TALL STACKS, VARIOUS ATMOSPHERIC
PHENOMENA, AND RELATED ASPECTS
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
Consumer Protection and Environmental Health Service
National Air Pollution Control Administration
Arlington, Virginia
May 1969
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TALL STACKS, VARIOUS ATMOSPHERIC
PHENOMENA, AND RELATED ASPECTS
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Library, Region V
1 North Wacker Drive
Chicago, Illinois 60605 --.>•
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
Consumer Protection and Environmental Health Service
National Air Pollution Control Administration
Arlington, Virginia
May 1969
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The APTD series of reports is issued by the National Air Pollution Control
Administration to report technical data of interest to a limited readership. Copies
of APTD reports may be obtained upon request, as supplies permit, from the
Office of Technical Information and Publications, National Air Pollution Control
Administration, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 801 North
Randolph Street, Arlington, Virginia 22203.
National Air Pollution Control Administration Publication No. APTD 69-12
E-NVIKOITMEJTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
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CONTENTS
DISPERSION FROM TALL STACKS 1
INTRODUCTION 1
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 1
GROUND-LEVEL CONCENTRATIONS 3
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS 12
SUMMARY 15
CONCLUSIONS 17
REFERENCES 19
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 21
TALL STACKS 23
ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMENA 39
MISCELLANEOUS 79
ADDENDUM 99
111
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TALL STACKS, VARIOUS ATMOSPHERIC
PHENOMENA, AND RELATED ASPECTS
DISPERSION FROM TALL STACKS: A DISCUSSION
INTRODUCTION
This document is a compilation of abstracts and references to recent articles
dealing with tall stacks, various atmospheric phenomena, and related subjects. *
Atmospheric dispersion from tall stacks, particularly as it relates to ground-level
concentrations of SO;>, is discussed.
This discussion is based on selected references and is not presented as an
all inclusive treatment. No attempt has been made to discuss every condition
associated with tall stacks, neither has an effort been made to provide a complete
state-of-the-art on this subject.
References and abstracts appearing in the annotated bibliography were
obtained from several literature sources, and are arranged alphabetically under
three topics, according to first author or first significant word in the title when
no author is given.
Referenced materials that were generated by the National Air Pollution
Control Administration and other Public Health Service agencies are available
from the Air Pollution Technical Information Center. The appropriate Air Pollu-
tion Technical Information Center accession numbers are provided in the biblio-
graphical entries.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Under any given set of meteorological conditions, the ground-level concen-
trations of a gaseous pollutant emitted at a constant rate into the atmosphere will
become smaller as the effective height of emission of the pollutant into the air is
increased. This is a truism. A fixed rate of emission at a fixed height does not
uniquely determine the resultant ground-level concentrations, nor is it a certainty
that sensibly significant concentrations at the ground will always result from even
large emission rates from elevated sources. The magnitude of ground-level con-
centrations and their temporal and spatial variation depend upon the (non-linear)
interactions of an impressive number of factors, among which the major ones are:
1. Strength of the source (e.g. , emission rate in grams per second).
*This document is a revised edition of "Tall Stacks, Various Atmospheric Phenom-
ena and Related Aspects" dated August 1, 1968, U.S. Department of Health, Educa-
tion, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Arlington, Virginia 22203.
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2. Physical height of the stack or chimney.
3. Topography of the region surrounding the stack.
4. Geometric relationships between the stack and the building complex
upon (or near) which it is located.
5. The rate of transformation or decay (if any) of the pollutant.
6. The temperature and efflux velocity of the material at the time of
release.
7. The temperature and stability structure of the atmosphere through the
depth in which the "plume" is dispersing, and their variations in time
and space.
8. The wind velocity and its variation in time and three-dimensional space
through the dispersing layer.
9. The intensity and spectral distribution of atmospheric turbulence in
space and time through the dispersing layer.
10. The "effective" stack height, i.e. , the sum of the physical stack height
and the plume rise due to inertial and/or buoyancy forces. (Note: there
is no universally accepted definition of conditions that mark when or
where the effective height of a plume has been reached. )
Not all of these factors are independent; e.g. , number 10 can be a function
of all of the others, and 9 strongly depends on 7 and 8, and possibly 3 as well.
For existing installations, only factors 1 and 6 may be controlled or modified by
the operators. Factors 2, 3, and 4, which bear on aerodynamic effects that might
bring elements of the plume prematurely to the ground, are fixed. Factor 5 is a
property of each pollutant and varies with environmental factors, such as air
temperature, humidity, and sunshine. The meteorological phenomena, 7, 8, and
9, may be highly variable in all space dimensions and in time, although some
degree of diurnal and seasonal regularity is usually discernable.
Given this heterogeneous array of fixed, quasi-controllable, and quasi-
random functions, the central problem for air pollution meteorologists is to derive
and validate the quantitative relationships of these functions to resultant ground-
level concentrations over various time periods of interest. That is, as a basis for
evaluating a given stack, the meteorologist must derive a diffusion climatology
that will establish the occurrence frequency of a range of meteorological conditions
and provide estimates of the ground-level concentrations that will occur within a
given atmospheric condition.
It is not the purpose of this report to review all of the significant aspects of
atmospheric dispersion; this has already been done in available literature, e.g. ,
references 1 and 2, and summarized in handbooks, references 3 and 4. Attention
here is limited to particular consequences of the continuous release of large
quantities of pollutants (particularly SO^ and fine particulates) from "tall" stacks
(over 150 meters or 500 feet).
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GROUND-LEVEL CONCENTRATIONS
Theoretical Considerations
No general complete theory has been formulated to express the physical
relationships between ambient concentrations of air pollutants and the relevant
causative factors and processes. Partial or semitheoretical expressions have
been derived for limited classes of simplified conditions and situations. These
have been based on analogy to heat flow in fluid materials, or on the statistical
theory of turbulence, which deals with averaged properties of fluid motions.
Although recent extension of these theories to motion in stratified media appears
promising, the numerical evaluation of critical parameters, such as exchange or
diffusion coefficients for the complete range of atmospheric stability conditions,
must be based on experiment. As a result, a large body of empirical data has
been accumulated over the past several decades from activities connected with
Chemical-Biological-Radiological warfare, atomic energy, and air pollution
research. Working equations, including appropriate values of the diffusion para-
meters, have been derived from these field studies and have proved useful, in the
solution of practical air pollution problems arising from both ground-level and
elevated sources. However, because most of the studies of continuous emissions
involved stacks shorter than 300 feet, and because observations at upper levels
are technically difficult, few of the data obtained relate directly to plume disper-
sion from taller stacks.
This dificiency has not precluded the estimation of ground-level concentra-
tions to be expected from tall stacks. In such estimates, however, the values of
height-dependent atmospheric variables (diffusion coefficients) used in the working
formulae, are largely speculative extrapolations, subject to validation by relevant
field observations and experiments. Further, recent ground-level sampling at
distances 5 to 20 miles from the base of tall stacks demonstrates that earlier
conclusions, based on close-in sampling (up to 5 miles), can significantly under-
estimate the magnitude of ground-level concentrations possible at greater distances.
The importance of the actual relevancy of data collected to validate aspects of tall
stack effluent dispersion cannot, therefore, be overemphasized.
Figure 1 shows a convenient and often referenced scheme for classifying the
dispersion behavior of stack gases on the basis of ambient atmospheric stability
conditions in the lower atmosphere. Theoretical calculations of pollutant concen-
trations in time and space are normally set, explicitly or implicitly, within the
framework of such a classification. Although that practice is also followed in the
calculations of ground-level concentrations from tall stacks presented in Tables 1
and 2, the analogies are only approximately correct. The illustrations in Figure 1
refer to conditions in the lower 1000 feet of the atmosphere, but effluents from
tall stacks often have effective heights in the range of 1000 to 3000 feet above
ground because of plume rise due to buoyancy and inertial effects. The diurnal
variation of stability conditions is a function of height and season of the year, and
is generally not so marked above 1000 feet. Turbulence is not as intense and
variable at such heights as it is nearer the ground. 5 The over-all consequences,
in qualitative terms, are that the magnitude and frequency of processes that bring
plume effluents to ground level are reduced.
Table 1 presents two sets of hypothetical calculations of ground-level con-
centrations of SC>2, for various effective stack heights as a function of distance,
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under typical daytime conditions. One set was presented by M. E. Smith in a
recent paper, ° and the other was computed by the Meteorology Program, National
Air Pollution Control Administration.
The meteorological situation represented in this table is most nearly char-
acterized as Condition A of Figure 1. On an annual basis, this is one of the most
frequent situations experienced in the United States. It has a frequency of about
30 percent. Note that the NAPCA estimates of maximum concentrations are lower
but at greater distances from the source. This is probably attributable to NAPCA
investigators assuming somewhat different dispersion rates at the higher elevations
from those used by Smith. This issue can be resolved only by properly designed
experiments. From a practical point of view, however, for effective stack heights
Table 1. HYPOTHETICAL GROUND-LEVEL CONCENTRATIONS OF S02 FROM VARIOUS
EFFECTIVE STACK HEIGHTS UNDER TYPICAL DAYTIME CONDITIONS3
Effect! ve
stack
height, m
1000
500
100
Author
Smith
NAPCA
Smith
NAPCA
Smi th
NAPCA
Distance
of maximum,
km
7.6
14.7
3.4
6.9
0.6
1.2
Downwind concentrations, ppm
Maximum
0.03
0.02
0.14
0.08
3.36
1.85
1 km
0
0
0.01
0.00
2.20
1.15
5 km
0.03
0.001
0.12
0.02
0.19
0.44
10 km
0.03
0.002
0.05
0.05
0.06
0.14
50 km
0.004
0.005
0.004
0.005
0.004
0.005
aFollowing Smith, assumed S02 emission rate of 8 x I05cm3sec~' "typical of a
600 Mw - 2 percent S plant", and mean wind speed of 6 m/sec.
Table 2. HYPOTHETICAL MAXIMUM GROUND-LEVEL CONCENTRATION OF S02
FROM VARIOUS EFFECTIVE STACK HEIGHTS UNDER WEAK LAPSE CONDITIONS
Effective stack
height, m
1000
500
100
Distance of
maximum, km
42.7
18.2
2.5
Max i mum
concentration ,
ppm
0.01
0.05
1.36
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(A) STRONG LAPSE CONDITION (LOOPING)
1000
SFC
/)
10°F-
looo-r
SFC'
-10°F
(B) WEAK LAPSE CONDITION (CONING)
SFC-
(C) INVERSION CONDITION (FANNING)
1000
(D) INVERSION BELOW, LAPSE ALOFT (LOFTING)
(E) LAPSE BELOW, INVERSION ALOFT (FUMIGATION)
SFC-
DASHED LINE REPRESENTS ADIABATIC RATE
Figure 1. Schematic representation of stack gas behavior under
various conditions of vertical stability.
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above 100 meters, differences in the computed maximum concentrations are only
slightly significant. More important, perhaps, is the distance from the stack one
must look to find the highest concentrations.
Table 2 presents calculations made by the Meteorology Program, National
Air Pollution Control Administration of ground-level SC>2 concentrations under
conditions similar to those depicted in Part B of Figure 1. Data in Table 2 is cal-
culated on the basis of the same conditions of SC>2 emission as those assumed for
Table 1. Although Condition B (coning) occurs much less frequently than Con-
dition A (prevailing 5 to 10 percent of the time), it is another situation in which
pollutants emitted aloft are brought to the ground. Although at somewhat lower
concentrations than those given in Table 1, the pollution from a coning plume will
affect a given point for a longer period of time. Plume coning is usually associated
with moderate to high winds and overcast skies.
Condition E, inversion break, is a potentially critical situation. As noted by
Moore, ' "when one is concerned with the rise and dispersion of the effluent from
a tall stack, the occurrence of stable conditions above the top of the stack may
have a very different effect from the presence of a stable layer below the stack. "
If the potential temperature increases with height above the source emission
point, the air is stable and vertical turbulence and mixing are strongly suppressed.
Horizontal mixing processes are still active but somewhat less so than those that
produce the coning effect. Inhibited vertical motion together with limited hori-
zontal motion leads to the formation of a relatively thin plume, called "fanning"
(Condition C, Figure 1). During the day, when solar heating establishes the mix-
ing layer, thermal turbulence can reach the plume environment, permitting dis-
persion of plume effluent to the ground along its length. For a brief period, usual-
ly 30 to 60 minutes, high concentrations are brought to the ground. This fumi-
gation was fully studied by Hews on in 1944, during the Trail, British Columbia,
investigation. °
Fumigation can occur almost daily from a plume emitted from a short stack,
as exemplified in Figure 2. In this case the effective plume height •was approxi-
mately 800 feet above ground level. It is clearly evident that the plume effluent
was brought to the ground for a considerable distance downwind. While the plume
effluent is contained by the stable layer, it will remain aloft; however, over most
of the nation during all seasons of the year the daily maximum mixing depth is
deep enough to envelop the layer in which the plume from even the tallest stacks
is embedded. '• •*•" The resultant ground-level concentrations are a function of
source strength, plume height, horizontal spread, and wind speed at plume height.
The experience at Trail, British Columbia, demonstrated that plumes that
were high in SOz content and trapped in a stable layer retained their physical
identity over great distances and damage to vegetation was noticed many miles
from the source. 8 Recently Professor Brohult attributed forest damage in Sweden
to SC>2 transported from Western Europe. ^ Of course, the damage in Sweden
may not have been due to fumigation alone but, if Dr. Brohult's thesis is correct,
it may have been due to frequent, low-level insult by transported SO;>. Those con-
cerned with air quality management should note that, regardless of the height of re-
lease, the exposure to distant receptors is similar. As Smith has pointed out,
. . stacks possess no magic power to eliminate a pollutant. They
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do not reduce by one gram the total amount of pollution released to
the atmosphere. They distribute it in a different way than would be
true of a low-level source, but a receptor at a great distance from
a stack will receive substantially the same concentrations no matter
what the source height.
Measured Ground-Level Concentrations
Ultimately, the controversy about whether the tall stack is an interim or
complete solution in air quality management must be resolved by meaningful
studies of dispersion from tall stacks. According to Gartrell^:
Our experience at large modern plants to date suggests two models
that need more intensive evaluation. The first involves high short-
term ground-level concentrations which may occur with a high fre-
quency. While flue gases are emitted from high stacks and have
appreciable plume rise, the total plume volume is large and seg-
ments may be brought to ground level by thermals typical of moder-
ate instability. Although long-term, say 30 minute average, con-
centrations are consistently low, 2- to 5-minute concentrations may
be relatively high. The second model we believe might involve in-
frequent, but possible moderately high ground-level concentrations
at considerable distances from the source over an extended period
of time. This might occur where upward diffusion is limited by a
subsidence inversion and strong mixing from ground-level to plume
top occurs below the subsidence inversion. This would be charac-
terized by the infrequent stable anticyclonic conditions occurring
in the Eastern United States. More time, records, and observations
will be necessary for confident evaluation of the significance and
validity of this model for large power plants.
Most measurements to date have been made within 3 to 5 miles of a tall stack. In
1966, a rather detailed analysis of ground-level pollution within 3. 5 miles of the
High Marnham power station in Great Britain, the contribution to surrounding
measuring sites from two 450-foot chimneys were said to be nil. Unusually
high measured concentrations (in one instance concentrations of more than 50
parts per hundred million were measured for 8 hours) were attributed to distant
urban sources. Other authors, however, in discussing the High Marnham data,
report that concentrations at one sampling site average 5. 4 parts per hundred
million everytime the wind blows from the station to the site, which it does about
10 percent of the time. 14 These authors state that in one winter the measuring
site experienced, on seven occasions, concentrations (attributed to High Marnham)
of more than 25 parts per hundred million SO2 for periods of 28 to 60 minutes.
On one occasion, a concentration of this magnitude lasted for a period of 180
minutes.
Table 3 presents ground-level observations taken between 2 and 5 miles
(Station A in the valley 2. 5 miles, Station B on plateau 2. 25 miles, and Station C
on plateau 4. 9 miles), from the Clifty Creek Power Plant in Indiana. 15 The
Clifty Creek chimneys extend 683 feet above plant grade and about 300 feet above
the plateau northeast of the plant. An analysis of data taken for this study over
a 4-year period showed no hourly mean concentrations above 1 part per million
at the three SO2 monitoring stations, although the authors stated, that it was agreed
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that concentrations slightly above that level may occur infrequently on the plateau
north of Clifty Creek Plant, with an occasional peak just reaching the odor thresh-
old (2 parts per million). However, because of the limited sampling network it
is difficult to determine how frequently concentrations of a given value occurred
around the plant.
Table 3- TYPICAL S02 CONCENTRATIONS MEASURED NEAR CLIFTY CREEK
POWER PLANT, ppm
Gus 1 1 ness
class3
B2
B1
C
Station A
Average
0.10
0.10
0.05
Peak
0.40
0.40
0.20
Station B
Average
0.10
0.0?
0.10
Peak
0.25
0.30
0.40
Station C
Average
0.05
0.10
0.10
Peak
0.20
0.25
0.40
Brookhaven gustiness classification.
Table 4 presents ground-level observations of 30-minute average SC>2 con-
centrations taken with four autometers by the Tennessee Valley Authority at the
Bull Run Plant near Knoxville, Tennessee. The instruments are sited at the
given distances along a line approximately northeast of the 950-megawatt plant,
which has a single 800-foot stack. The data presented are selected maximum
30-minute average SO2 registrations, which occurred at the four sites. Winds
along the line of samplers occurred 13.6 percent of the time during the 18-month
period.
Table 4. NUMBER OF REGISTRATIONS OF 30-MINUTE AVERAGE S02 CONCENTRATIONS
NEAR BULL RUN PLANT, ppm
Distance,
mi les
2.6
4.9
6.9
9-7
Concentration, ppm
0.34
1
1
0.26
1
0.24
2
1
1
0.22
2
3
0.20
1
3
5
0.18
7
1
0.16
5
0.14
5
Total
12
12
10
6
A study by TVA revealed that 85 percent of the data in Table 4 were recorded
on 16 separate days. The study showed that the 16 days were associated with a
given set of meterological conditions, summarized by TVA as follows:
Meteorological conditions during maximum 30-minute average
concentrations at the Bull Run Steam Plant during January 1966-
June 1967 are remarkably similar and maybe identified with one
basic or atmospheric model. The lower atmosphere was under the
influence of weak anticyclonic circulation with stable air throughout
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the first few thousand feet from late afternoon through late morning.
Average wind speed generally varied between 8 and 15 miles per
hour and was adequate to contain the plume within this stable layer.
Skies were mostly clear, under anticyclonic circulation, and solar
insolation -was sufficient to develop thermally induced atmospheric
mixing from surface through the plume environment by late morning
or early afternoon. This temperature transition (or stability change)
resulted in initial 803 registrations appearing at most autometers
about 11:30 a.m. to 12:30 p.m. reaching maximum concentrations
1 to 2 hours later when the mixing had penetrated through most of
the plume environment, and then decreasing to zero by 4:30 to 6:30
p.m. with the onset of stable conditions in the near-surface layers. 1?
On the basis of TVA experience, one may conclude that significant surface
concentrations are attributable to emissions from tall stacks in the presence of
light winds and limited mixing layers. Futhermore, preliminary data from
another current investigation by the Tennessee Valley Authority, with the support
of the National Air Pollution Control Administration, show that inversion-breakup
fumigation also occurs with tall stacks; however, these fumigations are infrequent
because surface-based radiation inversions are rarely deep enough to entrap the
plume.
Table 5 lists some of the peak and average SC>2 concentrations measured
near the Paradise TVA power plant at ground level on days when a temperature
inversion existed in the lower atmosphere. The surface-based temperature in-
version extended to or above the stack top (600 feet) on 5 of the 7 days on which
experiments were conducted between September 9 and 13, and between October 10
and 21, 1966. On four of these days radiation inversion extended up through the
plume. The peak concentration of 0. 64 part per million occurred when the Paradise
plume, which had been trapped at 1300 feet above ground level within an inversion
layer, was brought to the ground.
Table 5. PEAK AND AVERAGE S02 CONCENTRATIONS MEASURED
AT GROUND LEVEL NEAR PARADISE PLANT
Di stance
at point of
maximum
concentration,
mi les
8
9
9
6
10
7
7
S02 concentrations, ppm
Peak
0.21
0.64
0.41
0.22
0.23
0.24
0.30
Average
0.60
0.34
0.15
0.22
0.21
0.18
Average
0.52
0.27
0.18
Average S02
for duration
0.13
0.42
0.27
0.14
0.21
0.18
0.15
Total time
S02 in area,
mi nutes
20
95
60
55
53
60
45
10
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The distance at which the point of maximum concentration occurred was in
the range of 6 to 10 miles from the 600-foot stacks of the Paradise plant. The
highest peak concentration, 0.64 part per million, was measured 9 miles from the
source.
Initial measurements by the NAPCA taken in Western Pennsylvania (Large
Power Plant Effluent Study) have indicated peak SOz concentrations from the 800-
foot chimney being studied of up to 1.4 part per million at ground level. Peak
concentrations above 0.2 part per million occurred as far as 11 miles from the
plant, which was generating approximately 900 megawatts at the time (half of its
planned capacity).
Figure 3 summarizes available data from preliminary reports on some of
the tall stacks discussed above. This figure shows that the 30-minute average
concentrations are in the range of 0.2 to 0. 6 part per million. Although these
30-minute mean concentrations from tall stacks are of about the same order of
magnitude as concentrations from smaller stacks, it is significant that the dis-
tances at which they occur are more than 4 kilometers (2. 5 miles) from the source,
the majority occurring 8 to 16 kilometers (5-10 miles) away. The 1967 High
Marnham data ° are presented in Figure 3 to illustrate the comparability of meas-
ured concentrations at greater distances from stacks with a range of height differ-
ences. The High Marnham stacks are about half the height of the others.
l.o
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
I I I 1 I I 1 I I I I I I I
• HIGH MARNHAM (1 hr) hs=137m(2)
Q PARADISE - TVA (hs = 183m)
A BULL RUN - TVA (hs = 244m)
^ KEYSTONE (hs = 244m)
A
A
•
I I I I I I I
4 8 12 16 20 24 28
DISTANCE FROM BASE OF STACK, kilometers
Figure 3- Maximum observed y2-hr 862 at ground level from power plants >500 Mw.
11
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OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
Plume Rise
The height to which a buoyant plume rises is one of the primary factors con-
trolling ground-level concentrations of pollution downwind of an industrial source.
Obviously, the higher a plume rises in the atmosphere, the greater the volume of
air available for dilution of the atmospheric contaminants before they are dispersed
to ground level.
The rise of a plume after it leaves a stack is due to its buoyancy and momen-
tum. These elements depend on the physical characteristics and emission factors
of the particular stack and also on the prevailing meteorological conditions. Stack
factors affecting plume rise are exit velocity and temperature of the stack gas,
and inside stack diameter. Meteorological elements determining plume rise are
wind speed, air temperature, atmospheric stability, turbulence, and wind shear.
Altnougn a. number of plume rise equations have been developed over the
years, experts in atmospheric dispersion have not been able to agree on a given
equation to calculate plume rise under all circumstances. In general the semi-
empirical plume rise formulae have been developed from data on relatively small
sources and consequently may lead to significant errors in stack height estimates
when they are applied to the larger industrial sources of today.
Realizing the growing need for reliable and comprehensive plume-rise data,
the Tennessee Valley Authority initiated a special 3-year research project en-
titled "Full Scale Study of Plume Rise at Large Electric Generating Stations. "
This study was carried out with support of NAPCA. A comprehensive report on
the findings was recently published. 1°
Stack Height Versus Sulfur Dioxide Emission Rate
It was pointed out Earlier that the ground-level concentration is dependent
upon the effective stack height and the source emission rate. In today's literature,
considerable attention is directed toward the effect of increasing stack heights,
but there is little or no attention to the fact that emission rates per unit have also
increased relative to those of the lower stacks. 15, 19 Figure 4 shows a com-
parison of physical stack height with approximate emission rates and rated capa-
bility. The figure shows that, whereas stack heights have increased by a factor
of about 4, emission rates have increased by a factor of approximately 6. Thus,
a good share of the benefits of increased stack heights are offset by the release
of more contaminants from the stack.
Washout By Precipitation
Proponents of the idea that a stack is the most economical solution for con-
trol of large discrete sources of pollution should not overlook the problem of at-
mospheric scavenging, in particular washout by precipitation. Both field and
laboratory investigations show that sulfur dioxide can be oxidized to sulfuric acid
or an acid salt in the atmosphere, and that precipitation scavenging is the primary
cleansing mechanism for airborne gases and fine particles. Since SC>2 is highly
soluble in water, the washout process for this gas is absorption of the gas by
drops of rain as they fall through the plume.
12
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Recently, at a seminar arranged by the Ecological Research Committee of
Sweden, Dr. Svante Oden of the Agricultural College of Uppsala, Sweden, pre-
sented his compilations of data from the atmospheric chemical network stations
on the acidity and sulfur contents of precipitation over Europe and their conse-
quences to soils, surface waters, and biological systems in Sweden. He indicated
that in 1958, pH values below 5 were found only in limited areas over the Nether-
lands. These values are now found in an area that spreads over Central Europe,
and the pH values of the Netherlands are now below 4. Dr. Oden pointed out that
the acid zones are spreading, and in 1966 the isoline for pH 4. 5 had extended to
central Sweden. (The pH of pure water is 7; the pH of vinegar, 3. 1). Information
pertaining to quantitative estimates of washout by use of diffusion equation and
scavenging coefficients is given by Chamberlain20 and Engelman et al. 21
1000
8001
>-
3 600
55
Q.
(J
400
200
• 18
—17
Q = 6.05 g/sec Mw
(ASSUMING 3% S COAL AT 800 Ib/hr Mw
200
400 600 800
STACK HEIGHT, ft
1000
1200
1400
1 KEYSTONE
2 BULL RUN
3 PARADISE
4 COLBERT
5 JOHN SEVIER
6 KINGSTON
7 WIDOWS CREEK, NO. 3
8 WIDOWS CREEK, NO. 7
9 JOHNSONVILLE, NO. 5-6
10 JOHNSONVILLE, NO. 7-10
11 WATTS BAR
12 CLIFFY CREEK
13 JOLIET
14 FORT MARTIN
15 NORTHPORT
16 SIOUX
17 HOMER CITY
18 CONEMAUGH
19 CLEVELAND
Figure 4. Sulfur dioxide emission versus stack height.
13
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SUMMARY
Although the usefulness of tall stacks in reducing gaseous pollution in the
vicinity of a plant is granted, a tall stack alone does not reduce in any manner
the total pollution added to the atmosphere. Other means must be found to pre-
vent overburdening the atmosphere with pollution, particularly under certain
meteorological conditions.
The data presented in this paper show that the tall stack does not prevent
all of the emissions from reaching the ground. Under a variety of meteorological
conditions, including precipitation, pollution from tall stacks may result in sig-
nificant concentrations at ground level.
15
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CONCLUSIONS
For a quantitative evaluation of the use of tall stacks in the management of
air pollution it will be necessary to make meteorological measurements and air
quality determinations over height and distance scales beyond those previously
used in most studies.
Field observations and experiments should encompass a variety of meteoro-
logical conditions to take into account steady-state as well as transitional atmos-
pheric regimes. It will be necessary to determine the occurrence frequency of
various atmospheric regimes; particularly regimes with a low frequency of occur-
rence, say 1 to 5 percent of the time, since these may be the ones of most con-
cern.
Finally, additional data are needed on the levels of pollution reaching the
ground at various distances from tall stacks and on the frequency of occurrence
of the higher concentrations.
17
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REFERENCES
1. Pasquill, F. , Atmospheric Diffusion: D. Van Nostrand; London, 297 pp.
(1962).
2. Slade, D. H. (Ed.): Meteorology and Atomic Energy. Clearinghouse for
Federal Scientific and Technical Information, National Bureau of Standards,
U. S. Department of Commerce, Springfield, Virginia. (July, 1968).
3. Turner, D. B. : Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates. U. S. De-
partment of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Publi-
cation No. 999-AP-26. (1967).
4. Smith, M. E. (Ed.): Recommended Guide for the Prediction of the Dispersion
of Airborne Effluents. American Society of Mechanical Engineers. (1968).
5. Pasquill, F. : The Vertical Components of Atmospheric Turbulence atHeights
up to 1200 meters. Atmospheric Environment, Pergamon Pres s, Vol. 1, 441-
450. (1967).
6. Smith, M. E.: Reduction of Ambient Air Concentrations of Pollutants by Dis-
persion from High Stacks. Proceedings: Third National Conference on Air
Pollution, Washington, D. C. , December 12-14, 1966. Public Health Service
Publication No. 1649. (1967).
7. Moore, D. J. : Paper II, Meteorological Measurements on a 187 Metre Tower.
Atmospheric Environments, Pergamon Press, Vol. 1, No. 4, 367-378. (July,
1967).
8. Hewson, E. W. , and Gill, G. C. : Meteorological Investigations in Columbia
River Valley near Trail, B. C. , Report Submitted to the Trail Smelter Arbi-
tral Tribunal, U. S. Bureau of Mines Bulletin 453, 23-228. (1944).
9. Holzworth, G. C. : Estimates of Mean Maximum Mixing Depths in the Con-
tiguous United States. Monthly Weather Review, 92, 235-242. (1964).
10. Holzeworth, G. C. : Mixing Depths, Wind Speeds and Air Pollution Potential
for Selected Locations in the United States. Journal Applied Meteorology,
Vol. 6, No. 6, 1039-1044. (December 1967).
11. Barnes, H. J. : Sulfur Dioxide Threatens Forests. Science News Letter,
Vol. 92: p. 519. (November 1967).
12. Gartrell, F. E. , F. W. Thomas, and J. M. Leavitt: Dispersion Character-
istics'of Stack Emissions from Large Thermal Power Stations. Presented
at Joint Meeting of American Meteorology Society and American Geophysical
Union, Washington, D. C. , April, 19-22, 1966.
19
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13. Martin, A. and F. R. Barber: Investigations of Sulphur Dioxide Pollution
Around a Modern Power Station. Journal Institute of Fuel 39: 294-307.
(July, 1966).
14. Gillham, E. W. F. , A. Martin, and F. R. Barber: Sulphur Dioxide Concen-
trations Measured Around a Modern Power Station. -Proceedings of Inter-
national Clean Air Congress, London, 4-7. (October, 1966).
15. Sporn, P. and T. T. Frankenberg: Pioneering Experience with High Stacks
on the Ohio Valley Electricity Corp. , and the American Electric Power
System. Proceedings of International Clean Air Congress, London. (October,
1966).
16. Singer, I. A. , and M. E. Smith: Relation of Gustiness to Other Meteorolog-
ical Parameters, Journal Meteorology, 10: (April, 1953).
17. Thomas, F. W. : Chief, Industrial and Air Hygiene Branch, TVA, Personal
Communication. (December 4, 1967).
18. Martin, A. and F. R. Barber: Sulfur Dioxide Concentrations Measured at
Various Distances From a Modern Power Station. Journal Atmospheric
Environment, Vol. 1, No. 6 (November, 1967).
19. Carpenter, S. B. , and F. W. Thomas: Full Scale Study of Plume Rise at
Large Electric Generating Stations. TVA Report. (September, 1968).
20. Stone, G. N. , and A. J. Clarke: British Experience with Tall Stacks for
Air Pollution Control on Large Fossil-Fueled Power Plants. Presented at
American Power Conference, Illinois Institute of Technology, April 27, 1967.
21. Engelman, R. J. , R. W. Perkins, D. I. Hagen, W. A. Heller: Washout
Coefficients for Selected Gases and Particulates. Presented at 59th Annual
Meeting of APCA, San Francisco, California, June 20-24, 1966.
22. Chamberlain, A. C. : Aspects of Travel and Deposition of Aerosol and Vapor
Clouds. AERE-HPIR-1261, Harwell. (1953).
20
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ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
21
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TALL STACKS
1. Bender, R. J.
TALL STACKS, A POTENT WEAPON IN THE FIGHT AGAINST AIR POLLUTION.
Power, 111(11):94-96, Dec. 1967
Tall stacks for public utilities and industrial plants are effec-
tive remedy against gaseous pollution; while they do not prevent
pollutants from reaching atmosphere, their diffusing action is
such that they reduce contamination at ground level to degree
acceptable to public as well as to most governing bodies; for
example, chimney can be sized so as to limit ground concentra-
tion of sulfur-oxides at ground level, anywhere around plant,
to around one-tenth part per million, which is satisfactory to
everyone. APTIC #9699
Brennan, N. E.
CONTROL OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE EMISSION FOR PROPOSED 400 MW GENER-
ATING UNIT AT SEWARD GENERATING STATION, PENNYSLVANIA ELECTRIC
COMPANY. Jackson & Moreland, Inc., Boston, Mass., Nov. 19^1,
19P-
The most satisfactory method of controlling the future ground
level concentration of 309 emitted from the chimney of a pro-
posed kOO mw generating unit, located on the Conemaugh River
at Seward, Pennsylvania was studied. Three methods of control
were investigated: (l) A 99-7% efficient precipitator and a
900 foot chimney was the basis for comparison, both as regards
expense and 302 ground level concentration. (2) Use of washed
coal with a 99-3$ efficient precipitator and a chimney 500 feet
high. (3) Flue gas washing equipment, installed with a 99-7$
efficient precipitator and a 500 foot chimney. Minimum chimney
height for the coal washing and gas washing control methods
was based on a re-occurring night-time stagnation layer, re-
ported to be under 700 ft. which effectively seals the valley
and prevents dispersal of 302. A 500 ft. chimney should be the
safe minimum height, being able to jet the plume through the
layer and out of the valley. Results of the study indicated
that neither coal washing nor gas washing equipment could be
included in plans for a 1*00 mw unit. Coal washing is a tech-
nically possible, but very expensive method of controlling
the ground level concentration of SQg, when compared to the
cost of a tall stack and high efficiency precipitator. The
objective was to produce similar ground level concentrations
by balancing a high efficiency precipitator and a tall stack
against a coal washing plant combined with a shorter stack and a
less efficient precipitator. Because of topographical and
meteorological considerations, the minimum stack height, based
on SOg concentrations, required with the coal washing plant had
to be increased by about 100 feet to 500 feet, and to maintain
the original purpose of the report the Base Plan chimney height
had to be increased from 700 feet to 900 feet. The resulting
reduced ground level concentrations are presented. At the
23
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present time, progress In flue gas washing is such that it is
not possible to recommend any proven process. The non-regenera-
tive limestone process, which is similar to the Battersea process
except that the effluent is treated, is considered in this
report. At best, flue gas washing must be considered to be
still in the experimental stage, and to date, attempts at
flue gas washing have been largely unsuccessful. APTIC #5198.
3. CONSOLIDATED EDISON COMPANY OF NEW YORK PLANS WORLD-RECORD
1000-MW UNIT FOR ITS RAVENSWOOD GENERATING STATION. Power,
107(6):53-56, June 1963.
A proposed power plant to be located in Ravenswood, N.Y., is
described in detail. The plant is 1000 MW, oil-, coal-, or
natural gas-fired. Specifics on the boilers, turbines, com-
bustion control systems, and condensate systems are presented.
APTIC #91*82.
k . Corey, R. C.
AIR POLLUTION RESEARCH IN RELATION TO COAL'S FUTURE IN THE
ELECTRIC ENERGY MARKET. Combustion, 32(10):21-29, April,
1968 (Presented at the 75th Anniversary Meeting, Illinois
Mining Institute, Oct. 1967.
The role of the Bureau of Mines in the air pollution field is
that of an agency concerned with the most effective utilization
of natural resources. A projection of the energy requirements
of the nation indicates that coal will continue to be an
important factor in the rapidly growing electric market. Six
important possibilities for reducing sulfur emissions from coal
fired electric utility systems include: unconventional electric
power cycles; remotely located mine-mouth power plants; tall
stacks; desulfurization before combustion. APTIC #9996.
5- Csanady, G. T.
DEPOSITION OF DUST PARTICLES FROM INDUSTRIAL STACKS. Australian
J. Appl. Sci., 9(l):l-8, 1958.
Sutton 's (1953) continuous point-source equations have been
extended by Csanady (1955, 1957) to the study of dust of uniform
free-falling speed, discharged from a tall stack into a hori-
zontal wind. This theory is now applied to industrial dust with
continuous particle-size distribution. To facilitate appreciation
of the results, some new concepts are introduced and the charac-
teristic features of instantaneous fall of dust are discussed.
Averaging deposition rates for wind speed and direction is then
considered and it is shown how the weather data generally avail-
able can be utilized. APTIC #5355-
DISCUSSION ON "AIR POLLUTION BY SULPHUR DIOXIDE". Part 1: The
Effect of Land Configuration on Pollution by Sulphur Gases.
Part 2: Sulphur Dioxide Concentrations Downwind of Tall Chimneys.
Part 3: The Effect of Increased Chimney Height on Ground Level
Concentrations of Sulphur Dioxide. Before the Institute, in
London, 24th November 1965. J. Inst. Fuel. jQ(305):256-263,
June 1966.
24
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D. H. Lucas emphasized the importance of comparing averages
only on an equal duration basis. Dr. A. Parker said that the
lack of information about the occurrence of temperature inver-
sions was a drawback and that the land/sea boundary must have
had an effect at East Yelland. C. Bosanquet stated that little
information was given that would enable prediciticn of ground-level
concentrations. Dr. G. Nonhebel thanked the authors for taking
the advice to recalculate the ground-level concentration using
the 1957 Bosanquet formula for plume rise. Dr. S. R. Craxford
asked if allowances had been made for the effect of wind speed
on lead dioxide gauges. Prof. R. S. Scorer criticized the lack
of an experienced meteorologist on the team. Dr. D. J. Moore
advised that the efflux velocity and wind speed modify the
2 1/2 times rule. D. M. C. Thomas presented some relevant
calculations. Mrs. M. L. Weatherley wondered if anyone thought
of applying Davidson's work, relating to valleys. C. F. Barrett
contended that dilution factors were deluding. D. H. Labdon
suggested apportioning the g.l.c. to the separate plumes. The
authors replied to all of these discussions. APTIC #3251-
7. Flood, L. P.
AIR POLLUTION FROM INCINERATORS--CAUSES AND CURES. Civil Eng.,
kk-k8, Dec. 1965.
Of all things that civil engineers build, probably large central
incinerators cause the greatest amount of air pollution. Most
large cities must resort to incineration to reduce the weight
and volume of their wastes to manageable proportions, and to
change the character of these wastes so that disposal does not
cause secondary problems of water pollution, vermin infestation
or odor emission. To attain this goal, incineration must be so
complete that the organic matter left in the residue is less
than 5 percent of the residue by weight. If an incinerator is
to successfully burn the rated capacity of solid waste to an
non-putrescible residue, without creating a nuisance, certain
design principles should be followed. It is essential to
recognize that: (l) The three T's of combustion must be
provided: temperature for complete burnout, turbulence for thorough.
mixing of the combustibles with the air, and time so that combustion
can be completed in the furnace. (2) Air must be used efficiently.
(3) The fuel should be gently agitated to promote complete
burnout without increasing fly-ash emission, (k) The most effective
dust cleaning equipment should be utilized so that dust emission
will be minimized. (5) A high stack is an effective means of de-
creasing the amount of pollution at ground level. (6) A continuous
type of incinerator is likely to cause less pollution than a
batch type. (7) A water-cooled furnace permits higher burning
temperatures and avoids many of the costs and troubles experienced
with a refractory-lined furnace. (8) Three-shift operation avoids
the pollution and deterioration of plants concomitant with repeated
starts and stops. (9) Not all the air pollution from an incinera-
tor comes from the stack. Means for minimizing pollution from all
sources must be provided. APTIC #0183.
8. Frankenberg, T. T.
TRENDS IN AIR POLLUTION LEGISLATION AND IN PRECIPITATOR DEVELOPMENT.
Preprint, American Electric Power Service, Corp., New York, N. Y.
25
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(Presented at a meeting of the Southeastern Electric Exchange,
Miami Beach, Fla., Oct. 22, 1965.)
Public sentiment, local and state laws, and finally the entrance
of the Federal government into control and enforcement make it
certain that air pollution will demand more attention from design
engineers and plant operators in the electric utility industry.
The trend is toward much stricter limits on particulate emission,
and these become even more stringent for very large fuel users.
Most of the new limits are set in terms of pounds of emission per
million Btu of fuel input. While restrictions are five times more
stringent than fifteen years ago, developments in precipitators
have moved at a more leisurely pace. Some significant improve-
ments in electrical equipment have been made. It is suggested
that an equal improvement can be achieved by closer attention
to the purchasing of electrostatic precipitators, and by
testing them to determine that the required conditions are actu-
ally met. Gaseous pollution should never be forgotten when
discussing the role of particulate emission and its control.
High stacks can be useful in both area, and codes should be
written to take proper cognizance of the fact. APTIC #6615.
9- Frankeriberg, T. T. 1968. HIGH STACKS FOR THE DIFFUSION OF
SULPHUR DIOXIDE AND OTHER GASES EMITTED BY ELECTRIC POWER
PLANTS. Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 29(2) :l8l -185, Mar.-
April . APTIC
Experience with the satisfactory dispersion of hot gases from
two power plants each larger than 1000 M4 designed in 1952-
1953 is detailed. The effects of this experience on the design of
825-foot stacks for the Cardinal Plant is covered, with a de-
scription of test work underway to verify the results. This
includes dustfall and sulfur dioxide sampling at fixed loca-
tions. A case is made for the use of high stacks to control
ground level concentrations, rather than resorting to fuel
restrictions or emission standards which are unnecessary and
economically unsound.
10. Gartrell, F. E.
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION FROM LARGE THERMAL POWER STATIONS.
Rev. Soc. Roy. Beige Ingrs. Ind. (Brussels), No. 11, pp.
^4-82, Nov. 1966.
Measures for the removal of particulates from stack gases and
reductions in SQp emissions as well as the dispersion of emis-
sions by high stacks and control by operational procedure are
discussed. The results of air pollution monitoring near large
power stations of the TVA are reviewed. Gas cleaning devices
have been perfected so that 99-5$ of the original ash content
of the coal may be removed, although costs increase rapidly
above 95$. In the future, removal of 99-5$ of ash may be
necessary in some plants based on combined mechanical and
electrostatic collectors. There is a trend toward using
electrostatic precipitators alone because of the high draft
losses with mechanical collectors. While there are a number
of promising developments in the removal of SOg from fossil
26
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fuels, the principal reliance for the next few years will
have to be placed on dispersion from high stacks with poss-
ible supplementary operational controls. The height of
TVA stacks varies from 150 to 800 ft., and tables are given
of relationship between the maximum ground level 302 concen-
tration, stack height, and wind speed. Data are also given
of the frequency of occurrence of various ground levels of
S02 in the area around the plants. APTIC #^200.
11. Gartrell, F. E.
STATEMENT TO HOUSE SUBCOMMITTEE ON SCIENCE, RESEARCH AND
DEVELOPMENT. TVA, Norris, Division of Health and Safety,
15p., 1966.
A review of TVA experience in air pollution control, more
specifically from large coal-fired power plants, is presented.
The principal elements of the TVA study program are (1) moni-
toring of 302 concentrations in the vicinity of each plant,
(2) collection and analysis of on-site meteorological data,
(3) biological studies to determine effects of plant emis-
sions on vegetation in special experimental gardens and in
surrounding areas, (k) full-scale studies of stack gas
dispersion, (5) investigations of possible means for reducing
emissions through modification of plant operations during
periods when meteorological conditions are unfavorable for
dispersion, and (6) research on processes for removal of
302 from stack gases. APTIC #33^.
12. Gasiorowski, K.
(ENERGY GENERATION FROM LIQUID FUELS.) ENERGIEERZEUGUNG AUS
FLUESSIGEN BRENNSTOFFEN. Gesundh. Ingr., Ł6(10:116-122, Apr.
1965. Ger.
Air pollution due to oil-fired installations is caused by
sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and products
of incomplete combustion (carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, ashes,
and soot). Percentual share of these agents in flue gases
produced from different fuel oils under various combustion
conditions is given. Efficiency of high smoke stacks in
dispersing S02 is discussed and presented graphically. Sta-
tistical data are presented on share of automobile engines,
domestic furnaces, and industrial furnaces in cities' air
pollution due to 302- APTIC #5^77-
13. GIANT STACK WILL VENT SULFUR OXIDES ABOVE SMOG CEILING.
Chem. •Eag.,jk(n)tlOk, Aug. Ik, 1967.
A 700 ft. smoke stack at a petroleum refinery in The Nether-
lands that will discharge sulfur-bearing flue gases is de-
scribed. The structure will conduct the sulfurous flue
gases to above the meteorological inversion layers that often
form and act as a ceiling for the atmospheric layer below.
APTIC #8701.
Ik. HEARING ON SENATE BILL 3. 780 BEFORE THE SUBCOMMITTEE ON AIR
AND WATER POLLUTION OF THE COMMITTEE ON PUBLIC WORKS. Nine-
27
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teenth Congress, First Session. OP. cit.. Part k, pp. 20^3-
2047, 2107-2118, 2278-2285, 2287-2311, 2312-2316, 2550-2562,
2567-2589.
Various statements on the problem of air pollution and the
usefulness of tall stacks to eliminate these problems were
presented to the Committee.
15. Hill, G. R., M. D. Thomas, and J. N. Abersold
HIGH STACKS OVERCOME CONCENTRATIONS OF GASES. Mining Congress
Journal, 3l(iQ:21-34, April 19^5.
A discussion of the measurements of sulfur dioxide taken in
the farming areas surrounding certain plants and other re-
lated data is presented. Years of study and research have
produced gratifying results in the problem of handling ob-
jectionable concentrations of sulfur dioxide gas. The tall
stack method of dispersion has revealed some very interesting
and useful phenomena. High stacks coupled with high tempera-
tures have largely solved the sulfur dioxide problem at
many smelters. In addition they have vastly improved opera-
ting conditions by added draft. The curves shown tend to
corroborate the Bosanquet and Pearson formula of decrease of
gas concentration proportional to the inverse square of stack
height.
16. Khox, G.
INDUSTRIAL CHIMNEYS FOR OIL-FIRED PLANT. Smokeless Air,
38(1^3): 50-5^, 1967.
The problems with flue systems and chimneys of oil-fired plants
are discussed and a means of overcoming these problems is sug-
gested. Chimney height is usually decided under the provisions
of the Clean Air Act 1956 and is related to the estimated maxi-
mum emission of sulphur dioxide. The plume rise from the
chimney exit gives in effect an addition to the physical height
and it i.s nonsensical to destroy this plume by the use of a cowl.
A cowl will not avoid downdraught and its value in the preven-
tion of moisture ingress is extremely doubtful when one considers
that 1 in. rainfall is equivalent to the combustion of 2 gallons
of oil fuel. To ensure the adequate dispersal of gases, it is essen-
tial that a suitable gas exit velocity is maintained. Suggested mini-
mum velocities are 20 ft. per second for plant operating in natural
draught and 25 ft. per second for plant equipped with FD or ID fans.
It is essential to ensure that under all load conditions, no gas side
surfaces in the system drop in temperature to the acid dew point
or below. Heat losses must therefore be calculated for all load
conditions to determine the required insulation values for the
materials used in construction. Very few modern industrial oil-
fired plants rely on natural draught. Chimney height required to
satisfy the Clean Air Act may create a greater draught than that
required for the efficient operation of the combustion equipment
and some" form of draught control may be required. It is essential
to ensure that such a control system does not admit large volumes
of cold air into the system. It is essential that siting the
chimney where it may be affected by downdraught and eddies from.
any adjoining buildings must be avoided. Maintenance must be
28
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carried out on the flue system in addition to the combustion
equipment so that the performance of a basically good system is
not ruined by lack of attention. APTIC #8107.
I?. Leavitt, J. M., S. B. Carpenter and F. W. Thomas
AN INTERIM REPORT ON FULL-SCALE STUDY OF PLUME RISE AT LARGE
ELECTRIC GENERATING STATIONS. Preprint. (Presented at the 58th
Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control Association, Toronto, Canada,
June 20-21*, 1965.)
An interim report on the current plume rise research project con-
ducted by TVA under sponsorship of USPHS is presented. The first
two years of the 3-year study were completed in spring 1964 and
were devoted primarily to field data collection. The third year
will be used for data analysis and final report preparation. Plume
rise data were collected at six coal-fired steam-electric generating
stations within the TVA system. Unit ratings ranged from 112 to 650
megawatts with stack heights varying from 170 to 600 feet. Measure-
ment of plume profile was made by three techniques — ground level
photography, ground level modified transit readings, and helicopter
observations. Meteorological measurements included wind direction
and wind speed profiles by double-theodolite technique and vertical
temperature profiles by helicopter. A description is given of the
field instrumentation and data collection program and of a typical
day's field work. Typical data, including plume photographs, wind
direction and wind speed profiles, vertical temperature gradient,
and computer plume profile plots, are displayed. APTIC #0691.
18. Lucas, D. H.
APPLICATION AND EVALUATION OF RESULTS OF THE TILBURY PLUME RISE
AND DISPERSION EXPERIMENT. Atmospheric Environ., l(k):kZL-k2k,
July 1967.
The more important conclusions to be diawn from the papers presented
for discussion at the symposium on the Tilbury plume experiment
are summarized. A formula for calculating the plume rise (Zmax)m in
neutral conditions at wind speed U(m sec"-'-) for a stack emitting heat
at the given rate is presented. The expression for the maximum ground
level concentration in neutral conditions averaged over 3 JRin from a
source of strength (Qg) is given. Adjustment factors for other
atmospheric conditions and for longer sampling periods are also given.
The meteorological instruments involved very little new development
and performed satisfactorily. The recorders performed well but
there was some variability in their calibrations. The variation
in calibration from recorder to recorder can be represented by
a standard deviation of about 10 percent of the value being recorded.
Searchlight results are reasonable but it cannot be claimed that the
results can be relied upon. The use of a laser has been success-
ful. Considerable reliance can be placed on the validity of the
deductions made from the lidar results. Plume rise can continue
for a horizontal distance of 1000 m or more. With medium or strong
winds plume rise is little affected by lapse rate. The thermal
effects of an inversion (of potential temperature) tend to be com-
pensated by the lack of turbulence in the inversion and the slower
spread of the plume. With light winds plume rise is decreased by
an inversion, but this combination of circumstances rarely leads
to critical concentrations from large sources. Turbulence was
29
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found to decrease above a height of 100 m. Apart from the low wind
condition, an inversion probably has a more important effect on the
dispersion of the plume after it has completed its rise than on the
plume rise. APTIC #6249.
19. Manier, G.
DETERMINING THE REQUIRED HEIGHT OF TWO CHIMNEYS. Staub (English
Transl.), 26(3):33-42, March 1966.
A method is described for the determination of the required height
of a chimney which is to be built in the vicinity of an already
existing chimney. The method is explained by an example.
APTIC #2693.
20. MeDaniel, W. N.
COMPENSATION FOR GAS EmiSSION VELOCITY IN CALCULATIONS OF STACK
GAS DISPERSION. Air Repair, 3(_3): 188-194, Feb. 1954.
It is generally recognized that the ground-level concentration
of material normally emitted from a stack is reduced if the stack
height or stack gas velocity is increased. This is usually con-
sidered to mean that stack gas velocity may be substituted ^or
stack height if the circumstances require it. A method of cal-
culation by which the stack height equivalent of gas emission
velocity may be determined is proposed. The theory of the pro-
posed method of calculation is presented in detail, and the
solution to a specific problem is given. APTIC #6092.
21. McLaughlin, J. F., Jr.
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION CONSIDERATIONS AFFECTING THE ULTIMATE
CAPACITY OF A THERMAL-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT SITE. J. Air Pollu-
tion Control Assoc., 17(7):470-473, July 1967.
The power plant designer today has the tools at hand which enable
him to predict with an adequate degree of accuracy the effect of
different stack heights on ground level concentrations of the
gaseous pollutants emitted from power plant stacks. Use of tall
stacks will make it possible in most cases to build larger power
plants at any particular site than are in service now and still
operate them satisfactorily from the standpoint of air pollution.
On the other hand, atmospheric pollution considerations may make
it necessary at some sites to put a finite limitation on the
maximum capacity that can be installed. APTIC #7843.
22. Nelson, F. and L. Shenfeld.
ECONOMICS, ENGINEERING, AND AIR POLLUTION IN THE DESIGN OF LARGE
CHIMNEYS. Preprint. (Presented at the 58th Annual Meeting, Air
Pollution Control Assoc., Toronto, Canada, June 20-24, 1965).
A discussion of the methods used to determine the most economic
design of chimney for a new thermal power station or large in-
dustrial plant is presented, with the objective that ground level
concentration of pollutants will be kept at a minimum. Attention
is paid to the geography and climatology of the site, with special
reference to the frequency and height of inversions and the pre-
vailing wind direction and speed. A method is illustrated in using
30
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a large thermal power station as an example. The maximum sulphur
dioxide concentrations at ground level are computed for several
chimney heights and gas exit velocities. The values of these
sulphur dioxide concentrations; the capital cost of the chimney,
the pumping costs, and the gas pressures within the chimney
are considered in selecting a suitable chimney height and a gas
exit velocity which will meet most economically the stated objec-
tive. The paper deals primarily with chimneys for industrial or
power boiler plants of maximum continuous rating greater than
450 million Btu/hr (about 450,000 Ibs. of steam/hr), or to
chimenys serving furnaces burning fuel at a maximum rate greater
than 50,000 Ibs/hr of coal, or 30,000 Ibs/hr of oil. For chimneys
serving plant with smaller heat inputs, chimney selection by
reference to Clean Air Act 1956, Memorandum on Chimney Heights
is suggested. APTIC $0687.
23. Nester, K.
STATISTICAL FREQUENCY DATA ON MAXIMUM CONCENTRATIONS OF STACK
EMISSIONS AS BASED ON SYNOPTIC WEATHER OBSERVATION. Staub (English
Transl.), 26(12):13-l6, Dec. 1966.
On the basis of hourly meteorological observations and by means of
propagation types according to Turner and of diffusion parameters
characteristic of these types, maximum concentrations at ground
level and their distance from a chimney were calculated for various
times. From these concentrations frequency graphs were plotted
separately for brick chimneys of the following heights: 60 m,
100 m, and 140 m. It is thus possible to make a comparison with
graphs which are obtained when the average values for diffusion
parameter given in VDI Regulation 2289 are used in the calculation,
and when changes in wind velocities in a given period are only
taken into consideration. APTIC
24. NEW JERSEY AIR POLLUTION CONTROL CODE (Chapter VIII, Control and
Prohibition of Air Pollution from Sulfur Compounds in the Form of
Gases, Vapors, or Liquid Particles). New Jersey State Department
of Health, Trenton. (March 1, 1967). lOp.
This chapter of the New Jersey Air Pollution Control Code is
divided into two sections. The first section provides definitions
of terms and the second lists the regulations for sulfur compounds.
Two tables are included for the determination of stack heights at
less than 200 feet and over 200 feet. APTIC #6695.
25- Nonhebel, G.
BRITISH CHARTS FOR HEIGHTS OF INDUSTRIAL CHIMNEYS. Intern. J. Air
Water Pollution, 10:183-189.
A precis is given of the Memorandum on Chimney Heights issued by
the British Ministry of Housing and Local Government in 1963. The
purpose of the Memorandum is to assist local authorities to deter-
mine the minimum acceptable height for new chimneys for industrial
plants not coming under the jurisdiction of the Alkali Inspectorate,
and for 309 emissions from 3 to 1800 Ib/hr. Examples are given
of charts relating height of chimney vith 302 emission rate and for
additional height required when downdraught from adjacent buildings
31
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is to be expected. The basic height of chimneys for oil-fired plant
is 10 per cent higher than for coal-fired plant. Minimum effluent
velocities are stated. Notes are given of the technical work
leading to the Memorandum. The average maximum ground-level concen-
tration of 302 from the recommended heights is 16 pphm by volume
(0.^5 mg/N cum) for 3-min sampling time when calculated from the
Bosanquet-Button equations. Some account is taken of contaminants
other than SOg. The assistance given by the Memorandum has been
widely praised by local authorities after two years' experience.
APTIC #1^59.
26. Pearson, R. B. and Leason, D. B.
INSULATION OF TALL BRICK-LINED CONCRETE CHIMNEYS. J. of the Inst.
of Fuel, 39(301):68-78, 1966.
An account is given of a study crried out some years ago on the
chimneys at Belvedere Power Station. The heat losses from the
chimney were studied theoretically and experimentally with a
view to minimizing acid deposition within the chimney. The
difficulties in obtaining experimental results from a large
chimney are emphasized and the results discussed. The theoret-
ical findings suggested that a substantial reduction in heat losses
could be achieved if the air annulus was filled with vermiculite.
The practical realization of this insulated chimney is described
together with the subsequent measurements of gas and lining
temperatures which permitted the more economic operation of the
boilers without increasing the likelihood of acid deposition.
APTIC #9^69.
27. Pitman, C. V.
THE CONTROL OF CHIMNEY HEIGHTS. Public Health Inspector (London),
74(11):479-485, Aug. 1966.
Atmospheric pollution resulting from fuel combustion has a seriously
harmful effect upon the environment and upon objects both animate and
inanimate within it. Limited by the boundaries of present knowledge,
the current approach is to ensure that polluting gases are
discharged at heights adequate to minimize their effects at ground
level. The consequences of this policy have financial implications
for industrialists and others whose chimneys are now required to
be higher, for public health reasons, than combustion engineering
alone would necessitate. There is, however, in the Drainage of
Trade Premises legislation a good precedent for practice of such
measures. The sympathy of town planning and amenity interests
is of fundamental importance, and, once gained, an apparent con-
flict of interest can be turned to mutual advantage, thus bringing
double benefit to the community. There is scope for continuing
research to discover practical methods of removing sulphur from
fuels; until this has been achieved, local authorities and the
general public require to be educated into understanding if the
need for, and acceptance of, chimneys of greater heights than
have been considered necessary in recent practice. There are
good reasons too, for an extension of control of chimney heights
beyond the scope of present legislation, which stops short of
what is considered necessary in present day conditions. APTIC #1515-
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28. Pooler, Francis, Jr.
POTENTIAL DISPERSION OF PLUMES FROM LARGE POWER PLANTS. PHS
publication No. 999-AP-16, 1965, 13p.
Expected ground-level concentrations resulting from emissions
from large power plants are discussed for three meteorological
situations considered to be most likely to result In significant
concentrations. These situations are (l) high wind; (2) inversion
breakup; and (3) limited mixing layer with a light wind. Effects
of increasing stack height are discussed for each situation. Nu-
merical examples based on calculations included as an appendix
are shown. APTIC $0846.
29. Scores, R. S.
PLUMES FROM TALL CHIMNEYS. Weather, 10(4):106-1O9,
Plume behavior is discussed for a wide range of stack gas and meteo-
rological conditions. The most effective method of dispersion is to
emit hot stack gases from a tall, wide stack.
30. Sherlock, R. H. and E. J. Lesher
ROLE OF CHIMNEY DESIGN IN DISPERSION OF WASTE GASES. Air Repair,
4(2):13-23, Aug.
A method is developed for the use of wind tunnel testing of models
by which the design of a station building and its stacks can be
determined so that the downwash of the smoke plume towards the
earth due to aerodynamic effects, can be practically eliminated.
Knowledge gained in the wind tunnel concerning the behavior of
the plume close to the plant can be used as a starting point
for the computation of ground concentrations of gas. The results
are more reliable than those based on the usual assumption of a
point source. APTIC #585^.
31. Smith, M. E.
REDUCTION OF AMBIENT AIR CONCENTRATIONS OF POLLUTANTS BY DISPERSION
FROM HIGH STACKS. Combustion, 3_8(10) :23-27, April 1967. In: THE
TALL STACK FOR AIR POLLUTION CONTROL ON LARGE FOSSIL-FUELED POWER
PLANTS, pp. 5-11, 1967.
The value and limitations of high stacks are outlined together
with the unresolved questions upon which the ultimate value depends.
A tall stack in open, uncomplicated terrain will reduce the local
ground-level concentrations of gases or small participates. The
degree of reduction depends upon the stack height, the distance
from the source, and the meteorological conditions and is accom-
plished by giving natural turbulence an opportunity to dilute the
pollutant before it reaches the ground-level receptors. A stack
located in open terrain converts the least favorable meteorological
condition to the most favorable. For all practical purposes, a
plume emitted at a reasonable height above the ground in an inversion
remains aloft indefinitely. Stacks do not eliminate a pollutant,
but distribute it in a different way. The upper limit to the
maximum stack height and size involves the diminishing improve-
ment with height, cost, construction difficulty, and aircraft
hazards as well as the amount of pollutant in the emission, the
33
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frequency of unfavorable meteorological conditions, and the accept-
able concentrations. There are also a number of unresolved ques-
tions such as the prediction of plume rise, large-scale patterns
of atmospheric flow associated with terrain features, and the
"half-life" of contaminants such as S02- The power industry has
been able to reduce the ground-level contamination more effectively
and more economically than by almost any other method. APTIC 5^2770.
32. Smith, M. E.
THE TALL STACK. Mech. Bag., 9_0(2):20-22, Feb. 1968.
The tall stack as a partial solution to air pollution problems is
described. Some of the real and imagined limitations of the tall stack
are discussed. One purely fictional criticism suggests that a
tall stack merely transfers a pollution problem from one location
to another. While it is true that a change in wind patterns with
height may bring pollutants to the ground at a somewhat different
location, a higher stack will invariably produce lower ground-
level concentrations at all locations affected. Tall stacks do
not actually reduce the total amount of pollutants in the atmos-
phere nor do they decrease concentrations at very distant receptors.
The most controversial technical issues concerning stacks involve
the presence of a capping temperature inversion above a layer in
which vertical mixing can occur. One of these situations is called
an "inversion break-up fumigation" and it is most easily visualized
at the mixing of a plume in a shallow layer between the ground and
the inversion lid aloft. The other phenomenon is supposed to occur
in cities when a plume is emitted beneath a similar capping inver-
sion that is typically present during air pollution episodes. There
is a growing body of evidence indicating that inversion break-up
fumigation in open country may almost never occur with well-designed
tall stacks. Initial data from a. TVA project support the idea
that fumigations from tall stacks produce concentrations no higher
than those found in ordinary meteorological conditions. APTIC #9124.
33. Sporn, P. and T. T. Frankenberg
PIONEERING EXPERIENCE WITH HIGH STACKS ON THE OHIO VALLEY ELECTRIC
CORPORATION AND AMERICAN ELECTRIC POWER SERVICE CORPORATION. Pre-
print, (Presented at the International Clean Air Congress, London,
4-7 Oct., 1966). 7p.
The two Ohio Valley Electric Corporation plants with capacities of
1200 and 1000 MW were pioneering ventures in many ways. During their
design stage, the ten largest thermalelectric plants operating in the
United States had an average size of less than 600 Mrf. By 19^3 there
were 17 plants in operation, each exceeding 1000 MW. The wind
tunnel work and gas diffusion calculations leading to the selection
of 683-foot stacks for the larger plant and 535-foot for the other
is described. Dustfall and 302 concentration studies in the field
began prior to operation and continued for three years after full
commissioning of the plants. Data obtained were used in evalua-
tion of the diffusion equations, and to judge the correctness of
certain mathematical models covering transient situations. Experience
obtained in operating and maintaining these pioneer stacks led to
modifications in the design of the 825-foot stacks for Cardinal
Plant near Brilliant, Ohio which will be commissioned in 1966.
APTIC #1796.
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Squires, Arthur M.
THE CONTROL OP S02 FROM POWER STACKS. PART I - THE REMOVAL OF
SULFUR FROM FUELS. Chem. Eng., 74(23):260-268, Nov. 6, 1967.
The first of four articles on the curbing of air pollution through
the control of sulfur dioxide emission from power station flue
stacks looks into the technology and economics of removing sulfur
from fuels before they are burned. The progress of work on
desulfurization of fuel oil and coal both here and abroad is
traced. While desulfurization processes have been developed,
they do not appear to offer an early, cheap solution to the
problem of the power station. APTIC #891?
35. Stone, G. N. and A. J. Clarke
BRITISH EXPERIENCE WITH TALL STACKS FOR AIR POLLUTION CONTROL ON
LARGE FOSSIL-FUELED POWER PLANTS. Preprint. (Presented April 2?>
1967, American Power Conference, Illinois Institute of Technology.)
Some of the more interesting steps in the development of the tall
stack policy were traced and the factual data and practical obser-
vations which support and justify the CEGB's approach to this con-
troversial subject summarized. Peak 302 concentrations at any
one point at ground level are very transient and infrequent, and
their magnitudes are predictable to a reasonable degree of accuracy.
No meteorological situation has been encountered in which the
short-term peak concentrations are more than double those in
neutral conditions; a fact that can readily be allowed for in the
selection of stack heights. Hot plumes from tall stacks rise high
in stable atmospheric conditions and make virtually rio contribu-
tion to ground level pollution. The higher the stack the greater
the plume rise, and the more frequently will stable layers in the
lower atmosphere shield the ground surface. {.fcdern power plants
with tall stacks can operate over extended periods without making
any material addition to the general level of pollution in the
areas in which they are situated. All the power plants over a
large geographical area can collectively operate without any detectable
influence on the trend of ground level S02 concentrations in the area.
APTIC #5062.
36. Szwed, H.
(DISSEMINATION OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION BY INDUSTRIAL CHIMNEYS).
ROZPRZESTRZENIANIE ZANIECZYSZCZEN W ATMOSFERZE PRZEZ KOMINY
PRZEMYSLOWE. Ochrona Pracy (Warsaw), 21(6):19-23, June 1966.
The dissemination of industrial pollutants within the upper
layers of the atmosphere by stacks is discussed. The influence
of meteorological conditions and the relationship of the height
of the chimneys to the concentration of pollutants are described.
APTIC #1533-
37- Thomas, F. W., Carpenter, S. B. and Gartrell, F. E. STACKS --
HOW HIGH? J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 13(5):198-204, May
1963.
Tennessee Valley Authority experience in the performance of
stacks for dispersal and dilution of power plant wastes are
35
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reviewed. Basic stack height criteria; stack height estimation
by empirical extrapolation from data on existing plants and from
mathematical diffusion analyses; relative effectiveness of stacks
in principal dispersion models for neutral condition-coning plume
and for inversion condition-fanning plume; the beneficial effect
of heat emission in inversion conditions and in unstable, condi-
tions-looping plume; mathematical formulation of plume rise,
implications of common formulae, and estimate from TVA data, and
efflux velocity are covered. APTIC #3731.
38. Thomas, M. D., G. R. Hill and J. N. Abersold
DISPERSION OF GASES FROM TALL STACKS. Ind. Eng. Chem., _kl:
2417, Nov. 1949.
The theoretical equations of Bosanquet and Pearson and Sutton for
the dispersion of smoke from factory chimneys have been solved
in terms of the conventional units of the smelting industry for
the elimination of sulfur dioxide from k smelters. A large mass
of field data for sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere, obtained by
means of automatic recorders, has been evaluated in the form
of Cu to M ratios, where C is the field concentration, M is the
mass emission of sulfur from the plant, and u is the wind velo-
city. The data for tall stacks at Selby, Calif., Tacoma, Wash.,
Garfield, Utah, and El Paso, Tex., agree well with the theoretical
equations, when values of the diffusion coefficient of 0.05 to
0.07 are used and the exponent of>the distance, x, in Button's
equation is2(n-0). A somewhat smaller exponent may be
needed to satisfy the data for the short stacks at Selby and El
Paso. The theoretical curves and confirming data illustrate
forcefully the beneficial effects of use of tall stacks in dis-
persing air contaminants from factories. Maximum ground con-
centration varies inversely with square of stack height. This
results in lower peak and lower average concentrations from the
tall stack and higher percentages of time when air is free of
contamination. High temperature of smoke elimination increases
effective stack height and improves dispersion.
39. TUFTS COVE - DUAL FIRING AND CYCLONE FURNACES FOR 100 W UNIT
NOVA SCOTIA. Eng. Boiler House Rev., 8l(8):23^-238, Aug. 1966.
Tufts Cove thermal generating station was commissioned on Septem-
ber 30, 1965 as a new power source for Nova Scotia in Canada. The
steam generating unit is a Babcock & Wilcox cyclone-fired radiant
type boiler having a continuous steaming capacity of 725,000 Ib.
hr. The design pressure of the unit is 2,100 Ib/sq in g with
operating steam conditions of 1,850 Ib/sq in g and 1,010 F at the
superheater outlet and a reheat steam temperature of 1,010 F at
the reheater outlet. The overall efficiency of the unit, at a
steam flow of 650,000 Ib/hr is 90.3 per cent when burning Cape
Breton coal. This cyclone fired steam generating unit was se-
lected for Tufts Cove Station on its suitability for the burning of
Cape Breton coal. The flue gas leaving the air heater passes
through an electrostatic precipitator which has a collection
efficiency of 95 percent. The duet loading of the flue gas leav-
ing the precipitator is guaranteed not to exceed 0.25 1*> of dust
per 1,000 Ib of flue gas adjusted to 12 per cent C02- The steam
36
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generating unit is equipped with a Diamond automatic sequentially-
operated, steam blowing sootblower system with 11 retractable
blowers in the superheater-reheater section, 2 non-rotating re-
tractable furnace wall blowers. The fly ash collected by the
precipitator is of a very fine grain size, approximately 95 Per cent
under 50 microns in size. Due to the fineness of this ash and the
disposal problem it may present, the unit is equipped with an ash
fefiring system. This system conveys the fine precipitator ash
back to the cyclone furnaces, where it is melted back to liquid
and disposed of as slag into the slag tank. The most prominent
physical feature of the plant site is the 500 ft high chimney,
which consists of a steel reinforced concrete column surrounding
an independent brick lining. The height was decided upon follow-
ing extensive wind tunnel tests on scale models of the surround-
ing terrain carried out to determine the effect of flue gas
dispersal of various chimney heights. The final, cost of the
project will be approximately 17,000,000. APTIC
Walters, D. P. and Martin, D. 0.
AN EVALUATION OF THE AIR POLLUTION ASPECTS OF THE PROPOSED STEAM-
ELECTRIC PLANT AT OAK PARK, MINNESOTA. Preprint. 1965.
The installation and operation of the 550,000 kilowatt steam-electric
plant at Oak Park, Minnesota, will generate large quantities of
air pollutants, principally sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and
particulate matter. A 785-foot stack will be installed to permit
dispersion and dilution of gaseous pollutants. Calculations indi-
cate that ground level concentration of sulfur dioxide may cause
acute damage to vegetation. However, existing information
is inadequate to predict with assurance whether long-term chronic
effects will be experienced by long-lived vegetation such as trees.
It is expected that the human perception threshold for S02 will be
exceeded occasionally. Inversion breakup fumigation may produce
ground level concentrations exceeding the human perception thresh-
old at distances of ten miles or more. The installation and
operation of a second unit of 750,000 kilowatt capacity will
more than double air pollution emissions. If the 550,000 kilowatt
unit is built and operated, a S02 monitoring network should be
activated. This will assist in determining the effects of S02 on
the surrounding vegetation and people, as well as provide guides
for future installation design. Prevailing winds in this area
are such that air pollutants will often be carried into Wisconsin.
Therefore, officials of that State should take part in air pollu-
tion activities connected with the proposed plant. Plans and
studies should be started now to obviate future air pollution
problems indicated by plans for expansion of this plant beyond the
initial 550,000 kilowatt capacity. APTIC #18^2.
37
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ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMENA
Andreyev, P. I.
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL ATMOSPHERIC
POLLUTION CONCENTRATIONS RESULTING FROM LOW LEVEL EMISSIONS. In:
Survey of U.S.S.R. Literature on Air Pollution and Related Occu-
pational Diseases. Translated from Russ. by Levine, B. S., Nat.
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C., Inst. for Applied Tech.,
3:61*-69, May 1960.
Formulas for the computation of expected concentrations of gases
discharged by industrial establishments were derived on the basis
of the theory of turbulent diffusion in the atmosphere. One is
for the calculation of ground level gas concentration along the
axis of a flow coming from a point source (organized) and the
other is for the calculation of ground level gas concentrations
emanating from a linear source (unorganized). Both formulas are
applicable to the determination of theoretical concentrations
of gases and highly dispersed dust. A comparison of theoretical
concentrations with the experimental data was presented. The
formulas given for either high or low pollution sources will
present an adequate picture of the actual process of pollution
diffusion in the atmosphere. These formulas may be utilized
in dealing with problems arising in planning production and
manufacturing plants and in conducting scientific research.
APTIC #811*3-
1*2. Aral, K^
THE PROBLEMS OF DIFFUSION IN AIR POLLUTION. Text in Japanese.
Journal of the Fuel Society of Japan (Tokyo), 44(46l):6o6-6l7,
Sept. 1965.
Meteorological conditions (wind velocity, temperature and atmos-
pheric stability), topography, and building height are considered
in connection with problems of emission. Emission speeds of more
than twice the wind velocity are desirable for effective diffusion.
Three equations for atmospheric diffusion are shown: the Sutton,
the Bosanquet-and-Pearson, and the British Meteorological Bureau
(used most in Japan). An equation for effective stack height is
also given. Although ferro-concrete stacks are inexpensive and
their usual height is less than 100 meters due to the prevalence
of earthquakes in Japan, higher steel stacks are more effective
for diffusion. Wind tunnel tests and industrial sites (exist-
ing or planned) are discussed. The use of better quality fuel
and the elimination of contaminants should be considered of
primary importance in the fight against industrial air pollu-
tion. APTIC #1*383.
1*3. Ashley, E. C. and B. Kalmon
THE VALIDITY AND USE OF SUTTON'S EQUATION AS APPLIED TO STACK
EFFLUENTS. AEC (Atomic Energy Commission) Air Cleaning Conf.,
8th, Oak Ridge, Term., 1963, pp. 664-673.
39
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A simple determination of the maximum ground level concentrations
of radioactive stack gases can be made by using the basic Sutton
equation. Using simple assumptions, a correlation coefficient of
0.72 at a 95$ confidence level was found between the calculations
and sample results. APTIC #31W-.
ASME Standard 1968. GUIDE FOR PREDICTING DISPERSION OF AIRBORNE
POLLUTANTS. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 3^5 E.
V7th., New York City.
The result of work dating back to December, 196k, by a team of
engineers, scientists, and meteorologists, the guide is designed
to help air pollution controllers estimate the concentration of
harmful pollutants at ground level for various height stacks. This
guide, which takes into account the capacity of the atmosphere to
dilute gases and particulate matter, presents approximations for
use in dealing with various terrains and weather conditions.
Barad, M. L.
ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION, (in: Atmospheric Pollution). Air Force
Cambridge Research Center Hanscom (L.G.) Field, Mass., pp.8-2^.
(Presented at the Interdisciplinary Conference on Atmospheric
Pollution, Santa Barbara, Calif., June 1959).
Technical findings which potentially are most applicable to the
air pollution problem, particularly research results which were
produced within the previous eight or nine years, are summarized.
Dispersion in both nonuniform and in uniform wind fields and
terrain, and the effects of sources and sinks are considered.
APTIC #3767.
Barry, P. J. and R. E. Munn
THE USE OF RADIOACTIVE TRACERS IN STUDYING MASS TRANSFER IN THE
ATMOSPHERIC SURFACE BOUNDARY LAYER. Symposium on Boundary Layers
and Turbulence, Kyoto, Japan, Sept. 19-24, 1966.
Certain natural surfaces such as snow act as almost perfect sinks
for some radioactive gases. Experiments in which tracers of differing
molecular diffusivities are released simultaneously permit infer-
ences to be drawn about the importance of the lowest few mm of
the atmosphere in regulating vertical fluxes. Twelve field
experiments are described in which iodine-131 and tritiated water
vapour gases were released simultaneously over snow during mostly
smooth-wall turbulent conditions. The resistance to vertical
mass transfer (the ratio of concentration at 30 cm to flux) was
larger for iodire than tritium. Mass transfer coefficients are
calculated. They are larger for tritium than for iodine; their
ratio is equal to the ratio of molecular diffusivities raised to
the power of about 0.8, and there is no trend with roughness
Reynolds number. The drag coefficient is larger and increases
with Reynolds number. The mass transfer coefficient is compared
with that proposed by Sverdrup for estimating evaporation from large
open water surfaces. The comparison showed little agreement be-
tween the the coefficients. APTIC #8529.
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Berjyand, M. E.
TO THE THEORY OF THE INDUSTRIAL EMISSION DISPERSION IN THE ATMOS-
PHERE OF A COASTAL ZONE. Ido.laras. 11(2) 165-72, Mar.-Apr. 1967.
(Presented at the Symposium on the Meteorological Questions of
Air Pollution, Budapest, Hungary, Nov. 10-11, 1966.)
The interaction of stack gases and plumes with the atmosphere
depends heavily on meteorological conditions. Theoretical, field,
and experimental work was done on the diffusion of gases from
stacks as high as 300m; variables included release height, terrain
shape, distance from source, and wind speed. A wind speed was
found in each situation where the resultant ground concentration
with a maximum, and a formula was derived to predict this.
APTIC #9968.
k8. Berlyand, M. Y., Y. L. Genikhovich and V. K. Dem'yanovich
SOME TIMELY PROBLEMS IN THE INVESTIGATION OF ATMOSPHERIC DIFFUSION.
Trudy Glavnoy Geofizicheskoy Observatorii (Transactions of the
Main Geophysical Observatory) (Translated as JPRS 3^,719) 3-22,
1965.
The general form of the equation of stationary diffusion was
investigated, taking into account variations of wind direction
and the effect of averaging of concentrations. On the basis of the
results of numerical solution of the diffusion equation an analysis
is made of the influence of the vertical distribution of the co-
efficients of the equation on its solution. The problem of the
diffusion of an admixture in an area of hilly relief is considered
and the results of numerical computations for gently sloping topog-
raphy are presented. There is a discussion of the problems in-
volved in taking into account the initial rising and heating of
the admixture and a numerical solution of this problem is given.
APTIC #2993-
Bierly, E. W. and E. V. Hewson
SOME RESTRICTIVE METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS TO BE CONSIDERED IN THE
DESIGN OF STACKS. J. Appl. Meteorol., 1(3): 383-390, Sept. 1962.
There are several restrictive meteorological conditions that are
of great importance in the design of stacks. The conditions
considered are fumigation, aerodynamic downwash, looping and
trapping. Each condition is explained and formulae are given
for the computation of ground level concentrations. Methods for
determining the percentage of occurrence of these restrictive
conditions from observed data are also discussed very briefly.
APTIC #0035.
50. Bodurtha, F. T., Jr.
THE BEHAVIOR OF DENSE STACK GASES. J. Air Pollution Control
Assoc., 11(9):^31-^36, Sept. 1961.
The present study demonstrated that dense stack gases descend
rapidly to the ground. The results indicate that dense stack
gases should be discharged vertically upward from a stack
with the minimum practicable diameter. This minimum diameter
results in the maximum stack gas velocity for a given flow rate.
41
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In some cases, however, collection equipment may be necessary to
prevent pollution or a potential safety hazard. In addition,
these tests emphasize that previously-existing atmospheric
dispersion equations cannot "be used with reliability to estimate
the concentration of dense stack gases at the ground. The govern-
ing effect of buoyancy on the behavior of a stack plume was
confirmed. APTIC #58^0.
51. Bodurtha, F. T., Jr.
CONTROL OF POWER PLANT STACK EMISSIONS FOR CLEAN AIR. Proc. Am.
Power Conf., 27: 399-1*01, April 1965.
Atmospheric phenomena are reviewed in the context of establishing
control of stack emissions and setting concentration standards.
Primary concern is with ground level S02 concentration and with
this as a focal point the following topics are stressed: normal
dispersion, temperature inversion, topography and fog. Mathematical
concepts of dispersion theory are discussed and techniques in the
use of dispersion equations to calculate maximum concentrations or
stack height are provided in an appendix. APTIC
52. Bodurtha, F. T.
BACKGROUND AND BASIS OF ASME STANDARD, "RECOMMENDED GUIDE FOR THE
CONTROL OF DUST EMISSION—COMBUSTION FOR INDIRECT HEAT EXCHANGES"
- APS-1. In: Discussion on ASME Standard APS-1 on Dust Emission
From Indirect Heating Furnaces, New York, Amer. Soc. Mech. Eng.,
1966, p. 1-11.
The background and basis for the first standard of the ASME Air
Pollution Standards Committee is described. A discussion relates
dustfall and suspended dust from indirect heat exchangers, plume
rise and dispersion, and multiple stacks, to the methods of deter-
mining ground level concentrations. Limitations are given. An
attempt is made to maintain a measure of flexibility by supplying
a "cap" on emission limit, and provision for stack height. APTIC
#7259.
53- Boer, W.
(THE APPLICATION OF METEOROLOGICAL DATA IN TOWN PLANNING, IN
RELATION TO PROBLEMS OF AIR POLLUTION.) DIE ANSENDUNG METEO-
ROLOGISCHER UNTERLAGEN BEI DER STADTPLANUNG IN EENSICHT AUF
PROBLEMS DER LUFTVERUNREINIGUNG. Proc. (Part I) Intern. Clean
Air Cong.. London, 1966. pp. 79-81.
Only a drastic reduction of "specific emission" will finally
solve the problem of clean air. Meteorological data and knowledge
may, however, be usefully applied to the solution of single prob-
lems. It is important to have statistics of temperature inversions
near the ground, to know the structure of the wind field near the
ground and to work out actual and prognostic "plans of pollution"
by means of the formulas of atmospheric diffusion. APTIC #2012.
54. Bosanquet, C. H.
THE RISE OF A HOT WASTE GAS PLUME. Jour. Inst. Fuel., 30:322-328,
1957- ~~
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It Is assumed that when a cloud of hot gas is rising the total heat
content and total upward momentum are unaffected by dilution with
atmospheric air. It is also assumed that the upward momentum
increases at a rate proportional to the heat content. Rate of
dilution is assumed to be proportional to the surface area of the
cloud multiplied by a function of the wind velocity and the
velocity of the cloud relative to the surrounding atmosphere.
From these principles an equation is developed for finding the
track of hot waste gas rising from a chimney in a wind of any
velocity. The height to which the waste gas rises depends on
both its heat content and its exit momentum and tables are given
for calculating the combined effect. It is shown that if the
temperature gradient in the atmosphere is less than adiabatic the
smoke will not continue to rise indefinitely but will eventually
settle down at a definite height.
55. Briggs, G. A.
A PLUME RISE MODEL COMPARED WITH OBSERVATIONS. J. Air Pollution
Control Assoc., 15(9):433-l)-38, Sept. 1965.
Dimensional arguments are used to predict plume rise for buoyant
plumes in both stable and neutral air, for both calm and windy
conditions. Dominant terms are assumed to be wind speed buoyancy,
flux (proportional to heat efflux) and a stability parameter (pro-
portional to potential temperature gradient). Observations
presented support the dimensional analysis predicittons, except
that for final rise in a neutral atmosphere they are adequate
only for a conservative estimate of rise. The method is extended
to predict maximum ground concentration of effluent gases in the
worst situations (windy neutral and fumigation) for open country,
valleys and canyons. These predictions are compared with limited
observations. APTIC
56. Brummage, K. G.
THE CALCULATIOH OF ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION FROM A STACK. CONCAWE,
The Hague, Netherlands, Aug. 1966.
A critical appraisal is made by the CONCAWE Working Group on Stack
Height and Atmospheric Dispersion of published methods for calculating
the ground level concentration of a gas issuing from a stack.
The process of dispersal of gas from a stack is considered in
two consecutive stages, the initial rise of the gas by virtue
of its momentum and buoyancy, and then its spread downwind from
the effective source height to which it has risen. After a full
study of both aspects, the method of calculation of the maximum
ground level concentration is considered. Of the dispersion
equations considered, that originally due to Sutton was consid-
ered to be the most convenient, and to be of sufficient accuracy.
The Sutton formulation leads to an equation for the maximum ground
level concentration at an average wind speed u. A simple rela-
tionship in best agreement with the experimental data is given.
The main problem in the calculation of maximum ground level
concentration from a stack is the evaluation of plume rise. More
experimental and theoretical work is needed to choose between the
various approaches that are available, especially when the gas
and heat outputs are high. APTIC #6558.
43
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57- Brun, M.
(DIFFUSION OF POLLUTANTS IN THE ATMOSPHERE. METHODS OF CALCULA-
TING THE HEIGHT OF INDUSTRIAL CHIMNEYS IN EFFECT IN GERMANY, UNITED
STATES, GREAT BRITAIN, HOLLAND AND RUSSIA). DIFFUSION DBS POLLUTANTS
DANS L1ATMOSPHERE. METHODES DE CALCUL DE LA HAUTEUR DBS CHEMINEES
INDUSTRIELLES EN VIGUEUR EN ALLEMAGNE, ETATS-UNIS, GRANDE BRETAGNE,
HOLLANDS ET RUSSIE). Centre Interprofessionel Technique d'Etudes de
la Pollution Atmospherique, Paris, France, Fr. (Rept. No. CI 271).
C.I.T.E.P.A. Doc. No. 2k.
A comparison is made of the methods of calculating the height of
industrial chimneys in the various countries involved. In prin-
ciple, all of the methods are applications of Sutton's dispersion
formulas, although the choice of meteorological parameters may
be made arbitrarily. Differences appear when the elevation of
the plume is used rather than the actual height of the chimney.
Different values for the permissible concentration at ground
level adopted by different countries also causes a divergence.
A comparison is given of the effect on each of the methods of
the power of the installation, the sulfur content of the fuel,
the velocity of the smoke at emission, the wind velocity, and
the background ppllution. Numerous tables are given comparing
the different methods of calculation and the reasoning in back
of them. APTIC #6775.
58. Carpenter, S. B., J. A. Frizzola, M. E. Smith, J. M. Leavitt and
F. W. Thomas.
REPORT ON FULL-SCALE STUDY OF PLUME RISE AT LARGE ELECTRIC GENERA-
TING STATIONS. Preprint. (Presented at the 6oth Annual Meeting,
Air Pollution Control Assoc., Cleveland, Ohio. June 11-16, 1967).
Plume rise data were collected at six coal-fired, steam-electric
generating stations within the TVA system over a 2-year period.
Unit ratings ranged from 172 to 70^ megawatts with stack heights
varying from 250 to 600 feet. An instrumented helicopter and
special photographic equipment were used to obtain 1,580 separate
plume observations and significant related meteorological para-
meters during stable, neutral, and slightly unstable conditions.
The 1,580 observations were resolved and consolidated into 133
composite observation periods covering 30 to 120 minutes. Mete-
orological parameters and other compiled input data were entered
into four principal equations for calculation of plume rise, and
calculated plume rise values were compared with observed values.
Most equations overestimated plume rise in low wind speed. For
moderately high wind speeds, the ASME and Concawe equations gave
best fit. APTIC #6373-
59. Carson, J. E. and H. Moses
THE VALIDITY OF CURRENTLY POPULAR PLUME RISE FORMULAS. In: Proc.
of the USAEC Meteorological Information Meeting held at Chalk River
Nuclear Lab., Sept. 11-1^, 1967. Mawson, C. A. (ed.)
The ground-level concentrations of pollutants downwind of a tall
chimney decrease as the effective height of the stack increases.
The effective height of the stack is the actual height plus the
rise of the plume centerline due to momentum and buoyancy of the
effluent. Over twenty plume rise formulas have been proposed,
44
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but none is widely accepted due in part to a lack of sufficient
plume rise data for testing. In this paper, 711 plume rise
observations are used to test the ability of fifteen of the
published formulas to predict plume rise. The plume rise data
were obtained from stacks whose heat emission rate varied over
four orders of magnitude. APTIC #100^8.
60. Chalker, W. R.
USE OF STACK DISPERSION ANALYSIS TO DETERMINE OPTIMUM STACK SIZE.
Petro/Chem. Engr., 39(6)-.35-36, 38, May 1967.
Atmospheric dispersion calculations which provide a tool to re-
late the stack emission to the resultant downwind concentrations
are given. The response of the receptor, which is the most im-
portant factor, is a function of the type, quantity, and source
characteristics of the contaminant discharged into the air and the
meteorological conditions existing at the time. Since there is a
wide range of effects on the receptors, the concentrations which
cause these effects must be known. In this work the empirical
Bosanquet-Pearson dispersion equation was used. To establish the
effective stack height, a key factor in the Bosanquet-Pearson
equation, the Davidson-Bryant velocity rise equation is used.
Various combinations of stack height, diameter, and collection
efficiency are possible to obtain a permitted discharge which makes
the selection a question of cost. Wind tunnel experiments are
indicated as a guide in orienting buildings and locating and designing
stacks where wind eddies from buildings may carry gas back to the
ground level. APTIC #6138.
6l. Charash, E.
THE ESTIMATION OF EFFLUENT CONCENTRATIONS FROM AN ELEVATED CONTINU-
OUS SOURCE. Australian Atomic Energy Commission, Research Estab-
lishment, Lucas Heights, AAEC/TM307, /26/p., Dec. 1965. /T2/ refs.
From fundamental theory and empirical knowledge of the structure of
atmospheric turbulence spectra, diffusion equations are developed
with parameters which are adjustable so as to reflect the influence
of varying surface roughness as well as a wide range of stability
conditions. Instructions are given for practical applications of
the diffusion equations which should be valid for travel distances
of about a mile at heights greater than fifty feet above ground.
APTIC #10521
62. (CHIMNEY PLUME RISE AND DISPERSION.) ELEVATION DBS PANACHES DE
FUMEES ET DISPERSION. Centre Interprofessionel Technique d'Etudes
de la Pollution Atmospherique, Paris, France. (Rept. No. CI 316)
(C.I.T.E.P.A. Doc. No. 24, 1967). Fr.
The symposium held at Letherhead, England on October 7, 1966 on
chimney plume rise is reported which includes two surveys of the
S02 in the neighborhood of electric power houses and the chimney
plume rise under various meteorological conditions. The height
of the plume was measured in one case by the signal reflected
from the plume of a luminous beam directed at the plume from the
ground. The use of lidar, which uses a laser beam instead of light,
permits the observation of an invisible plume 1200 meters from the
source. It also detects the level of inversion. The lidar permits
45
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the total scanning of a plume in 3 Bin- Ehe SOg values for dis-
persion were made for different plume heights, but were not given.
Two formulas were derived; one gives the height of plume of smoke
and the other the maximum concentration at ground level. APTIC
#6777.
63. Clarke, J. F.
A SIMPLE DIFFUSION MODEL FOR CALCULATING POINT CONCENTRATIONS
FROM MULTIPLE SOURCES. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., Ik
(9): 3^7-352, Sept. 1964.
Four meteorological parameters were combined with Cincinnati's
CAMP source emission inventory data. Accepted diffusion co-
efficients and readily available meteorological data were
utilized in a model simple enough to allow calculations without
the aid of an electronic computer. Dispersion coefficients,
effective stack heights, wind direction and velocity, and de-
pletion were considered. The results were considered to be within the
precision of the source inventory. The model has application as a
forecasting tool and as an aid to evaluating urban air pollution
sources and explaining air quality measurements. It can be simply
presented in diagrams of relative concentration (x/Q)and used with
source strength data to obtain quick estimates of point concentra-
tions from multiple sources. The variation of concentration due to
variations of the meteorological and source parameters is readily
obtainable. Application of the model to other locations requires
only a change in the presentation of emission data. It is presumed
that the model is adaptable to any location within Cincinnati, to
other pollutants, and hopefully, to other cities. APTIC #1068.
6k. Conner, W. D. and J. R. Hodkinson
OBSERVATIONS OF THE OPTICAL PROPERTIES AND VISUAL EFFECTS OF
SMOKE PLUMES. Preprint. (Presented at the 57th Annual Meeting,
Air Pollution Control Assoc., Houston, Tex., June 21-25, 1964.)
Detailed observations are reported on the reduction in contrast
between targets seen through white experimental plumes of various
transmittances, on the contrast between white experimental plumes
and their background, and on the great effect of varying condi-
tions of lighting and observation. The variations in plume trans-
mittance for light of different wavelengths and the angular dis-
tribution of light scattered by the experimental white plume and oil-
burning electric plant plume have also been measured, and estimates of
mean particle-size derived therefrom. Trials have been made to
ascertain how well observers can be trained to estimate visually,
tinder different conditions, the transmittance of light and dark
plumes. APTIC #35^6.
65. Conner, W. D. and J. R. Hodkinson
OPTICAL PROPERTIES AND VISUAL EFFECT OF SMOKE-STACK PLUMES. PHS,
Cincinnati, Ohio, Nationa} Center for Air Pollution Control and
Virginia State Coll., Norfolk, Dept. of Physics, PHS-Pub-999-AP-
30, 89P-, 1967.
Two experimental smoke stacks were constructed to provide test
plumes for studies of optical properties and visual effects under
46
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a wide range of conditions. Contrast reduction between objects
viewed through plumes was used as an index of vision obscuration, and
contrast between plumes and their background was used as an index
of visual appearance. Results indicate that visual effects are not
intrinsic properties of the plumes but vary with the background of the
plume and with illuminating and viewing conditions. Variation
was much greater with white plumes than with black. Tests con-
ducted with trained smoke inspectors showed that their evaluations
of noriblack smoke plumes were significantly influenced by these
variations. The angular scattering and transmission characteristics
of the experimental plumes were measured and estimates of particle
size were made. The study shows that the quantity of aerosols in a
plume is evaluated best by its transmlttance . Special methods are
discussed for objectively measuring the traranLttance of smoke plumes.
The methods involve telephotometry, photography, and photometry of
targets; the use of smoke guides; and laser measurements. APTIC
#5060.
66. Csanady, G. T.
SOME OBSERVATIONS OF SMDKE PLUMES. Intern. J. Air Water Pollution.
7-51, 1961.
The plume at Tallawarra power station was photographed many times
to obtain the mean position. The observations were plotted in
terms of appropriate nondimensional variables and compared with
the observations of Bosanquet et al, , as well as the theoretical
results of Priestley and Sutton. Within about 1500 ft. from the
source good agreement with theory was found. The asymptotic
plume height was found to be given crudely by the formula:
Za=250 F/u3, where Za is asymptotic plume height, U is wind speed,
F is flux of buoyancy a variable proportional to heat flux.
APTIC #5357-
67. Csanady, G. T.
THE EFFECT OF BUOYANCY ON THE DISPERSAL OF CHIMNEY EFFLUENTS. Preprint.
1967.
The recent consolidation of evidence on the mean path of hot chimney
plumes is taken advantage of by calculating mean ground level con-
centrations, resulting from a plume distributed about a mean posi-
tion given by the "2/3 power law", in a neutral atmosphere. The
calculations show that the maximum value of the concentration
occurs in fairly strong winds because in lighter winds the buoy-
ant movements transport the pollutants bodily away from ground
level at a rapid enough rate to more than cancel downward diffusion.
Application to a typical power station chimney shows that the maxi-
mum value of the concentration occurs in fairly strong winds be-
cause in lighter winds the buoyant movements transport the pollut-
ants bodily away from ground level at a rapid enough rate to more
than cancel downward diffusion. Application to a typical power
station chimney shows that the maximum ground level concentration
is reduced by buoyancy by a factor of at least 23, as compared
to a "cold" plume. APTIC #5356.
68. Davies, P. 0. A. L. and D. J. Moore
EXPERIMENTS ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF EFFLUENT EMITTED FROM STACKS AT
47
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OR NEAR THE ROOF LEVEL OF TALL REACTOR BUILDINGS. Int. J. Air
Water Pollution, 8:515-533, 1964.
The behaviour of effluent emitted from stacks projecting a few
feet above the roof level of reactor buildings at Berkeley and
Bradwell nuclear power stations was studied using models in a wind
tunnel and a water tunnel. Full-scale plumes from these buildings
were also observed under a limited range of conditions; the be-
havior of model and full-scale plumes was similar when the efflux
conditions were similar. The experimental work indicated that
the assumption of fairly simple effluent distributions for the
purpose of calculating long-term gamma-dose rates would not lead
to serious errors.
69. Gartrell, F. E., F. W. Thomas, and S. B. Carpenter
TRANSPORT OF S02 IN THE ATMOSPHERE FROM A SINGLE SOURCE. Proc.
Symp. Atmos. Chem. of Chlorine and Sulfur Compounds. Cincin-
nati, Ohio, Geophysical Monograph #3, pp. 63-08, 1959.
Information accumulated by the TVA on atmospheric diffusion was
discussed. Difficulty in predicting ground-level concentrations
of S02 with the existing diffusion formula (Button) lead to the
investigation of another method of sampling. The helicopter -
Titrilog sampling operation is being employed for defining the
plume location, geometry and SOg concentration. Meteorological
parameters would be required in any formula designed to predict
S02 concentration at ground level some distance from the SOg
source. APTIC #6823.
70. Gartrell, F. E., F. W. Thomas, and S. B. Carpenter
AN INTERIM REPORT ON FULL-SCALE STUDY OF DISPERSON OF STACK
GASES. J. Mr Pollution Control Assoc., 11(2):60-65, Feb. 1961.
The Tennessee Valley Authority in cooperation with the U. S.
Public Health Service initiated in July 1957 a full-scale study
of diffusion of stack gases from large coal-burning power plants.
Three-dimensional measurements of dispersion are made by aerial
sampling of 302 wi"** a Titrilog operated in a helicopter. This
report describes equipment and sampling plans. Data from samp-
ling of eight inversion plumes, along with the results of prelim-
inary analyses of these data, are presented. Apparent losses
of 302 from the plume with time and distance from the source
cited. Preliminary investigations of this finding by means of
controlled dilution and cooling of flue gas pointed to oxidation
of S02 as a possible explanation. APTIC #5963
71. Gartrell, F. E., F. W. Thomas, and S. B. Carpenter
ATMOSPHERIC OXIDATION OF S02 IN COAL-BURNING POWER PLANT PLUMES.
Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J^, 24:113-120, Apr. 1963.
Sampling equipment and procedures applicable for use in a heli-
copter were devised for collecting the separate SOg and SOo
components in progressive plume cross sections at a large coal-
burning plant. Samples were collected during a variety of meteor-
ological conditions with particular attention to a wide range of
relative humidity. During periods of low humidity, data reveal
48
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that oxidation of SC>2 is relatively slow, increasing from 2$ at
one mile (12 min) to 3$ at 6 miles (60 min). With moderately
high humidity, oxidation was initially rapid, 22% at one mile
(I2min). increasing to 32$ at 8 miles (96 min). The highest
total oxidation, 55/t, was observed in a slight mist at 9 miles
(108 min). APTIC #2921.
72. Gartrell, F. E., F. W. Thomas, S. B. Carpenter, F. Pooler, B.
Turner, and J. M. Leavitt
FULL-SCALE STUDY OF DISPERSION OF STACK GASES. (A Summary Re-
port). TVA, Chattanooga, Division of Health and Safety, and
Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio, Division of Air Pollu-
tion, Aug. 1964, llOp.
During fiscal years 1958-1962, the Tennessee Valley Authority
conducted an air pollution research project under the sponsor-
ship of the Public Health Service. In this project, advantage
was taken of unique opportunities for full-scale appraisal of
dispersion of air pollutants from large coal-burning, steam-
electric generating plants. Advantages offered for diffusion
studies included: (l) large isolated sources where intermixture
with extraneous pollutants is not significant; (2) complete
plant operational data and emission rates; (3) sufficient fly ash
emission to provide a visible plume aloft out to distances of
10-15 miles under meteorological conditions of special interest;
(k) a helicopter equipped with special instruments for sampling
and recording SOg concentrations, as well as extensive auxiliary
instruments; (5) tover-rrcunted meteorological instruments for
providing basic information on wind and temperature parameters;
and (6) computer facilities for data analysis. In addition to
the primary studies to determine diffusion parameters, a lim-
ited investigation was made of plume rise or effective stack
heights. An extensive investigation was made of the oxidation
of 302 in the atmosphere after emission from, the stack. Oxi-
dation was studied with ground-based facilities and also in the
plume at various distances and travel times, and under various
weather conditions. In the course of this investigation inter-
relationships among SQp, HgSOlj., and fly ash also were studied.
APTIC #0023.
73- Gartrell, F. E.
MONITORING OF S02 IN THE VICINITY OF COAL-FIRED POWER PLANTS. -
TVA EXPERIENCE. Am. Power Conf. Proc., 27:117-123, 1965.
During the relatively short period of approximately fifteen
years, TVA has conducted extensive air pollution studies at
eight large, modern, coal-fired, steam-electric generating
stations as these plants were added to the TVA power system.
The plants vary in unit size, stack heights, fuel supply, site
topography, and micrometeorology. This paper presents summaries
of some of the significant findings of these studies which should
be of value in planning air pollution control for large coal-fired
power plants. APTIC #1856.
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Gartrell, F. E., F. W. Thomas, S. B. Carpenter, F. Pooler, B.
Turner, and J. M. Leavitt
FULL SCALE STUDY OF DISPERSION OF STACK GASES. PART IV. COROLLART
STUDIES OF SOg QXIDAECON. TVA, Chattanooga, Div. of Health and
Safety and Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio, Div. of Air
Pollution, June
While the primary objective was determination of the extent of
oxidation of S02 in a power plant plume, initial investigation
under semi-controlled conditions at ground level was considered
to offer a number of advantages, particularly some flexibility
for varying environmental conditions. Principal phases of the
S02 oxidation studies are characterized as follows: (l) Develop
equipment and techniques for the collection of representative
samples of flue gas and fly ash from steam plant ducts and
stacks. (2) Collect and analyze sufficient samples of flue gas
and fly ash to establish the relative proportions and concentrations
of SOg an3> as well as pertinent physical and chemical character-
istics of fly ash. (3) Develop facilities for controlled dilution
and cooling of flue gas simulating atmospheric dispersion and
cooling. (4) Develop instrumentation for evaluating changes in
sulfur oxides and fly ash subjected to controlled dilution and
cooling. (5) Modify instrumentation and techniques developed
in the preceding step for study of sulfur oxides and fly ash in
the dispersed plume. (6) Collect and analyze sufficient plume
samples to establish the relative proportions of S02 and SOg.
(7) Interpret and analyze data and observations. In steps 1
through k, flue gas and fly ash samples were taken at ground
level from the duct section connecting the mechanical fly ash
collectors and the induced draft fan, or from the dilution
chamber. APTIC #3777-
75. Gartrell, F. E., F. W. Thomas, S. B. Carpenter, F. Pooler, B.
Turner, and J. M. Leavitt.
FULL SCALE STUDY OF DISPERSION OF STACK GASES. PART III. PLUME
RISE. TVA, Chattanooga, Div. of Health and Safety and Public1
Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio, Div. of Air Pollution, June
1965, 3%>.
This project was concerned primarily with investigation of dif-
fusion rates in a steam plant smoke plume. While detailed data
were obtained on plume rise at the time of each field sampling
operation, the extensive observations required for a study designed
specifically to improve procedures for estimating plume rise were
not a part of the project. However, it is recognized that reason-
ably accurate estimates of plume rise under various operational
and meteorological conditions are required for useful application
of the derived diffusion parameters. The data which were ob-
tained on plume rise concurrent with diffusion studies are, there-
fore, presented. Also, observed values are compared with calcu-
lated values and limited analysis is made of interrelations of
plume rise with meteorological and diffusion parameters. A
sufficient number of observations were not made for useful eval-
uation of the relations among plume rise, plume direction, and
stack alignment. Data on plume rise were obtained only in
inversion conditions and in neutral, moderately high wind velocity
conditions. All observations relate to the Colbert Steam ELant,
for which design and operational data are presented. APTIC #4-035.
50
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76. Gartrell, F. E., F. W. Thomas, S. B. Carpenter, F. Pooler, B.
Turner, and J. M. Leavitt
FULL SCALE STUDY OF DISPERSION OF STACK GASES. PART II. DIF-
FUSION IN HIGH WIND NEUTRAL CONDITIONS. TVA, Chattanooga, Div.
of Health and Safety and Public Health Service, Cincinnati,
Ohio, Div. of Air Pollution, June 1965, 77p.
Field instrumentation and procedures for high wind neutral con-
ditions were similar to those used in the study of dispersion
during inversion conditions. However, the aerial sampling plan
was modified to facilitate definition of the more mobile plume.
In most instances replicate flights were made across the plume
at successively lower elevations from top to bottom of the plume.
Near the plant where the plume was relatively narrow, SOg dis-
tribution was determined in some instances by sampling along
the plume centerline or x axis. Within a relatively short
distance or travel time the plume was widely dispersed in both
horizontal and vertical dimensions. This much larger plume section
and attendant longer time required for sampling each section
restricted maximum sampling concentration at this distance had
diminished to such a low level that plume definition from re-
corder charts no longer was possible. APTIC
77- Gartrell, F. E., F. W. Thomas, S. B. Carpenter, F. Pooler, B.
Turner, and J. M. Leavitt
FULL SCALE STUDY OF DISPERSION OF STACK GASES. PART I. DIFFUSION
IN INVERSION CONDITIONS. TVA, Chattanooga, Div. of Health and
Safety and Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio, Div. of Air
Pollution, June 1965,
Beginning at daybreak, or sometimes before daybreak on days when
inversions were forecast meteorological data were logged each
30-minute period, and pibal observations were made each hour.
A small light attached to the balloon permitted nighttime obser-
vations. To conserve manpower and to permit more frequent ob-
servations, theodolite readings were dictated into a recorder.
At daybreak the Titrilog was transferred from car to helicopter,
and it and other instruments were checked. Following takeoff,
horizontal flights were made to check temperatures at the bottom
and top of the meteorological tower. The vertical temperature
profile was determined by a prescribed flight pattern where
temperature readings were taken at 100-ft intervals starting at
about 500 ft above the top of the plume. Plant personnel were
alerted by an intercom system to begin special coal and S02
sampling at the approximate time that actual plume sampling was
begun. Cross sections normally were begun at the 1/2-mile
section and continued at progressively greater distance as time
permitted before strong changes in thermal and wind structure
occurred. Actual plume sampling time usually averaged about
two hours. During this time cross sections were taken at about
four selected distances downwind from the plant. In flight
the observer recorded temperature and elevation data, marked
the Titrilog chart for later identification of each plume tran-
sect and entered other pertinent observations on the chart or
voice recorder. After completion of plume transects, tempera-
ture soundings were repeated before the flight was terminated.
APTIC 7^033-
51
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78. Gifford, F., Jr.
RELATIVE ATMOSPHERIC DIFFUSION OF SMOKE PUFFS. J. Meteorol.,
l{j-:lHO-l».3Aj 1*75 Jtf6, Oct. 1957.
The spreading of smoke puffs in the atmosphere should be governed
by the laws of relative diffusion that have been advanced by
Brier (1950) and by Batchelor (19^9-1956), and not by Taylor's
fixed-source diffusion law (1920). The predicted mean-square
puff spreading should proceed as time cubed, according to
Batchelor*s similarity theory of relative diffusion. Recent
detailed smoke-puff measurements reported by Frenkiel and Katz
(1956), and Kellogg (1956), make it possible to test the simi-
larity theory of relative diffusion. Examination of these
data indicates the existence of a time cubed spreading regime.
Values of the rate of eddy-energy dissipation are also inferred
from the smoke-puff data. APTIC #5701.
79- Gifford, F., Jr.
PEAK AVERAGE CONCENTRATION RATIOS ACCORDING TO A FLUCTUATING
PLUME DISPERSION MODEL. Intern. J. Air Pollution, 3(U):253-260,
I960.
Short period concentration levels an order of magnitude greater
than long period, average levels are frequently observed in the
vicinity of isolated effluent sources. The dependence of the
ratio peak to average concentration is established with the help
of a fluctuating plume model of atmospheric dispersion. It is
shown that this ratio approaches unity for large downwind dis-
tances (20 to 50 stack lengths) from an elevated source (stack).
For samples obtained at considerable lateral or vertical dis-
tances from a plume, for example on the ground near a tall
stack, the ratio may reach values of 50 to 100 or more. For
samples on the mean plume axis, the ratio can be expected to
be from 1 to about 5- These conclusions are in agreement with
data on observed peak to average ratios obtained from a number
of sources. APTIC #5700.
'"O. Gifford, F. A., Jr.
ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION CALCULATIONS USING THE GENERALIZED
GAUSSIAN PLUME MODEL. Nucl. Safety, 2(2)-.56-59, Dec. 1960.
Results of recent dispersion experiments have more and more
often been presented in terms of the simple Gaussian interpola-
tion formula. There is a practical need for a group of special
formulas based on the Gaussian interpolation formula. From a
review of previous literature, formulas are presented which
consider a volume-source, fumigation, crosswinds, long period
concentrations, maximum concentrations and their distances from
the source, cloud width, cloud height, deposition, washout,
and radioactive dosage. APTIC #5702.
81. Gifford, F. A., Jr., W. M. Culkowski and W. F. Hilsmeier
COMPUTATION OF ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION PARAMETERS AT REACTOR SITES
BY A SMOKE PLUME RATIO METHOD. Preprint. (Presented at the
International Conference on Radioactive Pollution of Gaseous
Media, Saclay, France, No. 1963.)
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Estimation of atmospheric dispersion is one of the principal
objectives of meteorological studies conducted at reactor
sites, and it is often the most difficult one to achieve. Ob-
servations of smoke plumes have frequently been used effectively
as a qualitative substitute for tracer experiments; these ob-
servations do give considerable insight into local diffusion
patterns at reactor sites. Formulae previously obtained, for
the determination of Sutton diffusion parameters from a simple
measurement of smoke plume length-width ratios, have been sum-
marized. Using these equations diffusion parameters at or near
four U. S. Nuclear reactor installations have been determined;
in each instance, the requisite plume length-width ratio in-
formation has been obtained from published photographs.
For several of the resulting estimates of diffusion parameters,
an independent estimate based on actual measured air concentra-
tion measurements is available. The "observed" diffusion para-
meter values (i.e. those inferred from air concentration meas-
urements) and the values predicted by the present method are
in reasonable agreement, although the ratio method values are
somewhat larger. The ratio method is distinguished by its sim-
plicity and extreme economy. On the theoretical side, it is
based on exactly the same diffusion models that are ordinarily
employed in more elaborate reactor site diffusion studies.
The suggestion is that it should prove to be a useful, prac-
tical method by which to determine diffusion parameters at
reactor sites, particularly sites, where either a large, perma-
nent meteorological office is not contemplated, or where the
expense of more elaborate atmospheric sampling studies of
diffusion does not seem to be warranted. APTIC 7/6553.
82. Gifford, F. A., Jr.
ATMOSPHERIC TURBULENCE AND DIFFUSION. (Special Lecture IV).
In: Proc. of gnd Southeastern Seminar on Thermal Sciences,
July 25-2o, 19uo, Oak Ridge, Term., Hoffman, H. U. and Vachon,
R. I. (eds.), pp. lVf-171, 1966.
The character and properties of the lower atnosphere are sum-
marized. The atmosphere is characterised by a very high
turbulence level; approximately 50^ turbulence levels are not
uncommon. The Reynolds number in the atmosphere is difficult to
specify; but if height above the ground is used as the length
parameter in Reynolds number, the atmosphere is characterized by
a very high Reynolds number. The assumption for theoretical
purposes is that flows are horizontally homogeneous in their
turbulence properties. The surface layer, or approximately
constant stress layer, extends to 10 to 100 meters above the
ground. It is characterized by values of friction velocity of
roughly 15$ or so of the mean wind at approximately 10 meters.
The roughness length can be from 10~3 cm to perhaps 10 cm.
Above the surface layer, the mean wind veers and increases,
turning toward higher pressure with increasing height and attain-
ing the free (i.e. nonturbulent) atmosphere value at elevations
normally about several thousand feet in the atmosphere. Atmos-
pheric turbulence is characterized by a quite large inertial sub-
range of eddy sizes; the dissipation scale is on the order of
millimeters; and the integral scale, that is the upper end of
this inertial range, must be at least 100 meters under most con-
ditions. Regarding the Peclet number, bulk thermal convection
53
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strongly dominates the molecular temperature conduction. Rich-
ardson's number, which is the ratio of turbulent energy production
by shear to consumption by buoyancy, is variable depending upon
the nature of the stability in the lower atmosphere. APTIC #9760.
83. Gifford, F. and R. Waterfield
SIMPLIFIED ATMOSPHERIC DIFFUSION CALCULATIONS WITH SLIDE-RULE
GAGE POINTS. In: Proc. of the USAEC Meteorological Information
Meeting held at Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories, Sept. 11-14,
1967.Mawson, A. (Ed.)
Gage points are given with the help of which the most commonly
required atmospheric diffusion calculations can be carried out
rapidly using a simple slide-rule setting; e.g. maximum ground
concentration, its distance, and the corresponding effective
stack height as functions of the prevailing type of meteorol-
ogical condition. APTIC #10052.
84. Gill, G. C., L. E. Olsson, J. Sela and M. Suda
ACCURACY OF WIND MEASUREMENTS ON TOWERS OR STACKS. Bull, Am.
Meteorol. Soc., 48(9):665-67!+, Sept. 1967.
Wind sensors mounted on towers and smokestacks do not always
indicate the true free-air flow. To determine the probable
errors in measurement of wind speed and direction around such
structures, quarter-scale models have been tested in a large wind
tunnel. Data on changes in wind speed and direction were obtained
by using smoke, very small wind vanes, and a scale model propeller
anemometer. Most emphasis has been placed on a relatively open
lattice-type tower, but a solid tower and a stack were also studied.
The analysis shows that in the wake of lattice-type towers dis-
turbance is moderate to severe, and that in the wake of solid
towers and stacks there is extreme turbulence, with reversal of
flow. Recommendations for locating wind sensors in the wind
field relative to the supporting structure are given for each of
the three structures studied. Guidelines are suggested regarding
probable errors in measurements of wind speed and direction around
different supporting structures, as outlined below. For an open
triangular tower with equal sides D, the wake is about 1-1/2D in
width for a distance downwind of at least 6D. Sensors mounted
2 D out from the corner of such a tower will usually measure speeds
within + or - 10° of that of the undisturbed flow for an arc of
about 330°. The disturbance by very dense towers and stacks is
much greater. Wind sensors mounted 3 diameters out from the face
of a stack will measure wind speeds within + or - 10$, and dir-
ections with + or - 10° of the undisturbed flow for an arc of
about 180°. APTIC -#7704.
85. Halitsky, J.
DIFFUSION OF VENTED GAS AROUND BUILDINGS. J. Air Pollution Control
Assoc., 12(2):74-80, 1962.
Some fundamental aspects of flow and diffusion around sharp-edged
buildings are described. The results of previous wind tunnel
tests are generalized into formulae which may be useful for a
rough approximation of concentrations produced by gas released
54
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from a flush vent. Details of the model tests are appended.
APTIC #4607-
86. Halitsky, J.
A METHOD FOR ESTIMATING CONCENTRATIONS IN TRANSVERSE JET PLUMES.
Intern. J. Air Water Pollution, 10(11-12):821-8^3, Dec. 1966.
Gas released from a chimney or a flush vent diffuses initially
in a transverse jet and then forms a simple plume as jet veloc-
ities decay to the ambient wind condition. A number of formulae
have been offered by calculating concentrations in the simple
plume region; these generally ignore initial diffusion or
compensate for its effect by assuming that the gas is released
from a virtual point source upvind of the stack. Experimentally
verified methods for calculating concentrations in the transverse
jet region and for estimating the location of the virtual source
have not appeared in the literature. In this paper the available
data on transverse jets have been assembled and fitted into a
simple mathematical diffusion model. The matching of the trans-
verse jet plume leads to a rational method for estimating the virtual
source location. Since all of the test data were obtained in
low-turbulence wind tunnels, the empirical expressions selected
to fit the data are not strictly applicable to jets in a natural
wind; therefore the model should be considered as a first approxi-
mation, to be modified as field data become available. Isothermal
conditions are assumed, but it is thought that the major change
to be expected for heated jets is in the curvature of the plume
centerline, a subject which is not treated in detail in this
presentation. The model provides for an extension of the plume
beyond the transverse jet region, either by the conventional
diffusion formulae if the characteristics of the wind stream
are known to be homogeneous as in an unobstructed flow over
level ground, or by the use of two experimental constants related
to the mean wind velocity and average turbulence in the plume
path for chaotic flow fields such as exist in building wakes.
Numerical values of these constants for a few configurations
are determined by applying the model to the test data. Sugges-
tions are determined by applying the model to the test data.
Suggestions are offered for the selection of appropriate constants
in calculating concentrations near buildings. APTIC #2857.
87. Haltisky, J., G. Magony and P. Halpern.
TURBULENCE DUE TO TOPOGRAPHIC EFFECTS. (Second Semi-Annual
(Final) Rept. Jan. 1, 1965 to June 30, 1965), New York Univ.,
University Heights, Bronx, N. Y. School of Engineering and
Science. (Geophysical Science Lab. Rept. No. TR 66-5), 1966.
The pirpose was to investigate air flow in the lee of a topo-
graphical obstruction by making wind tunnel measurements near a
model of a specific mountain ridge and comparing them with avail-
able full-scale measurements near the prototype ridge. Wind
tunnel tests were undertaken to explore Reynolds Number and back-
ground flow turbulence effects on the flow field in the lee of a
mountain ridge oriented normal to the air stream. Three types of
tunnel air streams were used. The results were compared among
themselves and with the results of full-scale pilot balloon
observations over the prototype of the model ridge, reported by
55
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Davlsson (1963). It was found that with a low turbulence back-
ground flow and Reynolds Number of about 10^ based on peak height
above valley floor the characteristics of the full scale field
below ridge line height were fairly well reproduced, both
qualitatively and quantitatively, despite different measurement
techniques. A Reynolds Number of about 10^ was found to exag-
gerate the influence of viscosity. The principal effect of high
background flow turbulence was to mask the extent of wake pene-
tration upward and effectively shrink the wake dimensions both
vertically and laterally. Periodic wake flow breakdowns in the
high turbulence condition were attributed to long-period oscilla-
tions in the tunnel air stream, and this suggested an explanation
for certain phenomena observed in full scale. APTIC #4-291.
88. Halitsky, J.
COMMENT ON WIND TUNNEL SIMULATION OF LARGE-SCALE HORIZONTAL WIND
OSCILLATIONS. Atmospheric Environ., 1: (5) 607-608, 1967.
The difficulties encountered in studying the long-period hori-
zontal fluctuations of the wind on diffusion near a building by
use of a proposed model in a wind tunnel are discussed. The
simulation could be accomplished by using a steady wind and
oscillating a model of the building on a turntable according to
a magnetic tape record of an atmospheric wind. This technique
would introduce spurious velocities which would affect the dif-
fusion pattern near the building. The extent of the distortion
has not been determined. The spurious velocities arise from
the tangential velocity points located a distance from the center
of rotation of the turntable. When combined with the uniform
tunnel airstream velocity, the tangential velocities produce a
varying resultant local velocity, relative to the model. There
is no counterpart to this effect in the full-scale condition.
Experiments have demonstrated the sensitivity of diffusion
patterns near buildings to orientation to the mean wind there-
fore, there is reason to suspect that the varying relative ori-
entation produced by turntable angular velocity may prove signif-
icant. Diffusion experiments on chimney jets in a tunnel
airstream that is oscillated by means of vanes at a design
frequency of about 0.3 c/s, with provision for reducing the
frequency still further are being conducted. The intention here
is to study the behavior of the jet in a turbulent tunnel wind
whose dominant frequency corresponds to that found at chimney
height in a full-scale atmosphere. Measurements taken with a
non-turbulent wind in the manner described previously are to be
integrated for comparison with measurements in the turbulent
wind. APTIC
Hamilton, P. M.
PLUME HEIGHT MEASUREMENTS AT TWO POWER STATIONS. Atmospheric
379.37, ju^y 1967.
The Northfleet plume was studied by means of a lidar technique.
The lidar was located 2.7 km from the stack on a bearing of 067.
Most of the measurements were made with the plume blowing from
between 200 and 2^0. The lidar was aimed in such a direction
that it intercepted the plume at the desired distance from the
source. The plume was then scanned at a series of up to 11 angles
56
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of elevation. Since the lidar could only be fired at intervals
of about 15 sec, a complete scan required up to 3 min. When the
scan had been completed, the positions of the lidar echoes were
plotted on a vertical section. It was then usually possible to
identify the Northfleet plume and draw its envelope. From this •
measurements of the mean height of the plume and its vertical and
horizontal dimensions were made. The principal factor affecting
plume rise is wind speed. All the measurements were made at a
distance betwen 1200 and 2500m from the source with most of them
near iSOOra. They were made in a variety of meteorological con-
ditions, mostly in April and May 1966. APTIC #1932.
90. Hauser, W.
SMOKE-DISPERSING STACK TOPS, LATTICE STACKS AND INJECTOR STACKS
FROM A THEORETICAL POINT OP VIEW. Turbulenzaufsatze, Gitters-
chornsteine in Theoretischer Sicht. Angew, Meteorol. (Berlin)
5>: (Special Issue) 20-7 Ger. 1965-
Assuming the applicability of the Sutton diffusion formula and
using the Stumke plume rise formula, an estimation is made of a
practicable decrease of emission of gaseous air pollution obtain-
able by various methods such as smoke-dispersing stack tops,
lattice-type stacks with air ports, and injector stacks. None of
the methods is completely satisfactory; smoke-dispersing stack
tops cause a decrease of gaseous air pollution emission only in
the immediate vicinity of the stack; lattice-stacks cause a rise
in the air pollution in the regions of maximum emission and in-
jector stacks are successful only with cold smoke. APTIC $0409-
91. Hebley, H. F.
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION CAUSED BY THE DIFFUSION OF WASTE INDUSTRIAL
GASES. Proc. Nat'l. Air Pollution Symp., 1st., Pasadena, Calif.,
pp. 97-102,
The various influences that control the natural dissipation of
airborne industrial wastes are considered. Geographic location
and topography play a major role in the fate of airborne pollu-
tants, and these factors are highlighted in a table showing
areas of the U. S. having pollution problems, along with the
dominant industry in each area. Examples of the combined ef-
fects of topography and meteorology are given for the Pittsburgh
area. Also discussed are the physical location of stacks and
their height in relation to pollution. APTIC 5^978.
92. Hewson, E. W. and L. E. Olsson
LAKE EFFECTS ON AIR POLLUTION DISPERSION. J. Mr Pollution
Control Assoc., 17(11): 757-761, Nov. 1967.
Local wind regimes induced by a lake or a shoreline may have
a major influence on air pollution dispersion. Pressure dif-
ferences due to differential heating of the air, e.g., that
due to differences in surface characteristics, are the driving
forces of lake and land breeze circulations and slope and valley
winds. Differences in roughness between land and lake surfaces
will cause wind shear and aerodynamic downwash effects at a
shoreline. Stability changes in the air result from differences
57
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in surface temperature and roughness between land, and lake, e.g.,
when warm unstable air moves out over a cool lake a temperature
inversion will develop near the surface giving very poor disper-
sion conditions in this lower layer. Pollution released in
this stable layer may be carried in high concentrations for
many miles and cause severe damage as the air moves across a
downwind shoreline and advances inland. The information pre-
sented is designed to permit an assessment of the probable
complexity of the dispersion patterns near a shoreline so that
possible requirements for additional meteorological and dispersion
information may be determined. Brief descriptions of two actual
lakeside sites, one on Lake Erie and the other on Lake Michigan,
are given and their relevant characteristics are presented.
Natural ventilation was above average at both sites. APTIC #7872.
93. High, D. and W. H. Megonnell
DEVELOPMENT OF REGULATIONS FOR SULFUR OXIDE EMISSIONS. Preprint,
Public Health Service, Wash., D. C., NCAPC. 1968.
On the basis of Executive Order No. 11282, which requires that all
Federal agencies take steps to prevent and control air pollution
from their installations, a study of the regulation of sulfur
oxide emissions from Federal facilities is reported. Community
air quality goals, current pollution concentrations and pollution
sources, reduction necessary to meet air quality goals, consider-
ations of stack heights, suggestions for resolving the sulfur
oxides problem from Federal facilities and conclusions and recom-
mendations are discussed. APTIC #10146.
94. Hilst, G. R. and N. E. Bowne
A STUDY OF THE DIFFUSION OF AEROSOLS RELEASED FROM AERIAL LINE
SOURCES UPWIND OF AN URBAN COMPLEX. Final Report. Travelers
Research Center, Inc., Hartford, Conn. Vol. 1, July, 229 pp.
1966.
The data obtained during 70 separate experimental measurements
at Fort Wayne, Indiana are tabulated. Included are: Surface
Rotorod Dosage Printout; Ten-station Means and Standard Devia-
tions; Filter Sampler Surface Dosages; Vertical Array Rotorod
Dosages; Climet Direction, Speed, and Turbulence Intensity;
Surface Vector Vane Data; Tower Vector Vane Data; Vertical
Velocity Spectra; Pilot Balloon Observations; Surface Tempera-
ture Data; Tower Temperature Data; Radiosonde and Wiresonde
Data; Tracer Arrival Times; and Airways Observations. APTIC
#7983-
95. Hoult, D. P., J. A. Fay, and L. J. Forney
A THEORY OF PLUME RISE COMPARED WITH FIELD OBSERVATIONS. Pre-
print. (Presented at the 6lst Annual Meeting, Air Pollution
Control Assoc., St. Paul, Minn., June 23-27, 1968.)
A theory for the rise of a plume in a horizontal wind is proposed
in which it is assumed that, for some distance downwind of a high
stack, the effects of atmospheric turbulence may be ignored in
comparison with the effects of turbulence generated by the plume.
The theory, an extension of the local similarity ideas used by
58
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Morton, Taylor and Turner, has two empirical parameters which
measure the rate surrounding fluid is entrained into the plume.
Laboratory measurements of buoyant plume motion in laminar
unstratified cross flow are used to evaluate the empirical
parameters. Using this determination of the parameters in the
theory, the trajectories of atmospheric plumes may be predicted.
To make such a prediction, the observed wind velocity and tempera-
ture as functions of altitude, and flow conditions at the stack
orifice, are used in numerically integrating the equations.
The resulting trajectories are compared with photographs of plumes
from 500 to 600 ft. high stacks made by Leavitt et al of TVA.
Within 10 stack heights downwind of the stack, the root mean
square discrepancy between the observed height of the trajectory
above ground level and the theoretical value is 14$, which is
about the uncertainty in the observed height. The maximum plume
rise within the field of observation is compared with empirical
effective stack height formulae and with the present theory, and
is found to be closer to the latter.
9o. Islitzer, N. F.
SHORT-RANGE ATMOSPHERIC-DISPERSION MEASUREMENTS FROM AN ELEVATED
SOURCE. J. Meteorol., 18(4): 443-450, Aug. 1961.
Dispersion measurements of a tracer, uranine dye in solution, were
made out to two miles from the release point in unstable atmospheres.
The tracer was released from the top of a 150-ft tower and sampled
at ground level by 100 high volume air samplers. Some sixteen re-
leases for 30-min periods were analyzed. Techniques of dispersal,
collection and analysis of the tracer are included. Meteorological
measurements during the tests included vertical- and horizontal-
wind-direction variances predicted from a meteorological model
using wind-direction variances as dispersion parameters. Predic-
tion equations are also empirically developed for computing the
distance to maximum ground-level air concentration and for lateral
particle variance to two miles. The measured vertical inhomogeneity
of turbulence does not prevent a fair agreement between predicted
and measured surface air concentrations when only source-height
wind data are used. Since the dispersion parameters were deter-
mined at the time of the diffusion experiments, the observed and
computed results are not independent. Independent test data were
not available for a more rigorous check of the method. APTIC
#5716.
97. Islitzer, N. F. and R. K. Dumbauld
ATMOSPHERIC DIFFUSION - DEPOSITION STUDIES OVER FLAT TERRAIN.
Intern. J. Air Water Pollution, J_: 999-1022, 1963.
Extensive measurements of particle dispersion from a ground-
level source to 3-2 km were carried out covering a wide range
of atmospheric stabilities. Uranine dye was released for 60-
min periods over a grid 60° wide with sampling arcs operated out
to 3200 m downwind. An additional series of tracer releases
were conducted with sampling near the ground to 800 m downwind
and in the vertical direction on 30-m towers located 200 or 400
m downwind. Measurements of the vertical temperature gradient,
wind velocities and gustiness were made near the tracer-release
59
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point. The horizontal particle dispersion was found to be well
predicted in unstable atmospheres by the standard deviation of the
horizontal wind direction after averaging the wind direction
record by a time dependent upon the travel time from the source
to the particular sampling arc. Vertical dispersion, as computed
from ground-level air concentration and the equation of continuity,
was not in good agreement with predictions from time-average
vertical wind direction record. The vertical dispersion determined
from the air concentration measurements on the towers at one dis-
tance was found to be in reasonable agreement with vertical gusti-
ness data. Up to a 50 per cent loss of tracer due to deposition
in a distance of 400 m was measured. Air concentrations measured
in unstable atmospheres were in good agreement with values pre-
dicted from a model employing horizontal and vertical gustiness
and a deposition velocity to account for the removal of tracer
from the air to the ground. The agreement between predicted and
measured values was less satisfactory for inversion cases.
APTIC #5715.
98. Katz, E. J.
ATMOSPHERIC DIFFUSION OF SETTLING PARTICLES WITH SLUGGISH
RESPONSE. J. Atmospheric Sci., 23: 159-166, Mar. 1966.
A study is presented of the settling of heavy particles in a
turbulent medium and quantitatively applied to the lower atmos-
phere. The response time of settling particles to changes in
the velocity of their surroundings is estimated for a wide range
of particle sizes and this time is then compared to the period
during which such changes may be expected to occur during sett-
ling. The reduction in diffusion due to insufficient response
time is predicted. If the time cf fallout is sufficiently large
compared to the particle's response time, no significant reduc-
tion is effected, as had been previously suggested. An attempt
is included to numerically predict the diffusion of settling
particles. APTIC #1239-
99- Khorguani, V. G.
THE CHARACTER AND SETTLING VELOCITY FOR A SYSTEM OF EQUAL-SIZED
PARTICLES. Atmospheric and Oceanic Physics, 2(k): 234-238, Apr.
1966.
Investigation of the patterns of motion of particle system is
of interest in relation to the formation of precipitation and the
spread and rate of settling of various industrial aerosols, etc.
An experimental study was made of the character and rate of fall
of particles of equal size in an isolated hydrodynamic system.
It was shown that the settling velocity at which a system of
equal sized particles moves under the influence of gravity is
higher than that of an isolated particle. The velocity at which
a particle system moves is inversely proportional to the Reynolds
numbers. If the initial distance between the particles is more
than 30-53 diameters there will be no increase in velocity of the
system. APTIC #2114.
60
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100. Kuhme, H.
INVESTIGATIONS ON 302 DIFFUSION IN THE VICINITY OF A POINT SOURCE.
STAUB (English Transl.), 26(3): 29~32, Mar. 1966.
Measurements carried out in the region of an isolated chimney have
shown that, as has been frequently assumed, essentially higher
diffusion coefficients must be introduced in the distribution
formula to obtain sufficiently accurate description of the waste
gas distribution. APTIC #2692.
101. Laikhtman (Leichtmann), D. L., F. A. Gieina, and N. I. Kramer
TAKING THE SPECIAL FEATURES OF ATMOSPHERIC TURBULENCE INTO
ACCOUNT WHEN CALCULATING THE POWER AND HEIGHT OF SMOKESTACKS
OF INDUSTRIAL PLANTS. Atmospheric and Oceanic Physics (English
Transl.), 1(11): 705-707, Nov. 196^Russ. (Tr.)
The calculation of the permissible smokestack height H should
be based on an assessment of the probability of the realization
of various meteorological situations. Maximum ground concen-
tration (gm) for fixed external conditions is calculated accord-
ing to well known formulas (taking small-scale turbulence into
account), while the repeatability of various values of q^ is
found on the basis of statistical data concerning a. set of values of
meteorological conditions (taking large vortices into account).
The parameters of the plant being designed should be chosen in
such a way that the maximum ground concentration in the direction
of greatest repeatability of the wind will, with a certain prob-
ability, not exceed the maximum permissible. A mathematical
solution to this problem is the main purpose of this article.
An equation is derived which for a given probability that the
maximum concentration will not exceed the maximum permissible,
any of the desired parameters of the smokestacks of an indus-
trial plant can be determined. APTIC #5730.
102. Lucas, D. H., D. J. Moore, and G. Spurr,
TJHE RISE OF HOT PLUMES FROM CHIMNEYS. Intern. J. Air Water
Pollution. 7:^73-500, 1963.
Measurements of plume rise at two Central Electricity Generating
Board power stations have led to the formula alpha(JL/l)-/U where
alpha is k^QO for one station and 6200 for the other. (U = wind
speed in ft/sec; Q = heat emission in Mtf ^max = plume rise in ft.)
A number of other publications of measured results have been
considered and shown to be in reasonable agreement with the formu-
la, provided a correction is applied for the distance at which
maximum plume height is measured. The results do not agree with
any previously published theoretical formula, but the theory of
Priestley has been considered and is shown to be capable of
reconciliation with the measured results. It is shown that
measured results of plume rise can be reconciled with measured
results of ground-level concentration, provided there is a proper
discussion of the relationship between short-term and long-term
measurements. Further study is needed to establish the reasons
for the variations in the experimental values of alpha. APTIC
#3557-
61
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103- Lucas, D. H., K. W. James, and I. Davies
THE MEASUREMENT OF PLUME RISE AND DISPERSION AT TILBURY POWER
STATION. Atmospheric Environment, 1(4):353-365, July 1967.
A description is given of the system of instrumentation which
has been installed at Tirbury Power Station to record continu-
ously: (a) surface sulphur dioxide concentration at distances
from 1 km to 13 km downwind of a 360 MW power station with two
100m stacks; (b) the rise of the plume; (c) lapse rate, humidity,
turbulence, wind speed and wind direction up to 187 m above ground
level. The paper is intended as a common introduction to a number
of papers which will present the experimental results. APTIC
#1684.
104. Lucas, D. H. and W. L. Snowsill
SOME DEVELOPMENTS IN DUST POLLUTION MEASUREMENT. Atmospheric
Environment, 1(6):619-636, Nov. 1967.
Instruments for the continuous measurement of dust emitted from
industrial chimneys are reviewed. These include: l) Optical
density type instruments; 2) light scattering instruments; 3)
AEI dust sampling instrument; 4) the konitest; 5) the standard
CERL flue dust monitor; and 6) the simplified CERL flue dust
monitor. The first four instruments are more sensitive to fine
dust and the latter two more sensitive to coarse dust. The
measurement of dust emission is considered in relation to public
complaint. At least two measurements are required — ideally these
should be dust amount and dust grading. No viable instruments
exist to measure dust amount or dust grading continuously, and
in practice it is best to use an instrument to. record the optical
density of the flue gas and a C.E.R.L. dust monitor. These
monitor directly the two main causes of complaint. They also
give warning of certain forms of inefficiency in combustion.
In addition the comparison of their readings is a useful indi-
cation of dust coarseness. APTIC
105. Mahler, E. A. J.
STANDARDS OF EMISSION UNDER THE ALKALI ACT. Proc. (Part I)
Intern. Clean Air Cong., London, 1966, pp. 73-7^-
The evolution of standards of emission under the Alkali Act
over the past 100 years is briefly reviewed. The necessity
for considering heights of discharge of pollutants as well as
their concentration in the emissions and mass rates of discharge
to atmosphere is stressed. It is also indicated that standards
should be simply and clearly expressed in such a manner that their
due observance can readily be checked by short and simple tests.
An outline is given of the principles adopted in arriving at the
current standards and these, both in regard to concentrations
in emissions and heights of discharge, are listed. The author
expresses the personal view that present tendencies in ever
increasing size of production units and complexity of operations
on one site must inevitably lead to necessity in the future further
to reduce emissions. Because of the cost of such a step he sug-
gests that setting up and adoption of international standards is
a desirable end. APTIC #2010.
62
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106. Martin, A. E.
REPORT ON CHIMNEY EMISSIONS (FIDDLER'S FERRY POWER STATION).
Central Electricity Generating Board, England, June 1966, 19p.
Prevailing levels of atmospheric pollution in St. Helens, Warring -
ton and Widnes are high and the available evidence indicates
that the incidence and mortality from bronchitis is also high.
Atmospheric pollution is known to be an important contributing
factor influencing both the number of cases and of deaths from
this disease. Any proposal which might contribute towards an
increased level of air pollution in the district must therefore
be examined with great care. From the height at which the fumes
from the proposed power station would be discharged and from
the known behaviour of chimney emissions under varying weather
conditions, the evidence indicates that the power station would
make but a tiny contribution to the prevailing ground level
concentration of sulphur dioxide. Moreover, the sulphur dioxide
pollution from the power station would be of a transient nature
and would only affect the surrounding area at a time when the
natural ventilation is good and ground pollution from local
sources is low. At times when owing to climatic conditions
pollution from local sources is high fumes from the power sta-
tion would not descend to ground level within this area. APTIC
#01H6.
107. Martin, A. and F. R. Barber
SULPHUR DIOXIDE CONCENTRATIONS MEASURED AT VARIOUS DISTANCES FROM
A MODERN POWER STATION. Atmospheric Environ., 1(6):655-677, Nov.
1967.
Data are presented on ground-level concentrations of sulphur
dioxide measured at various distances from High Marnham Power
Station during the period October 19^5 to September 1966. The
measurements include pollution from background sources around the
area, as well as from the Power Station, and the results are
compared with those of previous years. As before, most of the
pollution arrived from the west during fumigations, probably from
distant urban sources. The pollution in the area has decreased
steadily since 19^3? especially in stable conditions in winter,
but this decrease is due, in part, to the decrease in the fre-
quency of persistent fog situations over the same period. Short-
term pollution from High Marnham alone was occasionally detected
at sites between 1/2 and 17 mi (0.8 to 28 km) from the source.
The details given extend those published previously. Information
is given on concentrations recorded near the source in the summer,
and on possible additive effects of power station contributions.
APTIC #8858.
108. Martin, J. E.
THE CORRELATION OF WIND TUNNEL AND FIELD MEASUREMENTS OF GAS
DIFFUSION USING KRYPTON-85 AS A TRACER (A DOCTOR'S THESIS).
(For the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Michigan Univ.) 1965,
l4lp
In order to determine the reliability of wind tunnel tests in
predicting diffusion at a site where theoretical models are
inapplicable, namely at the Ford Nuclear Reactor at the University
63
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of Michigan, diffusion was measured to realize the following
objectives: (l) to determine in the field the degree of dilu-
tion between the stack and various ground-level locations using
a radioactive tracer for various combinations of wind speed, wind
direction, and atmospheric stability; (2) to repeat dilution
determinations with a scale model of the site in a wind tunnel
with atmospheric stability restricted to the neutral conditions
of the tunnel airj (3) to correlate the two sets of data to
determine the reliability of wind tunnel tests in predicting
full-scale diffusion at the site; and (14-) to compare the
wind tunnel prediction with theoretical predictions for the
site to show the relative value of each. Wind tunnel measure-
ments of concentrations correlated directly, within experi-
mental error, with average field concentrations in the cavity
of the reactor building that released gases from short stacks.
Outside the cavity, wind tunnel measurements of concentrations
correlated directly, within experimental error, with peak
concentrations observed in the field. The correlation of
field data and wJLnd tunnel data were independent of atmospheric
stability conditions because of the dominance of aerodynamic
influences on the plumes. Wind tunnel measurements which
predicted peak values could be used to determine average
concentrations by considering peak-to-mean ratios of concen-
tration as a function of the horizontal gustiness. Wind
tunnel measurements gave a better estimate of diffusion for the
site, which had uneven terrain and buildings near the source,
than the Button model. Field confirmations of the wind tunnel
data showed that the modeling and scaling criteria used were
representative of the full-scale phenomena. Krypton-85 is a
versatile tracer for field studies and wind tunnel studies
of the dilution of stack gases. APTIC #^353.
109. Meyer, Erich
RELATION OF AIR POLLUTION TO LOCAL GROUND LEVEL SOg CONCENTRATION.
A_SUGGESTION FOR AN IMPROVED CALCULATION OF POLLUTANT DISTRIBUTION.
/Zusammenhang zwischen Immission und Grundbelastung der Atmosphere.
Bin Vorschlag zu einem verbesserten Verfahren der Ausbreitung-
srechnung._7 Text in German. Brennstof f -Waerme -Kraft (Dusseldorf ),
, Sept. 1967.
Present calculations of minimal stack heights for the prevention
of excessive SOg ground level concentrations based on emissions
in a single smoke plume, are shown to be inadequate. A new
method of calculation is presented, using an increased radius
(5km.) of distance from the stack, and utilizing the concepts
of wind velocity frequency and wind direction frequency. The
advantages and limitations of the method are discussed.
APTIC #8593.
110. Montgomery, T. L. and M. Corn.
ADHERENCE OF SULFUR DIOXIDE CONCENTRATIONS IN THE VICINITY OF A
STEAM PLANT TO PLUME DISPERSION MODELS. J. Mr Pollution Control
Assoc., 17(8): 512-517, Aug. 1967.
Air monitoring data for a calendar year at one of the TVA power
plants has been used to evaluate the appropriateness of the Sutton,
the Bosanquet and Pearson, and the USPHS-TVA atmospheric dispersion
models to predict ground level concentrations of sulfur dioxide
64
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from emission and meteorological data. Aerometric data included
one half hourly average sulfur dioxide concentrations, recorded by
four Thomas autometers, and the necessary meteorological parameters
for the solving of atmospheric dispersion models. Based on these
meteorological parameters and observed plume rise data, over
four thousand one half hourly average maximum and minimum expected
ground line sulfur dioxide concentrations were predicted for each
of the above dispersion models by the use of computer techniques.
The plant is a line source; however, an empirical correction was
applied to emission data to reduce them to emissions for an equiv-
lent point source. The predicted sulfur dixoide levels for each
of the dispersion models were compared to the measured levels
throughout the year. Three different sets of diffusion coef-
ficients were applied to the Sutton model and successful predic-
tions, according to a criterion utilizing an acceptable range of
concentrations, varied from 66 to 93%- The Bosanquet and Pearson
model produced successful predictions $0% of the time, while the
USPHS-TVA model was successful $k% of the time. Unsuccessful
predictions were primarily overestimates. APTIC $6kl.k.
111. Moore, D. J.
METEOROLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS IN THE FIRST 600 FEET OF THE ATMOSPHERIC
Central Electricity Research Labs., Leatherhead, England, 21p.
(Presented at the Symposium on Chimney Plume Rise and Dispersion,
Oct. 7, 1966.)
The plume measurements indicate that the medium scale turbulence at
187 m is mainly convective in origin, with the inference that in the
absence of convection mechanical turbulence is largely suppressed at
this level. The presence of a stable layer above a turbulence layer
causes a marked decrease in turbulence with height. It is shown that
care must be taken when temperature increases are observed over short
height intervals (approximately 30 m) that these are not classified
as stable layers when in fact they are due to organized convective
currents affecting some levels on the tower. APTIC #1931.
112. Moore, D. J.
PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF PLUME MODELS. Intern. J. Air Water Pollution.
10:411-417, July 1966.
Visual observations of smoke plumes indicate that when the air at
the stack top is turbulent the plume consists of a series of more
or less separate puffs rather than a continuous cone of smoke.
Such plumes will have a finite height of rise in a neutral
atmosphere and so no artificial mathematical assumptions are
required to produce a bounded plume height. Consideration of
the magnitude of the various parameters likely to affect the
final height indicates that the initial size and subsequent
behaviour of the puffs is at least as important as the other
variables (rate of heat emission, intensity of turbulence, ef-
flux velocity and lapse rate) which are considered in earlier
theoretical treatments. APTIC #1511.
113. Moore, D. J.
METEOROLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS ON A 187 METRE TOWER. Atmospheric
Environ., l(4):367-377, July 1967.
65
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Measurements of temperature, humidity, turbulence, wind speed
and direction on a 187 m high tower are described. The measure-
ments indicate that the significant medium scale turbulence at
187 m is mainly convective in origin. In a stable layer above
a turbulent layer, there is a rapid decrease in turbulence with
height. Care must be taken when temperature increases are
observed over short height intervals (approximately 30M) that
these are not classified as stable layers when in fact they are
due to organized convective currents affecting some levels on
the tower. APTIC #3251.
114. Moore, D. J.
VARIATION OF TURBULENCE WITH HEIGHT. Atmospheric Environ.,
1(10:521-522, 1967.
Values of intensity of turbulence sampled over 1 hr. and
averaged over 30 sec. according to Pasquill (1967) are
compared with the values given by Moore (1967) for 38 m,
114 m and 187 m on occasions when the Tilbury Power Station plume
was reaching the ground. Some data are given by Munn (1965)
for 25 m and a sampling period of 500 sec. Measurements at
the different heights are compared in a table. The measure-
ments indicate that in the absence of a stable layer
below the measuring point, the low frequency vertical turbu-
lence intensities tend to vary inversely as the wind speed at
heights from 100 m upwards in winds below 10 msec -1. In strong
winds (greater than 10 msec"1), the turbulence decreases mono-
tonically with height and at 300 m and above root mean square
vertical velocities are lower than they are in light winds while
below 150 m they are higher in strong winds. This would seem to
indicate that convective turbulence predominates at all wind
speeds above 150 m, but strong winds tend to reduce the penetra-
tion of convective turbulence to layers at and above 300 m, if
the small number of strong wind data at these heights are repre-
sentative of the turbulence in these conditions. APTIC $8550.
115. Moore, D. J. and P. M. Hamilton
SOME APPLICATIONS OF LASERS IN ATMOSPHERIC STUDIES. Atmospheric
Environ., 1(3):341-344, May 1967.
The interests described by the representatives of eleven groups
(ten in the United Kingdom) are are using, or proposing to use,
lasers to study the atmosphere are briefly summarized. These
representatives are: R. T. H. Collis (Stanford Research Insti-
tute); L. G. Bird (Meteorological Office); C. Spraggs (R.A.E.,
Aberporth); M. C. W. Sandford (Radio and Space Research Station,
Slough); K. Marsh (British Petroleum): D. E. KLllick (Radio Dept.,
R.A.E.., F&rnborough); S. R. Craxford (Warren Spring Laboratory);
W. R. Lane (C.D.E.E., Porton); P. M. Hamilton (Central Electric-
ity Research Laboratories, Leatherhead); P. J. Bateman (Ministry
of Aviation, R.A.E., Farriborough); and C. A. Small (Trinity
House). APTIC #7^7-
116. Moses, H. and G. H. Strom.
A COMPARISON OF OBSERVED PLUME RISES WITH VALUES OBTAIHED FROM
WELL-KNOWN FORMULAS. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 11(10):
455-^66, Oct. 1961.
66
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The height to which a stack effluent will rise in the atmosphere
is of importance in calculating the resulting concentrations at
ground level. There are at least eight theoretical or empirical
formulas one may use, but these yields results which may differ
by as much as an order of magnitude. A comparison of the predic-
tions of six such formulas with data obtained with an experimental
stack operated by the Meteorology Group at the Argonne National
Laboratory was presented. The formulas tested are those of:
(l) Holland, (2) Davidson and Bryant, (3) Sutton, (4) Scorer,
(5) Bosanquet, Carey, and Halton, and (6) an additional one by
Bosanquet. There is no one formula which is outstanding in all
respects, but a suitable formula for calculating the height of
plume rise may be selected. The nature of the problem would
influence the selection of the formula. APTIC #5618.
11?- Moses, H., G. H. Strom, and J. E. Carson
STACK PLUME RISE DETERMINATIONS AS AFFECTED BY METEOROLOGICAL AND
ENGINEERING FACTORS. In: Radiological Physics Division Annual Re-
port - July 1963 through June 1964". Argonne National Lab., Illinois,
1964, pp. 209-Shi.(Rept. No. ANL-6938)
The Davidson-Bryant, Holland, and Bosanquet formulas for the calcu-
lation of plume rise are discussed in detail and then used to deter-
mine the plume rise from the Argonne Experimental Meteorology Stacks.
Data were previously obtained at the stack site by means of photo-
grammetric techniques. The calculated results are compared to the
observed plume rise heights. Holland's formula with a correction
factor of about 3 for large stacks and 2 for snail stacks appears
to be best. The effect of stability on the plume rise can be ac-
counted for by adding 10 to 20% of the computed value for lapse
conditions and subtracting the same amount for inversions. Irregular
terrain, surrounding buildings, rain, ^7ind gusts, and shape of stack
can produce wide deviations in the calculated height. APTIC #6472.
118. Moses, H., G. H. Strom, and J. E. Carson
EFFECTS OF METEOROLOGICAL AND ENGINEERING FACTORS ON STACK PLUME
RISE. Nucl. Safety, 6(l):l-19, 1964.
Field measurements of plume rise are extremely difficult to make.
In spite of the lack of adequate measurements and satisfactory
theory, practical problems arise that require decisions concerning
the selection of a minimum stack height so that threshold values
of atmospheric contaminants are not exceeded. Two of the most
widely used empirical formulas, those of Davidson-Bryant and of
Holland, and the semitheoretical formula of Bosanquet, are discussed
in detail. The latter has been selected for study because it pre-
sumably represents an improvement over the widely used formula of
Bosanquet, Carey, and Halton. A critical examination of the three
formulas indicates that none is as good as might be hoped. Terrain
effects, such as nearby buildings, hills, valleys, and forested
areas, must be taken into account. In most cases this can only be
done by wind-tunnel tests. Further, meteorological conditions may
materially affect plume rise. No one formula can or should be ex-
pected to provide acceptable results under all conditions. APTIC
#9413-
67
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119- Moses, H. and J. E. Carson
STACK DESIGN PARAMETERS INFLUENCING PLUME RI32. In: Radiological
Physics Division Annual Report. (July 1^66 through June 1967").
Argonne National Lab., Argonne, 111., p. 169-173* 1967- Kept.
No. ANL-7360.
A regression study relating plume rise with stack and meteorological
variables was made using a fairly comprehensive set of data. Ten
stacks were used, with plume rises and heat emission rates ranging
over about three and four orders of magnitude respectively. A total
of 710 individual observations were used. Two sets of measurements
from the Argonne Meteorology Stack, three from industrial stacks
in England, two stacks from Germany, and three stacks of the TVA
complex were the source of data. There was appreciable nonunlformity
among the data from the ten stacks. From the standpoint of goodness
of fit and ease of computation, a plume rise equation is suggested.
APTIC
120. Munn, R. E. and A. F. W. Cole
TURBULENCE AND DIFFUSION IN THE WAKE OF A BUILDING. Atmospheric
Environ., 1(1):33-^3, 1967. (Presented at the 58th Annual Meeting,
Air Pollution Control Association, Toronto, Canada, June 2O-2k,
19650
The effect on a smoke plume of atmospheric turbulence in the lee of
a building was examined by using a fluorescent dye as tracer. The
plume centreline for each of a number of trials was established
from measurements of a series of ground-level samples taken for
that trial. Dilution rates were related to meteorological factors
such as the mean wind and the turbulence (measured by bidirectional
vanes) in advance and to the rear of the building. Finally, several
formulae were tested for calculating the diffusion in the wake of
an obstacle. APTIC #0732.
121. Plato, P. A., D. F. Menker, and M. Dauer
COMPUTER MODEL FOR THE PREDICTION OF THE DISPERSION OF AIRBORNE
RADIOACTIVE POLLUTAHTS. Health Fhys., 13_( 10): 1105-1115, Oct. 1967.
Presented are two computer programs written for an IBM 1^01/7040
digital computer in a FORTRAN IV computer language. The programs
are called RADS and ARABS, acronyms for Radiological Atmospheric
Dispersion Study and Alternate RADS, respectively. Both programs
are designed to investigate the use of various equations formu-
lated to predict the dispersion of radioactive effluents deposited
into the atmosphere from a smoke-stack. The release of the efflu-
ents may be of either an instantaneous or continuous nature. Pre-
dictions of atmospheric concentrations are made for approximately
600 points throughout an observation area surround the smoke source,
allowing contour lines of equal concentrations to be drawn. The
RADS program was designed for one particular effluent release. The
program predicts the path of the smoke from the source to one of
the boundaries of the observation area. Predictions are then made
concerning the dispersion of the smoke. The ARADS program uses
average meteorological conditions to predict the air concentrations
resulting from long-term releases of a smokestack effluent. The
output data for both programs contain a scaled map of the observa-
tion area showing the location of the predicted concentrations in
68
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order to simplify the drawing of the contour lines. While the
authenticity of the prediction equations is not certain, a defin-
ite relationship between relative air concentrations with respect
to the location of the source was established. The programs per-
mit fast, accurate, and voluminous solutions to the complex
equations, and provide a tool to examine the prediction equations
themselves. APTIC #6539-
122. Santomauro, L.
(THE CURRENT STATE OF MATHEMATICAL MODELS FOR SINGLE ELEVATED
SOURCES.) STATE ATTUALE DEI MODELLI M#EŁMATICI DELLE SORGENTI
ELEVATE UNICHE. Fumi Polveri (Milan), 1(7):3-6, Jan. 1967.
A number of mathematical models can be applied to calculating the
concentration of pollutants. In the dynamic model, the concen-
tration of the effluents can be determined if the installation
capacity and the parameters of dispersion are known. In the
statistical model, the concentration of the pollutants derived
from one or more sources is calculated. The most important
mathematical model for pollution deals with the basic problem
of diffusion in the lower atmospheric strata as a function of the
special position of the source of pollution. The complete dif-
fusion cycle of the effluents can be separated into three stages
(according to Fuguay): 1) aerodynamic - dealing with the effects
of turbulent, mechanical, and thermal motions on buildings and
chimneys, including the geometry of the structure and the direc-
tion of the wind velocity; 2) the thrust effect, where velocity,
density, and volume of emissions are involved (also wind velocity,
vertical air density, atmospheric turbulence, and air shear); and
3) the dispersion of meteorological dilution, that is, the dis-
persion of meteorological diultion, that is, the dispersion of
the contaminants by means of natural atmospheric turbulence. The
author suggests that if diffusion is considered, then the best
method of calculating coefficients is by the method of succes-
sive approximation. APTIC 5^58.
123. Scorer, R. s«
THE BEHAVIOUR OF CHIMNEY PLUMES. Intern. J. Air Pollution, 1:
198-220, 1959.
The formulae available for computing the pollution due to an
isolated chimney are too complicated to be of any practical use.
The weather conditions in which they are correct are not usually
the most important that can occur. Therefore, some simpler formulae
are proposed: but these have to be used with discretion and with an
understanding of the complexities of the actual weather.
The rise due to efflux momentum and buoyancy is calculated using
simple formulae derived by dimensional analysis and simple experi-
mental constants. The plume is assumed to be bent over when the
upward velocity is about equal to the wind speed and the rise is
assumed to be complete when the upward velocity is reduced to a
certain fraction of the wind speed. When the rise is complete,
the effluent 10 carried passively by the ambient turbulence. The
foroulae acknowledge three different regimes in which the efflux
•amentum, the buoyancy, and ambient turbulence successively dom-
inate the mixing process.
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When a plume contains liquid water an appreciable amount of heat
may be lost when it evaporate • on mixing with the environment.
A diagram is given for computing the effect on the buoyancy. It
may be enough to make the plume sink rapidly to the ground.
Finally, it is argued that architects should accept the chimney
heights necessary for the proper dispersal of pollution as a
requirement and design their buildings with the chimney as an
integral part instead of as an undesirable appendage.
Scriven, R. A.
ON THE BREAKDOWN OF CHIMNEY PLUMES INTO DISCRETE PUFFS. Intern
J. Air Water Pollution, 10: 419-425, July 1966.
Estimates are made of the conditions under which cold source plumes
with low efflux velocity break down into series of discrete puffs
during the early stages after emission. It is found that the
essential parameter is the ratio of initial plume diameter to the
scale of atmospheric turbulence and that early breakdown occurs
if this ratio is less than about 0.2. In many instances this can
be interpreted as saying that the ratio of stack diameter to stack
height is such that breakdown will occur in all but fairly stable
meteorological conditions. The theoretical and laboratory situation
regarding the study of hot sources is less clear and further work is
necessary. The evidence that does exist indicates that the bent-
over thermal jet is subject to inherent longitudinal breakdown. As
suggested concurrently by Moore (1966) on the basis of field obser-
vations this means that plume rise calculations ought to be based
upon three-dimensional entrainment models rather than the conven-
tional two-dimensional one. APTIC #1517.
125. Scriven, R. A.
PROPERTIES OF THE MAXIMUM GROUND LEVEL CONCENTRATION FROM AN
ELEVATED SOURCE. Central Electricity Research Labs., Leatherhead,
England. (Presented at the Symposium on Chimney Plume Rise and
Dispersion, Oct. 7, 1966.)
Simple one and two layer models of the atmosphere are used to derive
properties of the downwind position and height of the maximum in
mean ground level concentration which can affect either the hand-
ling or the interpretation of field data. It is shown that this
maximum is quite flat, implying that whilst the peak value can
be found accurately its position will be subject to large errors.
The effect of stable layers above the source are also discussed
and it is indicated how much of the scatter in field results can
be attributed to this cause. APTIC #193^.
126. Simon, C. and B. W. Proudfit
SOME OBSERVATIONS OF PLUME RISE AND PLUME CONCENTRATION DISTRIBUTION
OVER NEW YORK CITY. Preprint. (Presented at the 60th Annual Meet-
ing, Air Pollution Control Assoc. Cleveland, Ohio, June 11-16,
1967.)
The various techniques employed in sampling discrete plumes from
power plants in the New York City area by use of an instrumented
helicopter are discussed and evaluated. An instrument package
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developed for this purpose containing an SOg analyzer with a time
constant of 2.5 sec. and a fast response temperature sensor is
described. It is shovn that plume rise and plume geometry includ-
ing the position of plume centerline in space can be determined
with reasonable accuracy from the sampling of isolated plumes.
More significantly, it is possible to observe the behavior of
these plumes in the presence of the multiple inversion layers
often found in the urban atmosphere. Some evidence is presented
which indicates that plumes sometimes penetrate weak low-level
inversions and also overshoot their equilibrium levels thus
developing negative buoyancy and temperature deficits of more
than 1 C on their decent. APTIC #6^32.
127. Slawson, P. R.
OBSERVATION OF PLUME RISE FROM A LARGE INDUSTRIAL STACK. Waterloo
Univ., Ontario, Canada. (Rept. No. NYO-3685-7) May, 1966.
Careful photographic observations were made on the rise of smoke
plumes from Lakeview Generating Station, Ontario and the results
were compared with several theoretical formulae. Data relating
to the stack variables were collected in some detail. In a neutral
atmosphere a linear rising portion of the plume was found to occur
beyond a specific transition point. Within the limited accuracy cf
the photographic technique, the observations confirmed the theoreti-
cal result that the height of the plume axis above the source varies
as the two-thirds power of the distance downwind. Increased dilution
tends to oppose plume rise but the direct effect of instability in
the atmosphere is to promote rise; under these opposing influences
it was found that in a dynamically unstable atmosphere the plume is
sometimes above or below a corresponding plume in neutral conditions.
APTIC #5392.
128. Slawson, P. R. and G. T. Csanady
ON THE MEAN PATH OF BUOYANT, BENT-OVER CHIMNEY PLUMES. J. Fluid
Mech., Ł§(2):311-322, 1967.
Plume-rise was observed by photographic means on smoke plumes from
the Lakeview Generating Station (Ontario) and compared with some
existing theoretical formulae. Supporting data in considerable
detail on stack parameters were available. Source and environmental
data for the eight experiments are summarized. Three experiments
were carried out during neutral conditions. The observed plume
paths in these three experiments are shown. A computer analysis
of these three plume paths showed that the slope of each plume
became constant (within the experimental scatter) beyond a cer-
tain non-dimensional distance, which was approximately the same
in each of the three cases, although the slopes were individually
different. There was thus a fairly definite transition point (or
perhaps a short transition zone) at which the character of the
plume changed. Between the chimney and the transition point, a
non-dimensional plot of the three plumes coincided almost exactly,
giving a 'universal' plume shape in the initial phase. In an un-
stable atmosphere the plume was sometimes above and sometimes below
a corresponding plume in neutral conditions, under the opposing
influences of increased dilution and the direct effect of insta-
bility in promoting plume rise. APTIC #7801.
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129. Smith, M. E.
THE RELIABILITY AND APPLICABILITY OF DIFFUSION ESTIMATES IN AIR
POLLUTION PROBLEMS. Air Pollution Control Assoc. Proc., Semi-Aim.
Tech. Conf., San Francisco, Calif., 191^7.p. 106-117.
It is the purpose of this paper to examine the current status of
the problem of the development of diffusion data and theory and
to define the position in reference to the ultimate goal of
standard engineering practice. An analysis of the mathematical
and physical processes associated with atmospheric diffusion is
not very encouraging in terms of the accuracy of practical dif-
fusion predictions. Not only is the mathematical treatment far
from rigorous, but inadequate field data leave many important
gaps in the estimation of suitable values of the parameters. No
standard accuracy figures can be given, but for various types of
sources reasonable estimates of reliability are possible. Simple
sources located in flat terrain can be described in terms of con-
centration to better than plus or minus 50$ in lapse conditions.
During nocturnal conditions, the accuracy is very much reduced
owing to a lack of suitable experimental data. As the complexity
of the plant and the terrain surrounding it increases, the ac-
curacy of diffusion estimates deteriorates rapidly. Estimates
of this type are ultimately dependent on field experiments for
reliability, and the publication of such results by industry
and for reliability, and the publication of such results by
industry and research organizations is to be encouraged. Even
the dissemination of relative values where company policy makes
it impossible to publish original data will be of great value.
APTIC #5799-
130. Smith, M. E.
THE STATUS OF METEOROLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE AS A FACTOR IN AIR POLLU-
TION CONTROL. Proc. Natl. Conf. Air Pollution, Wash. D. C. 1962.
p. 260-266. Also Brookhaven Nat. Lab. Rept. No. 6538.
It seems certain that carefully planned, interdisciplinary attacks
on the large-scale air pollution problems are the only means of
elevating these efforts to a scientific, rewarding level. To
accomplish this effectively, all disciplines, including meteorol-
ogy, must participate actively from the earliest planning to the
final evaluation of such programs; such a situation is rare enough
to be called unique today. APTIC #^597-
131. anith, M. E.
THE USE AND MISUSE OF THE ATMOSPHERE. Brookhaven Nat. Lab.,
Upton, N. Y. (Brookhaven Lee. Ser. #2*0 p. 18. Feb. 13, 1963.
Air pollution is discussed in terms of its relationship with
various meteorological phenomena. The roles of wind, temperature
and turbulence are elucidated. Also described are the settling
of particles from a point source and the effects of topography.
APTIC #6k6k.
132. Smith, M. E.
METEOROLOGICAL TOOLS FOR AIR POLLUTION CONTROL. J. Air Pollution
Control Assoc. l4:(3) 80-82,
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This paper deals exclusively with meteorological facilities, tech-
niques and capabilities pertinent to air pollution control problems.
Discussion of their utilization is deliberately avoided, since that
subject is to be covered in a companion paper in the session. An
attempt is made to define the various meteorological tools of im-
portance in this field, and to indicate to the potential user
something of their nature, quality, and status of development.
Considerable detail is included regarding existing meteorological
record, both public and private, as well as general specifications
of instruments and data handling techniques. The most important
tool, professional capability, is examined both from the point of
view of current ability to solve air pollution problems and in
terms of future needs as well. APTIC #2769.
133. Smith, M. E. and L. A. Cohen
AN ISOTOPIC RATIO TRACER TECHNIQUE. In: Proc. of the USAEC
Meteorological Information Meeting held at Chalk River Nuclear
Laboratories, Sept. 11-14, 1967. Mawson, C. A. (ed). p. 3^7-355.
Brookhaven National Laboratory has recently investigated the
feasibility of utilizing naturally-occurring differences in the
stable isotopes of sulfur as a means of identifying 30% and
sulfates with the major sources from which they originate. This
technique involves sampling of the SOg from the atmosphere by a
chemically treated filter, a series of chemical conversions and
finally determination of the isotopic ratios on a mass spectro-
meter. The details of this tracer system and its initial field
results are summarized. APTIC #10058.
134. Snowball, A. F.
DEVELOPMENT OF AN AIR POLLUTION CONTROL PROGRAM AT COMINCO'S
KIMBERLEY OPERATION. J. Mr Pollution Control Assoc., 16: 59-62,
1966. ~~
During the concentration of lead and zinc sulfides from Cominco's
Sullivan Mine at KLmberley, British Columbia, there is also
produced an iron sulfide concentrate as a byproduct. A portion
of these iron concentrates is roasted and the resulting calcine
is treated in electric furnaces to produce 300 tons of pig iron
per day. The sulfuric acid which is employed in the manufacture
of ammonium phosphate fertilizers. Problems in the control of
air pollution resulting from the iron sintering, iron smelting,
and fertilizer operations at KLmberley are discussed, including
those arising as a result of almost continuous expansion of these
facilities since their establishment 12 years ago. APTfC #4946.
135- Spurr, G.
THE PENETRATION OF ATMOSPHERIC INVERSIONS BY HOT PLUMES. Ł._
Meteorol., 16:30-37, 1959.
Power-station chimneys emit hot gases which may be sufficiently
buoyant to penetrate inversions associated with periods of smog.
Two notable instances of smog in Great Britain have been examined,
applying formulae derived by Button and Priestley. A method was
suggested whereby an estimation may be made of the amount of heat
required to ensure the penetration of an inversion by a plume.
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136. Steiriback, R. S.
STACKS FOR POLLUTION CONTROL. Chem. Eng., 59:202-203, Feb. 1952.
A discussion on stack heights needed for effective control of
pollution by dispersion into the atmosphere is presented. A
formula for the determination of the maximum ground concentration
is derived from the general concentration equation of Bosanquet
and Pearson.
137« Strom, G. H., M. Hackman, and E. J. Kaplin
ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSAL OF INDUSTRIAL STACK GASES DETERMINED BY
CONCENTRATION MEASUREMENTS IN SCALE MODEL WIND TUNNEL EXPERIMENTS.
J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., J_(3):198-203, Nov. 195?.
In an attempt to improve the visual and photographic methods a
refinement was developed at the New York University Wind Tunnel
to remove some Of the human element in gauging smoke plume
characteristics. The presence or absence of smoke - usually
at ground level - was detected by the interruption of light in
a. beam projected across the airstream and directed at a photo-
tube. Reduction in phototube output was an indication of the
presence of the smoke plume at the level of the light beam.
The possibility of developing the lighbeam technique into a
point concentration type was studied. Results of experiments
on a simple scale model with one stack are given. The results
of S02 measurement are expressed as a ratio of concentration at
sampling point to concentration in stack by vol.
Comparison of concentration profiles of the plume from the simple
stack with those having the building present show two general
effects of building interference. With the building present,
plume heights are 210 ft. with a north wind and 230 ft. with an
east wind, both lower than the simple stack plume. In contrast
with the vertical profile of the simple stacks, those with the
building present showed a decided asymmetry. The concentrations
in the regions below the peak are greater than those above. In
application to air pollution problems of industrial plants the
effects of plant configuration and stack parameters can be evalu-
ated more effectively. Since tolerance of air pollutants is often
expressed in terms of concentration values, direct measurement of
concentrations in model experiments gives a more meaningful re-
sult. APTIC #5872.
138. Strom, G. H. and E. J. Kaplin
PLUME RISE CHARACTERISTICS OF A SCALE MODEL SMOKE PLUME, (in:
Radiological Physics Div. Annual Report - July 1963 through June
p. 257-273.
The development of equipment and techniques for conducting scale-
model wind-tunnel experiments on the atmospheric diffusion of
smoke plumes is a principal objective of the experiments discussed.
The experiments were conducted in the Nev York University Air
Pollution Wind Tunnel. A 1/96 linear scale model of the Argonne
Experimental Smoke Stack (17-5 in. inside diameter, 110 ft. high,
prototype dimensions), produces the smoke plume. The plume is
made visible for photographic purposes by introducing an oil-fog
type of smoke. The multiple-exposure technique is used in photo-
graphing the plume to obtain the outline of the plume formed
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over a period of time. Sixteen exposures were made at 2-sec
intervals on each negative. All of the test results presented
are expressed in terms of numerical values at prototype scale.
Between two test series various modifications were made in the
wind-tunnel equipment to improve thermal control. An instru-
ment towing chamber was developed to obtain more accurate cali-
bration of the hot-wire anemometer used to measure the air speed.
Techniques of data reduction and analysis were improved. It is
believed that the second test gave a more accurate set of data
than the first because of improvements in techniques, control,
and calibration equipment. APTIC
139- Stumke, H.
INVESTIGATING THE TURBULENT PROPAGATION OF CHIMNEY GASES OVER
UNEVEN TERRAIN. Staub (Eng. Transl.) 26(3):11-21, March 1966.
Earlier investigations into turbulent propagation of chimney gases
under the influence of a form of ground are extended for further
simple types of ground. Numerical calculations of the examples
show that the method, in which the correction factor for the
effective chimney height is derived from the air flow pattern,
is useful as long as the smoke stream does not reach near a point
at which a singular flow line degenerates into a flow plane.
APTIC #2690.
Button, 0. G.
THE DISPERSION OF HOT GASES IN THE ATMOSPHERE. J. Meteorol., J_:
307-312, 1950.
The problem of the dispersion of a stream of hot gas from a point
is considered. It is shown that a plausible assumption concerning
the mechanism of entrainment of air by the jet leads to simple ex-
pressions for the mean temperature and mean velocity of a jet of
hot air rising in a calm atmosphere of uniform potential tempera-
ture.
Ikl. SYMPOSIUM ON PLUME BEHAVIOR. Intern. J. Air Water Pollution, 1Ł
(6/7):393-^09, July 1966.
Two aspects of plume behavior were discussed: (l) Plume rise,
and (2) The effects of buildings and topographical features on
plumes. Specific topics discussed under those headings were:
the rise of hot plumes in the atmosphere; the rise of hot plumes
from chimneys; the penetration of an inversion layer by an in-
dustrial plume; experiments on the behavior of effluent emitted
from stacks at or near the roof level of tall reactor buildings;
and, indoor pollution in Rotterdam hones. APTIC #7052.
114-2. Telford, J. W.
THE VERTICAL PENETRATION OF HOT PLUMES. Jour. Rech. Atmospheriques
3 (l):l-8, Mar. 1967.
The author's theory of isolated thermal plumes is applied to the
problem of a chimney plume rising in the turbulent air against a
stable temperature gradient. Various modifications to the radius,
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updraft velocity, and related temperature excess are discussed
in terms of the maximum rise of the plume. Adding external air
accelerated to plume velocity offers the greatest theoretical
benefit, but no attempt has been made to assess its engineering
feasibility. Although the underlying theory of this analysis
has not been confirmed by direct experimentation, it points the
way toward a more realistic understanding of the problem and
offers an approach to decide whether a proposed modification is
likely to be effective. APTIC #719^.
Terraglio, F. P. and R. M. Manganelli
THE ABSORPTION OF AIMOSPHERIC SULFUR DIOXIDE BY WATER SOLUTIONS.
J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 17(6):^03-4o6, June 1967.
Results of a laboratory study indicate that the rate of solution
of atmospheric 302 in distilled water, over the range of atmos-
pheric concentrations of 0.81-8.73 mg S02/cu m, is a function of
the concentration of 302 in the atmosphere, with saturation being
reached more rapidly at the higher concentrations. This would
indicate that rain water, with constantly renewed surfaces, can
be very effective in the removal of atmospheric 302- The pH
of the exposed water samples reached values of k.Q or less, compar-
able to values observed in fog and cloud near large industrial
areas. Overall solubility of 302 in distilled water did not fol-
low the law of partial pressure. At the atmospheric concentrations
used it was found that over 98-5$ of the sulfite in solution was
in the form of the HSOo ion with the remainder present as unionized
acid. Computations using the concentration of unionized
acid in the solution showed that the solubility of this por-
tion of dissolved sulfite did follow the law of partial pressure.
APTIC #6080.
Ikk. Teubner, J., K. Horn, A. Knauer and K. Hacnnje
AIR-HYGIENIC MEASUREMENTS OF THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN S02
IMMISH10N, NUMBER OF NUCLEI, NUMBER OF GERMS AND METEOROLOGICAL
FACTORS. (Lufthygienische Untersuchungen uber Beziehungen
zwischen SOg-Irumission, Kernzahl, Keimzahl und meteorologischen
Faktoren.) Z. Ges. Hyg. Grenzg. (Berlin), ll(7):^97-500,
July 1965.
The relations between 302-immission, number of nuclei, number
of germs, as well as the meteorological factors of air tempera-
ture, wind velocity and rainfall were observed at two measuring
points --a dwelling area and an industrial area -- of a big city
for one year's time. The number of nuclei changed in the same
direction as the S02-iinmission. This was due to their same sources
of origin. The number of nuclei changed counter-directionally
towards the temperature. This was due to a secondary influence
exerted by the heating processes dominating in winter, as well
as by the improved exchange conditions of atmospheric air existing
in summer. The S02~concentrations were directly dependent on
the rainfall conditions; there exist secondary relations vith the
air temperature. Relations between the number of germs and the
302-iramission however, existed only at one measuring point and
even there only under certain bacteriological experimental condi-
tions. All further comparisons, particularly those concerning
the number of germs and the number of nuclei, air temperature,
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wind velocity and rainfall revealed that the measuring values
obtained were completely independent of one another. The number
of germs is of no practical importance as an air-hygienic indica-
tor for characterizing the pollution of the atmospheric air.
APTIC #6204.
145. Turner, D. B.
COMMENTARY ON "FULL-SCALE STUDY OF DISPERSION OF STACK GASES."
Preprint. 1964.
The Xu/Q1s (from maximum concentrations) and the Xu/Q's (from
dispersion parameters) are compared. Factors which might
contribute to differences are cited: (1) distribution of plume
concentrations may not be quite Gaussian in either the horizontal
or vertical; (2) true wind speed may differ from wind speed at
the plume level used to calculate the value from maximum concen-
trations; (3) sampling errors; (4) transformation of SOg into some
other atmospheric constituent. The validity of the techniques
is attested to by good correlation of results. APTIC #l84l.
Turner, D. B.
WORKBOOK OF ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION ESTIMATES. Public Health
Service, Cincinnati, Ohio, National Center for Air Pollution
Control, PHS-Pub-999-AP-26, 1967.
Methods of practical application of the binormal continuous
plume dispersion model to estimate concentrations of air pol-
lutants are presented. Emphasis is on the estimation of concen-
tration from continuous sources for sampling times of 10 minutes.
Some of the topics discussed are determination of effective
height of emission, extension of concentration estimates to
longer sampling intervals, inversion break-up fumigation con-
centrations, and concentrations from area, line, and multiple
sources. Twenty-six example problems and their solutions are
given. Some graphical aids to computation are included. APTIC
#9712.
147. Turner, J. S.
INTERMITTENT RELEASE OF SMDKE FROM CHIMNEYS. J. Mech. Eng. Sci.,
2(2):97-100, I960.
Dimensional arguments and the results of recent laboratory experi-
ments are used to show that a considerable increase in the height
attained in a calm stable atmosphere could be expected if the
effluent were forced out of chimneys at high velocity in discrete
puffs, rather than continuously. Numerical values are given for
the final height, the size of the chimney and the optimum storage
and release times under various conditions. An important appli-
cation is likely to be noxious gases which could be removed to a
safe height with very little mixing into the atmosphere at lower
levels. APTIC #4554.
148. Ukegucni, N., H. Sakata, H. Okamoto and Y. Ide
STUDY ON STACK GAS DIFFUSION. Mitsubishi Tech. Bull., No. 52:
1-13, Aug. 1967.
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The estimation of ground level concentration by theoretical and
empirical diffusion formulae is reviewed. Wind tunnel experi-
ments done in the Aero-Hydraulic Laboratory, Nagasaki Technical
Institute are summarized. APTIC #8833.
149. Vadot, L.
STUD* OF DIFFUSION BY MEANS OF AN HYDRAULIC ANALOGY. (Etude de
la Diffusion au Moyen d'une Analogic Hydraulique.) Proc. (Part l)
Intern. Clean Air Cong., London, 1966. p. 216-218.
In order to study atmospheric diffusion phenomena with density
effects use was made of an inverted hydraulic analogy. Thus,
the cold and warm air masses were represented by fresh and salt
water respectively. The weight relationships being reversed,
the smoke plumes on the model travelled downwards instead of
upwards. Visualization of the phenomena is facilitated by this
method, as is also the measurement of pollution concentrations,
the latter being carried on continuously by conductivity meters.
The proposed method of investigation was found to be suitable
for studying problems such as: (a) ascent of smoke plumes due
to thermals; (b) behaviour of a plume affected by a thermal under
temperature inversion conditions; (c) combination of density and
relief effects; (d) investigation of pollution in wake eddies due
to buildings. APTIC #2058.
150. Wippermann, F. and W. KLug
MINIMUM SMOKE STACK HEIGHTS. THEIR DETERMINATION FROM THE PRINCIPLES
OF TURBULENT DIFFUSION IN THE ATMOSPHERE. (Schornsteinmindesthtthen
Ihre Bestimmung aus Gesetzmassigkeiten der turbulenten Diffusion in
der Atmosphare.) (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure, Kommission Reinhaltung
der Luft.) Soc. of Ger. Engineers, Commission for Air Purification,
Darmstadt. July 1960. Ger. (Tr.).
The physical laws of atmospheric turbulent diffusion are utilized in
determining the minimum smoke stack height required to prevent
excessive gas concentrations near the ground. This report allows
objective calculation of the minimum stack heights, i.e., it re-
places various basically different procedures previously employed.
This manual prescribes the same stack heights for emission sources
of the size under similar conditions and in addition, the stack
heights it prescribes for emission sources of various sizes stand
in an objective, physically established relationship to each other.
APTIC #5271.
151. Wipperman, F.
DIAGRAM FOR ESTIMATING THE APPLICABILITY OF CHIMNEY HEIGHTS TO AIR
PURIFICATION CONDITIONS. (Diagramme zur Beurteilung der Eignung von
Schornsteinhohen fiir die Luftreinhaltung.) Technische Hochschule
Darmstadt Institut fur Meteorologie. Sept. 1963. Ger. (Tr.)
If the frequency distribution of the wind velocity is considered
the most important meteorological parameter in the diffusion
theory, diagrams can be drawn up which allow statements on the
maximum of the surface concentration of harmful gases which are
emitted, and the frequency of its occurrence and position. Also,
statements on the frequency of concentrations in excess of the
fixed, greatest permissible value and similar matters are possible.
APTIC
78
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MISCELLANEOUS
152. ASME Standard 1966. RECOMMENDED GUIDE FOR THE CONTROL OF DUST
EMISSION — COMBUSTION FOR INDIRECT HEAT EXCHANGERS. ASME
Standard No. APS-1, The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
New York, N. Y.
This standard on air pollution is an outgrowth of an Information
Bulletin, "Example Sections For a Smoke Regulation Ordinance",
prepared by the Model Smoke Law Committee, Fuels Division, The
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, May, 19^9 • Because
of an increase in discharge of waste materials to air brought
on by an expanding population, the ASME Committee on Air Pol-
lution Controls started a review of the Ordinance in 1959-
153. Barry, P. J.
FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCES OF MAXIMUM POLLUTION LEVELS FROM SINGLE
STACKS. Presented at the National Meteorology Congress, Royal
Meteorological Society, Sherbrooke, Quebec, June 8-10, 1966.
A radioactive noble gas, Argon kl, was discharged continuously
from the Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories (CRNL) stack at an
almost constant rate. The concentration of the gas at ground
level has been measured continuously at four sampling stations
at various distances around the stack. The magnitude of extreme
pollution levels occurring in the vicinity and also the frequency
with which extreme levels of different magnitudes occur have been
estimated from the results. The occurrence of extreme pollution
levels is related to such meteorological variables as atmospheric
stability and wind turbulence. APTIC #8853.
Bender, Rene J.
AN UNUSUAL APPROACH TO AIR POLLUTION CONTROL. Power, p. 83,
Dec. 1966.
At Vouvry in Switzerland, near the Rhone river and close to the
French border, the inhabited portion of the valley is at 1200
feet above sea level, while the inversion level is at 2250 feet.
Before being allowed to construct a thermal power plant, Energie
de 1'Quest Suisse S A had to promise that the flue gases would
be released above that lid of atmospheric inversion. A power
station was built, supplied with both fuel oil and make-up
cooling water through a 1200-ft rise. The station consists of
two boilers, each supplying 1 million Ib. per hr. of steam at
2700 psi and 1005/1005° F, and two 130 mw turbine generators.
One of the three feedwater pumps is driven by a steam turbine
and consumes 4375 kw« The turbojets consist of a high-pressure
and an intermediate-pressure turbine, a triple-flow low-pressure
turbine, and a hydrogen-cooled generator. Precautions taken
to avoid air pollution, in addition to the high elevation and
the tall stack, also minimize boiler fouling and eliminate
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low-temperature corrosion. Excess air, maintained at a low
level of 3.5 to 5$, is allowed to reach 10 to 12$ only at low
loads, about yyfa of boiler capacity. Magnesium oxide is air-
blown into the furnace between the 3rd and 4th burner levels
(a stack of four reflux burners are installed in each corner
of the combustion chamber)* To keep the flue gases above the
dew point, their temperature is increased from 256-266 F at
full load to 284 F at low load. No flue gas cleaning device
was planned. APTIC #7996.
155• Bresser, H. and W. Hansch
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING S02 IMMISSIONS IN THE SURROUNDINGS OF
LARGE POWER STATIONS. Staub (Eng. Transl.), .2j>{6):20-24, June
1965.
A method is described which makes possible a. statistical cal-
culation of the 302 immissions to be expected in the surround-
ings of a large power station. The calculation method is
based on the determination of propagation parameter according
to Button, combined with a correction of the propagation form-
ula with regard to the change in the average wind direction.
The required exponents can be evaluated if the daily weather
reports are interpreted as a function of ind velocity pro-
files. The results are compared with calculations based on
the Pasquill method. APTIC #2668.
156. Breuer, W. and K. Winkler
SULFUR DIOXIDE IMMISSION DURING CALM WEATHER. STAUB (English
translation), 25(3):l8-24, Mar. 1965.
Sulfur dioxide emissions measured in the Cologne-Leverkusen
area show that when the weather situation is still, the emissions
from lew-level sources are important in the accumulation of
sulfur dioxide near to the ground, whilst emissions from high
chimneys are of less significance. By means of parallel sulfur
dioxide and carbon dioxide measurements it has been possible to
identify the emitting groups responsible for these accumulations
of emissions. APTIC #2649-
157- Brief, R. S.
AIR POLLUTION FROM STACKS. Air Conditioning, Heating, Ventilating,
62(7):61-66, July 1965.
Techniques are presented for estimating ground level concentrations
of air contaminants released from stacks, vents, and other elevated
sources. In each technique, besides knowing the properties of the
effluent it is necessary to know or estimate the dispersive capa-
bility of the atmosphere. Using charts or simplified formulas,
developed from the work of Pasquill, dispersion estimates can
be readily obtained. A simplified technique for estimating ef-
fective stack height is also presented. This article has brought
together formulas found useful by the author from different sources.
They have been made self-consistent so that initial conversion of
the data to the dimensions chosen will produce the desired results.
More accurate results may be obtained by collection of extensive
80
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meteorological data, wind tunnel experiments and the like. How-
ever, for rapid, use in the field where accuracy may be compromised
for expediency, these suggested formulas are practical and useful.
APTIC
158. Brink, J. A. and B. B. Crocker
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF STACKS TO MINIMIZE POLLUTION PROBLEMS.
Jour, of the Air Pollution Control Assoc., 14(11): kk$ -k 5k, Nov.
"Rules of thumb" for stack design have been developed for use on
problems where extensive studies cannot be justified or where
quantitative design data are unavailable. The application of
these rules to a practical stack design problem is discussed.
The IBM 70k computer has been used for rapid yet rigorous stack
design studies. The computer procedures for design are discussed
and its application to a practical problem is described in detail.
APTIC #5063.
159. Carter, J. S.
CHIMNEY DISPERSAL OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE GASES IN THE 19th AND
20th CEMTURIES. Public Health Inspector (London),
July 1965.
The history of stacks for dispersal of industrial waste gases
in Great Britain is reviewed. APTIC
160. Clarke, A. J., G. Spurr and S. Catchpole
TOWARDS A CLEAN AIR POLICY. Proc. (Part I) Intern. Clean Air
Cong., London, pp. 203-205. 1966.
The paper considers some fundamental concepts of a rational clean
air policy, and stresses that the control of ground level concen-
trations should be the primary concern. The basic relationship
determining ground level concentrations includes both the rate
and effective height of emission, both of which must be taken
into account in an effective control policy. Furthermore, the
latter should permit flexibility in selecting the method of
control most suited to the circumstances, including feasilility
and cost. The principles applied by the Central Electricity
Generating Board (C.E.G.B.) to the control of smoke, dust and
sulphur dioxide from power stations are described. Recent
advances in the design of plants include the development of the
single tall multiflue chimney. Air pollution surveys and measure-
ments, both in the vicinity of power stations and nationally,
have demonstrated the effectiveness of the clean air policies
practiced by the C.E.G.B. APTIC #2052.
l6l. Craxford, S. R.
AIR POLLUTION FROM POWER STATIONS. Smokeless Air (London)
(Excerpts from a Paper read to the Pro Aqua Congress, Basle,
March 1965). 3^:123-128.
A large modern power station, for example, a station of 2,000
megawatts capacity, emits annually about the same amount of
81
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atmospheric pollutants-grit and dust, and sulphur dioxide -
as an industrial city of a million inhabitants. The main
problem of air pollution from power stations is to keep short-
period maximum concentrations within tolerable limits. Grit
and dust; and the natural dispersion of sulphur from high
chimneys are considered. APTIC #1350.
162. Croome, D. V.
CHIMNEY DESIGN. J. Inst. Heating, Ventilating Engrs. (London)
3^:165-174, Sept. 1966.
Reasons for rationalizing a chimney design are discussed. Using
the SC>2 rate of emission and type of district, the so-called
uncorrected chimney height is found using nomographs. A correc-
tion to this height is necessary if it is less than 2-1/2 times
the building height or the height of nearby buildings. Again
using nomographs the final chimney height is established by
considering the uncorrected height in relation to the building
dimensions. The problem is corrosion and methods for its pre-
vention are discussed. Finally, chimney design procedure is
outlined together with present research work and future as-
pects of design development. APTIC #1765.
163. Dickie, W. J.
SOME INDUSTRIAL PROBLEMS ARISING FROM THE CLEAN AIR ACT 1956.
Proc. (Part I) Intern. Clean Air Cong., London, 1966. p. 89-91.
The Clean Air Act contains no reference to a standard rate of
emission of grit and dust from furnaces and pressure has arisen
for their formulation. Standards should be based on simple and
inexpensive methods of measurement sufficiently accurate for the
purpose, and on readily available facts. The levels should be
realistic and when applied for the first time, should be con-
sistent with the rates of emission that can be achieved toy good
practice. Wide-scale investigation is necessary before realistic
standards can be determined for certain types of furnaces. Con-
flicting views are often expressed by Public Health and Town
Planning Authorities in determining acceptable heights for chim-
neys. Failure to reconcile opposing views can in some case
restrict the choice of fuel. APTIC #2016.
1.6k. Elshout, A. J.
THE MEASUREMENTS OF DUST AND GASEOUS AIR POLLUTIONS IN THE
VICINITY OF AN ISOLATED POWER STATION. Staub (Eng. Transl.)
25(11): 37-M, Nov. 1965.
The results of dust precipitation measurements and sulphur
dioxide measurements carried out for many years in the vicinity
of a power station are reported. Within a radius of 3 km the
precipitated fly ash was only 3$ of the total amount emitted
from the power station. The measured values were in good
agreement with calculated values. In contrast to this the
measured SOg concentrations were 50$ higher or lower than the
theoretical values. A higher value was obtained for the Cz
value in Button's formula. The different methods for cal-
culating the minimum stack height must be checked and adapted
by adjusting the coefficients. APTIC #2979.
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165. Elshout, A. J. and H. Van Duuren
SULFUR DIOXIDE AIR POLLUTION NEAR STEAM POWER PLANTS. (Lucht-
verontrelnlging door zwaveldfoxyde rondom elektriciteitsproduktle-
bedrijven.). Text in Dutch. Electro-Techniek (The Hague), j*5
(5):103-H2, Mar. 1967.
Short-term, downwind SOp levels were measured downwind of two
power stations. In both cases, the maximum 30-min. average
ground-level concentration was lower than the maximum allowable
concentration; the long-term average concentrations from the
stations were small and less than the background concentration.
Mean values of maximum concentration agreed with, or ranged up
to twice those values calculated by using the Sutton diffusion
equation with the Bresser-Hansch modification. Calculations
based on the West German Technical Instruction and VDI-Directive
2289 resulted in maximum SOg values which were 6 times higher
than mean values actually found. Mean distances from the chimneys
of the points of maximum concentration, deduced from ground-
level concentration profiles along the plume-axis, were consider-
ably smaller than the theoretically calculated ones. The values
of the diffusion coefficients used are thus too an^n to give a
reasonable description of plume dispersion. It is concluded
that power stations with adapted chimney-heights, such as those
built in the Netherlands during the past 10 years, generally do
not cause SOg pollution above the maximum allowable concentra-
tion. APTIC #8799.
166. Frankenberg, T. T.
AIR POLLUTION FROM POWER PLANTS AND ITS CONTROL. Proc. Natl.
Conf. Air Pollution, Washington, D. C., 1962. p. 95-100. 1963.
This is a report from the utility industry on the status of
thermal power plants and of its present problems, which are the
sulfur oxide control from coal and combustion gases. The method
of adjusting this problem has been to exercise a great deal more
care and foresight in the selection of stack heights, giving
due consideration to the expected local meteorological conditions,
to the end that sulfur oxides will be fully and effectively
diffused in the atmosphere, and thus become a problem at ground
level. Along with the tendency to install larger power units,
the industry also has witnessed a rather sharp increase in ftas
total amount of power installed on one site. While in 1952
the largest thermal plant did not quite reach 1,000 megawatts
in size, there are today (1962) 15 plants which exceed the
mark, one by as much as kO percent. There is a general upward
trend in stack height, although differences in plant sites, fuel
burned, population density, proximity to airports, and possibly
other variables, create wide individual differences among the
plants. APTIC #4586.
167. Gartrell, F. E. and J. C. Barber
POLLUTION CONTROL INTERRELATIONSHIPS. Chem. Eng. Progr., 62
(lO)-M-k-l, 1966.
Authors conclude that air pollution control and water pollution
control in industrial applications are closely related. Dis-
cussed are the TVA experience with coal-fired power plants and
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phosphate fertilizer plants which indicates that application of
one type of pollution control ultimately must include consider-
ation of the other. General aspects of the control equipment
(to control fly ash emissions) utilized in the TVA coal-fired
power stations are discussed. APTIC #2192.
l68. Gasiorowski, K.
THE USE OF PROPAGATION FORMULAS TO CALCULATE MINIMUM CHIMNEY
HEIGHTS WITH RESPECT TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT. Staub (Engl. Transl.)
27(4) =1-5, April 1967.
A method cf taking into account high single objects in the evalu-
ation of minimum chimney heights is developed with the help of
extended calculation. The method can also be used for measuring
sections to be added to a chimney in the case of buildings or
trees reaching the chimney height. On the basis of probability
considerations, a simplification is proposed and discussed.
APTIC #7722.
169. Gifford, F. A. Jr.
THE ELEVATION OF THE MEAN AND THE MODE OF THE GAUSSIAN CONCEN-
TRATION DISTRIBUTION. Preprint. July 12, 1967.
The equations governing the height of the mean and the mode of
the concentration distribution are derived. The elevation of
the mean, or centroid of the concentration distribution is
given by an equation and curves which are depicted. The ele-
vation of the points of maximum concentration are also given
by an equation and by curves. The behavior exhibited by these
curves agrees at least qualitatively with what would be ex-
pected. Near the stack both the mean and the mode are located
at stack height. Farther downwind, near the point at which
the vertical spreading,
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In order to calculate the area within which the surrounding buildings
have to be taken into consideration in the determination of minimum
stack height, a formula is derived from the equation for distribution
of noxious gases around such a stack. The formula is intended as
basis of discussion for complementing the "Guide for Elimination of
Air Pollution"("TAL"). An example explains the possibility of prac-
tical application of the formula. APTIC #2923.
172. Halitsky, J.
ESTIMATION OF STACK HEIGHT REQUIRED TO LIMIT CONTAMINATION OF
BUILDING AIR INTAKES. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 26(2):106-ll6,
1965.
When multiple sources release contaminants a short distance above
the roof of a building, the gases are usually trapped in the eddy
zone or cavity adjacent to the roof and side walls, and undesirably
high concentrations may be produced at air intakes in the side
walls: Since the side walls generally are regions of minimum
concentration for exhausts located on the roof, the only recourse
to effect a further reduction in concentration is to deposit some
of the effluent outside of the cavity. This paper presents a
method for calculating the stack height necessary to produce an
arbitrary concentration at the side-wall intakes, by evaluating
the partial entrapment of the plume in the cavity. APTIC
173. Hewson, E. U.
STACK HEIGHTS REQUIRED TO MINIMIZED GHOUITD CONCENTRATIONS. Trans.
ASME, 1163-1172, Oct. 1955.
Aerodynamic and meteorological concepts are combined in a procedure
for estimating round concentrations of effluents from stacks with
various possible heights and exit gas velocities. The operation
of each of the several influences at work is first described. A
detailed example is then given of how the most important phases
were integrated into a consistent procedure for predicting ground
concentrations in answer to a specific design problem. Further
improvements and refinements of the method are desirable and are
being incorporated in a later study.
174. Hodkinson, J. R.
MONITORING STACK PARTICULATES BY OPTICAL TRANSMISSOMETER: A
FURTHER NOTE AND 2 APPENDICES. Preprint. (Presented at the
Stack Sampling and Monitoring Meeting, Coordinating Committee
on Air Pollution, Engineering Foundation, Sterling Forest,
Tuxedo, N. Y., Nov. 25-26, 1963.)
Most smoke-stack transmissometers can be conveniently modified
by placing a lens, probably identical with that producing the
collimated beam from the source, in front of the photocell,
with a small aperture at its focus, beyond which the light
passing through the hole diffuses out to cover the photocell
sensitive area. Provision should also be made for inserting
color filters before the aperture. A list of 17 manufacturers
of smoke-stack transmissometers in the U. S. and 3 in West
Germany as well as a method for the prediction of smoke-plume
transmittance are appended. APTIC
85
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175- Hughson, R. V.
CONTROLLING AIR POLLUTION. Chem. Eng., 73(13):71-90, Aug. 29,
1966. ~~
A technical assessment of the air pollution abatement problem
is presented. Future standards of air pollution control, costs,
governmental control, and equipment for air pollution control
are presented. Mechanical collectors (cyclones), cloth collec-
tors, electrostatic precipltators, cyclonic scrubbers, '/enturi
scrubbers, and wet scrubbers are dealt with in detail. Six
design parameters relating to stacks for efficient air pollution
control are also presented. APTIC #3157.
176. INDUSTRY AND ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION IN GREAT BRITAIN.
(Industrie et pollution atmospherique en Grande Bretagne.) Centre
Interprofessionnel Technique d'Etudes de la Pollution Atmospher-
ique, Paris, France. Fr. (Rept. No. CI 310) (C.I.T.E.P.A. Doc.
No. 2k.) 1967.
A summary of the basis of governmental action in Great Britain
in the struggle against industrial emissions is outlined. The
regulations imposed by the "Alkali Act" are in most cases based
on "the most practical mean." Standards are given for chimney
heights. Statutory limits are given for various materials emitted
such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, hydrogen
sulfide, chlorine, arsenic, antimony, cadmium, and lead. The
construction of tall building tends to reduce the benefits ob-
tained by tall chimneys. A better knowledge of the effects of
pollutants should be obtained so as not to burden industry with
unnecessary expense in their control. It is urged that inter-
national standards for emission be adopted. APTIC #6778.
177. INTERIM METHOD FOR COMPUTING THE ATMOSPHERIC SCATTERING OF
WASTES (SOLS AND SULFIDE GASES) FROM THE STACKS OF ELECTRIC
POWER STATIONS. Trudy Glavonoy Geofizicheskoy Observatorie
(Transactions of the Main Geophysical Observatory) (Transl.
as JPRS 34, 719) (172) 205-212, 1965.
On the basis of special theoretical and experimental investi-
gations the computation method was evolved for determing the
scattering from electric power station stacks, the height of
the stacks, and the norms for emissions. APTIC #3000.
178. Jorg, 0. and R. S. Scorer
AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF COLD INFLOW INTO CHIMNEYS. Atmospheric
Environ.. 1(6):6^5-65^, Nov. 1967.
The inflow of exterior fluid into a chimney from which buoyant
fluid emerges was investigated in a water tank with some supple-
mentary investigations in air. The original problem posed was
how wide a cooling tower could be without cold air flowing in at
the top, but since it became evident that the nature of the boundary
layer in the outflowing fluid was more important than the dimension
of the outlet the most important application seems to be to the
prevention of cold inflow into chimneys of oil fired furnaces.
Once cold inflow begins it may produce a cold patch on the chimney
86
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wall which has two effects. The first is to prolong the inflow
down that part of the wall which causes deeper penetration and
the second is to cause the condensation of vapours on to the
cold wall. A formula representing the depth of penetration of the
exterior fluid is given. The formula is applicable if the char-
acteristic length (boundary layer thickness) is small compared
with the chimney diameter, and this may explain some of the trends
which are different for the smallest and largest tubes. In prac-
tice a cross-wind would generally be present. Cursory observa-
tion was made of the effect of this in the air experiments, and
it was observed that the inflow tended to occur preferentially
near the sides of the orifice rather than at the upwind and
downwind edges, but there are effects such as chimney wall
thickness and shapes such as are common among cooling towers
which have not been investigated. If cold inflow penetrated
below the neck of a cooling tower it would almost certainly
reach the bottom because in the lower part either the velocity
decrease downward or there are dead air regions through which the
cold air could sink. APTIC #885^.
179. Juda, J. and K. Budzinski
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION. (Zanieczyszczenia Atmosfery.) Text in
Polish. Warsaw, Wydawnictwa Naukowo-Techniczne. Engl. Transl.
by JPRS:l8:^55, Mar. 1963.
Information about the sources, dispersion and investigation of
atmospheric pollutants is reported. Results of studies from
foreign sources are given, and an attempt is made to analyze
these data in the light of conditions prevailing in Poland. The
work is intended for engineers who plan industrial plants and
supervise the operation of machinery and industrial installations,
as well as for the safety and work hygiene service employees.
Subjects discussed are: (l) Systematic Classification of
Atmospheric Pollutants; (II) Sources of Atmospheric Pollutants;
(ill) Damage Caused by Atmospheric Pollution; (IV) Aerosol Mechan-
ics; (v) The influence of Meteorological Conditions on the
Dispersion of Pollutants; (VI) Dispersion of Pollutants in the
Atmosphere; (VII) Method of Measuring Atmospheric Pollution;
(VIII) Determination of Pollutant Emission; (IX) Estimation of
Dustfall; (x) Determination of Particiilate Matter Concentration;
and (XI) Determination of Gaseous Air Pollutants. APTIC #7264.
180. Langmann, R.
CLEAN AIR MAINTENANCE - A TASK FOR THE OFFICE OF PUBLIC HEALTH.
(Die Reinhaltung der Luft als Aufgabe des Gesundheitsamtes.)
Qsffentl. (Stuttgart) 29(3):126-134, Mar. 1967. Ger.
Government regulations request that the office of public health
pays attention to the maintenance of clean air. More specifical-
ly, it must screen projected industrial enterprises as to the
degree of their expected air polluting emissions and the eventual
impact on the health of the employees and the neighboring inhabi-
tants. In cases where the office of public health through its
investigations finds evidence of health hazards, it must recommend
various ways of avoiding or eliminating the pollution of air. A
large number of pollutants are discussed, such as dust, toxic
gases, and obnoxious vapors and odors. Their sources and methods
87
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for their elimination are discussed in detail and represented by
examples. Particular emphasis is placed on proper city planning,
zoning, and a more stringent application of regulations concern-
ing the construction of new plants, especially their chimneys.
Further investigations into possibilities of remote heating and
of substituting gas and electricity for coal are recommended.
Finally, the importance of educating the public on the conse-
quences of air pollution is stressed. APTIC #7235-
181. Lord, G. R., W. D. Baines and H. J. Leutheusser
ON THE MINIMUM HEIGHT OF ROOF-MOUNTED CHIMNEYS. RESULTS OF AH
EXPLORATORY WIND TUNNEL STUDY. Toronto Univ., Toronto, Canada,
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering (Tech. Pub. No. 6409). Oct.
1964.
Wind tunnel tests of smoke emission from roof-mounted chimneys
on both block-type and pyramidal structures are described. The
tests were performed in a constant velocity wind field and mostly
under the condition of wind velocity equal to gas emission speed.
Four conditions of minimum stack height, each corresponding to
a different degree of plume distortion, are defined and pertinent
results for various building configurations, stack locations and
wind directions are displayed and discussed. APTIC #1869.
182. Ludwig, J. H., and R. A. McCormick.
THE METEOROLOGY PROGRAM OF THE NATIONAL CENTER FOR AIR POLLUTION
CONTROL. National Center for Air Pollution Control, U. 3. Dept.
of Health, Education and Welfare, Washington, D. C.
Meteorology has been an integral part of the Federal air pollution
program since its inception in 1955 by the passage of P. L. 159> an
Act that provided for Federal research and technical assistance to
States and local agencies in their efforts to control air pollution.
Two types of meteorological activities have evolved over the years:
(l) Research, which has focused on defining and describing meteoro-
logical factors or prime importance to air pollution control activi-
ties; (II) Application of meteorological principles to the conduct
of air pollution control programs. These activities are discussed.
Training objectives and the outlook after the Air Quality Act of
1967 are also discussed.
183. Martin, A. E.
EFFECTS OF POWER STATION EMISSIONS ON HEALTH. World Health Organi-
zation (WHO/AP/66.27). p. 43. 1966.
Prevailing levels of atmospheric pollution in St. Helens, Warring-
ton and Widnes are high and the available evidence indicates
that the incidence and mortality from bronchitis is also high.
Atmospheric pollution is known to be an important contributing
factor influencing both the number of cases and of deaths from
this disease. Any proposal which might contribute towards an
increased level of air pollution in the district must therefore
be examined with great care. From the height at which the fumes from
the proposed power station would be discharged and from the known
behaviour of chimney emissions under varying weather conditions
the evidence indicates that the power station would make but a
88
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tiny contribution to the prevailing Ground level concentration
of SOp- Moreover the sulfur ci.ioy.ide pollution from the pover sta-
tion would, be of a transient nature and would only affect the
surrounding area at tines when the natural ventilation is good
and ground pollution from local sources .Is lc\.:. At times, when
owing to climatic conditions pollution from local sources is
high, fumes from the power station would not descend to ground
level within this area. For the reasons given in this report
and subject to the acceptance in the main report of the findings
on the evidence on chimney emissions, it is the author's opinion
that the pollution from the proposed power station would not add
any appreciable hazard to the health of the surrounding popula-
tion. APTIC #0981.
Martin, A. E.
REPORT ON CHIMNEY EMISSIONS (RATCLIFFE-ON-SOAR POWER STATION).
Central Electricity Generating Board, England, p. 22, June 1966.
Document is the official report on air pollution by the Medical
Assessor, following the Minister of Power's Public inquiry into
the proposal by the Central Electricity Generating Board to
build a 2,000 MW coal-fired power station at Ratcliffe-on-Soar,
near Nottingham. After consideration of the existing knowledge
of the medical effects of atmospheric pollutants, and of the
concentrations of pollutants which would reach ground level
from the proposed power station at Ratcliffe-on-Soar and be
superimposed on the existing levels of atmospheric pollution
in the area, the opinion that the power station emissions would
not add any appreciable hazard to the health of the surrounding
population is presented. APTIC $
185. Martin, A. and F. R. Barber
INVESTIGATION OF S02 POLLUTION AROUHD A MODERN POWER STATION.
J. Inst. Fuel (London) 39(306):29^-307, July 1966.
Sixteen sulphur dioxide recorders have been sited around a
modern 1000 MW power station situated in a rural area. The
recorder layout was in the form of a ring, the radius of which
was the distance or calculated maxiuu..: ground-level pollution.
The results from their operation during the period October,
1963? to September, 196^, are reported. On a long-term basis
the overall average effect of the power station on the concen-
tration of sulphur dioxide as measured at these sites was small
(0.1 to 0.2 p.p.h.m.) compared with that already to be found
in the area (3 to 5 p.p.h.m.). Most of the pollution appeared
to come from distant cities and industrial areas. The most
persistent effect from the power station, amounting on average
to only 0.6 p.p.h.m., was to the north-east of the station and
is thought to be due to the combined effects of wind frequency
and strength in that direction. Short-term (3-min) power sta-
tion contributions were often detectable, but under the dis-
p,ersing effect of the wind, were not usually persistent at any
one site. There was no significant pollution from the power
station in stable atmospheric conditions, with or without fogs.
The importance of dosage, as well as peak and mean concentra-
tions, is discussed. It is shown that the power station pollu-
tion and background pollution are rarely additive, and that
89
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only the background has given rise to objectionable dosages.
Modifications to accepted methods of calculation are proposed,
to account for absolute short-term maxima recorded. APTIC $1510.
186. McKarns, J. S., R. G. Confer and R. 3. Brief
ESTABLISHED LENGTH LIMITS FOR DRAIN TYPE STACKS (TO PREVENT EFFLUENT
BLOWOUT AT THE ANNULAR GAP BETWEEN UPPER AND LOWER SECTIONS).
Heating, Piping, Air Conditioning, 37(7) :107-109, July 1965.
Length limitation of drain type stack was studied and results
are reported; experimental setup involved use of wind tunnel
system; maximum head length was determined in terms of ratio
of head length to lower stack diameter for various discharge
velocities in series of wind tunnel tests; these maximum lengths
should not be exceeded if discharge of effluent through gap is to
be prevented. APTIC
187. Moore, D. J.
302 CONCENTRATION MEASUREMENTS NEAR A 360 MW POWER STATION.
Central Electricity Research Labs., Leatherhead, England. (Pre-
sented at the Symp. on Chimney Plume Rise and Dispersion, Oct. 7>
1966.
Surface patterns of 302 readings from a 360 MW generating station
with 100M stacks are described. Existing methods of computation
are shown to give reasonable estimates of observed 3-minute and
hourly average concentrations when the atmospheric stability is
neutral or unstable up to about twice the stack height. The pres-
ence of a stable layer below the stack top results in very low
(often zero) surface concentrations. Stable layers above the
stack top also give lower concentrations than occur in neutral
conditions in most case, but in light winds or high winds the
surface concentrations are sometimes increased. Average patterns
of 302 in various categories of wind speed, stability and heat
emission are presented, and their use in calculating long term
surface concentration is discussed. APTIC //1933-
188. Nakagawa, S.
SULFUR DIOXIDE GAS IN EXHAUST SMOKE, ITS REMOVAL, RECOVERY AND
UTILIZATION BY WET PROCESS. Japan Analyst, (Tokyo) 15(8):8y2-
881, Aug. 1966.
Thirteen wet absorpticn processes for the removal of 309 in
industrial exhaust are reviewed and evaluated in terms of ef-
ficiency, economy and recovery by-products. The author's
special interest lies in recovering 302 in various useful
compound forms such as ammonium sulfate and gypsum. A dis-
advantage of wet processes is that the temperature of exhaust
gas decreases, resulting in the decrease of thermal buoyancy and
exhaust velocity. The necessary booster power to make up for
the difference in exhaust velocity is calculated to be 25.7 KW.
assuming the temperature decrease of 80 C and certain typical
conditions such as the composition of exhaust gas. Using the
same assumed data as above, the effective height of 50 m smoke
stack becomes 1^2.12 m. Button's equations give the maximum
302 concentration between 23&0 m and 15,840 m depending on the
90
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air temperature gradient. From these calculations, the author
concludes that wet processes can be used profitably in control-
ling air pollution if they are combined with appropriate cor-
rective measures. APTIC
189. Nonhebel, G.
CHIMNEY EMISSIONS AND IMMISSIONS: STANDARDIZATION OF FORMULA
FOR ESTIMATION OF PLUME RISE AND GROUND-LEVEL CONCENTRATIONS.
Int. J. Air & Water Pollution, 9:763-766, 1965.
Standardization, with definition of precision and limits of
application, assists both technologists and laymen in under-
standing, time and money. Preparation of a Standard is a
valuable discipline for research workers and highlights essen-
tial factors.
190. Olotka, F. T. and J. N. Brogard
THE COMPUTER AS A TOOL IN STACK GAS CALCULATIONS. Preprint.
(Presented at the 6oth Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control
Association, Cleveland, Ohio, June 11-16, 1967.)
A computer program has been developed for determining ground
level concentrations of contaminants leaving a stack, in order
to allow more rapid calculation. Its purpose is to facilitate
the sizing of stacks and a study of downwind effects in a given
area. Variations in ground level concentration, wind speed,
stack height and downwind distance can be shown in detail.
The combination of these variables is discussed. The program
and a sample calculation are presented along with tabulated
results. Program modifications to calculate the lofting
effects and point of maximum ground level concentrations are
also covered. APTIC
191. PERMISSIBLE IMMISSION CONCENTRATIONS OF HYDROGEN SULPHIDE. VDI
(Verein Deutscher Ingenieure) Committee on Air Purification,
Sub-committee on effects of Hydrogen Sulphide of the Committee
on Effects of Dust and Gas. p. 15. Apr. 1960.
Contents: Permissible Immission Concentrations; Occurence
of Hydrogen Sulphide - Occurrence in Nature, Occurrence in
Technical Installation; Properties of Hydrogen Sulphide:
Effect of Hydrogen Sulphide - Effect on Man, Effect on
Animals, Effect on Plants; Exposure Limits. APTIC #0022.
192. PERMISSIBLE IMMISSION CONCENTRATIONS OF SOg . (Maximale
Immissions - Konzentrationen (MIK) Schwefeldioxyd). VDI
(Verein Deutscher Ingenieure) Konmission Reinhaltung der
luft, Dusselforf, Germany, p. 18. Nov. 1961.
The maximum exposure limits of S02, its effects on humans,
animals, and plants were discussed. The provisional toler-
ance limits for SOg are determined as half-hour mean values
and range from 0.5 mg/m3 (continuous exposure value) to
13.0 mg/m3 (permissible work station value.) APTIC #6575.
91
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193- PRESERVATION OF AIR PURITY AND THE PRODUCTION OF POWER.
(Maintien de la Purete de 1'Air et Production d'Energie.)
Centre Interprofessional Technique d'Etudes de la Pollution
Atmospherique, Paris, France. (Rept. No. CI 306) C.I.T.E.P.A.
Doc. No. 24) 1967.
After a joint meeting of three German and three American ex-
perts on air pollution from large boilers and other sources,
the problem of pollution was discussed with representatives
of the Ministry of labor and Social Affairs and the owners
of large boilers in the State of North Rhine-Westphalia, in
West Germany. The differences in approach, the climatic
conditions, the size of the country, and the type of regula-
tory authority were explored. Various controls were investi-
gated such as the use of high stacks, low-sulfur fuels,
sulfur dioxide removal, and electrostatic precipitators.
There is a short discussion of smog formation in California
by photochemical action. In Germany, federal law governs
the regulation of air pollution. Also in Germany the regu-
lations cover individual parts of the installations, while in
the United States the main consideration is the concentration
of the pollutant in the ambient air produced by the installa-
tion. While investigations into the elimination of pollution
continue, reliance on high stacks is suggested. APTIC y'678l.
19k. Price, J. T.
CHIMNEY FLOW IMPROVEMENT. Power Engr., 71(9): 52-''b, Sept. 1967.
Deflectors can be used to produce satisfactory flow and also re-
duce draft losses. Cold flow air model studies of the Colber
Unit 1 and Bull Run Unit 1 are described to determine the
effect of chimney geometry on plume rise characteristics.
Addition of a vaned deflector to the 500-ft Colbert Unit
chimney resulted in elimination of eddies and reduction of
chimney draft loss by 0.7 in. of water. In the 800-ft Bull
chimney, tests without hoppers revealed that the jets issuing
from the breechings established an erratic spinning action
in the chimney and that the alternating spinning motion was
accompanied by random pressure pulsations which were reflected
throughout the draft dystem. Use of a vaned deflector led to
a reduction in draft loss of 0.3 in. °f water. Without ash
hoppers and without a deflector structure, this chimney was
characterized by periodic pressure pulsations and flow was
considerably more stable, but draft loss was increased by
0.1 in. of water. When the deflector was used without hoppers,
reduction in draft loss was 0.5 in. of water. Flow patterns
differed radically for the two chimneys, although both were
similarly shaped and effluent entered through the bases. For
the Colbert chimney, four vertical eddies were formed, while
for Bull Run the spinning-type flow developed. Studies of the
effect of chimney outlet shape upon velocity and dispersion
indicate that a cylindrical outlet produces a higher average
velocity with less radial spreading than a venturi shaped out-
let. APTIC #91*13.
195. PROVISIONAL METHODOLOGY FOR COMPUTING ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION OF
WASTE ASHES AND SULFUROUS GASES FROM POWER STATION SMOKESTACKS.
(Vremennaya Metodika Raschetov Rasseivaniya v Vybrosov (Zoly i
92
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Sernistykh Gazov) iz Dymovykh Trub Elektrostantsiy.) Teploenerg-
etika (Transl. No. CI 20?, Doc. Information Kept. No. 20) (?):
S9-92, July, 1964.
Presented herewith is a translation of a Russian study. The meth-
od proposed is based on theoretical and experimental work carried
out in the vicinity of a large thermal power station. It is
valid for the calculation of dispersion of pollutants, deter-
mination of the necessary height of smokestacks; and for at-
taining normalized values of ground-level concentration of
such pollutants. The report explains how to apply the formula
defining maximum concentration and how to select the various
factors involved. A graph is proposed which gives — in terms
of maximum concentration at a given distance -- the value of the
concentration of pollutants at other points, and, finally, a
method is described for calculating a minimum height of smoke-
stacks compatible with the authorized limits of concentration
of waste products in the atmosphere. Taking up a specific
instance -- that of a certain power station located in the
Ukraine -- an example is given of the practical application
of this method in calculating the maximum concentration of
noxious impurities at ground level. APTIC
196. Sartor, J. D. and R. R. Rapp
DRAG COEFFICIENTS OF SMALL, IRREGULAR PARTICLES. RAND Corp.,
Santa Monica, Calif., Engineering Division. Oct. 30, 1959-
15 pp. (Rept. No. P-1830).
The results of several laboratory tests conducted with spherical
and irregularly shaped particles are presented. These measure-
ments were made to clarify the law of fall of irregular particles
in the range of Reynolds number from 0.035 to 3.5. Over this
range of Reynolds numbers, the Goldstein formula yields a good
approximation to the drag coefficient of irregularly-shaped
particles as well as to perfect spheres. For extremely jagged
particles in the range of Reynolds numbers from 0.035 to 0.35,
the drag-coefficient estimate from the Goldstein formula may
be 20$ lower than the true drag coefficient. No evidence has
been found for the extremely low drag coefficients shown by
Krey (1932) in the region of Reynolds numbers from 1.0 to 3.0.
Results of the experiments are presented in Tabular form, and
are compared graphically with theoretical values. APTIC #5052.
197. Schultz, H. A.
DETERMINATION OF GASEOUS ORGANIC HAIIDE TRACERS IN AIR BY
POSITIVE ION EMISSION TECHNIQUES. (Presented to Am. Chem.
Soc. Symposium on Air Pollution, Atlantic City, N. J.,
Sept. 1956.)
Dichlorodifluoromethane, Freon 12, shows definite promise as
a tracer for use in the study of atmospheric diffusion. At
atmospheric pressure and temperature, it is a colorless,
odorless gas, non-corrosive and nontoxic. Its feasibility as
a tracer was denonstrated by the study of the effluent frOM a
stack, ueing the ionization method of detection. A coM«er-
cial ionization-type halogen detector was modified, and
special techniques were developed, so that concentrations
93
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down to 0.1 ppm. could be readily measured. Commercial detec-
tors, which are built for qualitative work, vary greatly to
sensitivity, and in general, tend to be unstable. The mechan-
isms responsible for the sensitivity of this type of detector
are being studied, with the object of improving the stability
and possibly also the sensitivity. A multiple step process is
involved, so instability may arise in a number of different
ways. Fortunately, it is possible to provide independent
controls over a number of the essential steps.
198- Sherlock, R. H. and E. J. Lesher
DESIGN OF CHIMNEYS TO CONTROL DOWN-WASH OF GASES. Amer. Soc.
Mea. Eng., 77:1-9, 1953.
Studies to determine the laws of behavior of stack gases as they
flow downwind, and to prevent down-wash of these gases, have
been in progress at the University of Michigan since March,
193^, when a project in this field was sponsored by the Common-
wealth Edison Company of Chicago. That pioneer project was
connected with the Crawford Avenue Station and was followed
during the later years by other studies dealing with the ex-
tension of old plants and the design of stacks for new plants.
The material presented in this paper was obtained almost
entirely from recent studies sponsored by the Commonwealth
Edison Company.
199. Short, --I.
SOLIDS EMISSION IN RELATION TO RECENT LEGISLATION. Steam
Heating Eng. (London), 3J_(^32) :28-37, Nov. 1967.
A review of solids emission in relation to recent legisla-
tion is presented. The control of solids emission both in
regard to legal requirements and equipment available is
discussed. The topics discussed are: oil firing, grit
arrestors, chimneys, and additives. APTIC («86l5.
200. Smith, M. E. and I. A. Singer
SAMPLING PERIODS IN AIR POLLUTION EVALUATIONS. Froc. Natl. Air
Pollution Symp., 3rd, Pasadena, Calif., 1955.
Field sampling in relation to air pollution studies requires
consideration of three factors: an analytical technique,
selection of sampling locations, and the choice of appropriate
time periods. However, sampling periods are almost completely
disregarded in most studies. "Representative" or "appropriate"
periods are normally specified, without any indication of the
meaning intended. It is the thesis of the present paper that
the selection of correct sampling periods can be of equal im-
portance with instrumentation and location in air pollution
evaluations. Analysis of a single, typical case taken from
an earlier Brookhaven program illustrates the fact that sampling
periods are extremely important in air pollution studies.
It is clear from the data presented that errors of a factor of
ten or more may arise from the choice of improper sampling pe-
riod. APTIC ,f5579.
94
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201. Smith, M. E.
THE REPRESENTATIVENESS OF LOCAL OBSERVATIONS IN AIR POLLUTION
SURVEYS. Air Over Cities Symp., Cincinnati, Ohio, 1961.
The need for approrpriate meteorological data in the evaluation
of air pollution problems is now generally conceded. The
natural tendency is to use existing observational data when-
ever the material seems pertinent. In investigations by the
Brookhaven Meteorology Group, data from a number of sources,
including tower and surface observations, have been compared.
Depending on the circumstances, both the differences and simi-
larities are striking. Enough information is now available
to indicate situations in which data may be validly transferred
from one site to another and those in which transfer should not
be attempted. Careful estimates of wind and stability distri-
butions for sites with complex terrain may often by far su-
perior to an inappropriate transfer to data. APTIC $3388.
202. Snowball, A. F.
INDUSTRIAL AIR POLLUTION - ITS MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL. Pre-
print. (Presented at the 3rd Annual Meeting, Pacific Northwest
Section, Air Pollution Control Assoc., Vancouver, Brit. Columbia
Nov. 2-h, 1965.)
Various methods, commercial equipment, apparatus, and tests for
measurement and identification of solid and gaseous industrial
pollutants at their source are briefly described. APTIC 7*1177.
203. Squires, A. M.
AIR POLLUTION: THE CONTROL OF S02 FROM STACKS. PART IV. POWER
GENERATION WITH CLEAN FUELS. Ghem. Eng., 74(26):101-109, Dec.
1967.
The technology of two-stage combustion processes for removal of
sulfur from coal and residual fuel oil to be utilized in steam
plants is analyzed. In two-step combustion a first gasification
stage yields a flue gas containing hydrogen sulfide. From this
1st step elemental sulfur is recovered and the clean fuel gas
is burned in a second combustion step. Various processes which
might be adapted to this two-step combustion are considered in
some detail. APTIC ,78908.
20k. Squires, A. M.
AIR POLLUTION: THE CONTROL OF S02 FROM POWER STACKS. PART II.
THE REMOVAL OF S02 FROM STACK GASES. Chem. Eng., 7^(24):133-l40,
Nov. 1967.
The technology, design and economics of systems for removing
sulfur oxides and fly ash from power stations stack gases are
examined. Dry or wet limestone or dolomite processes receive
particular attention. The prospects for recovering sulfur
byproducts competitively from stack gases are investigated.
APTIC #8918.
95
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205. Stone, G. N. and A. J. Clarke
PO.-ffiR STATIONS AND CLEAN AIR. Central Electricity Generating
Board (England). 1963.
This paper discusses the chimney emission problems presented
by power stations and the techniques developed for dealing
with them. Study of chimney plume behavior, instruments developed
to assist in research, and research into dry sorption processes
for removing 50^ from flue gases, are reviewed. APTIC $2311.
206. Stratman, H. 1956.
SULFUR DIOXIDE EMISSION PROM A COAL-BURNING POWER PIANT WITH A
VERY HIGH STACK. Mitt. Ver. Groskesselbesitzer, No. to: ^9-56,
1956; CA., 50: 9661, 1956.
Determinations of the S02 concentration at ground level around
a power station with chimneys of 150 M. (^90 ft.) height and an
S02 emission of 0.8^ to 1.02 tons/hr. carried out over a year, have
shown that the max. concentrations were generally below 0.5 nig.
S0/m3, the limit above which damage to vegetation may occur. Very
occasionally this max. value exceeded for short times. The max.
concentration was found at a distance of between 1500 and 3500M.
from the chimney base; the experimental values agreed well with
calculated values. The SOp concentration varies in cycles with
a max. in January and a min. in July, ^e measurements also showed
that the increase of S02 concentration caused by industrial plants
and populated areas is of the same order of magnitude as that
caused by power stations.
207. Button, G.
DISPERSAL OF AIRBORNE EFFLUENTS FROM STACKS. Brit. Chem. Eng.
(London), 1:202-205, Aug. 1956.
In designing stacks for the dispersal of gaseous or particu-
late pollution the rule is: make the stack as high as pos-
sible and conserve heat. The reduction of concentration at
ground level is proportional to the added heat, and inversely
proportional to the height of the stack and the cube of the
wind speed. In high winds, there is little advantage to be
gained by adding heat, but in these circumstances the high
wind reduced concentrations to an acceptable low level by
straight-forward dilution. The main difficulty in dealing
with pollution arises when the wind is low.
208. Takaoka, Y.
STANDARD FOR STACK GAS EMISSION. Text in Japanese. J. Jap.
Petrol Inst., (Tokyo), 7(2):100-102, Feb. 1964.
The regulations for air pollution established in 1962 are
studied from the point of view of the petroleum industry.
The regulation calls for a maximum allowable concentration
of dust from heating furnaces of 0.7 g/m3 and from catalytic
regenerative furnaces of 1.0 g/m3 both using a cyclone for
dust collection. The regulated concentration of SOg or SO^
gases is 0.28$. The relation between SOg production and the
quantity of excess air required to burn liquid fuel is graphed.
96
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Data for gaseous fuels are given indicating that for crude
petroleum gas and for the gas given off by apparatus designed
for improving the quality of gases, an air pollution problem
does not exist, but the gas emitted from contact decomposition
equipment or HgS-producing equipment causes problems. The diffu-
sion theory is explained briefly with a graph showing the relation
between wind velocity and concentration and includes a table show-
ing the relation between velocity, temperature, and effective
chimney height for an actual height of 14.5.7 m. APTIC
209. Third, A. D.
THE AIM OF CHIMNEY DESIGN. Eng. Boiler House Rev. (London)
82(5) .-124-128, May 196?.
The enforcement of the provisions of the Clean Air Act of 1956
has led to an over-all increase of chimney heights. Developments
in fuel technology and boiler design have resulted greater com-
bustion efficiencies with reductions in flue gas temperatures.
The acid dewpoint which occurs at 270 F is important since below
this temperature, the sulfuric acid condenses out and the corro-
sive effect becomes more intense as the temperature drops. In
addition to attacking the chimney, the 2 to k% sulfur trioxide
agglomerates with carbon and ash and forms a skin on the chimney
surface which eventually breaks away in the form of flakes which
are then carried upward in the gas stream. Eventually these
flakes fall to the ground as acid smuts within 3 to ^00 yards
of the chimney bases and can be detrimental to property and health.
One approach to the problem is the use of double-skinned chimneys
formed of mild steel with aluminum foil insulation. The air gap
between the steel and aluminum of 5/8 in. is sufficient to raise
the metal and gas temperatures at the top of the stacks to pre-
vent acid condensation. The use of helical strakes on the outside
of tall chimneys tends to prevent oscillation in high winds.
APTIC //6157.
210. Winkelman, L. A.
EMISSION STANDARDS FOR THE CONTROL OF SOLID PARTICLES, A NEW
APPROACH BY NEW JERSEY. J. Air Poll. Control Assoc., lU(ll):
kkl-k, Nov. 196U.
Existing chapters of the New Jersey Air Pollution Control Code
are described, followed by an explanation of a proposed new
chapter to control emissions of coarse solid particles and fine
solid particles from industrial processes. The chapter is
designed to limit dustfall of coarse particles off the premises
of the emitter to 200 tons per square mile per year, and the
methods used to relate this criterion to stack emissions are
explained. Fine particles, suspended in the air off the
premises, are limited to 0.615 milligrams per cubic meter during
average weather conditions. Measures taken for the protection
of buildings, where the plant-property line is less than 10
stack heights from the base of the stack, are described. APTIC
211. Winterberg, W.
CORRECTLY MEASURED CHIMNEYS -- ALSO A CONTRIBUTION ON THE
PURIFICATION OF AIR. (Richtig bemessene Schornsteine -- auch
97
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ein Beitrag zur Luft. ) German VDI (Ver. Deut. Ing. ) Ber.
(Dusseldorf), No. 117, p. 19-28.
The history and derivation of formulae for the diameter of
chimneys are outlined. An equation for the cooling of exhaust
gases is derived, and a nomogram for that equation provided
(giving relationships between chimney diameter, chimney material,
heat transmission coefficient, the generated volume of gas, and
the difference between the temperature of the gas inside the
chimney and that of the external air). Other ecuations are de-
rived which are related to prevention of condensation in chimneys.
Calculations are made pertaining to single-stack chimneys. Dia-
grams are provided for the regulation of wall temperature in
three-stack chimneys, for the cooling of the exhaust gases in
three -stack chimneys after burning of oil, for a comparison of
the gas flow in round and in square chimneys, and for a 3-dimen-
sionable picture of the relationship between chimney height,
chimney load, and "free" movement. APTIC ,'/6726.
212. Wipperman, F. and W. KLug
A PROCEDURE FOR DETERMINING MINIMUM CHIMNEY HEIGHTS. (Ein
Verfahren zur Bestimmung von Schornsteinmlndesthohen,)
Intern. J. Air Water Pollution 6:27-^8. Ger. (Tr.) 1962.
A procedure is given which makes it possible to determine the
minimum height of chimneys such that as given maximum allowable
concentration at ground level is not exceeded. The first part
of the paper deals with the use of nomogram, while the second
gives the theoretical basis of these nomograms; in particular,
derivation of the formula used and determination of the m°teoro-
logical parameters contained in it are given. APTIC
98
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ADDENDUM
213. TALL STACKS, Air Enang.. 10:15, April 1968.
Duquesne light Co. 1968,
A 759-ft. concrete chimney will be erected by the Rust
Engineering Go., division of Litton Industries, for
Duquesne Light Co.*s Cheswick power station on the
Allegheny River. The stack will discharge gases into
the upper atmosphere, so that they will be carried
long-distances, gradually being diffused into the
atmosphere. Any gases returning to ground level at any
point will be safe under established standards. The
chimney, 58 ft. in diameter at base and 27 ft. at the
top, will contain ^,175 cu. yds. of concrete and 175
tons of reinforcing bars, plus a steel liner. It will
serve the coal-fired boiler of the 570,000 kilowatt plant
being built by Duquesne Light at Springville, Pa.
21k. THE INVESTIGATION OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION 1958-1966.
(THIRTY-SECOND REPORT). Ministry of Technology, London,
England, Warren Spring Lab. London, Her Majesty's Stationery
Office, 1967, llj.6p.
A broad review of emissions, abatement processes, dispersion,
weather effects on pollution, the national survey of smoke
and sulfur dioxide, trends in pollution, grit and dust fall,
and measurement methods is presented. Research now in progress
in the United Kingdom is described and the research location
and project officer for each project is given. APTIC 78895.
99
U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE- 1 969 — 395-976/1
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