schematic Incineration System .................... 3-44
34 Process Flow Diagram of Transportable Incinerator ........ 3-46
35 Air Curtain/Pitbum Concept ............................. 3-49
36 Circulating Bed Combustor ................................ 3-52
37 Cross-Section of Flow' s Abrasive Jet Cutting Nozzle ...... 3-55
38 Schematic of the Intensif ier System ...................... 3-56
39 Electrolysis Tank Layout ................................. 3-58
40 Supplemental Fuel System Block Diagram ....... . ........... 4-7
41 Prototype Cryofracture Facility ......................... 4-10
42 Simplified Schematic of CFE System ....................... 4-14
43 Critical Fluid Extraction Process ........................ 4-16
44 RBC Bench Unit ........................................... 4-20
ii
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FIGURES PAGE
45 Bench Packed Column Unit '. 4-21
46 Water Filtration Containment Concept 5-3
47 Inventory 9 Year Tread 6-2
48 Demil Invenotry by Consolidated Family 1986 vs 1989 6-7
49 December 1989 Demi Inventory by Consolidated Family 6-9
50 December 1989 Demil Inventory for the Family of HE
Loaded Projectiles (by Filler) 6-11
51 December 1989 Demil Inventory for the Family of HE
Loaded Projectiles (by Material) 6-12
52 Cartridge, 90-Millimeter: HE-T, M71A1 and HE, M71 6-13
53 December 1989 Demil Inventory for 90J*4 (by Filler) 6-14
54 December 1989 Demil Inventory for 90M4 (by Material) 6-15
TABLES PAGE
1 Consolidated Families 6-3
2 December 1989 Demil Inventory 6-8
ill
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TABLE CF CXJNJiNTS
APPENDIX
APPENDIX A
Bibliography .................................................. A-l
APPENDIX B
On-site Visits B-l
APPENDIX C
Demilitarization/Disposal Regulations C-l
APPENDIX D
Depot Maintenance Work Requirements D-l
APPENDIX E
Ainnunition Peculiar Equipment E-l
APPENDIX F
Demilitarization/Disposal Capabilities F-l
iv
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The U.S. Army Defense Ammunition Center and School (USADACS) was tasked
by the U.S. Army Armament, Munitions and Chemical Command (AMCCOM),
AMSMC-DSM-D, Demilitarization and Technology Office, to identify alternative
demilitarization technology to open burning/open denotation (CB/OD) . Statement
of work (SOW) for this study was to analyze the existing, emerging, and
theoretical technologies that would be applicable for the demilitarization of
the single manager for conventional ammunition (SMCA) managed munitions.
The study approach was to review past demilitarization studies, reports,
conduct on-site visits, and review existing and emerging technologies. The
final report consist of all the data ccrtpiled.
Presently, the expertise for demilitarization of the SMCA-managed items
can be identified in four Army offices; AMCCOM, AMSMC-DSM-D (Demilitarization
and Technology Office) and AMSMC-DSM-ME (Ammunition Peculiar Equipment [APE]),
Rock Island, IL; Tooele Army Depot (TEAD), SDSTE-AEP-T (Ammunition Engineering
Directorate [AED])/ Tooele, UT; and, USADACS, SMCAC-DEN (Engineering
Division), Savanna, IL.
With only a very few exceptions, the expertise to demilitarize munitions
falls within the Department of Defense (DOD) complex. There are a few
consulting firms with personnel who, in most cases, gained their ammunition
demilitarization knowledge while working within the Government
demilitarization community. However, they are the exception more than the
rule. In the past, private industry and the academic community have been
contracted by the Government to study the problem of the growing
demilitarization stocks, and/or the technology to dispose of the same.
There is no panacea, or single demilitarization method or technology,
that will satisfy all of the requirements to dispose of the existing
demilitarization stockpile. Even if OB/CD is permitted to continue, there are
items that cannot be disposed of safely in this manner; e.g., hand grenades
and improved conventional munitions (ICMs). Environmental laws prohibit OB/OD
of some of the smokes and dyes that are fillers in some pyrotechnics.
However, there is now available approved equipment that can reduce the size,
convert, and/or dispose of a large portion of this demilitarization stockpile
if funded to do so.
All demilitarization and disposal operations are required by law to
comply with Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act (RCRA) regulations.
The Joint Services Regulation (NAVSEAINST 8027.1, AFLC/AFSC Regulation
136-5, and AMC Regulation 75-2), establishes the joint demilitarization and
disposal policies, responsibilities, and procedures relating to requirements
governing all new or modified ammunition items including propellants,
explosives, and pyrotechnics (PEP) and chemical components. An objective of
this regulation is to assure that demilitarization and disposal considerations
are an integral part of the planning and decision making processes for all new
or modified ammunition items.
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The DOD Regulation 5160.65-M requires the demilitarization and disposal
procedures be incorporated into the design and development of new or modifiea
anrnurution items. It also states that SMCA provide funding for the
demilitarization and disposal technology, as well as preparation of the depot
maintenance woric requirements (DMWR) ,
AMC-R 755-8, requires that a local standing operating procedure (SOP) be
prepared, reviewed, and approved in accordance with AM>R "700-107, prior to
beginning any demilitarization operation.
AM3-R 385-100 (Safety Manual) states that an adequate SOP be developed
and approved prior to starting any demilitarization and disposal operation.
The APE that is available is listed in TM 43-0001-47, May 1989. There
are over 100 different pieces of equipment that are specifically designed to
aid in the maintenance or demilitarization of ammunition. At present, there
are approximately 25 related items under development.
The DNWR is the basic planning document for developing the SOP and
conducting the actual demilitarization operation. If special equipment is
required to perform a demilitarization function, that need will surface during
the writing and review of the DM"JR, and a need statement will be issued.
There has been at least 11 demilitarization/disposal studies conducted in
the past with coverage ranging from the specific services needs, to the
overall DOD problem of the growing demilitarization inventories. Among these
11 reports, the one that stands out, is the SMCA Blue Ribbon Panel Report on
Ammunition Demilitarization, Volumes I, II, & III, (Written in 1986). This
report eloquently stated the overall demilitarization/disposal problem for
SMCA-managed items. The findings of this report are still valid with only
minor changes in inventory quantities.
The Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC) was queried for reports
in their files that pertain to the demilitarization/disposal of PEP and other
related topics. By the selection of the key words and/or phrases used, a
discriminate list of reports were extracted from the DTIC files. A total of
172 abstracts of reports relating to the technology of interest were reviewed,
and of these, 28 reports were determined applicable to this study.
To-date, a total of 99 reports pertaining to the Demilitarization
Alternatives to OB/OD has been reviewed and hard copies are on file at
USADACS.
At the outset of this study, 20 locations were identified as candidates
for site visits to obtain demilitarization technology information. This report
includes 16 Government and 12 industry sites that were visited.
The demilitarization technologies are broken down for study purposes into
11 main technology families. A brief description of technologies within these
families are listed as follows:
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Hotwater: A process that uses either a stream or jet of low
or high pressure hot water to remove energetic materiel from a
munition case.
High Pressure: A process that uses a stream or jet of high
pressure water, up to 55,000 psi, to remove energetic materiel from a
munition case.
Solvent: A process that uses some liquid to dissolve energetic materiel
out of a munition case.
Cryogenic Dry Mash: A process that uses a high pressure blast of gaseous
nitrogen, at cryogenic temperatures to embrittle and fracture large
rocket motor (LRM) cast propellant into a granular form.
Meltouti
Autoclave: An enclosed chamber where heat can be applied to the exterior
of a munition to melt out the filler.
Induction Heating: A process that induces heat into the metal parts of a
munition by use of an induced electrical current.
Microwave: A method to remove energetic material from a munition by
melting the filler with a microwave beam.
Steamout: A process that directly applies steam to the energetic
material to meltout the filler from the munition case.
Reclamation: Any process that is used solely to reclaim, recycle or convert
components and/or filler into a usable commodity for reuse or sale.
Controlled Incineration:
Air Curtain: A bum pit with a continuous blast of air blown over the
top of the fire that entrains the effluent from the combustion and
recycles it back into the flame.
APE 1236 £ 2210: The standard military rotary furnaces.
Chain Grate: A static furnace with a "ladder" type metal endless belt
that traverses the furnace hearth.
Contaminated Waste Processor (CNP): A "car bottom" furnace with a
transportable hearth.
Explosive Waste Incinerator (EWI): An improved APE 1236 which has a
different feed and pollution abatement system.
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Flashing Furnace: A furnace used for decontaminating metal parts; it car.
have any movable device to throughput the selected items.
Fluidized Bed Incinerator (FBI): A furnace that uses high velocity air
to entrain solids in a highly turbulent cotibustion chamber.
Botary Kiln: A rotary furnace that is refractory lined and generally not
used for metal parts.
Static Incinerator: Any type of furnace that may or may not have moving
devices used to throughput or manipulate the material to be processed;
e.g., "car bottom," "walking beam," "ram feed," etc.
Static Firing LFM: The motors are restrained and functioned and the
exhaust effluent is discharged to the atitosphere.
Disasssrblv:
Cryofracture: A process that uses liquid nitrogen to embrittle the
munition case to enable it to be fractured prior to incineration.
Waterjet Abrasive Cutting: Another way to shear, cut, saw, etc., and can
be either used in the destructive or reclamation process.
Laser Grooving: A process that removes metal by cutting with a laser
beam and can be used either in the destructive or reclamation process.
Electrochemical Peduction: Demilitarization process based on the chemical
reaction caused by the electric current to convert energetic materiels and
toxic chemicals to inert and/or useful products; for example TNT
electrochemical reduction to Trianio Toluene.
(Chemical Conversion: Demilitarization process based- on the chemical reaction
which converts the energetic materiels and toxic chemicals to inert and/or
useful products; for example conversion of FS munition to fertilizer.
Detonation Chanter: A chamber that contains all the products from the
functioning of an explosive device.
Super/Sub Critical Extraction: A process that uses a liquid under pressure to
dissolve energetic materiel and when the pressure is reduced the liquid turns
into a gas and the dissolved energetic materiel is precipitated out.
Oxidation; A turbulent aqueous process that uses heat and air in a high
pressure reactor to reduce low concentrations of energetic materiel to it's
natural state (rusting).
Biodecrradation: A process that uses micro-organisms to consume the energetic
materiels and the effluent is inert.
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Demilitarization Alternatives Study Status:
By direction of the USADACS Director, reports that are analogous to
demilitarization technology will continue to be ccrpiled and retained for
future use.
There has been on-site visits to 28 different firms or agencies resulting
in 28 separate technologies. Fifty-three descriptions have been ccrtpilecl for
this report. A letter plus a technology package was sent to 22 different
firms or agencies requesting their review and input to their respective
technologies. There has been 19 formal responses which represent 50
individual descriptions.
Volume I contains a comprehensive review of the conpiled data. The
information has been evaluated and a recommendation for technology development
efforts- is presented to ensure safe, efficient, and environmentally sound
demilitarization technology program. Volume II contains information that was
obtained during the on-site visits, from the literature search, and various
reports. Volume III consist of pertinent information that supports the study.
Conclusions and Becomendaticns:
We as individuals not only have a legal but also a moral obligation to be
responsible stewards of our environment. We are governed by the EPA
regulations not to pollute our environment. We are also mandated, by the RCRA
to reclaim and/or recover our resources. We being a government
agency, and individually being inhabitants of this earth, must find
environmentally acceptable methods for the reduction/elimination of the
growing inventory of munitions that are no longer suitable for use. This
demilitarization inventory is approaching 200,000 short tons and is generating
an average rate of 23,000 short tons per year.
There are presently in place existing technologies that could reduce this
staggering demilitarization inventory by over 50 percent and still comply with
both EPA and JOA requirements. There are other emerging technologies that
show promise of reducing overall operating costs when compared to some of the
current demilitarization processes.
There has to be a cohesive ccranitment for the reduction of the demil
inventory to a manageable level. It is imperative that the SMCA organization,
responsible for the demil inventory, be adequately funded both for
demilitarization operations and for demonstrations of improved technologies.
Improved funding is essential to establish the systematic scheduling for
evaluations of the demil stockpile and for demonstration of technologies.
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CHAPTER 1 -
Intrpdjyct Ion
1. The demilitarization alternatives study was initiated to investigate
alternative technologies to OB/CO. If in the future OB/CO is curtailed or
prohibited, other means or processes must be found to reduce or eliminate the
staggering demilitarization stockpile. The demilitarization stockpile
generates an average rate of 23,000 short tons a year. Due to a funding
shortage for the disposal of the munitions in the stockpile, inventories range
from a 5-year low of 161,000 in December 1985 to 192,000 short tons in
December 1988.
2. This study investigates and reviews the past and existing
technologies, as well as evaluates and discusses the potential emerging and
conceptual technologies that pertains to the overall demilitarization/disposal
operation. The technologies are divided into 11 main families. There has been
a total of 53 process descriptions compiled; 11 were classified as past
Developmental efforts, 29 existing, 11 emerging, and 2 conceptual
technologies. There are only a few complete demilitarization processes which
will treat the entire munition. Most of these technologies investigated
constitute only a part, or a step/ in the complete throughput of munitions in
a demilitarization operation.
3. The two fundamentally opposite approaches for processing materials in
the demilitarization/disposal program for SMCA-managed items is the
reclamation and destructive process. The washout, meltout, super/sub critical
extraction, and the use of recovered energetic materials as a fuel supplement,
obviously are some of the reclamation processes. The controlled incineration
in a furnace, biodegradation, catalytic oxidation, electrochemical reduction,
chemical conversion, and contained detonation belong in the destructive
category. However, a complete demilitarization process may use a combination
of the reclamation and destructive techniques to accomplish the operation.
4. For detailed information on each group of technologies refer to the
proceeding chapters. Assessments of these technologies and the recommended
funding requirements for the government to pursue the several technology
studies will be covered in Volume I of this report and will be released only
to the applicable Government agencies.
B. Authority
1. U.S. Army Defense Ammunition Center and School was tasked by AMCCOM,
AMSMC-DSM-D, the Demilitarization and Technology Office, to identify
alternative demilitarization technologies to OB/OD. The SOW of this study was
to encompass the existing, emerging, and theoretical technologies that would
be applicable to the demilitarization of SMCA-managed munitions. The allotted
timeframe, when initiating this project, was 18 months with several In-Process
Reviews (IPR) to be given with the final report due the third quarter of
FY 90, The funding to perform the assigned task was received by USADACS on
29 September 1989. The preliminary work began on 3 October 1989.
1-1
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2. The SCW included the development of a cotputer data base file of the
technologies investigated during the study period. U.S. Army Defense
Ammunition Center and School plans to fceep this data base up-dated as the
present emerging technologies are evolved into viable new processes that
relate to the demilitarization/disposal program.
C. Study Approach
1. The study approach adopted by USADACS was to review and accumulate a
file of existing pertinent literature, conduct an on-site evaluation of
existing technologies, investigate applicable emerging and conceptual
technologies, and include said information in a final report. The information
obtained on the technologies has been divided in to four categories/ past,
existing, emerging, and conceptual. A separate chapter has been devoted to
each category.
2. As part of the literature search, DTIC was Queried for reports in
their files that pertain to the demilitarization/disposal of PEP and related
topics. By the selection of the key words or phrases used, a discriminate
list of reports were extracted from DTIC. A total of 172 abstracts of reports
relating to the technology of interest was reviewed; 28 reports were selected
and ordered. There has been 99 related reports, or other literature
pertaining to the OB/CD Demilitarization Alternatives Study reviewed. A copy
of these reports are on file at USADACS for future reference. There has been
a minimum of 11 studies on demilitarization/disposal studies done in the past
which range from specific service's need to the overall DCD problem of the
growing demilitarization inventory. A lists of the compiled reports are
recorded in appendix A of this volume.
3. There has been on-site visits to 16 Government agencies and 12 private
firms during this study. The information gathered from the Government
agencies ranged from preliminary studies (concepts) that were underway to
operational munition disposal processes. Whereas, the information gathered
from the 12 private firms were mainly on processes that were either developed
under a specific Government contract or in-house technologies developed for
that firms demilitarization/disposal needs. A list of on-site visits is
enclosed in appendix B of this volume.
4. The data that was assembled from the available technical reports and
the applicable technology from the on-site visits were compiled. A data sheet
was then prepared on each piece of equipment or process reviewed. These data
sheets were sent to each agency or firm, that has the expertise in each
particular field, for their concurrence. A majority of these data sheets were
returned with the agencies or firms endorsement.
5. All appendixes related to this study are under separate cover (titled
Appendixes) includes the following:
a. Appendix C - Demilitarization Regulations
b. Appendix D - DMWRs
c. Appendix E - APE
d. Appendix F - Site Capabilities
1-2
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CHAPTER 2 - PAST TECHNOLOGIES
A. There are 11 past technologies /descriptions that have been reviewed which
may be applicable to the demilitarization/disposal program for the
SMCA-managed items. These technologies/descriptions were divided into the
five categories listed below:
Page
1. Washout
a. Solvent (Toluene) 2-1
b. Solvent (Methyiene Chloride Mehtanol) 2-3
c. Solvent (Water) 2-6
d. Solvent (Blend) 2-8
2. Meltout
a. Autoclave 2-11
b. Induction Heating 2-12
c. Microwave 2-13
3. Reclamation
a. Solvation (Class 1.3 Prqpellants) 2-14
b. Red Phosphorus to Phosphoric Acid Conversion 2-18
4. Controlled Incineration
Flashing Chamber System 2-21
5. Disassembly
Laser Metal Removal 2-23
B. PAST TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENTAL EFFORTS
a. Solvent (Toluene)
The Ammunition Equipment Directorate at TEAD, Tooele, UT conducted a
feasibility study FY 79-80 to recover RDX and TNT from Composition B loaded
munitions using toluene as the washout/recovery medium. A pilot model
washout/reclamation apparatus was designed, fabricated, and tested at TEAD.
The organic solvent washout/reclamation technology utilizes three mutually
beneficial physical/chemical principles; (1) the solvation action of a warm
solvent, (2) the high pressure mining action of liquid, and (3) the selective
solubility of an organic solvent. The solvation action of the warm organic
solvent augments the high pressure mining action of the solvent, resulting in
a very rapid washout of the binary explosive from its casing. The selective
solubility of the organic solvent will separate the binary explosive into
separate components, resulting in ijmediate and effective recovery of the
soluble and the insoluble particles. The test results showed that, (1) the
rapid washout of Composition B was possible, and (2) the immediate and
effective separation/recovery of RDX and TNT was achievable. Figure 1 shows
a process flow diagram.
2-1
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Q.
Q_
o
UJ
(T
O
2
LJ
UJ
_J
CL
5
i/5
w
a
I
F
Figure 1
2-2
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Application: Washout and/or reclamation of RDX and TNT from
Ccrposition B explosives.
Capacity: Undetermined at this time.
Operating Costs: Undetermined at this time.
Process Control: Undetermined at this time.
Reclamation Quality: Undetermined at this tine.
Waste Streams Generated: The desensitizer wax in the toluene must be
controlled by a bleed stream or other method.
Environmental Constraints: Toluene is moderately toxic.
Data Gaps: Recovery of TNT from the toluene was not demonstrated.
Construction Cost: Undetermined at this time.
Developmental Costs: Since the above work was only a feasibility
study, extensive development work remains.
Developmental Status: No further work is being pursued. Reference
report RQ69, appendix A.
b. Solvent (Methylene Chloride Methanol)
The Naval Weapons Support Center Crane (NWSCC), Ordnance Engineering
Department, has developed a pilot plant process for the ecological
demilitarization of MK 24 and MK 45 Aircraft Parachute Flares (APT).
The first series of operations consist of separating the illuminating
composition from the remainder of the hardware. The first step is removal of
the fuze for the MK 45 APF. This step is not required for the MK 24 APF as
the fuze is removed in the next step. The next step consists of pushing the
candle and parachute assembly (candle, fuze, parachute assembly for the MK 24
APF) out of the outer aluminum tube. Then the entire unit is hydraulically
clamped around its circumference and a hydraulic cylinder pushes the pay load
out one end of the unit. The steel cable is then cut, thus separating the
parachute assembly from the candle assembly.
The next series of operations are performed to separate the
illuminating candle from the cardboard tube and metal end caps (plastic and
wooden end caps for the MK 24). This operation is performed remotely, using
two industrial band saws together with scoring/stripping dies. The operator
enters the room after each candle is processed to remove the scored cardboard
tube from the candle.
The candle is then conveyed to the crushing apparatus where the candle
is crushed under water. A hydraulic press equipped with a specially designed
head is used to crush the candle. The crushed illuminating composition is
then conveyed to either of two stainless steel, agitated, solvent extraction
tanks by two conveyors (one belt conveyor and one bucket elevating conveyor).
2-3
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Two tanks were used in order to increase the daily output of the pilot plant.
The extraction/separation process consists of agitating the crushed
material for 90 minutes in a methylene chloride-tnethanol based epoxy stripper
(STRIPOXY) / pumping off the STRIPOXif, adding water and agitating for 30
minutes, pumping off the water, and removing the magnesium powder from the
bottom of the tanks. The epoxy stripper removes the binder, which can be
either an nitrate or a polyester, while the wash water removes the sodium
nitrate. A dump valve in the bottom of the extraction tank is opened and the
magnesium is fed to a two tier vibrating screener. The top deck of the
screener catches any lumps of composition which need additional processing.
Recovered magnesium flows off the bottom deck of the screener onto a conveyor
belt. The magnesium powder is then transferred from the conveyor belt to an
oven for drying. Figure 2 is a flow chart of the process.
Application: Mk 24 and Mk 45 APF.
Capacity: Pilot plant as built- 44 ea. MK 45 APF per eight hours
59 ea. MK 24 APF per eight hours
Scaled-up plant: 88 ea. MK 45 APF per eight hours
(two extra tanks) 118 ea. MK 24 APF per eight hours
Operating Costs: Pilot plant as built: $1,200 per eight hours
Scaled-up pilot plant: $2,150 per eight hours
Process Control: Precise step by step operating procedures for the
pilot plant have been established. The reclaimed magnesium is analyzed for
purity and the water solution is analyzed for sodium nitrate content.
Reclamation Quality: The reclaimed magnesium can be reused in flares
or sold to a commercial user. The sodium nitrate can be used as fertilizer.
The parachutes can be reused and the metal parts can be sold as scrap. The
binder material could possibly be used as a filler in concrete blocks.
Waste Streams Generated: Methylene chloride/methanol solvent with
binder components.
Environmental Constraints: None
Data Gaps: The process needs to be scaled-up for an efficient
operation. Minor modifications to the piping, conveyor system, and valves
would improve process efficiency.
Construction Cost: $250,000 needed to scale-up process.
Developmental Costs: $100,000 needed to develop process to
operational status.
2-4
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2-5
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Developmental Status: This project was completed in 1975 with
successful demonstration of the process. The pilot plant equipment was left
in place at Building 122, NWSCC. Ownership of the pilot plant was later
transferred to Crane Army Ammunition Activity (CAAA) . The Army did sere
additional work in an attempt to further develop the process, however, the
Army was never able to get the system operational. They have since dismantled
the pilot plant and the condition and location of the equipment is known.
Reference report R005, appendix A.
c. Solvent (Water)
The Naval Weapons Support Center Crane, Ordnance Engineering
Departinent, has developed a pilot plant process for the breakdown of
photoflash cartridges, separation of component parts, and separation/recovery
of the constituent components of the pyrotechnic composition. A typical
formulation of a photoflash cartridge is 40 percent atomized aluminum, 30
percent barium nitrate, and 30 percent potassium perchlorate.
The first series of operations are to remove the inner charge case
containing the pyrotechnic composition from the remaining hardware. The pilot
plant includes an automated breakdown machine which cuts through the outer
cartridge with cooling water applied to the cutting tool. It then removes the
primer and black powder for separate storage, removes the delay element, and
flushes the photoflash composition into a jacketed, stainless steel kettle of
hot water. The water temperature is maintained at 135 degrees Fahrenheit to
dissolve the barium nitrate and potassium perchlorate. The solution is then
pumped through a 5-10 micron mesh polypropylene filter bag to remove the
aluminum. The aluminum is emptied from the filter bag into metal trays and
transferred to an oven for drying. The solution is then pumped into a chill
kettle and cooled tc 50 degrees Fahrenheit. The co-precipitated salts are
then pumped through a 10-15 micron mesh polypropylene filter bag; afterwards,
they are emptied from the filter bag into metal trays and transferred to the
dryers. The solution is then returned to the kettle and reheated for the next
run. Figure 3 is a flow chart of the process.
Chemical analysis of the reclaimed aluminum revealed a purity in
excess of 99 percent, which is suitable for use in other photoflash
formulations. The reclaimed salt mixture was successfully reused in the
production of green flares used in the MK 116 and MK 120 Smoke and
Illumination Signals.
Application: Photoflash Cartridges.
Capacity: Pilot plant "as is": 72 units per eight hours.
Scaled-up plant: 216 Units per eight hours.
Operating Costs: Pilot plant "as is": $750.00 per eight hours.
Scaled-up plant: $1155.00 per eight hours.
Process Control: Unknown
Reclamation Quality: The reclaimed aluminum is in excess of 99
percent purity and can be reused in new photoflash formulations. The
reclaimed salt mixture is suitable for use in the production of green flares.
2-6
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2-1
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Waste Streams Generated: None
Environmental Constraints: None'
Data Gaps: The process needs to be scaled-up for an efficient
operation.
Construction Cost: $150,000.00 required to scale-up pilot plant.
Developmental Costs: $100,000.00 required to develop scaled-up pilot
plant to operational status.
Developmental Status: After the pilot plant was successfully
demonstrated, the prototype equipment was disassembled, cleaned, and stored in
a warehouse at NWSCC. The major pieces of equipment are still in good
condition and suitable for use. However, all the piping would need to be
replaced. Reference report R006, appendix A.
d. Solvent (Blend)
The Naval Weapons Support Center Crane, Ordnance Engineering
Department, designed, constructed, installed, and operated a 1/10 scale pilot
plant for the demilitarization of decoy flares.
A typical decoy flare (MK 46 series) contains an extruded mixture of
fuel,' oxidizer and binder. Other decoy flares used by the Navy and Air Force
contain similar compositions as used in the MK 46. Army decoy flares are
fabricated by pressing, rather than the extrusion of the pyrotechnic
composition. In addition, a different binder system is used.
The approach used to demilitarize the MK 46 decoy flare was to
mechanically extract the pyrotechnic grain from the metal case and ignitor,
reduce the grain to thin wafers, extract the binder using a high flash point
solvent system, and separate the fuel from the oxidizer using a froth
flotation process. Figure 4 is a flow diagram of the demilitarization pilot
plant. Figure 5 is a flow diagram of the separation section of the pilot
plant.
Much of the effort, toward the end of this program, was directed
towards reuse of the recovered flare materials in the manufacture of new decoy
flares. MJIX7/B decoy flares were manufactured using reclaimed ingredients.
These units were tested at NWSCC in conjunction with lot acceptance testing of
standard MJU-7/B flares and the results were satisfactory.
This pilot plant development effort is fully documented in
NWSC/CR/RDTR-302 (C), which is available upon written request to Commanding
Officer, Naval Weapons Support Center, Code 50222, Crane, IN 47522-5050.
Application: MK 46 series decoy flares. Process could be adapted to
other Navy and Air Force decoy flares.
Capacity: The pilot plant can process 80 decoy flares per day.
Production of the plant could be doubled (160 flares per day) by duplicating
the breakdown section of the pilot plant. The separation section of the pilot
plant can easily handle this increased number of units.
Operating Costs: Pilot plant "as is" $650 per eight hours.
Scaled-up plant $1,050 per eight hours.
2-8
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2-10
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Process Control: All machines in the breakdown section of the pilot
plant are calibrated prior to operation. Process streams and stirring speeds
are monitored continuously. Step by step operating procedures for the pilot
plant are followed precisely. Chemical analysis is performed on each batch of
reclaimed material. In addition, end burners are fabricated and tested from
each batch to determine burn rate and intensity.
Reclamation Quality: The reclaimed materials are suitable for use in
the manufacture of new decoy flares, or possibly could be used in other
pyrotechnic formulations.
Waste Streams Generated: None, solvents will be recycled. Process
water will be filtered and recirculated bade into the system.
Environmental Constraints: None
Data Gaps: Process needs to be scaled-up for an efficient operation.
Construction Cost: $480,000.00 to scale up pilot plant. This does
not include facility cost.
Development Cost: $150,000.00 to develop pilot plant to operational
status.
Development Status: This program was completed in 1986. Equipment is
stored in a warehouse at NWSCC. Condition of equipment is unknown, but should
be usable. All the process lines would need to be replaced.
2. Meltout
a. Autoclave
The Annunition Equipment Directorate at TEAD, Tooele, UT conducted a
tci>w I'Y 01 utili^iii'j uii autoclave Of.-vioj t.u remove cxp.i.Gi;;ve;; irou. 9Gmn
projectiles. The autoclave is a steam meltout technique developed to melt
explosives from projectiles. The projectile is cut at the internal diameter
that permits the explosive slug to drop out as a solid mass. This method was
developed as a result of a study investigating ecologically clean methods for
removing explosives from projectiles while maintaining the integrity of the
explosives for resale.
The autoclave that AED tested was a domed cavity that would accept
sectionaiized projectiles 90mm through 120mm filled with TNT or TNT
compositions. The autoclave bottom is on tracks and is rolled to the side for
loading. Once loaded, the unit is rolled into the cavity where four hydraulic
cylinders raise the unit into the autoclave cavity and seal it into position.
Live steam is injected into the chamber for a pre-determined time, then shut
off and allowed to cool. The unit is then lowered and rolled out to the
load/unload station and the tray bottom is opened to allow the explosives to
drop out.
2-11
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Application: Explosive TNT and TNT composition filled munitions.
Capacity: Undetermined at this tine.
Operating Costs: Undetermined at this time/ but far less than hot
water washout.
Process Control: Manually controlled steam pressure of 5 psi for TNT
filled munitions and 15 psi for INT composition filled munitions.
Reclamation Quality: The TNT will have high resale value. Meltout
yields are of higher purity than washout. After flashing, the munition
casings could be sold as metal scrap.
Waste Streams Generated: In a production operation there should be
none.
Data Gaps: More experimentation is required on this unit.
Construction Cost: Undetermined at this time.
Developmental Cost: Considerable cost would be required to refine
this technique.
Developmental Status: Project is not funded. Reference report R038,
appendix A.
b. Induction Heating
The Ammunition Equipment Directorate at TEAD Tooele/ UT prepared a
study on Melting Explosives Out of Munitions, FY 76. One of the methods
studied was induction heating. This technique, since it had the shortest
heating time, was used as a production capacity standard for all other
alternatives. The melting times were based on the 50 KW Tocco Induction
Machine and a suitable coil capable of surrounding the shell. The induction
heating method operates on the principle of friction and eddy-current losses.
Of the alternatives listed, melting temperatures are obtained the most rapid
with this course of action, but a high potential for a hot spot detonation
exists.
Application: Explosive removal for Composition B and TNT explosive
projectiles and other related munitions.
Capacity: An estimated 3-second is required duration to melt out
explosive out of a 75mm projectile.
Operating Costs: Low
Process Control: It would have to be an automatic/automated system.
Reclamation Quality: The explosive would be of high quality.
2-12
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Waste Streams Generated: None
Environmental Constraints: None
Data Gaps: Depth of shell heat penetration would be hard to
accurately control. The potential for a hot spot could occur creating an
explosive condition.
Construction Cost: Because the system would have to be conpletely
automated, construction cost would be high.
Developmental Cost: Moderate
Developmental Status: The program is not funded at this time.
Reference report R068, appendix A.
c. Microwave
The Ammunition Equipment Directorate at TEftD Tooele, UT was tasked FY
79-81 to perform research and development necessary for a production type
system for microwave meltout from 500- and 750-lb bombs. This research was
done in three phases which were: I - Equipment Checkout, II - Meltout Tests
with Tritonal, and III - Meltout Tests with Minol 2.
Phase I and II testing were completely successful. As a result of
these tests, major equipment was developed and operating procedures were
defined for microwave meltout of Tritonal explosive.
Phase III testing was not considered successful due to uncontrollable
heating.
Application: 500- and 750-lb Tritonal filled bombs.
Capacity: Undetermined at this time.
Operating Costs: Undetermined at this time.
Process Control: Testing was done by manual control, but an
operational system would have to be computer controlled.
Reclamation Quality: Undetermined at this time, should be of high
quality.
Waste Streams Generated: The bomb cases would have to be flashed.
Environmental Constraints: None
Data Gaps: State-of-the-art temperature scanner does not operate well
in the presence of high microwave energy fields. Limitations in visual
monitoring result from microwave energy interference with the camera, which
causes poor video output.
Construction Cost: Undetermined at this time.
2-13
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Developmental Cost: Undetermined at this tine.
Developmental Status: Project is not funded. Reference report R037,
appendix A.
3. Reclamation
a. Solvation (Class 1.3 Propellants)
The Thiokol Corporation conducted a study in 1982 for the Air Force
Wright Aeronautical Labs, Materials Laboratory, Wright - Patterson Air Force
Base (AFB) Ohio, on solid propellant reclamation.
The process separates and recovers major ingredients contained in the
scrap propellant. The process is based on the relatively high water
solubility of the ammonium perchlorate (AP) used in the majority of composite
propellant formulations. Scrap propellant is charged into a hydraulic
macerator where high pressure waterjets cut the propellant into small
particles and extract the AP into solution. The concentrated extract solution
from the macerator is passed through a liquid cyclone and in-line filters to
remove suspended solids and then cooled in batch crystallizers to precipitate
the AP crystals. These crystals are separated from the cooled solution in a
basket centrifuge and the AP recovered as a wet cake. The cooled solution is
recycled to the hydraulic macerator for reuse. The process is a closed loop
system with no effluents or waste streams to pollute the environment. This
method has been successfully tested. Figure 6 shows a line drawing schematic
of the process. Figure "7 shows the principal operation of the hydraulic
macerator.
Application: Class 1.3 propellents.
Capacity: 150 Ibs of scrap propellant per hour.
Operating Costs: The economics of the process are a function of plant
size, production rate and the resale value of the reclaimed AP as shown in
Figure 8.
Process Control: The process is manually fed and other functions are
automated.
Reclamation Quality: The M> is of high quality and it can be reused
in the manufacture of propellants, perchloric acid, or it can be used in
slurried explosives. The binder residue can be used in slurried explosives or
in a asphalt filler.
Waste Streams Generated: None
Environmental Constraints: None
Data Gaps: The system would have to be scaled for the tasked
assigned.
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2-17
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Construction Cost: Construction costs are a function of plant size as
shown in Figure 9 (MS = $1,000.00).
Developmental Cost: The development work was done under contract
number F33615-81-C-5125.
Developmental Status: After the method was proven, the prototype
equipment was disassembled and either reused in other projects, stored,
scraped, or sold. Reference report R033, appendix A.
b. Bed Phosphorus to Phosphoric Acid Conversion.
The Naval Weapons Support Center Crane, Ordnance Engineering
Department, designed, fabricated, installed, and tested a pilot plant for the
demilitarization of MK 25 Marine Location Markers. The Plant consisted of a
Breakdown Section where the red phosphorus candle was separated from its
surrounding hardware, and an incineration system where the red phosphorus
composition was converted into fertilizer grade phosphoric acid. The typical
formulation for the marine location marker is 53 percent red phosphorus, 34
percent manganese dioxide, 7 percent magnesium, 3 percent zinc oxide, and 3
percent linseed oil. Processing of the MK 6 Aircraft Smoke and Illumination
Signal and the MK 58 Marine Location Marker would be identical to that of the
MK 25, only the candle separation procedure would differ.
Machines were designed and built to separate the pyrotechnic candle
containing red phosphorus from the other components of the location marker.
The red phosphorus candle is sectioned into several pieces and then fed into
the incinerator. -After charging the incinerator, the burner in the first
chamber is turned on and burned until the composition ignites, and then turned
off. Phosphorus pentoxide, the principle combustion product of phosphorus
composition, is drawn through the second chamber of the incinerator. The
second chamber is preheated by the second burner to insure complete combustion
of the product gases. From the second chamber of the incinerator, product
gases are drawn into the top of a concurrent water spray, ceramic packed,
scrubber column. The water spray containing the product gases is collected
and recycled through the scrubber. Any remaining product gases and acid
droplets travel from the second column of the scrubber into a mist eliminator.
The mist eliminator removes any residual acid mist from the stack gas stream.
An air pump (blower) draws the incinerator product gases through the scrubber
columns and the mist eliminator. The blower intake is connected to the mist
eliminator and the exhaust is connected to the stack. Figure 10 is a flow
schematic of the process).
Application: MK 25 and MK 58 Marine location Markers, and MK 6
Aircraft Smoke and Illumination Signals.
Capacity: Pilot Plant "as is": 58 pounds of red phosphorus
composition per eight hours.
Production Plant: 472 pounds of red phosphorus
composition per ten hours.
Operating Costs: $325,000.00 per year for production operation.
2-18
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PLANT INVES-MNT HEQUIFED FOR - WET CAKE
(MS)
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jvjn*~t Plar^ Tnvestrrent COStS
Major Process Equipnient
Installation
Process Piping & Insulation
Instrumentation
Electrical
Process Buildings
Subtotal
Service Facilities
Yard Inprovements
General Buildings
) Receiving & Shipping. Facilities
Subtotal
Tr^-irwf Plant investment. Costs
Engineering & Supervision
Contractor's Fee
Contingency
Start Up
Subtotal
Tntril T^Vfttt & iP'tiT"**' ^^-s
(Fixed Capital)
yir^Vinq Capital
Trt?1,, Plant Investsraent
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2-19
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lfle yrp/vp B1Q KTS/YR
99.7 168.3
25.9 43.8
4 4 7.4
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5.5 5.5
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2-20
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Process Control: Pressure differentials and temperatures were
measured at various points throughout the incineration system to iterator the
progress of the bum. stack sampling equipment was attached to the stack to
periodically monitor the exhaust gas stream.
Reclamation Quality: Process will produce fertilizer grade phosphoric
acid.
Waste Streams Generated: None
Environmental Constraints: Hazardous Waste Incinerator permit
required by RCRA.
Data Gaps: The process would have to be sized for an efficient
operation. The process controls would have to be updated to meet the current
RCRA requirements.
Construction Cost: $1,250,000.00 to construct a production plant.
This does not include the facility costs.
Developmental Status: To develop process to operation status would
cost $150,000.00. After successful demonstration of the pilot plant process
in 1977, the prototype was stored in a warehouse at NWSCC. The condition of
this equipment is unknown. Reference report RQ07, appendix A.
4. Controlled Iinc,iiPe.riSI'tiQr> ~
At the Western Area Demilitarization Facility (WADF) , Hawthorne,
NV a Flashing Chamber System was constructed in building 117-15. This system
was designed to decontaminate or flash the residue of explosives on or in
large ammunition items. However, the system has been converted into a Hot Gas
Decontamination System and has been proven through successful testing. Items
that have been used in the ammunition production process; such as, mixing
kettles, valves, piping, and other metal parts are loaded onto pneumatically
powered mine type railroad cars (approximately 8'x 20') and transported into
the furnace. Prior to being sold or reused, the items are process through the
system for decontamination at a temperature of 300 to 600 degrees Fahrenheit
for a period of 6 to 48 hours. The system is currently fired by propane but
will be converted to fuel oil in the future. Figure 11 is a line drawing of
flashing chamber system.
Application: To decontaminate metal parts by heat.
Capacity: The furnace can process two cars at a time.
Cperating Costs: Undetermined at this time.
Process Control: Remote controlled.
Reclamation Quality: The items processed can be certified clean and
reused if required.
2-21
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2-22
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Waste Streams Generated: None anticipated.
Environmental Constraints: None
Data Gaps: None
Construction Cost: $1,697,215
Developmental Cost: $50,000
Developmental Status: The Gas Decontamination System is in the
developmental stage. Reference reports R027 and R087, appendix A.
5.
The Ammunition Equipment Directorate at TEAD Tooele/ UT prepared an
in-depth study, in FY 85, of the "state-of-the-art" technology of laser bears
to ascertain the best equipment and method to assist in the demilitarization
of explosive filled projectiles, bombs, and other munitions. The laser would
be used to disassemble the munition in a grooving/parting operation of the
cases major diameter. This would create a circular weakening groove, and in
combination with a tearing/breaking process, bisect the case to extract the
solid explosive by some other extraction process. Two advantages of the laser
application are added safety and flexibility. The laser delivers most of its
energy to the free surface of the explosive and the bulk of the explosive
remains at a lower temperature. From previous experiments conducted by the
Ballistic Research Laboratory (BRL) for the burning of explosive out of the
burster tube, there was evidence that a stream of molten explosive was
spilling out of the tube. Detonation did not take place even at the highest
level of power intensity. At this particular power intensity, there was a
melting of explosives taking place. The intensity can be determined by
controlling the output power and the size of the focal spot of the focused
laser beam. By this method it seems possible to melt explosives.
Other experiments also conducted by BRL' complied with technical
information researched indicates that it is possible to cut bombs or rockets
at the end by using a high power laser. In addition, high power lasers can be
used in the demilitarization of chemical munitions.
Application: Explosive or chemical filled munitions.
Capacity: Twice as fast as power sawing.
Operating Costs: Undetermined at this time.
Process Control: Undetermined at this time.
Reclamation Quality: Undetermined at this time, should be of high
quality.
Waste Streams Generated: None
2-23
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Data Gaps: More experimentation is required on the sectioning of
munitions.
Construction Cost: Undetermined at this time.
Developmental Cost: Undetermined at this time.
Developmental Status: Project is not funded. Reference report R07i,
appendix.
2-24
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CHAPTER 3 - EXISTING TECHNOLOGIES
A, There are 29 existing technologies/descriptions that have been reviewed
which may be applicable to the demilitarization/disposal for the SM3A-managed
items. These technologies/descriptions were divided into the eight categories
listed below:
1. Washout Page
a. Hot Water APE 1300 3-2
b. High Pressure Water jet (Thiokol Corporation) 3-5
c. High Pressure Waterjet (Aerojet) 3-6
d. High Pressure Waterjet (WADF) 3-7
2. Meltout
a. Autoclave (WADF) 3-10
b. Autoclave (Ravenna) 3-13
c. Steamout (CAAA) 3-14
d. Steamout (WADF) 3-16
3. Reclamation
a. Solvation (Class 1.3 Propellant) 3-17
b. White Phosphorus to Phosphoric Acid Conversion 3-24
4. Controlled Incineration
a. Deactivation Furnace APE 1236 3-26
b. Deactivation Furnace Modified APE 1236 3-29
c. Rotary Furnace System APE 2210 3-31
d. Explosive Waste Incinerator 3-31
e. Contaminated Waste Processor 3-34
f. Static Incinerator 3-36
g. Flashing Furnace System (Annealing Oven) 3-37
h. Static Firing of LRM 3-39
i. Rotary Kiln (WADF) 3-41
j. Rotary Kiln (ENSCO) 3-43
k. Chain Grate Incinerator 3-47
m. Air Curtain Pit Burner 3-48
n. Fluidized Bed Incinerator 3-50
o. Circulating Bed Combustor 3-51
5. Disassembly
a. Waterjet Abrasive Cutting (PM-AM-OLOG) 3-53
b. Waterjet Abrasive Cutting (Flow International) 3-54
6. Electrochemical Reduction
Lead Azide Process 3-57
7. Chemical Conversion
FS Disposal 3-60
8. Detonation Chamber 3-61
3-1
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B. EXISTING TECHNOLOGIES
1.
a. Hot Water APE 1300
Washout plants were constructed in the 1947-1948 tijneframe to remove
binary explosives from munitions. Water of 205 degrees Fahrenheit at 90 psi
pressure is directed into the explosive cavity to remove the filler by a
combination of explosive melting, hydraulic mining, or erosion. The
explosives from the munitions are then reclaimed in either flaked or
pelletized configuration. In the past, the spent contaminated washout water
was processed through sawdust charged gravity filters to remove solids in
suspension. Clean hot water was frequently used to final rinse the casings
thus introducing excess water into the system necessitating disposal of the
excess. Sawdust charged gravity filters and counter-gravity charcoal filters
were used to clean the overflow at most locations. At some locations, the
excess water was run into outdoor leaching ponds. Some of these old leaching
ponds now present a formidable remedial challenge. Operation of filters
adequate to meet current EPA liquid discharge requirements has greatly
increased a washout plant's energy consumption. Figures 12 and 13 shows the
major components of the process.
Application: Bombs, projectiles, mines, and rocket warheads.
Capacity: Approximately 1400 Ibs/hr.
Operating Costs: Costs are variable but generally high due to high
energy costs for steam generation and large man-hour (MH) requirements for
plant operation.
Process Control: Not applicable
Reclamation Quality: The flaked or pelletized explosive is generally
not of high enough quality for military reuse because of its lijnited storage
time.
Waste Streams Generated: Explosive-contaminated water that must be
cleaned within the plant prior to dumping.
Environmental Constraints: Discharge water must meet stringent purity
standards before being released from the plant.
Data Gaps: Hone
Construction Cost: Not applicable
Developmental Cost: Not applicable
3-2
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3-4
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Developmental Status: The APE 1300 is a fielded system and no further
development of this system is in process at present. A Charcoal Filter Systa"1.
(CFS) has been developed to remove the explosive contamination from the waste
water prior to discharge. There are 14 systems installed; however, only 2 are
currently in operation. Reference report RQ82, appendix A.
b. High Pressure (Waterjet)
The Thiokol Corporation has a contract with the Navy to manufacture
both Standard MK 104 missiles and the High Speed Anti-Radar Missile (HARM)
motors. Thiokol is required to test fire one motor in every cast produced to
assure the quality of the product. For the Standard Missile, this equates to
one tested per 14 motors produced; for HARM, one tested per 20 motors
produced. To help reduce program cost, they clean out the insulation lining
(abestos-filled) of the test fired cases; the cases are then refilled and
reuse (for test firings only). For standard missile motors, a case can be
reused as many as 10 times at a cost savings of $20,000 for each refill and
firing. The maximum reuse for HARM is three. When a flawed motor is found,
either because of propellant or insulation defects, the motors are washed out
and the cases axe reused.
To process a missile motor it is placed in a fixture at a 30 degree
angle from the horizontal. The fixture will accept a missile motor whose
diameter is 10 to 60 inches with a length not to exceed 220 inches. A 10,000
psig-120 gallon/minute water jet is introduced into the base missile. The
water jet cuts the propellant into small pieces which are removed in slurry
form. The slurry is channeled to a screen where the solid propellant is
collected, and removed, to be open-burned. The water is then recycled to the
water jet nozzles. (Water that is contaminated with Catocene or HMX is not
recycled.) When the water becomes saturated with dissolved AP from the
propellant, it is removed from the system and treated at a special facility
prior to being discharged to the environment. When insulation is to be
removed from the case the effluent is recycled and is processed differently
because of the asbestos.
Application: Propellents containing AP, HMX, and Catocene.
Capacity: Approximately 1000 Ibs/hr.
Operating Costs: Unknown
Process Control: The process is automated and controlled remotely.
Reclamation Quality: Thiokol Corporation does not reclaim the
propellant.
Waste Streams Generated: The AP saturated water is treated at a
special facility before it is discharged into the environment at a cost of
approximately $0.55 per gallon. The water containing asbestos is treated in
the company's sewage treatment plant.
3-5
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Environmental Constraints: None
Data Gaps: None
Construction Cost: The cost would be approximately $2/500,000 to
replace the existing facility.
Developmental Cost: None
Developmental Status: The facility is currently undergoing
renovation. It is scheduled to be operational by 15 October 1989. ThioJcol
proposes to process Minuteman and Caster motors in a six-month timeframe.
c. High Pressure (Waterjet)
The Aerojet Solid Propulsion Company is currently operating a "hogout"
operation to remove the propellent from the Minuteman second stage missile
motors. The hogout system is capable of removing about 1,000 Ibs of
propellant per hour, or one motor every 16 hours. The missile motor is placed
on a horizontal saddle and rotated as the water jet is inserted into the base.
As the propellant is cut loose, it is removed from the base end and dewatered.
The solid propellant is packed into plastic-lined fiber drums and open burned
on sand-lined concrete pads with curbs to provide secondary containment of the
residue.
Application: Minuteman second stage missile motors.
Capacity: One missile motor every 16 hours or 1,000 Ibs/hr.
Operating Costs: Total cost including labor, utilities, sacrificial
drums and residue disposal is approximately $0.35/lb.
Process Control: Hogout operation is accomplished remotely using
automated controlled cameras for surveillance. Open burning is a manual
operation with remote ignition of the wastes.
Reclamation Quality: Residue is opened burned and hogout liquid is
recycled.
Waste Streams Generated: Ash residue is sent to a class 1 dump.
Environmental Constraints: Specific environmental requirements such
as wind direction and speed, pollution index, height of inversion layer etc.,
have to be met to provide good dispersion and no environmental iiqpact.
Data Gaps: None
Construction Cost: A complete facility from hogout to burn pads is
approximately $1,500,000 without buildings.
3-6
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Developmental Cost: None
Developmental Status: The facility is operational. The facility was
designed and fabricated to do this specific task; it has not been optimized
for a large scale operation.
d. High Pressure (Waterjet)
The Western Area Demilitarization Facility/ Hawthorne, NV has a
Washout System (Hydraulic Cleaning System) located in the South Tower of the
Washout/Steainout Building (bldg 117-6). The objective of this system is to
remove two types of nonmeltabie press-loaded explosives known as Explosive A-3
and Explosive D from medium and major caliber gun ammunition items.
Explosive A-3 is removed from projectiles by use of cold water at a
pressure up to 15,000 psig, while Explosive D is removed by use of 195 degrees
Fahrenheit water at normal line pressure (approximately 80 psig).
Two different methods are used for holding the projectiles while the
materials are removed; a washout turntable for projectiles ranging in size
from 3 through 6 inches, and a washout chamber for those from 8 through 16
inches. Either high pressure cold water or heated line pressure water is
supplied to the nozzles associated with the washout turntable because
projectiles in the size range accommodated by the washout turntable will
contain either Explosive A-3 or Explosive D. Only hot water is supplied to
the washout chamber because major caliber projectiles to be processed in the
chamber will contain only Explosive D.
When items containing Explosive A-3 materials are being processed, the
mixture of water and particles of materials draining from the washout
turntable are directed to a dewatering screen which separates the water from
the particles of material. The contaminated water is directed to the Water
Treatment Facility and the particles of materials are directed to the drying
conveyor. Dried materials are weighed, packaged, and removed from the
building.
When items containing Explosive D materials are being processed, the
saturated solution and undissolved materials are directed from the turntable
to the slurry collection tank where the materials are kept hot and stirred to
prevent settling and caking. The material from the slurry collection tank is
disposed of. Figure 14 shows a flow diagram of the Washout System, figure
15 shows the conceptual arrangement of the south tower.
Application: Process-loaded Explosive A-3 and Explosive D from medium
and major caliber gun anrounition items.
Capacity: The turntable can accommodate eight projectiles at a time.
The washout chamber will only accommodate one large projectile at a time.
Operating Costs: Undetermined at this time.
Process Control: Manually controlled.
Reclamation Quality: Explosive A-3 is reusable, but Explosive D is
not. The projectile cases can be reused.
3-7
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3-9
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Waste Streams Generated: The Water Treatment Plant (bldg 117-7)
accommodates the processing and recycling of water that has been contaminated
with energetic residue from the process. All nonreusable explosives and
explosive sludge is disposed of by incineration at building 117-4.
Environmental Constraints: None
Data Gaps: The process has been checked out, but is has not been run
for any extended period of time.
Construction Cost: $3,439,500
Developmental Cost: $25,000
Developmental Status: The equipment in the Washout/Steamout Building
is in layaway. Reference reports RD27 and R087, appendix A.
2. Meltout
a. Autoclave
The Western Area Demilitarization Facility, Hawthorne, NV has eight
autoclaves (Melt Drain Systems) in building 117-5. The objective of this
system is to remove and recover meltable main charge explosives from gun
ammunition, rocket warheads, depth' charges, mortar cartridges, and other small
to moderate size ordnance items. This is accomplished by heating the exterior
of a group of ammunition items that are mounted on a fixture placed inside an
autoclave with the open end down. As the explosive inside the amnunition items
melts, it drains out of the items and is directed out of the autoclave to a
melt kettle for dehydrating by vacuum. The explosives are then cooled,
solidified/ and broken into small pieces on a belt flaker. The flakes of
explosives are weighed, packaged, and removed from the building for reuse,
sale, or destruction. Figure 16 shows a conceptual arrangement of the meltout
process and figure 17 shows a conceptual view of a melt-drain autoclave.
Application: Small to moderate size items with meltable explosives.
Capacity: Will vary based on the size item being processed.
Operating Costs: Undetermined at this time.
Process Control: Manual control.
Reclamation Quality: Both explosives and cases can be reused.
Waste Streams Generated: The Water Treatment Plant (bldg 117-7)
accommodates the processing and recycling of water that has been contaminated
with energetic residue from the process. All non-reusable explosives and
explosive sludge is disposed of by incineration at building 117-4.
3-10
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3-12
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Environmental Constraints: None
Data Gaps: The process has been'checked using explosive loaded items,
but it has not been run for any extended period of time.
Construction Cost: $3,439,500
Developmental Cost: $20,000
Developmental Status: The equipment in building 117-5 is in layaway.
Reference report RC27 and R087, appendix A.
b. Autoclave
The Ravenna Arsenal, Inc., Ravenna, OH has recently completed
melting out TNT from projectiles by using 12 of their 16 available autoclaves.
The 3"/50 projectiles flow through the disassembly station to the fuze removal
station. At the fuze removal station, the complete assembly (fuze, adapter,
and auxiliary detonating fuze) is removed from the projectile. Projectiles are
then transported to the meltout building. The fuze is removed from the
adapter. Then both the adapter and auxiliary detonating fuze are moved to the
auxiliary detonating fuze/adapter separation station.
A fixture (spider) was locally designed to hold up to 16-3"/50
projectiles for each autoclave kettle with a cycle time of 7 minutes. The
maximum sized item that Ravenna's autoclave(s) can accommodate is one 500-lb
bomb.
After the projectiles are melted out, they are transferred to the
flashing building where the rotating bands are removed prior to the cases
being flashed.
The last demilitarization run of 134,467 3"/50's was completed in
November 1989, with a cost of approximately $8.59 per round, or a cost of
$1,562.26 per gross ton, exclusive of overhead. The cost per round would be
reduced in the operation would be run on a continuous basis.
Application: All meltable explosive filled projectiles and bombs up
to 500-lbs.
Capacity: Each autoclave can accommodate from 16 3"/50 or 90mm
projectiles up to one 500-lb bomb.
Operating Costs: From $7.50-9.50 for each 3"/50 round, depending on
the Quantity of the projectiles to Demilitarization.
Process Control: Manual
Reclamation Quality: The approximate reclamation values of some of
the components from the 3" 750 projectile (DCDIC C299) are in the following
table:
3-13
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COMPONENT WEIGHT IQS.
NOSE CONE & CAP 1.10 $76700/ton
TOT .74 $ 0.91/lb Est
ROTATING BAND .45 $ 0.76/lb
CASE 8.65 $58.10/ton
AfcMO CANS 20.00 $30.00/ton
Waste Streams Generated: None
Environmental Constraints: None
Data Gaps: None
Construction Cost: None
Developmental Cost: None
Developmental Status: The autoclaves at Ravenna are in an operational
status.
c. Steamout
Crane Army Ammunition Activity, Crane, IN, has a steamout facility in
operation. The facility (bldg 160) is a closed system with very few fumes
escaping to the atmosphere. Each item to be processed requires a specially
designed fixture, which when placed in the munitions fuze cavity will allow
steam to cone in contact with the explosive. When melted the explosive flows
through a heated manifold to a holding tettle. The explosive, water mix is
kept as a liquid in the holding tettle until a predetermined amount is
collected. The explosive is then transferred to a mix/melt kettle fitted with
a vacuum system. The water and water vapors are removed by drawing a vacuum
on the kettle. When the moisture content of the explosive is acceptable the
explosive is poured into cooling trays. The trays are kept in cooling hoods
until the explosive has solidified. The explosive is then removed fron the
trays and packaged for storage. Fumes from the holding kettle, vacuum kettle,
and the cooling hoods are processed through a water scrubbing system before
being exhausted to the atmosphere. Water from the steamout process and the
water scrubber system is treated by a carbon adsorption system, then released
to the sanitary sewage system.
Figure 18 shows a line diagram schematic of the process.
Application: Explosive filled items which have been cast with a TNT
based explosive, (i.e. bombs, warheads, mines, torpedoes, and projectiles)
Capacity: Approximately 4,000 pounds of reclaimed explosive per eight
hour shift when steaming out large explosive filled items. Approximately
1,500 pounds of reclaimed explosive per eight hour shift when steaming out
smaller explosive filled items, such as projectiles. Large explosive fillea
items require as long as 14 hours to steamout.
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3-15
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Operating Costs: A FY 89 cost estimate to steamout a quantity of
20,000 TOT filled 90im projectiles was $13.00 per round. To disassemble the
munition and steamout the explosive the total cost would be $30.00 per round.
This total cost would be offset by the reuse or sale of the filler, casings,
and other materials.
Process Control: CAAA has the capability to analyze each batch of
reclaimed explosive to determine the moisture content. Additional analysis
can be performed to determine other attributes of the reclaimed explosive,
when required.
Reclamation Quality: The munition cases have been utilized for inert.
filling in the past. The explosive has been utilized as explosive filler for
shock charges used to test naval ship and submarine hulls.
Waste Streams Generated: This process generates two waste streams:
one, scrap explosive and contaminated material that must be open burned or
incinerated, and two, contaminated carbon from the waste water treatment that
must be incinerated or regenerated.
Environmental Constraints: None
Data Gaps: None
Construction Cost: The addition of the vacuum kettle and other
equipment improvements in 1982 cost approximately $400K. Construction of the
pollution treatment facilities in 1981 cost approximately $1.3 million.
Developmental Costs: Unknown, development was not performed at CAAA.
Developmental Status: CAAA has successfully reclaimed and reused
explosives, at a cost savings, to be used in the fabrication of shock charges
used to test naval ship and submarine hulls. CAAA has successfully used the
plant, at a cost savings, to reclaim hardware from 500 Ib bombs. Currently
the plant is being utilized to reclaim hardware from torpedo warheads and
naval mines for reload as inert items.
d. Steamout
The Western Area Demilitarization Facility, Hawthorne, NV has a Hot
Water Washout/System located in the North Tower of building 117-6. The
objective of this system is to remove and recover cast-loaded explosives from
large ammunition items. This is accomplished by (a) impinging a stream of
steam or hot water on the explosives in the item, (b) draining the molten
explosives frcr* the item, (c) separating the water from the explosives, (d)
preparing the explosives for subsequent activities, and (e) preparing the
emptied ammunition item case for reuse or for decontamination by flashing.
The item is placed on a tiltable table, a seal plate and an adapter are then
attached to the item. A lance, that advances manually, is inserted through
the adaptor to admit steam or hot water during the meltout process.
Explosives that may be reusable or salable are dehydrated by vacuum, cooled,
solidified, and broken into relatively small pieces on a belt flaker, and
3-16
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packaged. Nonreusable explosives are directed to a device where they are
solidified into the form of Kernels and then loaded into portable tanks for
incineration at building 117-4.
After the steamout is complete, the item is transferred to a steam
heated autoclave to remove any residual explosives and the hot-welt liner
material present in most large items. After the residual material has been
melted out of the casing, it can be reused or disposed of.
Figure 19 shows a flow diagram of the explosive steamout process.
Figure 20 shows an end elevation view of the steamout equipment arrangement.
Application: Remove and recover cast-loaded explosives from
underwater mines, bombs/ and other large ammunition items.
Capacity: The system is sized to steam out approximately 7,900 IDS of
INT-type explosives per eight hour shift.
Operating Costs: Undetermined at this time.
Process Control: Manually controlled.
Reclamation Quality: Both the explosives and cases can be reused.
Waste Streams Generated: The Water Treatment Plant (bldg 117-7)
accommodates the processing and recycling of water that has been contaminated
with energetic residue from the process. All nonreusable explosives and
explosive sludge is disposed of by incineration at building 117-4.
Environmental Constraints: None
Data Gaps: The process has been checked out with explosive filled
items, but it has not been run for an extended period of time.
Construction Cost: $3,439,500
Developmental Cost: $75,000
Developmental Status: The equipment in the Washout/Steamout Building
is in layaway. Reference reports RJ027 am RQ87, appendix.
3. Reclamation:
a. Solvation (Class 1.3 Propel!ant)
The Aerojet Central Waste Management group in Sacramento has developed
a full scale Propellant Thermal Processor (PTP) system equipped with AP a
waste preparation method to convert the propellant to an inert waste. This
unit will remove approximately 95 percent of the AP contained in class 1.3
propellant. The water that is obtained from the process is saturated with AP
and sold as a raw material. The remaining material that contains binder,
aluminum, and 5 percent AP is incinerated in the two-stage PTP incinerator.
The initial incineration is done at 1,850 degrees and leaves a recyclable
3-17
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aluminum ash. The second incineration is done at 2,100 degrees on the gaseous
effluent from the initial incineration to complete the combustion and destroy
any organics remaining from the first stage incineration. The gases are then
cooled and scrubbed to remove particulates and hydrogen chloride gas. For
every 1 million pounds of class 1.3 propellant treated through the system,
there will be approximately 4,000 gallons of inorganic salt scrubber waste
that will be disposed of by deep-well injection at a cost of $1.00/gallon.
Aerojet initial requirement was to design a plant that would process
approximately 2 million pounds of class 1.3 propellant per year. However with
the available equipment, the final fabricated system would be able to handle 3
million pounds per year operating at 60 percent duty cycle. The system is
easily adaptable to larger volume scale-up, if desired.
Figure 21 shows a line schematic of the proposed recovery process
from a hogout operation. Material balance, Figure 22 shows a line schematic
material balance of the incinerator process. Figure 23 shows a system
schematic of the incinerator process.
Application: Without RCBA permits, the unit can handle 1.3
propellant. If a PCRA permits is obtained, the unit can also handle
contaminated wastes, chlorinated solvents, AP waste water, and hazardous toxic
solid and liquid organics while meeting all of the environmental requirements
for gaseous and liquid effluents.
Capacity: The current process system can process 3 million pounds of
propellant per year based on a 60 percent duty cycle. System is easily
expandable.
Operating Costs: *For 3 Million Pounds of 1.3 Propellant:
Utilities** $ 352,000
Labor*** $ 645,000
Liquid Waste**** $ 50/000
Solid Waste***** $ -0-
Total (per 3 million Ibs.)... 51/057,000 or $0.35/lb.
* Does not include hogout.
** Electrical and auxiliary fuel and chemical costs.
*** Assume rate of $30.00 per man hour.
**** Waste treatment ($1.00/gallon plus shipping and handling).
***** Assume aluminum recovery.
Process Control: The propellant is batch fed and the other processes
are continuous automated using microprocessor based controls.
Peclamation Quality: The recovered AP solution and the aluminum and
aluminum oxide are of salable quality.
Waste Streams Generated: Approximately 12,000 gallons of sodium
chloride solution per 3,000,000 pounds of propellant is generated and can be
deep well injected at $1.00/gallon plus transportation cost.
Environmental Constraints: The system does not need a RCRA permit.
Only an air permit is required.
3-20
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Construction Cost: The equipment cost is approximately $7,000/000 to
$8,000,000 for the process equipment at 3,000,000 pound rating.
Developmental Cost: None
Developmental Status: The entire system has been demonstrated using
20,000 pounds of AP based propellant from the Minuteman Stage II motors. The
system is currently ready for operational status. The system can be scaled up
for 10,000,000 pounds of propellant per year per incinerator unit. Multiple
units can be integrated for greater capacity.
b. White Phosphorus to Phosphoric Acid Conversion
U.S. Army Armament, Munitions and Chemical Command, Rock Island, XL
with support from CAAA, and TEAD has successfully developed a
demilitarization procedure for converting white phosphorus (WP) to phosphoric
acid. The process is based on incinerating WP munitions, which have
previously had all explosive components removed, in a modified APE 1236
deactivation furnace (rotary kiln). Hot gaseous combustion products are drawr.
from the furnace through the conversion plant by high capacity fan blowers.
The resultant phosphorus pentoxide is drawn through a co-flow/counter-flow
hydration system, producing a 5 percent concentration by weight phosphoric
acid. The remaining gas stream passes through a variable throat venturi and
enters a separator where dilute acid, used for hydrating, is produced. The
gas stream then moves through two mist elimination systems where aerosol
particles are removed prior to the exit stack. Figure 24 shows a line diagram
of the WP-PAC process.
Application: HP filled munitions.
Capacity: Maximum capability of 11,520 pounds of WP daily converted
into 48,000 pounds of 75% concentration phosphoric acid in a 24-hour period.
Operating Costs: $300,000 to $350/000/month.
Process Control: All plant functions are continually monitored and
controlled from a central location by two industrial programmable logic
controllers and are supported by mechanical, electrical hydraulic, preumatic
and auxiliary services equipment.
Reclamation Quality: The product acid is filtered for removal of
suspended solids, and sold to commercial operations.
Waste Streams Generated: None
Environmental Constraints: None. The WP-PAC plant project represents
one of the first responsive programs to the constraints of EPA requirements
and the RCRA.
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Construction Cost: The cost of materials and equipment alone is
estimated between $4 and $5 million.
Developmental Status: Full scale operation of the WP-PAC plant
officially began on 6 February 1989. By the programs end (third quarter
FY 91), approximately 5 million pounds of WP will have been processed and over
20 million pounds of phosphoric acid will have been produced and sold. The
estimated revenue from acid sales is $1.44 to $1.60 million. Reference report
R003, appendix A.
4. Controlled IT^?','"'fixation:
a. Deactivation Furnace - APE 1236
The Ammunition Equipment Directorate at TEAD, Tooele, UT was
instrumental in the development of the APE 1236 Deactivation Furnace. It is a
thick walled, variable speed/ steel rotary kiln furnace. The Deactivation
Furnace has four major components which are; the feed system section, the
retort assembly section, the discharge section, and the pollution abatement
system. It is purposely not refractory lined to enable the furnace to be used
as a small arms "popping furnace". The small arms, up to 20mm, are fed into
the furnace at a predetermined rate and are functioned by the heat of the
furnace (pop off). If the furnace was refractory lined, the action of the
small arms round functioning would erode the refractory material or when the
furnace is used for a larger item flashing furnace, the tumbling of the item
would damage the refractory material.
Currently the APE 1236 is undergoing a complete upgrade so it will
comply with the current RCRA requirements. The upgrade will consist of an
automatic waste fee subsystem, afterburner, high/low temperature heat
exchangers, centrifugal dust collector (cyclone), bag house, draft fan, and
the exhaust stack. It will be a completely shrouded system and no fugitive
emissions will be allowed. Figure 25 shows the present APE 1236 facility.
Figure 26 shows the proposed upgraded facility.
Application: Small arms ammunition, primer, fuzes, boosters, and
detonators; to flash 75mm through 120mm projectiles after washout of explosive
charge; and to deactivate drained chemical bombs, rockets, grenades, and other
miscellaneous items.
Capacity: A list of rotation speeds and feed rates have not been
established for the modified APE 1236.
Operating Costs: Varies with different locations. (Depends on labor,
fuel, and electrical rates).
Process Control: The new upgraded Deactivation Furnace is computer
controlled, and completely automated to assure the operation will conform to
given parameters. The new system will have an operations parameter recorder
that will store a permanent record of the daily operations.
3-26
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Reclamation Quality: After processing, the residue metals are sold as
scrap.
Waste Streams Generated: Fly ash from the air pollution control
system.
Environmental Constraints: After the upgrade has been completed, the
furnace will be operated in compliance with applicable permits, including RCSA
Part B.
Data Gaps: After the upgrade has been completed, the feed rates and
the rotational speeds of the retort will have to be established for each iterr.
being processed.
Construction Cost: To replace an APE 1236 Deactivation Furnace with
the proposed upgrades in FY 90 would cost approximately $2,000,000.
Developmental Cost: The upgrade of 14 APE 1236 has been funded at
approximately $1,000,000 each.
Developmental Status: The APE 1236 Deactivation Furnace will be
undergoing an excursive upyiade iii t'¥ 5»u-!?i to briny AC IM.G eonipI^onL-c wiU*
recent changes in the environmental laws. Reference report R003, appendix A.
b. Deactivation Fumaoe - M-**i^i«*1 APE 1236
Pine Bluff Arsenal CPBA) constructed a pollution abatement facility
(incinerator complex) during the calendar year 1977-1978 (CY 77-78) timeframe.
One of the incinerators in this complex is the Deactivation Furnace. The
Deactivation Furnace is a modified APE 1236 in that it is completely shrouded
and the captured gases from the feed system and the discharge chute are
processed through a separate filtering system; whereas, the gases from the
exterior of the retort section are injected into the Deactivation exhaust
stream and processed through the Central Afterburner (CAB).
The CAB thermally processes the gaseous emissions from the
Deactivation, Chain Grate Incinerator (CGI) and the Car Bottom Incinerator
(CBI). It also processes effluent from the Munition Test Chamber (MTC) used
to test items from the production of pyrotechnic munitions. The combustion
gas stream from the CAB is quenched, then scrubbed in a variable throat wet
venturi scrubber system prior to discharge to the stack. A new hydro-sonic
scrubbing system is in the process of being procured and installed.
Application: Grenades, fuzes, hardware (shredded) from pyrotechnics,
WP, riot, HC and colored smoke munitions, and small explosive items (PBA has a
self-imposed restriction not to exceed 600 grains of explosives per section in
their Deactivation).
Capacity:
Grenades 254-330/hr*
M25A2(CS1) G924 G928 330/hr
3-29
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MLB Colored Smoke G940 G950 440/hr
MB HC G930 264-330/hr*
105mm Canisters HC C396 ' 330/hr
lOSrrtn Canister Colored Smoke C397 C399 330/hr
155mm Canister HC D445 D446 264/hr
Expelling Charge M84 1315-143-7127 1760/hr
Primer M28 M84 Download N158 264/hr
Fuze MT & SQ M501 M84 Download N276 264/hr
Ml9 Burster ZUT 264/hr
M206A1 & A2 Fuze 1320/hr
M201A1 Fuze 6600/hr
155mm Colored Smoke Ogive D451 D452 D454...264/hr
155mm Straight Side Smoke 171/hr
M118 1640/hr
Lead Cup Assembly. 264/hr
4.2" CS Canister 264/hr
Cylinder & Tray Assy for L8A3 RP Grenade..1320/hr
*«
* Depending on operating parameters.
** Other items may be added when feed rates are established.
Operating Costs: Unknown
Process Control: The Deactivation is conputer controlled to assure
the operation will conform to given parameters.
Reclamation Quality: Residue is either sold as scrap or landfilled.
Waste Streams Generated: None
Environmental Constraints: None
Data Gaps: Feed rates will have to be established using the new
hydro-sonic scrubber.
Construction Cost: To replace the Deactivation at PBA it would cost
approximately $2,500,000 in FY 90.
Developmental Cost: There will be cost associated with certification
with the hyro-sonic scrubbing system.
Developmental Status: PBA is currently (FY 89-90) procuring a
hydro-sonic scrubbing system for their pollution abatement system that will
remove particulates down to .02 microns in size. After the hydro-sonic device
is installed/ the Deactivation will then be certified to conform to the
current RCRA and other regulatory requirements. Reference report R053,
appendix A.
3-30
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c. Rotary Furnace System APE 2210
The Western Area Demilitarization Facility/ Hawthorne/ NV has two
Rotary Furnaces APE 2210 in building 117-3. The Rotary Furnace Lead Items
System, located in Cell 1, was established to deactivate small caliber
ammunition equipped with lead projectiles. The Rotary Furnace Detonating
Items System, located in Cell 2, was established to deactivate larger
detonating items equipped with non-lead projectiles. Both systems are oil
fired and include specialized handling equipment for loading anrunition into
the furnace as well as the collecting and disposing of the scrap and
by-products. Figure 27 shows an artist's concept of a rotary furnace of the
APE 2210 type located at WADF. Figure 28 shows the equipment arrangement in
building 117-3.
Application: Small arms ammunition, primer/ fuzes/ boosters, and
detonators.
Capacity: The rotation speeds and feed rates for upgraded systems
have not been established at this time.
Operating Costs: Undetermined at this time.
Process Control: Remote controlled.
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Reclamation Quality: After processing/ the residue metals are sold as
scrap.
Waste Streams Generated: None anticipated.
Environmental Constraints: The rotary furnace in Cell 1 can not be
used because the pollution abatement equipment has not been upgraded to meet
the current RCRA requirements. The rotary furnace pollution abatement systems
in Cell 2 is being upgraded.
Data Gaps: After the upgrade has been completed, the feed rates and
rotational speeds of the retort for the rotary furnace in Cell 2 will have to
be established for each item or family of items processed.
Construction Cost: $3,134/458.
Developmental Cost: The detonation furnace is operational.
Developmental Status: The pollution abatement equipment for the
Detonating Items Systems is in the process of being upgraded for FY 89 to
enable the system to meet the current RCRA requirements.
d. Explosive Waste Incinerator
The Aimunition Equipment Directorate/ TEAD, Tooele, UT was
instrumental in the development of the EWI. The EWI is similar in design and
operation to the APE 1236 Deactivation Furnace System consisting of four major
components; a deactivation furnace/ a positive feed system, an air pollution
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control system, and equipment control panels. The EWI has a positive feed
system and a pollution abatement system which consists of an indirect, low
temperature (1000 to 250 degrees Fahrenheit) heat exchanger, a cyclone dust
collector, bag house, draft fan, and exhaust stack.
There are plans to upgrade the EWI with an afterburner, high
temperature heat exchanger, and a new control system. Also, it will have a
shrouded containment system or similar to the upgraded APE 1236 Deactivation
Furnace System. Figure 29 shows the facility and figure 30 shows the positive
feed system.
Application: Bulk energetic material disposal only.
Operating Costs: Varies with different locations.
Process Control: It is planned to have a computer control system
similar to the APE 1236.
system.
Reclamation Quality: None
Waste Streams Generated: Fly ash residue from air pollution control
Environmental Constraints: After the planned upgrade has been
completed, the furnace will be operated in compliance with applicable permits
including RCRA Part B.
Data Gaps: After the planned upgrade has been completed, the feed
rates and the rotational speeds of the retort will have to be established for
each item or group of items to be processed.
Construction Cost: The replacement cost of a new EWI/ with the
planned upgrade, would be approximately $2,000,000.
Developmental Cost: The funds required for the proposed upgrade would
be approximately $800,000.
Developmental Status: Presently, there are no funds to upgrade the
EWI.
e. Contaminated Waste Processor
The Ammunition Equipment Directorate AED, at TEAD, Tooele, UT was
instrumental in the development of the CWP. The CWP is a "car bottom"
incinerator which has a movable hearth. There are two sizes for the CWP.
Small Unit: The small CWP is a batch fed (4'x8' basket) incinerator
and the pollution abatement equipment consists of a dilution air damper, low
temperature (1000 to 250 degrees Fahrenheit) heat exchanger, a dust collector,
bag house, draft fan, and exhaust stack.
Large ynjtt The large CWP is a batch or continuous fed incinerator.
When it is used in the continuous mode, the material is processed through a
shredder system and then fed into the fire chamber through a series of doors
or "air locks." The pollution abatement equipment is similar with the small
unit, except it has a larger capacity.
3-34
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Application: Waste material that has been lightly contaminated with ^^
energetic materials.
Capacity: The small unit has a 300 Ib/hr throughput rate; whereas,
the large unit has a 600 Ib/hr throughput rate with shedder in use.
Operating Costs: Varies with location. (Dependent on labor, fuel,
and electrical rates.)
Process Control: Programmable logic controller with
"operator-inserted", operating parameters for various types of waste.
Reclamation Quality: The residue is generally landfilled or sold
through the Defense Reutilization and Marketing Office (DRMO).
Waste Streams Generated: Fly ash residue from air pollution control
system.
Environmental Constraints: Must comply with appropriate air quality
regulations.
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Data Gaps: None
Construction Cost: Small Unit - $1,000,000 installed.
Large Unit - $1,500,000 installed.
Developmental Cost: Not applicable.
Developmental Status: Six CWPs are currently in operation.
f. Static Incinerator
Pine Bluff Arsenal constructed a pollution abatement facility
(incinerator complex) during the CY 77-78 timeframe. One of the latest
furnaces to be installed in this complex is the CBI. The CBI has a movable
hearth that can be rolled out of the incinerator and loaded externally, then
rolled into the fire chamber for processing. The hearth area is large enough
to accommodate at least two 4'x4'x4' pallets of material to be processed. A
vertical door is lowered into position to close the door opening. This CBI
also has a side ram feed that can accommodate smaller batches of material to
be processed. The effluent from the CBI is processed through the CAB
The CAB thermally processes the gaseous emissions from the CBI,
Deactivation and the CGI. It also processes effluent from the MTC used to
test items from the production of pyrotechnic munitions. The combustion gas
stream from the CAB is quenched, then scrubbed in a variable throat wet
venturi scrubber system prior to discharge to the stack. A new hydro-sonic
scrubbing system is in the process of being procured and installed.
Application: To be determined, it would be ideal for flashing large
metal parts and processing smoke pots.
3-36
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Capacity: To be determined.
(Operating Costs: To be determined.
Process Control: Unknown
Reclamation Quality: Undetermined at this time.
Waste Streams Generated: Undetermined at this time.
Environmental Constraints: Undetermined at this time.
Data Gaps: The CBI has not been certified.
Construction Cost: Unknown
Developmental Cost: There will be cost associated with certification
of the system.
Developmental Status: The CBI has been procured and installed at PEA.
Pine Bluff Arsenal is currently procuring a hydro-sonic scrubbing system for
their pollution abatement system that will remove particulates down to .02
microns in size. After the hydro-sonic device is installed the CBI will then
be certified to conform to the current RCRA and other regulatory agencies
requirements.
g. Flashing Furnace System (Annealing Oven)
The Western Area Demilitarization Facility, Hawthorne, NV has a
Flashing Furnace System (Annealing Oven) in Cells 5 and 6 of building 117-3.
This .process has been designed to heat moderate size processed ammunition
items at a temperature where any residual energetic material on or in the
items is decomposed or burned. The interior of the furnace is 16 feet long to
accommodate four skids at a time with inner and outer furnace doors at both
ends that are interlocked with the operation of the walking beam conveyor.
The furnace is fuel oil fired with a design temperature of 1475 degrees
Fahrenheit so as to heat the contents to 900 degrees Fahrenheit. At this
operating temperature and with a dwell time of 30 minutes, it is estimated
that items can be decontaminated to the 5X level. The furnace interior is
protected with two layers of refractory brick to reduce heat loss.
Figure 30 shows the concept of the flashing furnace with the walking
beam.
Application: To decontaminate metal parts by heat flashing.
Capacity: Sequentially process four skids of metal parts with a
discharge rate of one skid every 7.5 minutes.
Operating Costs: Undetermined at this time.
3-37
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Process Control: Remote controlled.
Reclamation Quality: After processing, the residue metals are sold as
scrap.
Waste Streams Generated: None anticipated.
Environmental Constraints: None
Data Gaps: None
Construction Cost: $1,479,408.
Developmental Cost: Not applicable.
Developmental Status: The system is operational. Reference report
R020, appendix A.
h. Static Firing of UW
The U.S. Army Missile Command (MICCM), Huntsville, AL has a contract
with the Thiokol Corporation to preform static firing of the Pershing 1A and
II Rocket Motors at the Longhom Army Ammunition Plant (LHAAP), Marshall, TX.
During FY 89, they disposed of 343 Pershing 1A, 1st and 2nd stages. They are
scheduled to start static firing the Pershing II Rocket Motors during FY 90.
The static firing is accomplished by using two test stands that were built
when the Pershing Rocket Motors were produced. If a Rocket Motor is
considered a suspect, they have two other sites where the motors can be static
fired in a secluded area. Figure 31 shows a line drawing of static firing.
Application: Pershing 1A & II Solid Rocket Motors.
Capacity: They can dispose of 6 motors per day of the Pershing lA's
on the designated sites. Due to the larger size/ the throughput for the
Pershing II motors will be less than 6 per day.
Operating Costs: Unknown
Process Control: Unknown
Reclamation Quality: After the motors are fired, the cases are
crushed and residue is landfilled.
Waste Streams Generated: The effluent is released to the atmosphere
and the cases are landfilled.
Environmental Constraints: The state of Texas regulates the number of
motors that can be fired each day and what weather conditions are acceptable
for the firings.
3-39
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Data Gaps: None
Construction Cost: The cost to replace a test firing stand would be
$40,000 to $60,000.
Developmental Cost: None
Developmental Status: Longhom Army Ammunition Plant is using 2 of 6
test firing stands and 2 remote sites to dispose of suspect motors.
i. Botary Kiln
The Western Area Demilitarization Facility, Hawthorne, NV has two
refractory lined rotary kiln type incinerators that are a part of the Bulk
Incineration System located in building 117-4. This process has been designed
to receive, prepare, and incinerate explosive materials transported from the
various demilitarization buildings. The two rotary kiln incinerators are to
burn the energetic materiel in slurry form. The flow rate may be varied from
0 to 10 gpm. The incinerators are equipped with variable speed drives which
are capable of rotating the incinerator body at the speed range of 1/2 to 6
rpm. A fuel oil burner is located at the discharge end of the incinerator and
provides the heat required to maintain the incinerator body temperature and to
burn slurry.
The afterburner is located downstream from the rotary kiln body. It
is refractory lined chamber equipped with two burners that insure that all of
the combustibles in the effluent gases are burned and emissions are reduced to
acceptable environmental levels.
Pink water has been processed through the incinerator at a rate of 5
gpm with a rotary kiln temperature of 1000 degrees Fahrenheit and a
afterburner temperature of 1750 degrees Fahrenheit. Otto fuel incineration
tests have been successfully conducted using the rotary kiln temperature of
1600 degrees Fahrenheit with an afterburner temperature of 2200 degrees
Fahrenheit; thus, showing the versatility of this incineration system
Figure 32 shows the arrangements of the incinerators relative to the
Bulk Explosives Disposal Building.
Capacity: Will vary due to the type materials processed. Design
capacity is for 550 pounds of energetic material per hour for each
incinerator.
Operating Costs: will vary due to the material being processed.
Process Control: Remote controlled.
Reclamation Quality: None
Waste Streams Generated: None
Environmental Constraints: None
Data Gaps: None
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Construction Cost: $4,077,599
•Developmental Cost: $200,000 (est) will be required to upgrade
incinerators to meet current RCRA requirements.
Developmental Status: The rotary kilns are in operation. Reference
reports R027 and R087, appendix A.
j. Rotary Kiln
The Environmental Systems Ccnpany (ENSCO), El Dorado, AR operates a
Hazardous Waste Disposal Facility on a commercial bases. The operation car. be
divided into two discrete systems, (a) "Fixed" System and, (b) "Transportable"
System. Some of the pertinent physical combustion characteristics of the
fixed based unit as described as follows:
System-Fixed Base Operating Temperature Retention Time
Rotary Kiln fl 1750-1900 degrees F 3/4-1.5 hr (solids)
Rotary Kiln #2 1750-1900 degrees F 1/2-2.0 hr (solids)
Primary Combustion 2200-2500 degrees F 2.5 sec
Secondary Combustion 1800-2400 degrees F 2.0 sec
Waste-Fired Boiler 1800-2400 degrees F 2.0 sec
To process pplychlorinated biphenyl and contaminated wastes, liquids
are pumped directly into the thermal oxidation system (TOU) while solids,
capacitors, and sludges are fed through a hopper directly into the on-line
shredders. The resulting solid pieces and liquids are augered into the rotary
kiln(s).
Two rotary kilns are utilized for treatment of solids, with either
shredded solids entering via screw-type auger systems, or repackaged for
subsequent ram feed. The kiln off-gases are passed through vertical cyclones
where additional ash is removed. After exiting the cyclone, the hot gases
travel through a ductway to the first chamber of the TOU. Additional liquid
wastes are fed into the TOU causing the final reaction with oxygen at 2400
degrees Fahrenheit to produce water vapor, carbon dioxide, and acid gases.
The complete combustion is assured by burning the effluent gases again in the
TOU.
A usable system is generated in the waste fired boiler. The waste
fired boiler is a single zone combustion chamber which is fitted with boiler
tubes that produce steam. The TOU and waste fired boiler exit gas streams are
continuously sampled and monitored or oxygen, carbon monoxide, and carbon
dioxide content. Within the scrubber, the gas streams are cooled to 200
degrees Fahrenheit and acid gases are neutralized with a lime slurry.
From the scrubber brine liquor, ENSCO produces a calcium chloride
product which is marketed to the oil drilling industry. The gases exiting the
top of the scrubber pass through the Venturi Jet for additional scrubbing to
ensure removal of any remaining entrained particulates. Figure 33 shows a
process schematic for the "Fixed Base" System.
The pertinent physical combustion characteristics of the transportable
system are described as follows:
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gygtem-MWP. 2CQy Operating Temperature Peter.tion Time
Rotary Kiln 1600-1800 degrees F 1/2-1.0 hr (solids)
Secondary Combustion 200-2400 degrees F >2.0 sec (gases)
The modular waster processor (M*P) 2000 is a separate, stand alone,
transportable incineration system which is operated on a permanent basis at
the ENSCO facility. The MWP 2000 operates independently except that it
utilizes and depends on the waste receiving/ the storage, and scrubber brine
clarifier units of the main fixed base facility.
The process flow is similar to that of the main facility with
corresponding pieces of equipment performing similar duties. The system
consists of the rotary kiln, afterburner, waste heat recovery system, acid gas
neutralization and the air pollution control train. Figure 34 shows the
process flow diagram of the M»JP 2000 System.
Capacity: Authorized feed rate of 3,700 Ibs/hr of PCBs. The facility
can process approximately 120,000,000 Ibs/yr.
Operating Costs: The average cost is 51.00/lb to dispose of waste
material, with wastes requiring special handling costing more.
Process Control: ENSCQ's digital computer control system monitors the
exit gases at various points in the system prior to being emitted out of the
stack for 02, C02, NOX, CO, SOX, particulates, temperature, and capacity.
Monitoring systems are interlocked throughout to result in automatic system
shutdown and waste-feed cut-off as a margin of safety to prevent any possible
excursion or in the event of a malfunction. These parameters are recorded and
submitted to proper governmental agencies.
Data:
DRE: 99.9999%
Excess 02 meter: 25 - 30%
Particulate concentration: 00.08 gr/dscf at 7% 02 in stack gas
HCL removal efficiency: 99.50%
The MW? 2000 is equipped with its own control room which monitors and
records all permitted parameters throughout the system. This system is also
set up to interlock in the event of a possible excursion with waste feed being
cut off automatically.
Data:
DFE: 99.99% Excess ©2 meter: 3%
Particulate concentration: 00.08 gr/dscf at 7% ©2 in stack gas
HCL removal efficiency: 99.00%
Reclamation Quality: Only the calcium chloride product is reclaimed.
Waste Streams Generated: The residue, which could be either ash,
crushed drums, or brine filtered cakes, from the incineration processes are
disposed of as hazardous waste or land filled.
Environmental Constraints: None
3-45
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Construction Cost: None
Developmental Status: None
Developmental Status: The facility is operational on a 24 hrs/day, 7
days/wk. Receipts of wastes are typically Monday thru Friday, 7:30 a.m. to
3:30 p.m.
k. Chain Grate Incinerator
Pine Bluff Arsenal constructed a pollution abatement facility
(incinerator complex) during the CY 77-78 timeframe. One of the furnaces in
this complex is the CGI; it has an elongated fire chamber with an opening on
each end that can accept a full pallet of material (>4 ft3). The end openings
are closed by lowering a vertical sliding door. The material to be processed
is placed on one end of the CGI and is pulled into the fire chamber by means
of a movable chain grate assembly. This assembly, which resembles a ladder,
has two chains that are positioned on each side of the fire chamber connected
by angle irons. The assembly is pulled through, or into, the fire chamber by
means of a drive sprocket on the discharge end and over an idler sprocket at
the feed end. Materials can either be batch or continuous fed through the CGI.
The effluent from the CGI is processed through the CAB.
The CAB thermally processes the gaseous emissions front the CGI,
Deactivation, and the CBI. It also processes effluent from the MTC used to
test items from the production of pyrotechnic munitions. The combustion
stream from the CAB is quenched, then scrubbed in a variable throat wet
venturi scrubber system prior to discharge to the stack. A new hydro-sonic
scrubbing system is in the process of being procured and installed.
Application: Scrap metal, dunnage, contaminated packing material and
munitions hardware. The CGI is limited to non-hazardous material and
contaminated metals.
Capacity: Unknown
Operating Costs: unknown
Process Control: Unknown
Reclamation Quality: Unknown
Waste Streams Generated: Residue has to be properly disposed of.
Environmental Constraints: None
Data Gaps: Done
Construction Cost: Unknown
3-A7
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Developmental Cost: Unknown
Developmental Status: Pine Bluff Arsenal, in fiscal year FY 89-90, is
procuring a hydro-sonic scrubbing system for their pollution abatement system
that will remove particulates down to .02 microns in size. After the
hydro-sonic device is installed, the CGI will be certified to conform to the
current RCRA and other regulatory agencies requirements. Reference report
R053, appendix A.
m. Air Curtain Pit Burner (ACPB)
Pine Bluff Arsenal procured an ACPB. The ACPB is a 20 foot long, 13
foot deep, open top pit with either one or both ends capable of opening for
clean out. The ACPB can be top fed by hand or by standard material handling
equipment (MHE). A blower system is installed on the top of the pit on the
opposite side from the feed side. When a fire is burning in the pit a
"curtain of air" blows across the top of the pit which entrains the effluent
from the combustion and circulates it back into the flame. Figure 35 shows a
line drawing of pit burner and a schematic drawing of an air curtain concept.
Application: Used to size reduce non-PCP treated wood and paper
by-products from normal operations.
Capacity: Bum rate on 30-70 percent moisture content mixed material
plus or minus 10 ton/hour.
Operating Costs: The cost of fuel to start and maintain the fire and
the electric power to operate the blower system will be minimum.
Process Control: Assure non-treated materials are burned. Other than
air flow and fuel flow there are no other controls.
Reclamation Quality: Residue has no value.
Waste Streams Generated: Residue ash will be hauled to the sanitary
land fill.
Environmental Constraints: No supporting test data, should be far
superior to open burning.
Data Gaps: None
Construction Cost: A turn key procurement cost FY 89 for the above
mentioned 20-foot ACPB incinerator was $93,000.
Developmental Cost: None
Developmental Status: The technology is readily available and can be
purchased commercially. Reference report R083, appendix A.
3-48
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n. Fluidized Bed Incinerator
The FBI at PBA pollution abatement facility (incinerator complex) has
a thermal capacity of 26,000,000 BTU/hr. The FBI uses high velocity air to
entrain solids in a highly turbulent combustion chanter. The bed media is 8
feet, expanded height, of silica sand. This thermal mass stabilizes the
combustion tertperature and allows for efficient heat transfer to the material
being processed. Materials are fed into the FBI in liquid, slurry, or solid
form.
The combustion gas stream passes through a cyclonic separator for
removal of large particulates (>5 microns), a gas quenching tower and a
variable throat wet venturi scrubber or for removal of acid gases and fine
particulates prior to discharge to the stack.
Pine Bluff Arsenal is currently procuring a hydro-sonic scrubbing
system that will remove particulates down to .02 micron in size, which is well
below the current environmental standards.
Application: Smokes and dyes in liquid, slurry and in solid form not
to exceed 1 inch in diameter particle size. No metal parts are to be
processed in the FBI.
Capacity:
Riot Agent CS 300 Ib/hr
Riot agent CNB 2 GPM
Impregnate Waste 3 GPM
Decon Solution & Water 3 (3>M
Smoke Mix HC 500 Ib/hr
M13 Kits "720 hr
Only small quantities of the following items have been processed and
feed rates have not been established at this time:
Smoke Mix He w/o aluminum
Fo/Mono/Carb
Toluene
Monchlorobenz/Toluene
95 percent Gex abd 5 percent
Monochlorobenzene
Carbon Tetrachloride
Polymar
Operating Costs: Unknown
Process Control: The FBI is computer controlled to assure the
operation will conform to given parameters.
Reclamation Quality: Not applicable to this process.
Waste Streams Generated: Particles five microns or larger (fly ash,
sand, etc.) are containerized and landfilled. Wastewater from the CGSU is
processed through the central waste treatment facility.
Environmental Constraints: The process, with the hydro-sonic
scrubbing system on line will meet the current RCRA requirements.
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Data Gaps: None
Construction Cost: The FBI has been constructed with production
funds. The new hydro-sonic scrubbing system has been ordered and will cost
approximately 1.5 million per unit.
Developmental Cost: There will be some funding requirements for the
trial burns to obtain certification for the FBI system..
Developmental Status: When the hydro-sonic scrubbing system is
installed and the FBI system is certified FY 90-91 the processing of the
applicable material can be initiated. Reference report R053, appendix A.
o. Circulating Bed Contustor (CBC)
Ogden Environmental Services, Inc. (OES), has developed and applied
the CBC which is an evolution of the FBI technology engineered specifically to
thermally treat hazardous and other wastes. The main difference between the
FBI and the CBC has a cyclone separator that removes the larger particles from
the exit gas stream and returns them to the combustion chamber. The CBC uses
high velocity air to entrain circulating solids in a highly turbulent
combustion loop. Upon entering the combustor, high velocity air (14 to 20
ft/sec) entrains the circulating solids which travel upward through the
combustor into the hot cyclone. This design allows combustions throughout the
reaction zone.
Due to its high thermal efficiency, the CBC is suited to treat a wide
variety of materials, including those with low heat content, including
contaminated soil. Material is introduced into the combustor loop where it
immediately contacts hot recirculating material from the hot cyclone.
Hazardous materials in the feed stream are rapidly heated when introduced into
the loop and continue to be exposed to high temperature throughout the time in
the CBC. Retention time in the cortoustor ranges from 1.5 to 2 seconds for
gases to less than 30 minutes for larger feed materials (greater than 2.0 inch
in diameter) .
After the cyclone separates combustion gases from the hot solids, the
solids are returned to the combustion chamber through a proprietary
non-mechanical seal at the outlet of the cyclone. Hot flue gases and fly ash
pass through a convective gas cooler and on to a baghouse filter where fly ash
is removed. The filtered flue gas is then exhausted to the atmosphere.
Heavier particles of purified soil remaining in the combustor lower bed are
slowly removed by a water-cooled ash conveyor system. Temperatures around the
entire loop (combustion, hot cyclone, return leg) are uniform plus or minus 50
degrees Fahrenheit. Figure 36 shows the process of the CBC.
Application: At presentf PCB contaminated soil, various petroleum
hydrocarbons, town gas residues, and other contaminants have been certified
for processing. In addition to soil, the CBC can process solids, sludges, and
liquids.
Capacity: The CBC can process a maxijtum of 100-150 tons a day with a
10-20 percent moisture content. As the moisture content of the soil
increases, the throughput decreases correspondingly. OES has developed highly
effective soil dry ng and preprocessing systems.
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3-52
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Operating Costs: Operating costs range from $100 to $150 per ton of
waste. This includes operators and management for 3 shift/day, 24 hours/day
operations. Operational availability is 80 percent to 90 percent.
Process Control : The CBC is controlled by a multi-channel process
controller to assure that operating parameters conform to established limits
or regulatory requirements. The system includes a variety of interlocks which
trim process excursions. The CBC is inherently safe: It operates at a slight
negative pressure to prevent fugitive emissions.
Reclamation Quality: Residue and processed soil are generally
replaced on site without the need for off -site landfilling.
Waste Streams Generated: The CBC does not generate secondary waste
streams such as scrubber water or sludge.
Environmental Constraints: None
Data Gaps: There are no data established to dispose of applicable
propellants, explosives, and pyrotechnic (PEP) materials. However, OES has
conducted extensive scale testing on a variety of substances, and it maintains
a CBC dedicated to research and trial bum activities. In addition/ the
company has extensive bench testing capabilities .
Construction Cost: OES offers full services/ including installation,
trial bums, operations, and demobilization. The company usually operates on
a lease and operations basis. A new CBC can be fabricated and installed for
approximately $4 million.
Developmental Cost: The CBC is fully operational. If the CBC is to
be considered in the disposal of PEP materials, additional costs could be
associated with certification of the system for these wastes.
Developmental Status: The technology is fully operational and
deployed on thermal treatment projects. Two plants are currently in operation
on contaminated solid site remediation projects; a third will be placed in
early 1990 on a town gas residue site remediation project; a fourth unit will
be available for placement in June 1990.
5. Pi
a. Waterjet Abrasive Cutting
The Office of the Project Manager for Awnunition Logistics
(PM-AM40LOG) , Picatinny Arsenal, NJ conducted a test during FY 89 to cut a
live 105mm projectile by use of a water/abrasive jet cutting system. The
lOSntn ammunition was used as a typical munition to be rendered safe by
severing the fuze and explosive components from the round under field
conditions. The HE projectile/ with booster/ fuze/ and supplementary charge
(all live) were cut remotely. The water/abrasive jet can cut mild steel 3/4
of an inch thick at a rate of 4 inches per minute which would make it an
acceptable tool in a demilitarization operation. The objective of
PM-AM40LOG' s program is to demonstrate a state-of-the-art technology to
3-53
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improve the safety and productivity of the BOD technician in rendering safe
ordnance and to prepare a descriptive package for the U.S. Army Ordnance
Missile and Munitions Center & School (USACMCS) to use in support and
preparation of an Army Requirement for submission to the DOD BOD Program
Board.
Application: All munitions that can be rendered safe by severing the
activation device from the explosives.
Capacity: A production rate is not applicable to an ECO operation.
Operating Costs: Not applicable.
Process Control: Remote
Reclamation Quality: Not applicable for ECO.
Waste Streams Generated: Not applicable for ECO, would have to be
considered for demilitarization operation.
Environmental Constraints: Not applicable for ECO, would have to be
considered for demilitarization operation.
Data Gaps: The technology has been well established/ only the size
and weight reduction for improved portability will have to be developed.
Construction Cost: Rough order of magnitude (RCM) purchase cost is
$75-80K.
Developmental Cost: $1M RCM
Developmental Status: Proof-of-principle technical demonstration has
been completed and results and tech data will be submitted to USACMCS to
support an army requirement. The DOD BOD Program Board will decide on a
potential joint service development by the Naval ECO Technical Center.
Remaining tasks include weight reduction, portability/ and other
militarization standards. There are commercial "off-the-shelf" systems
presently available from Ingersol Rand and Flow Industries which are
acceptable to various applications including remote operation.
b. Waterjet Abrasive Cutting
The Flow International Corp./ Kent/ WA is the world's leader in
ultrahigh-pressure waterjets and abrasive jets for industrial cutting and
milling. Since 1974, Flow has delivered over 1,000 water jet and abrasive jet
systems to a variety of industries in 43 countries. Flow accounts for more
than 70 percent, of worldwide sales of such systems.
Their ultrahigh-pressure intensifier pump pressurizes water up to
55,000 psi and forces it through a nozzle, as small as 0.004 inches in
diameter, generating a high velocity waterjet at speeds to 3,000 feet per
second. This waterjet can cut a variety of non-metallic materials. To cut
metallic or hard materials, Flow has developed a device that entrains
abrasives into the waterjet to enhance the cutting capability. This
high-velocity abrasive jet (PASER) can cut virtually any material. Abrasives,
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3-56
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such as garnet or aluminum oxide, are entrained in the high-velocity water jet,
and the resulting abrasive jet cuts thick metal plates/ composite materials,
ceramics, and glass. The PASER cuts with little heat, causes no metallurgical
changes, can cut under water (or liquid) , and leaves a quality edge that
usually requires no additional finishing. The PASER is easily integrated with
computer controlled motion systems. One of the advantages of the system is
that the intensifier unit can be positioned up to 400 feet away from the
cutting/milling operation.
Besides the 55,000 psi intensifier units, Flow has also developed the
accessory equipment such as ultrahigh-pressure tubing, hoses, swivels, on/off
valves, and an array of the water jet nozzles.
Figure 37 shows a line drawing of the abrasive jet cutting nozzle, and
Figure 38 shows a schematic of the abrasive jet cutting system.
Application: Abrasive cutting of metals and ccnposites.
Operating Costs: Approximately $35.00/hr.
Process Control: Manual or automated.
Reclamation Quality: None
Waste Streams Generated: There may be some pink water if the system
is used to demilitarization HE munitions; however, the application can be
designed to keep contaminants to a minimum.
Environmental Constraints: None
Data Gaps: The process to Demilitarization munitions will have to be
developed.
Construction Cost: The intensifier alone would cost up to $80,000 and
a system that would include a large X-Y cutter (table) could cost up to
$225,000.
Developmental Cost: Each Demilitarization application would require
some fixture developmental costs.
Developmental Status: A wide assortment of equipment is available off
the self.
6. Fr]ftCtrochenvic/?l pe^jtuction — T*»?tf Ajgixfr* Process
Electrochemical reduction is an chemical reaction driven by an
electrical current. This process has been used with limited success at Iowa
Army Ammunition Plant and Savanna Army Depot to dispose of lead azide. The
following description is of the system used for the pilot run at Iowa AAP.
The system was assembled around a 1700 gallon stainless steel tank. The tank
was heated with steam by means of two flat heating panels suspended against
the inside. Two 30 gpm centrifugal pumps were provided as shown in figure 39.
One punp was used to transfer electrolyte to an auxiliary tank system in which
lead azide was dissolved prior to addition to the tank, the other is used to
provide agitation. The agitation was accomplished by drawing in electrolyte
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and discharging it through a perforated length of 1 inch pipe laid along the
bottom of the tank. Means were provided for the remote starting and stopping
of these pumps. Further agitation was provided by a propeller-type air driver.
stirrer.
Electrolysis was carried out with stainless steel electrodes. These
were 6- by 36-inch strips of approximately 0.043-inch thickness at one end.
A a strip approximately 1-inch wide was bent back to form a angle of
approximately 30 degrees with the main body of the electrode.
To suspend the electrodes and connect them to the power supply,
15 3/4-inch diameter stainless steel electrode bars were provided. These were
laid across the width of the tank at 6-inch intervals, supported by insulated
yokes which clamped to the flange. Five-eight inch insulated copper cables
were clanped to both ends of the rods and attached to the power supply to make
the rods alternately positive and negative. The electrodes were installed by
hanging them from the rods by means of the bent ends. The power supply was a
variable voltage unit with a 3000 Amp. capacity, having a voltage range of 0
to 9.
Addition of lead azide was carried out by dissolving it in an
auxiliary "add" tank of about 75 gallon capacity and then transferred into the
main tank. The lead azide was placed in a five gallon container which was
supported within a filter bag that was suspended inside the add tank. The
azide was flushed into the filter bag with a stream of electrolyte. The bag
was then flushed with electrolyte until the azide was all dissolved and
transferred to the electrolysis tank.
When the system was placed in operation, the electrolysis tank was
charged with approximately 1600 gallons of water, to which was added
sufficient commercial grade sodium hydroxide (approximately 2670 Ubs.) to
bring the concentration to 20 percent. The electrodes were installed and
3/4-inch hollow polyethylene spheres were added until they formed a continuous
surface layer. This reduced evaporation and the tendency for a mist of sodium
hydroxide solution to form in the air around the tank. Rosin and sodium
potassium tartaric were added to give a concentration of 0.6 percent rosin,
and 5 percent tartrate.
Application: Lead azide or other fillers that contain a metal that
can be dissolved in a electrolite and electrolyticly plated out.
Capacity: The pilot plant described was capable of processing 25
pounds/hour. A larger system would be able to do more
Operating Costs: To be determined on a case by case basis.
Process Control: The process was carried out by manually charging the
system, then by starting the pumps and stirs from a remote location.
Reclamation Quality: Metallic lead originally of fairly good quality,
but during storage it became badly oxidized. Consolidation into ingots is
difficult. If the lead is spongy or in sufficiently thin sheets, attempts to
melt it into a coherent mass lead to heavy oxidation. This could be overcome
by melting in an inert or reducing atmosphere.
Waste Streams Generated: After processing there was a sludge on the
bottom of the tank. This sludge was 43 percent water. On a dry basis, its
lead content was approximately 73 percent. Approximately 55 percent of the
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azide introduced into the system as lead azide was still present as sodium
azide, a highly poisonous material.
Environmental Constraints: Due to the lead present in the sludge, it
would be a RCRA waste for heavy metals. Disposal of this material as is in a
hazardous waste landfill may present a problem due to the mixture of sodium
azide and lead in the sludge.
Data Gaps: The conversion of approximately 15 percent of the lead to
oxides is a direct consequence of the use of sodium hydroxide as the
electrolyte, as this puts the lead into solution in a anionic form. Sodium
hydroxide also appears to inhibit the oxidation of azide ion to nitrogen.
Construction Cost: Not Applicable.
Developmental Cost: Not Applicable.
Developmental Status: This process has been proven to be only a step
in the disposal of lead azide. The process only eliminated the immediate
threat of initiation of the explosive. Upon completion of the process the
sludge must be treated further to preclude any recombination of the components
present in the sludge and dispose of any residue that results.
7. PTpn^Cj?^ C/TfTuyrsiCfi •* FS,
The process described in this section could be used on a select few of
the fillers in the demilitarization account. The fillers that are either
acidic or basic can be neutralized and the resulting solution and precipitate
may be disposed of by conventional means so long as no RCRA waste is produced.
The process as outlined in the following paragraphs has been successfully
completed on several hundred 55 gallon drums of bulk FS smoke mixture
(solution of sulfur trioxide dissolved in chlorosulfonic acid) .
The initial step was to safely transfer the FS contents of the drums
to the receiving/storage chamber. This was done by placing the drums into a
transfer chamber that was subsequently purged with nitrogen. The drum was
then punched and the FS content was withdrawn to the receiving/storage
chamber. When the transfer was completed the punch was removed and the hole
was plugged using a plug made out of Tyvek Saranex. The drum was then
transferred to the drum neutralization area where a fine spray of soda
ash/nitrogen gas was introduced into the drum to neutralize any liquid still
present. The drums are then crushed and disposed of.
When the receiving/storage tank contains a sufficient quantity for
transporting a tank truck is brought in. To move the FS solution from the
storage tank to the truck a partial vacuum is established in the tanker,
followed by purging with nitrogen gas. A closed system is maintained between
the tanker and storage chamber by using a hose to connect the top of the two
vessels thus providing a constant equilibrium. When transfer is complete all
valves are closed so that the FS is transported under a nitrogen atmosphere.
To neutralize the FS smoke the material is drained into a very rapid
water flow system. The end of the FS smoke release tube is placed at the
bottom of the stream. This positioning, and the rapid flow of the water
eliminates evolution of excessive heat and fumes. This dilute solution is
then allowed to mix with lime slurry in water-cooled 4 million gallon tanks.
The following reaction describes the neutralization:
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Chlorosulfonic Acid + Lime Gypsum + Calcium Chloride
Sulphur Trioxide + water Sulfuric Acid
Sulfuric Acid + Lime Calcium Sulfate + water
After the reaction is complete, the precipitates of calcium sulfate
and calcium chloride are filtered. The resulting cake is buried in a landfill
and the water is be recycled.
Application: Any acidic or basic chemical fillers.
Capacity: Will vary with the system employed and chemical used.
Operating Costs: Will vary with the system employed and the chemicals
used.
Process control: The system is mechanically controlled with values
and pumps.
Reclamation Quality: None
Waste Streams Generated: In this example a filter cake that is
disposed of in a landfill and an aqueous stream that can be discharged through
the sanitary sewer.
Environmental Constraints: When FS is exposed to the atmosphere The
sulfur tnoxide evaporates and reacts with moisture to form sulfuric acid
vapor that in turn, condense to form small drops of liquid or smoke particles.
Thus the need for a nitrogen atmosphere during handling.
Data gaps: Due to the limited types of fillers that are available for
this process there appears to be no data gaps.
Construction Costs: Not applicable.
Developmental Cost: Not applicable.
Developmental Status: Development, corpleted.
8. Detonation Chamber
The Systems, Science, and Software (S-Cubed), Green Farm Test Site, La
Jolla, CA designed and constructed a six-foot diameter steel sphere for the
containment of explosive experiments. Charges of twenty pounds can be
detonated in the air or in a vacuum environment. Charges of one hundred
pounds of C-4 have been contained by adding a heat-sink material (coke) inside
the sphere. The sphere can also be used for testing items at a maximum static
pressure of SOOOpsi.
The steel sphere for contained explosions may have some of the same
applications as the bang box. It's advantages would be the containment of the
particles and the low noise level emitted. The disadvantages would be the
clean up after the explosion and the low thoughput rate.
-------
The bang box would have to be extensively redesigned tc be applicable
for a demilitarization operation. It would not be acceptable with metal
parts.
Application: Confined detonations of explosions.
Capacity: Very low, no more than 2 shoots/day.
Operating Costs: It would be high due to low throughput rates.
Process Control: None
Reclamation Quality: Not applicable.
Waste Streams Generated: None
Environmental Constraints: None
Data Gaps: The low through-put rate will have to be increased.
Construction Cost: Unknown
Developmental Cost: Undetermined at this time.
Developmental Status: Operational at S-Cubed.
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CHAPTER - 4 EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES
A. There are 11 emerging technologies/descriptions that have been reviewed
which may be applicable to the demilitarization/disposal program for the
SMCA-managed items. These technologies/descriptions were divided into the
seven categories listed below:
1. Washout Page
a. High Press-ore Water jet 4-1
b. Solvent Blend 4-2
c. Solvent Extraction of PBX Materiels 4-3
2. Reclamation
a. Propellent Recovery/Reuse 4-4
b. Energy Recovery 4-5
3. Controlled Incineraiton
Static Incinerator 4-6
4. Disassembly
Cryofracture 4-8
5. Super/Sub Critical Fluids 4-12
6. Oxidation
Red Water 4-1*7
7. Biodegradation
a. Metabolic Degradation by Microoganisms 4-18
b. Fungus Pink Water Treatment 4-19
B. EMERGING" TECHNOLOGIES
1.
a. High Pressure - Waterjet
The Naval Weapons Support Center Crane, Ordnance Engineering
Department, has worked with the University of Missouri-Rolla (UMR) since 1982,
investigating the use of high pressure water jets to remove plastic bonded
explosives (PBX) from ordnance. An automated pilot plant for removal of PBX
from munitions has been designed, fabricated, installed and tested at UMR.
The heart of this system is the Waterjet Ordnance and Munitions Blastcleaner
with Automated Telluroraetry (WOMBAT). The WOMBAT was designed as a
state-of-the-art system for maneuvering the water jet lance through a variety
of different geometries to be encountered in the various munitions. In order
to make this an automated system, a multi-tasking computer is used to monitor
and control the different activities which the lance must perform. The WOMBAT
is located in a specially constructed underground facility at the UMR
Experimental Mine. The controlling computer is located in a trailer outside
the entrance to the experimental mine. The munition items are transported to
and from the washout station by an automated monorail system.
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Application: PBX filled munitions, rocket motors.
Capacity: The production capacity will vary depending on the size and
configuration of munitions.
Operating Costs: Unknown at this time, However, should be comparable
to other washout/steamout technologies.
Process Control: The size of particles relieved is controlled by the
cutting parameters selected, velocity, pressure, and nozzle configuration,
etc.
Reclamation Quality: The munition cases are cleaned of all energetic
material and can be reused without flashing. The reclamation/reuse of the PBX
filler is currently being investigated.
Waste Streams Generated: None. The washout is filtered and
recirculated back into the system. The filters can be disposed of by sanitary
landfill or incineration.
Environmental Constraints: None
Data Gaps: Washout procedures need to be developed for each type of
munition.
Construction Cost: $700,000/excluding facility cost.
Developmental Cost: Undetermined at this time.
Developmental Status: Contract with UMR has expired. Testing
performed to date has been successful. Additional testing is needed to
develop washout procedures for specific munitions. Munitions with complex
internal configurations need further investigation. Reference report R015,
appendix A.
b. Solvent
The Naval Weapons Support Center Crane, Ordnance Engineering
Department, conducted an investigation (1982-1983) for the development of
solvent systems for the polyamide and fluorocopolymers that are used as
binders in Navy plastic bonded explosive (PBX) systems. The solvents were to
have flash points above 100 degrees F, exhibit low toxicity, be reasonably
priced, and of standard commercial purity and availability.
The objective of this project was to develop solvent systems for
polyamide and f luorocopolymers used as binders in PBXN-3, PBXN-4, PBXN-5 and
PBXN-6 which fulfill the above requirements. A solvent blend of 40 percent
methylene chloride and 60 percent nethanol was selected for the evamide binder
used in PBXN-6. These two solvent blends where investigated in dissolving the
binders in this series of PBX's. In addition, they are commercially available
at reasonable prices.
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Both solvent systems use methylene chloride as the non-solvent
component of the blend. This is desirable because the wash solvent can be
used as the primary solvent 'with no expensive separation required. Methylene
chloride boils at 104 degrees Fahrenheit, thus it can be readily removed from
the elvamide or viton. Additionally, it is a non-solvent for the hexagen BDX
or octogen HMX, so while the viton or elvamide is in the solution of the
primary solvent, the RDX or HMX can be filtered, washed and dried to produce
reusable material.
Application: Reclamation of the explosive components of PBX's
obtained from the high pressure washout of Navy munitions.
Capacity: Not applicable.
Operating Costs: Not applicable.
Process Control: Not applicable.
Reclamation Quality: The reclaimed explosives can be reused in
military munitions or sold to commercial sources.
Waste Streams Generated: Undetermined at this time.
Environmental Constraints: Undetermined at this time.
Construction Cost: Undetermined at this time.
Developmental Cost: Undetermined at this time.
Developmental Status: This study was completed in 1983. However,
additional research performed in 1985 at UMR used these solvent systems and
were successful. The current contract with El Dorado Engineering, Inc. calls
for development of solvent systems for additional Navy and Air Force PBX's as
part of a five year pilot plant development effort.
c. Solvent - Extraction of PBX Materials
The Naval Weapons Support Center, Ordnance Engineering Department, has
been investigating the use of solvent extraction and ingredient recovery
methods for PBX since 1983. In August of 1988 a contract was awarded to El
Dorado Engineering, Inc. (EDE) to develop a 20 Kg EBX solvent
extraction/ingredient recovery pilot plant. This will be an automated system,
with provisions for multi-solvent storage/ solvent distillation and recycling,
process water disposal, etc. Prior to design and construction of a 20 Kg
pilot plant, lab-scale and bench-scale (IKg) tests will be performed on the
various PBX's of interest. The lab-scale testing is currently in progress.
Equipment has been procured and operating procedures for the bench-scale
testing have been established. Testing of the bench-scale plant will begin in
the first quarter of FY 90. The development effort on the 20 Kg pilot plant
should be completed by FY 93, when EDE's contract expires. Future plans call
4-3
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for integration of this pilot plant with the high pressure washout pilot
plant. The Navy will then have the technology to derail PBX filled munitions
and recover the valuable constituent ccrponents
Application: PBX materials obtained from high pressure washout of the
munitions. Particle size normally will be approximately 1/8 inch in diameter.
The process could also have application to rodcet motor propellant.
Capacity: The process would have to be scaled-up to production
capacity, which can not be determined at this point.
Operating Costs: To be determined.
Process Control: Reclaimed materials will be subjected to chemical
analysis. Process 'streams will be monitored and the waste streams will be
analyzed and treated for proper disposal.
Reclamation Quality: The reclaimed ingredients will meet
specification requirements and can be reused or sold to commercial sources.
Waste Streams Generated: Solvents containing various i:_nder products.
Environmental Constraints: None
Data Gaps: Bench-scale and pilot plant testing, econcraic analysis of
solvent extraction/ingredient recovery methods, documentation of process.
Construction Cost: To be determined.
Developmental Costs: $2/300,000 for pilot plant development.
Developmental Status: Lab-scale testing has been completed on
different PBX's. A preliminary hazard analysis of the solvent extraction and
ingredient recovery process is in progress. Due to a cut in funding for the
demil program for FY 90, the bench-scale testing program will be extend
through FY 91. The development effort on the 20 Kg pilot plant will be
completed in FY 93.
2. Reclamation:
a. Propellant Recovery/Reuse
The U.S. Army Toxic and Hazardous Materials Agency (USATHAMA.),
Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD has been developing a technique to recover
obsolete or off-spec single-, double-, or triple-based propellants as an
alternative to thermal destruction of these materials. The technique used
employs processing of the waste propellants for their reintroduction to the
propellant production process. The initial process involves grinding the
waste propellant under water, drying it, and packing it into drums. New
propellant can be produced by resolvating the ground propellant in an existing
4-4
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propeliant production line. Because of the ability to resolvate the
propellant in an existing line/ the only additional process necessary to
implement the resolvation is that which is necessary to grind the waste
propellant.
Application: This process applies to off-spec or obsolete single-,
double-, or triple-base propellants.
Capacity: This process can be designed to meet production
requirements. Preliminary design ana cost estimates have been prepared basea
on an average production level of 500 pounds per hour.
Operating Costs: Preliminary cost estimates prepared on the recovery
of single-base propellant have indicated a net total operating cost of $2.1
million. If a credit for avoidance of cost associated with the purchase of
raw materials is taken, a net operating credit of $1.6 million may be
realized. Additionally, if a credit for avoidance of costs associated with
incinerating the waste propellant is considered, a total net operating credit
of $3.0 million may be realized.
Process Control: In order to conduct this operation safely, it will
be necessary to establish careful process control. However, no problems are
anticipated in controlling the process within given parameters,
Reclamation Quality: The process, as designed, is incorporated into
the propellant production process directly and, as such, no additional
processing is required.
Waste Streams Generated: None anticipated.
Environmental Constraints: None anticipated.
Data Gaps: Pilot-scale/demonstration is necessary to identify quality
of product achievable from jjiplementation of this process.
Construction Cost: Based on preliminary design data, the capital
costs, development costs are estimated at $1.0 million.
Developmental Cost: Excluding construction and capital costs,
development costs are estimated at $1.0 million.
Development Status: This technology has been subjected to
laboratory-scale tests and preliminary cost analyses have been conducted.
Pilot-scale/demonstration testing will be developed for implementation in
fiscal year (Fi) 91-92.
b. Energy Recovery
The U.S. Army Toxic Hazardous Materials Agency (USATHAMA.), Aberdeen
Proving Ground, MD, is developing a means to recover the energy from energetic
materiels through burning in industrial broilers. A pilot scale (1.4 million
BTU/hr) commercial boiler is in fabrication for this development. Mixtures of
TNT or composition B with number 2 fuel oil and a solvent will be burned to
4-5
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produce steam. A savings of 30 to 40 cents per gallon of fuel oil is expected
using this technology. Capital for auxiliary systems has a payback dependent.
on cost of disposal and quantity of explosives. Property measurements for
nitrocelluloce as a supplemental fuel are also underway. Figure 40 shows a
diagram of a supplemental fuel system block.
Application: This process applies to energetic materials that can be
dissolved in fuel oil such as TNT.
Capacity: 5 to 15% by weight of explosives to fuel oil. This limits
the capacity only by the requirement to produce steam from fuel oil.
Operating Costs: To be determined.
Process Control: Manual addition of explosives to solvent is the only
operation other than system monitoring at this time. System operational
control is identical to a commercial boiler.
Reclamation Quality: End items is energy at 4,000 to 6,500 BTU/lb of
explosive.
Waste Streams Generated: None expected.
Environmental Constraints: -None expected.
Data Gaps: Current research and development is aimed at
characterizing stack emissions and determining optimum conditions for
significant parameters, such as ratio of explosives to fuel oil, excess air,
etc.
Construction Cost: Use of existing boilers is anticipated. Feed
system cost is expected to be in the S500K range.
Developmental Cost: Current expenditure is approxijnately $1.2
million. An additional $500K to 5800K is expected to be required.
Developmental Status: Pilot scale demonstration at Hawthorne Army
Ammunition Plant is in preparation and is expected to be completed March 1990.
Development data/results will subsequently be submitted to DOD/DA safety
authorities for review. Final transition from developmental to operation
status is planned as a demonstration burn at an installation heating plant;
site to be determined. Technology should be available for implementation in
1992.
3. Cc**"^ rolled Incinerg'tiOf* ~ Static
The Naval Weapons Support Center, Applied Sciences Department, Crane,
IN has a contract with Los Alamos National Laboratory (LftNL) , Los Alamos, NM
to develop an Air Controlled Incinerator (ACI) to thermally dispose of
toxic/carcinogenic materials such as organic dyes contained in colored smoke
compositions. The incinerator will be a scaled down model of the LANL
Incinerator that was used to incinerate a sample of both Navy and Army smokes
4-6
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tested in the 1983-1984 timeframe. A new feed module system has been
constructed and successfully tested using a slurry made up of a Navy flare
composition.
Application: Smokes and dyes.
Capacity: Has not been determined at this tine.
(Derating Costs: Has not been determined at this time. Estimations
can be made during the trial bum and check-out scheduled for FY 90.
Process Control: The operation of the incinerator will be constantly
monitored to assure ccnpliance with the environmental requirements.
Reclamation Quality: Not applicable to this process.
Waste Streams Generated: The ash residue will have to be analyzed to
determine the class of waste prior to disposal.
Environmental Constraints: None
Data Gaps: None
Construction Cost: Unknown
Developmental Cost: Unknown
Developmental Status: Incinerator is being assembled FY 89 and
check-out and trial bums are scheduled for 1st & 2nd quarters FY 90.
Reference reports RQ04, R011, and R072, appendix A.
4 .
Cryofracture is a general purpose method for accessing and size
reducing explosives within munitions in preparation for subsequent destruction
or recovery operations. The process was developed under a U.S. Army contract
by General Atomics for chenical agent munitions/ which have configurations
nearly identical to many conventional munitions. Accordingly, little
development effort is needed to apply the technology to many conventional
munitions . For unique or ICM' s some development is needed to verify adequate
accessing and size reduction.
In the process, munitions are immersed in a bath of liquid nitrogen
and cooled below -200 degrees Fahrenheit. The brittle munitions are then
placed in a hydraulic press and crushed. The munition fragments are
discharged from the press to the next process step - either an incinerator or
an explosive recovery process.
For chemical agent munitions, the cryofracture process is highly
automated and remotely controlled to minimize exposure of personnel to the
hazards of explosives and chemical agents. Robots are used to unpack and
handle munitions. Remotely interchangeable components such as robot end
effectors and press tooling preclude the need for routine hands-on maintenance
4-8
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activities. Many of these features are directly applicable to conventional
munition demilitarization. Figure 41 shows a drawing of the integrated
prototype line at General Atomics for cryofracturing inert chemical munitions.
This fully automated and remotely controlled process line may be more
elaborate than would be required for conventional munitions demil.
Application: As a general means of accessing and size reducing
explosive, cryofracture can be applied to most munitions in the demil
inventory. Most conventional munitions, and particularly the most common and
numerous types, are made of carbon steel, which easily brittle fractures at
cryogenic temperatures. In a few cases, munitions are made of aluminum or
thin stainless steel. While these materials do not brittle fracture at liquid
nitrogen temperatures, they are easily sheared by the cryofracture tooling.
Cryofracture is insensitive to subtle details of munitions design.
Complex munitions such as improved conventional munitions (ICM's) are
particularly suited for cryofracture, since their complex internal
configurations represent severe safety hazards during manual disassembly.
In the application of cryofracture to chemical agent munitions, the
technology was developed and demonstrated for a variety of munition
configurations including 105mm projectiles and cartridges, 155mm projectiles,
8-inch projectiles, 115mm rockets (which have a steel rocket motor and an
aluminum warhead), 4.2-inch mortars, and land mines.
One important aspect of cryofracture is that the munition casings are
completely destroyed and rendered unusable. This characteristic may be an
advantage or disadvantage, depending on the particular demil mission.
Capacity: The capacity of the cryofracture process for conventional
munitions demilitarization is unknown at this time, but is generally lijnited
only by the material handling operation (i.e., cycle time to transport and
feed munitions into the process and transport fragments away from the
process). With sufficient cryobath capacity (which is usually in the range of
several hundred square feet of bath area) munition cooldown time is not a
controlling factor. As developed for chemical munition demil, cryofracture
was demonstrated at a design throughput rate of one munition every 30 seconds.
In one special case, the process can fracture two munitions at a time every 30
seconds for a rate of 240 munitions per hour. This range of throughput rates
should be adequate for most of the larger conventional munitions and the rate
should be much greater for small arms ammunition or rounds in the size range
of 40 to 90mm.
Operating Costs: Operating cost for cryofracture as applied to
conventional demil have not been developed. However, certain cost elements
are expected to be unique. First, there is the cost of liquid nitrogen usage
associated with the cryofracture process. Based on the development work done
for chemical munitions, the cost of liquid nitrogen for cooling munitions is a
very small fraction of the total operating costs. Liquid nitrogen tends to be
plentiful and inexpensive throughout the continental United States.
Significant unique operational cost advantages are expected for the
cryofracture process, when compared to manual disassembly (or reverse
assembly). For cryofracture, there are only two process steps - cool and
crush regardless of the munition configuration. Thus, operational costs are
expected to be reduced for a) the cost to man and operate the system, and b)
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the cost to maintain the equipment. This last consideration if further
enhanced by the fundamental nature of cryofracture - that no fine adjustments
are needed for individual munitions or from one munition type to another. The
process is very insensitive to munition details. Thus, high reliability and
low operational manpower requirements are expected to result in low operating
costs as compared to other methods of disassembly and size reduction.
Process Control: The process control system developed and
demonstrated for cryofracture of chemical munitions is a fully integrated
highly automated rerrvote control system that controls the functions of several
robots to unpack and handle munitions in and out of the cryobath and the
fracture press for crushing the munitions. This highly sophisticated system,
which includes error recovery software and many other advanced features, is
available for application to conventional demil with few, if any, changes.
Simpler process control methods may be preferred for conventional demil
applications which do not have the added hazard of chemical agents. It should
be relatively easy to detune and simplify the process control system for such
applications, without losing any of the inherent safety features or
operational efficiency advantages.
Reclamation Quality: In the cryofracture process, the metal parts are
not reusable, but can be sold as scrap, for cryogenic washout, the casings
are not damaged, and can be scrapped or reused. Since cryofracture is a means
of accessing and size reduction, it must be matched to a subsequent process
for either the destruction or recovery of the cryofracture process is that it
does not dilute or contaminate the explosives, which may be an important
factor in recovery for reuse.
Waste Streams Generated: As noted above, cryofracture produces no
waste streams which is a primary advantage in comparison to other processes
such as high pressure water washout.
Environmental Constraints: There is no known environmental impact for
the cryofracture process.
Data Gaps: The cryofracture process is well developed and
demonstrated for chemical munitions. The process should perform equally well
for a large number of conventional munitions with configurations similar to
chemical munitions. Of course, verification testing is recommended to confirm
this. For other munitions, which do not have a close chemical analog, a well
structured development program is needed, which could be patterned after the
successful chemical munition development program to include cooldown tests,
explosive sensitivity test, and fracture tests. This program may sinply
amount to a process verification effort, but should still be performed for
each unique munition.
Construction Cost: The process equipment costs for conventional
munition cryofracture are not well defined at present and will depend on the
specific application. However, the equipment costs for chemical munition
cryofracture are well defined and can be used as a starting point for
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conventional munition applications. The cost (in 1990 dollars) for the major
conponents in the cryofracture process are given below for a process
throughput rate of 120 munitions per hour.
Jter\ Installed Cost . _SK
Cryobath (two modules) 249.
Cryofracture press with tooling & isolation valves 2396.
Munition Transfer Robot 428.
Total 3073.
Cryopretreat robot (optional) 647.
Unpack robot (optional) 661.
The above cost with options are for a fully automated, remotely
controlled process, designed for continuous operation at 120 munitions per
hour. A bar bones cryofracture process for processing 30 munitions per hour
with manual unpack and munition handling is estimated to cost about 31-2M
installed.
Developmental Cost: The cryofracture process has been developed and
demonstrated for chemical agent munitions. Minimal development is needed to
transfer the technology to conventional munitions of similar configuration.
For munitions with unique configurations, such as ICM's, a development program
is required to adapt cryofracture to the specific requirements of the
munition. Depending on the number of different types and sizes of munitions
in the development effort, the cost could range from an estimated $1M to $7M
over 1 to 5 years to cover laboratory, bench scale and prototype testing.
Integration of the process with destruction or recovery technologies would
require addition funding.
Developmental Status: Cryofracture has been developed and
demonstrated for chemical agent munitions. A government owned integrated
prototype line exists at General Atomics Facility in San Diego, CA. Explosive
test equipment, including a 500 ton press, is also available at an explosive
test site in San Diego. Much of the work performed in the $40M program to
develop cryofracture for chemical munitions is directly applicable to
conventional munitions. Reference report RD01, appendix A.
5. Super/Sufr CritACfrJ- Fluids
The U.S. Army Missile Catmand QCCOK), Propulsion Directorate,
Research, Development and Engineering Center, Bedstone Arsenal, AL has
successfully demonstrated an innovative application of critical fluid
extraction (CFE) technology for the demilitarization of prcpellant, explosive,
and pyrotechnic (PEP) munitions . The MICQM method of CFE demilitarization
represents a radical departure from traditional open burniiKj/open detonation
(OB/OD) disposal methods. It offers an environmentally safe and straight
forward approach for resource recovery, reclamation, and/or in-situ
neutralization of otherwise hazardous munitions and ingredients. The method
circumvents traditional ingredient solvation processes, avoids the use of
water or hazardous organic solvents, and does not generate additional
hazardous wastes. This demilitarization process is nonpolluting, cost
effective, and environmentally acceptable.
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In the KICCK CFE demilitarization method, gases are compressed and
"fluidized" under pressure to near-critical liquid (NCL) and supercritical
fluid (SCF) conditions. These fluids serve as non-traditional extraction
solvents when used in their NCL or SCF conditions. The unusual solvating
properties of critical fluids can enhance selective and rapid extraction of
PEP ingredients from conplex munition conpositions. The CFE demilitarization
process takes advantage of gas-to-liquid and liquid-to-gas phase transitions
which occur during the conpression and expansion (pressure reduction) of all
confined gases. Because the CFE process is similar to the operation of
closed-loop air-conditioning and refrigeration systems, continuous recycling
of the solvent is possible. The main differences reside in the selection of
an appropriate critical fluid solvent, and the incorporation of an extraction
vessel and a pressure reduction (expansion) chamber for ingredient recovery.
Cotplete recovery of soluble ingredients is obtained by controlling the phase
transition of the NCL or SCF solvent to the gaseous state. Liquefaction and
recompression of the original CFE solvent completes the continuous
demilitarization cycle. A simplified schematic of a CFE system is shown in
figure 42.
The MICCM CFE demilitarization process, albeit simple in design, has
been experimentally shown to be extremely effective for class 1.3 AP composite
propellants and has similar usage potential for related PEP munitions. The
primary advantages of the demilitarization process are:
1. It uses mature, well-developed technologies. CFE technology is a
proven industrial process that can be applied to munitions demilitarization
and hazardous waste minimization.
2. The process is environmental acceptable. The system is completely
self-contained, meaning no pollution of air or water environments.
3. The method is economically advantageous. Strategic raw materials
can be recovered. CFE solvents are low cost, reclyclable for continuous
processing, and do"no generate additional hazardous wastes,
4. Transportable facilities appear to be feasible. This process
lends itself to mobility, as the various components can be designed in modular
form.
Application: MICOM has been successful in applying CFE processes to
propellant and explosive demilitarization. A specific process that is ready
for transition from research to pilot plant demonstration is the near-critical
liquid (NCL) ammonia demilitarization of rocket motors containing ammonium
perchlorate (AP) composite propellants. This demilitarization method consists
of a straight forward, four-step, continuous process. Step one involves
removing the AP propellant from the rocket motor by hydraulic erosion using
NCL ammonia. Step two extracts the oxidizer CAP) and separates the AP/liquid
ammonia solution and binder residue (crumb). Step three recovers the AP by
evaporating the ammonia. Step four condenses the ammonia vapor and recycles
the liquid ammonia for a continuous removal/extraction operation. The CFE
process is efficient and is conducted at ambient temperatures and low
operating pressures.
In addition to class 1.3 AP composite propellants, MICCM has
successfully applied its CFE process to other related class 1.3 and 1.1 PEP
munitions. The MICCM demilitarization program is broad-based and has included
the investigation of several CFE solvent systems. The MICCM method offers a
unique alternative to current OB/CO disposal practices and provides high
pay-off potential for propellant and.conventional ammunition demilitarization.
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MICCM has tested the CFE process at the laboratory scale for a variety of
conventional munitions and high energy materials. Plans for system
engineering design, prototype scale-up, and testing of system specific
processes are in progress. Figure 43 shows a flow chart for a proposed LPM
CFE process.
Capacity: The simplicity of the MICCM CFE demilitarization process
makes it particularly amenable to system scale-up. System specific processes
are considered viable for applications which range from large ICBM rocket
motors to small hand grenade munitions.
Operating Costs: Believed to be low. Costs will vary in accordance
with system specific requirements, size of munitions, and whether smaller
ammunitions can be demilitarized in bulk (soak) processes. Snail and mobile
designs are feasible.
Process Control: All system configurations are intended to utilize
existing technologies and off-the-shelf industrial components.
Reclamation Quality: The CFE process provides high quality, high
yield ingredient reclamation. The process has an extensive industrial base
which can be readily adapted to meet the needs of the munitions industry.
Waste Streams Generated: The process is designed to eliminate or
minimize hazardous waste generation.
Environmental Constraints: Minimal constraints are anticipated as the
CFE demilitarization method addresses emerging Environmental Protection
legislative acts on Clean Air, Clean Water, Hazardous Waste reduction,
Resource Conservation and Recovery, and Federal Facility Contamination.
Therefore, the MICCM critical fluid demilitarization method offers defense
contractors, NASA, and the DOD a "clean" process which will be economical and
meet EPA environmental concerns.
Data Gaps: The CFE demilitarization process for recovery of ammonium
perchlorate from composite propellants is ready for transitions from research
to pilot plant demonstration. This effort will provide an extensive data base
in support of other munition demilitarization applications which are presently
under consideration.
Construction Costs: Believed to be highly competitive with cost
savings through joint ventures with private industries.
Developmental Costs: Costs will vary in accordance with the specific
demilitarization effort. Typical system engineering design, testing, and
evaluation costs are estimated to be $1.5M per system.
Developmental Status: A process to meet the demilitarization
requirements for class 1.3 large rocket motors is ready for transition to
pilot plant demonstration. Sdjralar processes for conventional munition
applications have been demonstrated at the laboratory scale. Funding is
required for prototype engineering design and evaluation.
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6, Cfrudflt?-0^ ~ Rgd/Pink. Water
The Lummus Crest Inc., a subsidiary of Combustion Engineering (C-E),
Inc., Bloomfield, NJ have performed experiments on red water. The laboratory
analysis of the sanples obtained had a 14 percent dissolved substance with a
total organic carbon content of 4 to 5 percent, with sulfonated DNT and TNT
isomers. The nigr- concentration of nitrite makes the red water unsuitable for
treatment with white rot fungus (WRF).
C-E has experimented with three different methods to treat red water;
high temperature oxidation, low temperature treatment (LIT), and bio-mimetic
reduction. Most of the particulars of these three methods are proprietary
information. A more comprehensive explanation will have to provided at a
later date. However some of the operating parameters for each process are as
follows:
1. High temperature supercritical oxidation has been tested in a
laboratory batch unit at 400 degrees Celsius with an initial oxygen pressure
of 80 psig. The reaction time was less than 10 minutes. The product had a
total organic carbon {TOC) of 8.0 percent which corresponds to an 82 percent
TOC removal. Based on tests carried out on other chemicals, it is expected
that the continuous plant will achieve a TOC removal high than 99.99 percent.
2. The low tenperature treatment (LTT) operates at atmospheric
pressure and temperatures not exceeding the boiling point of water.
Laboratory tests in a batch system have resulted in a 92 percent TOC removal.
Optimization of this technology is expected to result in performances similar
to those of the high temperature oxidation.
3. Promising preliminary results will have to be confirmed before a
more detailed experimental program for the bio-tnimetic technology can be
developed for larger scale.
Future activities: The data available from the bench scale test will
be used for performing the process design and economic evaluation of both
these technologies in order to justify building and operating of a
demonstration plant on a slip stream of red water obtained in a producing
facility. This work will cover: (1) Optimization of the temperature,
residence time and initial oxygen concentration for the high temperature
oxidation, (2) Optimization of the residence time/ number of stages, and
energy consumption for the LTT.
The bench scale research for the bio-mimetic process needs to be completed
before the technical and economic merits of this technology can be assessed.
Of the above mentioned processes, the LTT may have the greater advantage over
the high temperature oxidation.
Application: Bed/Pink Water.
Capacity: Size a <10 gal/hr. scale model for all three methods.
Operating Costs: Minimal for all three methods in the scale model
test.
Process Control: Minimal for all three methods in the scale model
test.
Reclamation Quality: None
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Waste Streams Generated: None anticipated
Environmental Constraints: None ' anticipated
Data Gaps: Technology is under development.
Construction Cost: For a scale model for the three methods, it is
estimated the cost would be approximately $50-100, 000 each.
Developmental Costs: (1) 1/2 to 1 man/yr ($50-100,000), (2) 2 nan/yr
($200,000), and (3) $100-150,000
Developmental Status: Laboratory work is in process.
7.
a. Metabolic Degradation Compounds by Microorganisms
The Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory is performing an in-house
funded study to determine the feasibility of using microorganisms to degrade
high-explosive (HE) wastes. The initial emphasis of the study is to develop a '
population of microorganisms that will degrade RDX and HMX present in
environmental media. Microorganisms were originally obtained from
HE-contaminated waste lagoons at the Livermore site and are being adapted for
the degradation of HE in the laboratory. Preliminary results indicate that
these microorganisms are capable of degrading RDX under aerobic conditions to
mineralized byproducts (e.g. CC>2 and HoO) . Work is now in progress to
determine the optimum conditions for HE degradation under dynamic
(f lowthrough) conditions so that a bench-scale system will lead to the design
of a pilot-scale system to be applied at the site of contamination.
Application: Initially RDX and HMX contaminated water and soil; can
be expanded to address other HE contaminants.
Capacity: Undetermined at this time.
Operating Costs: Very low.
Process Control: Automated with occasional monitoring.
Reclamation Quality: None. Contaminants are mineralized to carbon
dioxide and water.
Waste Streams Generated: None anticipated.
Environmental Constraints: None anticipated.
Data Gaps: Process conditions must be defined.
Construction Cost: Anticipated to be very low.
Developmental Costs: Anticipated to be low to moderate.
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Developmental Status: In the feasibility-testing stage.
Proof-of-principle experiments have successfully demonstrated that RDX can be
degraded. Approximately two years are required for the development of a
pilot-scale treatment system.
b. Fungus - Pink Water Treatment
The LUTTTTUS Crest Inc., a subsidiary of Combustion Engineering
C-E), Inc., Bioomfield, NJ has been doing bench sale laboratory work using
white rot fungus (WRF) to biodegraded pink water. The process consist of
first growing (culturing) the WRF by bring the micro-organism into contact
with a support medium, and letting the culture grow from 5-10 days. After
this time, the growth medium is nitrogen starved for a period of 3-4 days;
injection of additional.carbon into the mixture may enhance the process. By
giving the WRF only enough "food" to subside, they have estimated that the WRF
culture would last 2-6 months. C-E has experimented with two composition, TNT
pink water at 150-200 ppm at 80 degrees Celsius and RDX pink water at 20-85
pptn at 80 degrees Celsius. C-E have used two different mechanical devices ir.
their evaluation. The first is a Rotating Biological Contactor (BBC) and the
second is a Packed Column Unit.
The bench scale RBC, shown in figure 44, is a "7 by 20 inch horizontal
cylinder divided into 4 equal conpartments. It has a rotating shaft in the
center with 8 cylindrical disk covered with the WRF cultures that are spaced
to provide each of the 4 compartments with a pair of disks. The pink water is
fed into the RBC until it is about 1/2 full and then the shaft is rotated to
allow the 8 disks to alternately be "wetted" with pink water and then be
exposed to the oxygen enriched air. C-E, using a batch test method, has
successfully reduced the TNT pink water to 2 ppm in 24 hours and the RDX pink
water to <10 ppm in 48 hours. By using a continuous test method, they have
reduced the TNT pink water from a 100 to 10 ppm concentration and the RDX pink
water from. 50 to 18 ppm concentration in a 24 hour period.
The bench scale packed column, shown in figure 45 is a 5 inch by 12
inch vertical cylinder packed with plastic balls, approxijnately 3/8 inch in
diameter, covered with the WRF culture. The pink water is fed into the bottom
and the effluent is expelled out the top. The method was tested by processing
the pink water at a low fed rate through the system and by recycling the feed
material at a higher rate. C-E has reduced the concentration of TNT from 100
to 20 ppm in 1 1/2 hours and to 3 ppm in 4 1/2 hours using the packed column
method. It has been determined that no veratryl alcohol is needed and a
glucose concentration requirements is 1 g/1 or less, and may be reduced
further.
Further experimentation is needed to: (1) Confirm activity of the WRF
over a extended continuous operation with the pink water in packed columns,
(2) Confirm activity of WRF with an outside carbon source and minerals, (3)
Confirm RDX removal in continuous operation. C-E recommends that a scale
model be built and test be conducted in an actual plant operation.
Application: Pink Water
Capacity: 10 gal/hr. for a l/10th scale model.
Operating Costs: Minimal
4-19
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4-21
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Process Control: Manual for a l/10th scale model.
Reclamation Quality: None
Waste Streams Generated: None anticipated
Environmental Constraints: None anticipated
Data Gaps: The information required for designing the full seal plar.t
will be generated in the l/10th scale model which will operate on a slip
stream of an existing plant.
Construction Cost: $100-200,000 for a l/10th scale model.
Developmental Costs: One man/yr ($100,000)
Developmental Status: laboratory work has been completed, fabricating
and testing of a 1/lOth scale model has to be initiated.
4-22
-------
CHAPTER - 5 CONCEPTUAL TECHNOLOGIES
A. There are two conceptual technologies /descriptions that have been reviewec
which may be applicable to the demilitarization/disposal program for the
SMCA-managed items. These technologies/ciescriptions were divided into the two
categories listed below:
Page
1 . Washout
Cryogenic Fluid Dry Washout ......................... 5-1
2. Controlled Incineration
Static Firing of LFM ................................ 5-2
B. CONCEPTUAL TECHNOLOGIES
1. Wgghpyt - Cryogenic FlViifl PTY
General Atomics Technology (GA) , San Diego, CA and El Dorado
Engineering (EDE) , Salt Lake City, UT jointly proposed to study the cryogenic
fluid-dry washout process to remove propellant from large rocket motors.
Liquid nitrogen is used as the washout medium. It is postulated that with
cryo-washout there is no waste water stream that requires extensive treatment . '
The cryogenic fluid would be directed against the surface of the
propellant in much the same manner used in high pressure water washout
cryogenic jet would embrittle the propellant and reduce its sensitivity to
ignition or initiation. The embrittled propellant should be susceptible to
brittle fracture with relatively small applied forces. For the most brittle
propellant materials, the force of the cryogenic jet itself will likely be
sufficient to erode the material.
A nozzle system will be designed to deliver a high pressure cryogenic
gas jet to the material surface. This approach would probably be the most
efficient use of the cryogenic fluid, with little loss of liquid. If gas
phase erosion is not sufficient, two-phase of liquid phase erosion may prove
necessary, with some loss of excess liquid and efficiency.
Application: LFM, may have applications for other entergetic
materiels. This is another way to remove the entergetic materiel from the
munition case.
Capacity: Undetermined at this time.
Operating Costs: Will most likely be comparable to other washout
methods.
Process Control: Undetermined at this time.
Reclamation Quality: Expect the entergetic materiel to be in granular
form.
Waste Streams Generated: Undetermined at this time.
5-1
-------
testing.
Environmental Constraints: None anticipated.
Data Gaps: Undetermined at this 'time.
Construction Cost: Undetermined at this time.
Developmental Cost: Undetermined at this time.
Developmental Status: Waiting funding to proceed with laboratory
2. Controlled Incineration-Static Fi,y^^f of LRM (Confined)
The Lockheed Research Laboratory was tasked, by the Advanced Program
Office of the Missile Systems Division of Lockheed Missiles and Space Company,
to study alternate approaches to the ultimate disposal of solid rocket
propellants. One method studied was the burning of the whole motor. The
conceptual operation would consist of removing the nozzle from the motor case
and burning the motor at ambient pressure. The effluent gases would be
conducted through a large/ 12 foot diameter/ pipe sloping downward into a
water tank 40 ft deep. The gases would then bubble up through the water tank
through a series of perforated steel plates into a large, 60 ft high x 170 ft
in diameter/ domed containment chamber. The off gases from this containment
chamber would be conducted through a 6-7 ft diameter duct to the exhaust gas
disposal equipment, which is not yet defined. Figure 46 shows a line drawing
of a water filtration containment concept.
Application: Both 1.1 and 1.3 LRM propellant disposal.
Capacity: Proposed up to three 50,000 pound motors per /day.
Operating Costs: To be determined.
Process Control: The off gases will nave to be monitored to assure
the operation will conform to given parameters.
Reclamation Quality: The motor case would have to be flashed prior to
disposal by either landfill or sale. The reuse of the case is doubtful.
Waste Streams Generated: The coolant water will have to be monitored
and may need processing.
Environmental Constraints: Unknown at this time.
Data Gaps: This process is still in the conceptual stage.
Construction Cost: A full size facility is estimated to cost
$100,000,000. After the concept has been proven and the design finalized, it
is estimated a full size facility could be constructed in 2.5 to 3 years.
5-2
-------
Figure 46
5-3
-------
Develoorental Cost: To develop design criteria a 1/500 pilot scale
model is required and the total cost to pursue this concept is estimated to
cost $3,000,000. '
Developmental Status: The Contained Burn concept is considered to be
Lockheed Proprietary information; any further written descriptions of the
concept should be cleared by Lockheed.
5-4
-------
CHAPTER 6 - DATA BASE
Introduction
a. Traditionally, the demilitarization stockpile has been reported in the
Joint Ordnance Commanders Group (JOCG) Demilitarization/Disposal Handbook-
Volume I, by quantity (each) and storage weight (short tons). The trend for
the last nine years is reflected in figure 47. While this is a reasonable way
for the logistician to express the stockpile/ this does not provide any
knowledge on the types and quantities of material and filler involved. This
information is iiqperative in the decision making process when determining the
salvage or reclamation value of the munitions and the corresponding process in
question. To remedy this an effort was started in 1984 to identify the
components of the munitions and types of material and filler in the derrdl
account. This involved obtaining the drawings, military specifications,
technical manuals (TMs), and any other source that would yield a description
of the munition to include material, filler, packaging types, and weight. In
1986, the JOCG published the results of this effort as the
Demilitarization/Disposal Handbook Volume-Ill/ Reclamation Materials anc
Weights. This handbook lists over 2,300 separate National Stock Numbers
(NSNs).
i
b. The 1986 SMCA Blue Ribbon Panel on Ammunition Demilitarization
classified the demilitarization inventory into 80 families. These families
have been categorized into 14 consolidated families for more ease of use (see
table 1). Figure 48 is a comparison of the inventory for the years of 1986 and
1989 by consolidated families. The reduction in the smokes and dyes
consolidated family is attributed to the contracting out for the
neutralization of bulk FS smoke and the operation of the APE 1400 WP-PAC plant
at Crane Army Ammunition Activity (CAAA). The 31 December 1989 demil
inventory can be expressed by family in terms of either the number of items,
their total weight (see table 2), or in terms of the inert material (light
steel, heavy steel, wood, fiber, etc.), and filler composition (propellent,
TNT, HC smoke, etc.) as depicted in figure 49. This data was obtained using
the component and weight information contained in volume III and the inventory
quantity obtained from volume I. It should be noted that the weight does not
fully agree with the total reported weight in volume I due to the fact that
some munitions do not have a family identified in the data base.
c. As discussed before, there are only 2,300 discrete NSNs listed in
volume III and 4,476 discrete NSNs listed in volume I; therefore, when the
summation is preformed to obtain the material and filler weights, that figure
is going to be low. In order to obtain a representative value for the total
filler and material weight in a family, the calculated weight is multiplied by
the ratio of total storage weight for the family as reported in volume I and
total calculated weight for the family. This yields a value that takes into
account the missing material and weight data in volume III. This method is
employed in figure 49 and all successive figures.
6-1
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The following is a listing of the 14 consolidated families and the types of
demilitarization assets included in each.
1. Small arms, fuzes, and primers consist of:
a. Ammunition items 5.56mm through 20,, including small propellant
actuated devices.
b. 20mm munitions filled with tetryl and incendiary increments.
c. Depleted uranium (DU) projectiles.
d. Fuzes used on artillery projectiles and containing small explosive
detonators and boosters.
e. Small tracer composition filled items.
f. Fuzes and primers.
2. Smokes and dyes consists of:
a. Small rocket warheads loaded with plasticized white phosphorus
(PWP).
b. 57mm through 4.2-inch items which are white phosphorus (WP) filled.
c. 3-inch items filled with colored dyes.
d. 4.2-inch items filled with sulfur trioxide chlorosulfonic acid (FS).
e. Small WP filled munitions.
f. Hexachloroethane (HC) filled hand grenades.
g. Smoke (dye) mix filled hand grenades.
h. 105mm ammunition with colored smoke projectiles.
i. 3.5 and 2.75-inch rocket warheads WP filled.
j. Bulk packed FS.
k. Various sized smoke pots filled with HC.
1. Not used.
m. Various sized smoke pots filled with petroleum base type chemical
fog oil.
n. Chemical dye marine markets..
Table 1
6-3
-------
o. Items with color burst filler ranging in size from 3 to 5-inch.
p. Light metal cased signals of various sizes with colored smoke and
illuminating mixes.
Pyrotechnics consist of:
a. 3 to 5-inch illuminating and pyrotechnic mix filled items.
b. Multi-sized pyrotechnic mixture filled munitions including sere with
masking dyes.
c. 60 and 8 Imn illumination munitions with pyrotechnics and aluminum
mix filler.
d. Various sized aircraft and surface flares filled with pyrotechnic,
aluminum and magnesium mix.
e. Photoflash cartridges filled with a pyrotechnic mixture.
HE loaded projectiles (except yellow "D") consist of :
a. 20 to 4Qnm ammunition with incendiary compositions.
b. TNT loaded projectiles ranging in size from 155nm to 8-inch plus
small rocket warheads.
c. lOSircn sutrnunition loaded projectiles.
d. 90 to 105rtm TNT and comp B filled items.
e. 40ntn to 4.2-inch items filled with cottp B.
f. Conp B filled small rocket warheads.
g. 3 to 5-inch conp A-3 filled.
h. 5-inch and 155nm projectiles, conp B loaded and equipped with rocket
motors.
i. Corp B filled bursting and boostering devices.
j. 40nin TNT and incendiary composition loaded munitions with
multi-fuzing capability.
k. 3 to 6-inch carp A-3 filled items.
1. Not used.
m. 3-inch to lOSrrcn conp B and TNT filled projectiles.
n. Conp B filled 81nm mortar projectiles.
Table 1 (continued)
6-4
-------
5. Rockets and missiles consist of:
a. Medium to large warheads filled with cyclotol.
b. 5-inch rocket warheads with pyrotechnic filler.
c. Rocket motors for 2.75 through 5-inch rockets.
d. Comp B loaded rockets.
e. 2.75-inch assembled rockets with comp B filled warheads and
ballistic rocket motors.
f. 2.75, 3, and 5-inch rockets with inert loaded projectiles containing
dyes and black powder charges.
6. Bombs, torpedoes, depth charges, and CBUs consist of:
a. Submunition loaded bombs.
b. Bombs filled with tritonal.
c. Comp HC filled bombs and warheads.
d. HBX-3 filled warhead type munitions for rockets and torpedoes.
e. Underwater munitions filled with TNT.
f. Large underwater munitions filled with TNT
7, Riot control agents consist of:
a. 0-chlorobenzalmalononitrile (CS) filled hand grenades.
b. Chloroacetcphenone (CN) and adamsite (DM) filled grenades.
c. Bulk packed CN.
d. Bulk packed DM.
e. Bulk packed CS.
8. Bulk explosives consist of:
a. Bulk TNT.
b. Bulk comp B.
c. Bulk explosive D.
d. Bulk packed military dynamite.
Table 1"(continued)
6-5
-------
e. Bulk packed explosive detonating cord filled with PETN and other
explosive mixes.
f. Bulk packed corp A.
g. Bulk packed carp H-6
9. Grenades and mines consist of:
a. TNT and cortp B filled hand grenades.
b. Antipersonnel mines filled with cottp B.
c. Antitank mines filled with corp B.
d. Thermite loaded munitions.
10. Navy gun ammunition (explosive D) consists of:
a. 3 through 8-inch projectiles filled with explosive D.
b. Heavy metal projectiles filled with explosive D.
11. Projectiles special function consist of :
a. 40 through 152mm "fixed" ammunition requiring disassembly and
breakdown.
b. Depleted uranium (DU) items.
c. 152mm items with TNT filler and combustible cartridges cases.
d. 3 or 5-inch projectile with chaff fillers and black powder expelling
charge.
e. 90 through 120rtm munitions equipped with inert loaded projectiles
with tracers.
12. Propellant charges consist of:
a. 3 to 8-inch propelling charges.
b. 3 through 5-inch munitions generally inert but equipped, with tracer.
c. Black powder loaded blank and relating charges.
d. Bulk packed propellents, time blasting fuze, black powder, and
miscellaneous other propellants.
13. Inert consists of inert loaded items.
14. No family consists of items which cannot be homogeneously grouped.
Table 1 (continued)
6-6
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QUANTITY OF ITEMS AND VEIGHTS OBTAINED FROM JDCG
HANDBOOK VOLUME I DEMILITAKIZATION/DLSPOSAL HANDBOOK DECEMBER 1989
FAMTT.TF.S QUANTITY WEIGHTS
(No. of Items) (short tons)
Snail Arms, Fuzes, 88,225,483 18,504.1
and Primers
Srtofces and Dyes 2,450,606 5,155.3
Pyrotechnics 891,939 2,371.7
HE Loaded Projectiles 5,229,686 56,538.2
(Except Explosive D)
Rockets and Missiles 2,712,171 37,443.4
Depth Charges, Borribs, 192,118 33,075.5
Torpedoes, and CBUs
Riot Control Agents 1,104,421 2,815.4
Bulk Explosives 3,168,199 1,518.6
Grenades and Mines 1,418,980 6,289.0
Navy Gun Armunition 198,823 5,426.6
(Explosive D)
Projectiles 168,845 4,335.6
Special Function
Propellant Charges 4,204,430 9,973.0
Inert loaded 56,568 733.7
No Family f,282.044 6.741.8
TOTAL 114,304.313 190,921.9
Table 2
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d. The capability now exists, as demonstrated above, to break down the
demil inventory into its consolidated families. These consolidated families
can then be expressed in terms of their materials and fillers. The HE loaded
projectile family is expressed in terms of its major fillers (figure 50) and
its materials (figure 51).
e. One member of the HE loaded projectile family is the 90rrcn cartridge.
figure 52 is the M71A1 or M71, and shows the information that can be obtained
from volume III. As car; be seen frcm figure 53, single base propellant
comprises the majority of reactive fillers with comp B, triple base
propellant, and TNT also contributing. Heavy steel is a major contributor
(approximately 6,821 short tons) to the material in the inventory of 90mm
projectiles (as shown in figure 54). This heavy steel, when sold as scrap,
has a resale value of about $0.01 per pound. This would mean a return of
about $136,000 on the heavy steel alone if these rounds were demilitarized.
6-10
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6-15
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Use of Waste Energetic Materials as a Fuel
Supplement in Utility Boilers
Waste energetic material produced during the manufacture of
explosives has been considered a by-product waste which must be
disposed of. Methods such as open burning or open detonation
pose potential environmental risks while disposal in specially
designed hazardous waste incinerators is costly. No current
method capitalizes on these materials inherent energy capacity.
Efforts to utilize these wastes as supplements to fuel oil are
under way. Laboratory and bench scale operations verify the
principle while economic analysis shows a positive advantage
using this approach. Pilot scale testing is in progress to
develop fuel mixing/feeding procedures and to determine fuel
mixture energy parameters.
(SLIDE 1) This schematic shows the equipment necessary to co-fire
explosives in fuel oil. The explosives are first blended with a
solvent to bring them into a solution which can be mixed with the
fuels. Our pilot testing will use toluene as it is an
inexpensive, readily available solvent capable of dissolving both
TNT and RDX. For other explosives and propellants, a different
solvent may be necessary. The solvated explosive is then blended
with the fuel oil, in the current testing the oil is #2 fuel oil.
This mixture is continuously recycled and a portion is fed to an
industrial boiler. Heat from combustion produces steam which can
be used to operate machinery, heat, or produce electricity.
Current tests are concentrating on the emissions from the process
and will identify necessary control measures.
(SLIDE 2) The costs of the operation are given in this figure
where different amounts of solvent are used to produce the
supplemented fuel. The cost of open detonation is included to
give an idea of the potential cost savings achievable. The cost
of co-firing is sensitive to the cost of fuel oil. As the cost
of fuel oil increases, the relative cost of supplemented fuels
decreases. It is likely that the cost of fuel oil will increase
in the future, making co-firing even more attractive. In
addition to cost advantages, the combustion of the explosives is
much better controled. The explosives-solvent-fuel oil mixture
provides a homgeneous fuel to the combustor, minimizing hot spots
or areas of incomplete combustion due to feed integrity.
Safety and environmentally sound disposal as well as energy
recovery are the goals of this project. It appears that we can
accomplish environmentally acceptable disposal and energy
conservation together.
-1-
-------
Use of Waste Entergetic Materials as a Fuel
Supplement In Utility Boilers
Craig A. Myler
US Army Toxic and Hazardous Materials Agency
Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland
William M. Bradshaw
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Oak Ridge, Tennesee
Michael G. Cosmos
Weston Services, Inc.
Westchester, Pennsylvania
ABSTRACT
Waste energetic material produced during the manufacture of
explosives has been considered a by-product waste which must be
disposed of. Methods such as open burning or open detonation
pose potential environmental risks while disposal in specially
designed hazardous waste incinerators is costly. No current
method capitalizes on these materials inherent energy capacity.
Efforts to utilize these wastes as supplements to fuel oil are
under way. Laboratory and bench scale operations verify the
principle while economic analysis shows a positive advantage
using this approach. Pilot scale testing is underway to develop
fuel mixing/feeding procedures and to determine fuel mixture
energy parameters.
Introduction
Production and stockpiling of explosives by the U.S. Army
results in the generation of waste energetic materials.
Typically, these materials contain nitrated aromatic compounds
which are classified as hazardous due to their inherent
reactivity. Environmentally safe methods of disposal of these
materials as hazardous wastes are practiced, however; this
-2-
-------
disposal does not take advantage of the energy content of these
materials. A program initiated by the U.S. Army Toxic and
Hazardous Materials Agency (USATHAMA) in conjunction with Oak
Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) and Roy F. Weston, Inc. is
investigating the use of these waste materials as a supplement to
fuel oil for use in standard industrial-type boilers. Using the
energy stored in this waste reduces fuel consumption while
eliminating what would otherwise be a potential hazardous waste.
Each of these benefits is a national priority item. The
development of this technology is therefore highly desirable.
Nature of the Waste
To effectively treat the subject, a description of the nature
of the wastes as well as their origin is in order. Energetics
are separated into three separate classes:
(1) Propellants
(2) Explosives
(3) Pyrotechnics
Propellants and Pyrotechnics will not be included in this
treatment. This does not preclude their use as fuel supplements
but they do not currently carry the priority for disposal that
-3-
-------
the explosive wastes do and therefore do not incur much of the
high cost of explosive disposal.
The two primary explosive wastes of concern are
trinitrotoluene (TNT) and cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX).
These two are the most prevalent explosives in use today and
therefore constitute the greatest inventory of waste. The
structures of these compounds along with the pertinent data to
this study are given in Figures 1 and 2. Of particular note is
the substantial amount of available nitrogen. This will be
discussed in terms of expected combustion products later. Often,
TNT and RDX are combined (normally with a small amount of
paraffin) to form a composite explosive. The most common of
these is. Composition B or simply, Comp B, which is a 40% TNT to
60% RDX mixture.
As mentioned previously, TNT and RDX constitute a reactivity
hazard. Handling, storage and use require special care and
attention to insure the safety of personnel. In addition to its
reactivity, TNT also constitutes a toxicity hazard. The American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists recommends a
Time Weighted Average (TWA) maximum concentration of 0.5 mg/m
and indicates a dermal hazard with TNT. Risk associated with
this toxicity is generally small due to TNT being a solid under
standard conditions as well as its very small solubility in
water. Even so, this toxicity cannot be ignored in any program
utilizing TNT. Necessary precautions include safe explosives
handling techniques, precaution against skin contact, and
insurance against airborne contamination. Safe explosives
-4-
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NO,
CH
NO,
Melting Point
Color
Boiling Point
Density
Viscosity
Specific Heat
Heat of Combustion
Solubility at 0 °C
Solubility at 50 °C
80 to 81 °C
Yellow, Crystalline
345 °C
1.654 gm/cm3
0.139 poise at 85 °C
251.8 J/mole-K at 27 °C
809.18 to 817.2 kcal/mole
57 gm/100 gm Acetone
28 gm/100 gm Toluene
346 gm/100 gm Acetone
208 gm/100 gm Toluene
FIGURE 1:
Structure and Physical Properties
of Trinitrotoluene (TNT) 2
-5-
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xo,
NO
N
CH,
N
\
CH,
CH,
N— NO,
Melting Point
Color
Density
Specific Heat
Heat of Combustion
Solubility at 0 °C
Solubility at 50 °C
202 to 203 °C
White, Crystalline
1.806 gm/cm 3
0.298 cal/gm-°C at 20 °C
501.8 to 507.3 kcal/mole
4.2 gm /100 gm Acetone
0.016 gm/100 gm Toluene
12.8 gm/100 gm Acetone
0.087 gm/100 gm Toluene
Figure 2: Structure and Physical Properties
of Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX)
-6-
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handling including prevention against skin contact is commonly
practiced and will not be discussed further. Insurance against
airborne release of TNT is a function of the completeness of
combustion which will be described later.
The heating value of RDX is approximately 9 kJ/g while for
TNT it is approximately 15 kJ/g. Each of these compounds burns
easily and completely. The largest drawback to utilization as
fuel supplements outside of their reactivity is the production of
NOx. As nitrated compounds, burning of these explosives produces
some quantity of NOx above that which would be produced from the
combustion of standard fuels. This NOx production was found to
be approximately 0.5376 gm/10 J of fuel. Current test
objectives include the characterization of these emissions and
determination of means to curtail or treat the production of NOx.
Along with the preceding discussion on the chemical nature of
the waste, a brief description of the source of the waste and its
physical state is in order. Two sources contribute to the
inventory of waste explosives. The first of these is that which
occurs during normal production. The second source is from
inventory which becomes either obsolete due to its packaging or
unserviceable due to storage, damage, etc.
As in the production of most items, especially in batch-
produced chemicals, off specification materials are sometimes
produced. Due to the military nature of explosives, strict
production specifications are enforced. This means that batches
of explosives sometimes fail to meet specifications which leads
to their classification as wastes. Lackey provides an estimate
-7-
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of current energetic waste generation of 1.13 kg/yr. This
estimate grows to 4.60x10 kg/yr during full scale production.
It should be noted that no TNT is currently produced.
Additionally, loading of munitions with explosives results in
significant waste generation through equipment wash down
procedures.
The second source of waste explosives is through stockpiles
becoming unserviceable. If a weapon is no longer a part of the
Army inventory, the munitions it uses may be classified as
unserviceable or obsolete. Also, quality control of stockpiled
munitions may determine that a particular munition is unable to
meet requirements for military service and it will be classified
as unserviceable. This may be due to the breakdown of the
explosive itself, degradation of other chemical portions of the
munition such as a propellant charge, or to a deterioration of
the munition body (for example a corrosion of the casing). Table
1 provides an estimate of the amount of unserviceable explosives
in the current inventory.
Finally, current disposal practices will be discussed. Two
methods are generally used, not including continued storage which
by its nature is expensive and non-productive. The first is
destruction through open detonation of the explosives. This
practice is simple, relatively safe and expedient. It has
recently come under environmental scrutiny and testing is
currently underway to determine this disposal methods impact on
the environment. Open detonation does not capitalize on the
heating value of the explosives.
-------
The second current method of disposal is through incineration
of the waste explosives. Typically, the explosive is mixed into
a water-explosive slurry and fed to a rotary kiln. A fuel such
as propane or fuel oil is used to maintain the kiln temperature
at approximately 1200 C. This process requires approximately
1.67 kg of fuel oil per kg of explosive destroyed. Although this
process can be made environmentally acceptable, it is expensive
in terms of capital cost and energy consumption.
TABLE 1: Estimate of Unservicable Explosives Contained
In U.S. Army Stockpile (1985)
Munitions 2.535xl06 1.496xl06
Reclaimed Material 2.315x10
Total 4.850xl06 1.496xl06
Neither of the above disposal practices takes advantage of
the energy contained in the explosives. With limited government
resources a constant concern, an alternative, less costly
approach is desirable. In the case of mobilization for national
defense, limited fuel reserves makes utilization of this energy
source even more important.
-9-
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Safety
Safety is of paramount importance to using explosives as fuel
supplements. The very nature of explosives requires special
handling during their intended use and even stricter controls
during combustion in an industrial boiler. Three separate areas
of concern will be addressed. First, the rheology of explosives-
fuel oil mixt res will be discussed. Second, physical properties
concerning compatibility of the explosives with fuel oils will be
described. Finally, the likelihood of detonations occurring is
addressed. These three safety related areas are fully described
by Lackey.
Due to the physical state of the waste explosives (ie-
irregularly sized solid pieces) and the relatively low solubility
of TNT and RDX in fuel oils, a solvent is used to bring the TNT
and RDX into solution. At some concentrations, the RDX and TNT
form slurries, especially upon removal of the solvent. Also,
mixtures of Toluene, TNT and fuel oil were shown to produce
multiphase liquid mixtures which are undesirable for feed to a
boiler. An optimum composition for the supplemented fuel is to
be determined and has an upper bound dictated by detonation
potential which will be described later.
Viscosity data for TNT supplemented fuel oils is given in
Table 2. As shown, the viscosity of a #2 fuel oil supplemented
with TNT does not show a significant increase in viscosity due to
the addition of the explosive.
-10-
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TABLE 2: Viscosity (in centistokes) of TNT Supplemented
Fuel oils at Various Concentrations
No. 2 Fuel Oil at 38 C
No. 5 Fuel Oil at 60 °C
Percentage TNT (gm/100 ml Fuel Oil
0 10 15 20
3.7
4.2
4.4
4.7
Percentage TNT (gm/100 ml Fuel Oil
0 10 20 30
37.0
56.0
75.0
106.0
Consideration was given to the chemical compatibility of TNT
and RDX with fuel oil. Differential thermal analysis, vacuum
thermal stability and accelerating rate calorimetry all showed
that both TNT and RDX do not undergo chemical reaction in the
presence of fuel oil but acted simply as solids in solution. A
test to determine if TNT would plate out in solution over time
was conducted as well. Plating was found during this 6 month
long test, however; the plating was only a thin layer which
presented no hazard when removed with warm acetone. Plating
prevention is currently designed to be avoided by frequent feed
system washing with warm acetone.
Finally, testing of the detonation characteristics of
supplemented fuel oil was conducted. Both static and dynamic
tests were performed. Static tests were conducted in a
horizontal 5.04 cm pipe in which the explosive supplemented fuel
was allowed to settle for a duration of 4 to 8 hours. Dynamic
tests were conducted in a vertical pipe of the same diameter in
which the mixture was agitated and then immediately tested for
-11-
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detonation potential. It was determined that single phase
TNT-Acetone-No. 2 fuel oil mixtures showed no propagation of
detonation characteristics at TNT concentrations up to 78 wt % in
static tests. Testing of TNT-Toluene mixtures in both static and
dynamic testing showed no propagation at up to 65 wt % TNT. RDX
on the other hand did result in propagation of detonation for
static testing at 5.3 wt %. This was due to settling of RDX
particles forming a trail of RDX on the bottom of the pipe. For
dynamic testing, RDX concentrations up to 15 wt % did not exhibit
propagation of detonation. Supplemented fuels containing less
than the concentration required to support propagation of
detonation in the static mode will be used.
Pilot Testing Using a Prototype Combustor
In 1987 a pilot scale (300 kw) combustor was operated using
9
fuel oil supplemented with TNT. Testing was conducted at the
Los Alamos National Laboratory. Problems with the equipment
precluded completion of this test program but not before
sufficient data was acquired to show that the use of explosives
as fuel supplements was possible. The problems encountered
consisted of a failure of the insulation used in the reducing
section of the prototype combustor and a failure of the burner
tip caused by RDX accumulation and subsequent burning. Enough
data was taken to warrant a continuation of the pilot scale
testing with careful attention given to selection of a combustion
-12-
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chamber and the feed system used to introduce the explosive
supplemented fuel oil. A diagram of the prototype combustor is
shown at Figure 3.
In addition to showing the feasibility of utilizing
explosives supplemented fuels, data was obtained concerning the
emissions from the prototype combustor. This data was collected
4
and reported by the Army Environmental Hygiene Agency . As only
4 data runs were obtained in which stack sampling was conducted,
only generalized conclusions could be reached. The first
conclusion is that destruction and removal efficiencies (DRE) of
99.999 % were obtained for TNT combustion. Carbon monoxide and
particulate emissions were described as controllable. Finally,
and perhaps most important, was the finding that increased NOx
concentrations were found to be caused by the addition of the
explosives to the fuel oil. With the limited number of data
points obtained and the condition of the combustor it is
premature to formalize estimates of NOx production for design of
control equipment. For the two data points obtained during
supplemented fuel burns, the total NOx emission rate was between
0.5033 and 0.5637 gm/10 J.. Methods to curtail this production
rate as well as obtaining definitive data to support design of
abatement systems are key factors in current test plans.
Current Program
Using the foregoing information, USATHAMA's current program
was developed to provide the requisite data needed to specify
-13-
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I»C 4. I (•-
PFAUDLE*
TANK.
•— FUEL SAMPLE PORT
STEAM
GENERATOR
PROPANE
TO GAS
ANALYSIS
TRAIN
r
OXIDIZING
ZONE
"
-------
requirements for a complete supplemental fuel system utilizing
TNT and Composition B. Testing is scheduled to begin in December
of 1989. Three major items required engineering design and
specification to obtain a working pilot system. The first of
these was a boiler system which would approximate the anticipated
full scale boilers that the supplemented fuels would be used in.
Second, a system to mix and feed the explosives, solvent and fuel
oil was needed which could safely mix and deliver the
supplemented fuel. Finally, a data acquisition plan was needed
to obtain the necessary design information for both emission
control design, operating parameters for the burner and
preliminary data needed for regulatory approval. A block diagram
of the test system is shown in Figure 4.
The boiler is the central piece of equipment in the
utilization of explosives supplemented fuels. The majority of
currently installed Army steam boilers utilizing fuel oil are of
a water tube design. Various burners and nozzles are in use.
For the current tests, air atomization was selected as the
supplemented fuel viscosity is not above design ranges for this
type of nozzle. The boiler selected is designed for 47 boiler
horse power and utilizes fuel at an input rate equivalent to 498
kW. A scale factor of ten would include the majority of process
steam generation boilers in use today. Larger systems are used,
however; more complex burner designs and fuel feed systems would
likely require additional testing prior to use of supplemented
fuels in these systems. This testing would likely include
-15-
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D i)
Figure 4: Block Diagram of Supplemental Fuel Pilot Scale
System
-16-
-------
surrogate fuel mixtures synthesizing the viscosity and heating
value of the supplemental fuel.
The second required piece of equipment for this test program
is the mixing/feed system. This unit is currently in the design
stage and will include provision for dissolving the explosives in
a separate solvent tank followed by remote addition of this
solution to a fixed quantity of fuel oil. The system will
mechanically agitate the fuel mixture as well as recirculate the
mixture through the piping system. Once a test is completed (by
exhaustion of the supplemented fuel mixture), the system will be
flushed with acetone by remote control. The mixing/feed system
would constitute the primary capital cost for implementation of a
system to utilize waste explosives. Care in terms of scalability
by utilizing standard equipment in the pilot scale design will
assist in the scale up of this unit to a full production system.
Finally, the data acquisition plan was designed to obtain the
necessary information for implementation of this technology.
This includes flow properties of the selected feed mixtures,
efficiency of explosive destruction within the system, heat
balances over the system and measurement/characterization of
emissions from the system. 18 total tests will be conducted.
The sample matrices are shown in Figure 5 and the expected test
sequence is shown in Figure 6.
-17-
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Percent
Excess
Air
Weight Percent TNT in Feed
1 10 15
20
25
30
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Percent
Excess
Air
Weight Percent Composition B in Feed
148
20
25
30
X
X
X
X
X,
Figure 5: Test Matrices for TNT and Composition B
Supplemented Fuels Pilot Scale Testing
-18-
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Conclusion
The use of waste explosives as supplements to fuel used in
steam boilers appears to be a viable means of utilizing for fuel
what would otherwise be a difficult to dispose of waste product.
Previous work has shown the feasibility of using waste explosives
as fuel supplements in terms of safety, hazardous waste
elimination and cost. Current project plans are aimed at
providing the necessary information to make this technology
available for implementation at Army installations. By
eliminating a hazardous waste through utilization of its energy
potential effective use is made of what is otherwise a costly
environmental problem.
REFERENCES CITED
1. Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices for
1988-1989, American Conference of Geovernmental Industrial
Hygienists, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1988, pg. 37.
2. Military Explosives. Department of the Army Technical Manual
TM 9-1300-214, September, 1984, pg. 8-72.
3. IBID, pg. 8-30.
4. Stationary Air Pollution Source Assesment No. 42-21-0515088,
U.S. Army Environmental Hygiene Agency, Aberdeen Proving Ground,
Maryland, January 1988, pg. 15.
5. Lackey, M.E., "Utilization of Energetic Materials in an
Industrial Combustor", U.S. Army Toxic and Hazardous Materials
Agency, Report No. AMXTHE-TE-TR-85003, Aberdeen Proving Ground,
Maryland, June 1985, Pg. 3.
6. IBID, pg. 2.
7. Lackey, M.E., "Testing to Determine Chemical Stability,
Handling Characteristics, and Reactivity of Energetic-Fuel
Mixtures", U.S. Army Toxic and Hazardous Materials Agency, Report
-20-
-------
No. AMXTH-TE-CR-87132,
1988.
Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, April
8
IBID, pgs. 7-8
9. Bradshaw, W.M,
Cofiring Process
U.S. Army Toxic
AMXTH-TE-CR-88272,
pg. 12.
, "Pilot-Scale Testing of a Fuel Oil-Explosives
for Recovering Energy from Waste Explosives",
and Hazardous Materials Agency, Report No.
Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, May 1988,
-21-
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COMPOSTING
EXPLOSIVES
CONTAMINATED
SOILS
U.S. ARMY TOXIC AND HAZARDOUS MATERIALS AGENCY
Composting is being considered as a treatment process for
cleaning up hazardous waste sites contaminated with the
explosives TNT, RDXjand HMX. Currently, srtes contaminated
with these explosives are being remediated by incineration
of the soil, a process which costs $272 per ton. This
equates to about $300 per cubic yard. Composting has been
demonstrated as capable of reducing the level of explosive
contamination to acceptable levels in a reasonable time
frame. The target cost for the process is $100 per cubic
yard. Estimates of soil which will require clean-up
currently are at the 5 million cubic yard level. This
provides a potential for a $1 billion savings by
implementing composting.
Past studies have concentrated on showing feasibility of
composting. Current program goals are to optimize the
process. Half lives on the order of 11 days have been
demonstrated. Toxicology on finished compost has so far
been favorable. To implement composting, data is being
collected to maximize through put and provide operating
estimates. In addition to the use of conventional
composting, specially prepared microorganisms which degrade
TNT are being prepared and will be tested. Similar
organisms are being sought for the degradation of RDX and
HMX.
The use of biological methods for remediation of hazardous
wastes are being considered for a wide array of toxic and
hazardous materials. To date, few applications of
biological methods have been implemented for such wastes.
Composting as a technique may find an increasing role in
applying the knowledge of biological reaction in the
laboratory to the full scale remediation of hazardous
wastes. The Army has taken a leading role in developing
this technology for hazardous waste remediation.
-1-
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Optimization of Composting Explosives Contaminated Soil
Craig A. Myler
Wayne Sisk
U.S. Army Toxic and Hazardous Materials Agency
Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland
and
Richard T. Williams
Roy F. Weston, Inc.
West Chester, Pennsylvania
ABSTRACT
Composting of soils contaminated with the explosives TNT, RDX,
and HMX is a technology which has been demonstrated as a
potential replacement for incineration. Previous studies have
shown this biological method to be effective in reducing the
levels of these contaminants to acceptable levels. Initial
toxicological data on finished compost residue indicates
acceptable elimination of toxicity. To present composting as a
competitor to incineration of explosives contaminated soil the
process must be improved in terms of cost per ton of soil
processed. Key factors are facility design and operation, carbon
source amendment, and kinetic rate of the biological processes.
Current program goals are designed to obtain information on
maximum soil loading, kinetic rate of degradation, and
configuration of compost reactor. Plans to achieve these goals
are discussed.
INTRODUCTION
Soils contaminated with the explosives trinitrotoluene (TNT),
hexahydro-l,3,5-trinitro-l,3,5-triazine (RDX), and 1,3,5,7-
tetranitro-l,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX) pose potential
environmental problems at sites around the world. In the U.S.,
various DOD and DOE facilities have soils contaminated with
these explosives, which require, in some cases, remedial action.
The technology currently used to clean these soils is high
temperature incineration, a process which is expensive in terms
-2-
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of both capital and operating costs. A process which may be used
in place of incineration for these soils is composting. This
biological treatment method utilizes bacteria and fungi to effect
a transformation of the explosives while producing a highly
decomposed humic residue. Compared to incineration, composting
may provide a cost effective, environmentally gentle means of
treating explosives contaminated soils.
BACKGROUND
Osman and Andrews ' initiated the concept of using
composting to destroy explosives in 1975 through research
sponsored by the U.S. Army. Their task was to develop composting
technology for use in solid phase biological destruction of
munition wastes. This was not intended as an application to
contaminated soils, but rather as a means to destroy the
processing wastes associated with explosives manufacturing and
handling. A significant conclusion by Osman and Andrews was that
"...compost organisms may use the same or similar initial
pathways in attacking the TNT molecule as do the soil organisms
but the organisms in compost carry the degradation process to
completion". They emphasized that "...TNT in composting does not
yield the undesirable end products found in soil experiments".
This was a significant deviation from prior work on TNT
metabolism which is discussed in the following paragraphs.
Metabolic Pathway Studies
Increased research activity in the early 1970's for munition
waste treatment at explosives production plants prompted
-3-
-------
significant efforts to better define the metabolism of TNT.
Prior to 1970, research in this area was conducted during or
immediately after both the First and Second World Wars, with
emphasis on metabolism by mammals, including humans. A
4
potentially significant finding by Lemberg and Calaghan was that
metabolism of TNT in rats was different from that in humans and
rabbits in that metabolism in rats removed the methyl group from
the TNT. This production of trinitrobenzene points out the
potential for alternate metabolic pathways of TNT transformation.
Between 1972 and 1985, explosives metabolism was the subject
of numerous laboratory investigations.^ ~ ' A summary of these
18
works is given by Kaplan. In general, two points stand out.
First, the conditions in the referenced studies resulted in the
formation of amines and their derivatives as shown in Figure 1.
Second, RDX and HMX were biotransformed only under anaerobic
conditions.
While significant evidence exists that amino compound
formation occurs during TNT biotransformation, this outcome may
not be entirely consistent with large scale composting systems.
Osman and Andrews were clear in their findings on composting
that the compounds in the pathway described in Figure 1 were not
present in the finished product, with the possible exception of
the 2-Amino-4,6 dinitrotoluene and the 2,6-diamino-4-
nitrotoluene. These isomers were not a part of their
19
investigations. Experiments by Klausmeier, et.al. were directed
at determining volatile emissions from TNT composting systems and
toxicity of the finished product. Volatile nitrobodies were
-4-
-------
Figure 1: Metabolic Pathway for TXT
Transformation Suggested by
Kaplan and Kaplan u
2-Hydro«yl»mino-4.t-Dlnrtroteki«n«
2-OHA
4,4',6,6'-T*tranitro-2,2'-A2Oxyto4u«n*
2 ,4,6,6 -T»tr»nitro-Z,4 -Azorytolu«n«
2.4 DA
2.4-Diamino-6-Nitrotolu«fle
2.2',6,6'-T«lranitro-4,4'-Azoxy1olu«n«
-5-
-------
never detected above 0.66 ng per liter in their experiments
indicating, insignificant volatile emissions from the presence of
TNT or its transformation products. Toxicity studies conducted
on finished compost included seed germination, plant growth,
aquatic toxicity, and mutagenicity. Toxicity in the plant and
aquatic systems was not detected for any of the compost residue
concentrations studied. This was also true for aqueous and
alcohol extractions of the composts. DMSO extracts of the
compost did show potential mutagenicity and the authors
recommended additional toxicity testing to resolve the
question of "... environmental hazards that might exist".
A possibility for not observing mineralization of TNT in
20
composting systems was introduced by Traxler who suggested
ring-cleavage of TNT in isolated cultures. Traxler demonstrated
heterotrophic carbon dioxide fixation using labeled
TNT (ring-UL-14C). Recent advances in ring fission will be
mentioned later.
Soils Composting
Environmental regulation directed toward cleanup of
contaminated sites prompted a shift in focus of explosives
biodegradation studies toward soil remediation. While studies in
the laboratory ended with incomplete degradation of TNT in soil
alone, self sustaining composting of TNT demonstrated a
potentially more complete transformation with good evidence of an
environmentally innocuous final product.
The first studies on contaminated soil composting were
21
conducted by Isbister, et.al. in 1982. Laboratory and bench
-6-
-------
scale systems demonstrated potential for TNT transformation
without accumulation of the amino or azoxy derivatives. These
studies used sandy soils which were artificially contaminated in
the laboratory with weapons grade TNT. Investigation with
radiolabled TNT was also performed. In 1986, laboratory and
pilot scale composting was performed using soil from contaminated
lagoons at the Louisianna Army Ammunition Plant (LAAP) by Doyle,
22
et.al. These soils contained substantial quantities of the
explosives TNT, RDX, HMX and Tetryl. The pilot scale composts
demonstrated the formation of the amino derivatives with
subsequent disappearance, suggesting either a more complete
degradation or irreversible binding in the compost system. This
was the first pilot scale application of the technology to actual
contaminated soil, and was the first technology to be issued a
RD&D permit under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act.
RDX, HMX and Tetryl degradation was also substantial in these
compost systems. Radiolabeled samples of these explosives were
determined to undergo substantial mineralization by analysis of
carbon dioxide production. Aqueous leachates were tested for
mutagenicity and were found to be non-mutagenic.
Full Scale Demonstration
The use of incineration for remediation of explosives
contaminated soils began in 1988 and efforts to bring composting
to implementation were increased by the U.S. Army. A
demonstration scale composting test was conducted in 1987 by
23 24
Williams, et.al. ' This was the first attempt at the scale up
of a biotreatment method for remediating explosives contaminated
-7-
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soils. The objective of the study was to evaluate the utility of
aerated static pile composting for remediation of explosives
contaminated soils. The results of this demonstration were
encouraging. Data on explosives degradation as well as results
on the formation and subsequent disappearance of the diamino
derivatives are presented in Figure 2. A follow on study to
determine toxicity of the finished compost product was recently
completed and final results are forthcoming. Aqueous leachates
from these systems have been shown to exhibit little toxicity or
mutagenicity.
While the exact TNT biotransformation mechanisms in compost
are as yet not completely defined, there does appear to be a
significant difference between metabolism in soils and that in
composts. The differences may be from transformation along a
different pathway or simply an extension of the same pathway
resulting in a more complete transformation.
OPTIMIZATION
The current direction of research is toward optimization of
the composting system, determination of the final fate of the
explosives, and a more complete evaluation of toxicity reduction.
While the field scale demonstration of composting was highly
successful in meeting its objective of explosives destruction, it
was not conducted to obtain specific engineering design criteria
necessary for optimum facility design.
With feasibility demonstrated at the field scale, an
•J c
implementation study was performed by Lowe, et.al. with the
objective of providing cost and facility data for implementation
-------
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-9-
-------
of a full scale remediation. Data from the field scale
demonstration at LAAP were initially used to determine the cost
of operating a full scale composting facility. The cost
estimates based on this design were determined to be excessive
based primarily on system throughput.
Throughput is determined by both the kinetic rate of
destruction of the explosives and the concentration of soil in
the compost matrix. The change in cost per ton of soil
remediated with change in kinetic rate is shown in Figure 3 for
an aerated static pile facility. It is not anticipated that a
static pile system destruction rate can be improved substantially
without addition of either specially prepared amendments and/or
microbial inocculants. Figure 4 describes the change in cost per
ton of soil remediated at a fixed rate of destruction with change
in soil concentration for an aerated static pile system.
Throughput is highly sensitive to soil concentration and presents
the best potential for cost improvement in a static pile system.
In addition to static pile operations, mechanically agitated
composting was evaluated in terms of costs. While capital
intensive, this form of composting presents the potential for
greater throughput due to the ability to use higher
concentrations of soil, and/orincreased kinetic rate arising from
improved mass transfer and contaminant availability. An
additional potential benefit of this type of system is the
containment of the waste.
Current Pilot: Study
A pilot study has been developed to determine an optimum
-10-
-------
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-11-
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-12-
-------
strategy for composting based on the implementation study. This
study is scheduled to begin in May 1990 and run through April
1991. The objectives of the test program are to obtain data
necessary to implement composting as a cost effective means of
remediating explosives contaminated soils. The test program
includes field testing of aerated static pile and mechanically
agitated compost systems. Extensive toxicology and analytical
chemistry are planned to obtain the data necessary for economic
design of a full scale system and the health risks associated
with the finished compost.
The field studies will be conducted at the Umatilla Army
Depot Activity (UMDA) in Hermiston, Oregon. This site was
selected due to the climatic conditions expected, the
availability of contaminated soils, the favorable response of
depot personnel, regulators and the local populace and the status
of the site on the National Priorities List (NPL). Conduct of
the test in the arid and seasonal climate of Oregon will
establish the ability to maintain the compost systems under
adverse conditions. The use of an NPL site ensures the
conditions are representative of an actual hazardous waste
cleanup site, and mandated the involvment of the regulatory
community in the developmental process.
Test: Conditions
The optimization field study is designed to obtain kinetic
rate and soil concentration data for full scale design. As
mentioned previously, the soil percentage of the mixture to be
composted is the most sensitive variable in the aerated static
-13-
-------
pile system, and will be a major subject of investigation. Six
aerated static piles will be established for determination of
maximum soil concentration. A seventh pile will be established
to investigate the use of a bacteriological inoculant for
increased degradation rate. Each pile will be operated for 90
days. The soil concentration of each pile is shown in Table I.
Table 1: Static Pile Composting Test Configurations
Pile f Percent Soil Soil Type
(by volume)
1 10 Uncontaminated
(CONTROL)
2 7
3 10
4 20
5 30
6 40
7 10
Contaminated
Contaminated
Contaminated
Contaminated
Contaminated
Contaminated
+ Bacterial
Inoculant
In addition to the static pile testing, a mechanically
agitated composter will be investigated. This will be the first
application of this advanced composting technology to explosives
contaminated soils. Six tests will be conducted in the
mechanically agitated composter. Three tests are designed to
investigate the effect of different carbon substrates as
amendments to the compost. The best amendment mixture
determined from these tests will be used in 3 additional tests to
establish the maximum soil concentration capable of being
-14-
-------
composted. The six test configurations for the mechanically
agitated composter are shown in Table 2. All soil used in this
unit is to be contaminated with explosives. A conceptual layout
for the field test site is shown in Figure 5. Contaminated soil
from the south lagoon will be used for the tests.
Table 2: Mechanically Agitated Composter Test Configurations
Test # Carbon Source Soil Percentage
(by volume)
1 A 10
2 B 10
3 C* 10
4 D 20
5 D 30
6 D 40
D represents an optimum mixture based on test results using
amendment mixtures A, B, and C.
Supporting Studies
A Toxicity and chemical characterization of the composting
material is planned for the Optimization Field Study. Results
from the recently completed toxicological analysis of the
residues from the field demonstration at LAAP support ongoing
testing and these data are expected in final form by May 1990.
Toxicity testing is being conducted by researchers at the Oak
Ridge National Laboratory.
The addition of a microbial inoculant to a compost
configuration for increasing the rate of degradation was
mentioned earlier. Another, perhaps, more important aspect of
such an inoculant, is the potential for demonstration of
-15-
-------
Figure 5: Conceptual Site Layout for
the UMDA Optimization Field
Study
Office
Trailer
*
Fe«
a
\
D
Discharge
/
:hanical Compostsr
Amendment
Storage
Greenhouse
Gn^~
(S0—
I®]0--
J®^~
!^^>
-------
mineralization of the TNT. While mineralization may not be a
necessary condition for safely remediating the soil, it may allow
20
better process control and optimization. Traxler suggested
ring cleavage during studies using bacteria grown on TNT as a
26
sole source of carbon. Recent developments by Naumova, et.al.
have demonstrated ring fission of the TNT molecule leading to
mineralization.
27 28
Unkefer, et. al. ' presented conclusive evidence of TNT-
degrading microorganisms capable of utilizing TNT as a sole
source of carbon. This work was performed using radiolabled
14
(C ) TNT. Of particular significance is their observations that
bacteria collected from different sources show variability in
their ability to degrade TNT. A microbial culture prepared at
Los Alamos National Laboratory will be used in the Optimization
Field Study. Efforts are ongoing to collect laboratory data to
determine the optimum configuration for testing of this
inoculant.
CONCLUSIONS
Composting has been demonstrated as a promising means for
treating explosive contaminated soils. There is a significant
difference in the final fate of the explosive TNT when
metabolised in soils versus composting. While soil degradation
results in formation of amines and their derivatives, these
compounds are not found in the final compost product.
Full scale application of composting requires additional
design information to determine an optimum implementation
strategy. An optimization Field Study will begin in 1990 to
-17-
-------
obtain the necessary information to implement the technology.
This testing will include static pile composting, mechanically
agitated composting, use of bacterial inoculants and extensive
toxicological and chemical characterization. Recent advances in
bacterial cultures for degradation of TNT may result in systems
capable of degrading the explosives more efficiently and/or
extensively leading to reduced cost.
-18-
-------
REFERENCES
1. Osmon, J.L. and Andrews, C.C., "The Biodegradation of TNT in
Enhanced Soil and Compost Systems", Letter Report of the Naval
Weapons Support Center, Crane, Indiana, August 1975.
2. Osmon, J.L., Andrews, C.C., and Tatyrek, A., "The
Biodegradation of TNT in Enhanced Soil and Compost Systems",
Report No. ARLCD-TR-77032, ARRADCOM, Dover, NJ, January 1978.
3. Channon, H.J., Mills, G.T., and Williams, R.T., "The
Metabolism of 2:4:6-trinitrotoluene (a-TNT)", Biochem., 38, 1944,
pg. 70-85.
4. Lemberg R. and Callaghan, J.P., "Metabolism of Symetrical
Trinitrotoluene", Nature, 154, 1944, pg. 768-769.
5. McCormick, N.G., Feeherry, F.E., and Levinson, H.S.,
"Microbial Transformation of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene and Other
Nitroaromatic Compounds", Appl. Env. Microbiol., 31(6), June,
1976, pg. 949-958.
6. Kaplan, D.L. and Kaplan, A.M., "2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene-
Surfactant Complexes: Decomposition, Mutagenicity, and Soil
Leaching Studies", Environ. Sci. Technol., 16(9), 1982, pg. 566-
571.
7. Won, W.D., Heckley, R.J., Glover, D.J. and Hoffsommer, J.C.,
"Metabolic Disposition of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene", Appl.
Microbiol., 27(3), March, 1974, pg 513-516.
8. Greene, B., Kaplan, D.L. and Kaplan, A.M., "Degradation of
Pink Water Compounds in Soil - TNT, RDX, HMX", U.S. Army Natick
Research and Development Center Report No. NATICK/TR-85/046,
January 1985.
9. Kaplan, D.L. and Kaplan, A.M., "Thermopohilic
Biotransformations of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene Under Simulated
Composting Conditions", Appl. Env. Microbiol., 44(3), September,
1982, pg. 757-760.
10. Kaplan, D., Ross, E., Emerson, D., LeDoux, R., Mayer, J.,
and Kaplan, A.M., "Effects of Environmental Factors on the
Transformation of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene in Soils", U.S. Army
Natick Research and Development Center Report No. NATICK/TR-
85/052, January 1985.
11. McCormick, N.G., Cornell, J.H. and Kaplan, A.M.,
"Biodegradation of Hexahydro-l,3,5-Trinitro-l,3,5-Triazine",
Appl. Env. Microbiol., 42(5), November 1981, pg. 817-823.
-19-
-------
12. Carpenter, D.F., McCormick, N.G., Cornell, J.H. and Kaplan,
A.M., "Microbial Transformation of 14C-Labeled 2,4,6-
Trinitrotoluene in an Activated Sludge System", Appl. Env.
Microbiol., 35(5), May 1978, pg. 949-954.
13. Kaplan, D.L. and Kaplan, A.M., "Reactivity of TNT and TNT-
Microbial Reduction Products with Soil Components", U.S. Army
Natick Research and Development Center Report No. NATICK/TR-
83/041, July 1983.
14. Kaplan, D.L. and Kaplan, A.M., "Thermophilic Transformation
of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene in Composting Systems", U.S. Army
Natick Research and Development Center Report No. NATICK/TR-
82/015, March 1982.
15. Pereira, W.E., Short, D.L., Manigold, D.B. and Roscio, P.K.,
"Isolation and Characterization of TNT and Its Metabolites in
Groundwater by Gas Chromatograph-Mass Spectrometer-Computer
Techniques", Bull. Environm. Contam. Toxicol., 21, 1979, pg. 554-
562.
16. Kaplan, D.L. and Kaplan, A.M., "Mutagenicity of 2,4,6-
Trinitrotoluene-Surfactant Complexes", Bull. Environm. Contam.
Toxicol., 28, 1982, Pg. 33-38.
17. Hoffsommer, J.C., Kubose, D.A., Kayser, E.G., Kaplan, L.A.,
Dickinson, C., Groves, C.L., Glover, D.J., Goya, H., and
Sitzmann, M.E., "Biodegradability of TNT: a Three Year Pilot
Plant Study", Naval Surface Weapons Center Report No. NSWC/WOL TR
77-136, Naval Surface Weapons Center, Silver Spring, Maryland,
February 1978.
18. Kaplan, D.L., "Biotransformation Pathways of Hazardous
Energetic Organo-Nitro Compounds", in Biotechnology and
Biodegradation, Edited by Kamely, D., Chakrabarty, A., and Omenn,
G.S., Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, 1989, pg. 155.
19. Klausmeir, R.E., Jamison, E.I., and Tatyrek, A., "Composting
of TNT: Airborne Products and Toxicity", U.S. Army Armament
Research and Development Command Large Caliber Weapon Systems
Laboratory Report No. ARLCD-CR-81039, ARRADCOM, Dover, NJ,
February 1982.
20. Traxler, R.W., "Biodegradation of Alpha TNT and Its
Production Isomers", U.S. Army Natick Research and Development
Center Report No. Interim July 73-July 74, July 1974.
21. Isbister, J.D., Doyle, R.C., and Kitchens, J.F., "Composting
of Explosives", U.S. Army Toxic and Hazardous Materials Agency
Report No. DRXTH-TE, USATHAMA, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland,
September 1982.
-20-
-------
22. Doyle, R.C., Isbister, J.D., Anspach, G.L., and Kitchens,
J.F., Composting Explosives/Organics Contaminated Soils", U.S.
Army Toxic and Hazardous Materials Agency Report No. AMXTH-TE-CR-
86077, USATHAMA, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, May 1986.
23. Williams, R.T., Ziegenfuss, P.S., and Marks, P.J., "Field
Demonstration-Composting of Explosives Contaminated Sediments at
the Louisiana Army Ammunition Plant (LAAP)", U.S. Army Toxic and
Hazardous Materials Agency Report No. AMXTH-IR-TE-88242,
USATHAMA, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, September 1988.
24. Williams, R.T., Ziegenfuss, P.S., Mohrmann, G.B., and Sisk,
W.E., "Composting of Explosives Contaminated Soils", in
Biotechnology Applications in Hazardous Waste Treatment, edited
by Lewandowski, G., Armenante, P. and Baltzis, B., United
Engineering Trustees, Inc., NY, 1989, pg. 307-318.
25. Lowe, W., Williams, R. and Marks, P, "Composting of
Explosive-Contaminated Soil Technology", U.S. Army Toxic and
Hazardous Materials Agency Report No. CETHA-TE-CR-90027,
USATHAMA, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, October 1989.
26. Naumova, R.P., Selvanovskaya, S.Y., and Mingatina, F.A.,
"The Possibility of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene Deep Destruction by
Bacteria", Mikrobiologiya, 57(2), 1988, pg. 218-222.
27. Unkefer, P.J., Banners, J.L., Unkefer, C.J. and Kramer,
J.F., "Microbial Culturing for Explosives Degradation", presented
at the Workshop on Composting of Explosives Contaminated Soils",
New Orleans, LA, 6-8 September 1989, U.S. Army Toxic and
Hazardous Materials Agency Report No. CETHA-TS-SR-89276,
USATHAMA, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, October 1989.
28. Unkefer, P.J., Alvarez, M.A., Hanners, J.L., Unkefer, C.J.,
Stenger, M., and Margiotta, E.A., "Bioremediation of Explosives",
presented at the Workshop on Alternatives to Open Burning/Open
Detonation of Propellants and Explosives, Tyndall Air Force Base,
Panama City, Florida, 27-28 March 1990.
-21-
-------
Figure 1: Metabolic Pathway for TNT
Transformation Suggested by
Kaplan and Kaplan u
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-25-
-------
DOCUMENT 3
SESSION 1 - GENERAL TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATION
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF RISK ASSESSMENT,
MANAGEMENT AND COMMUNICATION
TOXICOLOGICAL APPROACHES FOR DEVELOPING ENVIRONMENTAL
STANDARDS AND GUIDANCE
-------
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF RISK ASSESSMENT, MANAGEMENT AND COMMUNICATION
Edward V. Ohanian
I. General Principles of Risk Assessment
A. Hazard Identification
1. Pharmacokinetics
a. Absorption
b. Distribution
c. Metabolism
d. Excretion
2. Toxicity Studies
a. Animals
b. Duration of exposure
c. Dose levels
d. Multi-stage process of tumor development
B. Dose-Response Assessment
1. Quantification of Non-Carcinogenic Effects
a. Reference dose (RFD)
b. Inhalation and ingestion RFDs
c. Chemical interactions
2. Quantification of Carcinogenic Effects
a. Dose-response relationships
b. Slope factor
c. Unit cancer risk
d. Models for excess cancer risk estimates
C. Exposure Assessment
1. Forms of exposure
2. Human exposure evaluation
3. Exposure assessment assumptions
4. Average daily lifetime exposure
D. Risk Characterization
1. Strength versus weight of evidence for cancer
2. EPA characterization
3. Risk levels
4. Comparative risks of death
E. Guidelines for Cancer Risk Assessment
F. Risk Assessment Issues
G. Risk Assessment Concerns
-------
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF RISK ASSESSMENT, MANAGEMENT AND COMMUNICATION
Edward V. Ohanian
Page Two
II. General Principles of Risk Management
A. Risk Management
1. Control options
2. Non-risk analysis
a. Economics
b. Politics
c. Statutory and legal considerations
d. Special factors
3. Risk management issues
III. General Principles of Risk Communication
A. Risk Communication
1. News headlines
2. Communicating risks
3. Effective risk communication: seven cardinal rules
4. The press: rules for interviews
B. Conclusions: Presentations and Perceptions
-------
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF
RISK ASSESSMENT, MANAGEMENT AND
COMMUNICATION
By
Edward V. Ohanian, Ph.D.
Chief, Health Effects Branch
Office of Drinking Water (WH-550D)
Washington, D.C. 20460
(202)382-7571
WHAT IS RISK?
The likelihood of injury, disease,
or death
WHAT IS
ENVIRONMENTAL RISK?
The likelihood of injury, disease,
or death resulting from human
exposure to a potential
environmental hazard
-i-
-------
ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS
• Risk Assessment
• Risk Management
• Risk Communication
RISK ASSESSMENT
The Scientific Estimation of Hazard Which Is Obtained
by Combining the Results of an Exposure Assessment
With the Results of the Toxicity Assessment for the
Subject Chemical
RISK ASSESSMENT
Do*e-Response
Assessment
Hazard
Identification
• Risk
Characterization
Exposure
Assessment
-2-
-------
HAZARD IDENTIFICATION
• Review and analyze toxictty data
• Weigh the evidence that a
substance causes various toxic
effects
• Evaluate whether toxic effects in
one setting will occur in other
settings
HAZARD EVALUATION
Pharmacokinetics
Toxicity Studies
1. PHARMACOKINETICS
Determines the Effect
The Body Has
On The Chemical
2. TOXICITY STUDIES
Determines The Effect
The Chemical Has
On The Body
-3-
-------
PHARMACOKINETICS
The Chemical
1. Enters Body
(ABSORPTION)
2. Spreads Thru Body
(DISTRIBUTION)
3. Is Processed By Body
(METABOLISM)
4. Leaves Body
(EXCRETION)
ABSORPTION
ROUTES OF EXPOSURE
• Ingestion
• Inhalation
• Dermal
• Gavage
• Intraperitoneal
ABSORPTION
Ingestion
VOCs
METALS
100
PESTICIDES 0- 100
-4-
-------
ABSORPTION
Inhalation
VOCs
METALS
PESTICIDES
90- 100Z
TOXICITY BASED ON
ROUTE OF EXPOSURE
CHROMIUM
VINYL
CHLORIDE
INHALED
EFFECTS
LUNG
CANCER
LIVER
CANCER
INGESTED
EFFECTS
KIDNEY
DAMAGE
LIVER
CANCER
HAZARD EVALUATION
PHARMACOKINETICS
• Distribution
-5-
-------
DISTRIBUTION
OF CHEMICALS
Carried By Blood
Passed To Fetus Thru
Placenta
May Be Stored
- Fat (DDT)
- Bone (LEAD)
HAZARD EVALUATION
PHARMACOKINETICS
• Metabolism
METABOLISM
PURPOSE:
Make Chemical More Water-Soluble
Which Makes it Easier To Leave
The Body
RESULT:
• DETOXIFICATION
Makes Chemical Less Harmful (Ethanol)
• TOXIFICATION
Makes Chemical More Harmful (Methanol)
• NO CHANGE IN TOXICITY
-6-
-------
FACTORS AFFECTING
METABOLISM
• Species
• Age
• Sex
• Exposure To Other
Chemicals
HAZARD EVALUATION
PHARMACOKINETICS
• Excretion
EXCRETION
LUNGS-Air
KIDNEYS-Urine
LIVER-Bile/Feces
MAMMARY GLANDS-Milk
-7-
-------
PURPOSE OF
TOXICITY STUDIES
Determine Toxic Effect
Determine Toxic Doses
TWO MAIN PRINCIPLES
OF TQXICITY TESTING
1. Effects In Lab Animals
Apply To Humans
2. High Doses Are Needed To
Discover Possible Hazard
To Humans
— 0.01 % requires
30,000 animals
- 0.01% = 24,200 of
242 million people
HAZARD EVALUATION
TOXICITY STUDIES
• Important Aspects
Of An Animal Study
I Animals
2 Duration of Exposure
3. Dose Level
-------
ANIMALS
• Species
• Number
• Controls
DURATION OF EXPOSURE
RODENTS
HUMANS
ACUTE
Single
Dose
1 Ooy
SU8ACUTE
Less That
\ Month
tO Day
SU8CHROMC
t-3
Months
longer
Term
CHROMC
Lifetime
(2 y«w»)
Lifetime
(70 y%
-------
ACUTE
LETHAL DOSE 50 - L§0 A
50% Live 50% Die
SUBACUTE & SUBCHRCMC
STUDIES
• Determines Which Organs
Are Affected
• Dose Needed To Produce
Toxic Effects
• Maximum Tolerated Dose (MTD)
Used In Lifetime Studies
CHRONIC-LIFETIME STUDIES
• Determine If Chemical
Produces Cancer
• Determine Other Toxic Effects
With Lifetime Exposure
• No—Observed Adverse
Effect Level (NOAEL)
• Lowest—Observed Adverse
Effect Level (LOAEL)
-10-
-------
Relationship Between
Dose Levels
NOAEL IQAEL MTD Lp80
INCREASING DOSE
HAZARD EVALUATION
TOXICITY STUDIES
• How Chemicals
Produce Cancer
HOW CHEMICALS
PRODUCE CANCER
Multi-stage Process That Takes
Months For Rodents &L Decades
For Humans
• Initiation
Chemical Changes
Cell's DNA
• Promotion
Changed Cells Start
Dividing
-11-
-------
STAGES OF
TUMOR DEVELOPMENT
. • Preneoplostic Foci
Croup of celts stain
differently when observed
under microscope
• Benign
Cells continue to divide
Je compress surrounding
tissue
• Malignant
Tumor ceffs invade
surrounding tissue
-------
DOSE-RESPONSE
Non-Cancer Effects
Cancer Effects
DOSE-RESPONSE EVALUATION
Performed to estimate the incidence
of the adverse effect as a function
of the magnitude of human exposure
to a substance
Response
DOM
X\ Threshold
Non-Threshold
No Effect Organ Damage
-13-
Cancer
-------
THRESHOLD vs NO THRESHOLD
Response
Increasing Dose
Carcinogen Non-Carcinogen
DOSE-RESPONSE
Non—Cancer Effects
Reference Dose RfD
REFERENCE DOSE
An estimate of a daily exposure (in
mg/kg/day) to the human population
that is likely to be without an
appreciable risk of deleterious
health effects during a lifetime
f ornurty Ace»puol« Daily Intake (AW)
-14-
-------
NOAEL = No-observed-adverse-effect level
LOAEL = Lowest-observed-adverse-effect level
NOAEL vs LOAEL
DOSE
0
5
15
30
RESPONSE
0
0
10
25
Controls
NOAEL *
LOAEL *
* NOAEL (No-Observed-Adverie-Ef feet Level)
* LOACL (Lowest-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level)
NAS/ODW GUIDELINES FOR
APPLYING UNCERTAINTY FACTORS
Uncertainty
Factor*
10
100
1,000
Type of
Study
Human
Human
Animal
Animal
Observed
Effect
NOAEL
LOAEL
NOAEL
LOAEL
•An tat«rm«dlata unctrtaktty factor b«tw«*n 1 and 1«
la ua«d accord** to *»«at aelontlfte ludojuanf
-15-
-------
RfD =
Find RfD
NOAEL
UF
100 mg/kg/doy
100
1 mg/kg/doy
WHAT ABOUT OTHER
TOXIC EFFECTS?
Response
WO MOAMi DOS*
Convert RfD
To Water Concentration
Assume 70 kg Adult Drinks
2 Liters/Day
W»ter m RfD « Body Weight
Concentration " Amount Wattr Drank
1 mg/kg/doy * 70 kg
2 Liters/day
• 35 mg/Utw
-16-
-------
Convert RfD
To Air Concentration
Assume 70 kg Adult Breathes
23 m3/day
Air m RfD » Body Weight
Concentration " Amount Air Breathed
1 mg/kg/doy « 70 kg
23
— 3 mg/m
CHEMICAL INTERACTIONS
• ANTAGONISTIC 1-4-2=1
Cadmium
-------
DOSE-RESPONSE CURVE
R
•
s
P
o
n
s
•
Observable
.X *»*•
,*
SA
Range of
Inference
Dose
DOSE-RESPONSE SAMPLE CURVE
O.OS 0.1 t.O I
(CONTAMINANT CONCENTRATION)
I-H l-H
TYPICAL ICVnS FOUND M
OMNKINQ WATCH (u«/1)
TYMCAl IIVIII USED IN
ANIMAL WtJUMENTS tmg/lcfl)
•MTT) - MAXIMUM TOLERATED DOSE
-18-
-------
QUANTIFICATION OF CARCINOGENIC
EFFECTS
• Excess Cancer Risk Estimates
- Multistage Model
-One-Hit Model
- Weibull Model
- Logit Model
-Multi-Hit Model
- Probit Model
CANCER MODELS
%
0.001
0.0001
9.00001
MuiU-
\
W«lbul
0.001 0.04 0.01 DO*
MULTISTAGE MODEL
THIS MODEL ESTIMATES THE UPPER BOUND (95% CONFIDENCE LIMIT)
OF THE EXCESS CANCER RATE THAT WOULD BE EXPECTED TO OCCUR AT A
SPECIFIC EXPOSURE LEVEL FOR A 70-KG ADULT, CONSUMING 2 L
WATER/DAY, OVER A 70-YEAR LIFESPAN.
-19-
-------
The value obtained by the
LMS risk mode! gives the
PLAUSIBLE
UPPER-BOUND ESTIMATE
of the risk for cancer
Sc the actual risk is
probably less than the
estimate &, could even
be zero
If!-
-
1 -
i
VINYL CHLORIDE
MUlTtSTAOl
101 0.1 I MM* 100* 10.000 100.000 1.000.000 10000.000
CONCZMTMATKM IN DMIMCINQ WATCT (irt»l»»i»/l«p|
-20-
-------
SLOPE FACTOR = q^
*'••
Slop« -S3T-v
OOSE
UPPER BOUND ESTMATC ON
RISK (RESPONSE) - q f * DAVT OOSE
UNIT CANCER RISK FOR AIR
- Slope Foctor (q }
. Expressed ho
concentration In air.
assuming 70kg person
breathing 20 m
of which 75* is
absorbed
UNIT CANCER RISK FOR WATER
• (UCR)
Expressed in a '
concentration in water.
assuming 70kg person
drinking 2 liters/day
-21-
-------
FORMS OF
HUMAN EXPOSURE
Inhalation
Ingestion
Skin Contact
DEFINITIONS
Exposure
The contact with a chemical or
physical agent.
Exposure Assessment
The estimation (qualitative or
quantitative) of the magnitude,
frequency, duration, and route
of exposure.
-22-
-------
HUMAN EXPOSURE
EVALUATION
• How may people be exposed?
• Through which routes?
• Who is exposed?
• What is the magnitude, duration,
and timing of the exposure?
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
• Extent and frequency of human
exposure
- How much?
- How often?
• Degree of absorption by various
routes of exposure
• Use of average or typical individual
• Use of high risk groups
-23-
-------
Tetrachloroethylene
THchtoroethytene
1,1 - Dichtoroethylene
1,1 -Dtehloroethytene cis 1,2 - Dtehtoroethylene
Vinyl Chloride
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
Total dose - Contaminant concentration
x Contact rate
x Exposure duration
x Absorption fraction
* Bodyweight
Average daily
Rfetime
exposure • Total dose/days per ifetime
Hazard
Identification Data
Dose-Response
Evaluation Data
Human Exposure
Evaluation Data
-24-
Risk
Characterization
Level of
Potential
Risk to
Humans
-------
EPA CATEGORIZATION
STEP 1 Summarize Weight Of Evidence From
Human and Animal Studies
STEP 2 Combine Human and Animal Evidence
Yielding Tentative Assignment To
Category
STEP 3 Supportive Data Evaluated To See If
Modification Is Needed
EVALUATION PROCEDURES
STRENGTH OF EVIDENCE
Against
II
WEIGHT OF EVIDENCE
Against For
Hit
WEIGHT OF EVIDENCE FOR CANCER
o Positive and Negative Results in Different
Species
o Both Sexes Affected
o Increased Tumors with Increased Dose
o Number of Tumor Sites
o Increased Dose, Decrease in Time-to-Tumor
o Human (Epidemiology) Data Available
-25-
-------
HOW DO WE DEFINE
WHETHER A CHEMICAL
IS A CARCINOGEN?
Negative Data
EPA CATEGORIZATION
A HUMAN CARCINOGEN
B PROBABLE HUMAN CARCINOGEN
Bl Usually Limited Human Data
B2 Sufficient Animal Evidence
C POSSIBLE HUMAN CARCINOGEN
D NOT CLASSIFIABLE AS TO HUMAN
CARCINOGENICITY
E EVIDENCE OF NON-CARCINOGENICITY
-26-
-------
RISK CHARACTERIZATION
327 per 1,000,000 exposed people wffl die
from ifetime exposure to Chemical A.
Chemical A is carcinogenic in rats and mice.
Appflcation of low-dose extrapolation
models and human exposure estimates
suggests that the range of risks in humans
is 100-1,000 deaths per 1,000,000 persons
exposed.
Chemical A is carcinogenic in rats and mice
and it is prudent public health policy to
assume it is aiso carcinogenic in humans.
RISK LEVELS
10~4 =1 in 10,000
= 0.01 %
10'5 =1 in 100,000
= 0.001
10"6 =1 in 1,000,000
= 0.0001
-27-
-------
COMPARATIVE RISKS
OF DEATH
Number of Lifetime
Deaths/Year Risks
• Motor vehicle 46,000 1/65
accidents
• Home 25,000 1/130
accidents
• Lung cancer 80,000 1/12
deaths in
smokers
GUIDELINES FOR CARCINOGEN
RISK ASSESSMENT
• Hazard Identification
• How Firmly Do We Believe That the Agent Is a
Human Carcinogen?
• Has It Caused Cancer In Humans?
• Is the Animal Evidence of Carcinogencity Strong?
• Is There Other Evidence Indicating Its Potential
Carcinogencity?
• Dose-Response Assessment
• What Is the Relationship Between Exposure and
the Incidence of Cancer?
GUIDELINES FOR CARCINOGEN
RISK ASSESSMENT
• Exposure Assessment
- How Many People Are Being Exposed and What
Is Their Level and Duration of Exposure?
• Risk Characterization
- Summarize Answers to Above Questions
• Estimate Quantitative Cancer Risks in Terms of
Individual and Population Risks, Including Uncertainties
- Discuss Modifying Factors, Special Populations at Risk
-28-
-------
RISK ASSESSMENT ISSUES
Hazard
Identification
Dose-Response
Evaluation
Human Exposure
Evaluation
Risk
Characterization
Us* of animal data
Negative epidemiological studies
Extrapolating from high
dose to low dose
Extrapolating from
animals to humans
ModeEng vs. ambient monitoring
vs. biological monitoring
Quaftative or
quantitative
RISK ASSESSMENT CONCERNS
Science of Toxicology
FACT
I
carcinogenic in animals
— Art of Toxicology
PREDICTION
I
carcinogenic in humans
-29-
-------
RISK MANAGEMENT
SO WHAT DO WE DO
ABOUT IT?
FTFRA mandate is to control
Unreasonable Adverse Effect"
FFRA Sec. 3(c)(5)(c)
"... taking into account the
economic, social and environmental
costs and benefits."
FFRA S«c, 2(bb)
OTHER STATUTES
TSCA requires control of
"unreasonable risk"
TSCA S«c. 6(a)
"... to the extent necessary
to protect adequately against such
risk using the least burdensome
requirements ..."
TSCA S«c. 6(a)
OTHER STATUTES
SOW A cals for establishment of
"maximum contaminant levels'
SOWA See. 1412(b)1(B)
at which "no known or anticipated
adverse effects" occur and which
alow an "adequate margin of
safety."
SOWA S«c. U12(b)KB)
-------
RISK MANAGEMENT
The Judgment and Analysis That Combine the Scientific
Results of a Risk Assessment With Economic, Political,
Legal, and Social Factors To Produce a Decision About
Environmental Action
RISK ASSESSMENT
RISK
MANAGEMENT
NON-RISK ANALYSES
economics
pofitics
statutory and
legal considerations
social factors
-------
SOME RISK
MGEMENT ISSUES
Risk Character
Statutory
Factors
Economic/
Factors
Pubic Concern
itative
DOTenng
Uhetrtai
interpreta
^formation
of
standing
I in decisions
Decisions Under Uncertainty
RISK COMMUNICATION
NEWS HEADLINES
• Radon: The Killer Gas in Drinking Water:
Taking a Shower May Be Hazardous to Your
Health
• Elhylene Dibromide: The Anatomy of a
Cancer Scare
• Polluted Water Turns a Woman Into a Man
• Nitrite in Drinking Water Causes Malignant
Lymphomas
• Selenium and AIDS
• Fluoride and AIDS
-32-
-------
A Broader Definition of Risk
RISK • HAZARD * OUTRAGE
COMMUNICATING RISKS
There is no such thing as a dumb
audience. If they don't understand,
if s because you can't communicate.'
RISK COMMUNICATION
The Communication of Risk Assessment/Management
Information to the Public, Reporters, and State/Local
Officials
Effective Risk Communication: Seven Cardinal Rules
1. Accept and involve the public as a legitimate partner
2. Plan carefully and evaluate your efforts
3. Listen to the public's specific concerns
4. Be honest, frank, and open
5. Coordinate and collaborate with other credible sources
6. Meet the needs of the media
7. Speak clearly and with compassion
-33-
-------
THE PRESS:
RULES FOR INTERVIEWS
• Identify reporter's interest
• Decide what you want to communicate
• Practice responses to ikeiy questions
- Tel the truth
- Talk to be understood
- Stay on the record
- Use quotable language
• Estabish a cooperative relationship
• Expect to be nervous, and confront it!
HOW TO RESPOND TO
A CALL FROM THE PRESS
• Find out subject
• Check their deadbie
• Find appropriate person if it
is not you
• Have your own points to make
• If you are calrtg back prepare
responses to posstte questions
CONCLUSIONS
What you say
matters!
ftjA^CfS EetAMA 9M*I
1
How you say it
Is critical!
BrAeAntaM/m 9f
-------
TOXICOLOGICAL APPROACHES FOR DEVELOPING ENVIRONMENTAL STANDARDS AND
GUIDANCE
Edward V. Ohanian
I. Risk Assessment Needs Under the Safe Drinking Water Act
A. Development of Maximum Contaminant Level Goals (MCLGs) for
Non-carcinogens
1. RFD
2. Drinking Water Equivalent Level (DWEL)
3. MCLG
B. Development of MCLGs for Carcinogens
1. Evidence of Carcinogenicity
2. Clarification
II. Drinking Water Health Advisory Program
A. Development of Health Advisories
1. One-day health advisory
2. Ten-day health advisory
3. Longer-term health advisory
4. Lifetime health advisory
B. Health Advisories Versus MCLGs
-------
TOXICOLOGICAL APPROACHES FOR
DEVELOPING NATIONAL DRINKING
WATER REGULATIONS AND
HEALTH ADVISORIES
SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT
In 1974, The Safe Drinking Water
Act was passed by Congress to
assure that the water supplied
to the public is safe to drink
-i-
-------
SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT ™
AMENDMENTS OF 1986
PRIMARY REGULATIONS
• Maximum Contaminant Ltvel Goals (MCLGs)
• Health goal: non-enforceable
• Set at a level at which "no known or
anticipated adverse effect on the health
of persons occur and which allows an
adequate margin of safety"
• House Report no. 93-1185: set MCLGs
for carcinogens at zero
PRIMARY REGULATIONS
• Maximum Contaminant, Levels (MCLs)
• Enforceable standards
• Set as close to MCLGs ss fesslble
-------
REGULATC.-iY DEVELOPMENT
Hazard Identification Risk Characterization
Dose-Response Relationship Analytical Methods
+ +
Human Exposure Evaluation Technology and Costs
Risk Characterization Economic impact
Regulatory Impact
I
MCLG MCL
(Risk Assessment) (Risk Management)
DEVELOPMENT OF MCLGs FOR
NON -CARCINOGENS
DEVELOPMENT OF MCLGs FOR
NON-CARCINOGENS
Step 1: Reference Dose (RfD)
Step 2: Drinking Water Equivalent Level
(DWEL)
Step 3: Maximum Contaminant Level Goal
(MCLG)
-3-
-------
DRINKING WATER EQUIVALENT
LEVEL (DWEL)
Estimated exposure (in mg/L) which is
interpreted to be protective for non-
carcinogenic end-points of toxicity
over a lifetime of exposure (assuming
100% drinking water contribution)
ASSUMPTIONS
• Protected individual: 70 kg adult*
• Volume of drinking water ingested/day:
2 Liters*
• Duration of Exposure: 70 years (lifetime)*
• Relative Source Contribution:
In absence of chemical-specific data:
20%
•or otturwlM tp«cill*4
MCLGs: NON-CARCINOGENS
• Determine RfD (Reference Dose) in mg/kg/day
Rfd_ NOAEL or LOAEL in mq/kq/dav
Uncertainty Factor
• Determine DWEL (Drinking Water Equivalent Level) in
mg/L assuming 100% drinking water contribution
- (RfD) (70kq person)
(2Uday)
• Determine MCLG in mg/L
MCLG = (DWEL) (% drinking water contribution)
-4-
-------
DEVELOPMENT OF MCLGs FOR
CARCINOGENS
THREE-CATEGORY APPROACH
FOR DEVELOPING MCLGs
Evidence of
Carclnogentelty Classification MCLQ
Strong EPA Qroup A or • 0
Equivocal EPA Group C (a) PWD Approach With
Additional Safety
Factor, or
(b) 10** to 10-* Cancer
Mak Mange
Inadequate EPA Qroup 0 or E WO Approach
or Lacking
-5-
-------
ODW HEALTH ADVISORY PROGRAM
WHAT ARE HEALTH
ADVISORIES?
• Health Advisories are not legally enforceable
Federal standards. They are subject to change
as new and better information becomes available
• Health Advisories are used In emergency
situations and describe concentrations of
contaminants In drinking water at which
adverse non-carcinogenic effects would not
be anticipated to occur following 1 -day,
10-day, longer-term, or lifetime exposure
-6-
-------
OOW HEAl.'H ADVISORY (HA)
CONTENT
I General Introduction
B. General Information and Properties
• Synonyms
•Uses
• Properties
• Sources of Exposure
• Environmental Fate
ft Pharmacokinetics
• Absorption
• Distribution
• Btotrartsformation
•Excretion
IV. Health Effects
• Humans
• Animals
- Snort-term Exposure
- LongeHerm Exposure
• DevetopmenUl/Reproductive/MutagenicJ
Carcinogenic Effects
V. Quantification of Toxicotogical Effects
• One-day Hearth Advisory
• Ten-day Health Advisory
• LongeMerm Health Advisory
• Ufetime Hearth Advfsory
• Evaluation of Carcinogenic Potential
VI Other Criteria, Guidances and Standards
ASSUMPTIONS
Protected Individual
One-day HA: 10 kg child
Ten-day HA; 10 kg child
Longer-term HA; 10 kg child
and 70 kg adult
Lifetime HA: 70 kg adult
Cancer risk estimates: 70 kg adult
Volume of drinking water ingested/day
10 kg child: 1 Dter
70 kg adult 2 Dters
Relative Source Contribution
In absence of chemical-specific data:
20%
-------
PREFERRED DATA
FOR HA DEVELOPMENT
• Duration of Exposure
One-day HA: One to five
(successive) daily doses
Ten-day HA: Seven to 14
(successive) daily doses
Longer-term HA: Subcnronic (90d)
to one year
Lifetime HA: Chronic
Subchronic (with added
uncertainty factor)
• Route of Administration
Oral: Drinking water, Gavage, Diet
Inhalation
Subcutaneous or intraperitoneal
(on a case-toy-case basis)
• Test Species
Human
Appropriate animal model
Most sensitive species
HEALTH ADVISORY (HA)*
CALCULATION
(NOAEL or LOAEL in mg/kg/dayXBW in Kg) ,.
-------
LIFETIME HA CALCULATION:
NON-CARCINOGENS
• Determine RfD (Reference Dose) in mg/kg/day
- NOAEL or LOAEL In mg/kg/day
Uncertainty Factor
• Determine DWEL (Drinking Water Equivalent Level) in
mg/L assuming 100% drinking water contribution
(Rfd) (70kg person)
(2 L/day)
• Determine Lifetime HA in mg/L
Lifetime HA = (DWEL) (% drinking water
contribution)
MCLG = Non-enforceable health goal
for a chemical to be regulated
(set MCL)
Lifetime HA = Non-enforceable guidance level
used in an emergency situation
(accidents/ spills)
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF DRINKING WATER
SAFE DRINKING WATER HOTLINE
1-800-426-4791 (TOLL-FREE)
202-382-5533 (WASHINGTON, D.C.)
MONDAY THRU FRIDAY, 8:30 A.M. TO 4:30 P.M. E.S.T.
NATIONAL PESTICIDE TELECOMMUNICATION NETWORK
ANY QUESTIONS ABOUT PESTICIDES?
CALL
1-800-858-7378
24 HOURS - 7 DAYS A WEEK
9-
-------
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Risk Assessment and Management
Absorbed dose. The amount of a chemical that enters the body of an
exposed organism.
Absorption. The uptake of water or dissolved chemicals by a cell or an
organism.
Absorption factor. The fraction of a chemical making contact with an
organism that is absorbed by the organism.
Acceptable daily intake (ADI). Estimate of the largest amount of
chemical to which a person can be exposed on a daily basis that is
not anticipated to result in adverse effects (usually expressed in
(Synonymous with RfD)
Active transport. An energy-expending mechaniism by which a cell ooves
a chemical across the cell membrane from a point of lower concen-
tration to a point of higher concentration, against the diffusion
gradient.
Acute. Occurring over a short period of ti«e; used to describe brief
exposures and effects which appear promptly after exposure.
Additive Effect. Combined effect of two or more chemical* «qual to the
SUB of their individual effects.
Adsorption. The process by which chemicals are held on the surface of
a mineral or soil particle. Compare with absorption.
Ambient. Environmental or surrounding conditions.
Animal studies. Investigations using animals as surrogates for humans,
on the expectation that results in animals are pertinent to humans.
Antagonism. Interference or inhibition of the effect of one chemical
by the action of another chemical.
Assay. A test for a particular chemical or effect.
Bias. An inadequacy in experimental design that leads to results or
conclusions not representative of the population under study.
Bioaccumulation. The retention and concentration of a substance by an
organism.
Bioassay. Test which determines the effect of a chemical on a living
organism.
-10-
-------
Bioconeentration. The accumulation of a chemical in tissues of an
organism (such as fish) to levels that are greater than the level
in the medium (such as water) in which the organism resides (see
bioaccumulation).
Biodegradation. Decomposition of a substance into more elementary
compounds by the action of microorganisms such as bacteria.
Biotransformation. Conversion of a substance into other compounds by
organisms; includes biodegradation.
by. Body weight.
CAG. Carcinogen Assessment Group.
Cancer. A disease characterized by the rapid and uncontrolled growth
of aberrent cells into malignant tumors.
Carcinogen. A chemical which causes or induces cancer.
CAS registration number. A number assigned by the Chemical Abstracts
Service to identify a chemical.
Central nervous system. Portion of the nervous system which consists
of the brain and spinal cord; CHS.
Chronic. Occurring over a long period of time, either continuously or
intermittently} used to describe ongoing exposures and effects
that develop only after a long exposure.
Chronic exposure. Long-term, low level exposure to a toxic chemical.
Clinical studies. Studies of humans suffering from symptoms induced by
chemical exposure.
Confounding factors. Variables other than chemical exposure level
which can affect the incidence or degree of a parameter being
measured.
Coat/benefit analysis. A quantitative evaluation of the costs which
would be incurred versus the overall benefits to society of a
proposed action such as the establishment of an acceptable dose of
a toxic chemical.
Cumulative exposure. The summation of exposures of an organism to a
chemical over a period of time.
Degradation. Chemical or biological breakdown of a complex compond
into simpler compounds.
Dermal exposure. Contact between a chemical and the skin.
-11-
-------
Diffusion. The movement of suspended or dissolved particles from a ^^
more concentrated to a less concentrated region as a result of the
random movement of individual particles; the process tends to
distribute them uniformly throughout the available volume.
Dosage. The quantity of a chemical administered to an organism.
Pose. The actual quantity of a chemical to which an organism is exposed.
(See absorbed dose)
Dose-response. X quantitative relationship between the dose of a
chemical and an effect caused by the chemical.
Dose-response curve. A graphical presentation of the relationship
between degree of exposure to a chemical (dose) and observed
biological effect or response.
Dose-response evaluation. A component of risk assessment that describes
the quantitative relationship between the amount of exposure"to a
substance and the extent of toxic injury or disease.
i
Dose-response relationship. The quantitative relationship between the
amount of exposure to a substance and the extant of toxic injury
produced.
DWEL. Drinking Water Equivalent Level — estimated exposure (in mg/L)
which is interpreted to be protetective for noncarcinogenic
endpoints of toxicity over a lifetime of exposure. DWEL was
developed for chemicals that have a significant carcinogenic
potential (Group B). Provides risk manager with evaluation on
non-cancer endpoints, but infers that carcinogenicity should be
considered the toxic effect of greatest concern.
Sndangerment assessment. \ site-specific risk assessment of the actual
or potential danger to human health or welfare and the environment
froa the release of hazardous substances or waste. The endangerment
assessment document is prepared in support of enforcement actions
under CERCLA or RC8A.
Endpoint. A biological effect used as an index of the effect of a
chesdcal oa an organism.
Spidemiologic study. Study of human populations to identify causes of
disease. Such studies often compare the health status of a group
of persons who have been exposed to a suspect agent with that of a
comparable non-exposed group.
Exposure, contact with a chemical or physical agent.
Exposure assessment. The determination or estimation (qualitative or
quantitative) of the magnitude, frequency, duration, route, and
extent (number of people) of exposure to a chemical.
-12-
-------
Exposure coefficient. Term which combines information on the frequency,
mode, and magnitude of contact with contaminated medium to yield a
quantitative value of the amount of contaminated medium contacted
per day.
Exposure level, chemical. Th« amount (concentration) of a chemical at
the absorptive surfaces of an organism.
Exposure scenario. A set of conditions or assumptions about sources,
exposure pathways, concentrations of toxic chemicals and populations
(numbers, characteristics and habits) which aid the investigator in
evaluating and quantifying exposure in a given situation.
Extrapolation. Estimation of unknown values by extending or projecting
from known values.
Savage. Type of exposure in which a substance is administered to an
anir**1 through a stomach tube.
Gran. 1/454 of a pound.
Half-life. The length of time required for the BASS, concentration, or
activity of a chemical or physical agent to be reduced by one-half.
Hazard evaluation. A component of risk assessment that involves
gathering and evaluating data on the types of health injury or
disease (e.g., cancer) that nay be produced by a chemical and on
the conditions of exposure under which injury or disease is
produced.
Henatopoiesis. The production of blood and blood cells; hemopoiesis.
Hepatic. Pertaining to the liver.
Hepatoma. A malignant tumor occurring in the liver.
High-to-lowdese extrapolation. The process of prediction of low
exposure risks to rodents from the measured high exposure-high
risk data.
Histology. The study of the structure of calls and tissues; usually
involves microscopic examination of tissue slices.
Human equivalent dose. A dose which, when administered to humans,
produces an effect equal to that produced by a dose in animals.
Human exposure evaluation. A component of risk assessment that involves
describing the nature and size of the population exposed to a
substance and the magnitude and duration of their exposure. The
evaluation could concern past exposures, current exposures, or
anticipated exposures.
-13-
-------
Human health risk. The likelihood (or probability) that a given exposure
or series of exposures may have or will damage the health)of indi-
viduals experiencing the exposures.
Incidence of tumors. Percentage of animals with tumors.
Ingestion. Type of exposure through the mouth.
Inhalation. Type of exposure through the lungs.
Integrated exposure assessment. A summation over time, in all media,
of the magnitude of exposure to a toxic chemical.
Interapecies extrapolation model. Model used to extrapolate from
results observed in laboratory animals to humans.
In vitro studies. Studies of chemical effects conducted in tissues,
cells or subcellular extracts from an organism (i.e., not in the
living organism).
In vivo studies. Studies of. chemical effects conducted in intact living
organisms.
Irreversible effect. Effect characterized by the inability of the body
to partially or fully repair injury caused by a toxic agent.
Latency. Time from the first exposure to a'chemical until the appearance
of a toxic effect.
, The concentration of a chemical In air or water which is expected
to cause death in 50 percent of test animals living in that air or
water.
LDgQ. The dose of a chemical taken by mouth or absorbed by the skin
which is expected to cause death in SO percent of the test animals
so treated.
Lesion. A pathological or traumatic discontinuity of tissue or loss of
function of a part.
Lethal. Deadly; fatal.
Lifetime exposure. Total amount of exposure to a substance that a
human would receive in a lifetime (usually assumed to be seventy
years).
Linearized multistage model. Derivation of the multistage model, where
the data are assumed to be linear at low doses.
LOAEL. Lowest-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level; the lowest dose in an
experiment which produced an observable adverse effect.
-14-
-------
Malignant, very dangerous or virulent, causing or likely to cause
death.
Margin of safety (MOS). Maximum amount of exposure producing no
measurable effect in animals (or studied humans) divided by the
actual amount of human exposure in a population.
Mathematical model. Model used during risk assessment to perform
extrapolations.
Metabolism. The sum of the chemical reactions occurring within a cell
or a whole organism; includes the energy-releasing breakdown of
molecules (catabolism) and the synthesis of new molecules (anabolism).
Metabolite. Any product of metabolism, especially a transformed chemical.
Metastatie. Pertaining to the transfer of disease from one organ or
part to another not directly connected with it.
Microgram (ug). One-millionth of a gram (3.5 x 10~8 oz. • 0.000000035 oz.).
Milligram (mg). One-thousandth of a gram (3.5 x 10~8 oz. « 0.000035 oz.).
Modeling. Use of mathematical equations to simulate and predict real
events and processes.
Monitoring. Measuring concentrations of substances in environmental
media or in human or other biological tissues.
Mortality. Death.
MOS. See Margin of safety.
MTD. Ma*!"*"1" tolerated dose, the dose that an animal stfecies can
tolerate for a major portion of its lifetime without significant
impairment or toxic effect other than carcinogenic!ty.
Multistage model. Mathematical model based on the multistage theory of
the carcinogenic process, which yields risk estimates either equal
to or less than the one-hit model.
Mutagen. An agent that causes a permanent genetic change in a cell
other than that which occurs during normal genetic recombination.
Mutagenieity. The capacity of a chemical or physical agent to cause
permanent alteration of the genetic material within living cells.
Necrosis. Death of cells or tissue.
Neoplasm. An abnormal growth or tissue, as a tumor.
Neurotoxieity. Exerting a destructive or poisonous effect on nerve
tissue.
-15-
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NOAEL. No-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level; the highest dose in an
experiment which did not produce an observable adverse effect.
NOEL. No-Observed-Effect Level; dose level at which no effects are
noted.
NTP. National Toxicology Program.
Oncology. Study of cancer.
One-hit model. Mathematical model based on the biological theory that
a single "hit" of some minimum critical amount of a carcinogen at
a cellular target -- namely DNA — can initiate an irreversible series
of events, eventually leading to a tumor.
Oral. Of the mouth? through or by the mouth.
Pathogen. Any disease-causing agent, usually applied to living agents.
Pathology. The study of disease.
Permissible dose. The dose of a chemical that may be received by an
individual without the expectation of a significantly harmful
result.
Pharmaeokineties. The dynamic behavior of chemicals inside biological
systems; it includes the processes of uptake, distribution,
metabolism, and excretion.
Population at risk. A population subgroup that is more likely to be
exposed to a chemical, or is more sensitive to a chemical, than is
the general population.
Potency. Amount of material necessary to produce a given level of a
deleterious effect.
Potentiation. The effect of one chemical to increase the effect of
another chemical.
ppb. Part* p*r billion.
ppa. Parts par million.
Prevalence study. An epidemiological study which examines the
relationships between diseases and exposures as they exist in a
defined population at a particular point in time.
Prospective study. An epidemiological study which examines the
development of disease in a group of persons determined to be
presently free of the disease.
Qualitative. Descriptive of kind, type or direction, as opposed to
size, magnitude or degree.
-16-
-------
Quantitative. Descriptive of size, magnitude or degree.
Receptor. (1) In biochemistry: a specialized molecule in a cell that
binds a specific chemical with high specificity and high affinity,-
(2) In exposure assessment: an organism that receives, may receive,
or has received environmental exposure to a chemical.
Renal. Pertaining to the kidney.
Reservoir. A tissue in an organism or a place in the environment where
a chemical accumulates, from which it may be released at a later
time.
Retrospective study. An epidemiclogical study which compares diseased
persons with non-diseased persons and works back in time to
determine exposures.
Reversible effect. An effect which is not permanent, especially adverse
effects which diminish when exposure to a toxic chemical is "Ceased.
RfD. Reference dose; the daily exposure level which, during an entire
lifetime of a human, appears to be without appreciable risk on the
basis of all facts known at the time. (Synonymous with ADD
Risk. The potential for realization of unwanted adverse consequences
or events.
Risk assessment.. A qualitative or quantitative evaluation of the
environmental and/or health risk resulting from exposure to a
chemical or physical agent (pollutant); combines exposure assessment
results with toxicity assessment results to estimate risk.
Risk characterization. Final component of risk assessment that involves
integration of the data and analysis Involved in hazard evaluation,
dose-response evaluation, and human exposure evaluation to determine
the likelihood that humans will experience any of the various
forms of toxicity associated with a substance.
Risk estimate. A description of the probability that organisms exposed
to a specified dose of chemical will develop an adverse response
(e.g., cancer).
Risk factor. Characteristic (e.g., race, sex, age, obesity) or variable
(e.g., smoking, occupational exposure level) associated with
increased probability of a toxic effect.
Risk management. Decisions about whether an assessed risk is sufficiently
high to present a public health concern and about the appropriate
means for control of a risk judged to be significant.
Risk specific dose. The dose associated with a specified risk level.
-17-
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Route of exposure. The avenue by which a chemical cornea into contact
with an organism (e.g., inhalation, ingestion, dermal contact,
injection).
Safe. Condition of exposure under which there is a "practical certainty"
that no harm will result in exposed individuals.
Sink. A place in the environment where a compound or material collects
(see reservoir).
Sorption. a surface phenomenon which may be either absorption or
adsorption, or a combination of the two; often used when the
specific mechanism is not known.
Stochastic. Based on the assumption that the actions of a chemical
~substance results from probabilistic events.
Stratification. (1) The division of a population into subpopulations
for sampling purposes; (2) the separation of environmental media
into layers, as in lakes.
Subchronic. Of intermediate duration, usually used to describe studies
or levels of exposure between five and 90 days.
Synergism. An interaction of two or more chemicals that results in
an effect that is greater than the sum of their effects taken
independently.
Systemic. Relating to whole body/ rather than its Individual parts.
Systemic effects. Effects observed at sites distant from the entry
point of a chemical due to its absorption and distribution into
She body.
Teratogenesis. The induction of structural or functional development
abnormalities by exogenous factors acting during gestation;
interference with normal embryonic development.
Teratogenieity. The capacity of a physical or chemical agent to cause
non-hereditary congenital malformations (birth defects) in offspring.
Therapeutic Index. The ratio of the dose required to produce toxic or
lethal effect to dose required to produce non-adverse or therapeutic
response.
Threshold. The lowest dose of a chemical at which a specified measurable
effect is observed and below which it is not observed.
Time-Weighted Average. The average value of a parameter (e.g., concen-
tration of a chemical in air) that varies over time.
Tissue. A group of similar cells.
-18-
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Toxicant. A harmful substance or agent that may injure an exposed
organism.
Toxieity- The quality or degree of being poisonous or harmful to plant,
animal or human life.
Toxieity assessment. Characterization of the toxicological properties
and effects of a chemical, including all aspects of its absorption,
metabolism, excretion and mechanism of action, with special emphasis
on establishment of dose-response characteristics.
Transformation. Acquisition by a cell of the property of uncontrolled
growth.
Tumor incidence. Fraction of animals having a tumor of a certain type.
Uncertainty factor. A number (equal to or greater than one) used to
divide NOAEL or tOAEL values derived from measurements in animals
or small groups of humans, in order to estimate a NOAEL value for
the whole human population.
Onit cancer risk. Estimate of the lifetime risk caused by each unit of
exposure in the low exposure region.
Upper bound estimate. Estimate not likely to be lower than the true risk.
volatile. Readily vaporizable at a relatively low temperature.
-19-
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GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF RISK ASSESSMENT. MANAGEMENT AND COMMUNICATION
AND
TOXICOLOGICAL APPROACHES FOR DEVELOPING ENVIRONMENTAL
STANDARDS AND GUIDANCE
BY
EDWARD V. OHANIAN
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Calabrese, E.J., Gilbert, C.E., Pastides, H. (eds.). Safe Drinking Water Act:
Amendments, Regulations and Standards, Lewis Publishers, Inc., 1989.
Cothern, R., Mehlman, M., Marcus, W. (eds.). Risk Assessment and Risk Management
of Industrial and Environmental Chemicals. In: Advances in Modern Environmental
Toxicology (Volume XV), Princeton Scientific Publishing Co., Inc., 1988.
Finkel, A.M., Confronting Uncertainty in Risk Management: A Guide for
Decision-Makers. Center for Risk Management, Resources for the Future,
Washington, D.C., 1990.
Hance, B.J., Chess, C., Sandman, P.M. Improving Dialogue with Communities: A Risk
Communication Manual for Government. New Jersey Department of Environmental
Protection, 1988.
Ram, N., Christman, R., Cantor, K. Significance and Treatment of Volatile Organic
Compounds in Water Supplies, Lewis Publishers, Inc., 1990.
Tardiff, R., Rodricks, J. (eds.). Toxic Substances and Human Risk: Principles of
Data Interpretation. Plenum Press, 1987.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1989. Risk Assessment Guidance for
Superfund: Volume 1 - Human Health Evaluation Manual (Part A). Office of
Emergency and Remedial Response, Washington, D.C. EPA/540/4-89/002.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1989. Risk Assessment, Management,
Communication: A Guide to Selected Sources. Office of Information Resources
Management, Washington, D.C. EPA/MSD/89-004.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1990. Seminar Publication: Workshops on Risk
Assessment, Management, and Communication. Office of Drinking Water,
Washington, D.C. and Center for Environmental Research Information,
Cincinnati, Ohio. EPA/625/4-89/024.
Vanderslice, R.R., Orme, J., Ohanian, E.V., Sonich-Mullin, C. Using Synergistic Effects
in Risk Assessment of Drinking Water Contaminants. Toxicol. Indust. Hlth. 5:747-755
1989.
-------
DOCUMENT 4
SESSION 1 - GENERAL TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATION
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY - DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
MEMORANDUM OF UNDERSTANDING:
RISK ASSESSMENT AND MUNITIONS CHEMICALS
-------
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY -- DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
MEMORANDUM OF UNDERSTANDING: RISK ASSESSMENT AND MUNITIONS CHEMICALS
Welford C. Roberts
I. USEPA -- DOA MOU
A. Authority
B. Purposes
1. MOU
2. Health Advisories
C. Implementation
D. Status of Munition Health Advisories
II. Risk Assessment and Munitions Chemicals
A, Risk Assessment Methodology ~ A Brief Review
B. Published Health Advisories .-- Summary
C. Human Health Effects
D. Animal Health Effects
E. Health Advisory Values
1. Nitrocellolose
2. Trinitroglycerol
3. Trinitrotoluene
4. RDX
5. HMX
6. DIMP
-------
HEALTH EFFECTS AND RISK
ASSESSMENT OF MUNITIONS
WELFORD C. ROBERTS
MAJOR, US ARMY
DETAILED TO THE USEPA
I OFFICE OF DRINKING WATER J
U.S. ARMY-EPA MOU TO PROVIDE THE ARMY
LEADERSHIP WITH DW HEALTH ADVISORIES
• Authonty-EPA Assistani Administrator for Water and Army Deputy for
Environment, Safety and Occupational Health.
• Describes the Responsibilities and Procedures Under Which the EPA and DA
will Cooperate in Developing Health Advisories on Chemicals Associated with
Munitions that May Be Found as Drinking Water Contaminants.
• Promotes Maximum Use of Federal Resources in the Establishment and Use of
lexicological Data Bases and Methodologies.
• Reflects Army Leadership's Desire to Protect the Public Health Where the Army
is the Manufacturer or User of Toxic Materials.
1 Supports the Army Pollution Abatement Program, the Installation Restoration
Program, Regulatory Agencies and Others Involved in Determination of Adverse
Health Impact.
Serves as a Highly Credible Basis for Corrective Actions such as Treatment,
Clean-up, and Negotiation.
Implementation-Army Surgeon General (Supported by the Army Research and
Development Command) and the EPA Director of the Criteria and Standards
Division (Supported by the Health Effects Branch).
-1-
-------
STATUS OF MUNITIONS HEALTH
ADVISORIES
COMPLETED
• Nitrocellulose
• Trinitroclycerol (TNG)
• 2.4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT)
• Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX)
• Octahydro-1.3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX)
• Diisopropyi Methylphosphonate (DIMP)
DRAFT
• Dimethyl Methylphosphonate (DMMP)
• 1,3-Dinitrobenzene (DNB)
• Nitrcguanidtne (NG)
• 2,4-Dinitrotoluene/2,6-Dinitrotoluene (DNT)
• White Phosphorus (WP)
• Zinc Chloride
• Hexachloroethane
PUBLISHED MUNITIONS HEALTH ADVISORIES SUMMARY
Advisory Value (PPB) ng/L
Chemical
Target Pop.
NC
TNG
DIMP
TNT'"
RDX"'
HMX
One-
Day
Child
NT"
5
8,000
20
100
5,000
Ten-
Days
Child
NT
5
8,000
20
100
5,000
Longer-
Term
Child
NT
5
8,000
20
100
5,000
Adult
NT
5
30,000
20
400
20,000
Lifetime
20% RSC
General
NT
600
2
2
Lifetime"
100% RSC
General
NT
5
3,000 !
10
10
400 | 2.000
' Monitoring data should be available to support use of a RSC greater than 20%.
"Not toxic
"'Classified EPA Group C. Possible Human Carcinogen.
-2-
-------
HEALTH ADVISORIES
All Chemicals Have a DWEL (Drinking Water Equivalent Level)
FUD x 70 Kg
DWEL= ------ -
2 L/Day
Group A and B Carcinogens (Human and Probable Human Carcinogens)
No Lifetime Health Advisory Value Since by Law the MCLG is Zero
Quantitative Cancer Risk Assessment is Provided Using the Linearized
Multistage Model
Usually 10"5 - 10 6 Risk Range is Acceptable if Zero is Not an Option
ng/L
ug/L
Risk Predictions are Provided Using Other Models for Comparison
HEALTH ADVISORIES
Group C Carcinogens (Possible Human Carcinogen)
LIFETIME HA = -DWELxRSC
UF
Drinking Water Office Policy Requires Extra Uncertainty
Factor (2-10) to Account for Equivocal Evidence of
Carcinogenicity.
RSC = 20% or Use Monitoring Data
IV. Group D and E (Non-Carcinogens)
LIFETIME HA = DWEL x RSC
RSC = 20% or Use Monitoring Data to Support Another
RSC Value.
-3-
-------
HUMAN SYSTEMIC HEALTH EFFECTS
Chemical
TMT
HMX
iRDX
Acute
Subchromc or
Chronic
Reduced Red Discoloration of
Hematocnt. Urine
Hemoglobin. Red Hepatitis
Blood Cells i Aplastic Anemia
Skin and Respiratory t Death
Tract Irritation
Gastrointestinal
Tract Disoraers-
Limited Research
Data
Skin Irritation from
Paten Testing
Limited Research
Data
Dermatitis
Nausea. Vomiting
Central Nervous
System Toxicity -
Convulsions and
Unconsciousness
Insomnia. Rest-
lessness Amnesia
Renal Damage
(Oliguna.
Hematuna.
Elevated BUN)
HUMAN SYSTEMIC HEALTH EFFECTS
i Chemical
Acute
Subchronic or
Chronic
Nitrocellulose No Toxic Effects
No Toxic Effects
TNG
OIMP
Hypotension, Dizzi-
ness, Fainting,
Headache, Flush-
ing of Face and
Neck
1 Rapid Pulse Rate
Respiratory Failure
i Leading to Death
No Data Reported
! Unsubstantiated
Skin Irritation
Chronic Exposure
Leads to Devel-
oping Tolerance
Chest Pains
Ischemic Heart
Disease
Death
No Data Reported
-4-
-------
ANIMAL SYSTEMIC HEALTH EFFECTS
Chemical
Acute
Nitrocellulose • Low Acute Toxicity -
1 LD. > 5 000
mg'/kg
TNG
DIMP
Subchromc or
Chronic
intestinal Impaction
Weight Loss Due to
Physical-Mechan-
ical Effects of
Chemical
Decreased Food
Intake - De-
creased Weight
Increased Erythro-
cytes, Hematocnt,
Hemoglobin and
Alkaline Phos-
phatase
Decreased Blodd
Glucose
Hemosiderosis of
Spleen
Testicular Atrophy
Methemoglobmemia
Liver Lesions
Behavioral Altera-
tions
1 Central Nervous
! System Com-
1 plications
Gastroenteritis
Increased Blood
Clotting Time
Skin/Eye Irritation
Death
None Noted in 90
Day Feeding
Studies
ANIMAL SYSTEMIC HEALTH EFFECTS
Chemical
TNT
HMX
RDX
Acute
Hemolytic Anemia
; fleticulocytosis and
< Macrocytosis
' Methemoglobmeinia
Increased Spleen
Weight
' Anemia
Subcnramc
or Chronic
Hematopoiesis
Increased Liver Weight
Decreased Food Intake
Weight
Myelofibrosis of Bone
Marrow
Spleen Enlargement
Liver Iniun/
Hepatomegaly '
Skin Irritation
Central Nervous
System Toxicity -
Convulsions
Histologic Changes in
Liver
Tubular Kidney
Changes
Increased Mortality
Liver and Renal Effects
i Central Nervous
System Toxicty -
: Convulsions
Ultrastructural
Changes in Liver
and Kidney
Decreased Food
Intake
Anemia
Dermatitis
Death
-5-
\ Central Nervous I
! System Toxicity - i
Convulsions i
Increased Liver Weight
i Anemia
) Vomiting
Weight Loss
Liver and Kidney '
Toxicity
Testicular Atrophy
Inflammation of
Prostate
-------
EPA HEALTH ADVISORY VALUES
TRINITROCLYCEROL
CH2 - ONO2 One-Day (Child) 0.005 mg/L
Ten-Day (Child) 0.005 mg/L
~ 2 Longer-Term (Child) 0.005 mg/L
CH2 - ON02
Lifetime 0.005 mg/L
Basis of Lifetime HA
Human No Effect Level for Vasodilation. Animals were Generally Less Sensitive to
the Effects of TNG
TRINITROGLYCEROL (TNG)
GENOTOXICITY
Salmonella: Negative to Weak
In vivo Bone Marrow and Kidney Cell (Rat): Negative
Dominant Lethal (Rat): Negative
In vivo Kidney Cells and Lymphocytes (Dog, Rat): Negative
In vitro Chinese Hamster Ovary: Negative
TWO YEAR BIOASSAYS
Dogs: Negative
Mice: Negative
Rats: Positive for Hepatocellular Carcinoma (Males and Females)
POTENCY: SF » 1.66 x 10-' (mg/kg/day)-'
CANCER MODEL for 1Q-* Risk
Models ng/L
Linearized Multistage 2
One-Hit 2
Probit 120
Logit .4
Weibull 1
-6-
-------
EPA HEALTH ADVISORY VALUES
TRINITROTOLUENE
o2N /V XN02 One-Day (Child) 20 ng/L
Ten-Day (Child) 20 \ig/L
Longer-Term (Child) 20 ng/L
(Adult) 20 ug/L
N02 Lifetime 2.0 ^g/L
Basis of Lifetime HA
Levine et al (1983) Adverse Liver Effect (Hepatocytomegalia) in Dogs Exposed for
26 Weeks Via Diet.
Group C, Possible Human Carcinogen
2,4,6-TRINITROTOLUENE (TNT)
GENOTOXICITY
Salmonella: Positive
In vivo Bone Marrow (Rat): Negative
in vitro UDS Human Diploid Fibroblasts: Negative
Bone Marrow Micronucleus Assay: Negative
in vivo/In vitro UDS Hepatocytes (Rat): Negative
TWO YEAR BIOASSAYS
Mice: Negative
Rats: Positive for Urinary Bladder Papillomas and Carcinomas in Females
POTENCY: SF = 3 x 1CH (mg/kg/day)-'
CANCER MODEL for 1Q-* Risk
Models MQ'L
Linearized Multistage 1
One-Hit 7
Probit 700
Logit 20
Weibull 10
CLASSIFICATION: EPA Group C, Possible Human Carcinogen
-7-
-------
EPA HEALTH ADVISORY VALUES
HYXAHYDRO-1,3,5-TRINITRO-1,3,5-TRIAZINE(RDX)
One-Day (Child)
Ten-Day (Child)
Longer-Term (Child)
(Adult)
Lifetime
0.1 mg/L*
0.1 mg/L*
0.1 mg/L
0.40 mg/L
0.002 mg/L
Basis ol Lifetime HA
Levins et al. (1983) Adverse Prostate Effects (Suppurative Inflammation) in Rats
Exposed Via Diet for 24 Months.
Group C Possible Human Carcinogen
'No data available to develop shon-term HA values Value shown is an estimate
based on longer-term HA for 10kg child.
HEXAHYDRO-1,3,5-TRlNITRO-1,3,5-TRIAZINE (RDX)
GENOTOXICITY
Salmonella: Negative
Dominant Lethal (Rats): Negative
In vitro UDS Human Fibroblasts: Negative
TWO YEAR BIOASSAYS
Rats (Two Strains): Negative
Mice: Positive for Hepatocellular Carcinomas and Adenomas in Females
POTENCY: SF » 1.1 x 1Q-' (mg/kg/day)-'
CANCER MODEL for 1Q-« Risk
Models
Linearized Multistage
Probit
Logit
Weibull
.3
<.002
<.002
<.002
CLASSIFICATION: EPA Group C, Possible Human Carcinogen
-8-
-------
EPA HEALTH ADVISORY VALUES
OCTAHYDRO-1,3,5,7-TETRANITRO-1,3,5,7-TETRAZOCINE (HMX)
N02
! One-Day (Child) 5.0 mg/L*
/~~\i.Noz Ten-Day (Child) 5.0 mg/L*
o2N—N I Longer-Term (Child) 5.0 mg/L
\_*/ (Adult) 20 mg/L
NOZ Lifetime 0.4 mg/L
Basis of Lifetime HA
Everett et al. (1985) No-Adverse-Effect Level (50 mg/kg/day) for Liver Lesions in
Male Rats Fed HMX in the Diet.
'No data available to adequately develop short-term HA values. Value shown is an
estimate based on longer-term HA for 10kg child.
EPA HEALTH ADVISORY VALUES
DIIDOPROPYL METHYLPHOSPHONATE (DIMP)
CH> °\ ^ One-Day (Child) 8.0 mg/L*
CH-o-p-o-CH Ten-Day (Child) 8.0 mg/L*
x\ Longer-Term (Child) 8.0 mg/L
CH3 CH3 CHO (AdlJlt) 30.0 mg/L
Lifetime 0.6 mg/L
Basis of Lifetime HA
Hart. 1980. Developed NQAEL of 75 mg/kg/day Based on 90-Day Dietary Study in
Dogs.
'No data available for developing short-term HA values. Value shown is an
estimate based on longer-term HA for 10kg child.
-9-
-------
DOCUMENT 5
SESSION 1 - GENERAL TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATION
PRINCIPLES OF RISK ASSESSMENT: A NONTECHNICAL REVIEW
-------
Principles of Risk Assessment: A Nontechnical Review
I. INTRODUCTION
This report provides general background information for
understanding the types of scientific data and methods currently
used to assess the human health risks of environmental chemicals.
Human health risk is the likelihood (or probability) that a given
chemical exposure or series of exposures may damage the health of
exposed individuals. Chemical risk assessment involves the anal-
ysis of exposures that have taken place in the past, the adverse
health effects of which may or may not have already occurred. It
also involves prediction of the likely consequences of exposures
that have not yet occurred. This document is by -no means a com-
plete survey of the complex subject of risk assessment, but it is
sufficiently comprehensive to assist conference participants in
dealing with the specific sets of data relevant to the case
study.
The report begins with a discussion of the four major compon-
ents of risk assessment and their interrelationships. This sec-
tion is followed by extensive discussion of these four major com-
ponents. Generally, each section focuses on the methods and
tests used to gather data, the principles used for data interpre-
tation, and the uncertainties in both the data and inferences
drawn from them. Throughout these discussions, key concepts
(e.g., exposure, dose, thresholds, and extrapolation) are defined
and extended descriptions provided.
Many of the principles discussed in this report are widely
accepted in the scientific community. Others (e.g., thresholds
for carcinogens, the utility of negative epidemiology data) are
controversial. In such cases we have attempted to describe the
various points of view and the reasons for them and have also
identified the viewpoint that seems to have been broadly adopted
by public health and regulatory officials.
Finally, the concepts and principles we describe here, al-
though broadly applicable, may not apply in specific cases. In
•one instances, the data available on a specific chemical may
reveal aspects of its behavior in biological systems that suggest
a general principle (e.g., that data obtained in rodent studies
are generally applicable to humans) may not hold. In such in-
stances, the usual approach is to aodify the risk assessment
process to conform to the scientific finding.
-I-
-------
XI. RISK AMD RISK ASSESSMENT
BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
Risk is the probability of injury, disease, or death under
specific circumstances. It may be expressed in quantitative
terms, taking values from sero (certainty that harm will not
occur) to one (certainty that it will). In many cases risk can
only be described qualitatively, as •high," "low," "trivial."
All human activities carry come degree of risk. Many risks
are known with a relatively high degree of accuracy, because we
have collected data on their historical occurrence. Table 1
lists the risks of some common activities.
ANNUAL
RISK Or OCATH
Nuaber
Table 1
rROM SELECTED
of Deatha
COMMON HUMAN
ACTIVITIES1
in Rapreaentativa
Coal Mining
Accident
Blade lung
Motor Vehicle
Truck Driving
ralla
HOM Accident a
1 Selected fro*
katiaated baa*
4
diaaaae 1
44
- U
25
Year
180
,135
,000
400
,3»
,000
1
8
2
Individual
.30 * 1(T3
• 10-3
.2
K 10-4
10-*
7
1
.7
.2
i 10-3
x 10-3
Hutt (1978) rood, DruQ, Coetnetle Lew J.
d upon 70-year
Uretuee and
45-year «rfc
Riak/Year
or 1/770
or 1/125
or
or
or
1/4,500
1/10,000
1/13,000
or 1/83,000
33:558-589.
e^oaura.
t
Llfetuw
Riak2
1/17
1/3
1/65
1/222
1/186
1/130
The risks associated with many other activities, including
the exposure to various chemical substances, can not be readily
assessed and quantified. Although there are considerable histor-
ical data on the risks of some types of chemical exposures (e.g./
the annual risk of death from intentional overdoses or accidental
exposures to drugs, pesticides, and industrial chemicals), such
data are generally restricted to those situations in which a
single, very high exposure resulted in an immediately observable
form of injury, thus leaving little doubt about causation.
Assessment of the risks of levels of chemical exposure that do
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not cause immediately observable forms of injury or disease (or
only minor forms such as transient eye or skin irritation) is far
more complex, irrespective of whether the exposure may have been
brief, extended but intermittent, or extended and continuous. It
is the latter type of risk assessment activity that is reviewed
in this report (although some review of acute poisoning is also
included).
As recently defined by the National Academy of Sciences, risk
assessment is the scientific activity of evaluating the toxic
properties of a chemical and the conditions of human exposure to
it in order both to ascertain the likelihood that exposed humans
will be adversely affected, and to characterize the nature of the
effects they may experience.1
The Academy distinguishes risk assessment from risk manage-
ment; the latter activity concerns decisions about whether an
assessed risk is sufficiently high to present a public health
concern and about the appropriate means for control of a risk
judged to be significant.
The term "safe," in its common usage, means 'without risk."
In technical terms,, however, this common usage is misleading
because science can not ascertain the conditions under which a
given chemical exposure is likely to be absolutely without a risk
of any type. The latter condition—sero risk—is simply immea-
surable. Science can, however, describe the conditions under
which risks are so I6w that they would generally be considered to
be of no practical consequence to persons in a population. As a
technical matter, the safety of chemical substances—whether in
food, drinking water, air, or the workplace—has always been
defined as a condition of exposure under which there is a "prac-
tical certainty* that no harm will result in exposed individuals.
(As described later-, these conditions usually incorporate large
safety factors, so that even more intense exposures than those
defined as safe may also carry extremely low risks). We note
that most "safe" exposure levels established in the way we have
described are probably risk-free, but science simply has no tools
to prove the existence of what is essentially a negative condi-
tion.
Another preliminary concept concerns classification of chemi-
cal substances as either 'safe* or unsafe* (or as "toxic" and
•nontoxic"). This type of classification, while common (even
among scientists who should know better), is highly problematic
1Risk Assessment in the Federal Government; Managing the Process
(Washington, O.C.sNation*! Academy Press,
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and misleading. All substances, even those which we consume inj
high amounts every day, can be made to produce a toxic response!
under some conditions of exposure. In this sense, all substance^
are toxic. The important question is not simply that of toxici-
ty/ but rather that of risk—i.e./ what is the probability that
the toxic properties of a chemical will be realized under actual
or anticipated conditions of human exposure? To answer the lat-
ter question requires far more extensive data and evaluation than
the characterization of toxicity.2
THE COMPONENTS OF RISK ASSESSMENT
There are four components to every (complete) risk assess-
ment:
A. Hazard Identification—Involves gathering and evaluating
data on the types of health injury or disease that may
be produced by a chemical and on the conditions of expo-
sure under which injury or disease is produced. It may
also involve characterization of the behavior of a chem-
ical within the body and the interactions it undergoes
with organs, cells, or even parts of cells. Data of the
latter types may be of value in answering the ultimate
question of, whether the forms of toxicity known to be
produced by a substance in one population group or in
experimental settings are also likely to be produced
humans. Hazard identification is not risk assessment;
we are simply determining whether it is scientifically
correct to infer that toxic effects observed in one
setting will occur in other settings (e.g., are sub-
stances found to be carcinogenic or teratogenic in ex-
perimental animals likelv to have the same result in
humans?).
B. Dose-Response Evaluation--Involves describing the quan-
titative relationship between the amount of exposure to
a substance and the extent of toxic injury or disease.
Data derive from animal studies or, less frequently,
from studies in exposed human populations. There may b-
many different dose-response relationships for a sub-
stance if it produces different toxic effects under
2Soae scientists will claim that carcinogens display their toxic
properties under all conditions of exposure/ and that there is
ao "safe" level of exposure to such agents. This special prob-
lem receives extensive treatment in later sections.
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different conditions of- exposure. The risks of a sub-
stance can not be ascertained vith any degree of confi-
dence unless dose-response relations are quantified,
even if the substance is known to be "toxic."
C. Human Exposure Evaluation—-Involves describing the
nature and fixe of the population exposed to a substance
and the magnitude and duration of their exposure. The
•valuation could concern past or current exposures, or
•xposures anticipated in the future.
0. Risk Characterization—generally involves the integra-
tion of the data and analysis of the first three compo-
nents to determine the likelihood that humans will
experience any of the various forms of toxicity associ-
ated with a substance. (In cases where.exposure data
are not available, hypothetical risk can be character-
ized by the integration of hazard identification and
does-response evaluation data alone.)
The next four sections elaborate on each of these components
of risk assessment. However, the concept of "dose," which under-
lies all the discussions to follow of both experimental animals
and human populations, is reviewed first.
DOSE
Human exposures to substances in the environment may occur
because of their presence in air, water, or food. Other circum-
stances may provide the opportunity for exposure, such as direct
contact with a sample of the substance or contact with contami-
nated soil. Experiments for studying the toxicity of a substance
usually involve intentional administration to subjects through
the diet, air to be inhaled, or direct application to skin.
Experimental studies may include other routes of administration:
injection under the skin (subcutaneous), into the blood (usually
intravenous), or into body cavities (intraperitoneal).
In both human and animal exposures, two types of measurement
must be distinguished:
1. Measurement of the amount of the substance in the
medium (air, diet, etc.) in which it is present or
administered.
2. Measurement of the amount received by the subject,
whether human or animal.
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It is critically important to distinguish these two types of
measures. The second measure, which is usually expressed as a
dose, ia the critical factor in assessing risk. The first mea-
sure, along with other information, usually is essential if the
dose is to be established. It may be substituted or supple-
mented, however, in cases where environmental modeling or bicmon-
itoring data are available.
The difference between these two measures is best described
by example. Suppose a substance is present in drinking watar to
be consumed by an individual. To determine the individual's dose
of this substance, it is first necessary to know the amount
present in a given volume of water. For many environmental sub-
stances, the amounts present fall in the milligram (mg, ore-
thousandth of a gram » 1/28571 ounce) or microgram (,ug, one-
millionth of A gram « 1/28,571,429 ounce) range. The analyst
will usually report the number of mg or ug of the substance
present in one liter of water, i.e., mg/1 or pg/1. These two
units are sometimes expressed as parts per Billion (ppm) or parts
per billion (ppb), respectively.3
Given the concentration of a substance in water (say in ppm),
it is possible to estimate the amount an individual will consume
by knowing the amount of water he drinks. Time is another im-
portant factor in determining risk, so the amount of water con-
sumed per unit time is of interest. Zn most public health evalu-
ations, it is assumed that an individual consumes 2 liters of
water each day through all uses. Thus, if a substance is present
at 10 ppm in water, the average daily individual intake of the
substance is obtained as follows:
10 ag/liter x 2 liter/day - 20 mg/day
For toxicity comparisons among different species, it is nacassary
to take into account size differences, usually by dividing daily
intake by the weight of the individual. Thus, for a man of aver-
age weight (usually assumed to be 70 kilograms (kg) or 154
pounds), the daily dose of our hypothetical substance is:
20 mg/day r 70 kg - 0.29 mg/kg/day
3A liter of water weighs 1,000 g. One mg is thus one-millionth
the weight of a liter of water; and one ug is one-billionth the
weight of a liter.
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For a person of lower weight (e.g., a female or child), the daily
dose at the same intake rate would be larger. For example, a 50"
kg woman ingesting the hypothetical substance would receive a
dose of:
20 ng/day r 50 kg « 0.40 mg/kg/day
& child of 10 kg could receive a dose of 2.0 mg/kg/day, although
it must be remembered that such a child would drink less water
each day (say, 1 liter), so that the child's dose would be:
10 mg/liter x 1 liter/day » 10 kg • 1.0 mg/kg/day
XIso, laboratory animals, usually rats or mice, receive a much
higher dose than humans at the same daily intake rate because of
their much smaller body weights (of course, rats and mice do not
drink 2 liters of water each day!).
These sample calculations point out the difference between
measurement of environmental concentrations and dose/ at least
for drinking water. The relationships between measured environ-
mental concentrations and dose are more complex for air and other
media. Table 2 lists the data necessary to obtain dose from data
on the concentration of a substance in water. Each medium of
exposure must be treated separately and some calculations are
more complex than in the dose per liter of water example.
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Table 2
DATA AND ASSERTIONS NCCCSSARY TO ESTIMATE
MMAM OOSC Of A WTCK CONTAMINANT HUM WOW.EDCE Of ITS CONCO4TRATION
Total Oooe la Equal to the SUM of DBMS fro* Five Routea
1. Direct Ingoation Through Drinking
Amount of vater consumed each day (generally aaaumed to be 2 liters for
adults and 1 liter for 10 kg child).
Fraction of contaminant abaorbed through wall of gmatrointemtlnal tract.
Avaraga human body Might.
2. Inhalation of Contaminants
Air concentrations reaulting from showering, bathing, and other uaes of
Variation in air concentration over time.
Amount of contaminated air breathed during thoae activities that may lead
to volatilization.
Fraction of inhaled contaminant abaorbed through lunge.
Average human body Might.
3. Skin Absorption from Hater
Period of time spent weeding and bathing.
Fraction of eontaminmnt abaorbed through the akin during washing and
bathing.
Average human body weight.
4. Ingestion of Contaminated Food
Concentrationa of contaminant in edible portions of various plants and
animals exposed to contaminated groundwatar.
Amount of contaminated food ingested emeh oar.
Fraction of contaminant abaorbed through wall of gastrointestinal tract.
Average human body weight.
S. Skin Absorption for Contaminated Soil
Concentrationa of contaminant in soil aipoaed to contaminated
groundwatar.
Amount of daily akin contact with moil.
Amount of moil ingested par day (by children).
Abeorotion ratae.
Average human body Might.
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It is important always to consider that a human may be
simultaneously exposed to the same substance through several
media. That is/ a dose may be received through more than one
route of exposure (inhalation, ingestion, dermal contact). The
"total dose" received by an individual is the sum of doses re-
ceived by each individual route (see the example in Table 2).
In some cases, it may not be appropriate to add doses in
this fashion. In these cases, the toxic effects of a substance
may depend on the route of exposure. For example, inhaled chrom-
ium is carcinogenic to the lung, but it appears that ingested
chromium is not. In most cases, however, as long as a substance
acts at an internal body site (i.e., acts svstemieally rather
than only at the point of initial contact), it is usually con-
sidered appropriate to add doses received fron several routes.
Two additional factors concerning dose require special atten-
tion. The first is the concept of absorption (or absorbed dcse) .
The second concerns inferences to be drawn from toxicities ob-
served under one route of exposure for purposes of predicting the
likelihood of toxicity under other routes.
Absorption
When a substance is ingested in the diet or in drinking
water, it enters the gastrointestinal tract. When it is present
in air (as a gas, aerosol, particle, dust, fume, etc.) it enters
the upper airways and lungs. A substance may also come into
contact with the skin and other body surfaces as a liquid or
solid. Some substances may cause toxic injury at the point of
initial contact (skin, gastrointestinal tract/ upper airways,
lungs, eyes). Indeed, at high concentrations, most substances
will cause at least irritation at these points of contact. But
for many substances, toxicity occurs after they pass through
certain barriers (e.g., the wall of the gastrointestinal tract or
the skin itself), enter blood or lymph, and gain access to the
various organs or systems of the body. Figure 1 is a diagram of
some of the important routes of absorption. This figure also
shows that chemicals may be distributed in the body in various
ways and then excreted. (However* some chemical types—usually
substances with high solubility in fat, such as DDT—are stored
for long periods of time, usually in fat.)
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Figurt 1
KEY ROUTES OF CHEMICAL ABSORPTION, DISTRIBUTION, AND EXCRETION
tomt chemicals undergo chemical change (metabolism) within tht etllt of tht body before ixerction.
Toxicity may bt produced by th« chemical •» introduead, or by ona or men maubolitis.
Ingastion
Inhalation
Tract
Otrmal
Contact
Lung
*- Abwrption- *
Livtr
Bila
Blood and Lymph
Kidneys
Extracellular
Fluids
Lung
•Udder
Urine
Secretion
Glands
Expired
Air
Organs of
the Body
Soft
or Bones
n
3
a
o
rn
Secretiont
EXCRETION
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Substances vary widely in extent of absorption. The frac-
tion of a dose that passes through the wall of the gastrointes-
tinal tract may be very small (e.g., 1 to 10% for some metals) to
substantial (close to 100% for certain types of organic mole-
cules). Absorption rates also depend upon the medium in which a
chemical is present (e.g., a substance present in water might be
absorbed differently from the saae substance present in a fatty
diet). These rates also vary among animal species and among
individuals within a species.
Ideally, estimating systemic dose should include considera-
tion of absorption rates. Unfortunately, data on absorption are
limited for most substances, especially in humans. As a result,
absorption is not always included in dose estimation (i.e., by
default, it is frequently considered to be complete). Sometimes
crude adjustments are made based on some general -principles con-
cerning expected rates based on the molecular characteristics of
a substance.
Interspeeies Differences in Exposure Route
As described later, a critical feature of risk characteriza-
tion is a comparison of doses that are toxic in experimental
animals and the doses received by exposed humans. Zf humans are
exposed by the same route as the experimental animals, it is
frequently assumed (in the absence of data) that the extent of
absorption in animals and humans is approximately the same; under
such an assumption, it is unnecessary to estimate the absorbed
dose by taking absorption rate into account. However, humans are
often exposed by a different route than that used to obtain tox-
icity data in experimental animals. Zf the observed toxic effect
is a systemic one, it may be appropriate to infer the possibility
of human toxicity even under the different exposure route. Be-
fore doing so, however, it is critical to consider the relative
degrees of absorption by different exposure routes. For example,
if a substance is administered orally to a test animal but human
exposure is usually by inhalation, knowledge of the percentage
absorbed orally by the animal and by inhalation in humans is
necessary to properly compare human and animal doses. These
calculations and underlying assumptions are too complex for dis-
cussion here, but they should be kept in Bind when risks are
being described.
Zn the following discussion of the components of risk assess-
ment, we shall use the term dose only as described. Many risk
assessors use the terms exposure and dose synonomously. In this
document, however, the term exposure describes contact with a
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substance (e.g., we say that animals are exposed to air contain-
ing 10 mg/m3, of a compound), as well as the size of the dose,
the duration of exposure, and tne nature and size of the exposed
population. In our usage, exposure is a broader term than dose.
Although our usages of those terms are technically correct, it
should be recognized that some assessors use the term exposure to
mean dose (although the reverse is not true).
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ft
III. HAZARD IDENTIFICATION
INTRODUCTION
Information on the toxic properties of chemical substances is
obtained from animal studies, controlled epidemiological investi-
gations of exposed human populations, and clinical studies or
case reports of exposed humans. Other information bearing on
toxicity derives from experimental studies in systems other than
whole animals (e.g., in isolated organs/ cells, subcellular com-
ponents) and from analysis of the molecular structures of the
substances of interest. These last two sources of information
are generally considered less certain indicators 'of toxic poten-
tial, and accordingly, they receive limited treatment here.
Similarly, clinical studies or case reports, while sometimes
very important (e.g., the earliest signs that benzene was a human
leukemogen came from a series of case reports), seldom provide
the central body of information for risk assessment. For this
reason, and because they usually present no unusual problems of
interpretation, they are not further reviewed here. Rather, our
attention is devoted to the two principal sources of toxicity
data: animal tests and epidemiology studies. These two types of
investigation are not only principal sources of data, but also
present Interpretative difficulties, some rather subtle, some
highly controversial.
TOXICITY INFORMATION PROM ANIMAL STUDIES
The Use of Animal Toxicity Data
Animal toxicity studies are conducted based primarily on the
longstanding assumption that effects in humans can be inferred
from effects in animals. In fact, this assumption has been shown
to be generally correct. Thus, all the chemicals that have been
demonstrated to be carcinogenic in humans, with the possible
exception of arsenic, are carcinogenic in some although not all,
experimental animal species. In addition, the acutely toxic
doses of many chemicals are similar in humans and a variety of
experimental animals. This principle of extrapolation of animal.
data to humans has been widely accepted in the scientific and
regulatory communities. The foundation of our ability to infer
effects in humans from effects in animals has been attributed to
the evolutionary relationships and the phylogenetic continuity of
animal species including man. Thus, at least among manunals, the
basic anatomical, physiological, and biochemical parameters are
similar across species.
-------
However, although the general principle of inferring effects in
humans from effects in experimental animals is veil founded,
there have been a number of exceptions. Many of these exceptions
relate to differences in the way various species handle a chemi-
cal to vhich they are exposed and to differences in metabolism,
distribution and pharaacoxinetics of the chemical. Because of
these potential differences/ it is essential to evaluate all
interspecies differences carefully in inferring human toxicity
from animal toxicologic study results.
Zn the particular case of evaluation of long-term animal
studies conducted primarily to assess the carcinogenic potential
of a. compound, certain general observations increase the overall
strength of the evidence that the compound is carcinogenic. With
an increase in the number of tissue sites affected by the agent,
there is an increase in the strength of the evidence. Similarly/
an increase in the number of animal species, strains, and sexes
showing a carcinogenic response will increase the strength of the
evidence of carcinogenicity. Other aspects of importance are the
occurrence of clear-cut dose-response relationships in the data
evaluated; the achievement of a high level of statistical signif-
icance of the increase of tumor incidence in treated versus con-
trol animals; dose-related shortening of the time-to-tumor occur-
rence or time-to-death with tumor; and a dose-related increase in
the proportion of tumors that are malignant. The following sec-
tions describe the general nature of animal toxicity studies,
including major areas of importance in their design, conduct, and
interpretation. Particular consideration will be given to the
uncertainties involved in the evaluation of their results.
General Nature of Animal Toxicity Studies
Toxicity studies are conducted to identify the nature of
health damage produced by a substance4 and the range of doses
over which damage is produced. The usual starting point for such
investigations is a study of the acute (single-dose) toxicity of
a chemical in experimental animals. Acute toxicity studies are
necessary to calculate doses that will not be lethal to animals
used in toxicity studies of longer durations. Moreover, such
*We use the term substance to refer to a pure chemical, to a
chemical containing impurities, or to a mixture of chemicals.
It is clearly important to know the identity and composition of
a tested substance before drawing inferences about the toxicity
of other samples of the same substance that might have a some-
what different composition.
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•tudies will give one estimate of the compound's comparative
toxicity and may indicate the target organ system for chronic
toxicity <«.g., kidney, lung, or heart). Toxicologists examine
the lethal properties of a substance and estimate its 105Q
(lethal dose, on average, for 50% of an exposed population). In
a group of chemicals, those exhibiting lover LD5QS are more
acutely toxic than those with higher values. A group of well-
known substances and their LDso values are listed in Table 3.
TMlt 3
AfMOXIMATE ORAL UD5(j« IN HATS FOR A
(••rum nr wri i-jrwrMu pMTMTrn c1 *Z
CROUP Or MELL-XNONN
Sucre** (toblt augir)
Ethyl •leofcol
Sodii* chloridt (connon Mlt)
Vitamin A
Vanillin
Oilarafom
Copper
C«ff»in«
fh«nob«rbittl,
DOT
SoditM nitrite
Nieotin*
Afliteiin SI
Sediui cyanide
Stryehntrw
Mlt
29,700
U.OQO
3,000
2,000
1,580
1,000
800
300
1»2
1*2
113
85
53
7
4.4
2.5
1S«l»et«d fro« NIOSH, Ktqiitry of Tp«ie Eff«ctt of Chamicil
Subitme>j, 1979. R«sult« r*port«l tl»««^«p» ««y rtiffir.
•CompoundiTir* U«t«d in ord«r of inertMinfl twicity—i.«.,
•uetM* is the Itttt to«ic «nd •tryc^nin* is tto *Mt toxic.
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LD5Q studies reveal one of the basic principles of toxi-
cology: not all individuals exposed to the same dose of a sub-
stance will respond in the same way. Thus, at a dose of a sub-
stance that leads to the death of some experimental animals,
other animals dosed in the same way will get sick but will re-
cover/ and still others will not appear to be affected at all.
Me shall return to this point after a fuller discussion of other
forms of toxicity.
Each of the many different types of toxicology studies has a
different purpose. Animals may be exposed repeatedly or contin-
uously for several weeks or months (subchronic toxicity studies)
or for close to their full lifetimes (chronic toxicity studies)
to learn how the period of exposure affects toxic response. In
general, the reasons to conduct toxicity studies can be summar-
ized as follows:
e Identify the specific organs or systems of the body
that may be damaged by a substance.
e Identify specific abnormalities or diseases that a
substance may produce, such as cancer, birth defects,
nervous disorders, or behavioral problems.
e Establish the conditions of exposure and dose that give
rise to specific forms of damage or disease.
e Identify the specific nature and course of the injury
or disease produced by a substance.
e Identify the biological processes that underlie the
production of observable damage or disease.
The laboratory methods needed to accomplish many of these
goals have been in use for many years, although some methods are
still being developed. Before describing some of the tests, it
is useful to say more about the various manifestations of toxi-
city.
Manifestations of Toxicity
Toxic responses, regardless of the organ or system in which
they occur, can be of several types. For some, the severity of
the injury increases as the dose increases. Thus, for example,
some chemicals affect the liver. At high doses they may kill
liver cells, perhaps so many as to destroy the liver and thus
cause the deaths of some or all experimental subjects. As the
dose is lowered, fewer cells may be killed, but they may exhibit
other forma of damage, causing imperfections in their function-
ing. At lower doses still, no cell deaths may occur and there
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may be only slight alterations in cell function or structure.
Finally, a dose may be achieved at which no effect is observed,
or at which there are only biochemical alterations that have no
known adverse effects on the health of the animal (although some
toxicologists consider any such alteration, even if its long-terr,
consequences are unknown, to be "adverse," there is no clear
consensus on this issue.) One of the goals of toxicity studies
is to determine the "no observed effect level" (NOEL), which is
the dose at which no effect it seen; the role of the NOEL in risk
assessment is discussed later.
Zn other cases, the severity of an effect nay not increase
with dose, but the incidence of the effect will increase with
increasing dose. In such cases, the number of animals experienc-
ing an adverse effect at a given dose is less than the total
number, and, as the dose increases, the fraction experiencing
adverse effects (i.e., the incidence of disease or injury) in-
creases; at sufficiently high dose, all experimental subjects
will experience the effect. The latter responses are properly
characterized as probabilistic. Increasing the dose increases
the probability (i.e., risk) that the -abnormality trill develop in
an exposed population. Often with toxic effects, including can-
cer, both the severity and the incidence increase as the level of
exposure is raised. The increase in severity is a result of
increased damage at higher doses, while the increase in incidence
is a result of differences in individual sensitivity. In addi-
tion, th«- site at which a substance acts (e.g., liver, kidney)
may change as the dose changes.
Generally, as the duration of exposure increases, both the
NOEL and the doses at which effects appear decrease; in some
cases, new effects not apparent upon exposures of short duration
become manifest.
Toxic responses also vary in degree of reversibility. In
some cases, an effect will disappear almost immediately following
cessation of exposure. At the other extreme, some exposures will
result in a permanent injury--for example, a severe birth defect
resulting from a substance that irreversibly damages a fetus at a
critical moment of its development. Most toxic responses fall
somewhere between these extremes. In many experiments, however,
the degree of reversibility cannot be ascertained by the investi-
gator .
Seriousness is another characteristic of a toxic response.
Certain types of toxic damage are clearly adverse and are a def-
inite threat to health. However, other types of effects observed
during toxicity studies are not clearly of health significance.
For example, at a given dose a chemical may produce a slight
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increase in red blood cell count. If no other effects are ob-
served at this dose, it will not be at all clear that a true
adverse response has occurred. Determining whether such sligh
changes are significant to health is one of the critical issues
in assessing safety that has not b«en fully clarified.
Design and Conduct of Toxieity Tests
Toxicity experiments vary widely in design and conduct.
Although there are relatively well standardized tests for various
types of toxicity (e.g., National Cancer Institute carcinogen-
icity bioassays) developed by regulatory and public agencies ir.
connection with the premarket testing requirements imposed on
certain classes of chemicals, large numbers of other tests and
research-oriented investigations are conducted using specialized
study designs (e.g., carcinogenicity assays in fish). In this
section, we present a few of the critical considerations that
enter into the design of toxicity experiments. However, there
are numerous variations on the general themes we describe.
Selection of Animal Species
Rodents, usually rats or mice, are the most commonly used
laboratory animals for toxicity testing. Other rodents (e.g.,
hamsters and guinea pigs) are sometimes used, and many experi-
ments are conducted using rabbits, dogs, and such non human pri
mate* »« monkeys or baboons. For example, although nonhuman
primates may be chosen for some reproductive studies because
their reproductive systems are similar to that of humans, rabbits
are often used for testing dermal toxicity because their shaved
skin is more sensitive.
Rats and mice are the most common choice because they are
inexpensive and can be handled relatively easily. Furthermore,
such factors as genetic background and disease susceptibility are
well established for these species. The full lifespans of these
smaller rodents are complete in two to three years/ so that the
effects of lifetime exposure to a substance can be measured rela-
tively quickly (as compared to the much longer-lived dog or
monkey ) .
Dose and Duration
An LDsn using high doses of the substance is frequently the
first toxicity experiment performed. After completing these*
experiments, investigators study the effects of lower doses
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administered over longer periods. The purpose is to find the
range of doses over which adverse effects occur and to identify
the NOEL for these effects (although the latter is ot always
sought or achieved). A toxicity experiment is of l.mited value
i.nless a dose of sufficient magnitude to cause some type of
idverse effect within the durition of the experiment is achieved.
3f no effects are seen at all doses adminiftered, the toxic
properties of the substances 'ill not have been characterized,
and the investigator will usually repeat the experiment at higher
doses or will extend its duration.s
Studies are frequently characterized according to the dura-
tion of exposure. Acute toxirity studies involve a single dose,
or exposures of very short duration (e.g., 8 hours of inhala-
tion). Chronic studies involve exposures for near the full life-
times of the experimental aninals. Experiments of -arying dura-
tion between these extremes are referred to as subc ronic stud-
ies.
Number of Dose Levels
Although it is desirable that many different dose levels be-
used to develop a well characterized dose-response relationship,
practical considerations usually limit the number to two or
three, especially in chronic studies. Experiments involving a
single dose are frequently reported and leave great uncertainty
about the full range of doses over which effects are expected.
Controls
No toxicity experiment is interpretable if control animals
are omitted. Control animals must be of the same species,
strain, sex, age, and state of health as the treated animals, and
must be held under identical conditions throughout the experi-
ment. (Indeed, allocation of aninals to control and treatment
groups should be performed on a completely random basis.) Of
course, the control animals are not exposed to the substance
under test.
5Some substances with extremely low toxicity must be administered
at extremely high levels to produce effects; in many cases, such
high levels will cause dietary maladjustments leading to an
adverse nutritional effect that confounds interpretation. As a
practical matter/ the highest level of a compound fed to an
animal in toxicity studies is 5% of the diet, even if no toxic
effect is seen at this level.
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Route of Exposure
Animals are usually exposed by a route that is as close as
possible to that through which humans will be exposed, because
the purpose of most such tests is to produce the data upon which
human safety decisions will be based. In some cases, however,
the investigator may have to use other routes or conditions of
dosing to achieve the desired experimental dose. For example,
some chemicals are administered by stomach tube (gavage) because
they are too volatile or unpalatable to be placed in the animals'
diets at the high levels needed for toxicity studies.
Specialized Designs
Generally/ the toxicologist exposes test animals and simply
records whatever effects happen to occur under the conditions of
the experiment. If, however/ it is decided that certain highly
specific hypotheses about a substance are to be tested (e.g./
does the substance cause birth defects or does it affect the
immune system?), certain specialised designs must be used. Thus,
for example/ the hypothesis that a chemical is teratogenic
(causes birth defects) can be tested only if pregnant females are
exposed at certain critical times during pregnancy.
One of the most complex of the specialized tests is the
earcinogenesis bioas»ay. These experiments are used to test the
hypothesis of carcinogenic!ty—that is/ the capacity of a sub-
stance to* produce tumors. Because of the importance of the ear-
cinogenesis bioassay/ a full section is devoted to it. We shall
then.discuss/ in turn/ controversial issues in the design of
animal tests and interpretation of test results.
Design of Tests for Careinogenieity
Zn a National Cancer Institute (MCI) carcinogenicity bioas-
say, the test substance is administered over most of the adult
life of the animal, and the animal is observed for formation of
tumors. The general principles of test design previously dis-
cussed apply to carcinogenicity testing/ but one critical design
issue that has been highly controversial requires extensive dis-
cussion. The issue is the concept of maximum tolerated dose
(MTD)/ which is defined as the maximum dose that an animal spe-
cies can tolerate for a major portion of its lifetime without
significant impairment of growth or observable toxic effect other
than carcinogenicity. Cancer can take most of a lifetime to
develop, and it is thus widely agreed that studies should be
designed so that the animals survive in relatively good health
for a normal lifetime. It is not so widely agreed, however/ that
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the MTD, as currently used, is the best way to achieve this
objective. The MTD and half the MTD are the usual doses used in
the NCI carcinogenicity bioassay.
The main reason cited for using the MTD as the highest dose
in the bioassay is that experimental studies are conducted on a
small scale, making them 'statistically insensitive," and that
very high doses overcome this problem. For practical reasons,
experimental studies are carried out with relatively small groups
of animals. Typically, 50 or 60 animals of each species and sex
will be used at each dose level, including the control group. At
the end of such an experiment, the incidence of cancer as a func-
tion of dose (including control animal incidence) is tabulated by
the examining pathologists . Statisticians then analyze the data
to determine whether any observed differences in tumor incidence
(fraction of animals having a tumor of a certain type) are due to
random variations in tumor incidence or to treatment with the
substance.
Zn an experiment of about this size, assuming none of the
control animals develop tumors, the lowest incidence of cancer
that is detectable with statistical reliability is in the range
of 5%, or 3 animals with tumors in a test group of 60 animals. '
If control animals develop tumors (as they frequently do), the
lowest range of cancer incidence detectability is even higher. A
cancer incidence of 51 is very high, yet ordinary experimental
studies are not capable of detecting lower rates and most are
even le<* -sensitive.
MTD advocates argue that inclusion of high doses will com-
pensate for the weak detection power of these experiments. By
using the MTD, the toxicologist hopes to elicit any important
toxic effects of a substance and ensure that even weak carcin-
ogenic effects of the chemical will be detected by the study.
MTD critics do not reject the notion that animal experiments may
be statistically insensitive, but rather are concerned about the
biological implications of such high doses.
Concerns about use of MTD a can be summarized: (1) the
underlying biological mechanisms that lead to the production of
cancer may change as the dose of the carcinogen changes; (2) cur-
rent methods for estimating an MTD for use in an experiment do
not usually take these mechanisms into account; (3) the biologi-
cal mechanisms at work under conditions of actual human exposure
may be quite different from those at work at or near the MTD; and
(4) therefore, observations at or near an MTD (as determined by
current methods) may not be qualitatively relevant to conditions
of actual human exposure.
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Many agree that greater attention should be paid to develop
ing data on the underlying mechanisms of carcinogenicity and
their relation to dose. Also, a range of doses should be includ-
ed in carcinogenicity testing to assess whether physiological
mechanisms that would normally detoxify the chemical are over-
whelmed at an MTD. These biological considerations have consid-
erable merit, but they are frequently disregarded in designing
studies and interpreting data. Although there are occasional
attempts to develop a more biologically relevant definition of
MTD, aost current tests (e.g., those carried out by the National
Toxicology Program) use a definition of MTD that does not take
biological mechanisms into account.
This state of affairs is not likely to change. Those who
promote the use of MTD/ as currently defined, frequently argue
that if the highest dose used was not the MTD, failure to observe
a carcinogenic effect in a given experiment does not permit the
conclusion that the tested substance is not carcinogenic. A
similar argument is made if the survival of the test animals did
not approximate their full lifetimes.
Conduct and Interpretation of Toxicitv Tests
Many factors must be considered in the conduct of toxicity
tests to ensure their success and the utility of their results.
Zn evaluating the result* of such tests, certain questions must
be asked~about the design and conduct of a test to ensure criti-
cal appraisal. The major questions include the following:
1. Has the experimental design adequate to test the hypo-
thesis under examination?
2. Was the general conduct of the test in compliance with
standards of good laboratory practice?
3. Mas the dose of test compound correctly determined by
chemical analysis?
4. Was the test compound adequately characterized with
regard to the nature and extant of impurities?
S. Did the animals actually receive the test compound?
6. Were animals that died during the test adequately exam-
ined?
7. How carefully were test animals observed during the
conduct of the test?
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8. What tests were performed on the animals (e.g., blood
tests, clinical chemistry tests) and were they ade-
quately performed?
9. If the animals were examined histopathologically (i.e.,
detailed pathological examination based on sections
taken from individual tissues), was the examination
performed by a qualified pathologist?
10. Was the extent of animal and animal tissue examination
adequate?
11. Were the various sets of clinical and pathology data
properly tabulated?
12. Were the statistical tests used appropriate and were
they adequately performed?
13. Was the report of the test sufficiently detailed so
that these questions can be answered?
t
A proper evaluation would ensure that these and other types
of quest-ions were examined and would include a list of qualifica-
tions on. test results in areas where answers were missing or
unsatisfactory.
Categorization of Toxic Effects
Toxicity tests may reveal that a substance produces a wide
variety of adverse effects on different organs or systems of the
body or that the range of effects is narrow. Some effects may
occur only at the higher doses used, and only the most sensitive
indicators of a substance's toxicity may be manifest at the lower
doses .
The toxic characteristics of a substance are usually catego-
rised according to the organs or systems they affect (e.g., liv-
er, kidney, nervous system) or the diseases they cause (e.g.,
cancer, birth defects). The most commonly used categorizations
of toxicity are briefly described in Appendix X.
Although there are uncertainties associated with most evalu-
ations of animal toxicity data, there are some special problems
associated with interpretation of carcinogenicity data. Because
these problems are the source of much controversy, we afford their.
special attention in the next section.
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Uncertainties in Evaluation
of Animal Carcinogenicity
Test Results
One area of uncertainty and controversy concerns the occur-
rence of certain types of tumors in control animals. In most
animal experiments, control animals will also develop tumors, and
interpretation of such experiments depends on comparing the inci-
dence of tumors in control animals with that observed in treated
animals. In some instances, this is not as straightforward as it
Bay seem. For example, the lifetime incidence of lung tumors in
a certain strain of male mice, untreated with any substance, may
vary from a low of about 2% to a high of about 40%; the average
rate is about 14%. Suppose that, in a particular experiment,
sale Bice treated with a substance exhibited a 35% incidence of
lung tumors, and control animals exhibited an incidence of 8%.
Statistical analysis of such data would show that the treated
animals experienced a statistically significant increase in tumor
incidence, and the substance producing this effect might be la-
beled a lung carcinogen.
Further analysis of the incidence data suggests that such a
statistical analysis may b« misleading. The 35% incidence ob-
served in treated animals is within the range of tumor incidence
that is normally experienced by Bale mice, although the particu-
lar group of male mice used as controls in this experiment exhib-
ited an incidence in,the low end of the normal range. Onder sue
circumstances, use of the simple statistical test of significanc
Bight^e .misleading and result in the erroneous labeling of a
substance as a carcinogen.
Another major area of uncertainty arises in the interpreta-
tion of experimental observations of b«nign tumors. Some types
of tumors are clearly malignant? that is, they are groups of
cells that grow in uncontrolled ways, invade other tissues, and
are frequently fatal. There is usually no significant contro-
versy about such tumors, and pathologists generally agree that
their presence is a clear sign that a carcinogenic process has
occurred. Other tumors are benign at the time they are observed
by pathologists, and it is not always clear they should be con-
sidered indicators of a carcinogenic process. Soae tumors will
remain benign for the lifetime of the animal, but in some cases
they have been observed to progress to malignancy. Generally,
the numbers of animals with benign tumors that are thought to be
part of the carcinogenic process are combined with those having
malignancies to establish the total tumor incidence. Many path-
ologists disagree with such combining, and there appears to be no
end to the controversy in this area. The issue has been espe-
cially controversial in connection with tumors found in rodent
livers.
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Short-Term Tests, for Carcinogens
The lifetime animal study is the primary method used for
detecting the carcinogenic properties of a substance. In recent
years, other experimental techniques have become available and,
although none is yet considered definitive, they may provide
important information.
Short-term tests for carcinogenicity measure effects that
empirically or theoretically appear to be correlated with carcin-
ogenic activity. These tests include assays for gene mutations
in bacteria, yeast, fungi, insects, and mammalian cells; mamma-
lian cell transformation assays; assays for DNA damage and re-
pair; and i,n vitro (outside the animal—e.g., bacterial cells as
in the Ames mutagenicity assay) and in vivo (within the animal)
assays for chromosomal mutations in animals' cells. In addition
to these rapid (test-tube) tests, several tests of intermediate
duration involving whole animals have been used. These include
the induction of skin and lung tumors in mice, breast cancer in
female certain species of rats, and anatomical changes in the
livers of rodents.
Other tests are used to determine whether a substance will
interact with the genetic apparatus of the cell, as some well-
known eafcinogens apparently do. However, not all substances
that interact with DMA have been found to be carcinogenic in
animal systems. Furthermore, not all animal carcinogens interact
directly with genetic material.
These short-term tests are playing increasingly important
roles in helping to identify suspected carcinogens. They provide
useful information in a relatively short period, and may become
critical screening tools, particularly for selecting chemicals
for long-term animal tests. They may also assist in understand-
ing the biological processes underlying the production of tumors.
They have not been definitively correlated with results in animal
models, however, and regulatory agencies and other public health
institutions do not consider positive or negative results in
these systems as definitive indicators of carcinogenicity or the
lack thereof, but only as ancillary evidence.
DATA ?ROM HUMAN STUDIES
Information on adverse health effects in human populations
is obtained from four sources: (1) summaries of self-reported
symptoms in exposed persons; (2) case reports prepared by medical
personnel; (3) correlational studies (in which differences in
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disease rates in human populations are associated with differ-
•noes in environmental conditions); and (4) epidemiological st
ies. The first three types of study can be characterized as
descriptive epidemiology and are often useful in drawing atten-
tion to previously unsuspected problems. Although they cannot.
identify a cause-and-effect relationship, they have value in
generating hypotheses that can be further tested. Epidemiologic
studies involve comparing the health status of a group of persons
who have been exposed to a suspected agent with that of a compar-
able nonexposed group.
Most epidemiology studies are either case-control studies or
cohort studies. In case-control studies, a group of individuals
with a specific disease is identified and an attempt is made to
ascertain commonalities in exposures they may have experienced in
the past. The carcinogenic properties of OES were discovered
through such studies. In cohort studies, the health status of
individuals known to have had a common exposure is examined to
determine whether any specific condition or cause of death is
revealed to be excessive, compared to an appropriately matched
control population. Benzene leuxemogenesis was established with
studies of these types. Generally, epidemiologists have turned
to occupational settings or to patients treated with certain
drugs to conduct their studies.
When epidemiological investigations yield convincing re-
sults? they are enormously beneficial because they provide info
mation about humans under actual conditions of exposure to a
specific agent. Therefore, results from well-designed, properly
controlled studies are usually given more weight than results
from animal studies in the evaluation of the total database.
Although no study can provide complete assurance that no risk
exists, negative data from epidemiological studies of sufficient
size can be used to establish the lev«l of risk that exposure to
an agent almost assuredly will not exceed.
Although epidemiology studies are powerful when clearest
differences exist, several points must be considered when their
results are interpreted:
• Appropriately matched control groups are difficult to
identify, because the factors that lead to the exposure
of the study group (e.g., occupation or residence) are
often associated with other factors that affect health
status (e.g., lifestyle and socioeconomic status).
e Zt is difficult to control for related risk factors
(e.g., cigarette smoking) that have strong effects
on health.
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• ?ew types of health effects (other than death) are
recorded systematically in human populations (and even
the information on cause of death is of limited relia-
bility). For example, infertility, miscarriages, and
mental illnesses are not as a rule systematically re-
corded by public health agencies.
• Accurate data on the degree of exposure to potentially
hazardous substances are rarely available, especially
when exposures have taken place in the past. Estab-
lishing dose-response relations is thus frequently
impossible.
• For investigation of diseases that take many years
to develop, such as cancer, it is necessary to wait
many years to ascertain the absence of an effect.
Of course, exposure to suspect agents could continue '
during these extended periods of time and thereby
further increase risk.
• The statistical detection power of epidemiological
.studies is limited, unless very large populations are
'studied.
For these reasons, epidemiological studies are subject to
sometimes extreme uncertainties. ' It is usually necessary to have
independent confirmatory evidence, such as a concordant result in
a second epidemiological study, or supporting data from experi-
mental studies in animals. Because of the limitations of epi-
demiology, negative findings must also be interpreted with cau-
tion.6
*Xt is important to recognize the limitations of negative epide-
mioldgical findings. A simple example reveals why this is so.
Suppose a drug that causes cancer in one out of every 100 people
exposed to 10 units is released for use (no one is aware of the
risks). Moreover, the average time required for cancer to
develop from 10 units' exposure is 30 years (not uncommon for a
carcinogen). After the drug has been in use for 15 years, an
epidemiologist decides to study its effects. Re locates the
death certificates of 20 people who took the drug, but finds
little information on their dosage. Some took the drug when it
was first released, others not for several years after its
release. The health records, which are incomplete, reveal no
excess cancer in the 20 people when compared to an appropriate
control group. Is it correct to conclude that the drug is not
carcinogenic?
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HA2ASD IDENTIFICATION: A SUMMARY
For some substances the available database may include sub-
stantial information on effects in humans and experimental
animals, and may also include information on the biological mech-
anisms underlying the production of one or more forms of toxi-
city. In other cases, the database may be highly limited and may
include only a few studies in experimental animals.
In some cases, all the available data may point clearly in a
single direction, leaving little ambiguity about the nature of
toxicity associated with a given compound; in others, the data
may include apparently conflicting sets of experimental or epide-
niological findings. It is not unusual for a well-studied con-
pound to have conflicting results from toxicity tests. If the
tests are performed properly, positive tests results usually
outweigh negative test results. Confusion may be compounded by
the observation that the type, severity, or site of toxicity may
vary with the species of animal exposed. Although it is gen-
erally accepted that results in animals are and have been useful
in predicting effects in humans, such notable exceptions as
thalidomide have occurred. This complex issue, briefly mentioned
here, must be considered for each compound exaained.
The foregoing discussion of hazard evaluation was derived
for exposures to a single toxic agent. Humans are rarely expose
to only'one substance': commercial chemicals contain impurities,
chemicals are used in combinations, and lifestyle choices (e.g.,
smoking, drinXing) may increase exposure to mixtures of chemi-
cals. When humans are exposed to two or more chemicals, several
results may occur. The compounds may act independently; that is,
exposure to the additional chemical(s) has no observable effect
on the toxic properties of the substance. Toxic effects of chem-
icals may be additive; that is, if chemical A produces 1 unit of
disease and chemical B produces 2 units of disease, then exposure
to chemicals A and B produces 3 units of disease. Exposure to
combinations of chemicals may produce a greater than additive
(synergistic) effect; that is, exposure to chemicals A and B
produces more than 3 units of disease. Finally, chemicals may
reduce the degree of toxicity of each other (antagonism); that
is, exposure to chemicals A and B produces less than 3 units of
disease. Hazard evaluation of mixtures of chemicals is complex
and not standardized.
& proper hazard evaluation should include a critical review
of each pertinent data set and of the total database bearing on
toxicity. It should also include an evaluation of the inferences
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about toxicity in human populations who might be exposed. At
this stage of risk assessment/ however, there is no attempt to
project human risk. For the latter/ at least two additional sets
of analyses must be conducted.
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IV. DOSE-RESPONSE EVALUATION
INTRODUCTION
The next step in risk assessment is to estimate the dose-
response relationships for the various forms of toxicity exhib-
ited by the substance under review. Even where good epidemiolo-
gical studies have been conducted/ there are rarely reliable
quantitative data on exposure. Hence/ in most cases dose-
response relationships must be estimated from studies in animals
which immediately raises three serious problems: (1) animals are
usually exposed at high doses, and effects at low doses must be
predicted, using theories about the form of the dose-response
relationship; (2) animals and humans often differ in suspectibil-
ity, if only because of differences in size and metabolism; and
(3) the human population is very heterogeneous, so that some
individuals are likely to be more susceptible than average.
Toxicologists conventionally make two general assumptions
about the form of dose-response relationships at low doses. For
effects that involve alteration of genetic material (including
the initiation of cancer), there are theoretical reasons to be-
lieve that effects ma.y take place at very low dose levels; sever-
al spec-lfi-c mathematical models of dose-reponse relationships
have been proposed. For most other biological effects, it is
usually assumed that "threshold* levels exist. However, it is
very difficult to use such measures to predict "safe" levels in
humans. Even if it is assumed that humans and animals are, on
the average, similar in intrinsic susceptibility, humans are
expected to have more variable responses to toxic agents. We
discuss these and other issues at length in the following subsec-
tions .
THRESHOLD BPPBCTS
It is widely accepted on theoretical grounds, if not defini-
tively proved empirically/ that most biological effects of chemi-
cal substances occur only after a threshold dose is achieved. In
the experimental systems described here/ the threshold dose is
approximated by the no-observable-effect level or NOEL.
It has also been widely accepted, at least in the process of
setting public health standards/ that the human population is
likely to have much more variable responses to toxic agents than
are the small groups of well-controlled/ genetically homogeneous
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animals ordinarily used in experiments. Moreover, the NOEL is
itself subject to some uncertainty (e.g., how can it be known
that the most serious effects of a substance have been identi-
fied?). Por these reasons, standard-setting and public health
agencies protect populations from substances displaying threshold
effects by dividing experimental NOELs by large "safety factors."
The magnitude of safety factors varies according to the nature
and quality of the data from which the NOEL is derived; the seri-
ousness of the toxic effects; the type of protection being sou.;-•
(e.g./ are we protecting against acute, subchronic, or chronic
exposures?); and the nature of the population to be protected
(e.g., the general population, or populations—such as workers—
expected to exhibit a narrower range of susceptibilities). Safa-
ty factors of 10; 100; 1,000; and 10,000 have been used in vari-
ous circumstances.
NOELs are used to calculate the Acceptable Daily Intake
(ADZ) for humans (which goes by other names in some circum-
stances) for chemical exposures. The ADI is derived by dividing
the experimental NOEL, in mg/kg/day, for the toxic effect appear-
ing at lowest dose, by one of the safety factors listed above.
The ADI (or its equivalent) is thus expressed in mg/kg/day. For
example,-a substance with a NOEL from a chronic toxicity study of
100 ag/fcg/day may be assigned an ADI of 1 mg/kg/day, for chronic
human exposure. The concentration of the substance—be it pesti-
cide, foctd additive, or drinking water contaminant—permitted in
various media must'b« determined by taking into account the vari-
ous uses to which the material has been or will be put, the pos-
sible routes of exposure, and the degree of human contact. Ths
permitted concentrations, sometimes called tolerances or crite-
ria, are assigned to ensure the ADI is not exceeded.
This approach has been used for several decades by such
federal regulatory agencies as FDA and EPA, as well as by such
international bodies as the World Health Organization and by
various committees of the National Academy of Sciences,
Although there may be some biological justification for
assuming the need for safety factors to protect the more sensi-
tive members of the human population, there is very little scien-
tific support for the specific safety factors used. They are
arbitrarily chosen to compensate for uncertainty and, in fact,
could be seen as policy rather than scientific choices.
There is no way to determine that exposures at ADIs esti-
mated in this fashion are without risk. The ADI represents an
acceptable, low level of risk but not a guarantee of safety.
Conversely, there may be a range of exposures well above the ADI,
perhaps including the experimental NOEL itself, that bears no
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risk to humans. The "NOEL-safety factor" approach includes no ^^
attempt to ascertain how risk changes below the range of experi-
mentally-observed dose-response relations.
The assessment of low dose "risks" from threshold agents are
discussed in Section VI on Risk Characterization.
THAT MAY KOT EXHIBIT THRESHOLDS
At present, only agents displaying carcinogenic properties
are treated as if they do not display thresholds (although a few
scientists suggest that some teratogens and mutagens may behave
similarly). In somewhat more technical terms, the dose-response
carve for carcinogens in the human population achieves zero risk
only at zero dose; as the dose increases above zero, the risk
immediately becomes finite and thereafter increases as a function
of dose. Risk is the probability of cancer, and at very low
doses the risk can be extremely email (this will vary according
to the potency of the carcinogen). In this respect, carcinogens
are not much different from agents for which ADIs are established
(i.e., the most that can be said about an ADI is that it repre-
sents a very low risk, not that it represents the condition of
absolute safety).
The Carcinogenic Process
If a particular type of damage occurs to the genetic mate-
rial (DNA) of even a single cell, that cell may undergo a series
of changes that eventually result in - the production of a tumor;
however, the time required for all the necessary transitions that
culminate in cancer may be a substantial portion of an animal's
or human's lifetime. Carcinogens may also affect any number of
the transitions from one stage of cancer development to the next.
Some carcinogens appear capable only of initiating the process
(theae are termed "initiators"). Still others act only at later
stages, the natures of which are not well known (so-called promo-
tors aay act at one or more of these later stages). And some
carcinogens may act at several stages. Some scientists postulate
that an arbitrarily small amount of a carcinogen, even a single
molecule, could affect the transition of normal cells to cancer-
ous cells at one or more of the various stages, and that a great-
er amount of the carcinogen merely increases the probability that
a given transition would occur. Under these circumstances there
is little likelihood of an absolute threshold below which there
is no effect on the process (even though the effect may be ex-
ceedingly small).
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This description of the carcinogenic process is still under
extensive scientific scrutiny and is by no means established.
However, it is by far the dominant model and it has substantial
support. This multistage model has influenced the development of
some of the models used for dose-response evaluation. Before
discussing these models further, it is useful to review the ex-
perimental dose-response information obtained from bioassays and
to discuss why models of the doser-response relation are needed.
Potency and Hiqh~to-Low Dose Extrapolation
The following example, drawn from Rodricks and Taylor,7
illustrates the need for high-to-low dose extrapolation. ASSUT.S
that a substance has been tested in mice and rats of both sexas
and been found to produce liver cancer in male rats. A typical
summary of the data from such an experiment might be as follow.?:
Lifetime Incidence Lifetime
Lifetime Daily of Liver Cancer Probability of
Pose in Rats Liver Cancer
0-mg/kg/day 0/50 0.0
12S mgAg/day 0/50 0.0
250 mgAg/day 10/50 0.20
SOP. mg/kg/day 25/50 0.50
1000 mg/kg/day 40/50 0.80
The incidence of liver cancer is expressed as a fraction,
and is the number of animals found to have liver tumors divider1
by the total number of animals at risk. The probability (P) of
cancer is simply the fraction expressed as a decimal (e.g., 25/50
• 0.50).
Although there is "no-effect" at 125 mg/kg/day, the response
is nevertheless compatible with a risk of about 0.05 (5%) because
of the statistical uncertainties associated with the small num-
bers of animals used.
This experiment reveals that if humans and rats are about
equally susceptible to the agent, an exposure of 250 mg/kg/day in
humans will increase their lifetime risk by 20%; if 1,000 people
were to be exposed to this substance at this dose for a lifetime,
then 200 of these people will be expected to contract cancer from
this substance. This is an extremely high risk and obviously one
^"Application of Risk Assessment to Pood Safety Decision-Making,
Regulatory Toxicology t Pharmacology (1983)r 3:275-307.
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that no one would sanction. However, it is near the low end of ^^
the range of rislcs that can be detected in animal experiments.
To continue with the illustration, assume that it is possi-
ble to estimate the daily dose of the chemical in the human popu-
lation. For the present example/ assume that the exposed human
population receives a dose of 1.0 mg/kg/day. It thus becomes of
interest to know the risk to male rats at 1.0 mg/kg/day.
There is a great difference between the doses used experi-
mentally and the dose of interest. The risks that would likely
exist at a dose of 1.0 ag/kg/day are quite small and to determine
whether they exist at all would require enormous numbers of ani-
mals (perhaps hundreds of thousands). It is thus necessary under
these circumstances to rely on means other than experimentation
to estimate potential risk.
Scientists have developed several mathematical models to
estimate low dose risks from high dose risks. Such models de-
scribe the expected quantitative relationship between risk (F)
and dose (d), and are used to estimate a value for P (the risk)
at the dose of interest (in our example, the dose of 1.0 mg/kg/
day). The accuracy of the projected P at the dose of interest,
d, is .a function of how accurately the mathematical model de-
scribes the true, but. immeasurable, relationship between dose
risk -*t the low dose levels.
These mathematical models are too complex for detailed expo-
sition in this document. Various models may lead to very differ-
ent estimations of risk. None is chemical-specific; that is,
each is based on general theories of carcinogenesis rather than
on data for a specific chemical. None can be proved or disproved
by current scientific data, although future results of research
may increase our understanding of carcinogenesis and help in
refining these models. Regulatory agencies currently use one-
hit, multistage, and probit models, although regulatory decisions
are usually based on results of the one-hit or multistage models.
They also use multihit, Weibull, and logit models for risk
assessment.
If these models are applied to the data recorded earlier for
the hypothetical chemical, the following estimates of lifetime
risk for male rats8 at the dose of 1.0 mg/kg/day are derived:
*A11 rislcs are for a full lifetime of daily exposure. The life-
time is the unit of risk measurement because the experimental
data reflect the risk experienced by animals over their full
lifetimes. The values shown are upper confidence limits on risk
(data drawn from Rodricks and Taylor, 1983).
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Model Applied Lifetime Risk at 1.0 ag/fcg/day
One-hit 6.0 x 10"* (One in 17,000)
Multistage 6.0 x 10"6 (one in 167,000)
Multihit 4.4 x 10-' (one in 230,000)
Weibull 1.7 x 10-« (Onc in 59 million)
Probit 1.9 x 10~10(one in 5.2 billion)
Ther-2 may be no experimental basis for deciding which esti-
mate is closest to the truth. Nevertheless, it is possible tc
show that the true risk, at least to animals, is very unlikely tc
be higher than the highest risk predicted by the various models.
Zn cas&s where relevant data exist on biological mechanisms
of action, the selection of a model should be consistent with
the data. In many cases, however, such data are very limited,
resulting in great uncertainty in the selection of a model for
low dosa extrapolation. At present, understanding of the mecha-
nism of the process of carcinogenesis is still quite limited.
Biological evidence, however, does indicate the linearity of
tumor initiation, and consequently linear models are frequently
used by regulatory agencies.
The one-hit model always yields the highest estimate of low
dose risk. This model is based on the biological theory that a
single "hit" of some minimum critical amount of a carcinogen at a
cellular target—namely, DNA—can initiate an irreversible series
of events that eventually lead to a tumor.
The multistage model, which yields risk estimates either
equal to or less than the one-hit model, is based on the same
theory .of cancer initiation. However, this model can be more
flexible, allowing consideration of the data in the observable
range to influence the extrapolated risk at low dose. Zt is also
based on the multistage theory of the carcinogenic process and
thus has a plausible scientific basis. EPA generally uses the
linearixad multistage model for low dose extrapolation because
its scientific basis, although limited, is considered the strong-
eat of the currently available extrapolation models. This model
yields estimates of risk that are conservative, representing a
plausible upper limit for the risk. Zn other words, it is un-
likely that the "actual* risk is higher than the risk predicted
under this model.
The probit model incorporates the assumption that each indi-
vidual in a population has a 'tolerance* dose and that these
doses are distributed in the population in a specified certain
way. The other models have more complex bases; because none is
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widely used we shall not discuss then. None of the models, as
currently used, incorporates a threshold dose for an exposed
population.
Interspecies Extrapolation
for the majority of agents, dose-response evaluation primar-
ily involves the analysis of tests that were performed on labor-
atory animals, because useful human data are generally not avail-
able. In extrapolating the results of these animal tests to
humans, the doses administered to animals must be adjusted to
account for differences in size and metabolic rates. Differences
in metabolism may influence the validity of extrapolating from
animals to man if, for example, the actual material producing the
carcinogenic effect is a metabolite of the tested chemical, and
the animal species tested and humans differ significantly in
their metabolism of the material.
Several methods have been developed to adjust the doses used
in animal tests to allow for differences in size and metabolism.
They assume that human and animal risks are equivalent when doses
are measured in:
o Milligrams per kilogram body weight per day
o Milligrams per square meter of body surface area per
day
o Parts per million in the air, water, or diet
o Milligrams per kilogram per lifetime.
Currently, a scientific basis for using one extrapolation method
over another has not been established.
DOSE-RESPONSE EVALUATION; A SUMMARY
For substances that do not display carcinogenic properties,
or for the noncarcinogenic effects of carcinogens, dose-response
evaluation consists of describing observed dose-response rela-
tions and identifying experimental NOELs. NOELs can be used to
establish ADIs, or can be used for the type of risk character-
ization described in Section VI.
For carcinogens, various models are applied to project the
dose-response curve from the range of observed dose-responses to
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the range of expected human doses. After the known or expected
human dose is estimated (Section V) carcinogenic risk can be
characterized (Section VI). Although the models in use yield a
range of dose-response relations, it is highly likely that the
projections of the more protective models will not underestimate
risk, at least to experimental animals, and they may strongly
overestimate it. None of the models includes a threshold. In a
•few cases, dose-response data are available from human epidemi-
ology studies and may be used in lieu of animal data for low dose
extrapolation.
It appears that certain classes of carcinogens do not possess
the capacity to damage DMA (they are not genotoxic); in our ear-
lier discussion of the carcinogenic process, such substances
would affect only late stages in the process. Some scientists
maintain that such (nongenotoxic) carcinogens must operate under
threshold mechanisms. Many of the reasons for such a hypothesis
are sound, but no general consensus has yet emerged on this mat-
ter. It is nevertheless possible that some classes of carcino-
gens could be treated in the same way noncarcinogens are treated
for purposes of establishing ADIs.
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V. HUMAN EXPOSURE EVALUATION
Assessment of human exposure involves estimation of the num-
ber of people exposed and the magnitude, duration, and timing of
their exposure. In some cases, it is fairly straightforward to
measure human exposure directly, either by measuring levels of
the hazardous agents in the ambient environment or by using per-
sonal monitors. In most cases, however, detailed knowledge is
required of the factors that control human exposure, including
•those factors which determine the behavior of the agent after its
release into the environment. The following types of information
are required for this type of exposure assessment:
e Information on the factors controlling the production
of the hazardous agent and its release into the envi-
ronment.
e Information on the quantities of the agent that are
released, and the location and timing of release.
e Information on the factors controlling the fate of the
agent in the environment after release, including fac-
tors controlling its movement, persistence, and degra
ation. (The degradation products may be more or less
toxic than the original agent.)
e Information on factors controlling human contact with
the agent, including the size and distribution of vul-
nerable human populations, and activities that facili-
tate or prevent contact.
e Information on human intakes.
The amount of information of these types that is available
varies greatly from case to case and is difficult to discuss in
general terms. For some agents, there is fairly detailed infor-
mation on the sources of release into the environment and on the
factors controlling the quantities released. However, for many
agents there is very limited knowledge of the factors controlling
dispersion and fate after release. Measurements of transport and
degradation in the complex natural environment are often diffi-
cult to conduct, so it is more common to rely on mathematical
models of the key physical and chemical processes, supplemented
with experimental studies conducted under simplified conditions.
Such models have been developed in considerable detail for radio-
isotopes, but have not yet been developed in comparable detail
for other physical and chemical agents.
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In comparison with toxicology and epidemiology, the science
of exposure assessment is still at a very early stage of develop-
ment. Except in fortunate circumstances, in which the behavior
of an agent in the environment is unusually simple, uncertainties
arising in exposure assessments are often at least as large as
those arising in assessments of inherent toxicity.
Once these various factors are known human data can be esti-
mated, as described earlier. The dose, its duration and timing,
and the nature and size of the population receiving it are the
critical measures of exposure for risk characterization.
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VI. RISK CHARACTERIZATION
The final step in risk assessment involves bringing together
the information and analysis of the first three steps. Risk is
generally characterized as follows:
1. For noncarcinogens, and for the noncarcinogenic effects
of carcinogens, the margin-of-safety (MOS) is estimated
by dividing the experimental NOEL by the estimated
daily human dose.
2. For carcinogens, risk is estimated at the human dose by
multiplying the actual human dose by the risk per unit
of dose projected from the dose-response modelling. A
range of risks might be produced, using different mod-
els and assumptions about dose-response curves and the
relative susceptibilities of humans and animals.
Although this step can be far more complex than is indicated
here; especially if problems of timing and duration of exposure
are introduced (as they-no doubt need to be in the present case),
the MOS and the carcinogenic risk are the ultimate measures of
the likelihood of human injury or disease from a given exposure
or r»f*j« of exposures.
The AOIs described earlier are not measures of risk; they
are derived by imposing a specified safety factor (or, in the
above language, a specified MOS). Our purpose here is not to
specify an ADI, but to ascertain risk. There is no means availa-
ble to accomplish this for noncarcinogens. The MOS is used as a
surrogate for risk: as the MOS becomes larger, the risk becomes
smaller. At some point, most scientists agree that the MOS is so
large that human health is almost certainly not jeopardized. The
magnitude of the MOS needed to achieve this condition will vary
among different substances, but its selection would be based on
factors similar to those used to select safety factors to estab-
lish ADIs.
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APPENDIX
TOXIC EFFECTS ON ORGANS AND OTHER TARGET SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
To understand the potential toxic effects of chemicals, it is
useful to understand the toxic effects (i.e./ measurable effects)
on endpoints that are commonly observed in animals, including
humans. While the following discussion is presented by organ or
system, chemicals frequently affect more than one organ and can
produce a variety of endpoints. Concentration of the chemical,
duration of exposure, and route of exposure are three of the
factors that can influence the potential toxic effect.
LIVER
A major function of the liver is metabolism--i.e., the bio-
chemical conversion of one substance into another for purposes of
nutrition, storage, detoxification, or excretion. The liver has
multiple mechanisms for each of these processes, and interference
with any of the processes can lead to a toxic effect. Chemicals
that dama-ge the liver are termed "hepatotoxic.* Toxic endpoints
of the liver can include lipid (e.g., fat) accumulation, jaun-
dice, cell death (necrosis), cirrhosis, and cancer. In addition,
chemrfcAls that increase the level of metabolic enzymes, i.e.,
enzyme inducers, can dramatically affect the toxicity of other
compounds.
The accumulation of lipids, primarily triglycerides, is re-
lated to the liver's conversion of sugars and carbohydrates into
fat for storage (or vice versa for energy production during star-
vation}. Chemicals that increase the rate of triglyceride syn-
thesis, decrease the rate of triglyceride excretion, or both can
lead to an accumulation of lipids in the liver and a concomitant
decrease of triglycerides in the blood. While the effects of
lipid accumulation in the liver are not known, a fatty liver is
generally regarded as an indication of an injury to the organ.
Jaundice is a frequent endpoint when the excretory functions
of the liver are impaired; the yellow cast of the skin is caused
by the retention in the blood of the yellow bile pigments that
would normally be excreted. Since blood that has absorbed com-
pounds from the gastrointestinal tract passes through the liver
before the rest of the body, the liver is a major site for the
removal of nutrients and toxicants. Elimination of the absorbed
toxicants can occur in the feces via the bile. In addition to
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bile acting as a mechanism of excretion, bile salts aid in the
absorption of nutrients that are not water soluble. Thus, im-
pairing liver function can affect absorption of compounds. Fi-
nally, the liver is also a site of the destruction of aged red
blood cells. Jaundice is an indicator of liver malfunction.
Necrosis, or cell death, can occur from multiple causes.
There are many mechanisms by which toxicants can directly or
indirectly inhibit required cell functions. The liver has a
limited ability to regenerate destroyed cells. Chronic destruc-
tion of cells, however, may lead to cirrhosis of the liver in
which the normal liver cells (hepatocytes) are replaced by al-
tered cells and connective tissue such as collagen.
A wide variety of chemicals have been shown to cause liver
cancers in laboratory animals. Exposure to vinyl chloride has
been associated with liver cancers in humans. The theories and
uncertainties of carcinogenesis are discussed in the main text.
As a major site of metabolism and and detoxification, the
liver contains enzyme systems that biochemically alter compounds.
Many of these processes facilitate excretion by making the com-
pound more polar, i.e., highly charged (e.g., cytochrome P-450 ,
systems) or attaching polar groups to the compound (e.g., gluta-
thione, glycuronyl, or sulfo-transferases). The speed at which
this occurs depends on the amount of enzyme present; the amount
of enzyme-can be increased by exposure to certain chemicals
called rn&tcvrs. If a nonmetabolized compound is toxic, exposure
to an inducer Bay decrease the toxic effect by increasing the
rate at which the compound is metabolized. If the compound needs
to be metabolized to be toxic, however, exposure to an inducer
may increase the toxic effect by increasing the rate of its meta-
bolism.
KIDNEY
AA an organ whose major function is the elimination of toxi-
cants and other waste products, the kidney can be considered
a complex, elaborate filter. The kidney concentrates wastes for
elimination and retains nutrients and water that are useful to
the body. The kidney can metabolize and detoxify some of the
same compounds as the liver, although the rate of metabolism is
usually slower. Compounds that injure the kidney are called
renal toxicants. Some renal toxicants may cause cell death
(necrosis) or cancer. In addition, the kidney produces chemicals
necessary for homeostasis (maintenance of the body's balance of
functions) and responds to the sympathetic nervous system. To
efficiently remove the body's waste, the kidneys must process
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large volumes of blood. Thus, the first level of susceptibility
of the kidney is that which changes the flow of fluids. This
change can be mechanical--e.g., kidney stones or puncturing
vesicles—or chemicals that dilate or constrict the passages.
The complexity of the kidney's filtering function makes it
susceptible to a number of toxicants. Although some of the fil-
tering requires no energy or special enzymes since the flow is
from high to low concentrations, much of the selection is to a
higher concentration than in the blood and is performed by en-
zymes that may be affected by chemicals. Excessive elimination
of water, salts, or other nutrients can be as harmful as failure
to eliminate wastes. Furthermore, because the kidneys concen-
trate some toxicants, the effective dose of toxicants to the
kidneys may be higher than that for the rest of the body. Toxi-
cants that cause necrosis can also impair renal function. Fail-
ure of the kidneys to filter properly is frequently detected by
an increase in wastes in the blood or an increase in nutrients in
the urine.
The ability of-the kidney to metabolize compounds has not
been studied as extensively as has metabolism in the liver. ' The
presence of inducible metabolic enzyme systems is known. Other
specific metabolic functions occur in the kidney. Finally, be-
cause, the kidney produces compounds that are necessary for other
body functions, damage to the kidney may affect other organ sys-
tems..
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTE.M
Reproductive toxicology involves at least three organisms
(both male and female parents and their offspring) and consists
of many steps and stages. Toxic effects to the reproductive
system can be classified into three general endpoints: impaired
ability to conceive, failure of the conceptus to survive, and
production of abnormal offspring.
Problems with conception usually result from impaired produc-
tion of the sperm or egg. The- formation of sperm (speraatogene-
sis) is continuous in the male and requires a series of steps.
Chemicals that interfere with these steps may prevent sperm pro-
duction and cause sterility, reduce sperm production, or result
in abnormal sperm that have reduced capacity to fertilize. Al-
though in mammals all eggs are formed before birth, their final
maturation occurs in cycles after puberty. Chemicals, e.g.,
contraceptives, can impede this process. Mature sperm and egg/
as well as proper biochemical and physiological conditions within
the body, are required for fertilization.
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Viability of the conceptus depends on a series of steps, in-
eluding implantation and development of the asmiotic sac and
placenta. Death of the conceptus, whether at the early embryonic
stage or later fetal stage, can be caused by a variety of factors
including chemicals. Such chemicals are labeled •embryotoxic"
and "fetotoxic," respectively.
Chemicals that cause defects in development and result in
abnormal offspring are called "teratogens.• Defects range from
abnormal skeletal or muscle structure and mental retardation, to
metabolic malfunctions, to subtle malfunctions that may cot be
noticed during a normal life.
Functionally, for the developing mammal to be exposed, the
chemical must pass through two barriers: the mother and the
placenta. If a given dose of a compound is sufficiently toxic to
kill the mother, resultant toxic effects on the offspring will
not be observed. Although this statement may seem trivial, its
converse is an important principle in teratogenesis. The more
dangerous teratogens are those which affect the, developing organ-
ism at concentrations that are significantly lower than those
that affect the adult mother.
Although.the placenta was once"thought to be a rather strong
barrier?- many chemicals have been found to cross to the con-
ceptus. -Depending on the compound, the final concentration may
be higher-,iff the mother, higher in the conceptus, or equal in
mother and conceptus. Moreover, the placenta is not inert but is
capable of metabolizing some chemicals into either more or less
toxic substances. Metabolism may also affect the flow of com-
pound across the placenta.
Timing has two critical aspects in teratogenesis: timing of
the dose during development and parallel timing of developing
systems. Time of exposure to the potential teratogen may not
only determine which developing system is affected but also
whether the compound will have any effect at all. Tor each de-
veloping system there is a critical period, usually between three
and twelve weeks in the human, during which the system is parti-
cularly sensitive to chemically induced abnormal development.
Although terata may form after this period, the abnormalities are
usually less severe.
The secdnd aspect of timing involves the relative rate of
development of each of the organ systems. To produce a well-
formed offspring, development must be well orchestrated. As with
a symphony, the pace must be parallel in all sections. Nerves
cannot attach to muscles that are not present; cleft palate in
laboratory animals is frequently caused by events occurring out
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of sequence. If all the developing systems were equally re-
tarded, the result might be an immature, but not malformed fetus.
LONGS
The major function of the lungs is to exchange oxygen and
carbon dioxide between blood and air. This same mechanism can
facilitate entry and exit of other compounds from the body. In
addition, the lungs have the ability to alter some chemicals
metabolically. Damage to the lung can range from irritation and
constriction, to cell death (necrosis), edema, or fibrosis, to
cancer.
The air not only contains a variety of gases but also small
suspended particulates and liquid aerosols. The fate and, there-
fore, potential to cause damage, for each physical state depends
on the size and composition of the inhaled substance. An analogy
is often drawn between the airways of the respiratory passages
and the structure of a tree. Zn both, the starting point has a
large diameter and branches into more numerous but increasingly
smaller appendages. Given the size of the passage and the fact
that large particles fall out of suspension faster, larger in-
baled particulates and droplets will generally deposit in the
upper .respiratory tract. Deposition is also affected by the
breathing pattern—for example, how fast and how deep.
The lung contains other mechanisms for handling inhaled sub-
stances including secretions, the mucociliary escalator, and
macrophages. Secretions, including mucus, can facilitate trans-
port of compounds across the lungs, between the air and blood.
The mucociliary escalator consists of mucus and hairlixe projec-
tions in the upper respiratory passages. The latter move so that.
particles that have been deposited are transported up the passage
until they can be swallowed. Substances that either affect the*
nucus or inhibit the cilia movement can impair this process.
Macrophages are a type of mobile cell that can engulf particles .
Lungs facilitate exchange in both directions between air and
blood} thus, they can be equally efficient in absorption or ex*
cretion from the body. Whether a given substance is concentrated
in the blood or in the lung air or is at equal concentrations on
both sides depends on several factors, including its solubility
in water and ability to be bound to proteins in the blood. Fur-
thermore, lungs are able to metabolize some chemicals. These
changes may alter the chemical properties and, therefore, the
transport of the chemical.
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Chemicals that irritate the lung can lead to discomfort.
Although the effects of exposure to irritants are usually revers-
ible, chronic exposure nay lead to permanent cell damage. The
normal, necessary exchange of gases across the lung can be im-
paired by compounds that constrict the respiratory passages,
affect secretions or other normal functions, or physically remain
in the lung. Substances that cause necrosis, edema (excessive
fluid retention), or fibrosis (a change in cell type and composi-
tion) will impair lung function. Exposure to some substances,
such as cigarette smoke, asbestos, and arsenic, can lead to im-
paired lung function and cancer.
SKIN
Skin is a barrier between the internal organism and the ex-
ternal environment. It prevents loss of body fluids, regulates
body temperature, and prevents entry of many substances. How-
ever, the skin is a route of entry for some toxicants. Dermal
toxicants can cause irritation, senaitiiation, pigmentation
changes, chloracne, ulcerations, and cancer.
<
The skin can also be a major route of entry for other sub-
stances—for example, some pesticides and solvents. Moreover,
abrasions or cuts on the skin can compromise the barrier. Com-
pounds that are absosbed through the skin may affect other
systems~-rfcdr;example, organophosphate pesticides that affect the
nervous system. Similarly, compounds that enter by other routes
may affect the skin—for example, the oral ingestion of arsenic
causes dermal changes.
Irritation, rashes, and itching are common toxic reactions to
dermal exposures. Chemical sensitizers may cause an allergic
reaction that becomes more severe with continued exposure to
light. Polliculitis (damage to the hair follicles) and acne are
other common akin disorders. Chloracne is a particular form of
acne that is often caused by exposure to chlorinated hydrocar-
bons. Compounds can change skin pigmentation. Skin keratoses
(hardening or scaling) or ulcers are additional toxic responses.
Skin cancer may be caused by dermal contact with some agents or
systemic administration of others.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The major function of the central nervous system (CNS) is
communication. Control of reflexes, movement, sensory informa-
tion, autonomic functions (e.g., breathing), and intelligence are
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controlled by the CNS. These functions can be impaired by toxi-
cants. Damage to the nervoua system can occur in the brain or
other nerve cell bodies, to nerve processes that extend through
the body, to the myelin sheaths that cover these processes, and
at the nerve-nerve or nerve-muscle junctions. Damage to nerve
cell functions are often called "neuropathies."
As in other cells, damage to the cell body of a neuron (nerve
cell) can result in impaired function or death. The brain is
partially protected by the blood-brain barrier. Like other phy-
siological barriers, this one has proven more permeable than
originally thought, although it does blocJc or reduce the passage
of some substances to the brain. Zn contrast, certain substan-
ces, such as organic mercury, have been shown to concentrate in
the CNS.
Axons are long processes that conduct impulses from the nerve
cell body; they can span much of the length of an animal. Sever-
ing the axon can destroy transmission of signals along the nerve.
Because electrical signals are transmitted by charged elements
(ions), chemicals that change the permeability of the cell mem-
brane to ions can also impair transmission of the signal.
Sty el in is the insulating cover of axons. Special cells,
called Schwann cells, form myelin by wrapping themselves in many
layoff* around the axpns. Chemicals can either destroy the myelin
or decrease its amount, both of which decrease the insulation and
impatf signal transmission. Furthermore, demyelination of nerves
can cause a degeneration of the axon. These effects take time to
occur, even if damage is caused by a single exposure. Thus, the
effect may be delayed and not immediately associated with the
exposure.
Transmission of signals between nerves or from a nerve to a
muscle occurs across a space or junction. Chemical compounds
that are stored in vesicles at the nerve endings carry the signal
across the junctions. Exposure to chemicals may accelerate or
inhibit release of these vesicles, mimic the compounds that are
released from the vesicles, or block the receptors that react to
release of the compounds. Any of these responses will distort
the signal.
Subjective or behavior neurological toxicology may be the
•ost difficult toxicological effects to assess. While generally
accepted that exposure to some chemicals can cause headaches,
fatigue, or irritability, it is difficult to determine whether
such symptoms are caused by chemical exposure/ laex of sleep,
depression, or other factors. Although these symptoms may be
•ild and difficult to assess, they are frequently an early warn-
ing of exposure to a toxicant.
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Behavioral changes are often caused by damage to the nervous
system. Zn laboratory animals, such damage may be as precise and
fatal as failure of pups to nurse. Mental retardation and learn-
ing disabilities are other measurable behavioral changes. Chemi-
cal alteration of behavior is the basis for psychological drug
therapy. Thus, although they are difficult to assess, behavioral
changes should not be ignored.
BLOOD
Transport of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other materials is
'the major function of blood. The hematopoietic system, which
includes organs and tissues that produce, transport, and filter
blood, interacts with the cells of all other systems. Toxicity
can occur to developing blood cells, existing cells, or the hema-
topoietic organs.
Zn the human being and other mammals, blood cells are formed
in bone marrow; the three major types of blood dells are formed
by branches from a common precursor cell. Red blood cells con-<
tain hempglobin and transport oxygen and carbon dioxide, white
blood cells function as part of the immune system. Platelets are
necessary tor blood clotting. Chemicals toxic to bone marrow can
affect blood formation. Depending on the stage and cell affect-
ed, any_ or all of the major blood cells may be decreased in num-
ber. Abirbrmal increases in production of certain blood cells are
also possible, as in leukemia (excess white cells).
Blood plasma contains a number of proteins, ions, and other
compounds. Changes in the chemical composition of blood may
indicate a toxic response. Furthermore, some chemicals bind to
plasma proteins. Changes in plasma protein composition could
affect the effective concentration of a toxicant.
The normal function of the hemoglobin in circulating red
blood cells is critical to the transport of oxygen to and carbon
dioxide from all cells in the body. Reduced oxygen supply can be
very detrimentali the effects resulting from oxygen deprivation
vary with the site of action. Chemicals can affect hemoglobin by
chemically oxidizing the heme group (causing methemoglobin) or by
denaturing the hemoglobin (which may lead to the formation of
Beinz bodies).
Two other hematopoietic organs that may be affected are the
spleen and heart. The former removes old or damaged red blood '
cells from circulation. The rate and efficiency of the heart's
pumping action can be altered by many causes. Chemicals that
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constrict or dilate the blood vesicles can also affect circu-
latory function.
IMMUNE SYSTEM
Recognition and protection against foreign substances in the
body is handled by the immune system. Rapid advances are being
made in immunology research; therefore, current knowledge may
soon be obsolete. Three types of cells (macrophages, B lympho-
cytes, and T lymphocytes) are part of the body's immune response
These cells interact at the peripheral lymphoid organs (lymph
nodes, spleen, and tonsils). Exposure to chemicals may activate
or supress the immune system.
The cells involved in the immune system are formed in bone
marrow; hence, chemicals that affect bone marrow may impair im-
mune function. One type of cell engulfs foreign matter, especi-
ally bacterial and viruses, by phagocytosis. Another type pro-
duces the five classes of antibodies. A third type produces
polypeptides, such as interferon, that are important for some
immune responses; this type of cell is also involved in cell*
mediated immunity, such as contact dermatitis, and may partially
regulate the function of antibody-producing cells.
Cfiemicals may stimulate immune responses by several mecha-
nisms 'Including acting as allergens or by stimulating production
of iofcerftron. Chemicals may also suppress immune response; im-
•unosuppressants result in an increased susceptibility to infec-
tion and may result in an increased susceptibility to some forms
of cancer.
GENETIC TOXICOLOGY
The integrity of genetic material (DKA) in all cells is crit-
ical to cell function and may be affected by some toxic agents.
Damage may take several forms: alteration in the chemical compo-
sition of DNA, change in the physical structure of DNA, or addi-
tion or deletion of chromosomes. Effects of genetic toxicity can
range from no observable effect to cancer. Genetic toxicity has
become a popular endpoint for toxicity testing because test re-
sults can be obtained relatively rapidly and inexpensively.
Genetic damage can occur by many mechanisms; the results are
generally classified in three groups: mutations, clastogenic
events, and aneuploidy. Mutagens are substances that change the
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chemical structure of ONA. Since DNA is "read" to provide infor-
mation necessary for cell function and proliferation, mutations
may cause a misreading, leading to cell damage. Clastogens cause
a break in one or more strands of DNA and a physical rearrange-
ment of its parts. Depending on where the break occurs, clasto-
gens may affect cell proliferation or the production of cell
proteins. Aneuploidy is an addition or deletion of the number of
chromosomes; a commonly known aneuploidy is Down's syndrome
(Mongolism) in which there is an extra chromosome. Aneuploidy is
often caused by chemicals that Affect cell division.
Genetic toxicology is often considered with carcinogenic!ty
since many carcinogens are mutagens and testing for mutagenicity
is easier than testing for carcinogenicity. Genetic toxicants,
however, can have many effects. Much of the DNA in cells is
quiescent. Since skin cells do not produce hemoglobin, there
will be little damage if instructions for producing hemoglobin
are damaged in a skin cell. Such events are called silent muta-
tions. Genetic damage can alter cell proteins and, therefore,
normal functioning of cells. Improper cell function may lead to
cell death or cancer. Finally, if the damage is ia the reproduc-
tive system, genetic toxicants can cause reproductive failure or
abnormal offspring.
A variety of genetic toxicology tests have been developed in
recent years. Many are performed in vitro (outside the whole
animal—e^g., the Ames mutagenicity assay) and use cells grown in
liquidst some are performed in vivo (within the animal). These
tests are-of ten referred to as short-term testing and require
less time, and therefore, less money. Typically, short-term
tests take days to months as contrasted with several years re-
quired for carcinogenicity testing.
-50-
-------
DOCUMENT 6
SESSION 1 - GENERAL TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATION
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENTS PER SUBPART X
-------
ENVIRONMENTAL
ASSESSMENTS
PER SUBPART X
C. J. OSZMAN JR.
USEPA (OS-343)
OFFICE OF SOLID WASTE
WASHINGTON, D.C.
52 FR 46946 (12-10-87)
54 FB 26198 (6-23-89)
SUBPART X UNITS
GEOLOGIC REPOSITORIES
THERMAL TREATMENT OF PEP
DRUM SHREDDERS
CARBON REGENERATION UNITS
OTHERS
-1-
-------
REGULATORY
REQUIREMENTS
40 CFR 270.13
THROUGH
270.23
MUST:
PROTECT H. H. & E.
DOES NOT SPECIFY:
MINIMUM TECHNOLOGY
MINIMUM MONITORING
PREVENTION OF RELEASES
SUBSURFACE
SURFACE WATER AND SOILS
AIR
FOR EACH MEDIUM MUST CONSIDER FACTORS LISTED IN 40 CFR 264.601
-2-
-------
EXISTING VS. NEW UNITS
EXISTING:
NEW:
VISUAL INSPECTION
OFFICIAL REPORTS OF PRIOR RELEASES
MONITORING AND SAMPLING RESULTS
MODELING DATA
INFO FROM SIMILAR UNITS
DESIGN EVALUATIONS
BENCH-SCALE TESTS
IN ALL CASES:
QA/QC REPRESENTATIVENESS
ACCURACY
PRECISION
COMPLETENESS
COMPARABILITY
GENERAL INFORMATION REQUIREMENTS
SCREENING OR PRELIMINARY
ASSESSMENT
RELEASE CHARACTERIZATION-
DETAILED ASSESSMENT
HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL
ASSESSMENT
TERMS AND PROVISIONS FOR
PROTECTION OF H & E
-3-
-------
GENERAL INFORMATION
REQUIREMENTS
WASTE CHARACTERIZATION
UNIT CHARACTERIZATION
ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING
CHARACTERIZATION
AVAILABLE MONITORING AND OTHER DATA
EVALUATION OF SIMILAR UNITS
VISUAL SITE INSPECTION
WASTE CHARACTERIZATION
IDENTIFICATION AND GENERATION
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL
CHARACTERIZATION
CONSTITUTE CONTENT
UNIT CHARACTERIZATION
TYPE AND PURPOSE
LOCATION AND AGE
DESIGN, STRUCTURE AND
DIMENSIONS
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
OPERATING HISTORY
-4-
-------
ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING
CHARACTERIZATION
CLIMATE AND METEOROLOGY
TOPOGRAPHY
GEOLOGY
HYDROGEOLOGY
LAND USE
SURFACE-WATER HYDROLOGY
SCREENING ASSESSMENT
PURPOSE
REASONABLE WORST CASE
ASSUMPTIONS
POTENTIAL CONSTITUENT MIGRATION
PATHWAYS
GROUND WATER OR SUBSURFACE
SURFACE WATER, WETLANDS OR
SOIL SURFACE
AIR
-5-
-------
RELEASE
CHARACTERIZATION
DETAILED ASSESSMENT
CONSIDERATIONS
GENERIC APPROACH
RELEASES TO GROUND WATER
OR SUBSURFACE
RELEASES TO SURFACE STRUCTURES
RELEASES TO AIR
HEALTH AND
ENVIRONMENTAL
ASSESSMENT
OVERVIEW
HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL
ASSESSMENT PROCESS
EXPOSURE ROUTES
EXPOSURE LEVELS
HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL
CRITERIA
-6-
-------
EVALUATION OF .MIXTURES
EVALUATION OF DEEP
SOIL CONTAMINATION
EVALUATION OF SEDIMENT
CONTAMINATION
STATISTICAL PROCEDURES
FOR EVALUATING GROUND WATER
QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENT AND
CRITERIA
REFERENCES
RFA AND RFI
OTHERS
-7-
-------
DOCUMENT 7
SESSION 2 - ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT - AIR
AN OVERVIEW OF ITEMS TO CONSIDER IN AIR ASSESSMENT
-------
AN OVERVIEW OF ITEMS TO CONSIDER IN AIR ASSESSMENT
James L. Dicke
I. Introduction
A. Regulatory Background: 40 CFR Part 264.601, Environmental
Performance Standards, Paragraph (c), and Part 270.23
B. Objectives: Listed in Seminar Brochure
II. PEP Volume, Characteristics and Emissions
A. Quantities of Wastes to be Treated and Residues
B. Explosive Reactivity/Ignitability, Toxicity (metals),
Hazardous Constituents
C. Physical State of Air Emissions and Quantities Released/
Unit Operation
III. Potential Magnitude of Air Exposure to Hazardous Waste or
Hazardous Constituents from the Subpart X Unit
A Location of the Unit and Manner of Operations
B. Preliminary Assessment -- Conservative Screening
C. Detailed Assessment -- Appropriate Dispersion Model(s)
IV. Atmospheric Dispersion Modeling for Subpart X Unit Impacts
A. Data Input Requirements
B. Appropriate Models
C. Interpretation of Results
V. Additional Items for Assessment
A. Meteorological/Climatological Summary Including a Windrose
B. Topographic Influences on Atmospheric Dispersion
C. Land Use Maps
D. Existing Air Quality Concentrations -- National Ambient Air
Quality Standards (NAAQS)
E. Sources of Monitoring Data and Representativeness, Including
Meteorological Data
F. Potential for Damage to Other Than Humans by This Operation
VI. Summary — Discussion
-------
AN OVERVIEW OF ITEMS TO
CONSIDER IN AIR ASSESSMENT
I. INTRODUCTION
REGULATORY BACKGROUND
• Federal Register, Thursday, December 10,1987
- 40 CFR Part 264.601, Environmental
Performance Standards
- 40 CFR Part 270.23, Specific Part B
Information Requirements for
Miscellaneous Units
SESSION OBJECTIVES
• PEP Volume, Characteristics and Emissions
• Potential Magnitude of Air Exposure to
Hazardous Waste or Constituents
• Atmospheric Dispersion Modeling
• Additional Items for Assessment
-l-
-------
II. PEP VOLUME, CHARACTERISTICS ^
AND EMISSIONS
QUANTITIES OF WASTES TO BE TREATED
AND THEIR RESIDUES
• Section 270.14 - Physical and Chemical
Analyses Containing Information to Assure
Proper Waste Management, e.g. OB/OD
Waste Analysis Plan under Section 264.13
-Waste Analysis Plans: A Guidance Manual
- Test Methods
- Sampling Methods
- Frequency - Review/Update
- Off-site Facilities
Additional Information on Hazardous Constituents
Prior to Treatment and Residues
WASTE/RESIDUE CHARACTERISTICS
• Hazards - Reactivity, Ignitability, Toxic Metals
• Concentration of Hazardous Constituents
• Quantity of Waste Placed in the Unit and
Quantity of Residues
-------
Residence Time in the Unit
Toxicity of Constituents - Exposure Levels
Volatility, Water Solubility and Mobility of
Constituents - Soils and Water Considerations
Special Considerations
PHYSICAL STATE OF AIR EMISSIONS AND
QUANTITIES RELEASED
• GASES
• PARTICLES
- Size Distribution
- Density/Specific Gravity
- Entrainment
Emission Rates of Constituents
- Frequency of Operations
- Duration of Operations
-Time-Varying Emissions
--Average
--Maximum
- Puff/Instantaneous
-Continuous
-3-
-------
Type of Release
-Point
-Line
-Area/Volume
Special Consideration
III. POTENTIAL MAGNITUDE OF AIR EXPOSURE TO
HAZARDOUS WASTE OR HAZARDOUS
CONSTITUENTS FROM THE SUBPART X UNIT
LOCATION OF THE UNIT AND MANNER OF OPERATIONS
• Description of the Unit
- Dimensions for Dispersion Modeling
-Topography
Operating Procedures
- Characteristics of the Source for Dispersion Modeling
- Air Emission of Constituents from the Unit
Meteorological Conditions
-Acceptable
-Restrictions
Meteorological and Air Quality Monitoring
-4-
-------
PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT
• Demonstration That There is No Violation of
Environmental Performance Standards in
Section 264.601, i.e. No Adverse Effects on
Human Health or the Environment
• Characteristics of the Source and Unit
Operations
• Emission Rates of OB/OD Constituents
• Critical Receptors
Conservative Screening Model Analysis
- Worst Case Operations and Meteorology
-Comparisons with Exposure/Dosage
Criteria/Limits, i.e. Potential for Risk
Contributions of Air Emissions to Impacts in
Other Media
Continuing Compliance to Ensure Prevention
of Adverse Effects
DETAILED ASSESSMENT
• Source Characteristics and Operating Parameters
• Emission Rates During Unit Operations
*
• Site-Specific Meteorological Data
• Critical Receptors
• Refined Dispersion Model Analysis
-5-
-------
Interpretation of Model Results to Determine the
Potential for Risk Caused by Exposure to Air
Contributions of Air Emissions to Impacts in
Other Media
Continuing Compliance to Ensure Prevention of
Adverse Effects
IV. ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION MODELING FOR
SUBPART X UNIT IMPACTS
DATA INPUT REQUIREMENTS
• Source Characteristics
• Waste Constituents
• Meteorological Data
• Receptor Locations
• Model Output Instruction - Format, Reports,
Graphs, Tables, Files for Post-Processing
APPROPRIATE MODELS
• Source/Emissions Models
- Source Characteristics - Dimensions, Type
- Emission (Burn) Rates for All Constituents
- Heats of Formation
- Products of Combustion
- Size Distribution of Particles
-Outputs to Dispersion Model
-6-
-------
ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION MODELS
• Components
- Representative Meteorological Data
- Plume/Cloud Rise - Buoyancy
- Inversion Penetration/Reflection
- Lateral and Vertical Dispersion
-Atmospheric Transformations/Chemical Reactions
in the Cloud
-Temporal Changes in the Wind Field
-Settling/Deposition of Particles - Dry Processes
- Precipitation Scavenging - Rainout and Washout
-Terrain Interaction
- Receptor Grid - Fixed and User Input
Calculations for Source Types
- Instantaneous - Puff/Detonation
- Quasi-continuous-burn
Model Outputs
- Peak Concentration
-Time-averaged Concentration
- Time-integrated Concentration-Dosage
-7-
-------
ft
- Concentration/Dosage/Deposition Isopleths
- Surface Deposition of Particles
- Culpability Tables
- Files for Subsequent Analyses, e.g. Input to
Other Models for Ground Water, Soils, etc.
EXAMPLES
• Screening Techniques - Dispersion
- SCREEN - EPA-450/4-88-010
- PUFF - EPA-600/3-82-078
- Screening Techniques for Air Toxics -
EPA-450/4-88-009
Refined Models
-REEDM -INPUFF-2.0
-POLU10 -RTVSM
-ISCST -PCAD
- BLP - OB/OD Dispersion Model
Proposal by U.S. Army
-------
INTERPRETATION OF MODEL RESULTS
• Potential for Health Risks from Estimated
Exposure Levels
- National Ambient Air Quality Standards
- Health-based Criteria for Carcinogens
- Health-based Criteria for Systemic Toxicants
-Threshold Limit Values
-Other Short-term Exposure Limits
Potential for Damage to Animals, Crops,
Vegetation, Structures from Estimated
Exposure Levels
V. ADDITIONAL ITEMS FOR ASSESSMENT |
Meteorological/Climatological Summary Including a
Wind Rose
Topographic Influences on Atmospheric Dispersion
Land Use Maps
Existing Air Quality Concentrations-National Ambient
Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
-9-
-------
ft
• Sources of Monitoring Data and Representativeness,
Including Meteorological Data
• Potential for Damage to Other than Humans by This
Operation
• Monitoring, Analysis, Inspection, Response and
Reporting
VI. SUMMARY - DISCUSSION |
-10-
-------
DOCUMENT 9
SESSION 3 - ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT - WATER AND SOIL
WATER AND SOIL OUTLINE AND SLIDE HARDCOPY
-------
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT -- WATER AND SOIL
David K. Kreamer
I. Introduction - Field Uncertainties and Establishing Mass Balance
A. PEP Volume in the Subsurface, Characteristics, and Emissions
B. Frequency of Emissions
C. Monitoring and Control of Emissions
II. Fate and Transport of PEP in the Subsurface - Leak Detection, Characterization
and Remediation
A, Subsurface Fluid Movement - Introduction
1. Liquid Movement - Vadose and Groundwater Zones
a. Miscible Contaminants
b. Immiscible Contaminants
2. Gaseous Migration
B. Physiochemical Properties
1. Partitioning - Sorption
2. Chemical Equilibrium - Redox
3. Cosolvency
4. Facilitated Transport
5. Other
C. Site Assessment
1. Geology, Subsurface Structure and Geohydrology
a. Porous Media
b. Fractured Media
c. Vadose Zones
2. Sampling - Safety
a. Saturated Zone Sampling
b. Vadose
1. Soil Cores
2. Liquids
3. Gases
D. Data Evaluation
1. Geographical Information Systems
2. Modeling
a. Transport
b. Chemical
3. Statistical Approaches
4. Case Study - Hypothesis Testing, Kriging
-------
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT « WATER AND SOIL
David K. Kreamer
Page Two
E. Remediation
1. Pump & Treat
2. Excavation
3. Barriers - Fixation
4. Soil Washing
5.VES
6. Bioremediation
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work relied heavily on the efforts of others. References and content for many parts of this
presentation were assembled by several individuals.
Particular thanks is given to:
James W. Mercer
Michael J. Barcelona
Carl Palmer
J. Michael Henson
Ronald C Sims
Lome Everett
Robert Hlnchee
Richard Johnson
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CHARACTERIZATION
Fal* ol Hiiaiflnui Conumnaru in So*
Water
(10-30%)
FLUID
PHASE
Gas
(20 - 30%)
Organic
(0.001 - 5%)
Oil
(0 • 10%)
SOLID
PHASE
Inorgaiuc
(95 - 99%)
-------
Mv»MkMic STITCT
INTERPHASE TRANSFER
POTENTIAL
NASS BALANCE
ELEMENTS
PKCCSSIS
TRANSPORT
VOLATILIZATION
PLANT u»T»nt
Oirrufio*
SOLUTION
CAMLUUY FLOW
ItaeioreRt FLOW
TRANSFORMATION
llOLOCICAL
CNIMICAL
PHOTO
STORAGE
SOLUTION
SoirnON
(NINflAU)
SoirTION
(OIMNICS)
llOACCUMULATION
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ZON(
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Zone
Suiracc I
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BATCH TESTS
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SAMPLE AND
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COMPARISON OF METHODS
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-36-
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HYUHOGEULUuy
• RELATIONSHIP OF MOVEMENT OF SUB-
SURFACE WATERS TO GEOLOGY
• DIRECTIONS AND RATES OF
GROUNDWATER FLOW
• TIES STRATIGRAPHY, LITHOLOGY,
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-38-
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DATA PERTINENT TO THE PREDICTION
OF GROUNDWATER FLOW
• PHYSICAL FRAMEWORK
- Hydrogeologic map showing areal
extent and boundaries of aquifer
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water bodies
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and saturated-thickness maps
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aquifer and boundaries
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• STRESSES ON SYSTEM
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space)
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• OBSERVABLE RESPONSES
- Water levels as a function of time
and position
• OTHER FACTORS
- Economic information about water
supply
- Legal and administrative rules
- Environmental factors
- Planned changes In water and land use
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• OBSERVABLE RESPONSES
- Water levels as a function of time
and position
• OTHER FACTORS
- Economic information about water
supply
- Legal and administrative rules
- Environmental factors
- Planned changes in water and land use
\
\
Flow Otf«ctlonx
\ \ \
\ \ \
\ \ \
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W
MAP VIEW
Hltcilculaclon of |roundw»t«r-(lov dlrtccion* cau><4
by unnco|nlltd h«c«co(in«lCT <
SATURATED ZONE SUMMARY
• no subsurface characterization technique provides
perfect Information; use several techniques In
combination
• determine data thresholds (phased approach) for
remedial decisions; decisions will have
uncertainty; importance of monitoring
• presented general data requirements and
characterization techniques; each application of
techniques Is unique and stte specific
• data Interpretation Is just as importnat as data
collection; need to understand data analysis and
why data are collected
cross SECTION
Groundwat«r Flow Afftctwd by • Pumped Well
-44-
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porous media
'racfureo
-REV
porous media
HEV
REGION (Parti)
(0)
ttl 795-9557
Conceptual model for overlapping contlnua, curve (a) Is
we plot of i property * measured for different volume (REV) L
of porous media; curve (b) 1s,the plot of a property * measured
for different volumes (REV) L3 of fractured porous media. The
region (c) 1$ the coimon region where both the porous medium and
fracture iwdlu* physic* can be represented as though each were
a cont1nuu».
30
10
I inlroductioni Ij
5
Marcn 26 ?7 28 29 30 3' Apr,i 2 j
Model of i nttwork ai punfti
FRACTURED MEDIA SUMMARY
heterogeneity is important to characterize, but Is
especially important In karst and fractured media
characterization techniques are somewhat limited:
coring, aquifer tests, tracer tests, geophysical
tools, and fracture trace analysis
difficult to characterize and predict behavior:
equivalent porous media, discrete fractures, dual
porosity, and stochastic approach
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SIWHARY OF METHODS TO HEASURE UNSATURATED HYDRAULIC-CONDUCTIVITY
VALUES IN THE FIELD AND LABORATORY
Method
Constant-Hetd
Borehole
Infi1tration
Application
Field nethod in open or
partially cased borehole.
Most cannonly used method.
Includes a relatively large
volume of porous media in
test.
Reference
Bouwer (1978);
Stephens and Neunan
(19824,b.c);
Amoozegar and
WarricK (1986)
Guelph Field method in open,
Permeameter small-diameter borehole (>5
cm). Relatively fast
method (5 to 60 unutes)
requiring small volume of
•ater. K,, K(*) and
sorptivity are measured
simultaneously. Many
boreholes and tests may be
required to fully represent
heterogeneities of porous
media.
Reynolds and El rick
(1986)
Air-Entry Field method. Test per-
Peraeameter formed in cylinder which is
driven into porous media.
Small volume of material
tested; hence, many tests
may be needed. Fast,
simple method requiring
little water (-10 L).
Bouwer (1966)
Instantaneous
Profile
Field or lab method. Field
method measures vertical
*(»,») during drainage.
Measurement of moisture
content and hydraulic held
needs to be rapid and non-
destructive to sample.
Commonly used method,
reasonably accurate.
Boumi, Baker, and
Veneman (1974);
Klute and Oirksen,
(1986)
Crust-Imposed
Steady Flux
Field method. Measures
vertical K(*) during
wetting portion of
hysteresis loop. Labor and
time intensive.
Green. Ahuja, and
Chong (1986)
Sprinkler-
Imposed Steady
Flux
Field method. Larger
sample area than for crust
method. Useful only for
relatively high moisture
contents.
Green. Ahuja, and
Chong (1986)
Parameter
Identification
Results of one field or lab
test ire used by a
numerical approximation
method to develop K(f),
K(»), and »(») over a wide
range of » and ».
Relatively fast method;
however, unique solutions
ire not usually attained.
Zachmann et al.
(198U.6. 1982);
Kool et al. (1985)
Empirical
Equations
Each empirical equation has
Its own application based
upon the assumptions of the
equation. Relatively fast
technique.
Brooks-Corey
(1964);
van Genuchten
(1980);
Nualem (1986)
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SUMMARY OF METHODS TC » -SURE OR ESTIMATE EVAPOTRANS?::
Method
WATER BALANCE
METHODS
Pan
Lysimeter
Aoplication
Reference
Direct field method,
accurate, moderate to low
cost.
Veihmeyer (1964),
Shjrma 11985!
Soil
Moisture
Sampiing
Direct field method.
accurate, moderate to
cost.
low
Veihmeyer (1964)
Potential Direct field method of PET. Thornthwaite and
Evapotrans- Moderately accurate and low Mather (1955;
pirometers cost.
CV Tracer Indirect combined field and Sharma (1985)
laboratory method; moderate
to high cost.
yater-Budget Indirect field estimate of Davis i Dewiest
Analysis ET, manageable to (1966)
difficult; moderate to low
cost.
Ground-water
Fluctuation
MICROMETEORO-
LOG1C METHODS
Profile
Method
Energy
Budget/
Bowen Ratio
Indirect fitld method;
moderate to low cost.
Indirect field method.
Indirect field method;
difficult, costly, requires
data which is often
unobtainable, research
oriented.
Davis I Dewiest
(1966)
Shama (19B5)
Veihmeyer ( 1964) ;
Shanna (1985)
Eddy
Covariance
Method
Indirect field method;
costly; measures water-
vapor flux directly; highly
accurate; well accepted;
research oriented.
Veihmeyer (1964),
Shanna (1985)
Penman
Equation
Indirect field method.
difficult, costly, very
accurate; eliminates need
for surface temperature
measurements: research
oriented.
Veihmeyer (196*);
Sharma (1985)
Thornwaite
Equation
Blaney-
Criddle
Equation
Empirical equation; most
accepted for calculating
PET; uses average monthly
sunlight, moderate to low
cost.
Empirical equation; widely
used; moderate to high
accuracy; low cost; adjusts
for certain crops and
vegetation.
-60-
Veihmeyer (1964);
Shama (1985)
Stephens I Stewart
(1964)
-------
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-61-
-------
Catalog of Methods for Monitoring Water Content in the Vadose Zone
Method
Principle
Advantages
Disadvantages
Refi
1 Gravimetric
a. Oven drying
b. Carbide method
Core samples are obtained
from (he vadoae zone us-
ing tube samplers for shal-
low depths and hollow
stem auger plus core sam-
pling for greater depths. A
core sample ts weighed.
oven dried at 105 C for 24
hours, and reweighed. The
water content is deter-
mined by difference in
weight Results expressed
on a dry weight or volume
basis. The difference in
water content values of
successive samples repre-
sents change in storage.
A field method. Solids sam-
ples are placed in a con-
tainer with calcium car-
bide. The calcium carbide
reacts with water, rrteas-
Ingagas. The gas pressure.
registered on a gage, ts
converted Into water con-
tent on a dry weight bails.
1 A direct method.
2. The most accurate
of available methods.
a Simple.
1 More rapid than
oven drying.
Z Initial capital invest-
ment ts lower than for
oven drying.
I. A large number of repli-
cate samples are required
for each depth Increment
(necessitating several
holes) to account for spa-
tial variability of water
holding properties.
Z Expensive if large num-
bers of samples are re-
quired.
3. Adestructive method—
i.e.. additional measure-
ments cannot be obtained
at the same sites.
1. May not be as accurate
as oven drying
2. Other disadvantages
are the same as for oven
drying.
Gardner II9651.
HUldll97U
Schmugge. Jackson
and McKJm I1980L
Reynolds (1970a.
1970b I. Brakensiek.
Osbom and Rawls
119791.
2. Neutron moisture
logging (neutron
scatter met hod I
A source of high energy
neutrons leg-amereclum-
bervUluml in a down-hole
tool Is lowered Into an
access well. Water In the
vadose zone slows down
the fast neutrons, which
are eapt ured by a detector
In the tool. Counts are
measured by a surface
sealer, ratemeter. or re-
corder. Counts are con-
verted into volumetric
water content by an appro-
priate calibration relation-
ship. Successive readings
show temporal changes in
water storage at successive
depths.
1. Rapid.
Z An in-sltu method.
3. Can be conducted in
cased or uncased holes
(for safety in unstable
material should Install
casing).
4. Can be Interfaced
with portable data col-
lection system.
& Successive readings
are obtained in the
same profile at the
same field location.
6. Can be used to locate
perched ground-water
zones. I*, valuable for
positioning monitoring
wells for sampling
perched ground water.
1. Expensive, requiring
the purchase or lease of
equipment.
2. Water content is mea-
sured In a sphere. Cannot
relate results exactly to a
specific depth.
3. Fast neutrons are
moderated by other con-
stituents besides hydro-
gen In water, eg,, chlorine
or boron. Accuracy may be
affected.
4. During Installing of
access wells, cracks or eavi-
ties may be formed caus-
ing leakage along the cas-
ing wall.
5. An indirect method re-
quiring calibration. Cali-
bration is a difficult pro-
cedure.
& Accurate readings an?
not possible within 6 la of
soil surface.
7. Cannot be used to Infer
water movement in re-
gions where storage
changes do not occur.
Holmes. Taylor and
Richards 11967L van
Save) II963). Keys
andMacCaryll971).
McGowan and
WIDUms(1980L
Schmugge. Jackson
and McKlmllSeOL
Wilson (1980 L Hllld
(197 U Brakensiek.
Osbomand Rawls
119791. Visvaiingum
and Tandy 119721.
-62-
-------
Method
Gamma rav
attenuation.
i. Transmission
metnod-
tx Scattering
methon.
4. Tensiomeiers
Two parallel wrils installed
at precise distances aoan
are rea uired. A prooe with
a gamma photon source
ie4. cesium 13711s lowered
tnoneweil A second prooe
with a detector lex sodium
iodide scintillation crystal I
ts lowered at the same rate
In the second well Acces-
sories include a high-volt-
age supply, amplifier.
acaler. timer, spectrum
analyzer pulse height
analyzer and phoiomuln-
plier tube The degiet to
which a beam of monoen-
ergettc gamma ravs is
attenuated depends on the
bulk densirv and water
content. Assuming that
the bulk densirv remains
constant, changes be-
tween readings reflects
changes in water content
A single probe is used, con-
taining a gamma source
and a detector separated
by a tead shield- Comma
ray* beamed Into the sur-
rounding media are ab-
sorbed by the soixl media
and water Back-scattered
rays are detected and mea-
sured Knowing the dry
bulk density of the media.
the water content can be
calculated. Requires
empirical calibration
curves.
A tenstometer consists of
a porous ceramic cup ce-
mented to ngid plastic
tube, containing small
diameter tubing leading
to a surface reservoir of
mercury. Alternate njsiuri
uses strain gage trans-
ducer in lieu of mercury
manometer. The body tub-
Ing kt fined with water.
Rjies in cup form contin-
uum with pores in exterior
medium. Water moves into
or out of body tube until
equilibrium is reached.
Measured water pressure
reflects corresponding
water pressure in medium.
By using appropriate soil
water characteristic curve.
pressure can be related to
water content
1 A rapid, in-snu
method.
Z Water content is ob-
tained in s narrow
beam —depth-wise
measurement can be
obtained as ooat a» one
inch apart.
1 Measurements can
be obtained within one
Inch of surtace.
4 Nondestructive and
successive measure-
ments are obtained at
same locations.
5 Can be interfaced
with portable data cot-
lecuon system.
1 Limited to mallow
depths because of difHcuJ
ues In installing precisely
parallel weUa. parucularrv
In roocv material
2. Instabilities in count
rate mav occur.
a. Expensive.
4 ChangesinbuUi densirv
In shrinkine-swelling
material afTects acruracv
of water content readings.
5. Variations in water con-
lent and bulk density
occur in stratified soils.
6. Care muat be taken in
handling radioactive
source.
BraXensieK. Osbom
and Rawis 11979)
Gardner U 9651
Bouwer and JacHson
(1974L Regmatoand
vanBaveM1964l.
Rejonato and Jacfcaon
U97HSchmugf!e-
j^-kson and McKim
(19801.
1 Rapid.
1 Nondestrucuve.wlth
successive measure-
ments obtained at
mame depth.
3. in conu*»» to tne
iju^smtsskon method
onry one access wett ta
required. Reading can
be obtained at great
depth in vadoae tone.
1. Requires a sourer of
higher strength than
uangmisajon method.
1 r« as accurate as trans-
mininn method because
water content measured
in sphere and not • beam.
a Expensrve.
4. Changes in bulk densirv
in ahnnking. swelling
maienaJ changes cali-
brations.
Krvs and MacCarv
II 97 H BraXensieK
1. Provide continuous.
in ptaoe 11» •' 111 11 • i it»
of water content.
2. Successrve meaaure-
ments are obtained.
3. Inexpensive and
atmpse.
4, Transducerxiniui re-
spond falrty rapidry to
water content changes.
1 units fall ai the air entry
vatue of the ceramic cup.
t -Q£ atmo-
(1979LPaeta*d
119791.
spheres.
Z Results are subject to
hysteresis, that is. differ-
ent results are obtained
for wetting vs. drying
media.
a If proper contact is not
made between cup and
media units wUl not oper-
ate property.
4 Sensitive to tempera-
ture changes.
5. Difficult to install at
great depth in vadose rone.
BraXensjek. Osoom
and Bawls ll 979 L
Holmes. Tavtor and
Richards 11967 L
Btancnt 11967L
Gairon and Hadas
U973lSchmugge.
jackson and McKim
(1980L WUson 1198OL
Oaksford I1978L
-63-
-------
Method
Principle
Advantages
Disadvantages
-ft
5. Elecincal resistance
blacks
6. Thermocouple
psychrometers/
Blocks consist of elec-
trodes embedded in por-
ous material (plaster of
pans, nylon, doth, fiber-
glass). Water content of
blocks change with water
content of soil Electrical
properties ofbtocks change
with changing water con-
tent. Electrical properties
are measured using a
meter. Calibration curves
must be obtained.
A psychrometer unit con-
sists of a porous bulb with
a chamber In which the
relative humidity of the
exterior media is sampled:
a sensitive thermocouple.
a heat sink, reference elec-
trode, and electrical cir-.
cuitry. The unit operates
on the principle thai a rela-
tionship exists between
soti water potential and
relative humidity. Two
types are available, the wet
bulb type and the dew
point type. Both types rely
on cooling of the thermo-
couple junction by the ra-
tter effect In the wet bulb
type, when the tempera-
ture at the junction is re-
duced below the dew point.
cooling is discontinued. As
cnnrtrnsfd water evapor-
ates, the temperature in-
creases to ambient. Signal
from the junction at the
porttonsi to relative humid-
ity. In the dew point type.
the temperature at Junc-
tion la held constant at
dew point. The tnermo*
couple signal <
lo dew point
and thus to the relative
humidity. Different meth-
ods are required far the
two types-The dew point
method is more accurate.
Calibration curves relating
relative humidity to water
potential are required.
Water potential and water
content are related
through a charactensuc
curve for each material
1. Can be Interfaced
with portable data col-
lection system.
Z Can be used at soil
water pressures less
than -0.8 atmospheres.
3. Gypsum blocks are
inexpensive.
4. Precision is good.
1. In-situ pressure
m aniiiMM iiti arrpos
si bie down to - 5O atmo-
spheres, permitting the
determination of water
contents In the very dry
range
Z Permits continuous
recording of pressures
(and water contents! at
the same depth.
3. Can be Interfaced
with portable or remote
data coUectlon systems.
4. Some units have
been installed to great
depth (down to 30O
feetl
I. Subject to hysteresis.
2 Mav be difficult to in-
stall at great depth in
vadose zone and maintain
good contact.
3. Requires calibration for
each textural type in
profile.
4. Lack of Insensltlvtty In
wet range.
5. Sensitivity to soil salin-
ity (except gypsum bkxksL
6. Gypsum blocks deteri-
orate badly in certain
media.
7. Calibration curves of
some units shift with time.
& Time lag In response.
1. Results are subject to
hysteresis.
Z Good contact between
bulb and surrounding
media may be difficult to
obtain.
3. Provide point measure-
ments only.
4. May be difficult to ob-
tain accurate calibration
curves for deep regions of
the vadose zone.
5. Fragile, requiring great
care in installation.
Brakensiek. Osbom
and Rawt3ll979l.
Holmes. Tavlor and
Richards (1967).
Phene. Hoffman and
Rawllns 1197 U
Schmugge. Jackson
and McKJmll980L
Citron ana Hadas
(19731.
Rawllns and Dalton
(1967). Memll and
Rawllns (19721
Enfldd. Hsleh and
Wamck(1973L
Schmugge, Jackson
andMcKlm(1960L
Hanks and Ashcroft
(1960l.Bnscoe(l979L
CampoeU. Campbell
and Bariow I1973L
-64-
-------
Heal dissioation
sensor
Heat dissipation
operate on the principle
that thr temperature era-
dicnt to dissipate a eivrn
amoumoi heat ma porous
medium ol low conauctiv-
itv is related lo water con-
tent In practice tne water
content ol a soil can be
measured bv apprvine a
neat sourer at a central
point within the sensor
and measuring tne tem-
perature nse at that point
Calibration curves of
matnc potential vs. tem-
perature difference are
obtained using a pressure
plate apparatus with soils
from the site The matnc
potential ii mated to water
content by preparing a
wmier cruractenstic curv*.
Commercial tensors con-
sist of a miniature heater.
urmprrature sensors and
circuitry embedded in a
cyl i ndncal porous cmrruc
btock within a smalt-diam-
eter PVC tube, and • lead
1 Simp*.
2 Mav be interiaccd
with a Oau acquisition
svstem lor remote coi-
*cnon ol data.
3 Measurements are
inoeDenoeni 01 salt con-
tent of soil
4 Calibration appears
10 remain constant
5 Can be used to mea-
sure soil temperature
as well as mainc poten-
tial
6. Useful for meaaur-
irve water contents in
the dry range.
1, Subtect to hv^jtereats in
the water characteristic.
2. Calibration is required
foreachcnanaem texture
3. Mav be dlfflnolt to in
suit at Orpin in the vaooae
zone and maintain eood
contact berwren the sen
sor and medium.
Phene. MofTman and
Rawlins Il971al
Phene. Rawtins and
Hoffman I I971bi
Schmusgt. Jacitson
and McKjm 119801
-65-
-------
Catalog of Methods for Monitoring or Estimating Flux of Wastewater in the
Vadose Zone
Method
Principles
Advantages
Disadvantages
References
l.lnllJtrauonat land
surface
a. Impoundments
ID Water budget
method
Entails solving for the
water budget equation.
That is:
Inflow - Outflow « ± AS
SL=II*P)-(D+EI±AS
Where SL = seepage toss
1 = inflow from all
1. Averages intake rate
for the en ore surface
ares of the pond
(sides and bottom L
2. Measurements do
not interfere with
normal pit operation.
l.Tlme consuming and
expensrve.
2. Errors in measurements
of auxiliary parameters
affect accuracy in esti-
mating seepage.
Bouwer 11 9781
(U) Instantaneous
rate method
P = precipitation
D = discharge
E = evaporation
S 'storage
Measurements of L P. O. E.
AS are required: requiring
flumes, raingages. evapor-
atlon pan. and staff gages
or water stage leuurdtia.
Calibration curve or table
of head vs. surface ana is
required
By shutting down aO In-
flows to a pond and afl
discharges m^n a puil
the water lewd wtl node
primarily as a result of
Infiltration That is. al the
components of the water
budget equation are set
Infiltration, evaporation
and change in storage.
Measuring AS for a short
time provides a value for
Infiltration rate (r
(Ul)
1 meters are cyttn*
dera> rapprd at one did
and open at the other end.
The open end of the cylin-
der Is (breed Into the pond
surface and seepage Is
equated to the outflow
from the cylinder when
pressure heads Inside and
outside the cylinder are
equal Types include: the
SCS seepage meter, the
USSR seepage meter and
the Bouwer-Rte
I.May cause Inconveni-
ence to pond operator.
2. The measured Instan-
taneous rate does not
account for rate fluctua-
tions caused by fluctua-
tions in inflow and out-
flow components.
1 . Simple and inexpen-
sive.
2. Errors In measuring
auxiliary compon-
ents do not enter
Into calculations.
3. Estimates average
surface area of pond.
X Simple to operate.
a Uses only one piece
of equipment. l.e-
reduces the overall
error compared to
using several mea-
suring device* as
with water budget.
1. Measures seepage at
discrete points and a
large number of mea-
surements are required
to obtain "average* In-
take rates (Including
both sides and bottom
potntsl
2. Operator will need to
swim underwater to in-
stall units In bottom
of pood.
Bouwer(1978L
Bouwer and Rkse
(1963LKraaa(1977.
b. Land treatment
areas and
Irrigated Adds
(I) Water budget
method
See Impoundments: Water
budget method. Inflow and
outflow from fields are
measured by flumes, weirs.
etc Evaporation equaled
to that from a free surface.
See Impoundments:
water budget method.
-66-
See Impoundments: water
budget method.
-------
(II) InfUtromriers
An tnftltrometer ts an open
rnoed cylinder anven into
the around. The amount ol
water aaoed to maintain
a constant head in the
cvtinoer is equated to in-
filtration rate. Types m-
dude siruoe-rina and dou-
bie-rtng inAltrometers. In
doubte-nru? type both the
outer and inner annular
areas are Qooaed. oatens-
lory UD minimize diverg-
ence in flow from inner
are*. Intake measurements
are taken in the inner area.
1 Stmwe
Z Inexpensive
3. PortaMe
point measure-
ments oruv
Z Because ot spatial van
abtlltv in sou properues
a large numDer 01 read-
ings reauirea u> estimate
'xvtnge' inAlirauon.
3-Shattow fknv impeOing
layer* affect results.
4 Oivcrtence in subsur-
face Sow occurs because
of un»aturated flow
(Bower recommenQs
using antfte. iaree min-
der (o minimize this
Bouweril978l Dunne
and Leopold 119781
Bureevand Lutrun
119561 US.
Environmental Pro-
teen on Aaencv US.
Armv Corps ot £ngl-
neersanfl US.
Qenu uiicnt of Agncu>-
ture (19771.
S Leakage along side walls
mav cause anomaiousiv
high raxes.
;tll) T«l basins
Larse basins lei 20 feet
by- 20 feet i arc constructed
at several locations in a
flekt The basins are flood-
ed and intake rates are
measured Results arc re-
lated to 'average intake
rate (or the ftekt iThe water
source to be used for fteld-
sued operations snouid be
used during testing.)
1 Provides more rroir-
sentauve mtaxe rates
than inftltrometerv
rrsults can be used
to design fuU-scale
protects.
Z Simple.
1 Expensive
Z Time consuming,
1 Mav be difficult to trans-
port water to sites.
4 ShaUow tenses of fine
material will aflect rr
suits by causing diver-
gence of flow
S. Spatial variability in soli
properues aflects results.
L' S Environmencal
Protection Aflencv.
L'S Corps ol Engi-
neers- and L'S. Depart-
ment ol Agriculture
,1977!
Z Flux in the vadoae
zone.
a. Water budget with
soil moisture
accounting.
The w«ter budget method
of Thornthwaite and
Mather 11957) is appOed
to • given soil Orpin lej^
root zone of an irrigated
Reid: final toil cover on a
LandflUL Inflow compon-
ents include rainfall and
irrigation. Outflow com-
ponents include runoff.
evapouanapt ration, drain-
age, and deep percatauon
(Ouxl. Change in iiinagi
equals water content
cnange in depth of interest.
Flux equaled to known in-
flow and outflow compon-
ents and AS Evapoiran-
•piration mav be most dif-
ficult component to mea-
sure (see Jensen. 1973 for
alternative method* 1.
1 Estimates flux for
enure area and not
onry pointa.
2. Computer programs
are available to sun-
pUfy calculations itg.
WATBUG. WUlmotL
19771.
. Errors in measurement
or estimation of com-
ponents accumulate in
esoaaues of Dux.
Thomthwaite and
Mather 11957L
WUlmon (19771
Mather and
Rodnquez 11978L
Fenn. riaruey and
DeGearet 19731.
Jensen 11973L
-67-
-------
_
MetbrxJ
t Methods reiving
on water content
measurements
*t-S.. draining pro-
file metnoos).
j = - /' 2 a6 A
\J J _, ^li
O 01
c. Method requiring
measurements of
Prtnowes
Flux is related to water
oomen t c nances in a eiven
depth of tne vaaose tone
The reiationsnip oerwn.ii
flux ana water content is
expressed as touow&
Where J = flux 8 = water
content, z = depth and I =
time (This method is
actuallv a protlie-specilir
water oudeet witn all terms
except flux and storage
chance set eauai to reroi.
Water content chances are
measured uv neutron log-
ging, tensiometers. resist-
ance blocKs and psycnro-
meteiv
The method Is based on
soMng Darcvs eouanon
•|i1mn»<> •
I Slmpfc
2. Compared to meth-
ods reiving on data
for hydraulic gradi-
ents, a larse numoer
of measurements can
be obtained with
minimal cost and
Labor needs.
3 A larse number of
measurements using
simple methods is
more amenable to
statistical analyses.
I . A very precise
method.
Disaovantaeea
1. Errors in measuring
devices affect rou/Ls.
2. Spauaj vanabilirv m soh
hvdrauJic propenies re-
quires mat a larse num-
ber ol measurements De
obtained to obtain an
"average value.
3 Cosu\-"
4 Mav not be suitable for
measuring flux oeiow
impoundments of land-
fills because of difficul-
ties in installing measur-
ing units.
l.More complex than
methods using water
Reierences
Ubardiet ai 119601.
Nielsen. Biggar and
Err. i 1973! Uarncx
and Amoozecar-fart
:98O' Bouwer ana
JacKSon I !974i
Wilson 1 198OI
LaRue. Nielsen and
Hajzan 1 19681. Bouwer
hydraulic
gradients.
d Method basea on
assumption thai
hydraulic gradi-
enis are unity.
Tor unsarurated flow.
J= Kl»)l
where KJ 9) designates tha t
hydraulic conductivity is
a function of water cement
ft I = hydraulic gradient.
Hydraulic gradients are
measured by installing
tenaiometen. block* or
pmctirameten. CfJOnoon
curves are required to
relate negative pressure
measurements to water
content, and water content
to unsaturated hydraulic
conductivity. Separate
curves are required for
each texiural change.
Same as above except that
unit hydraulic gradient is
assumed so that J=KI»L
Only one pressure meas-
uring unit is required
at c*cn depth of tntoest
to permit estimating f
from a pressure vs, water
con tent curve. rU»)t* esti-
mated from a separate
curve. (For a more cu i Mr i
ver*Jon of this method aee
Ntetaen. Blggar and Erh.
1973.) An altemaovc ap-
proach is to use the rda-
donshipJ* Kl*.!. which
requires a curve showing
the change* in hydraubc
oonducoviry with DBDIC
potential I*.). Bouma.
Baker and VenananUS74)
described the •o-cafled
"cruet test" (or pteyamig
• Kit] va. *. curve. This
ficsd procedure la earned
out on cytlnoj tual ooluan
content values.
2. Results are subject to
hysteresis in the calibra-
tion curves.
3. Expensive to install the
requisite number of
units for statistical
anaryses.
4. May not be suitable for
pond* or landfills.
S-Oneralrv restricted to
•hallow depths in the
vadoae zone.
and JacKSon (19741.
WUson(19SOL
1. Simpler and less
expensive than meth-
od* requiring grad-
ients.
1. Assumption of unit hv-
draulic gradients may
fall, parucularry in lay-
ered media.
2. Results are *ubiect to
hysteresis in calibration
curves.
3. May not be suitable for
pond* or landfllb.
4. More complex than
methods requiring sod
motature evaluation.
5. Large number of units
required to oflset spaoal
variability in aotl prop-
Medsen. Blggar and
Erh (19731. Bouutr
and Jacxson (1974L
Warrick and Amooxe-
gar-Fard 11980 Land
Bouma, Baker and
Venneman(1974L
-68-
-------
Principles
Advantage*
e. Flowmeters
f Methods baaed on
estimating or
measuring hy-
draulic conductiv-
ity. K.
(1) Laboratory
methods.
(aa)Permea-
meters
(bb) Rdatlon-
shtps be-
tween
hydraulic
conduct-
ivity and
grain-sue.
(cc) Cata-
log of
hydraulic
proper-
ties.
constructed In a tot pit
Each column is instrument-
ed with a tenslometer. a
ring inflJtrometer. and
gypsum-sand crusts. A
series of crusts are used
during different runs 10
linpose varying resistances
to flow During each run.
Infiltration rates and ten-
slometer values are mon-
itored.
Flux Is measured directly
using flowmeters. Princi-
ples of two available types
are as follows' 11) direct
flow measurement using
a sensitive Qow transducer.
and 12) flow is related to
movement of a heat pulse
In water moving In a por-
ous cup buned i n the SOIL
Calibration curves are re-
quired for second type.
The premise of these
methods is that if K values
are available the flux can
be estimated by assuming
hydraulic gradients are
unity, and that Darcy s law
Is valid.
Cylindrical cores of vadose
rone sediments arc placed
in tight fining metal or
plastic cylinders. Water Is
applied to the cores and
outflow is metered. The
head of water applied to
cores may be either con-
stant head or falling.
Appropriate equations are
solved to determine K.
knowing head values, ap-
plication rates and dimen-
sions of the container.
Primarily for saturated K.
Grain-size distribution
curves are obtained for
samples of vadose zone
material. The hydraulic
conductivity is calculated
from equations which ac-
count for a representative
grain-size diameter or from
the spread in the gradation
curve. Primarily for satur-
ated K.
A catalog of hydraulic pro-
perties of soils, prepared
by Mualem 11976) Is con-
sulted for soil rypes sim-
ilar to vadose zone sedi-
ments. Both saturated and
unsaturated K values are
imported.
l.Do not require In-
formation on hy-
draulic conductivity
or hydraulic gradi-
ents.
1. Simple
2. May be used to deter-
mine variations In K
values because of
stratifications.
1. A "first cut" method
if other data are un-
available.
2. May be used to esti-
mate relative varia-
tions, in K because of
stratification.
1. Simple.
2. A quick method.
a May be used to esum-
mate relative varia-
tions in K because of
stratification.
4. Inexpensive—provi-
ded that grain-size
data are available.
-69-
I. Disturbance of soil dur-
ing installation may af-
fect results.
2. Convergence/divergence
problems anae in the
flow field.
3. Limited range of soil
types and fluxes.
4 Calibration procedures
are tedious.
5. Applicability to deeper
regions of the vadose
zone is questionable.
1. Expensive if a large
number of samples are
required.
XAccuncy of method Is
questionable because of
win effects.
3. Not an in-sltu method-
results will be affected
by spatial variability of
hydraulic properties in
vadose zone.
1. Accuracy Is question-
able.
2. A disturbed method-
results may not be repre-
sentative of In-sltu
values.
3. Expensive if grain-size
values are unavailable.
4. Requires trained per-
sonnel.
1. Problems arise because
of hysteresis in unsatu-
rated K.
2. Because of errors In
measuring K (t\. values
for a particular soil type
may not be transferable
to similar types. To ob-
tain a closer estimate
KI0) must be evaluated
far each soil I Evan* and
Wamc*. 19701
Gary (1973). Dlrksen
(1974al. Dlrksen
(1974bl.
Bouwer 11978L Freeze
and Cherry (19791
Freeze and Cherry
(1979) and references
therein.
Mualem 11976L
-------
Method
Principles
Disadvantages
(III Field methods.
(aal Shallow
methods.
(aa II Methods
for meas-
uring sat-
urated K
in the
absence
of a water
table.
A portion of the soil zone
is brought to saturation
and saturated K is esti-
mated Tor the flow system
thus created. Appropriate
measurements and equa-
tions are used to solve for
K- Alternative methods
include-111 pump-in meth-
od. 12) alr-enuy permea-
meters. 13) Infiltration
gradient method, and (41
double tube method.
1 Each method has Its
own advantages—see
Bouwer and Jackson
(1974).
1 Each method has its
own disadvantages—see
Bouwer and Jackson
(1974).
2. Because of air entrap-
ment during tests com-
plete saturation is not
possible. Measured K
values may be 1/2 actual
values (Bouwer. 19781.
3. Several of the methods
are based on the assump-
tion that flow is entirely
vertical—a false premise.
Bouwer and Jackson
(1974).
(aa2) Instantan-
eous profile
method.
as/at
(bb) Deeper
(bbl)USBR single
wefl method.
The basis of this method
is the Richards equation.
rewritten as follows.
In practice, a soil plot in
the region of interest is
Instrumented with a bat-
tery of tensiometers. with
individual units terminat-
ing at depths of interest.
for measuring water pres-
sures; and with an access
tube for moisture logging.
The soil is wetted to su-
urauon throughout UK
study depth. Wetting is
stopped and the surface is
covered to prevent evapor-
ation. Water pressure and
water content measure-
menu are obtained during
drainage. Curves of *, vs. z
and • vs. t are prepared.
Slopes of the curve* at the
depths of interest are used
to solve for Klfl. Values of
Klf I at varying times can
be used to prepare KIM vs.
• and KU.) vs. *. cuncs:
(far a detailed description
of the method. Including
step by step procedures.
see Bauma. Baker and
Veneman. 1974k.
Water is pumped Into a
borehole at a steady rue
such that a uniform water
level is maintained to a
basal test section. Satu-
rated K is estimated from
appropriate curves and
equations, knowing dimen-
sions of the hoie and Inlet
pipes, length in contact
with formation, height of
water above base of bore-
hole, depth to water table.
and Intake rate at steady
state. Two types of (cats:
(1) open-end casing tests.
In which water flows only
out of the end of the casing,
and (2) open-hole teats. n
tout of
and
1. Method can be used
In stratified soils.
2. Simple.
3. Reasonably accurate.
at least at each mea-
suring site.
I.May be used to esti-
mate K at great
depths in vadose
2.A pronJe of K
may be obtained.
-70-
1. Provides hydraulic con-
ductivity values only for
draining profiles. Be-
cause of hysteresis, these
values are not represent-
atlve of the hydraulic
conductivity during wet-
ting cycles.
2. Because of spatial van-
abilities in soil hydraulic
properties, a Urge num-
ber of sites must be used
to obtain mean values of
hydraulic conductivity.
3. Time consuming and
relatively expensive.
Bouma. Baker and
Veneman 119741.
1. Solution methods are
baaed on assumption
that flow region Is en-
tirely saturated (free sur-
fisoe theory t—this is not
X Aa a consequence of I. K
to underestimated.
3, Expensive and Qme con-
suming.
4. Requires sklfled person-
nel to conduct tests.
US. Bureau of
Reclamation 1197TL
-------
(bb2)USBR
muluote well
method.
Ibb3l Stephens-
Neuman
sirufie wdl
method.
Used u> estimate K in vvin-
trv of widesoread kenses of
siowtv permeaMe material.
An intaxe well and acnes
of piezometers are in-
staUed Water is pumped
into well at • steady rat*
and water rves are mea-
sured in piezometers. Ap-
propriate curves and equa-
Uoru are used ID deter-
mine K.
Stephens and Nruman
(1980) developed an cm
pineal formula baaed on
numerical simulations
using the unsaturated
charactenstlcs of four
sous. That is. this approach
accounts for unsaturaied
Qorw
1. Result* can be uaed
to estimate Lateral
flow rates m percned
ground-waierregxina.
1 The formula can be
used to estimate the
saturated hydraulic
conductivity of an
unauuraied soli with
improved accuracy
2. No need to wait for
steady state condi-
tions—ir»e final How
rate can DC estimated
from data dunng
transient stage.
1 Expensive and u me con-
suming,
2 Requires trained per-
sonnel.
U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation (1977V
1 Seeds Held testing.
Stephens and
Neuman 119SOL
:bb4l Air per-
meacuirv
metnod.
3. Veocirv in the
vaooae zone.
a. Tracers
tx Calciiiauon using
Gox vajues.
Air prrssure chana« art
measured in speciaUv con-
structed piezometers dur-
ing barometric changes ai
the land surface. Pressure
response data are counted
with inlormauon on air-
flUed porositv to solve
equations leading to air
permeawlitv. U the KUnken-
berg effect is small, air
permeaDOirv is comwied
u> hvdrauUc connucavifv
A suitable tracer ICA tn-
num. iodide. Qrorrude. Suor-
ocartxansi is introductrd
into the liquid souce LAI-
temauvetv, a tracer sucn
as cnlonOe. aire*3v present
in the source could be
incd. 1 Samples are obtain-
ed from suction cups at
successive depths and
tracer break-through
curves are prepared.
Flux values ofctairvd bv
methods described anove
are used, together with
estimated or measured
water content valuer in
the following reiauortsnip-
wtiert v = veJocirv. J =
Dux and 6 = water content.
Assumes that 111 hydraulic
gradients are ururv, 12) an
average water con tent can
be determined, 13) How i»
vertical, and (4) homogen-
eouk media.
1 Can be used to esti-
mate nvdraulic con-
ductivirv values of
Uvercd materials in
the vadoae zone.
1 A direct meinod.
2. Simple.
3 Accounts for Qow in
actual pores — aoos-
er measure ol the true
4 More accurate than
method* requmng
kr»ow>ea« of compo-
nents of Darcy s
equation.
1 Inexpensive when
coupied with otncr
methods.
ZSlmpte.
3. A "quick and dirty"
method for estimat-
ing the travel ume
of pollutants in the
zone.
-71-
I An indirect method.
2. Presence of ejtcessive
water limits the utility
of the method.
3. Expensive
4.Time consuming,
S.Comc*»—requires train-
ed personnel.
Weeks 119781
1. Analyses of tracers may
be expensive.
2. Operation of suction
samplers mav affect na-
tural Qow field, leading
to incorrect values.
3. In structured media the
actual veiociry may be
higher than measured
because at flow in craoes,
4. If velocities are slow.
excessiveiv long time
periods will be required
for tests.
1 Vekx-irvwiUbehienerm
structured media than
thai calculated.
X Method assumes vertical
flow only—perching
layers cause lateral Cow.
3. For multUayered media
an iverase 8 and v value
may be difficult to obtain.
Freeze and Cherry
119791. Pnsaa.« al
11974)
Bouwcr I1980L
WUson 119801
-------
Mexnod
c CaJcuJanon usme
tone tern mni
tranon aaia.
\ — ' = w'
9 »
Pnnaoiea
The lone-term infiltration
rait 1 ol the lacilin. is
assumed to eaual the
sveaav state flux j m the
vaoose rone. ConseoucntA-
*Jso assumes the 1 1 ) hv-
arauiic sraoieTnaareururv'.
AfJvmnLaaca
I Simoie
2 ProDaoK sansiacton,
is firs: esdmale ol
'.riocin.
3 Inexpensive
IhiacrvmniAaes
! V'eiocirv will be hieher
:" siructurec mesia
•nan cajcuiated
2 Meihoa assumes venica-
flcrwonr. Pcrrninfiia-vrrs
cause taterai Ooi*
3 For muJtilavcred meaia
an iveraae 6 and \ mav
be difficult to oouja
Rcierences
Bnuxirr 1 !9«OI
'AAmcK i 198 i i
- 8. OlQowuvmicaland
i-»i homoeeneoijs media.
-------
Catalog of Methods for Monitoring Pollutant Movement
in the Vadose Zone
Method
Principles
Advantage*
Disadvantages
1 Indirect method*
a. Four probe
electrical
method
b. EC probe.
c Salinity
sensors.
2. Direct methods.
a. Solids sampling
followed by
laboratory ex-
traction of pore
waier. Inorganic
constituents.
Used for measuring soil
salinity in situ. Basically
the method consists of
measuring soil electrical
conductivity using the
Wenner four probe array
The apparent bulk soil
conductivity is related to
the conductivity of the
saturated extract using
calibration relationships.
The EC (electncaJ conduc-
tivity! probe consists of a
cylindrical probe contain-
ing electrodes at fixed spac-
ing apart The probe is
positioned In a cavttv and
resistivity Is measured at
successive depths. Calibra-
tion required. PrtmanJv
used for land treatment
areas and Irrigated fields.
An alternative version con-
sists of Inexpensive probes
which can be permanently
implanted for periodic
measuremen ts.
Sensors consist of elec-
trodes embedded In porous
ceramic. When placed In
soil the ceramic comes in
hydraulic equilibrium with
soil water Electrodes
measure the specific con-
ductance of the soil solu-
tion. This method is most
suitable for land treatment
areas and irrigated fields.
ajihough sensors could be
Installed beJow ponds be-
fore ponds are put in opera-
tion. Call bration curves are
required.
Soilds samples are obtain-
ed by hand or power auger
and transported to a labor-
atory Normally samples are
taken in depth-wise incre-
ments. Samples are used
to prepare saturated ex-
tracts I see Rhoades. 1979a.
for method L Extracts are
analyzed to determine the
concentrations of specific
constituents.
1 An m-piace method.
2. Readings are ob-
tained quickly and
inexpensively
3. Can be used to de-
lect the presence of
shallow saline
ground water.
4 Can be used to de-
termine lateral tran-
sects of satlnltv
5 By varying electrode.
spacing can be used
to determine verti-
cal changes in salin-
ity.
6. The sallrtitv in larger
volumes of soli are
Measured compared
to other methods.
1. Changes in salinltv
are measured at dis-
crete depths in stra-
tified soils
2. Measurements are
obtained at greater
depth than four etec-
trode method.
3. The m-piace units
permit determining
changes In salinity
with Orne.
1. Simple, easily read
and sufficiently ac-
curate for salinity
monitoring.
2. Readings are taken
at same depths each
time.
3. By Installing units
at different depths
chronological salin-
ity profiles can be
determined.
4. Output can be inter-
faced with data
acquisition systems.
1. Depth-wise profiles
of specific pollutants
can be prepared.
2. Variations in ionic
concentrations with
changes in layering
are possible.
3. Soilds samples can
be used for addi-
tional analyses such
as grain size, cation
exchange capacity.
etc.
-73-
1 Obtaining calibration
relationships may be
tedious.
2. Accuracy decreases In
layered soils.
3. Chronological In situ
changes cannot be
measured except by
taking sequential trav-
4. PnmarUv used for shal-
low depths of the vadose
zone.
5. Does not provide data
on specific pollutants.
1. Individual calibration
relationships are re-
quired for each strata—
time consuming and
expensive
2. Variations in water con-
tent may affect results.
3. Primarily used for shal-
low depths of the vadose
zone.
4. Does not provide data
on apenflc pollutants.
1. More subject to calibra-
tion changes than four
electrode method,
2. More expensive and less
durable than four elec-
trode method.
a Time lag in response to
changing salinity.
4. Cannot be used at soil
water pressures less
than -2 atmospheres.
5. SoU disturbance during
installation may affect
results.
6. Does not provide data
on specific pollutants.
1. Became of the spatial
variability of soil prop-
erties an inordinate
number of samples are
required to ensure rep-
resentauvenesm.
2. Expensive, if deep
sampling Is under-
3. Changes in soil water
composition occur
during preparation and
extraction.
4. Samples should be ex-
tracted at prevailing
water con tent Le_ Ionic
composition changes
during saturation.
Rhoades and Halvorson
(19771 Rhoades I1979al.
Rhoades 11979bL
Rhoades and Halvorson
11977) Rhoades ana van
Schllfgaarde (1976).
Rhoades I1979al.
Rhoades U979cl.
Rhoades (1979a). Oster
and Ingvalson (1967).
Richards 119661. Oster
and WUlardson (1971).
Rhoades 11979aL Rlble et
al 119761. Pratt. Warneke
and Nash 119761
5. Aorstructiwe method— variability in sedimena
samples cannot be re- preclude* comparing
taken in exactly the successive result*.
same location *nanal
-------
Method
Principles
Advantages
Disadvantage*
References
b Sotlds sampling
for organic and
microtoial con-
stituents— drv
tube coring pro-
cedure.
A hole is augered to above
(he desired sampling
depth A drv-tube core
sampler of special design
is forced into the sampling
region. Separate sub-
samples are obtained for
analyses of organics and
microorganisms. Extreme
care must be exercised to
avoid contamination.
1 Contamination of
samples is mini-
mized of. other core
sampling methods.
Z Additional sub-
samples could be
taken for chemical
analyses.
1 Expensive and time Dunlap et al (1977)
consuming.
Z Difficult to obtain sam-
ples at great depth in
vadosezone.
3. Samples cannot be ob-
tained directly bdow
Impoundments.
4. A destructive method.
5. Results are affected by
spatial variabilities in
properties of the vadoae
zone.
c Ceramic type
samplers I suc-
tion Ivsi meters).
(I) Vacuum
operated
type.
(II) Vacuum-
pressure
type.
A ceramic cup is mounted
on the end of a small
diameter PVC tube. A one-
hole rubber stopper is
pushed into opening In
tube. A small diameter tube
is forced through stopper.
terminating at base of
ceramic cup. Unit Is placed
in shallow soil depth. A
vacuum is applied to the
small tube and soil water
moves through the cer-
amic cup. Sample Is
sucked out the small tub-
Ing into a collection flask.
Samples are analyzed In
the laboratory. When using
such samplers extreme
auv must be exercised to
prepare cups to remove
sorted ions. An add treat-
ment Is letxMitmended for
this purpose. A variation
of this type uses a filter
candle In lieu of a suction
cup.
A ceramic body tube con-
tains a two hole rubber
stopper. A small diameter
tube is pushed into one
opening, terminating at the
base of the cup. A second
tube pushed into the other
opening terminates below
the rubber stopper. The
long line is connected to a
sample bottle. The snort
line is connected to a pres-
sure-vacuum source. When
the unit Is In place, a
vacuum la appbed to draw
In exterior solution. Pres-
sure ts then applied to blow
the sample Into a f
1 A direct method for
determining the
chemical character-
istics of soil water.
Z Samples can be ob-
tained repeatedly at
the same depths.
3. Inexpensive and
simple.
4. Can be installed
below shallow im-
poundments and
landfill* prior to con-
struction, for later
monitoring of seep-
1. Can be used at
depths below the
suction lift of water.
Z Several units can be
Installed In a com-
mon borehole to de-
termine depth-wise
changes in quality.
Also: See advantages
1. Generally limited to soil
depths less than 6 feet.
Z Limited to soil water
pressures less than air
entry value of the cups
(-1 atmosphere).
3. Point samplers—be-
cause of the small vol-
ume of sample obtained
representativeness of
results Is question-
ruble.
4. Pore water in the soil
blocks is sampled. In
structured soils, water
moving through cracks
may have different ionic
oornpoaioon than water
In bkxka,
& Suction may aflect soil-
water flow patterns.
TensJonmeteriinustbe
Installed to ensure that
the proper vacuum is
& Samples may not be
representative of pore
water because tech-
nique does not account
for relationships be-
tween pore sequences.
water quality and
drainage rates (Hansen
and Hams. 19751
1. When air pressure is
applied some of the
solution is forced
through the wails of the
cup.
Also: See disadvantages
2 through 6. vacuum
operated type.
Rhoades 11979al. England
(1974). Hoffman
et ail 19781.
Rhoades (1979aL England
(19741 Partzefc and Lane
(1970). Apgar and Lang-
raulr (1971L Johnson and
Cartwnght(1960L
-74-
-------
Method
HID High
Pr
vacuum
type.
Principle*
d Sampling
perched
ground water.
The sampler is divided into
two chamDers. The tower
chamber is a ceramic cup.
Upper and tower chamber*
are connected via tubing
with one-wwv varve A piug
In the upper cnamoer has
rwooornings. One opening
la connected bvtuotng to a
pressu re-vacuum source.
The second opening is con-
nected to a line within the
upper chamber This line
contains a one-wav vaive.
The line also extends to
the surface, terminating in
a collection flask. When
vacuum is applied to one
tube, solution is drawn into
the upper chamber When
pressure is applied the one-
wav valve in base orevents
sample from being forced
out of cup. Sample is forced
up the outlet line into col-
lection flask.
Perched ground-water re-
gions frequenuv are oo-
agrvtd in vadose zones, for
example. In alluvial vallevs
in the west. Water samples
may be extracted from
perched ground-water
regions for analvses. For
shallow perched ground
water, samples can be
obtained bv installing
wells, piezometer nests or
multilevel samplers. For
deeper perched ground
water, two possibilities
ejosuill sampling cascad-
ing water in existing wells.
or!2) constructing special
weiis.
; Prrvrnis ajr P''*'
sure irom b*owing
sample out ol cup
Z Can be usea at great
deptns.
a Se%rral units can be
installed in a com-
mon oorenoie-
*o: S« advajitaees
for vacu um operated
tvpe
as for vacuum-
pressure rvpe except tor
No 1
Reference*
Wood (1973). Wood and
Signer U975L
Laroe sample vol-
umes are obtain-
abie paruculartv fle-
sirabie when sam-
pling for organics
and viruses-
Samples reflect the
integrated quailtvof
water draining from
an esciensi ve pomon
oi overtvtng vadoae
zone^•-more leure-
sentanve tnan point
samptes,
. Cheaper tnan instafl-
ing deep wells with
battenes of sucuon
samplers.
, Can be located near
ponds and landfills
without concern
about causing leaKs.
i Nested piezometers
and multilevel
samplers can be
used to delineate
vertical and lateral
extent o< plumes and
hydraulic gradients.
1 Perched zones mav not
be present in source
area,
2. Detection of perched
ground water mav be
expensive, requiring
test wHls or geophysical
metnods.
3. Some perched ground
water rapons are epnem-
erml and mav dry up
4 The method is most
suitable for diffuse
sources, such as land
spreading areas or irri-
gated fields.
5. Multilevel sampling ts
restricted to regions
with shallow water
tables permitting
vacuum pumping.
Wilson and Schmidt
119791 Schmidt 119801.
Graf (19801 Ptctena « aL
119811. Hansen and Hama
11974 1980).
-75-
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Auq«r, rotary and ca*le-tool drilling techniques advantages ind disadvantages for
construct'Of Of monitoring Mils
T»oe Advantages
Auger • Ninlmal damage to aquifer
• No drilling fluids required
• Auger flights act as temporary
casing, stabilizing hole for
well construction
• Good technique for unconsoll-
dated deposits
• Continuous core can b« collected
by wlre-1 Ine method
Rotary • Quick and efficient method •
t Excellent for large and small
diameter holes •
• No depth limitations
• Can be used In consolidated
and unconsolldated deposits
<
• Continuous core can be
collected by wire-line method
Cable Tool • No limitation en veil depth
• Limited amount ef drilling
fluid required
• Can be used In both consoli-
dated and unconsolldated
deposits
• Can be used In areas where
lost circulation Is a problem
• Good llthologtc control
• Effective technique In boulder
environments
• Cannot be used In consolidated
deposits
• Lieited to mils less than ISO feet
In depth
• Nay have to abandon holes If
boulders are encountered
Requires drilling fluids which
alter water cheitstry
Results In i aud cake on the
borehole «jlI, requiring
additional well development, and
potentially causing changes In
chemistry
loss of circulation can develop
In fractured and high-permeability
material
May have to abandon holes If
boulders are encountered
Limited rigs and experienced
personnel available
Slow and inefficient
Difficult to collect core
Air.
Hollow-Stem Auger
Direct Rotary
Cable Tool
A conceptual compirlion of tht hollow-it** *u|tr, tht dlrict-roctry, «nd th« -81-
ctbli-tool drllltrj •ethoji.
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Hell casing and screen material - advantages and disadvantages in monitoring wells.
Tvoe Advantages
Fluortnated Ethylene
Propylene (FEP)
Polytetrafluoroethylene •
(PTFE) or Teflon
PolyvtnylcMortde (PVC) .
Acrylonitrlle Butadiene •
Styrent (MS)
Polyethylene
Good chemical resistance to
volatile orginlcs
Good chemical resistance to
corrosive environments
lightweight
High-Impact strength
Resistant to awst cheeilcals
lightweight
Resistant to weak alkalis,
alcohols, aliphatic hydro-
carbons and oils
Noderately resistant to strong
adds and alkalis
lightweight
• Lightweight
• lower strength than steel and
Iron
• Weaker than Host plastic •iterul
• weaker than steel and Iron
• More reactive than PTFt
• Deteriorates when In contact
with ketones, esters, and
aromatic hydrocarbons
• Low strength
• less heat resistant than PVC
• Lower strength than steel and
Iron
• Mo I coamnnly available
• low strength
• Here reactive than PTFE, but less
reactive than PVC
• Not commonly available
Polypropylene
Kynar
Stainless Steel
Cist Iron I Low-Carbon
Steel
Galvanized Steel
Lightweight
Resistant to mineral Kids
Noderately resistant to
alkalis, alcohoU, ketonet and
esters
. High strength
• Resistant to awst chemicals
and solvents
. High strength
• Cood cheeitcal resistance to
volatile organic*
• High strength
. High strength
• low strength
• Deteriorates when in contact with
oxidizing acids, aliphatic hydro-
carbons, and aromatic hydrocarbons
. More reactive than PTFE, but less
reactive than PVC
• Not commonly Available
• Poor chemical resistance to ketones,
acetone
• Not commonly available
• May be a source of chromium In low
pH environments
• May catalyze some organic reactions
• Rusts easily, providing highly
sorptive surface for many metals
• Deteriorates In corrosive
environments
• May be a source of zinc
• If coating is scratched, will rust,
providing a highly sorptive surface
for many metals
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Changes In Plumes and Factors Causing the Changes
Source: U.S. EPA, 1977
—— Form«r boundary
—— Pr«v«nt boundary
• Watl* lit*
J
ENLARGING
HUME
REDUCING
PLUME
L Incrocn* In rait of I Reduction in watt**
ditchargvd wait*t
2. Sorptlon activity
tried up
X Effect* ofchanaof
In wa(*r tabh
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STEP
Hydrologic
Measurements
Well Purging
Sample Collection
Filtration/
Preservation
Reid Determinations
Reid Blanks/
Standards
Sampling Storage/
Transport
GOAL
Establishment of nonpumping
water level.
Removal or isolation of stagnant
HjO which would otherwise bias
representative sample.
Collection of samples at land
surface or in well-bore with
minimal disturbance of sample
chemistry.
Filtration permits determination of
soluble constituents and is a
form of preservation. It should be
done in the field as soon as
possible after collection.
Reid analyses of samples will
effectively avoid bias in
determinations of parameters/
constituents which do not store
well: e.g., gases, alkalinity, pH.
These blanks and standards will
permit the correction of analytical
results for changes which may
occur after sample collection:
preservation, storage, and
transport
Refrigeration and protection of
samples should minimize the
chemical alteration of samples
prior to analysis.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Measure the water level to ±0.3
cm (±0.01 ft).'
Pump water until well purging
parameters (e.g., pH, T, Q-1. Eh)
stabilize to ±10% over at least
two successive well volumes
pumped.
Pumping rates should be limited
to —100 mL/min for volatile
organics and gas-sensitive
parameters.
Filter: Trace metals, inorganic
anions/cations, alkalinity.
Do not filter: TOC, TOX, volatile
organic compound samples. Filter
other organic compound samples
only when required.
Samples for determinations of
gases, alkalinity and pH should
be analyzed in the field if at all
possible.
At least one blank and one
standard for each sensitive
parameter should be made up in
the field on each day of
sampling. Spiked samples are
ateo recommended for good QA/
QC.
Observe maximum sample
holding or storage periods
recommended by the Agency.
Documentation of actual holding
periods should be carefully
performed.
Lit.
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STARKS ET Al_ ON METAL POLLUTION DESIGN
Tk)
TIG. 1—Pmlacrcon Wind Roi« 1978-1979 d«ca.
To South
' Uhighton
To S Mil*.
1200' Point*.
*&P$m-.
\ Uhlgh V.llty
\\\—Tunnel
N
FIG. 2 —
p«ct«rn for the Initial P«l«*rcon Surv«y (1* • 42SO').
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TABLE 3 2. SUH1ARY OF SOIL-CORE SAMPLING PROTOCOL FOR BACKGROUND AND ACTIVE LAND TREAMENT AREAS
Sampling
Area
Number of
Randomly
Selected
Core Samples
Sampl ing
Depth
Sampl ing
Frequency
Background, in soils with
similar mapping chtracter-
1stlcs In active »re»
Within 6-ip depth
below treatment zone
on active zone
One time
2. Active land treatmnt area
a. Uniform area less than
5 hectares (12 acres)
Within treatment zone
for determination of pH
Semiannual ly
Within 6-irt region below
treatment zone for PHC's
b. Uniform area greater
than 5 hectares
(12 acres)
2 per 1.5 hectares
(4 acres)
6 per 5 hectares
(12 acres)
Within treatment zone
for determination of pH
Semiannual 1y
Within 6-in; region below
treatment ^one for PHC's
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VACUUM PC
ANO 3AU6E
VACUUM TEST HAND PUMP
CCLLiCTS SOIL-WATER SAMPLS
Figure 4-3. Soil-water sampler (Courtesy Soilmoisture
Equipment Corp., 1978)
2 WAY PUMP «-»sT!c mae
^2-WAY PUMP AN(j gjMf
8-tNCH HCt£
MTM T2MPQ
SiL£A SANO
•-Z scrnxi
Figure 4-5. Modified pressure-vacuum lysineter
(Morrison »nd Tsii, 1981)
Figure 4-4. VaccuB-«r«sirc
Lane, 1970)
(Parlzek and
-102-
-------
B CHAM8SS
PVC
1201
Figure 4-6. '
Soilwisxirre
CASING LYSIMCTEtt
INSTALLATION
soil-water sappier" (Courtesy
Corp., 1978)
CERAMIC CUP
CASINO LVtutfTt*
Ground Surtfat
M S«« —3
IMIMMU SH>
fflnciMH TIMM
TUBE CUT ON BEVEL
BOTTOM OF CUP
Figure 4-21. Location of potential dead space in suction lysimete
— Wink PVC.
-103-
•I J
FIGURE 7 Casing Lysimeter
-------
-104-
-------
BACKGROUND
JSOIL PORE LIQUID
MONITORING DEVICES
FOR EACH SOIL SERIES
\ ^7 INITIAL i
•
M
3)0 cm
12 ml
\7 &CASCM>
ACTIVE
6 SOIL PORE LIQUID
MONITORING DEVICES
PER UNIFORM AREA
.OIL SURFACE /
TREATM
ENT 20NE
30cm t
I1J mli
=
1 '.
IS
ATL
1
13
IL HIGH WATER IAQLE
m
III
UNCATl
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m
fil
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\\
Figure 4-12. Pore liquid sampling depths
SAMPLING TUBB
INSTALLATION TRENCH
(BACKFILLED AFTER LYSIMETER INSTALLATION!
V
\
SAMPLE LINE
WATER TABLE
-15m
TREATMENT
: ZONE
TRENCH LYSIMETER
OR GLASS BLOCK
10 m-
Figure 4-23. Pan lysimeter installation
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CONCENTRATION OF TOTAL VOCs IN SOIL CORES
IN HUNDREDS OF mg/kg
5-
10-
15-
20-
ESTIMATED HEIGHT OF THE
^ TOP OF CAPILLARY FRINGE - '
X
ESTIMATED WATER TABLE DEPTH
25-
CALCULATED CO-
VALUE BELOW
WATER TABLE
10
15
% CO 2
20
25
C02
TOTAL VOCs
SATURATED
SAMPLE
Figure 4. Comparison of measured gaseous carbon dioxide concentrations versus total
organic compounds in soil cores from a vadose zone in a region of known contamination.
-110-
-------
Rrvu»o*u aod t uocepiuaJ
WO5J
r*
& *.
Lohman, S W . 1972 Definitions of Selected Ground Wat.
Refinements USGS Waler Supply Paper. Washington, C
model to aid to selecting
g Rcvtew 9-124-1)6
analytical
Monilonn,
McKxc. C. and A Bumb. 1988 A three -dimensional
monitoring locations in ibc vndosc zone Ground Walet
Muni and Interim Science
*
1
Miller, E . 1975 Physics of swelling and cracking sous Joi
52<)) 4)4-44)
plcl geometry, and vacuum
§
.f
*
C
MorTison, R . and B Lowcry. 1989» Effect of cup propc
on tbe sampling rale of a porous cup sampler (in prcu)
cup sampler, e«pcrimcDi»l
•
Morrison, R , aod B Lower?. 198% Sampling zone of
reftitlu (tn prcu)
bodiUogy foi sampting and
pp 3842
ic a,/ e, leach aod incubate
ri and met
ua Review.
M
l!
f--
2S
U (
Ij
I"
n
il
ii
method to
Myen, R G , C W Swallow and D E Kissel. I989 A i
undisturbed soil cores Soil Sci Soc Amei 5341,7-471
paths in sous New York i
1
S
j*
Parlange. J , el al . 1988 The Dow of pesticide) through p
Food and Life Sciences Ouartclly 18 2O21
i Hazardous and Industrial
ly for Testing and Materials.
!
1 5
C L Perkel, 1986 Quality Control in Remedial Sue In
Solid Waste Testing. Filth Volume ASTM STP 925 Amcr
Philadelphia. PA
tafysis fan 1 Physical and
can Agronomy Monograph
33
1*
Pelenen. R , and L CaMn, 1986 Sampling Methods
MuKralogtcal Methods (2nd edition) Soil Scsence Sooct)
N 9. pp 3) 52.
> sous Soil Sacnce Soaely
1
Raau, P, 197) Unstable welling (runts in uniform and i
of American Proceedings )76HI-b84
I
1
1
S
I
1
i
\
igsoll wall
Journal 4
Scon, and CJolhstr. 1983 A Iranssenl method lot measuni
bydrauuc conductivity Soil Science Socseiy of American
1
9
1
•5
Simpson. T, and R Cunningham. 1982 The occurrence
Envuonmenlal Quality 1(1) 29 W
lonilormg Design lor Melal
57-66 Amervun Society lor
r?
Slarks. T H . K- W Brown, and N J Fuhcr. 1986 Prcl
Pollution in Palmcrton. PA In ASTM STP 925. C Pcrkcl
Testing and Materials. Philadelphia. PA
w ol wafer and solutes on
s lur Ihc llnsalurilcd Zone
**
1 =
Slcenhuis, T, and 1 Pailangc. IVKR Simulating prefe
hlllslopcs Confcicnce on Validation of Flow and Transp
RuiJuio. New Meuco . May 23 2ti. pg II
=
1
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Slecnhuis. R . J Parlange. M Pallangc. and f Slagciull
hlllsklpcs Agrvculluial Waicr Management 14 ISM il*
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ADAPTION/ACCLIMATION
An observed increase in the rale of biodegradation
after tome period of exposure of the microbial community
to a chemical.
TIME
WAYS TO MAXIMIZE
AVAILABLE SOIL OXYGEN
• Prevent Water Saturation
• Presence ol Sand. Loam (Not Hvy Clay)
• Moderate Tilling
• Avoid Compaction
• Controlled Waste Loading
A - ADAPTATION TIME
EFFECT OF MANURE AND DM AMENDMENTS ON PAH DEGRADATION
IN A COMPLEX WASTEINCOflPORATEO INTO SOIL
PAH Compound
MICROBIAL ADAPTATION
Allowt for m«th«m«iic«l mod.U
Hall-Life In WaiieiSoil Mi«tu>« (Oay«)
Wilrtoul Amendment* With Amenomenii
Acenaphthylene
Anthracene
Phenanthrene
Ruoranthene
8enz(a)antrhaeene
8enz(a)pyrene
Dtbenz(a,h)anthracene
78
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104
123
91
179
14
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52
69
70
ADVANTAGES OF
PULSING AMENDMENTS
II mo<« man on* jaiendmeni n lequued to promote lubiuriac*
D 100.000 mg/I'lt')
can remove bloloullng and i«sux* in* «llic«ncy m tO|tcbon
well* or m|«c(ion galleries.
Pu**e* ol hydrogen peiooO* at high concenualion can ilenkl*
tne aquiler and detiroy caiala** Kllvily . pttvenlmg p get Fe (OH),
Add oxygen or hydrogen peroxide to water with
Mg/l ol organics
•> get biofouling
Add phosphate to aquifer with Ca (Mg) CO, matrix
•> Ca (Mg) FO4
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SPEAKERS
Douglass P. Bacon
Douglass P. Bacon received a B.S. in Business Administration from Northeastern University in 1961,
and an M.A. in Political Science from the University of Washington in 1974 at which time he joined
the University faculty as Associate Professor of Military Science. He is a graduate of the United
States Army Command and General Staff College, and Canadian Land Forces Command and Staff
College. Additional professional education includes the Project Management Development Course,
Explosive Ordnance/Special Weapons Disposal Courses, National Security Management (Industrial
College of the Armed Forces), Radiological Safety Course, and Basic and Advanced Chemical Officer
Courses.
Mr. Bacon joined Andrulis Research Corporation as a scientist upon his retirement from the military
service. In this capacity, he is commonly involved with testing of munitions, chemical-biological
defense equipment, new chemical defense procedures, and prototype military hardware.
Gary M. Booth
Gary M. Booth received his B.S. degree in entomology in 1963 and M.S. degree in entomology in
1966, both from Utah State University, and his Ph.D. in toxicology from the University of California
in 1969. Dr. Booth spent 1-1/2 years as an NSF Post-doctoral fellow at the University of Illinois, and
one year as Director of the Environmental Toxicology Research Laboratory for the Illinois Natural
History Survey. He has been a Faculty member at Brigham Young University (BYU) in the
Department of Zoology since 1972 and Director of Research and the Quality Assurance Program for
Environmental Labs Inc. (ELI) since 1972.
Dr. Booth directed the development of a field quality assurance program for II large scale field
Toxicology Assessments for ELI. He has directed quality assurance programs field trials on the
behavior of various xenobiotics in agricultural environments. He now teaches a course in Toxicology
and Quality Assurance at BYU and has directed QA audits in a number of research laboratories. Dr.
Booth currently serves as a toxicology consultant for the Senate Subcommittee on Labor and Human
Resources on the effects of foreign chemicals in the environment.
James F. Bowers
James F. Bowers is presently Chief of the Meteorology Division of Dugway Proving Ground. He
received his B.S. and M.S. degrees in physics from Tulane University and, as an Air Force Officer,
studied meteorology at the graduate level at Texas A&M University. As Chief of the Dugway
Meteorology Division, Mr. Bowers directs all aspects of test meteorological forecasting and
instrumentation, mesoscale wind field modeling, and atmospheric transport and dispersion modeling.
Mr. Bowers' experience in dispersion modeling for OB/OD-type releases dates to the early 1970's
when, as an Assistant Staff Meteorologist at Vandenberg Air Force Base, he developed the
operational procedures used to forecast the transport and dispersion of the large exhaust clouds
produced by the Titan HID missile.
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James L. Dicke
James L. Dicke has a B.A. in chemistry from St. Olaf College, a B.S. degree in meteorology from the
University of Utah and a M.S. degree in meteorology from the University of Michigan. He has
worked as a NOAA research meteorologist and supervisory meteorologist assigned to the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency and its predecessor organizations since 1962. He has extensive
experience in air pollution meteorology, first from the perspective of 13 years in EPA's Air Pollution
Training Institute and, most recently, from over 14 years in developing and implementing regulatory
dispersion model policy and guidance in EPA's Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards.
Mr. Dicke is currently employed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S.
Department of Commerce as a supervisory meteorologist and assigned to the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency in Durham, NC. He plans and supervises his staff in the evaluation, modification
and improvement of atmospheric disperston and related models. He and his staff prepare guidance
on applying and evaluating models and simulation techniques that are used to assess, develop or
revise national, regional and local air pollution control strategies for attainment/maintenance of
ambient air quality standards. He is a member of the Open Burning/Open Detonation (OB/OD)
Technical Steering Committee established by the Department of the Army.
Cecil Eckard
Cecil Eckard has a B.A. in Mathematics from Bridgewater College and an M.E.A. from the University
of Utah. He has worked as a Mathematical Statistician in various positions for the Department of
Defense. He has over 40 years experience in the analysis of test data from the Biological and
Chemical Programs of the Defense Department.
Mr. Eckard is currently employed by the Andrulis Research Corporation as a Group Scientist. He
is presently involved as an OB/OD Team Member with responsibility in the planning and conduct of
the test program, and the analysis and reporting of the results. He has authored and co-authored on
over a 100 test reports.
Wayne Einfeld
Wayne Einfeld earned an M.S. degree in environmental science at the University of Washington and
has also worked as an industrial hygienist. He is board certified in comprehensive practice by the
American Board of Industrial Hygienists.
Mr. Einfeld is currently a senior staff scientist with the Applied Atmospheric Research Group at
Sandia National Laboratories. As an atmospheric scientist, Wayne has been involved in a number of
areas of research relating to air pollution concerns. A primary focus of his recent work has been the
development and implementation of instrumented aircraft sampling techniques for both particulate
and gaseous species. Over the past several years, Wayne and co-workers at Sandia have developed
the Sandia instrumented Twin Otter aircraft into a highly advanced sampling platform for continuous
plume, puff, urban air and clean air sampling and characterization. His most recent efforts have been
associated with the implementation and use of instrumented aircraft sampling and analysis techniques
to fully characterize pollutant emissions from large scale open burning and open detonation of
obsolete military munitions. He is also engaged in the study and characterization of both chemical
and optical properties of smoke from biomass and hydrocarbon fires and how these smoke emissions
contribute to global climatology.
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Macdonald B. Johnson
Macdonald B. Johnson graduated from Brigham Young University in 1959, with a B.S. degree in
Chemistry/Chemical Engineering.
Mr. Johnson joined the Electronics industry in 1959 where for the next 15 years he worked as Project
Manager while developing the technology and methodology for the abdication of discrete components
and integrated circuitry for solid state electronics. Mr. Johnson joined the U.S. Government in 1981
in the demilitarization and technology field where he has served as a Program Manager on several
major OB/OD and alternatives to OB/OD studies conducted by Headquarters AMCCOM.
David K. Kreamer
David K. Kreamer has a B.S. in Microbiology, with a minor in Chemistry from the University of
Arizona. He has an M.S. and Ph.D. from that same institution in Hydrology, with a minor in
Geosciences. He has been an Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering at Arizona State University
since 1984.
Dr. Kreamer has performed an extensive amount of research on the fate and transport of
contaminants in subsurface environments. He serves on numerous local, state and national
committees, has authored over 30 publications, and has served as a lecturer for many groups including
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, the National Water
Well Association and the States of Idaho, Alaska and Arizona.
Daniel LaFleur
Daniel LaFleur holds a B.S. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Southwestern Louisiana.
For the past six years, he has worked in the Navy's Ordnance Environmental Support Office, dealing
specifically with ordnance-related environmental matters. For the past two years, Mr. LaFleur has
participated in the DOD Open Burning/Open Detonation Study being conducted by the Army
Demilitarization Office, and has served on the technical steering committee for that study.
Mr. LeFleur is a member of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers and the American
Defense Preparedness Association.
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Milton L. Lee
Milton L. Lee received a B.A. degree in chemistry from the University of Utah in 1971 and a Ph.D.
in analytical chemistry from Indiana University in 1975. Dr. Lee spent one year (1975-1976) at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology as a postdoctoral research associate before taking a faculty
position in the Chemistry Department at Brigham Young University, where he is presently the H.
Tracy Hall Professor of Analytical Chemistry.
Dr. Lee is best known for his research in modern capillary gas and supercritical fluid chromatography
and for the application of these techniques to the analysis of complex mixtures in environmental
samples and coal-derived products. He is the author or co-author of over 250 scientific publications,
and is a co-author of two books, "Analytical Chemistry of Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds" Academic
Press, 1981, and "Open Tubular Column Gas Chromatography", John Wiley, 1984. He has also
recently co-edited a comprehensive text entitled "Analytical Supercritical Fluid Chromatography and
Extraction". He is the founder and editor of the Journal of Microcolumn Separations and is on the
editorial advisory boards of Chromatographia, Journal of Supercritical Fluids, and Polycyclic Aromatic
Compounds.
Edward V. Ohanian
Edward V. Ohanian received his bachelors in Biological Sciences from Columbia University and his
Masters in Physiology from the New York Medical College. His Doctorate in Biomedical Sciences
was obtained from Mount Sinai School of Medicine. His professional affiliations include the Society
of Toxicology, the Society for Environmental Geochemistry and Health (President, 1987-1989) and
the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Dr. Ohanian is the recipient of EPA's
Gold medal for Exceptional Service.
Dr. Ohanian manages the efforts of a multidisciplinary team of professionals responsible for
developing and conducting risk assessment to establish maximum contaminant level goals as required
under the Safe Drinking Water Act and health advisories for drinking water contaminants. He also
serves as an Adjunct Associate Professor with the Department of Environmental Health Sciences of
the School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine at Tulanc University Medical Center.
Chester J.'-Oszman
• ' '-" , ' ' '•'
^Chester J: Oszman received a B.S.C.E. in Engineering with graduate study in geology from the
University of Iowa. He has worked for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency since June 1977.
In his current position, Mr. Oszman is a staff environmental engineer with responsibility for
controlling and improving solid and hazardous waste practices nationally. Mr. Oszman advises and
assists senior managers permit staff in Headquarters, Regional Offices, state and local governments,
and the regulated community in matters relating to the implementation of the hazardous waste
regulations and Resource, Conservation and Recovery Act permits. Mr. Oszman is considered a
national expert 9,1 the treatment and storage of hazardous waste and is currently managing the
implementation of the Subpart X —miscellaneous unit-permit program.
/- t ~ f ~ '
Mr. Oszman is a member of the American Society of Civil Engineers, two engineering honor
societies, the University of Iowa Alumni Association, and various employee organizations.
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Reinhold A. Rasmussen
Reinhold A. Rasmussen is Professor of Air Chemistry and Director of the Institute of Atmospheric
Sciences (IAS) at the Oregon Graduate Center, Beaverton, Oregon. He is also President of
Biospherics Research Corporation.
Dr. Rasmussen has pioneered atmospheric trace gas measurements that are now implicated in the
issues of Global Change. His laboratory has provided the primary atmospheric measurements since
1975 on the year-by-year increase in the ozone layer-destroying chlorine-containing CFC's. Recently
his laboratory demonstrated that man-made CFC's have now exceeded the natural levels of chlorine-
containing gases, which are at 600 pptv. Dr. Rasmussen's first air chemisty work, in 1965, was as a
botanist when he discovered that isoprene was released form certain plants to the atmosphere and,
in conjunction with the terpenes, in quantities that exceeded man-made sources, both within the
U.S.A. and globally. This led to President Reagan's quip in 1980 that trees were th chief culprit in'
the air pollution hydrocarbon emissions.
Raymond C. (Rocky) Rhodes
Raymond C. Rhodes received his B.S. degree in Nautical Science from the U.S. Merchant Marine
Academy. He received his B.S. degree in Chemical Engineering and his M.S. degree in statistics from
the Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Mr. Rhodes is a Fellow Member of the American Society for
Quality Control, and has been Chairman of the Chemical Division and Regional Counselor of the
Biornedical Division. He is a member of the Air and Waste Management Association and the
American Statistical Association.
Mr. Rhodes has over 40 years of experience in Quality Assurance and Statistical Quality Control.
20 Years was spent at Hercules, Inc. as Assistant Technical Director and Quality Assurance Manager
in the states of Virginia and Utah. He has spent 2 years as a Quality Assurance Consultant, and over
18 years with the USEPA in Quality Assurance Statistics. He is currently a Quality Assurance
Specialist for the USEPA at Research Triangle Park, NC.
Major Welford C. Roberts
Welford C. Roberts has B.S. and M.S. degrees in Biology from Hampton University, Virginia and is
currently a Doctoral Candidate at the University of South Carolina, School of Public Health^ His
Doctoral study has been Environmental Health Sciences with an emphasis in Occupational Health
and Industrial Toxicology. He is a Commissioned Officer in the United States A'fmy and forlrie past
12 years has served as an Environmental Science Officer. His assignment histbry'has'pr6Vided him
broad public health experience in the disciplines of environmental and institutional satiita'tiofa^disease
control and epidemiology, hospital safety and sanitation, occupational health'and industrial hygiene
and medical research and development. • • ""-'• '•"> '<•'• "'• ••'-
' ' -
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Dean 13- Seyey
Dean D. Sevey received a B.S. degree in Mechanical Engineering from Tri-State University in 1959.
Upon graduation, Mr. Sevey worked on the Redstone and Jupiter Missiles at Chrysler Missile
Corporation. In 1961 Mr. Sevey began his work with the U.S. Government in the ammunition field.
In-1968 he became associated with the Demilitarization Field and has been serving as Chief of the
Demilitarization and Technology Branch at Headquarters, AMCCOM, at Rock Island, IL since 1981.
John Woffifiden -._^_.._-_, v-. -
John Wqffinden received his B.S. degree from Utah State University in geology and mathematics.
Mr. Woffinden has. become an expert in geological testing. He has 14 years of experience in the
putili'c and private sectbf, including 4 years of environmental and munitions testing experience at
i DtfgweiyProving Ground (DPG). He is currently the 'project officer for the OB/OD test program at
DPG.
U S. EnvlrTjnrntal Protection Agency
!•--->-:i on 5, LiSrirv (5PL-16)
.iJ'J S, Dearborn Stieet, Room 1670
Chicago, IL 60604
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