U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HE I
l Federal Water Pollution CcMtrbl Admtmrtration
VOLUME III
INDUSTRIAL WASTE PROFILE NO. 1
BLAST FURNACES AND STEEL MILLS
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Other publications in the
FWPCA Publication No. I,
FWPCA Publication No. I.
FWPCA Publication No. I.
FWPCA Publication No. I,
FWPCA Publication No. I,
Industrial Waste Profile series
W.P.- 2:
W.P.
W.P.
3:
4:
5:
6:
FWPCA Publication No. I.W.P.- 7:
FWPCA Publication No. I.W.P.- 8:
FWPCA Publication No. I.W.P.- 9:
FWPCA Publication No. I.W.P.-10:
Motor Vehicles and
Parts
Paper Mills
Textile Mill Products
Petroleum Refining
Canned and Frozen
Fruits and Vegetables
Leather Tanning and
Finishing
Meat Products
Dairies
Plastics Materials and
Resins
FWPCA Publication No. I.W.P.-l
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
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THE COST OF
CLEAN WATER
Volume III
Industrial Waste Profiles
No. 1 - Blast Furnace and Steel Mills
U. S. Department of the Interior
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D C 20402 - Price 60 cents
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PREFACE
The Industrial Waste Profiles are part of the National Requirements and
Cost Estimate Study required by the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
as amended. The Act requires a comprehensive analysis of the require-
ment and costs of treating municipal and industrial wastes and other ef-
fluents to attain prescribed water quality standards.
The Industrial Waste Profiles were established to describe the source
and quantity of pollutants produced by each of the ten industries stud-
ied. The profiles were designed to provide industry and government
with information on the costs and alternatives involved in dealing ef-
fectively with the industrial water pollution problem. They include
descriptions of the costs and effectiveness of alternative methods of
reducing liquid wastes by changing processing methods, by intensifying
use of various treatment methods, and by increasing utilization of
wastes in by-products or water reuse in processing. They also describe
past and projected changes in processing and treatment methods.
The information provided by the profiles cannot possibly reflect the
cost or wasteload situation for a given plant. However, it is hoped
that the profiles, by providing a generalized framework for analyzing
individual plant situations, will stimulate industry's efforts to find
more efficient ways to reduce wastes than are generally practiced today.
- ^SuJtL
[ I Commissioner ^* "
Federal Waxejr Pollution Control Administration
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INDUSTRIAL WASTE PROFILE
BLAST FURNACE AND STEEL MILLS
SIC 3312
Prepared for F.W.P.C.A.
FWPCA Contract Number 14-12-98
September 28, 1967
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
September 1967
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SCOPE OF MATERIAL COVERED
This profile study was undertaken to provide the Federal Water
Pollution Control Administration with comprehensive information
on the waterborne wastes of the blast furnace and steel mill
industry - SIC 3312. This industry includes establishments
primarily engaged in manufacturing hot metal, pig iron, silvery
pig iron, and ferroalloys from iron ore and iron and steel scrap;
converting pig iron, scrap iron, and scrap steel into steel; and
in hot-rolling steel into basic shapes such as plates, sheets,
strips, rods, bars, and tubing. Merchant blast furnaces and
by-product or beehive coke ovens are also included in this industry,
Most of the iron and steel industry in the United States is
centered in the integrated facilities of large corporate enter-
prises; the eight largest producers are among the 100 largest
industrial corporations in this country. The comparatively small
integrated producer in this industry represents a very large
industrial complex. Even the smallest producer in the industry
may not be considered a very small industrial operation.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No.
i. Preface 2
ii. Scope 4
iii. Table of Contents 5
iv. Summary of Report 6
I. Processes and Wastes 16
A. Fundamental Manufacturing Processes 16
B. Water Wastes 17
C. Re-use of Process Water in 1964 20
D. Industry Subprocesses and Mix 22
E. Waste Control Problems ..... 38
F. Production Process Streams . 40
II. A. Gross Waste Quantities Before Treatment or
Other Disposal ... ........... 44
1. Waste Quantities and Wastewater Volumes 44
2. Wastes and Volumes by Technology Level 54
3. Unit Waste Loads and Wastewater Volumes 56
4. Base Year Total Waste Loads 57
5. Projected Total Waste Loads 59
6. Seasonal Variations 69
III. Waste Reduction Practices . 70
A. Processing Practices 70
B. Treatment Practices ......... 72
C. By-Product Utilization . 78
D. Base Year Net Waste Quantities 78
E. Projected Net Waste Quantities 79
IV. Waste Reduction or Removal Costs 82
A. Costs of Existing Waste Removal Facilities ..... 82
B. Costs According to Technology Level and Plant
Size by Subprocess 84
v. Bibliography 94
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SUMMARY OF REPORT
Pig iron is produced in the blast furnace, utilizing iron ore, coke,
and limestone as the raw materials. Steel is produced in a variety
of processes such as the open-hearth furnace, the basic oxygen furnace,
the electric furnace, and the Bessemer converter; the modern steel-
making processes utilize a large percentage of steel scrap in addition
to pig iron and various alloying elements.
Molten steel is cast into ingots and delivered to the primary rolling
mills, where semifinished shapes such as blooms, slabs, and billets
are formed. Slabs and billets may be formed directly by the newer
continuous casting process. Semifinished shapes are further reduced
by rolling on secondary mills into such shapes as plates, strip,
bars, structural shapes, rails, and tubes. Various cleaning
operations are required during the rolling steps to remove oxide
films, dirt, and oil. The cleaning operations include water washing,
shot blasting, pickling, and the use of detergents and solvents.
A given plant may ship iron or steel at any stage of production as
its final product. Many plants, hoxvever, further finish the secondary
mill products by cold reduction, galvanizing, tinplating, coating,
tempering, polishing, etc. Large steel plants operate coke ovens,
producing metallurgical coke from coal, since this ironmaking raw
material is used in such great quantities.
Significant waterborne wastes result from almost all steel mill
manufacturing operations. These wastes are principally suspended
solids, oils, heated water, waste acids, plating solutions, and
dissolved organic chemicals. Steel industry wastewaters are unique
among industrial wastes in that the volumes of the effluent streams
are so great.
The principal waste from the blast furnace operation is water used
in washing the exit gases from the furnace free of suspended solids;
similar wastes result from sinter plant operations, which are usually
part of the blast- furnace department. To a large extent these wastes
result from air pollution abatement measures, but blast furnace gas
must be cleaned to permit its use as a fuel. The principal
pollutant is the solid material suspended in the wastewater.
Waterborne wastes from steelmaking operations result from washing
exit gases with water to prevent air pollution. These wastewaters
are similar to blast furnace gaswasher water and are produced
mainly by the newer steelmaking furnaces.
Continuous casting machines and hot-rolling mills produce wastewaters
which contain suspended solid materials, oils, and dirt. The various
cleaning operations produce wastewaters containing saponified oils,
dirt, alkali, and solvent residues. The principal waste fro'n cleaning
operations is spent pickle liquor, which consists of solutions of
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various acids and the iron salts of these acids. Spent pickling
solutions represent by far the most difficult wastewater problem
of the industry.
Effluents from steel finishing operations contain emulsified oils
and suspended solids, principally resulting from cold-rolling and
cold reduction mills. The various plating operations, particularly
electrolytic tinplating and galvanizing and chromium plating,
produce wastewaters containing soluble metals; such sources of
pollution are usually rinsewaters.
Coke plant wastes originate as ammonia still wastes, coke quenching
effluents, light oil decant waters, and acid washing effluents,
and contain phenols, cyanides, ammonia, and chorides. These materials
may appear alternatively in blast furnace gaswasher water when the
coke plant effluent is used to quench coke.
Gross water intake by. the industry in 1964 was 3,815 billion gallons;
gross water use, including recirculation and re-use was 5,510 billion
gallons. Overall water re-use was thus 42.1 per cent. Cooling water
re-use is estimated to have been 52.2 per cent and process water
re-use 18.1 per cent. Water uses by the industry are summarized in
the following table, for the year 1964; uses are in billions of
gallons.
Manufacturing Process Process Water Cooling Water
Blast furnaces 276 586
Open-hearth furnaces 1 491
Basic oxygen furnaces 8 37
Electric furnaces 1 63
Hot-rolling mills and related 468 468
Cold mills and related 264
Coke plants 6 632
Sanitary, boilers, etc. - 254
Blowers, condensers, etc. - 1955
1024 4486
The general trend in the steel industry is toward the use of sub-
processes which will produce products of lighter unit weight at
increasingly higher speeds with minimum manual operations. Production
units generally tend toward the largest sizes in order to realize
the economies of scale. The rate of adoption of the newer processing
technologies can be seen by the following data on past and projected
uses of selected subprocesses, in terms of percentages of plants
using each.
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Subprocess 1950 1963 1967 1972 1977
Bessemer converter 10.3 6.0 4.3 2.0 0
Open-hearth furnaces 49.1 41.7 39.6 35.0 30.0
Basic oxygen furnaces (1) 0 7.3 13.7 25.0 35.0
Ingot Molding 47.9 49.7 51.1 50.0 40.0
Continuous casting (1) 0 1.3 7.9 15.0 25.0
(1) Newer Technology
Particularly difficult waste problems arise from certain steel industry
subprocesses, especially some of the newer production methods which
are geared to high-speed, high-volume outputs. The gaswasher water
from ferromanganese furnaces contain particles of sub-micron sizes
which are extremely difficult to separate by sedimentation. Such
furnaces also produce effluents which contain greater concentrations
of cyanides than those from ironmaking furnaces. The wastewaters
from basic oxygen furnaces contain very fine suspended particles which
are difficult to treat; the wastewaters from oxygen-lanced open-hearth
furnaces are similar.
The very fine particles in the wastewaters from the newer hot-strip
mills are not readily separated in ordinary sedimentation equipment
and impart black or red colors to effluent streams, even in low
concentrations. Effluents from cold mills contain soluble oils which
require extensive treatment for removal. Such emulsions are parti-
cularly stable when detergents are used in the rolling operation.
Coke plant effluents present particularly difficult waste control
problems. Phenols and cresols can be reduced by relatively simple
processes, but are further reduced to the point acceptable for
discharge in most instances with great difficulty.
A general characteristic of steel industry effluents that makes for
difficult waste control problems is their large volumes. Most
industrial waste discharges are not of the magnitude found in the
steel industry. A waste stream flowing at 10,000 to 25,000 gallons
per minute presents a difficult treatment problem.
There is no generally accepted standard of plant size in the industry.
Based upon analysis of available data, the following categories
appear to be reasonable; the data indicate the percentages of plants
in each size grouping in 1967.
Plant Size Per Cent of Plants Ingot Tons Produced Annually
Small 53.9 Less than 1,000,000
Medium 15.2 1,000,000 to 2,000,000
Large 30.9 More than 2,000,000
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Levels of technology in the industry may be described according to
the relative prevalence of certain subprocesses in a particular
plant. Not all subprocesses can be easily categorized; subprocesses
that are considered descriptive of technology levels are tabulated
in the following table.
Subprocess
Blooming Mill
Sinter Plant
Basic Oxygen Furnace
Continuous Casting
Hot-Dip Tinplating
Cold Reduction
Vacuum Degassing
Beehive Coke Ovens
Level of Technology
Old and Typical
Typical and Advanced
Advanced
Advanced
Old
Typical and Advanced
Advanced
Old
The percentages of plants in the industry according to technology
level and plant size are given below, based upon the considerations
and assumptions mentioned.
Plant Size
Small
Medium
Large
All
Level of Technology
Old Typical Advanced
32.0 54.7 13.3
30.0 55.7 14.3
27.9 34.9 37.2
30.4 48.7 20.9
Waste loads, in pounds produced per ingot ton per day, by plants
operating at the various levels of technology are summarized in the
following table.
Waste
Suspended Solids
Phenols
Cyanides
Fluorides
Ammonia
Lube Oils
Free Acids
Combined Acids
Emulsions
Soluble Metals
Level of Technology
Old Typical
103 125
0.069 0.064
0.029 0.028
0.033 0.031
0.082 0.078
3.08 2.72
3.03 3.54
11.3 13.2
0.332 0.414
0.079
Advanced
184
0.064
0.031
0.031
0.078
2
3
37
40
12.6
1.17
0.082
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Waste Water volumes produced, per ingot ton per day, are summarized
below for plants at the various levels of technology.
Level of Technology Wastewater Volume, gallons
Old 9,860
Typical 10,000
Advanced 13,750
Alternative subprocesses in ironmaking are limited to the variations
in blast furnaces and their operations and to the use of sintering.
Processes such as direct reduction which replace the blast furnace
are not likely to be soon adopted in this country to any significant
extent. The alternative subprocesses in steelmaking are the
oxygen-lanced open-hearth furnace and the basic oxygen furance.
The electric furnace tends to fill specialized steelmaking require-
ments and is not usually alternative to the other steelmaking methods.
Continuous casting is an aternative to the sequential operations of
ingot molding, soaking, rolling blooms, and rolling slabs or billets.
Hot-rolling operations are alternative to one another principally in
the size and speed of the mill. Methods of conditioning semifinished
steel may be considered as alternatives and include chipping and
grinding, hand scarfing, and hot-scarfing machines. Oxide films may
be removed from steel by pickling in sulfuric or hydrochloric acids,
or by the use of shot blasting; these may be regarded as alternative
subprocesses.
Tinplating by the hot-dip and electrolytic processes are alternative
to one another and to chromium plating. The hot-dip and electrolytic
galvanizing processes are alternative subprocesses. Most other steel
mill operations do not have clearly defined alternative subprocesses.
In general, the subprocesses representative of the newer technologies
in steel mill operations produce greater waterborne waste loads than
do the older manufacturing methods. This characteristic of the newer
technologies is due to the fact that lighter products are becoming
more predominate in the industry and to the generally increasing
production rates. Wastes are generated in proportion to the surface
area of steel exposed during rolling and finishing operations and
in proportion to the relative gas-liquid interfacial areas -in
ironmaking and steelmaking operations; the newer technologies tend
to maximize these areas and to thus generate greater unit waste loads,
The newer installations do, however, generally incorporate waste
treatment facilities and actual plant discharges are not necessarily
greater in newer plants. The exceptions to this generality are found
in the cases of continuous casting and of shot-blast cleaning; these
newer subprocesses are alternatives to ingot molding, etc. and
pickling, respectively, reduce waste loads.
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Blast furnaces are becoming larger and sinter plants are increasingly
utilized due to the need of higher production rates and the decreasing
quality of available ores. Sintering reduces flue dust losses from
blast furnaces, but increases the total plant waste loads. Basic
oxygen furnaces are being built to replace conventional open-hearth
furnaces; open-hearth furnaces will, however, continue to operate
with oxygen-lancing. Electric furnaces will exhibit steady, slow
growth, independently of increasing basic oxygen furnace capacity.
Continuous casting is yet in its infancy in this country, but is
steadily being put into commercial operation. The very large
investments in ingot molding, soaking pits, and primary rolling mills
will not permit the wholesale adoption of this technique in the near
future; the technique is not completely substitutable for the other
operations in any case at present.
Hot-strip mills are becoming larger and faster and roll thinner
gauges due to higher production requirements and to the market
demand for thinner strip. Hot-scarfing is being increasingly used
due to the market demand for higher quality products. Hydrochloric
acid is substituted for sulfuric acid to obtain faster pickling and
to produce a better surface on the product. Shot blasting is limited
as a substitute technique for pickling due to the investment in
pickling facilities and due to the limitations of available machines.
Electrolytic tinplating and glavanizing replace hot-dip processes
due to the higher production rates possible with the newer processes
arid to the reduced plating metal used per unit of plated surface.
At least one producer is experimenting with chromium plating as a
substitute for tinplating on a commercial basis; the potential market
is in the container industry.
The principal wastes of the industry may be described in broad terms
as suspended solids, lubricating oils, acids, soluble metals,
emulsions, and coke plant chemicals. These substances appear in
effluents in various combinations, depending upon the particular
manufacturing operations in which the wastes are generated. For
example, suspended solids appear with coke plant chemicals in blast
furnace gaswasher water, alone in effluents from basic oxygen furnace
gas scrubbers, with lubricating oils in hot-mill effluents, and with
emulsions in cold mill effluents. The methods of treatment and the
efficiencies of treatment methods vary depending upon the sources
of wastes and the combinations in which they occur.
Suspended solids from blast furnace gaswasher water and sinter plant
effluents may be removed by plain sedimentation and by coagulation
and sedimentation; recirculation of the wastewater may be used with
either method. Similar treatment may be used to remove suspended
solids from hot-rolling mills, but provision must be made for removal
of flotant oil by skimming. Suspended solids may be removed from
cold mill effluents by various sedimentation methods, but the emulsions
present must first be broken; magnetic separators can be used to
remove these solids without regard to the ertulsion.
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Lubricating oils are generally removed by allowing adequate time
for flotation and then skimming the oil from the water surface.
Chemical treatment, which results in absorption of the oil by floe
particles, is required to remove such oils substantially completely.
Emulsions must be broken in order to allow the oil to separate,
float, and be skimmed from the water surface, especially if detergents
are present which act to stabilize emulsions.
Waste acids may be disposed of in deep wells, reduced in effluents
by using regeneration techniques, or treated by neutralization with
alkaline agents. None of these techniques are applied to the
treatment of acid rinsewaters which, although dilute, contain 15 to
25 per cent of the acid used in pickling. Deep wells are limited
both by local and state regulations for waste disposal in some cases
and by geological considerations in others; the technique is
increasingly used, however, and is often the least costly disposal
method for waste acids. Regeneration processes for waste acids are
technically feasible, but have not been widely used because of the
expense involved; the regeneration of hydrochloric acid is technically
easier and less expensive than of other acids. Neutralization
requires less capital investment than regeneration processes; there
are not credits obtainable for the resulting sludge and the expense
of lagooning the sludge is high. The land used for lagooning sludge
is usually unfit for subsequent use.
Soluble metals in plating rinsewaters may be disposed of by deep well
injection and by ion exchange methods; combination of such effluents
with acid wastes and subsequent neutralization and lagooning is
another treatment method. The chemicals present in coke plant
effluents are often reduced by quenching hot coke with these waste-
waters; some of these materials appear then, however, in the blast
furnace gaswasher water. Deep well disposal can be used here and
biological treatment processes are effective in reducing these
materials in effluents.
Treatment facilities must be properly operated if effective waste
reduction is to be realized. Many plants operate waste treatment
facilities efficiently and exercise close control over the treatment
plant operators. Others, however, often turn such duties over to
untrained labor and accomplish little waste reduction, even after
the installation of otherwise adequate facilities.
The extent to which recirculation of process water is practiced
and the degree to which air pollution abatement is undertaken by
wet-scrubbing methods are the factors of greatest importance in
determining waste loads from given production processes. Waterborne
wastes can be all but eliminated by recirculation of process water;
steelmaking processes would generate little or no waterborne wastes
if exit gases were not scrubbed with water.
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Spent pickling solutions and coke plant wastes can be discharged
tomunicipal sewers and treated with municipal wastes. This is not
practiced widely in the industry. Acids can attack sewer materials
and inhibit the biological processes in sewage treatment plants;
sulfates can cause corrosion in concrete sewers of certain types.
Coke plant wastes can inhibit sewage treatment processes due to the
toxicity of phenols and cyanides. Pickle liquor must be partially
neutralized before discharge to municipal sewers and the flow rate
must be regulated in relation to the relative volumes of sewage to
which it is added. Coke plant wastes must be added by controlled
discharge so as not to upset the treatment plant processes.
By-product recovery and utilization is inherent in certain steel
industry waste treatment operations. By-product recovery and
utilization in the sense that some marketable commodity is manufactured
from a waste stream component, is not found in the industry and it
is not likely to be developed. The reason lies in the fact that the
steel industry is a heavy industry, utilizing raw materials and
producing products that are cheap on a weight basis; expensive
processing cannot be justified to recover such materials.
The suspended material from blast furnace gaswasher water and recovered
mill scale are sintered and returned to the blast furnace or steel-
making furnace for reprocessing. Oils recovered from cold mill
rolling solutions are processed for re-use in the mill operation or
for sale. Acid regenerated from spent pickle liquor is returned to
the pickling tanks.
Some other by-products are recovered in the course of gas-scrubbing
cleaning operations which reduce potential waste loads well ahead
,of the point of discharge of water effluents. Ammonium sulfate is
produced in removing ammonia from coke oven gas with sulfuric acid;
phenol is recovered from coke oven gas by vapor recirculation or
solvent extraction. Copperas is produced from pickle liquor in a
few plants and one or two plants are able to dispose of pickle liquor
to chemical or pigment manufacturers.
In the eight years from 1955 to 1963, steel capacity increased from
125 to 155 million tons per year: During this period the industry
invested about 1.42 billion dollars per year in plant and equipment
in terms of 1965 prices. The replacement value of plant and equipment
in the industry is estimated to be about 60 billion dollars in terms
of current prices, or an average of $387 per annual ingot ton of
capacity. The value of older equipment producing heavier unit products
is about 2/3 of this average value, while that of newer equipment
producing lighter unit products is about 1/3 greater.
The estimated replacement value of waste treatment facilities installed
in 1966 is estimated to have been 865 million dollars, or about 1.44
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per cent of the total investment in plant and equipment. Waste
treatment facilities in the newest production facilities under
construction are reported to cost six per cent of the total plant
cost. Waste treatment facilities in an integrated mill which
utilizes a high degree of process water recirculation with minimum
treatment are reported to average 4.5 per cent of the total investment
in production facilities.
Operating costs for waste treatment processes and for production
processes may be considered in terms of direct and indirect costs.
Direct costs include labor, supervision, maintenance and supplies;
indirect costs include amortization, general overhead, taxes and
insurance. Based upon the average plant size, the estimated
percentages of plants utilizing particular waste treatment processes,
steelmaking production of 135 million ingot tons per year, and the
wastewater volumes outlined herein, the annual expenditures by the
industry in 1966 for waste treatment are as follows:
Cost Component Amounts in 1966 Per Ingot Ton
Direct $90,104,240 $0.667
Indirect 53,815,670 0.398
Credits 53,601,860 0.397
Operating labor costs in the steel industry are approximately 54
per cent of the value added by manufacture, which was about $78.50
per ingot ton in 1966. Materials, supplies, freight and other
services amounted to about $60.50 per ingot ton, indicating direct
operating and maintenance expenditures of $102.90 per ingot ton in
1966. Direct expenditures for waste treatment in the industry are
thus estimated to be approximately 0.65 per cent of the direct
expenditures for production.
Average waste treatment costs cannot be applied to specific plants
without careful consideration of all of the factors involved. The
costs of waste collection and conveyance to a treatment site may be
minimal in one plant and exceed all other costs in another. The
age of the production plant and particularly the available space for
treatment facilities are important variables in waste treatment costs.
In general, waste treatment facilities in older, crowded mills cost
135 per cent of the average, while facilities in new mills may cost
70 per cent of the average.
The average economic life of production facilities in the industry is
estimated to be 26 years. The actual life of any particular production
facility is very difficult to define, since some pieces of equipment
are actually rebuilt many times before being finally discarded,
usually on account of obsolescence. The economic life of waste
treatment facilities is about 15 years on the average; the actual
lives of particular waste treatment facilities are extremely variable.
An acid neutralization plant may last 10 years, while a scale pit in
a rolling mill could last 50 years.
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The estimates of waste loads, wastewater volumes, treatment and
production methods, and costs given in this report are considered
to be descriptive of the industry. It must be remembered that this
industry is extremely hetrogeneous. Every plant in the industry
has some uniqueness and these differences can be of critical
importance in assessing water and waste problems.
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I. Processes and Wastes
Generalizations about steelmaking operations are difficult, and
exceptions can be found in any mill. Steel mills in operation
today range from new, modern mills built within the last decade to
older marginal facilities built early in this century. Manufac-
turing operations in the industry may be grouped as ironmaking,
steelmaking, steel casting, steel rolling, cleaning, finishing,
and coke manufacturing. A single mill is not likely to incorporate
all of the many combinations and variations of these operations
that are possible. Most mills specialize in the production of
broad categories of steel products; in a large mill, however, the
product list is very long.
A. Fundamental Manufacturing Processes
Pig iron as produced in the blast furnace is too soft for most
industrial uses; it must be further refined to produce steel which
is the form in which most iron is utilized. Steel may be defined
as an alloy of iron and carbon, with or without special alloying
elements. Steel is produced from pig iron by adjusting the carbon
content of the alloy to less than 2%. The principal steelmaking
processes include the open-hearth furnace, the basic oxygen
furnace, the electric furnace, and the Bessemer converter; modern
steel production processes utilize a large percentage of steel
scrap in addition to pig iron.
Molten steel as produced by the various processes must be converted
into solid forms for production of usable products; this is the
process referred to as steel casting. Most steel today is cast
into a tapered mold and allowed to solidify, producing a shape known
as an ingot. The ingot is the form in which steel is delivered to
the rolling mill. Continuous casting of steel into smaller, more
readily usable shapes is a recent development which eliminates ingot
molding. Cast steel is formed into a wide variety of finished and
semifinished shapes by squeezing the heated metal between heavy
steel rolls. Primary mills form ingot into slabs, blooms, and
billets. There are no precise definitions of these terms; dis-
tinctions are made according to general appearance, influenced by
overall size and by intended use. A slab is an oblong form 2 to 9
inches thick and 24 to 60 inches wide. A bloom is a square shape
from 6 to 12 inches wide. A billet is a square shape from 2 to 5
inches wide. These products of the primary mills are further reduced
by hot-rolling to plates, strips, bars, structural shapes, rails,
and tubes. During the rolling process, the steel acquires a coating
of oxide which must be removed before- further processing or sale.
The oxide coating is removed by pickling in an acid bath or by
mechanical means such as shot blasting. Many steel products,
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particularly strip steel, is cleaned by using alkaline and detergent
solutions; such cleaning operations are used throughout many stages
of production, particularly in the production of tinplate to remove
accumulated oils and dirt. Finishing operations consist of cold
reduction, galvanizing, tinplating, chromium plating, coating with
various synthetic resins, coating with other metals or inorganic
materials, and various tempering and polishing operations. The
steel forms produced from these operations constitute the saleable
products of the industry. Coke plants are operated by the steel
industry because of the large quantities of coke used in the
ironmaking process. Bituminous coal is baked in ovens in the absence
of air; the volatile material is driven off, leaving the hardened
residue known as coke. The volatile materials are recovered and
converted into by-products in coke ovens known as by-product ovens.
The beehive coke oven, which is rarely used in the United States
today, produces coke without the recovery of by-products.
B. Water Wastes
Significant waterborne wastes result from almost all steel mill
manufacturing processes. These wastes are principally suspended
solids, oils, heated water, waste acids, plating solutions, and
dissolved organic chemicals. Steel industry wastewaters are unique
among industrial wastes in that the volumes of the effluent streams
are so great.
1. Cooling Water
Water that is used for indirect cooling is polluted only to the
extent that its temperature is raised. The temperature rise probably
averages about 10°F. The actual temperature of the effluent depends
upon the temperature of the intake water, which is generally a
function of the season of the year when a surface water source is
used. Ground water sources are usually at non-uniform temperatures
year-round. Certain highly industrialized rivers are quite warm,
even during the coldest winter months and cooling water discharged is
likewise above average in temperature.
2. Blast Furnace Wastewaters
The water used in washing blast furnace flue gas free of dust
particles contains from 1,000 to 10,000 mg/liter of suspended solids,
which approximate the composition of the furnace burden. Following
a slip in the furnace, the concentration of suspended solids may be
as much as 30,000 mg/liter. Blast furnace gaswasher water may amount
to 600 to 5,000 gallons per minute per furnace, depending upon the
type of washer used. The suspended solids from an iron-producing
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furnace are generally 50 percent finer than 10 microns in diameter
and have a specific gravity of about 3.5 on the average; the effluent
is red in color. A furnace producing ferromanganese discharges
particles which are extremely fine and are lighter in color than
those from an iron-producing furnace.
Blast furnace gaswasher water contains significant concentrations of
cyanides, phenol, and ammonia in addition to suspended solids.
Gaswasher waters from ferromanganese furnaces have much higher
concentrations of cyanides than do washwaters from iron furnaces.
These wastewaters result from a gas-cleaning operation and thus
prevent to a considerable extent air pollution which would otherwise
result. The primary reason for cleaning the gas, however, is to
allow its use as a fuel.
Quenching blast furnace slag produces small quantities of water
containing slag particles. The effluent from a slag pit may range
from 100 to 200 gallons per minute and is of a clear appearance.
The dust produced from the sintering plant operation is often
recovered through the use of wet washers operating on the exhausts
of hoods and building ventilators. Such wastewashers are very
similar to blast furnace gaswasher water insofar as suspended solids
are concerned; cyanides, phenol, and ammonia are not found in such
effluents. A typical wet washer will produce an effluent of 1000
gallons- per minute. This wastewater is produced as the result of
air pollution abatement measures.
3. Steelmaking Wastewaters
Waterborne wastes from steelmaking operations result from washing
the exit gases with water as an air pollution abatement measure.
The suspensions of solids which result are similar to blast furnace
gaswasher water, but the particles are generally much finer. These
wastes may be generated from open-hearth furnaces, basic oxygen
furnaces and hot scarfing operations. The suspended particles are
very fine, red in color, and are principally iron oxide (Fe203). the
effluent volumes may range from 600 to 2000 gallons per minute,
depending upon the type of washer used.
4. Steel Casting and Hot Rolling Mill Wastewaters
Wastewaters from continuous casting and hot rolling mill operations
result from washing scale from the surface of the steel with water
and in the water used to transport the scale through the flume beneath
the mill line; the water used to cool the rolled product becomes part
of the mill effluent. The effluents from hot mills contain suspended
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particles of scale and oils which originate in the hydraulic and
lubricating systems. The scale particles range from large pieces to
sub-micron sizes, depending upon the particular operation and are
mixtures of the various iron oxides; the oils in such effluents are
only slightly water-miscible and appear as flotant oil. Effluent
volumes range from 2,000 to 7,000 gallons per minute from primary
mills to 5,000 to 25,000 gallons or more per minute from finishing
mills. Some of the newest wide hot-strip mills produce effluents
of as much as 100,000 gallons per minute.
5. Wastewaters from Cleaning Operations
Steel cleaning operations produce both acidic and alkaline solutions;
spent pickling solutions and acid rinsewaters represent by far the
most significant of these wastes. Spent pickling solutions from
continuous strip picklers contain 5 to 9 per cent free acid and 13 to
16 per cent iron salts; from batch operations, such solutions contain
0.5 to 2.0 per cent free acid and 15 to 22 per cent iron salts. Ten
to 15 per cent of the acid used in pickling is discharged in the
rinsewaters as highly diluted free acid and iron salts. Sulfuric
acid is used in most pickling operations and hydrochloric acid is the
next most widely used. Nitric, phosphoric and hydrofluoric acids are
also used in pickling stainless steels. These acids and their
respective iron salts appear in spent pickling solutions and in acid
rinsewaters; various additive organic chemicals and trace metals other
than iron are also found. Effluent volumes from pickling tanks range
from 5000 gallons per day from small batch picklers to 150,000 gallons
per day from large continuous strip picklers; acid rinsewaters amount
to 15 to 20 times the volumes of the strong solutions.
Alkaline cleaning solutions utilize caustic soda, soda ash, silicates,
and phosphates to remove rolling oils prior to finishing operations.
Spent solutions contain saponified oils and dirt and considerable
residual alkalinity. Total volumes are small, ranging from 1,000 to
10,000 gallons per week; rinsewaters are very dilute solutions and
are typically of the order of 100 gallons per minute per line.
6. Steel Finishing Wastewaters
Steel finishing operations consist of cold rolling, tinplating,
galvanizing, plating with other metals, coating, and tempering. The
effluent from a cold mill typically contains 200 rag per liter of oil,
25 percent of which is as a stable emulsion and relatively low
concentrations of scale particles; effluent volumes are typically
1000-1500 gallons per minute per mill. Electrolytic tinplating
solutions contain sodium stannate, sodium hydroxifle, and sodium
acetate; wastewater effluents result from rinsing and quenching
operations and typically amount to 2,800 gallons per minute in
volume. Wastewaters from other finishing operations are small in
volume and are generally only contaminated in that they are heated.
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7. Coke Plant Wastes
Wastewaters from coke plants originate as ammonia still wastes, coke
quenching effluents, light oil plant decant waters, and acid washing
effluents. Much of the wastewater is used in quenching coke and then
volitalizing much of the waste material; this results in a significant
air pollution problem, but the effects are usually confined to plant
property. Coke plant wastes contain phenols, ammonia, ammonium salts,
cyanides, chlorides, and sulfates. These wastes typically amount to
160,000 gallons per day from a single plant.
C. Re-Use of Process Water in 1964
According to the U. S; Bureau of the Census, Census of Manufacturers,
the gross water intake by the industry in 1964 was 3,815 billion
gallons. Gross water use, including recirculation or reuse was
5,510 billion gallons, water taken in for process purposes amounted
to 867 billion gallons. The total water reused was thus 42.1 percent
of the total taken in.
Steel production in 1964 amounted to 127,076,000 ingot tons. Hot-
rolled products totaled 93,635,000 tons and steel produced as
cold-rolled sheets and strips, cold-rolled bars, tinplate and
terneplate, and galvanized .sheets and strip totaled 33,030,000 tons.
Blast furnace production totaled 86,212,000 tons and was accomplished
in. 147 furnaces. Steel was produced as follows:
Steelmaking Process Production, tons
Open Hearth 98,097,000
Bessemer 858,000
Electric Furnace 12,678,000
Basic Oxygen Furnace 15,442,000
Industrial Wastewater Control, Academic Press, New York, 1965
tabulates the following water requirements in steelmaking operations:
Department Gal. per ton of Percent
of Mill Finished Steel of Total
Blast Furnace 10,000 25
Open Hearth 5,000 12 1/2
Coke Plants 5,000 12 1/2
Hot Mills 10,000 25
Finishing Mills 8,000 20
Sanitary, Boiler, Etc. 2,000 5
40,00~0" T6~0
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Process water may be defined in the steel industry as water which
contacts the product or any by-product, including fumes and gases
generated by the process. Cooling water may be defined as water,
used for cooling, which does not directly contact the product or any
process by-product. These definitions are conventional within the
industry, at least with people concerned with pollution problems.
Such definitions are reasonable in that most water-washing operations
in the industry do result in the recovery of some useful material of
value.
Dust Recovery Practice at Blast Furnaces, Ohio River Valley Water
Sanitation Commission, 1958 indicates that about 3200 gallons of
water per ton of iron produced is used for gas-washing purposes.
Process water use in blast furnaces in 1964 is thus estimated to have
been 86,212,000 x 3,200, or 276 billion gallons; cooling water use
was thus about 86,212,000 x (10,000-3,200), or 586 billion gallons.
Only a few open hearth furnaces were equipped with wet-washers in
1964; the water used in the open-hearth is primarily for cooling.
The cooling water used for open-hearth cooling in 1964 is estimated
to have been 98,090,000 x 5,000, or 491 billion gallons; process
water use was minimal.
All basic oxygen furnaces have been built with gas-cleaning facilities,
A typical furnace uses 2,200 gallons of water per minute for initial
scrubbing of the exit gases and 10,000 gallons per minute for final
cooling of these gases; it may produce 250 tons of steel per hour.
In 1964 the average capacity of a basic oxygen furnace was 700,000
tons per year. Assuming 22 operating furnaces of average capacity,
process water use was 530 gallons per ton and cooling water use was
2400 gallons per ton. Total process water use was thus about
15,442,000 x 530, or 8.2 billion gallons and cooling water use about
37.1 billion gallons.
Few electric furnaces use water scrubbers for fume control. Cooling
water requirements may be estimated as for open-hearth.furnaces.
This use amounted to about 12,678,000 x 5,000, or 63.4 billion
gallons in 1964; a minimal amount was used as process water.
About one-half of the water used in a hot-mill is used as cooling
water in the reheating furnaces; the remainder is used to wash scale
from the steel and for flume flushing. The process water use in
hot rolling was then about 93,635,000 x 5000, or 468 billion gallons
and the cooling water an equal amount. The water used in a finishing
mill and its related processes is all process water; such use in 1964
was about 33,030,000 x 8000, or 264 billion gallons.
Approximately 99% of the water used in a coke plant is for cooling
and is estimated to have aggregated 127,076,000 x 4,950, or 632
billion gallons in 1964. Process water use was thus about
127,076,000 x (5,000-4,950), or 6.4 billion gallons.
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Sanitary, boiler, etc. uses would have been about 127,076,000 x
2,000, or 254 billion gallons in 1964. The remaining water uses in a
steel mill are for blowers, condensers, and miscellaneous coolers and
may be taken to be the difference between the sum of all the uses
detailed above and the total used, i.e., about 1,955 billion gallons
in 1964.
The various water uses in the industry in 1964 are summarized below.
INDUSTRY WATER USES IN 1964, BILLIONS OF GALLONS
Manufacturing Process Process Water Cooling Water
Blast furnaces 276 586
Open hearth furnaces 1 491
Basic oxygen furnaces 8 37
Electric furnaces 1 63
Hot-rolling mills and related 468 468
Cold mills and related 264
Coke plants 6 632
Sanitary, boiler, etc. - 254
Blowers, condensers, etc. - 1955
On the basis of the above, process water reuse in 1964 was about 157
billion gallons; this amounts to 18.1% of the water taken in for such
purposes. Cooling water reuse is indicated to have betn 1,538 billion
gallons, or 52.2% of the water taken in for such purposes.
D. Industry Subprocesses and Mix
The various fundamental manufacturing processes in the steel industry
may be carried out by alternative means in most cases. For the
purposes of this study the alternative means have been designated
subprocesses. The steel industry is so heterogeneous that almost any
combination of these subprocesses can be found in any one plant,
depending upon the products manufactured and the source of the plant's
raw materials. The subprocesses which may be included under iron-
making are those which are normally operated by the blast furnace
department in an integrated steel mill. For this reason sinter plants
are included herein.
1. Ironmaking
Molten iron for subsequent steelmaking operations is normally produced
in a blast furnace. The blast furnace is a vertical, quasi-cylindrical
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structure, ranging from 65 to 106 feet high and 15 to 28 feet in
diameter. The blast furnace process consists essentially of charging
iron ore, limestone, and coke into the top of the furnace and blow-
ing heated air into the bottom. Combustion of the coke provides the
heat necessary to obtain the temperature at which the metallurgical
reducing reactions take place. Incandescent carbon of the coke
accounts for about 20% of the reduction of the iron oxides; carbon
monoxide formed between the coke and oxygen of the blast accounts for
the remaining reduction accomplished. The function of the limestone
is to form a slag, fluid at the furnace temperature, which combines
with unwanted impurities in the ore. Two tons of ore, one ton of
coke, one-half ton of limestone, and three and one-half tons of air
produce approximately one ton of iron, one-half ton of slag, and
five tons of blast furnace gas containing the fines of the burden
carried out by the blast; these fines are referred to as flue dust.
Molten iron is perirdically withdrawn from the bottom of the furnace;
the fluid slag which floats on top of the iron is also periodically
withdrawn from the furnace. Blast furnace flue gas has considerable
heating value and is burned to preheat the air blast to the furnace.
The blast furnace auxiliaries consist of the stoves in which the
blast is preheated, the dry dust catchers in which the bulk of the
flue dust is recovered, primary wet cleaners in which most of the
remaining flue dust is removed by washing with water, and secondary
cleaners such as electrostatic precipators.
a. Hot Metal Production
When molten iron is used directly from the blast furnace, the furnace
is said to be producing hot metal. Hot metal for steel production is
occasionally produced in a hot blast cupola. The cupola resembles a
miniature blast furnace; it differs from the blast furnace in that
pig iron and steel scrap replace iron ore in the charge. Coke and
limestone are used to provide the fuel and fluxing agents.
b. Pig Iron Manufacture
Iron from the blast furnace, instead of being used in the molten
state, is sometimes cast into 100 pound blocks known as pigs - hence
the term pig iron for the blast furnace product. Pig iron is pro-
duced in this form in cases where the hot metal cannot be immediately
utilized in an integrated mill and is almost always produced in this
form by merchant blast furnaces.
c. Silvery Pig Iron Manufacture
Silvery pig iron is produced in a blast furnace which is charged
with high silicon content ores. Silvery pig iron contains about 10%
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silicon and is used in steelmaking processes to lessen the tendency
of iron to "chill" and to offset the hardening affect of manganese.
d. Ferroalloy Manufacture
The ferroalloys other than ferrosilicon (silvery pig) include
spiegeleisen, ferromanganese, and ferrophosphorous. These materials
are made in a blast furnace using ores high in content of the metals
desired. These materials are used as alloy elements in the manu-
facturing of steel. It is more common today to produce ferroalloys
in electric furnaces rather than in blast furnaces, but blast furnace
production of these materials is still substantial.
e. Sinter Plant Operation
Fine ores must be converted to a lump form my some process of
agglomeration before they can be effectively used in the blast
furnace. There are several methods of accomplishing this end:
sintering, moduli2ing, pelletizing, and briquetting. Sintering is
the principal method used today and is used to reclaim flue dust and
mill scale for recharging into production processes, as well as to
agglomerate fine ores. In sintering, fine material is mixed with a
pulverized fuel and placed on a grate where the mixture is burned
to a clinker under a forced draft.
2. Steelmaking
Most of the steel produced in the United States is made in open-
hearth furnaces, the open-hearth is, however, rapidly giving way to
the newer basic oxygen process. A considerable tonnage of steel is
produced by electric furnaces, especially alloy and specialty steels.
The Bessemer process, the original of the modern steelmaking methods,
produces only a small percentage of the total today.
a. Open-Hearth Furnaces
The open-hearth furnace consists essentially of a shallow rectangular
basin or hearth enclosed by walls and roof, all constructed of
refactory brick, and provided with access doors along one wall
adjacent to the operating floor. A tap hole at the base of the
opposite wall is provided to drain the finished molten steel into
ladles. Fuel is burned at one end, the flame traveling the length
of the furnace above the charge resting upon the hearth. Upon
leaving the furnace, the hot gases are conducted in a flue,
downward into a regenerative chamber called checkerwork; this mass
of refactory brick is laid to provide a large number of passage ways
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for the hot gases. Heat is thus stored in the checkers and is
subsequently given up to a reverse direction stream of air flowing
to the burners. Open-hearth furnace capacities span a wide range
from 100 to 300 tons per heat; the time required to produce a heat
is between 8 and 12 hours.
The open-hearth process consists of several stages: tap to start,
charging, melt down, hot met . addition, ore and lime boil, working
(refining), tapping, and delay. The raw materials to the open-hearth
process consist of pig iron, iron ore, limestone, scrap iron, scrap
steel, hot metal, and various alloying substances. The object of
the operation is to reduce the impurities present in the scrap and
pig iron to the limits specified for the different qualities of steel.
The refining operation is carried out by means of a slag that forms
a continuous layer on the surface of the liquid metal.
The injection of gaseous oxygen into the bath during the refining
period speeds the oxidation reactions, shortens heat time, saves
fuel, and increases production rates; this practice has become more
or less standard in the last decade, and has extended the technolog-
ical life of the open-hearth process.
b. Electric-Arc Furnaces
Electric furnaces range in size from 7 to 30 feet in diameter and
produce from 2 to 200 tons of steel per cycle, a cycle requiring
1.5 to 4 hours. The electric furnace is uniquely adaptable to the
production of special alloy steels, however, almost one-half of
electric furnace production is carbon steel.
The cycle in electric furnace steelmaking consists of the meltdown,
the molten-metal period, the boil, the refining period, and the
pour. The required heat is generated by an electric arc passing
from the electrodes to the charge in the furnace. The refining
process is similar to that of the open-hearth, but more precise
control is possible in the electric furnace. Use of oxygen in the
electric furnace has been common practice for many years.
c. Basic Oxygen Furnace
Vessels for the basic oxygen process are generally vertical cylinders
surmounted by a truncated cone. High-purity oxygen is supplied at
high pressure through a water-cooled tube mounted above the center
of the vessel. Scrap and molten iron are charged to the vessel and
a flux is added. The oxygen lance is lowered and oxygen is admitted.
A violent reaction occurs immediately and the resultant turbulence
brings the molten metal and the hot gases into intimate contact,
causing the impurities to burn off quickly. An oxygen blow of 18 to
22 minutes is normally sufficient to refine the metal. Alloy additions
are made and the steel is ready to be tapped.
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A basic oxygen furnace can produce 200 to 300 or more tons of steel
per hour and allows very close control of steel quality. A major
advantage of the process is the ability to handle a wide range of
raw materials. Scrap may be light or heavy, and the oxide charge
may be iron ore, sinter, pellets or mill scale.
d. Bessemer Converter
Bessemer converters are cylindrical vessels in which the molten
metal charged is subjected to a stream of air passed up vertically
from the bottom. The air blast literally burns the impurities out
of the metal. The Bessemer converter can produce 25 to 60 tons of
steel in 10 to 30 minutes. The quality of the steel produced is
difficult to control and the converters can only handle limited
amounts of scrap.
3. Steel Casting
Ingot molding and subsequent reheating operations remain the principal
means of readying steel for further processing in this country. The
continuous casting of slabs and billets is, however, being rapidly
developed and translated into commercial operation.
a. Ingot Molding and Conditioning
Following the refining operation in the open-hearth, Bessemer
converter, electric, or basic oxygen furnace, the molten steel is
poured from the furnace into a ladle and subsequently into a mold.
The solidified steel castings are called ingots. Before these ingots
are rolled, the metal is allowed to solidify throughout. The heat
supply is carefully manipulated to bring the whole body of metal to
a uniform rolling temperature in a kind of heating furnace known as
a "soaking pit."
b. Continuous Casting
Continuous casting involves pouring molten steel through a vertical
cooling chamber and withdrawing the solidified shape from the bottom
of the mold in a continuous piece. The slab or billet shape thus
formed is withdrawn through a series of rolls, straightened, and cut
into suitable lengths. The molds are made of copper, abrogated
from a solid block or by assembling plates, and are cooled by the
internal circulation of copious amounts of water. Only a small
amount of solidification takes place in the mold and water sprays
below the mold perform the major cooling of the exposed casting.
Other shapes such as small rounds have been successfully cast by
this technique; stainless, tool, alloy, and carbon steels all have
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been successfully cast continuously. The major advantage of
continuous casting is, of course, the direct production of semi-
finished shapes ready for the final rolling operations into
finished products. The soaking pit and primary rolling operations
are eliminated and production rates can be maintained at the very
high levels permitted by the modern steelmaking processes.
4. Hot-Rolling Mills
Hot-rolling mills exist in a bewildering variety that makes simple
classification and description difficult. In general, primary mills
reduce ingots to slabs or billets; secondary or finishing mills
reduce slabs or billets to plates, shapes, strip, etc.
a. Primary Rolling Mills
It is possible, and often economical, to roll ingots directly through
the bloom, slab, or billet stages into more refined and even finished
steel products in one mill in a continuous operation, frequently
without any reheating. Large tonnages of standard rails, beams, and
plates are produced regularly by this practice from ingots from
medium to large size. Most of the ingot tonnage, however, is rolled
into blooms, slabs, or billets in one mill following which they are
cooled, stored and eventually rolled in other mills or forged.
The basic operation in a primary mill is the gradual compression of
the steel ingot between the surfaces of two rotating rolls, and the
progression of the ingot through the space between the rolls. The
physical properties of the ingot prohibit making the total required
deformation of the steel in one pass through the rolls, so a number
of passes in sequence are always necessary. As the ingot enters the
rolls, high pressure water jets removes surface scale. The ingot is
passed back and forth between the horizontal and vertical rolls
while manipulators turn the ingot from time to time so that it is
well worked on all sides. When the desired shape has been achieved
in the rolling operation, the end pieces or crops are removed by
electric or hydraulic sheares. The semifinished pieces are stored
or sent to reheating furnaces for subsequent rolling operations.
b. Semifinished Steel Preparation
Ever increasing attention is being devoted to the conditioning of
semifinished products as the requirement for high qualities of steel
products increases. Major elements in this area involves the need
for removing surface defects of blooms, billets, and slabs prior to
shaping, as by rolling into a product for the market. Such defects
as rolled seams, light scabs, checks, etc., generally retain their
identity during subsequent forming processes and result in products
of inferior quality.
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These surface defects nay be removed by hand chipping, machine-
chipping, scarfing, grinding, milling, and hot steel scarfing. The
various mechanical means of surface preparation are those common in
all metal working and machine shop operations. Scarfing is a process
of supplying streams of oxygon as jets to the surface of the steel
product under treatment, while maintaining high surface temperatures
that results in rapid oxidation and localized melting of a thin layer
of the metal. The process may be a manual one consisting of the
continuous motion of an oxyacetylene torch along the length of the
piece undergoing treatment. In recent years the so-called hot
scarfing machine has come into wide use. This is a production machine
adapted to remove a thin layer (1/8 inch or less) of metal from all
four sides of red hot steel billets, blooms, or slabs as they travel
through the machine in a manner analogous to the motion through
rolling mills.
c. Reheating Furnaces
Reheating is necessary throughout the rolling operation whenever the
temperature of the metal being worked falls below that necessary to
retain the required plasticity. Reheating furnaces are of two
general classes, batch and continuous types. Bath furnaces are those
in which the charged material remains in a fixed position on the
hearth until heated to rolling temperature. Continuous furnaces are
those in which the charged material moves through the furnace and is
heated to rolling temperature as it progresses toward the exit. One
unique type of reheating furnace is the rotary hearth type used
frequently for heating rounds in tube mills and for heating short
lengths of blooms or billets for forging. The rotary hearth type
permits external walls and roof to remain stationary while the hearth
section of the furnace revolves. Batch furnaces vary in size from
those with hearths of only a few feet square to those 20 feet in depth
by 50 feet long; some modern continuous furnaces have hearths 80 to 90
feet long.
d. Plate Mills
Plates are classified, by definition, according to certain size
limitations to distinguish them from sheet, strip, and flat bars.
According to this classification plates are generally considered to be
those flat hot-rolled finished products that are more than 8 inches
wide and generally 1/4 inch or more thick. Sequence of operations for
plate mills is heating of slabs, descaling, rolling, leveling, cooling,
and shearing. Most plate mills use continuous type heating furnaces.
Descaling in modern plate mills is accompli.shed by hydraulic sprays
impinging on both top and bottom surfaces and operated at pressures
up to 1500 pounds per square inch. Temperature variation in the plate
from the front to the back is a problem of particular importance in
rolling plates as is the care that must be exercised in cooling the
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rolled product so as to avoid distortion. Plate rolling mills are
generally considered in two very broad design classifications. One
type includes the universal mills which are characterized by vertical
rolls preceding and following the horizontal rolls; such a mill
produces a product of the width which conforms to narrow tolerances.
The second general type of mill is the sheared plate mill which may or
may not include edge working equipment.
e. Structural and Other Shape Mills
A wide variety of various steel shapes are rolled from blooms; these
shapes include structural sections such as I-beams, channels, angles.
wide flanged beams, H-beams, sheet piling, rails, and numerous
special sections. The heating of the bloom for large sections is
usually done in the batch type furnace, although some newer mills use
continuous furnaces. A typical mill consists of a two high reversing
breakdown stand in which initial shaping is accomplished followed by
a group of three roll stands in train where the rolling process is
completed; these mills are known as roughing stands, intermediate
stands, and finishing stands. Several passes of the material is
made back and forth through the breakdown roughing and intermediate
mills; a single pass is usually made through the finishing stand.
The sequence of operations then consists of heating bloom, rolling
to proper contour dimensions, cutting while hot to lengths that can
be handled, cooling to atmospheric temperature, straightening
cutting to ordered lengths, and shipping.
f. Merchant-Bar, Rod and Wire Mills
Merchant-bar, rod, and wire mills produce a wide variety of products
in continuous operations ranging from shapes of small size through
bars and rods. The designations of the various mills as well as the
classification of their products are not very well defined within the
industry; in general, the small cross-sectional area and very long
lengths distinguish the products of these mills. Raw materials for
these mills are reheated billets. Many older mills use hand looping
operations in which the material is passed from mill stand to mill
stand by hand; newer mills use mechanical methods of transferring the
material from stand to stand. As with other rolling operations the
billet is progressively squeezed and shaped to the desired product
dimensions in a series of rolls. Water sprays are used throughout
the operation to remove scale.
g. Hot-Strip Mills
The continuous hot-strip mill utilizes slabs which are brought to
rolling temperatures in continuous reheating furnaces; the conditioned
slabs pass through scale breakers and high pressure water sprays which
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dislodge the loosened scale. A series of roughing stands and a
rotary crop shear produce a section that can be finished to a coil
of the proper weight and gauge. The second scale breaker and high
pressure water sprays precede the finishing stand train in which the
final size reductions are made. Cooling water is applied through
sprays on the run out table, and the finished strip is coiled. Such
a mill can turn a thick 6 foot slab of steel into a thin strip or
sheet a quarter of a mile long in 3 minutes or less . The modern hot
strip mill produces a product which may be up to 96 inches wide,
although the most common width in newer mills is 80 inches. The
product of the hot-strip mill may be sold as produced, or used within
the mill for further processing in cold reduction nills, and for
tin-plated or galvanized products.
h. Pipe and Tube Mills
Welded tubular products are made from hot-rolled skelp with square or
slightly beveled edges, the width and thickness of the skelp being
selected to suit the various sizes to be made. The coiled skelp is
uncoiled, heated, and fed through forming and welding rolls where the
edges are pressed together at high temperature to form a weld. Welded
pipe or tube can also be made by the electric weld process, where the
weld is made by either fusion or. resistence welding.
Seamless tubular products are made by rotary piercing of a solid
round bar or billet followed by various forming operations to produce
the required size and wall thickness.
5. Steel Cleaning
Correct surface preparation is the primary and most important require-
ment for satisfactory application of protective coatings to steel.
Without a properly cleaned surface, even the most expensive coatings
will fail to adhere or to prevent rusting of the steel base. A
variety of cleaning methods are utilized to insure good surface
preparation for subsequent coating. The steel surface must also be
cleaned at various stages during production to insure that oxides
formed on the surface are not worked into the finished product causing
marring, staining, or other surface blemish.
a. Pickling
Pickling is the process of chemically removing oxides and scale from
the surface of the steel by the action of watg,r solutions of inorganic
acids. While pickling is only one of several methods of removing
undesirable surface oxides, this method is the most widely used in
the manufacture of sheet and tin mill products, due to comparatively
low operating cost and ease of operation.
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Some products such as tubes and wire are pickled in batch operations;
that is, the product is immersed in an acid solution and allowed to
remain in this solution until the scale or oxide film is removed The
material is lifted from the bath, allowed to drain, and rinsed by
sequential immersion in rinse tanks.
Pickling lines for hot-rolled strip operate continuously on coils
that are welded together, passed through the pickler, then sheared
and recoiled. The steel passes through the pickler countercurrently
to the flow of the acid solution. Most mild steel is pickled with
sulphuric or hydrochloric acid; stainless steels are pickled with
hydrochloric, nitric, and hydrofluoric acids. Various organic
chemicals are used in pickling to inhibit acid attack on the base
metal, while permitting preferential attack on the oxides; wetting
agents are used to improve the effective contact of the acid solution
with the metal surface. As in the batch operation the steel passes
from the pickling bath through a series of rinse tanks.
b. Solvent Cleaning
Solvents clean metal surfaces by dissolving and diluting foreign
matter such as oil, grease, soil, and drawing and cutting compounds.
Oil or grease may be removed by wiping or scrubbing the surface with
rags or brushes wetted with solvent, with the final wiping with clean
solvent and clean rags or brushes. The steel may also be completely
immersed in the solvent, or solvent sprays may be used, or the steel
may be subjected to vapor degreasing in equipment in which vaporized
solvent condenses on the surfaces to be cleaned. Solvents used
include mineral spirits, naphthenes, and some chlorinated hydrocarbons.
c. Alkaline Cleaning
Alkaline cleaners are used where mineral and animal fats and oils
must be removed. Mere dipping in solutions of various compositions,
concentrations, and temperatures are often satisfactory. The use of
electrolytic cleaning may be advisable for large scale production or
where this method yields a cleaner product. Caustic soda, soda ash,
alkaline silicates, and phosphates are common alkaline cleaning
agents. Sometimes the addition of wetting agents to the cleaning
bath will facilitate cleaning.
d. Blast Cleaning
Blast cleaning utilizes abrasives such as sand, steel, iron grit,
or shot which impinges at high velocity against the surfaces to be
cleaned, either by compressed air in nozzle type blast cleaning
apparatus, or by centrifugal force and rotary type blast cleaning
machines. Such methods usually result in a roughened surface and
31
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the degree of roughness must be regulated to be satisfactory for the
intended use. Newer methods of blast cleaning are said to produce
smooth finishes and, as such, promise to substitute for pickling as
a cleaning method.
6. Steel Finishing
Steel finishing operations involve a number of processes which do
little to alter the dimensions of the hot-rolled product, but which
impart desirable surface or mechanical characteristics to the product.
Such processes include cold rolling, cold reduction, cold drawing,
tinplating, galvanizing, coating with other metals, coating with
organic compounds as well as inorganic compounds, and tempering.
a. Cold Reduction and Cold-Rolling Mills
Cold reduced, flat rolled products are made by cold-rolling pickled
strip; the thickness is reduced 25 to 99% in this operation and a
smooth, dense surface is produced. The product may be sold as cold
reduced, but is usually heat treated. Cold reduction generates heat
that is dissipated by flood lubrication in which palm oil or synthetic
oils are emulsified in water and directed in jets against the rolls
and the steel surface during rolling. Cold reduced strip is cleaned
with alkaline detergents solutions to remove the rolling oils prior
to coating operations. Electrolysis is frequently used in such
cleaning operations. Cold rolling mills are used to give steel
products a smooth, lustrous finish, with little reduction in thickness.
b. Tinplating
Tinplate is made from cleaned, and pickled, cold reduced strip by
either the electrolytic or hot-dip process. In this country more
than 80% of the tinplate is produced by the electrolytic process; the
hot-dip process is rapidly becoming obsolete as is a major tinplating
method. The hot-dip process consists of passing the steel through a
light pickling operation and then through the tin pot which consists
of a flux, molten tin, and a bath of palm oil.
The electrolytic process utilizes tin anodes and the steel strip is
made the cathode; the processes vary in the composition of the
electrolyte and include acid, alkaline, and halogen solutions.
Electrolytic processes consist of alkaline cleaning, rinsing, pickling,
plating, rinsing, fusion, quenching, chemical treatment, rinsing,
drying, and oiling in sequence. The coils are welded together to
provide a continuous strip through the operation and are sheared
following the plating operation. In recent years tinplate has been
made in increasingly thin gauges as the industry seeks to meet
competition from alternative materials, particularly for containers.
32
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'c. Galvanizing
Hot-dipped galvanized sheets are produced on either sheet or con-
tinuous lines. The process consists essentially of a light pickle in
hydrochloric acid and application of the zinc coating by-dipping
through the pot containing molten zinc. Variations in continuous
operations include alkaline cleaning, continuous annealing in
controlled atmosphere furnaces, and different fluxing methods.
d. Coating
In'recent years, steel products coated with various synthetic resins
have become commercially important. Other steel products are produced
with coatings of various metals and inorganic materials. At least one
major tinplate manufacturer is currently attempting to substitute
chromium plating for tinplating for the container industry. Finishing
operations for stainless steel products requiring a bright finish
consist of rolling on temper mills or mechanical polishing.
7. Coke Plants
There are two methods for manufacturing metallurgical coke, known as
the beehive and the by-product or retort process. In the beehive
process, air is admitted to the coking chamber for the purpose of
burning the volatile products of the coal which will generate heat
enabling the process to continue. In the by-product method, the
coking chambers are airtight and the necessary heat for coking is
supplied from external combustion of fuel gas. In most cases, about
40% of the gases produced by the coking are returned and used as fuel.
Today, 98% of the metallurgical coal produced is by the by-product
method. Beehive ovens are used in some instances when by-product
ovens cannot produce enough coke during peak production periods.
a. By-Product Coke Ovens
By-product coke ovens are long, narrow, silica-brick chambers in which
the coal is coked by combustion of a fuel gas in flues built in the
refractory-brick walls. While there are many modifications, these
ovens consist of three main parts; the coking chambers, the heating
chambers, and the regenerative chambers. The products of combustion
of the flue gas and the volatile products of the coking process are
kept separate. By-product ovens are constructed in batteries in which
the coking chambers alternate with the heating chambers. A battery
may contain from 10 to more than 100 ovens.
The large ovens which are commonly installed for the production of
metallurgical coke are usually 30 to 45 feet long between doors,
33
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6 to 15 feet high, and 12 to 24 inches in width, with a capacity
for 16 to 20 tons of coal per charge. For ease in removing the coke,
the ovens are sometimes tapered by 2 to 4 inches from the pusher end
to the coking end.
Both ends of an oven are closed with removable doors which are lifted
out of place before the coke is pushed. During the coking period,
the doors are in place and any cracks between the door and its jams
are sealed to prevent leakage of gas and air.
When pulverized and blended coal is dropped into the hot oven, a
yellow cloud of gas is evolved. This gas and that generated as the
coking process continues are collected in ducts and directed to the
coal-chemicals plant for conversion or refining into many by-products,
In by-product ovens, the coking of one ton of coal will produce from
10 to 16 gallons of tar and light oils, 4.5 to 8.0 pounds of ammonia,
and 9,000 to 12,000 cubic feet of gas which can be used for further
heating.
After the ovens are sealed, charged and leveled, the coking process
begins and is usually completed in 16 to 20 hours. During this
period, the ovens are continually heated by the burning of gas in the
heating chamber. The coking time depends on the width of the oven
and the temperatures employed, but generally average about one inch
of width per hour.
Since the heat is transferred to the coal from the oven walls,
coking starts at the side walls and progresses to the center of the
charge. When the temperature of the coal reaches its melting point,
the coke fuses together but forms a vacant space in the center and
resembles two parallel slabs at the end of the coking period.
When the coking is completed, the coke is pushed from the oven by a
"pusher" into a quenching car. The quench car runs on rails and is
constructed to catch the coke as it spills from the oven without any
loss to the ground. As soon as the oven is empty, the car is run
under water sprays in the quenching tower, and the incandescent coke
is quenched by spraying with a large volume of water as rapidly as
possible. The coke is then dropped onto a sloping storage wharf
where any local hot spots can be quenched by a hose. The coke is
conveyed to a screening unit and then to storage for later use.
Coke ovens are recharged immediately in order that their temperature
will not be lost. If the demand for coke decreases, production is
slowed by lengthening the coking period. This is accomplished by
reducing the volume of gas burned in the flues.
b. Beehive Coke Ovens
A beehive oven is a firebrick chamber built with an arched roof so
34
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that the inside shape is that of air old-fashioned beehive. A
typical oven is about 12 feet in diameter, and will hold between 5
and 10 tons of coal in a uniform layer between 18 and 24 inches deep
on the floor. It is provided with a door at one side and a hole in-
the center of the roof.
The ovens are built in long rows, one oven beside another with a
retaining wall between. A row of ovens like this is called a battery.
The batteries often follow the contours of the hills in the coal
fields where they are located and are built into the hillside and
thus require only one retaining wall along the front.
Railroad tracks for handling coal to the ovens run along the tops
and other tracks for handling the coke cars run beside the ovens.
Many beehive batteries have been located close to the mines so freshly
mined coal can be charged directly into the ovens. No provision for
stocking or blending coal is made at a beehive plant.
The small cars from the coal mine are run along the tops of the ovens
and coal is charged into an empty oven through the hole at the apex
of the dome. It forms a cone-shaped pile which is leveled to a
uniform layer by means of a rake or a mechanically operated leveler
passed through the door. Coking is started by means of the heat
retained in the walls of the oven from the previous charge of coal.
New ovens are brought up to temperature by heating with coal or wood
before charging.
Almost immediately after charging, gas is evolved from the coal which
burns in the space between the coal and the top of the oven, and on
the surface of the coal. The air for combustion is admitted through
an opening at the top of the oven door. By removing or adding bricks
at the opening, the quantity of air is regulated. Coking proceeds
downward from the top of the charge to the floor of the oven. As the
coal is heated, it becomes plastic forming a semi-fused mass through-
out the oven. The cake then breaks into chunks of coke as a result
of further coking and cooling. The coking time which depends largely
on the depth of the layer of coal, ranges from 48 to 72 hours. As
the coking proceeds, the volume of gas evolved decreases, and the
size of the opening in the door is correspondingly decreased. This
prevents the entrance of an excessive volume' of air which would
otherwise burn part of the coke and might be sufficient to cool the
oven as well.
When coking is complete, the door is opened and the coke is quenched
by a stream of water directed through the opening. In some cases,
quenching is accomplished by a self-propelled spraying device which
revolves horizontally directs jets of water uniformly over the coke
surface. The quenched coke is then withdrawn from the oven manually
with rakes, or by a mechanical coke-drawing machine. The coke is
either loaded onto conveyors or directly into railroad cars.
35
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The beehive ovens are becoming obsolete although they hold advantages
over production by the by-product method during certain peak require-
ments where the high investment cost of the by-product plant cannot
be justified because of long inoperative periods. The reserves of
high-grade coking coals are being depleted and it is becoming
economically necessary to blend these with less desirable coals for
the by-product process. The beehive process produces gases which are
objectional from an air pollution standpoint and the quench water, if
not controlled, can result in stream pollution.
8. Industry Subprocess Mix
Expansion plans of 104 plants announced in 1966 indicate that 16% of
the plants plan expansions of electric furnace capacity and additions
of basic oxygen furnaces and continuous casting machines. Some 4%
of the plants plan improvements to open-hearth furnaces and ingot
handling facilities; 5% plan to build new blast furnaces or rebuild
old furnaces at integrated mills. Six plants with limited heating
and rolling facilities have stated that fully integrated facilities
will be installed. One new coke plant has been announced.
Industry surveys indicate that 50% of the steel production in the
United States will be made by the basic oxygen process by 1970.
Electric furnace production may be expected to show a consistent rate
of growth percentage-wise. Increases in the use of these processes
will proportionately decrease open-hearth percentage utilization.
The Bessemer process will probably disappear completely in 5 years.
After 1970, utilization of the open-hearth furnace will decrease
percentage-wise, but at a much reduced rate; this is evident from the
capital expenditures being made on open-hearth improvements.
Blast furnace and coke plant capacity will be increased as the
industry capacity is increased. New facilities will be the larger,
more efficient units with older facilities being consistently retired.
The trend in steel products has been toward proportionately greater
increases in light, flat-rolled products and bars and in alloy steels,
Decreases, percentage-wise, are apparent in pipe and tubing and in
wire production. The hot-dip tinplate production has all but dis-
appeared; electrolytic galvanized production is steadily increasing.
Steel production by the various processes is given in the following
table for the years 1955 to 1965:
36
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Year Total lO^Ton
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
117.
115.
112.
85.
93.
99.
98.
98.
109.
127.
131.
135.
0
2
7
3
4
3
0
3
3
1
5
0
Open Hearth
s 106Tons %
105.
102.
101.
75.
81.
86.
84.
83.
88.
98.
94.
-
4
8
6
9
7
4
5
0
8
1
2
90.1
89.0
90.2
89.0
87.5
87.0
86.2
84.4
81.1
77.2
71.6
-
Electric
106Tons %
8.0
8.7
8.0
6.7
8.5
8.4
8.6
9.0
10.9
12.7
13.8
-
6.8
7.7
7.1
7.9
9.1
8.5
8.8
9.2
10.0
10.5
-
-
Basic Oxygen
106Tons %
0.3
0.5
0.6
1.3
1.8
3.3
4.0
5.5
8.5
15.4
22.9
33.0
0.3
0.4
0.5
1.5
1.9
3.3
4.1
5.6
8.8
12.1
17.4
-
Bessemer
106Tons %
3.3
3.2
2.5
1.4
1.4
1.2
0.9
0.8
1.0
0.9
0.6
-
2.8
2.9
2.2
1.6
1.5
1.2
0.9
0.8
0.9
0.7
0.5
-
Pig iron and ferroalloy production is given in the following table for
the years 1940 to 1965 with the numbers of blast furnaces in blast
each year:
Year
1940
1945
1950
1955
1960
1963
1964
1965
Production,1000 Tons
47,399
54,919
66,400
79,264
68,566
73,715
87,933
90,918
Number of Furnaces
195
218
218
206
229
138
147
191
Net shipments of steel products in selected grades are tabulated in the
following table with percentages of the total for the years 1956, 1960,
and 1965:
Steel Products
Heavy Structural
Plates
Bars
Pipe and Tubing
Wire
Hot-Dip Tinplate
Electrolytic Tinplate
Hot-Rolled Sheets
Cold-Rolled Sheets
Hot-Dip Galvanized
Electrolytic Galvanized
Total Shipments
1965
1000 Tons %
6165 6.7
9764 10.5
14,371 15.5
7689 9.4
3485 3.8
127 0.1
6074 6.6
10,630 11.5
16,571 17.9
4491 4.8
362 0.4
92,666
1960
1000 Tons %
4836 6.8
6132 8.6
10,514 14.8
7053 9.9
2975 4.2
390 0.6
5075 7.1
7991 11.2
14,466 20.3
3057 4.3
261 0.4
71,149
1956
1000 Tons %
5349 6.4
7715 9.3
13,095 15.7
10,198 12.3
3943 4.7
950 1.1
4615 5.6
8791 10.6
13,317 16.0
2958 3.5
227 0.3
83,251
37
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The utilization of the various subprocesses by individual plants has
been determined from information in the current and past issue of the
American Iron and Steel Institute Directory of Iron and Steel Works.
This information was tabulated and analyzed by electronic data pro-
cessing to produce the data in Table I for the years 1950, 1963, and
1967. Projections for the years 1972 and 1977 was made on the basis
of total expected production and consideration of the announced
expansion plans and industry trends discussed above.
E. Waste Control Problems
Particularly difficult waste problems arise from certain steel
industry subprocesses, particularly some of the newer production
methods which are geared to high-speed, high-volume outputs.
The gaswasher water from ferromanganese furnaces contain particles of
sub-micron sizes which are extremely difficult to separate by
sedimentation. Such furnaces also produce effluents which contain
greater concentrations of cyanides than from ironmaking furnaces.
The wastewaters from basic oxygen furnaces also contain extremely
fine suspended particles which are particularly difficult to separate.
The effluents of wet-washers used on oxygen-lanced open-hearth
furnaces are similar.
Scale-bearing wastewaters from the newer high-speed rolling mills are
difficult to treat. An 80-inch strip mill produces extremely fine
scale particles which do not settle out of suspension in ordinary
scale pits. The fine scale can cause the effluent to appear black or
red, even when the concentration of solids is low.
Effluents from cold-rolling mills contain soluble oils which are not
separable by ordinary sedimentation. These emulsions are extremely
stable, particularly when detergents are used to wash the product on
the final roll stands.
Coke plant effluents present difficult waste control problems.
Phenols and creosols can be reduced by relatively simple processes,
but are further reduced to the point acceptable for discharge in most
instances with great difficulty.
A general characteristic of steel industry effluents that makes for
difficult waste control problems is their large volumes. Most
industrial waste effluent streams are not of the magnitude found in
the steel industry. A waste stream flowing at 10,000 to 25,000 gallons
per minute, presents a very difficult treatment problem.
38
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TAB I,]'; I
ESTIMATED PERCENTAGES 01' PLAITTS E'.PLOYIIIG SUDPROCESSES
1950
19 G 3
19G7
1972
.1977
I RON II AX IK G
Blast Furnaces
Pig Iron Production
Silvery Piy Iron Production
Forronlloy Production
Sinter Plant Operation
STEEL-HAKIfTG
Bessemer Converters
Electric Furnaces
Basic Open-HoarLhs
Acid Open-HearLhs
Basic Oxygen Furnaces
STEEL CASTING
Ingot Holding
Continuous Casting
STEEL ROLLING
Blooning Mills
Slab Mills
Bi 3 let Hills
Plate Hills
Structural Hills
Pipe Mills
Rail MJ11s
Rod Mills
Bar M.-i 11s
V.'ire Mills
Sheet Mills
Tube Mills
Hot Strip Hills
52.1
50.3
1.8
5.5
28.5
47.0
43.0
1.3
2.0
29.1
49. G
46.0
2.9
2.2
28.8
50.0
46.0
3.0
2.0
30.0
50.0
46.0
3.0
2.0
35.0
10.3
48.9
49.1
7.3
0
6.0
58.3
41.7
6.6
7.3
4.3
67.5
39.6
3.6
13.7
2.0
75.0
35.0
1.8
25.0
0
80.0
30.0
0
35.0
47.9
0
49.7
1.3
51.1
7.9
50.0
15.0
40.0
25.0
46.
10.
36.
15.
9.
8.
6.
19.
40.
18.
17.
4.
25.
7
3
4
2
7
5
7
4
0
8
0
2
5
49
15
33
18
10
13
4
19
46
18
15
9
34
.7
.2
.8
.5
.6
.2
.0
.9
. t
.5
.2
.3
.4
50
20
36
23
14
11
4
17
44
20
16
10
29
.4
.1
.0
.0
.4
.5
.3
.3
.6
.9
.5
.1
.5
50
22
36
27
16
12
4
20
45
22
18
12
35
.0
.5
.9
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.5
.0
50.
25.
36.
30.
18.
12..
4.
20.
50.
25.
20.
15.
40.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
C LE AN 11J G O P E RAT I ON 3
Batch Packling
Continuous Pickling
Other
24.2
20.6
O.G
17.2
19.2
2.0
14.4
19.4
0.7
35.0
20.0
3.0
15.0
20.0
5.0
STEEL J'liO SLING OPERATIONS
Cold Reduction Mills
Electrolytic Tinplate
IJ o t - D i p T i n p 1 a t o
VJ.irc Tinning
Galvanising, Hot-Dip
Galvanizing, Electrolytic
Cocii. i.ncj
Termer Mi.lls
33.
7.
7.
1.
19.
6.
9
3
3
8
4
0
0
1
35
7
3
2
14
0
1
7
.1
.9
.3
.6
.6
.5
. 3
.9
43.
6.
1.
2.
10.
3 .
2 .
8.
2
5
4
2
3
0
0
0
45
7
0
2
10
5
3
9
.0
.0
.5
.5
.0
.0
.0
.0
50.
7.
3.
30.
10.
5.
10.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
COKE OVE::S
By-Produc:t Ovens
Bee-Live Ovens
31.5
1.8
29.3
0.7
30.9
0.7
30.0
0
30.0
0
39
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F. Production Process Streams
The steel industry today is influenced by a rapidly accelerating rate
of technological change, changes in the economic climate in the country
and the world, and by increasing competition from foreign steel
producers and domestic producers of substitute products.
f
Blast furnace operations are likely to change only in degree and
detail in the immediate future. Direct reduction processes are not
likely to replace the blast furnace soon in this country. Somewhat
larger furnaces will probably be built; beneficiated ores will be used
to a greater extent as a result of improved sintering methods; higher
top pressures and blast rates, oxygen enrichment, use of powdered coal,
and natural gas injection are among the practices which will become
increasingly common.
The basic oxygen furnace will probably replace the open-hearth furnace
as the primary steelmaking process. Continuous casting with vacuum
degassing will likely take the place of the sequential operations of
ingot molding, soaking pit treatment, rolling of blooms, reheating,
and rolling of slabs and billets.
Increasing rates of production will undoubtedly be the guiding
principle as new mills are modernized. The 80-inch strip mill is
rapidly becoming the industry standard and production goals are
constantly being raised on these mills. Automation of rolling mills
is. becoming more and more common; automatic operation of the rolling
process is general, with a few mills under complete computer control.
Pickling with hydrochloric acid in vertical towers, with acid
regeneration, bids fair to replace much of the strip pickling solution
disposal problem.
Finishing processes are constantly being developed as the steel
industry looks to competition from other materials. Thin tinplate,
steel foil, steel clad with other metals, and a variety of formed and
coated products are among the products that foreshadow future
developments.
1. Process streams are described below as if all of the manufacturing
processes were carried out at each plant; this is not the case in the
steel industry. Many mills, for example, operate as cold shops, i.e.,
they roll steel obtained elsewhere. Some plants operate only blast
furnaces, with or without coke ovens, selling pig iron as their
products. Plant sizes are not divided according to the numbers of
or relative sizes of the various subprocesses. Small plants tend to
be cold shops or merchant iron furnaces. Large plants are integrated
mills. Medium plants are either large cold shops or small integrated
mills.
40
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a. Typical Production Technology
A typical integrated steel mill today has one or more blast furnaces
with daily capacities of 1000 tons of iron; suck furnaces operate on
computerized scheduling of production and utilize venturi scrubbers
for gaswashing. Such a typical mill operates a sinter plant for ore
benefication and uses wet-washers to scrub the fume produced by the
sintering machine.
Steelmaking is typically accomplished in oxygen-lanced open-hearth
furnaces with dry type fume-reducing equipment or with no air
pollution control devices. Steel casting is accomplished by ingot
molding, and degassing techniques are utilized. Blooming mills and
slabbing mills are utilized, as are soaking pits. Reheating is
minimized by imporved handling of slabs and billets. Semifinished
steel is conditioned by hand scarfing.
A typical mill produces hot-rolled strip on an 80-inch continuous
mill which operates by computerized scheduling, and utilizes a wide
range of plate, bar, wire, rod, and structural shape mills in which
manual handling has been eliminated entirely.
Steel pickling is accomplished in high-speed, horizontal strip
picklers utilizing sulfuric acid. Cold reduction mills utilize
proprietary soluble oils and employ recirculation schemes which
result in maximum emulsion life. Electrolytic tin-plating and
galvanizing are the principal coated steel products; extensive cleaning
and conditioning of the steel strip and the product is involved.
By-product coke ovens utilize beneficated coal to a large extent,
reflecting the low availability of high-grade coking coals. By-
products are recovered to a nominal extent; ovens are relatively old
and efficiency is impaired by leaks around doors, etc., although
remedial measures are taken. Coke is quenched with ammonia liquor.
b. Older Processing Technology
A steel mill utilizing older, relatively inefficient processing
technologies will have one or more blast furnaces of 675 tons per day
capacity, operated with manual scheduling techniques. Such furnaces
will typically utilize tile and hurdle wet-washers. A sinter plant
may be operated, but will generally have no air pollution control
devices.
Steelmaking is accomplished in such plants in conventional open-hearth
furnaces of relatively small size; no air pollution control is
practiced. Steel casting is accomplished by ingot molding with no
degassing provisions. Blooming mills and slabbing mills are used;
soaking pits are used and extensive reheating is necessitated by
41
-------
manual transportation of semifinished steel. Semifinished steel is
conditioned by hand chipping and grinding.
A mill utilizing older technology may produce 31-inch wide strip at
relatively slower speeds and utilize looping mills in which bars and
rods are manually handled between the mill stands. Pickling may be
accomplished at relatively low rates in horizontal tanks using sulfuric
acid. Cold reduction mills may use palm oil to make up lubricants for
flood-cooling and utilize once-through lubricating systems. Electro-
lytic tinplating and galvanizing are employed, but production rates
may be relatively slow and cleaning operations minimal.
By-product coke ovens may be of nominal capacity and efficiency and
by-product recovery may be practiced at a net cost.
c. Advanced Processing Technology
An integrated steel mill operating at an advanced level of technology
has one or more blast furnaces with daily capacities of 1000 tons or
more of iron; such a furnace is fully automated with raw materials
fed under computer control. The furnaces will utilize venturi
scrubbers for gaswashing, be charged with pellitized iron ore, and
operate with high top pressures and fuel injection.
Steelmaking in advanced technology is accomplished in basic oxygen
furnaces, typically equipped with wet-washers for fume control and in
oxygen-lanced open-hearths similarly equipped. Steel casting is
increasingly accomplished by continuous casting with vacuum degassing,
but is not yet a normal production technique in the United States.
Semifinished steel is conditioned by mechanical hot scarfing.
The most advanced hot-strip mills are completely automated ana produce
up to 96-inch wide strip at extremely high speeds. Other hot mills
operate at high speeds and utilize varying degrees of automated
control.
Steel pickling is accomplished in vertical towers or horizontal lines
utilizing hydrochloric acid; strong pickle liquor is regenerated and
returned to the operation with recovery of iron oxides. Cold reduction
mills operate at high speeds, utilizing recirculated proprietary
rolling oils and detergent washing on the final stands. Tinplate is
produced in the newer, thinner gauges; chromium plating is utilized
as a partial substitute for tin-plating. In addition to these
operations, and galvanizing, steel products coated with organic and
inorganic coatings are produced.
By-product coke ovens utilize beneficiated coal and have improved doors
and are designed and maintained to minimise leaks. Coke is quenched
with ammonia liquor and the residual effluents are biologically
-------
treated. Conventional by-products are efficiently recovered and
anhydrous ammonia may also be produced.
d. Plant Sizes and Technology Levels
There is no generally accepted standard of plant size in the industry.
The categories given below are considered to be reasonable from
analysis of available data; the divisions are, however, arbitrary.
Annual Capacity
Plant Size % of Plants/ Ingot Tons
Small 53.9 Less than 1,000,000
Medium 15.2 1,000,000 to 2,000,000
Large 30.9 More than 2,000,000
The division of plants according to level of technology may be made
on the basis of certain subprocesses which are uniquely descriptive
of this parameter as follows:
Subprocess Level of Technology
Blooming Mill Old and Typical
Sinter Plant Typical and Advanced
Basic Oxygen Furnace Advanced
Continuous Casting Advanced
Hot-Dip Tinplate Old
Cold Reduction Typical and Advanced
Vacuum Degassing Advanced
Beehive Coke Ovens Old
Considering the tabulated data on the industry subprocess mix in the
light of the above assumptions, the percentages of plants in the
various categories indexed by plant size and level of technology are
given below.
Percentages of Plants According to Size and Technology Level (1967)
Level of Technology
Plant Size Old Typical Advanced
Small 32.0 54.7 13.3
Medium 30.0 55.7 14.3
Large 27.9 34.9 37.2
All 30.4 48.7 20.9
43
-------
II. Grocs VJaste Quantities before Treatment or Other Disposal
A. Gross waste quantities are estimated here
or other disposal; treatment or other disposal
include reca rculation and re-use of wastewater
presented here as if the subprocesses were inc
integrated steel mill. Plant capacity is stat
ingot tons of steel producer'. Blast furnace
ities are taken as 2/3 of the steelmaking capa
capacity is taken as equal to blast furnace ca
of finished coke.
before treatment
is tali en to
The data are
orporated. in an
ed in terras of
nd rolling capac-
.city. Coke oven
nacity in terras
1. Vlastc Quantities and Wastewater Volumes
a. Typical Production Technology.
The average size plant is taken to be an integrated steel mill
producing 1,500,000 ingot tons per year.
Data on suspended solids in gaswasher water from furnaces of
about 1000 tons/day capacity are given below:
Capacity
Tons/Day
976
1019
1025
902
950
1013
995
1000
946
919
Solids Load
18.0
29.1
28.7
43.6
63.9
77.6
23.0
17.1
13.8
17.8
V,7aste*,;ater
1220
1420
5350
3845
2704
2280
3564
5994
1108
2620
Using ammonia still and benzol plant wastes for quenching coke
results in phenol loads of about 0.022 pounds per ton of pig
iron produced. Cyanides nay be expected to amount to about
0.02G pounds per ton of pig iron on the average, but to vary
-:- lOOt. from furnace to furnace. Fluorides vary widely in
gcj.swasher water, ranging from 0.01 to 0.10 pounds per ton of
.iron and averaging 0.046 pounds per ton of iron. /..romonia in
the gacr.7asher water n?y be expected to be'about equal to the
phor.oO present.
44
-------
Waste loads from a group of blast furnaces producing 1,000,000
'tons of iron per year, or 2740 tons per day, are estimated as
foJlov/s; the wastcwater volume would be 8,250,000 gallons per
day.
Constituent
Daily Waste Load
Suspended Solids
Phenol
Cyanides
Flourides
Ammonia
A typical sinter plant produces an effluent of 1,000,000 gals/day
containing 50 tons of suspended solids.
91
60
76
126
60
.4
.4
.8
.4
Tons
Ibs.
Ibs .
Ibs.
Ibs.
Open-hearth furnaces are typically operated today on an interim
basis; most of then are expected to be retired as basic oxygen
furnaces replace then. Electrostatic precipi tators and bag
filters have been installed on many furnaces, but vet-washers
have not generally been used. These furnaces thus do not typi-
cally produce v/aterborne waters.
Roll .trig JNJi lJLs_
Typical rolling mills may be expected to have waste loads and
wastewate'r volumes as follows:
Mill
Blooming Mill
Slabbing Hill
Hot-Strip Mill
Billet Mill
Bar Mill
Hot Ecarfer
Solids Gallons/ Ibs. Solids/
n ton steel Ton Steel
2,000
7,000
25,000
2,500
5,000
2,000
1,000
5,000
1,000
2,500
1,000
5,000
2,300
720
6,000
1,400
7,000
1,200
19.0
30.0
50.0
29.2
58.3
50.0
A typical integrated mill has rolling facilities as follows
Mi 11
45" Slab Mil!
80:' Hot-Strip Mi 11
40' Blooming Mill
30'; Billet Mill
21" Billet Mill
10" Bar Mill
%__of Jj"ota_l_ rro_duc ti_on
77.8
77.8
22.2
13.5
8.7
22.2
287-024 O - 68 - '
-------
The slab mill feeds the hot-strip r.iill; the blooming mill feeds
the billet mills, which in turn feed the bar mill; the hot scarfcr
v/orks on the billets.
For a mill producing 1,000,000 tons per year, or 2740 tons per
day, the following daily waste loads and wastewater volumes may
be expected:
Production Solids Load Wastewater
M:LL1_ _5!°£l?L/P^Y_ Ibs./day Gals/day
Slab 2130 64,000 1,535,000
Hot-Strip 2130 106-500 12,800,000
Blooming 608 11,550 1,400,000
30" Billet 370 10,800 518,000
21" Billet 238 6,950 333,000
Hot Scarfer 608 _Jf£jLl^Q. ___ 730,000
230,20"0 17,306,000
The total scale loss of 4.2% of the finished product and the water
use of 6,310 gal. per ton compare favorably with industry averages
in rolling mills.
Oil content is approximately 50 ppn in the wastewater from a hot-
rolling mill and may be very much greater in cases of leaking
bearings and accidental spills. The waste load of oil from the
typical mill might be expected to be about 11,200 Ibs/day.
About 50% of all steel products are pickled, mostly with sulfuric
acid, using about 45 pounds of acid per ton of steel. The volume
of waste liquor is about 30 gallons per ton of steel; and contains
about 60% of the acid as ferrosulf ate; rinsewater volumes are
about 80 gallons per ton of steel and contain the equivalent of
15% of the acid used. Vaste loads and wastewater volumes for
the typical mill may be estimated as follows:
Strong
Ijtem Liquor Rinsewater
Volume, Gals/day 38,300 87,600
Free Acid, (112804) Ibs./day 12,350 2,180
Combined Acid, (FeSO/i) Ibs./day 46,000 8,100
Waste acid loads and wastewater volumes may vary by +_ 35% or more
from these typical values.
46
-------
Cold
Once-through cold mills discharge about 2500 gpm of wastewaters
containing an average of 150 pprn of soluble oils and about 50 ppm
of suspended solids. Water use on such mills is about 2500 gal/ton
of steel rolled. Approximately 20 per cent of all hot-rolled
products are cold-rolled. On the basis of these figures, the
wastewater volume from cold-rolling in the typical mill might be
estimated as 1,370,000 gals per day. The waste oil load would be
anproximately 1700 if/day and the suspended solids load about 570
#/day.
Tinplating and Galvanizing
Tinplate production is about 5% of all hot-rolled products and might
thus amount to 50,000 tons per year in the typical mill. The
wastes of significance from this operation are from chromic acid
dip rinses and from rinses following the plating operation. Each
may be expected to be about 50 gpm or 72,000 gals/day; the former
may contain up to 431 ppm chromium and the latter 110 ppm tin.
Waste loads thus may be about 259 #/day of hexavalent chromium as
chromic acid and 66 #/day of tin as sodium stannate.
Most strip galvanizing is done by the hot-dip process. This process
does not produce significant liquid effluents containing soluble
metals.
Both of these operations produce wastes containing pickle liquor,
soluble oils, and cleaning solutions. These quantities are small
in comparison with the major waste streams.
Coke Plants
The principal liquid wastes from a by-product coke plant are ammonia
still wastes, benzol plant wastes, and final-cooler water. Most coke
plants use the semi-direct process for ammonia recovery; in this
instance dephenolization by vapor recirculation will be assumed.
One net ton of coal charged, yields 1300 Ibs of coke in typical
American practice. On this basis, the typical plant uses one million
tons of coke per year, produced from 1,540,000 tons of coal charged
to the coke ovens, or 4,220 tons/day.
The following waste loads are found in the plant described above,
the wastewater volume is about 12,500,000 gals/day.
47
-------
Lbs. Per 1,000 Load
Cons tit -gent __!
-------
Rolling MilIs
A mill typical of older technology might have the following rolling
facilitj.es :
Mill SL_°f_-?°tal JProductj_on
36" Blooming Mill 36.8
44" Slab Mill 63.2
18" Bar and Billet Mill 44.8
8"-31" Hot Strip Mills 55.2
For a mill producing 500,000 tons per year, or 1370 tons per day,
the following daily waste loads arid wastewater volumes may be
expected:
/
Production Solids Load Wastewater
Mill _T_2£§/££LY__ Lbs/Day Gals/Day
Blooming 505 9,600 1,160,000
Slab 865 25,900 623,000
Bar & Billet 614 24,600 2,580,000
Hot Strip 756 30_/2_00 2_/720_,_00_0
90 ,"3" 00" 7, 08 3, CfO 0
The hot-strip mill is assumed to require 3,600 gals of water per
ton of steel rolled and to produce 40i- scale per ton of steel
rolled; hot-scarfing is not used. The indicated scale loss of 3.3%
and the use of 5200 gals of water per ton, reflect older practices
of fewer intermediate finishing operations and slower production
rates.
Oil content of the wastewater would be 100 ppm or more, indicating
a waste load of 5,890 ft/day or more. Leaks and spills are more
prevalent in these older installations.
Pickling Wastes
Sulfuric acid pickling is not significantly different in older
installations, except that the acid and water usage per ton of steel
is lower; this is due to the trend toward lighter gauge products in
newer mills. It is assumed that acid and welter uses in older mills
is 80% of that in typical installations. Waste loads and wastewater
volumes may be estimated as follows:
49
-------
Strong
Item Liquor
Volume, gal/day 15,300 35,000
Free Acid (H2S04), #/day 4,940 870
Combined Acid (FeS04), #/day 18,400 3,240
Cold Finishing Mills
Older cold mills do not operate at as high speeds as newer mills, and
do not reduce the product as much. Unit oil and water usage is thus
greater on newer mills; it is assumed here that the older mills use
75% of the soluble oils and water that typical mills use per unit of
product. The waste oil load is thus estimated to be 637 I/day and
the suspended, solids load 214 #/day from the mill in the present
example; wastewater volumes would be about 514,000 gals/day.
Tinplating and Galvanizing
Older technology utilizes the hot-dip processes for the manufacture
of tinplate and terne. Significant amounts of soluble metals do not
occur in the water wastes from these processes. Relatively small
quantities of pickle liquor, soluble oils, and cleaning solutions
are discharged.
Coke Plants
Coke plant effluents from older plants do not vary significantly on
a unit basis from the newer plants. The waste loads and. wastewater
volumes for the plant of this example, producing 500,000 tons of
coke per day, would be:
Lbs. per 1000
Constituent Tons Coal
Phenols 48
Cyanides (CN) 8.7
Ammonia (N) 62
The volumes of wastewater would be about 6,250,000 gals/day.
c. Advanced Production Technology
The average size plant is taken to be an integrated steel mill
producing 3,000,000 ingot tons per year.
50
-------
Biast Furnac_es_
Data on suspended solids in gasv/ashcr water from furnaces of greater
than 1000 tons/day capacity are given below:
Capacity
Tons/Day
1470
1298
1200
1130
1330
1189
Solids Load
Tons/Day-^/
44.5
39.8
181.0
61.9
55.3
39.7
Wastewater
1000 Gal/Day-Gal/Ton/Day
60.5
61.3
302.0
109.5
83.2
66.7
4320
2720
6912
4140
5940
4464
2940
2090
5750
3660
4470
3760
Waste loads from a group of blast furnaces producing 2,000,000 tons
of iron per year, or 5480 tons per day, are estimated as follows;
the wastewater volume would be 20,700,000 gallons per day.
Constituent
Suspended Solids
Phenol
Cyanides
Fluorides
Ammonia
Daily Waste_ Load
312 tons
120.8 Ibs
153.6 Ibs
252 Ibs
120.8 Ibs
The sinter plant which such a mill operates would be expected to
produce an effluent of 1,000,000 gals/day containing 50 tons of
suspended solids.
Basic Oxygen Furnace and OpenHearth Furnaces
The average basic oxygen furnace has a capacity of about 180 tons
per heat; a heat requires about 50 minutes. One such furnace will
produce about 5200 tons per day of the 8200 tons per day for the
example plant. The remaining 3000 tons per day would typically be
made in oxygen-lanced open-hearth furnaces producing 200 tons of
steel in 8-hour heats, i.e., in 5 furnaces. Some 15% of the steel
produced might be made in electric furnaces as alternative to
production in open-hearth furnaces. Most electric furnaces use dry
air pollution control methods. Unit fume generation is about equal
to that of open-hearth furnaces.
51
-------
Some typical data on basic oxygen furnaces and oxygen- lanced
open-hearth furnaces equipped with venturi scrubbers are given
below:
Furnace
EOF
EOF
EOF
EOF
Open-Hearth
Open-Hearth
Capacity
Tons/Heat
65
100
30
250
250
315
Fume Generated
25-50 ton/day
13-23 ton/day
134 tons/day
1.2 tons/heat
3.8 tons/heat
Water
gpjri
2200
1850
Sol ids
gr/g_a_l_
60
On the basis of these figures, the suspended solids load from a
EOF may be taken as equal to 50 tons/day per 100 tons of capacity
per heat, and from an oxygen-lanced open-hearth furnace as equal
to 2.5 tons per day per 100 tons of capacity per heat. The
estimated solid load from the EOF in the example plant is then 90
tons per day and from the 5 open-hearth furnaces is 25 tons per
day. The rates of fume generation are riot in direct proportion to
furnace capacities, nor is the water use in a venture scrubber in
direct proportion to the volume of gas treated. The water use on
the EOF in the example plant is estimated, to be 3000 gpm and on the
open-hearth furnaces 1000 gpm; wastewatcr volumes are thus estimated
to be 4,320,000 gals/day and 7,210,000 gals/day respectively.
Rolling Mills
A typical mill using advanced technology might be expected to have
the following rolling facilities:
Mill
46" Blooming Mill
45" Slabbing Mill
21" Billet Mill
14" Bar Mill
10" Bar Mill
96" Hot Strip Mill
80" Hot Strio Mill
% of
28.2%
62.3%
9.5%
4.0%
2.2%
37.6%
56.2%
Assuming that the billets and 50% of the slabs are prepared by
hot-scarfing and that the newer 96': hot-strip mill uses 8,000 gals
of water per ton of steel and produced GO," of scale per ton of steel,
waste loads and wastewater volumes may be estimated as follows:
52
-------
Production Solids Load Wastewater
Mill ^JTons/Day Lbs/Day _G^g/D^}/__
Blooming 1,545 29,400 3,560,000
Slab 3,420 102,500 2,460,000
Billet 520 15,200 728,000
14" Bar 219 12,800 1,530,000
10" Bar 121 7,050 846,000
96" Hot-Strip 2,060 123,500 16,500,000
80" Hot-Strip 3,080 154,000 18,500,000
Hot Scarf er " 2,230 111,500 _2 , 6 8_0,000
555,950 46,804,000"
The indicated scale loss of 5.1% and the water use of 8530 gals, per
ton reflect the higher rates of production in newer mills and in-
creasing steel preparation.
Oil content, taken at 50 pprn in the washwater, would result in a
daily waste load of 19,500 Ibs.
Pickling Wastes
Newer pickling techniques utilize hydrochloric acid in conventional
horizontal-type pickling lines or in vertical tower picklers; about
80% of steel pickling is still accomplished with sulfuric acid.
Hydrochloric acid consumption is 80% or less of the sulfuric acid
requirement; hydrochloric acid is, however, relatively more expensive,
Pickling waste loads and wastewater volumes are estimated below for
the example plant:
Item Strong Liquor Rinsewater
Hydrochloric Liquor
Volume, gals/day 12,250 28,100
Free Acid (HC1), ft/day 3,960 700
Combined Acid (FeCl2), #/day 14,700 2,590
Sulfuric Liquor
Volume, gals/day 61,300 140,000
Free Acid (H2SO4), ft/day 19,750 3,490
Combined Acid (FeSO4), #/day 73,500 12,950
Cold^Finishing Mills
Newer cold, reduction mills reduce strip products to thinner gauges,
especially for "thin" tinplate. VJater use can be expected to
approximate 3000 gals per ton of steel rolled with oil and solid
concentrations of 150 pprn and 50 ppm, respectively. On these bases,
53
-------
the wastewater volume for the example plant would be expected to
be approximately 7,710,000 million gals per day, assuming that 50%
of the hot-rolled strip produced in such a plant is cold-reduced.
The waste oil load would be about 9,630 #/day and the solids load
about 3,210 #/day.
Tinplating and Galvanizing
Tinplating wastewaters and waste loads are somewhat greater in
newer mills per unit of product, due to thinner gauge products;
rinsewater conservation through dragout reduction is better controlled.
Overall, then, unit effluent volumes and loads may be considered the
same as for typical technology. On this basis, assuming 5% of
hot-rolled products are tinplatecl, waste loads are about 518 tf/day
hexavalent chromium as chromic acid and 132 ft/day tin or sodium
stannate and wastewater volumes about 144,000 gals/day.
Of the 5% of hot-rolled products galvanized, a newer mill might
produce 20% of this amount by electrolytic methods. For the example
plant, wastewater volumes might amount to 25 gpm, or 36,100 gals
per day containing 70 ppm zinc and 102 ppm cyanide; the waste loads
would then be about 21 #/day zinc and 30.4 #/day cyanides.
These operations produce relatively small volumes of spent pickle
liquor, soluble oils, and cleaning solutions.
Coke Plants
On a unit basis, the discharge from a newer coke plant is similar
to the typical example; differences are found in treatment and
disposal methods.
The wastewater volume from the example plant would be expected to
be about 25,000,000 gals/day with the following waste loads:
Constituent Ib per 1000 ton coal Load, #/day
Phenols 48 404
Cyanides (CN) 8.7 73.4
Ammonia (N) 62 524
The waste loads and wastewater volumes for the subprocesses associated
with each level of technology are summarized in Table II.
2. Total waste loads and wastcwater volumes for typical plants of
each level of technology are also summarized in Table II.
54
-------
ft O -fl*
SV>
o in
tfrj o "** NO O
o * _ TJ- m o
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o o
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00 O
o o o o o
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55
-------
3. Total waste loads and wastewater volumes per unit O.L
each of the levels of technology are tabu] a Led belcv,<;
product for
WASTE LOAD, # PER DAY PER INGOT TON PiiR DAY
Waste
Suspended Solids
Phenols
Cyanides
Fluorides
Ammonia
Lube Oils
H2S04
FeS04
Emulsions
Chromium
Zinc
Tin
FeCl2
HC1
Old
Technology
103
0.069
0.029
0.033
0.082
3.08
3.03
11. 3
0. 332
-
-
-
-
-
Typical
Technology
12
0.
0.
0.
0.
2.
3.
13.
0.
0.
~
0.
-
-
5
064
028
031
078
72
54
2
414
063
016
Advanced
1
0
0
0
0
2
2
10
1
0
0
0
2
0
84
.064
.031
.031
.078
.37
.83
.5
.17
.063
.0025
.016
.10
.565
Waste water volumes on a similar basis are tabulated below:
Wastewater, gals/day
k ovcl
Older
Typi cal
Advanced
9860
10000
13750
56
-------
4. Total waste loads and v/asfcwater volumes produced by the
industry in 1963 arc estimated on the basis of the following
division of plants according to size, and level of technology:
PERCENTAGE OF PLANTS ACCORDING
TO SIZE AND TECHNOLOGY LEVEL (1963)
Small
Medium
Large
All
Old
35. 0
33. 0
30. 0
33. 3
Level
Typical.
57.9
63. 2
45. 0
55. 4
of Technology
Advanced
7. 1
3. 8
25. 0
11. 3
All Plants
56. 2
17. 2
26. 6
100. 0
Ingot production in 1963 was 109. 3 million tons and value
added in manufacture by the industry was $7, 860 million
dollars in 1967 dollars. The estimated waste loads and
wastewater volumes in 1963 are shown in Table III .
b7
-------
g I 5
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58
-------
5. Production, waste load and wastewater volumes are projected
here for the years 1968, 1969, 1970, 197], 1972 and 1977 on
the basis of projected value added by the industry and the
likely subprocess mix in each year. Value added is related
to production as follows:
VALUE ADDED, MILLION $
Year
1963
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1977
Current $
7,425
10, 622
11, 190
11, 840
12, 520
13, 260
14, 030
18, 680
1967 $
7, 860
10, 622
11, 000
11,400
11, 850
12, 330
12, 830
15, 620
Production, 10 tons
109. 3
135.0
138. 5
143.0
147. 5
152. 0
157. 0
184. 0
PERCENTAGES OF PLANTS ACCORDING
TO SIZE AND TECHNOLOGY LEVEL (1968)
Plant Size
Small
Medium
Large
All
Old
31.
30.
27.
30.
Ty
9
0
8
0
Lcve] of Technology
Typical Advanced Ajl Pbants
53.8 14.3 52.5
34. 0
15. 2
38. 2
24. 0
15. 5
32. 0
100. 0
1968 waste loads and wastewater volumes are given in Table IV.
-------
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PERCENTAGES OF PLANTS ACCORDING
TO SIZE AND TECHNOLOGY LEVEL (1969)
Plant
Small
Medium
Large
All
Old
L eyej of Tech no] o g y^ ___ ____
Ad van ced A Plants
31.6
29. 7
27. 5
29. 0
53. 4
54. 4
33. 7
45. 0
15. 0
15.9
38. 8
26. 0
52. 0
15. 0
33. 0
100. 0
1969 waste loads and wastewater volumes are given in Table V.
c.
PERCENTAGES OF PLANTS ACCORDING
TO SIZE AND TECHNOLOGY LEVEL (1970)
Plant Size
Small
Medium
Large
All
Level of Technology
Old Typical Advanced
31.4 52.4 1
29.5 53.4 1
6.2
7. 1
27.4 32.7 39.9
28.5 42.0 29.5
All Plants
51.0
15. 0
34. 0
100. 0
1970 waste loads and wastewater volumes are given in Table VI.
6:1
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d.
PERCENTAGES OF PLANTS ACCORDING
TO SIZE AND TECHNOLOGY LEVEL (1971)
Plant Size
Level of Technology
Small
Medium
Large
All
Old Typical Advanced All Plants
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29. 3
27. 3
28. 0
52. 7
32. 1
40. 0
18. 0
40. 6
32, 0
14. 5
35. 5
100. 0
1971 waste loads and wastewater volumes arc given in Table VII.
PERCENTAGES OE PLANTS ACCORDING
TO SIZE AND TECHNOLOGY LEVEL (1972)
Plant Si/,c
Level of Technology
Small
Medium
Large
All
Old Typical _ Advanced All JPJants_
29. 8 51. 4 18. 8 50. 0
29. 0
27.0
27.0
52. 3
31. 8
39. 0
18. 7
41. 2
34. 0
14. 0
36. 0
100. 0
1972 waste loads and wastewater volumes are given in Table VIII
64
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f.
PERCENTAGES OF PLANTS ACCORDING
TO SIZE AND TECHNOLOGY LEVEL (1977)
Plant Size
Small
Medium
Large
All
Level of Technology
Old Typical Advanced All Plants
28.8 48.1 23.1 46.
28.0 49.0 23.0 1
2.
26.0 28.4 45.6 42.
24.0 29.0 47.0 100.
0
0
0
0
1977 waste loads and wastewater volumes are given in Table IX.
67
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6. There are few seasonal waste patterns of significance in the
industry. Since the automobile and canning industries are very large
steel users, their seasonal patterns are reflected in the steel
industry insofar as strip mill and tinplate products are concerned.
There are, however, substantial lags due to inventory accumulations by
the users and the effects are small. Uses of steel by the building
and construction industries, i.e., structural shapes and reinforcing
rods reflect some seasonal patterns; thus effects, overall, are small.
69
-------
III. Waste Reduction Practices
A. Processing Practices
1. The subprocesses that are alternative to one another are compared
in Table X as to waste loads produced. Waste load "reductions" are
given as percentage reductions from "old" technology. Since sub-
processes of the nev/er technologies often result in increased waste
loads, some "reductions" are expressed as negative numbers, i.e.,
increased waste loads. The figures are given on the basis of waste
loads per ingot ton of plant capacity; similar types of wet-washers
for air pollution control are assumed in the comparisons.
Ironmaking
The alternative subprocess here are blast furnace size, operating
conditions, nature of the burden, and agglomeration practices. The
effects of the first three factors are incorporated in the data
developed for each technology level; the overall effect of sintering
is an additive one. Newer technologies result in increased waste
loads .
S t ee Inak i ng
The truly alternative subprocesses in steelmaking are the oxygen-lanced
open-hearth furnace and the basic oxygen furnace. Waste loads are due
to air pollution control with wet scrubbers and the newer technologies
result in increased waste loads. The electric furnace is limited as
an alternative steelmaking subprocess because of its generally smaller
capacity and unique suitability for specialty production.
Steel Casting
The effect of continuous casting on waste loads is to reduce suspended
solids and oils in the plant effluent by eliminating the blooming and
slabbing mills. Scale is produced in continuous casting at a rate
comparable with a billet mill and little or no oil is produced. The
calculation here assumes the elimination of oils and solids from
blooming and slabbing mills with the addition of scale equal to that
produced by a billet mill. Billets can be continuously cast; in such
cases the waste load reduction would be as much as 62.5%.
The hot-rolling subprocesses that are alternative to one another are
70
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-------
the varying size hot-strip rail Is and the use of hand scarfing or
hot-scarfing. Newer technology here results in increased waste loads
of solids and decreased loads of oil. Hot-scarfing is considered to
add to the solids loads from slab and billet mills.
Cleaning Ope rat ion_s
Hydrochloric acid reduces the waste acid fron pickling about 20% as
compared, with sulfuric acid pickling. Shot blasting, when used.
instead of pickling, eliminates the waterborne wastes.
T i n plating
Electrolytic tinplating produces soluble metal wastes , whereas the
older hot-dip process produces none. Electrolytic lines produce more
pickle liquor and emulsions due to higher speed production.
2. Blast furnaces become progressively larger and sinter plants
increasingly utilized due to the need for higher rates of production
and the decreasing quality of available ores. Sintering reduces flue
dust loss from blast furnaces, but increases the total plant waste
load. Basic oxygen furnaces are being built to replace open-hearth
furnaces; the surviving open-hearth furnaces will probably all operate
with oxygen lances in the near future. Conventional open-hearth
furnaces will be retired. Electric furnaces will exhibit steady,
slow growth, independently of increased BOF capacity. The adoption
of the newer techniques is also due to the need for higher production
rates .
Continuous casting is one new subprocess that reduces waste loads.
Adoption of the technique is limited by the capital expenditures
required and by the fact that much development, work has yet to be
done on the process. Overall waste load reductions are realized due
to elimination of one or more primary mills from the rolling sequence.
Hot-strip mills become larger faster and roll thinner gauges due to
higher production requirements and the market demand for thinner
strip. Hot-scarfing increases due to the market demand for higher
quality products.
Hydrochloric acid is substituted for sulfuric acid in pickling to
obtain faster pickling and to produce a better surface on the product.
Shot blasting is limited as a substitute for pickling due to the
investment already made in pickling facilities and due to the limita-
tion of the technique in available machines.
Electrolytic tinplating and ga]v£inizing replace hot-dip processes
due to the higher production rates possible; with the newer techniques
and to the reduced plating wet a. I used per unit of plated surface.
71
-------
B. Treatment Practices
1. Treatment practices applicable to the principal wastes shown in
Table II are considered here for the various subprocesses from which
they originate as in "typical" technology. Efficiencies given are
for proper operation of facilities; improper operations reduces
efficiency by 50% or more.
a. Suspended Solids
Blast Furnaces
Suspended solids are removed by sedimentation. Solids concentration
in the washer water averages 2660 ppm; sedimentation basin effluents
average 165 ppm. Removal efficiency is thus about 93.8%. Additions
of coagulant aids can reduce the effluent concentration to as little
as 50 ppm and thus increase removal efficiency to 98.2%. Recircula-
tion of the gaswasher water with a 20% blowdown rate could increase
these removal efficiencies to 9-8.8% and 99.6% respectively. Sinter
plant effluents are treated similarly and removal efficiencies are
similar.
Suspended solids are removed by sedimentation to varying degrees in
scale pits and secondary clarifiers. Removal efficiencies are cal-
cul,ated below, assuming an average flume water solids concentration
of 1600 ppm and average scale pit effluent concentration of 150 ppm.
Removal efficiency is then about 90.7%. Coagulant aids can reduce
effluent concentrations by about 50%, increasing removal efficiency
to approximately 95.4%. Recirculation with a blowdown rate of 1/3
might increase these removal efficiencies to 96.9% and 98.4% respec-
tively.
Co3jd_ MiljLs
Suspended solids in cold mill waste streams may be reduced by re--
circulation of the rolling emulsion and through the use of magnetic
separators. Recirculation might reduce solids by 50% and with
magnetic separators or coagulation and sedimentation by 80%.
Coagulation and sedimentation on the once-through effluent might
reduce suspended solids by 50%.
72
-------
b. Phenols, Cyanides, and Ammonia
B las t F u r ri aces
These constituents may be reduced by 90% if river water is used for
quenching coke rather than still wastes; they V7ould, however,
alternatively appear in the coke plant effluent. Biological treatment
may reduce these compounds by 80%.
Coke Plants
Phenols may be reduced by 81%, cyanides by 98%, and ammonia by 99% if
coke is quenched with benzol plant wastes and still wastes and all
cooling water is recirculated. These substances can be reduced 100%
by deep well disposal and. by 80% by biological treatment.
c. Fluorides
Blast Furnaces
Fluorides originate in the iron ore and could only be reduced by using
ore from low fluoride sources.
d. Lubricating Oils
Hot-Rolling Mills
Plain sedimentation removes less than 20% of effluent oil using belt
or cylinder type oil removal devices. The use of coagulation and
sedimentation may result in oil removal efficiencies of 80%. With
recirculation, oil removal efficiencies may be 60% using belt or
cylinder type oil removal devices and 90% or better with coagulation
and sedimentation.
e. Emulsions
Cold Finishing Mills
Emulsified oils in cold mill effluents roay be redued by 75% by
recirculation of the soluble oil solutions. Treatment by means of
coagulation and flotation may reduce the waste load by 95%.
73
-------
f. Soluble Metals
Pi at i n joe r at i on s
These substances can be removed with efficiencies of 95% by ion
exchange methods, followed by treatment of the resin' regenerant
solution. These substances can be reduced. 100% by deep well disposal.
g. Waste Acids
Pickling Solutions
Pickling solutions can be disposed of by injection in deep wells.
This results in 85% removal efficiency if the strong liquor is thus
disposed of; it is not economically feasible to dispose of rinsewater
in this manner. Neutralization of spent pickle liquor with lime
reduces the waste load insofar as free acid and dissolved iron are
concerned, but adds the calcium salt of the acid. The reduction of
the waste load from sulfuric acid pickling is about 80%, considering
the calcium salt residual and the fact that rinsewaters are not
neutralized. Regeneration processes can recover the acid and iron
from strong pickle liquor with about 95% efficiency; overall
efficiency is then about 80%. The relatively small amounts of
alkaline wastes generated act to neutralize acid vzastes and thus
constitute a treatment practice of sorts.
h. Summary
Removal efficiencies of the various waste treatment methods are
summarized in Table XI.
2. The estimated percentages of plants employing the various treatment
practices are summarized in Table XII.
a. There are few of these treatment practices which must be employed
in any particular sequence due to technological considerations.
Plain sedimentation of blast furnace gaswasher water and of mill scale
has preceded other techniques, principally because some such removal
is necessary to permit utilization of blast furnace gas and to prevent
sewer clogging. The considerations involved in choosing the sequence
in which removal 'practices are employed, are economic in nature, seldom
technolog ical .
74
-------
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b. Plain sedimentation or cccfjulrtion and sedimentation, with or
without recirculation, are substitutable techniques; efficiencies arc
not, of course, equal. In the case of cold mill effluents, the use
of magnclic separators can be substituted for coagulation and
sedimentation insofar as solids removal is concerned. Neutralization,
regeneration, and deep well disposal are alternative techniques for
the disposal of pichic liquor. Biological treatment and deep well
disposal are alternative treatments for coke plant wastes. Quenching
coke v;itJi still wastes or river water are alternative techniques which
reduce wastes in coke plant or blast furnaces effluents respectively.
c. The waste treat"-jnt methods outlined cire given as integral methods
and have few inter*.' -^ndencies; interdependencics which affect costs
and efficiencies ai nore to be found between alternative subprocesL-es
than between waste treatment methods. The extent to which recircula-
tion of process water is employed is the factor of most importance in
this connection. Interdependences between waste treatment processes
are found in comparing relative air and water pollution abatement
efficiencies, i.e., air pollution abatement measures very often
result in potential water pollution problems and water pollution
abatement measures sometimes result in air pollution problems.
3. a. Aside from the disposal of sanitary wastes generated by plant
employens, very little of the industry's water are discharged to
municipal sewers. Sanitary wastes amount to about 1% of the total
wastes and possibly one-half of these wastes are discharged to
rauniciap] sewers.
Pickle liquor may be discharged to municipal sewers, as may coke plant
wastev/aters. Such practices are very limited and do not excc-ec1. 5£ of
the industry's total wastewater disposal. The pickle liquor thet is
disposed of in this way is that from small installations. The
percentage of such disposal practices employed in the industry is not
likely r.o increase through 3977. In 1950 the percentage of such
disposal was prob?bly 2% or less.
Percentages of the industry's wastewaters discharged to municipal
sewers nay be estimated as follows:
1950 1963. 1961, 1922 1972.
*~) Q. "> £ CO. CO. C Q.
*~ "o ~> o .J "o J *o -J 'o
Such discharges are generally from small installations. The
practice is limited becav.se sewage treatment plant operators fear
the ef.'jeo;.:s of these wastes on sewers and plant facilities, and
-------
because of the political, cons.uVratio.'U-, inherent in the operation
of many municipal systems. The technical feasibility of such
discharges has often bcev, demonstrated but seldom permittee! for
those reasons.
b. Acids can attack sevei: materials and inhibit the biological
processes in sewage treatment plants; sulfatcs can cause corrosion in
concrete sewers of certain typos. Coke plant wastes can inhibit
sewage treatment processes due to the torsi city of phenols and cyanides
Pickle liquor must be at lear.t partially neutralized before discharge
to municipal sewers and the flow rate must be regulated in relation
to the relative volu;ae of sewage to which it is eddr/d. Coke plant
wastes must be added by controlled discharge so as not to upset the
treatment plant processes; coke plant wastes can exeunt to as much as
5% of the combined flow to a sewage treatment plant.
C. By-Product Utilization
By-products are recovered and utilized from certain waste treatment
processes in the industry. Such recovery is, however, inherent in
the descriptions of the processes given above and does not further
reduce v;as teloads reaching watercourses. It is not likely that
additional by-product utilization of this type will develop.
The suspended mateulal fron blast furnace gacwasher water and
recovered mill scale are sintered and returned, to the blast furnace
or steelmaking furnace. Oils recovered fron cold mill rolling
solutions are processed for re-use in the mill operation or for
sale. Acid regenerated from pickle liquor is returned to the
pickling tanks.
Some other by-products are .recovered in the course of gas-scrubbing
cleaning operations which reduce potential wasteloc'ds well ahead
of the wiiste treatment processes described. Ammonium sulfate is
produced in removing ammonia from coke oven gas with sulfuric Eicid;
phenol is recovered from coke oven gas by vapor rccirculation or
solvent extraction. Copperas is produced, fron pickle liquor in a
few plants cind one or two plants are able to dispose of pickle liquoi
to chcrnici,']. or pigment manufacturers.
D. Base Year Net Uaste Quantities
Base yocir net wasteloads are given below for the broad categories
of wastes previoxisly described.
78
-------
' c ' i-.' v Y . i KJIJ '.:
Co1: .: P.'';...; C<;r
iMv :::.;.('. "f
Cro:-.'. Uc <;.«
Oi'1.. ': xt.y
a. .>-.-, ;- c 'C'br)
IV.Cn x 10f>
f30 6 x 10r>
1,732.6 x K)S
5.79 :: mf
5 ? C 0 x ' 0 '-"
r. in, 9G :, IOC
3.b-' x 10 ''
Perec; r
Uc'.si.c Ho
o;: PC.
93
28
4 1
3
62
64
0
-J f~ ^ > .
3ou ^xo.'i
.1C.)V r. ?
. 0
c t'
. 7
. 8
.8
.8
p -. '- i-r-
j .. _ i e , , <.
QI-.-.JI :...!
Dus.. ' V .,-,-
S57
211. r;
] , 0 1 C . 2
b.L>7
19 .2
6 o C G
3.5'1
r,i f
: ^
d" C'-'O.'.}
> 10^
x 10 6
x 1 0 G
x 1 0 6
x 30S
x 3 0 6
x 106
E. Project!-."
Px'o'jcccod not v;astc qur.ntitlcs i ?:e give
yo;>.rr, 1SCC--1972 and 1977 fox- tho brood
viovsly described.
elo\; fox o;...c:]i of Die
c-:go;:io.c' of. v: as toe pro-
SUMM.AKV OF pilOJ.'Jf'TJ'!) NET VTASTjJLO^nn }'OR 19G8
VTc'.s i-e
Co.n-oo'K;nt
SiTi's'itiidc'd Sol i ds
LV.;JO Oj 1
^c.l.dn (1)
Solvb'l e 1-lr tcilf*
]J;. avis Jo; if.
Gro^s
Quc'.u
C4
.8
r. s 1
-''^i
cd
x
X
X
X
X
..G
f
(Ibe)
io6
10°
10G
10 G
?4.05 x 10l"'
4.37 :; 106
Co';e P.'ij.tjt Chc-?i.i.cals
(1) ];'rco caKl ccvibinod c-.c.tdf;.
2.12 x 10G
4.37 x 30r
79
-------
Waste
Co::'' >(.;nc-.iit
Si^erd-.-d Solids
Lv.b.-.- Oil
Acids (1)
Solr-ble I let a is
EnroisioAfj
Coke Plane Gnomic
Flu
-------
OF p;;o.v><;cT.*:n I-..T.Y. \v/-sv.ji,o7ius FOR 1971
G;:or;
s T,^
'! - i
^,,
Kar; to QU-TJ it x ty
(-1 ,
Si it;].'
Lub;:
/icid
Solv,
K) Y...'. .1
Co3-; e
rirr,
COU'UO; 'Tit
.>'.' ..'O uOJ-X <.'.'-
Oil
q (1)
bio He to Is
, .; ,,. u,-
P.1; 'it Che 'dec:!
GC'ir-r;'
20,930
41 2
2,406
8
96
s 26
4
Lccl
.75
.1
. 4 1
.80
C'
X
^v
X
X
X
X
>:
Jin
10
.10
10
10
10
10
10
Pc-vcen t
Vlas Ln Re
)
A
u
6
6
G
6
G
or R.?-
94
42
78
17
72
91
0
aqa o.c
Net
V?astc
d"a t: I", .ion Qu an t i t:y
p.OVc'.l
.1
.0
. /
.6
.3
.6
Discha
1,241
23C.
520.
7.
2G.
2.
4.
rqed
X
8 x
5 x
21 x
6 x
24 x
80 x
(Ibs)
lof
10 ;
10 6
106
lOf'
10 6
1C5
(1) Free f-ji'J co".b.li)od c'icids.
SUriilAKY O? PROJECTED NET WASTELOhDS FOR 1972
WclStC
Co::iponcnt
Suspandod Scilids
Lube Oil
Solub.1 e .Mctfilf?
Coke Pli-nt Clicraicci.l
Fluoride s
Gross V7aste Percentaoe of Net VJciste
Quantity Westc Reduction Quantity
Generated (Ibs) or Reaovc;! Dincharc/cd (Ibs)
21,843
424
2,485
x 10)
x 10
x 10
6
9.27 x 10
102
x 10
6
27.25 x .10
(1)
4.95 x 10
Free. £'nd combined ac.ids
6
94.3
43.5
80.5
19.5
72.5
91.6
0
1,260 x 10
239.6 x .10
484.6 x 10
7.47 x .10
28.1 x 10
2.30 x 10
4.95 x 30(
-------
' O" rKOJ'-C''',;!, I-'-'. U/'S'/OOO .OS 1'OVt .1 c. 7 7
G; orj!, Vi'L'i-? }'o -co'"' 80,7 560.2 x 10°
Soi v *j ' c Mo U: '' 1 ] . 2 5 x 10 6 34.0 7. ^ 2 x 10 6
EMU 3 too',.-:, 138 x 10G 73.5 36.6 x 106
Coke Plrn-L: Choudc-a;; 32 x 10G 93.4 2.75 x 106
F.luo-.:.L<:';ar:, 5,80 x 10G 0 S.fcO x .TO6
/ T \ r». -. -^ - ,< ,- . i. .' . *1 ,,--,.>-,
f2
-------
IV.
A. The re. ;.>] acrrnon I value of existing Wc~ste ro/nova] facilities
arid annual operating and maintenance expenditures by the industry
fox" \
-------
Based upon the average size pleat, the estimated percentages of
nlants utilising particular, treavuont ^rroecsses, anc'. s too ]n<" king
Ccipr.cjty of about 160 million. ingoL tons oar year, the fol.'l.O'vincj
totals arc; estimated for 1966:
I Plain Sedinei.'tatJon
A Blast Furnace &
Sinter Plant
B Plot-Rolling Hills
II Coagulation £
Sea i.nen Nation
A Blast Furnace &
Sinter Plant
B Hot-Rolling Mil If;
C Cold Mi]1s
111 Recalculation and:
A Plain Sedinteptat J on
1. Blast Furnace &
Sinter Plant
2. Hot--Rolling :iills
3. Cold Mills
B Coagulation &
Sedimentation
1. Blast Furnace £
Sinter Plant
2. Hot-Rolling Mills
3. Cold Mills
C M P.. g n c t i c S e p a r a t o r s
IV Biological Treatment
V Deep Uell Disposal
VI Ton Exchange
VJ .1 Neutralization &
Lagconing
Unit
Totol Cost
80
68
10
20
70
5
10
20
10
5
$ 1.25
1.67
1.80
$200,000
5 $100,000
Ingot Von/yr $160,000,000
Ingot Ton/yr $101,300,000
$ ].38' Ingot Ton/yr $ 11,000,000
$ 1.84 Ingot Ton/yr 5,890,000
2.00 Ingot Ton/yr 12,800,000
$ 1.50 Ingot Ton/yr
$ 2.00 Ingot Ton/yr
$ 24,000,000
64,000,000
$ 2.00 Ingot Ton/yr $224,000,000
Ingot Von/yr
$ 2.40 Ingot Ton/yr
$ 2.40 Ingot Ton/yr
$20,000 1000 gpra
$ 0.20 Ingot Ton/yr
Plant
50,000 grxl
80 $1,300,000 100,000 god
VIII. Regeneration Processes 2 $1,000,000 100,000 gpd
Total
$ 14,400,000
38,400,000
76,800,000
353,000
$ 3,200,000
$ 2,370,000
$ .1, 6 0 0,000
$ 42,200,000
$__ 3 , 2 5 0 , C u_0
$865,563,000
] n the B years from 1955 to 1563 steel ca.oacity increased fro:", .125
to 355 mi 1 lion tons per- yea/'; ciur:!nj this, uerxoc" the .-indusl-ry Jn\'estcd
aboul 1.42 hj ] 1 :i on dcil'U-i's per year j n p.l anl and ecfujp'ien!. on the
c'qe in toi^'i.j of- .1965 dollars. The- rex'>.l?ce;iient value of clarit
-------
and equipment in current dollars on the basis of these figures
would be about $60 billion dollars. An average replacement
value of $387 per annual ingot ton of capacity is indicated by
these figures. The value of older equipment producing heavier
unit products is about 2/3 of this average value, while that
of newer equipment producing lighter unit products is about
1/3 greater.
The estimated replacement value of waste treatment facilities
of $865 million dollars represents about 1.44% of total invest-
ment in plant and equipment in 1966. This percentage agrees
well with estimates previously given in the technical literature
by others.
Operating costs for various treatment processes are given in
Table XIII. Direct costs include labor, supervision, main-
tenance and supplies; indirect costs include amortization,
general overhead, taxes, and insurance.
Based upon the average size plant, the estimated percentages
of plants utilizing particular treatment processes, steelmaking
production of 135 million ingot tons annually, and the waste-
water volumes previously given, the annual expenditures are
estimated for the year 1966 in Table XIV.
B. 1. a. Subproce;
Costs
Capital costs and annual operating and maintenance expenditures are
estimated for the three levels of technology and plant sizes for
subprocess and for the corresponding treatment methods. The estimates
of costs and expenditures associated with processing are order-of-
raagnitude figures; this type of data is not readily available and is,
in fact, quite closely held within the industry. The capital costs
given are based upon the following unit estimates.
Subprocess
Electric Furnace
Basic Oxygen Process
Open-Hearth Furnaces
Primary Hills
Finishing Mills
CoId Mills
Blast Furnaces
Coke Ovens
Flnishing Operations
Clean!nq Operations
Continuous Cascinq
9apital Cost, $/Ingpt Ton
Old Typical New
$25
$50
$80
$85
$ 20
$ 40
$ 50
$100
$ 90
$ 35
$ 35
$ 50
$ 40
$ 15
$ 20
$120
$100
$ 60
$ 50
$ 16
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Opera t:i ng labor coses arc approximately 54\> OL the value, added by
rnanuf ac tore in Lhe industry, which was about $7o.50 per ingot ton in
]9GG. Me; teri als , suopl.i.es, freight and otnar services aMO>u;;tcd
t(> about $60.50 per ingot Ion. DJ rcct op-wati ;^>:=-r.-., j^ .) -r :iuboroce.->.s .
$ 3.99
$ 5.32
$JO.G3
Primat-/ Mills $13.30
F i n i. s 111 n g .Mil-1 s $21.30 $ 2 6 , G 0 $ 31. 9 0
Cold Mills $22. .GO $23.90 $26. GO
Blast Furnace $ 9.30
Coke Ovens $ 9.30
Finishing Operations $13.30 $35.93
Cleaning" Operations $10. G 3" $.13.30
Continuous Casting $ 4.25
b. The estimates given here include credits taken for modified
techno] ogy arid by- oroduet recovery. Costs would be hi give?: if by-
products wore not recovered and the increased costs can be ealiuated
fron the figures given previ ously. By--m:oduct recovery is limited
in the steel industry, however, and by-products sue1]} ac the fJue
dust and prill scale are always recovered.
c. The estimates given here for waste trea h.ient methods arc incus try
averages. Costs for installation in new plain ts may be taken as 705;
of the coverage. The average costs given apply to i nstall atiojjS in
existing plants when adequate space is easily avail able for tree, tn-nt
icicil i ti ej;. Costs in smaller existing plants, which are par I i cula i .1 y
crowded and require equipment relocations, nay be taken as ISM of the
a YCrag e s g i ve n.
2. Jn 1S;6'I companies rceorcsen ting 95% of the industry's capacity had
invested $21,493,835,0.13 in plant cind equipment; do orociatio;i and
ai.ior ti. xal i on had. reduced net fixed assets to $9,304,700,908. Cespacity
in .1964 I'/ar, estirarteci to have been .157 million ingot tons. Do'ore-
i/aLie.ii from .1.9 C 4 to 19G5 a.u.untcd to $852,29G;G43
.--: value- of $22 , 29 3 , 339 , 330 ; i.e., 3.841. The
n.'<,i.jc life cvf -)lant anc' c^.ui -^: ICM t is thus about 2G year.'.,
"islry. Tiir c^cou '/.'ii e life oT c ret;; i.r-n t f a.ci 1 i ti cr- te.nc s to
2 (i ye-'i i '- on t h'1 aveTajC., bul varie/- widely depending u*jo~i
-------
The c j ?
yxO lii'lJ-Oj) corVrcij :. x" I '" in co^ ^ cni-.i o,,;-.1 : '.Jc- r'xcs.
1 i %;i r-g i./l a i.~n
n^cvr. \'.'Jlii ]:O
T}H^ r \/c ''c'.rjo pajit if; ?,S' (_ r i:o lic_,,- l).1-'c,i fi' ci\cccr~ \~
rvc-clj rienv ^ L- j cvi i o i.x *-.<: -' '"i coni'vol ; h'>L--;< oi .1 1.119 li] ' -' -' '- 'l': ' -"' -"'- '' -1 "n " ri--? :' jl ^"-C'^i.'^-n': i'
l.O t/ru-t ;iill so IP !',i'H c;r;;l.o-'f. ; p.' r "; L;i ,' j \>1. 1:1; \%..--. Lc i rr. r L"'.:UL Ir,
n.?u L i c) li '/- ol iou , colc\ r'"l. IJr. O'j:\c,:;^ :(." vi H' :. .jc i i c:u1 c'.L" i d" ci.icl [>l.c);lii
soei.i"r" i"1 'j o L.Lori ; ti :< .^l;.. I iiu, c'v ^ r 1 v rvi :7 > _:; \.:i'cli nr; \7rr-',C' i. ire-: c- ' '.~>c ri J.- :
?ncl £i C'oI'C1 "liini: opr. xv. I :i ;r; \':1"1"' I\T ' L r.ue 1 rec' I'n' jnl. , o(]^'-.i'- L\£;n
colco c'ueuicli.i.ncf ,
The s1."'?.-L.I p.lant is asfu.ioo to licj s:'".ii Ir.j to tV'l of Lh
biU" v.'.i th cold-Jl.i.ni sh.l nt; !::il.1s oocraLcd o.-j the: b£'c..i5' or
pla.'i.n seel;! r.icntcit;! on of coo.l-r-u: L solvij.io.fis.
The £jvaraqc ]">1a.nL i.s asrro iod to be siip'Trx to thc- l; o" t'"jo o.l c
tcchnolo^'v , but \;i Lh J cc.i t cr.",] a L i on c;r:d plain ?,::c'i..icj'tf J. .ton OL hoL-:;iJl
e in i'(-)] Ls -
'1'ho avOi :""c; r>lan I", .i. 5. c':>
-------
have oxygen- lanced ooen- hearth.1: rnci/or basic oxygen furnaces equipped
with water bc:.._ubbcrs, the exfiuontr, of which are treated by
recirculation and plain sedimentation.
The large plant is assumed to be similar to the average plant.
91
28'-024 O - 68 - 7
-------
Flecl.ri c Furnrcc .-;
Hot- i lolling Il'i 1.1 s
Plain ScuJ Mcni <: Lien (lo)
7vnc'r;c: T1J;n,i.. 700, (iOO r.K;or
B 1 ri .'j L F u r 1 1 ri c c> r.;
Open - 1 ! c- .-; v L h > 1 1 / n ; c r r ;
IjOL- TIoLl.i IK, Hil J <;.
Clor .ri mj
Cole1 jlil.lrj
F.i nj r,h i i:;j
Co]:o PlanL
P 1 a i i ! £'. ctl J ' i a n l r c i on ( 1 ;\ )
Plci in Sc^ii >on (-;!. io"' (Ifi)
AC if" K'l.'Ut J £:1 1 Xf't.l 0:~< (IX)
Rcc;j rcul atj on rnu Scd. (II1A3)
J^rgp IMc'Til 1,200,000 Jngoi
Blc'Sl n.rn.-cc-:::
Ope n 1 ! c ;i 3 " L '" } ' u .<: n £ C" o o
HoV-- liol 1 i n, Mi l 1 r
CJo>M) in-j
Cole" ;;' i is
Finn r,:h i n-;;
Co'cc- Pl:,nl.
PJc'in 5'C'c'i.i ' ion i. ." ; j on (I/.)
iMr-iin 5;t'^ i < -'MI: <'.-; CM. (u1.)
ACJU Uf.l.l r c'l .i Zr'.l TO.] (!(X)
}Jc-c. i rcH'l c--; i c>.i TJJL S^cl. (:iV[.;.3)
$ 5,
26,
Tons 7yj.iv
$ 2/1,
35,
91,
28,
59,
35,
24,
$ 1,
1,
2,
Tons 7/0 ni1
$ w.,
60,
15G ,
48,
J02,
60,
42,
$ 2,
3,
1,
3,
000 ,
000,
500 ,
:il ly
500,
000,
000,
000,
500,
000,
500,
169 ,
750,
858,
JOO,
.rlly
000,
000 ,
000 ,
000,
000,
000 ,
000,
00' ,
000 ,
185,
6 0 0 ,-
000
000
000
000
000
0 0 0
000
000
000
000
0 0 0
000
000
000
000
000
000
C) (i 0
000
0 C) 0
000
000
000
0 0 0
0 G 0
$
6
$
-------
I. Plant - 700,000 Ingot Venr: A;imu'13y
l!e>lv-Koi'l IDC; j\" i 13s
$
$
$
$
14
3.05
63
1
1
--, 7
52
60
225
60
135
75
52
3
3
3
3
,000
,000
,000
,169
,400
-[ i i n Sea 1' i. o t ;-t.i DM (] A)
}'eej 'C-o."1. i J cm c'nd SefJ , (JJ I. 72)
7\c:.'(1 "'"-ri , c lL?,'tif)i" (c;''i
};:>;; --c'l'l - : j CM, riiJ S'-f . ( i n A3)
$105,000 ,000
120,000 ,000
450,000,000
120,000 ,000-
270,000,000
."150,000 ,000
105,000,000
$ 3,750,000
6,000,000
2., 2 C, C, , o 0 0
6 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0
$ 27,900,000
31,890,000
3 ."I 9 , V 0 0 , 0 0 0
31,890 ,000
71 ,700,000
39,900,000
27,900,0 0 0
$ S 3 3 , 2 0 0
? 9 0 ,'' 0 0
.1 ,707,? 0 0
23,000
30
20
20
15
20
20
20
30
20
-------
Ml no L r~i o ? 'i irnar.OLj
Hoi Roll i ncj Juj J J s
Co]d Hills
Rooiic.nla; Lon an'~' Sod.
Roo i.roa'i.a ( 3 on £ ,-d Rod,
AVO.VI- riapl - 3,000,
Bli'S I ruj-nacoc;
Co-; n -He:,: L lh L'u < naac :
Har;ic Ox^'jon T'^-I. naon.c;
Hoc Rol.l i) ;; rij Us
CloaO i (K;
Col d H.i 1.1 f:
I1' 3 )si r.lii.ix;
CoJ.o R]ai.l.
Coa^ o] c! I ion and Rod , (
Rao.; i- , , Coacj . , and; Red
nooj) l.'olj Disposal (V.I
KooJ coul a L.i on and Soo .
};oc.i rcnl tli.J on and Rod.
Larcro )M an! - 5,000 ,00
]!la<;t I'u.rn; cos
Opon--Iica rLi' Kuriiaccs
ISii.sir- Ony-jon I'nrnac -r,
Hot-'Rol-l :i tirj Mi .1 Is
CM C'anJ nr;
Co. Id. ;ij 1 1 f.
3'J jiif.ii i JKJ
CoI>C' J'laMi
$
1
]
(TIT; 2) $
(j LI A3)
000 Tn^oi Ions
15
70
00
1
1
P
$105
5
]
3
1
40
40
10
50
00
80
105
Kl/0 $
. ( J I ] i", 2. )
1)
Cm AJ)
(Kn»3)
0 Dnifol- Tons A
$1
8
2
5
2
5
3
4
,000
,000
,000
, 5 0 0
,500
m-na
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,'OGO
,000
,3] 0
,400
500
,000
,500
nnuall
75
80
60
50
50
00
300
1
75
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
, 0 0 0
,000
,000
,000
,000
1 1 v
,000
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, r. o o
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, *-' V O
,000
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,000
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y
, 0 0 0
,000
,000
,oco
,000
,000
,000
, 0 0 0
$ 3
45
26
$
$ 27
.10
10
135
39
79
47
27
$ 1
2
$ 46
21
15
226
66
133
70
46
,990
,200
,600
131
21
,900
,630
,640
,600
,000
,800
,6i>0
,900
,6] 6
,OC!
60
580
64
,500
,260
,960
,000
,500
,000
,750
, 5 0 0
,000
,000
, 0 0 0
,000
,600
,000
,000
, 0 0 0
,000
, 0 0 0
0 C'' 0
,000
, 0 0 0
,900
,200
, 1 0 0
,800
,700
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,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
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, 0 0 0
20
25
20
20
20
30
30
2,0
25
20
20
.1.5
20
20
2.5
15
20
20
30
30
20
25
20
20
] 5
20
(VM/,2)
20
-------
1. llorik, Richard )). I;uo;. to 3V,iy and P;..'~> L^r: as a Neutral
3. HeboJ sine', r.os:. "Vac Treatment of Uaterbo .ie Waotcs fror-i
St.ei-1 P1 av.d.;;,, " Ircxi aricl^ S1:ee_l^ if,nc7_incer_, DecciAber, 19137,
pn 125-151. " "" '~
Dernott , G. K., I . ,
('/i^ r-c.h.cccj) , li . R. , "Indur;tr:u;X '^Qi-rL-o Cn.lr!?' - by-Product
Co] e Induy L-;:y , l! r^-j^7c,c,c_ai:cl Inclan Lric-l VJeist^:-?.^ Vol. 29,
Ko, 1, pp 53-75," Ji"nxT'?..':y/""I77"' ......
5. rUr-ch, Urysc II. c\xici McDarraot'I. , G:^rc3ci H., ''Industrial Uastc
Gui'dc bias !.. Furii^cx: Dcpax'bu'jnt of the Steel Induu; txy , ''
ivirJ ^^qto^, Vol. ?G, 'io. 8, J^P 97C-SDO,
6. Pctd.it, Grv-.rit A., "Ucrrte P.icklc Liquor Troatr-.c-nt by 7-.rr.ico
Stool Corpo.v? l;io3i at Lutlcr, Pa.'1 P_eya_f;o i :''.a_ liiduo L.ria.l
I'^otos, Vol. 2^1, LJo. 1, pp 67~7'lf JlmiuTry , "TS'5 >\ " "" .....
7. Nol-.olsi.no , Rors, "Uatcr Sup'^y for Stoo] Plants,11 Iron
c-nd Str:ol Rli«.iiHc;c;;c, Anrj]., 3S54.
8. Ilcnon, ^cr^lcv C. L., editor "7ur Pollution Prob:'r:is of the
Steel Industry/" Journal _of_ the ;\.i r j-ol lujLj on_ Control
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S8
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J)cG;-j:jo:'if IK:/ old }.j., cdito..:, "the I-';.3;:u'ig , Shaping, and
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65. Earhc.j.'.., )\ V7, c-.-id Gy?.f*:.nr Joan F, edited by "Bar and Allied
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