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ENGINEERING FEASIBILITY DEMONSTRATION STUDY
FOR MUSKEGON COUNTY, MICHIGAN
WASTEWATER TREATMENT-IRRIGATION SYSTEM
FEDERAL WATER QUALITY ADMINISTRATION
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
BY
Muskegon County Board
and Department of Public Works
County Building
Muskegon, Michigan 49440
Program #11010 FMY
September, 1970
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, B.C. 20402 - Price $1.50
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FWQA Review Notice
This report has been reviewed by the Federal
Water Quality Administration and approved
for publication. Approval does not signify
that the contents necessarily reflect the
views and policies of the Federal Water Quality
Administration.
11
ENVIRONMENTAL P^OTCCIIGH AGENCY
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ABSTRACT
The feasibility of a lagoon treatment-spray
irrigation system for the combined domestic wastes and in-
dustrial wastewaters in Muskegon County, Michigan, was
investigated in this study. The largest volume of industrial
wastewaters are those discharged by a pulp and paper mill.
Various aspects of the project were investigated
including: (1) sampling and analyses of wastewaters for a
variety of parameters, (2) a review of available information
concerning the effect of trace elements on soils and crops,
(3) laboratory tests of the treatability of the combined
wastewaters by lagoon treatment, (4) development of a simu-
lation model to assist in analyzing the volume and water quality
aspects of a treated wastewater storage lagoon, (5) soils and
groundwater field and office studies regarding the management
of groundwater levels to ensure an adequate aerobic treatment
zone in the soil as well as to prevent ponding in the site area,
and (6) investigations of certain agricultural aspects in using
treated wastewaters as spray irrigation water.
The results of this work demonstrated the feasi-
bility of the proposed project based on information developed
during the study, the highlights of which are: (1) the waste-
waters do not contain constituents having concentrations that
would interfere with use of these wastewaters as agricultural
irrigation waters, (2) the treatability of the wastes by the
proposed lagoon treatment system was confirmed by the laboratory
work, and (3) the feasibility of management of the groundwater
levels within the irrigation site area by drainage wells and
tile was established by the investigations.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Grant
No. 11010 FMY between the Federal Water Quality Administration
and the Muskegon County, Michigan,Board and Department of Public
Works,
Key Wordst Aerated lagoons, B.O.D. removal,
groundwater management, soil treatment, wastewater irrigation,
wastewater reuse, wastewater treatment.
111
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No.
Abstract iii
List of Figures vii
List of Tables ix
I. Conclusions 1
II. Recommendations 5
III. Introduction 7
IV. Wastewater Analyses 11
V. Trace Elements in Soils 27
VI. Lagoon Treatment Laboratory Studies 39
VII. Simulation Model 57
VIII. Soils and Groundwater Investigations 83
IX. Irrigation Agricultural Studies 129
X. Acknowledgments 145
XI. References 147
XII. Abbreviations 175
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FIGURES
Figure Page No
1 Aerated Lagoon Oxygen Transfer Test 47
2 Lagoon Bottom Permeability Test 49
3 Sludge Gas Production Test 51
4 Simulation Model Diagram 59
5 Maximum Storage Requirements 69
6 Average Monthly Outflow 70
7 Test Borings and Test Well Locations 84
8 Surficial Deposits 87
9 Logs of Borings - Sheet A 89
10 Logs of Borings - Sheet B 90
11 Thickness of Zone A 93
12 Water Table Elevation and General
Direction of Groundwater Flow 95
13 Groundwater Depths 96
14 Operational Thickness (To) of Zone A 103
15 Transmissibility of Zone A Aquifer
(Based on Operational Thickness) 104
16 Available Drawdown 105
17 Drainage Well Drawdown
Available Drawdown = 5 Ft. 108
18 Drainage Well Drawdown
Available Drawdown = 10 Ft. 109
19 Drainage Well Drawdown
Available Drawdown = 15 Ft. 110
VII
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FIGURES (Cont.)
Figure Page No,
20 Drainage Well Drawdown
Available Drawdown = 20 Ft. Ill
21 Drainage Well Drawdown
Available Drawdown =22.5 Ft. 112
22 Drainage Well Drawdown
Available Drawdown = 25 Ft. 113
23 Drainage Well Drawdown
Available Drawdown = 30 Ft. 114
24 Drainage Well Drawdown
Available Drawdown = 33 Ft. 115
25 Drainage Well Drawdown
Available Drawdown - 35 Ft. 116
26 Donnan and Radial - Flow Formulas
(Comparison for Critical Depth) 119
27 Management Subareas 126
28 Pasture Stocking Rate for Yearling Steers 140
Vlll
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TABLES
Table Page No.
1 Laboratory Methodology Tabulation 15
2 Summary of Analyses - Muskegon Sewage
Treatment Plant 16
3 Summary of Analyses - Muskegon Heights
Sewage Treatment Plant (Period with
Lime Treatment) 19
4 Summary of Analyses - Muskegon Heights
Sewage Treatment Plant (Period without
Lime Treatment) 22
5 Trace Elements in Sewage Sludge 29
6 Trace Elements in Muskegon Sewage 30
7 Trace Elements in Soils 31
8 Trace Element Tolerances for Irrigation
Waters 36
9 Sodium Adsorption Ratio of Muskegon
Wastewater 37
10 Weekly Analyses - Summer Aeration Units 42
11 Weekly Analyses - Winter Aeration Units 43
12 Aerated Lagoon Chemical Analyses 44
13 Aerated Lagoon Oxygen Uptake Rates 46
14 Aerated Lagoon Alpha Factors 46
15 Lagoon Bottom Permeability Tests 48
16 Summary-Soil Column Filtration Tests 52
17 Summary-Laboratory Aerated Lagoon Tests 53
18 Chlorine Demand 56
19 Similation Results
(Irrigation Rate = 1.5 In./Wk.) 62
IX
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TABLES (Cont.)
Table Page No,
20 Lagoon Storage 68
21 Simulation Program Listing 72
22 Simulation Program - Variable Name
Identification 80
23 Comparison of Drawdowns at Different
Assumed Recharge Rates with Walton's
Model 99
24 Comparison of Well Spacing with
Infiltration of Wastewater at 50%
of Application Rate 100
25 Total Flow per Unit Lengths of Tile
by Donnan and Radial Flow Formulas 120
26 Spacing of Tile Drains Related to
Saturated Thickness 121
27 Land Acreages and Estimated Dry Matter
Production 131
28 Estimated Cost in Establishing Grass
Stand 132
29 Estimated Annual Producer Costs to
Harvest and Store Forage 134
30 Estimated Annual Gross Receipts of Hay
Crop 135
31 Estimated Annual Costs and Returns of
Hay Crop on Nonirrigated Land 136
32 Estimated Annual Steer Costs and Returns 138
33 Estimated Annual Returns of Steers on
Irrigated Land 139
34 Estimated Annual Returns of Steers on
Nonirrigated Land 139
35 Potential Effects on Costs and Returns 141
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TABLES (Cont.)
Table Page No,
36 Estimated Annual Returns for Hay 142
37 Estimated Annual Returns for Steers 143
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SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
This study has confirmed the feasibility of a Muskegon
County wastewater management system utilizing lagoon treatment
and spray irrigation facilities. Additional results of these
studies have been the development of information and tools
which can be used in establishing the bases of design for the
system.
Wastewater Analyses
The wastewater sample collection and analyses program
resulted in a significant review of the heavy metals and other
constituents in the influents and effluents of the City of
Muskegon and City of Muskegon Heights sewage treatment plants.
This work permits an assessment of the effects of primary
treatment at Muskegon and activated sludge treatment at Mus-
kegon Heights on the constituents tested.
The results indicate that the wastewaters examined are
generally tupical of those containing domestic and industrial
wastes. However, there were evidences that occasional dumping
of strong industrial wastes into the wastewater collection
system occurs. These findings support the need for sewer use
regulations.
Trace Elements in Soils
An extensive review of the available information on
the effect of trace elements in soils was made. Particular
emphasis was placed on potential soil and crop toxicities re-
sulting from the use of irrigation waters containing heavy
metals.
A review of the available information on the signifi-
cance of trace elements in soils and the wastewater sample
test results reported in Section IV of this Report indicates
that the present levels of trace elements in the Muskegon area
wastewaters are not likely to interfere with its use as irri-
gation water. However, it is recognized that a trace element
monitoring program should be included as a part of the oper-
ational framework of the wastewater management system. This
program would be used to assure a wastewater of continuing
acceptable quality.
-1-
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Lagoon Treatment Laboratory Studies
The laboratory operations and tests performed
confirmed the treatability of the combined Muskegon and S. D.
Warren Co. wastewaters using aerated lagoons. Additional
characteristics of the wastewaters and initial design in-
formation were also determined. Specific data and information
developed were as follows:
1. Five-day Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) average
reductions of 70 to 90 percent occurred within
the two and four-day detention periods.
2. Chlorine demands of the aerated lagoon effluent
were such that a chlorine dosage of less than
10 mg./l. was sufficient for disinfection.
3. Algae growths will occur in the aerated lagoon
effleunt.
4. Significant reductions of aerated lagoon effluent
color, phosphates, and ammonia nitrogen occurred
in the sand column filtration column tests.
Phosphate levels were reduced to well below 0.1
mg./l., color to generally less than 5 units,
and ammonia nitrogen reductions generally ranged
from 50 to 75 percent.
5. The lagoon bottom sealing and other characteristics
of the system sludge were investigated.
Simulation Model
Using the recorded Muskegon, Michigan climatological
data for 1948 through 1969 as the basic input, the combined
lagoon water quality and storage requirement mathematical
model simulated the operation of the storage lagoons during
this period for varying irrigation rates. Using a range of
1.5 to 2.5 inches per week of irrigation and generally not
irrigating during times of freezing conditions or precipitation,
the lagoon storage requirements generally varied between 3840
million gallons (32 MGD for 4 months) to 4800 million gallons
(32 MGD for 5 months). These results were based on an irrigation
area of about 9500 acres.
The water quality aspects of the simulation model at
its present state of development indicates that the Biochemical
Oxygen Demand and Dissolved Oxygen conditions in the storage
lagoons would generally be at satisfactory levels. The period
-2-
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during "spring break-up" before aerobic conditions are restored
is estimated at approximately 3 weeks.
The model is not viewed as a finished product, but
rather as an initial tool which can be modified, refined, or
expanded to assist in the final design of the system as well
as establish operating procedures.
Soils and Groundwater Investigations
To permit the evaluation of the feasibility of ground-
water control and management within the irrigation site area,
nine soils test borings and two aquifer permeability tests
were made. An extensive analysis of the data obtained from the
field investigations permitted the assessment of two groundwater
level management techniques, drainage wells and drainage tiles.
The results of this work established the feasibility
of groundwater control within the irrigation site study area,
with the particular management technique depending on the
specific soils and aquifer conditions within the various sub-
areas. Preliminary information indicates that drainage well
spacing could range from 4,500 to 800 feet, and that drainage
tile spacing could range from 1,500 to 200 feet.
Irrigation Agricultural Studies
This work included inputs from various agricultural
disciplines and a review of the potential types of agricultural
uses available for the land within the irrigation site area.
Included were the following alternatives:
1. Sod production
2. Perennial grasses to be harvested as
hay or pasture.
3. Continuation of Christmas tree production
in selected areas
4. Beef cattle operations
The conclusions of the study were that the preferable
agricultural use during the early stages of the project should
be the production of perennial grasses with harvesting as hay
or pasture. The results of the study also suggested that the
implementation of other agricultural management alternatives,
such as cultivated crop production or beef cattle operations,
could follow.
-3-
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SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
As outlined in the Conclusions Section, this study
has demonstrated the engineering feasibility of a wastewater
lagoon treatment and irrigation system for Muskegon County,
Michigan. Based on the results of this work, the following
recommendations are made:
1. Proceed with the design and construction
of the wastewater lagoon treatment and
irrigation system for Muskegon County.
2. Develop a research and demonstration
program for monitoring the operation of
the system.
3. Expand the agricultural studies to include
greater in-depth work including a review of
commercial agricultural opportunities.
-5-
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SECTION III
INTRODUCTION
The initial reports, prepared by Bauer Engineering,
Inc., concerning the development and feasibility of a Muskegon
County wastewater management system utilizing spray irrigation
of treated effluent were:
1. "Muskegon County Plan for Managing
Waste Water," May 1969.
2. Appendix C - Design Basis for Muskegon
County Plan for Managing Waste Water.
The proposed lagoon treatment - spray irrigation system in-
cluded the following elements in the sequence listed:
1. A wastewater intercepting system
including sewers, pumping stations,
and force mains to convey the domestic
sewage and industrial wastewaters to
the aerated lagoons.
2. Aerated lagoons,utilizing mechanical
surface aeration equipment, with 3-day
detention capabilities.
3. Storage lagoons, having a volume equal
to about 5 months of wastewater flow,
for holding the treated wastewater during
periods when irrigation can not be done.
4. Chlorination facilities to disinfect the
storage lagoon effluent before using the
treated wastewater for irrigation.
5. A spray irrigation system involving a
pipeline distribution network and fix-
pivoted, rotating, low pressure discharge
irrigation rigs having lengths up to
2000 feet.
6. A drainage system, using wells and drain
tile, within the 10,000 acre site area to
control the level of groundwater to ensure
an adequate aerobic soil treatment zone as
-7-
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well as to prevent the movement of ground-
water out of the site area. The water
collected by the drainage system would
be discharged to the streams outside of
the irrigated area.
After completion of the above mentioned reports, the
decision was made to pursue additional studies and investi-
gations regarding design and feasibility aspects of the
proposed system. This additional work has been supported
and financed, in part, by the Federal Water Quality Admin-
istration, Department of the Interior, pursuant to the
Federal Water Pollution Control Act. This report presents
the results of those additional studies.
The scope of the work, known as the "Phase A" studies,
was originally outlined in Bauer Engineering, Inc.'s, "Re-
search and Demonstration Proposal, Engineering Feasibility
Demonstration Study for Muskegon County, Michigan, Wastewater
Treatment - Irrigation System" November 26, 1969. This pro-
posal established the work to be done within the framework
of the following four components:
I - Wastewater System Inputs
II - Wastewater Transportation System
III - Wastewater Treatment System
IV - Agricultural Wastewater Irrigation System.
Component I
Under Component I, the collection and analyses of
wastewater samples of the influent and effluent at the City
of Muskegon and City of Muskegon Heights sewage treatment
plants were to be accomplished. In addition, an interpre-
tation of the data generated was to be made.
The collection and analyses program procedures were
prepared by Gurnham and Associates, Inc. The wastewater
sample collection was done by the Muskegon County Health
Department under the direction of Tenco Hydro/Aerosciences,
Inc. Tenco Hydro/Aerosciences, Inc. performed the wastewater
sample analyses.
Sections IV and V of this report present the results
of the work performed under Component I.
ft
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Component II
Included in this portion of the study was the evaluation
of certain wastewater transmission main routing location alter-
natives. This work was of local interest only and therefore
is not included in this report.
Component III
Component III covered the work of a literature review
on lagoon treatment of wastewaters, laboratory pilot plant
tests of the system influent, and a mathematical simulation
model of the lagoon functioning.
Included in the laboratory work, which was performed
by Tenco Hydro-Aerosciences, Inc., were:
1. Operation of bench-scale aerated lagoons,
having different detention times and
temperatures, treating a mixture of City
of Muskegon wastewater and S. D. Warren
Co. wastewater.
2. Determination of the system effluent
chlorine demands.
3. Characteristics of the aerated lagoon
effluent after storage.
4. Determination of the feasibility of
algae production in the aerated lagoon
effluent.
5. Lagoon sealing characteristics of the
solids.
6. Although it was not outlined in the
proposal, laboratory analyses of the
system effluent were made before and
after trickling through 5-foot and
10-foot columns of sand. The sand was
obtained from the irrigation site area.
Although it was initially envisioned that the lagoon
simulation model would be separate, it became apparent during
the work that it should be incorporated with the irrigation
simulation model of Component IV. The result of this merger
was a mathematical model that simulated the lagoon storage
requirements and water quality.
-9-
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The results of the Component III work are reported in
Sections VI and VII.
Component IV
The work to be accomplished under this heading was
the development of an irrigation simulation model; the selection
of the irrigation site area; an evaluation of the feasibility
of groundwater control and management within the site area;
and agricultural productivity, market, and cropping studies.
The irrigation site area soils and groundwater in-
vestigations were performed by the Layne-Northern Company,
Inc. Included in their work were nine soils test hole borings
and two aquifer test wells. The initial analysis of the test
well data was performed by Dr. W. G. Keck, while the overall
analysis and interpretation of the entire data was under the
direction of Dr. James Hackett.
The evaluations of the agricultural aspects of the
study were accomplished by various members of the Agricultural
faculty at the Michigan State University, East Lansing, under
the direction of the Department of Agricultural Economics.
Sections VII, VIII, and IX report the work done under
Component IV.
References
A consequence of these studies was the assembly £ind
review of a large number of references covering the topics
under investigation. A listing of these references has been
included in the report as Section XI and has been categorized
under the headings: Wastewater Irrigation, Trace Elements in
Soils, and Lagoon Treatment.
-10-
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SECTION IV
WASTEWATER ANALYSES
Introduction
In order to determine the amounts of various heavy
metals and other substances in the wastewaters within the
Muskegon-Mona Lake area, a wastewater sampling and analyses
program was conducted at the existing City of Muskegon and
City of Muskegon Heights sewage treatment plants. Samples of
the influent and effluent at each of the plants tested per-
mitted observations of the effects on the constituents meas-
ured by activated sludge treatment at the Muskegon Heights
plant and primary treatment at the Muskegon plant. Also in-
cluded were analyses of selected parameters to determine the
relative amounts of soluble and insoluble portions.
The results of the wastewater sample analyses are
generally typical of those associated with wastewaters con-
taining both domestic and industrial wastes. However, the
data suggests that there are times when scattered dumping of
strong industrial wastes into the wastewater collection system
takes place. This indicates the need for sewer use regulations
This study was made by Tenco Hydro/Aerosciences, Inc.
who supervised the sample collection and performed the sample
analyses in their laboratories in Chicago. The wastewater
sample collection was performed by the Environmental Health
Section of the Muskegon County Health Department.
General Procedures
Samples were collected for three weeks, seven days
a week, at both the City of Muskegon Sewage Treatment Plant
(Primary treatment) and at the Muskegon Heights Sewage Treat-
ment Plant (Activated Sludge). The City of Muskegon treatment
plant was sampled first from April 4th to April 24th. The
Muskegon Heights treatment plant was sampled in two periods.
The first period was from April 29th to May 12th, during which
time lime was being used experimentally to reduce the phos-
phate in the effluent. The second period was from May 23rd
to May 31st, at which time the plant operated under normal
conditions (without lime addition).
Daily composites, weekly composites, and occasional
grab samples were analyzed for trace metals, toxic compounds,
-11-
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nutrients and mineral composition. Hourly samples were
checked for pH, prior to being composited. The scope was
limited to measuring concentration patterns of the various
parameters in both the influent and effluent of the two sewage
treatment plants. Differences in concentration between fil-
tered and unfiltered samples were also measured. No attempt
was made to correlate plant operating data with variations in
the influent composition.
The following parameters were measured daily:
Cadmium
Calcium
Chromium
Chloride
Fluoride
Copper
Cyanide
Iron
Nickel
Nitrogen (Ammonia)
Hexane Solubles
Phenol
Sulfide
Sulfate
Zinc
The following parameters were measured weekly:
Aluminum
Arsenic
Manganese
Lead
Nitrogen (Nitrate)
Nitrogen (Organic)
Phosphate (Total)
Potassium
Selenium
Sodium
Tin
Temperature was recorded daily and pH was checked
hourly.
Collection of Samples
Samples were collected hourly from the influent
channel and effluent channel at each of the sewage treatment
plants by use of automatic samplers. Twenty-four individual
samples were collected daily at each sampling point. Twelve
bottles contained caustic to serve as a preservative for phenol
-12-
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and cyanide. The twelve other bottles did not contain any
preservatives. The bottles were arranged so that every other
hour a preserved sample was collected. The samples were
brought to the Muskegon County Health Department, Environ-
mental Health Section Laboratory daily for compositing and
preparation for shipping. All samples were chilled and packed
in an ice chest for shipment to Chicago the same day.
Sulphide samples were collected on an individual
basis using a D.O. sampling can and plastic bottles. The
samples were field stabilized.
Grab samples were collected either two or three times
per week on different days and at various times. The grab
samples were divided into two portions. One portion was split
into two samples, one as received and one to which caustic was
added as a preservative. An ammonia sample was also taken and
preservative added. The other portion was filtered using
coarse qualitative paper. The filtrate was then treated the
same as the first portion.
The sampling was scheduled for seven days per week
for three weeks at each plant. At the Muskegon Heights Sewage
Treatment Plant it was necessary to split the sampling period
into a fourteen day and a nine day period. This was due to
experimental work on phosphate removal being conducted at the
plant in April and early May. It was felt removal data under
both experimental and standard conditions might prove useful.
Field Procedures
Every morning two staff members from the Environmental
Health Section, Muskegon County Health Department would visit
the sampling location, remove samplers and collect the 24 in-
fluent and 24 effluent samples. New bottles would be replaced
in the automatic samplers, units activated, and replaced at
sampling sites. Grab samples would be collected and sulphide
samples field preserved using zinc acetate and sodium hydroxide.
The automatic samplers used were SERCO samplers which contain
24 separate bottles attached to a single probe. All bottles
were evacuated after being placed in a sampler. Each hour a
closk released a trigger mechanism (a clamp on a hose) which
allowed an evacuated bottle to siphon a sample through the probe
into the bottle. Sulphide samples were collected in stainless
steel D.O. sampling cans using a plastic bottle. After samples
were brought to the laboratory (Muskegon County Health Depart-
ment) , the pH was measured on all samples without preservatives.
Samples were then composited proportional to the average flow,
both those with and without preservatives. The two composites
-13-
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were then poured into plastic bottles with polyseal caps and
refrigerated prior to shipment. Additional samples v/ere
preserved with mercuric nitrate for ammonia determincition.
On days when grab samples were collected, one half-
gallon was shipped as collected and one half-gallon was shipped
after caustic was added. A second gallon was filtered using
filter paper and one half-gallon of filtrate was shipped as
filtered and the other half-gallon was shipped after the sample
was preserved with caustic. Filter paper was used instead of
the preferred method of using a membrane filter because of
sample volume requirements. The poor filterability of sewage
gave a prohibitive filtering period with membrane filters.
The pH was measured using a Beckman portable pH-meter, stand-
ardized daily.
Laboratory Procedures
Upon arrival at the laboratory in Chicago, samples
were further processed. Samples for metals analyses were
acidified. Aliquots of daily samples were composited for
weekly analyses as listed in Scope of study.
All laboratory procedures used were either from
"Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater,
12th Edition, 1965, A.P.H.A." or "Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration Laboratory Procedures, November 1969,
Department of Interior". Table 1 lists all parameters and
procedures used for this study. A Jarrel-Ash Maximum Versality
Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer was used for all atomic
absorption measurements. A Bausch & Lomb Spectronic - 20 was
used for colorimetric procedures.
Test Results
All data are summarized in Tables 2, 3, and 4, with
the exception of pH and temperature. Most pH measurements at
the Muskegon Sewage Treatment Plant varied between 7.0 and 8.0
units. The maximum value detected was 11.03 units and the
minimum value was 2.62 pH units. Temperatures ranged from
10°C. to 14°C. at the Muskegon plant. At the Muskegon Heights
Sewage Treatment Plant, the pH ranged from 6.8 to 8.4, with
no extreme results. The temperature varied from 12°C. to
18°C.
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TABLE 1: LABORATORY METHODOLOGY TABULATION
Parameter
Aluminum
Arsenic
Cadmium
Calcium
Chloride
Chromium
Copper
Cyanide
Fluoride
Hexane Solubles
Iron
Lead
Manganese
Nickel
Nitrogen (Ammonia)
Nitrogen (Nitrate)
Nitrogen (Organic)
Phenol
Phosphate
Potassium
Selenium
Sodium
Sulfate
Sulfide
Tin
Zinc
Method Reference
A.A.S.* F.W
A.'A.S. F.W
A.A.S. F.W
A.A.S. F.W
Titration Std
A.A.S. F.W
A.A.S. F.W
Colorimetric F.W
Colorimetric (SPADNS) Std
Soxhlet Extraction Std
A.A.S. F.W
A.A.S. F.W
A.A.S. F.W
A.A.S. F.W
Colorimetric-Technicon F.W
Colorimetric Std
Colorimetric Std
Colorimetric F.W
Colorimetric F.W
A.A.S. F.W
A.A.S. F.W
A.A.S. F.W
Turbidimetric Std
Titration Std
A.A.S. F.W
A.A.S. F.W
.P.C.A.**
.P.C.A.
.P.C.A.
Jr v* £\ *
. Methods***
P C A
J~ v-> *i
ir \_* f\
C \^ -T"l
. Methods
. Methods
.P.C.A.
-tr v_^ i £\ »
.P.C.A.
.P.C.A.
.P.C.A.
. Methods
. Methods
.P.C.A.
.P.C.A.
.P.C.A.
.P.C.A.
.P.C.A.
. Methods
. Methods
p r A
JL v~- .ti
.P.C.A.
*A.A.S. - Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
**F.W.P.C.A. - Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,
Laboratory Manual, November 1969.
***Std. Methods - Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater, 12th Edition, 1965,A.P.H.A.
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TABLE 2: SUMMARY OF ANALYSES-MUSKEGON
SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT
Inf luent-mg ./I. Ef f luent-mg./l.
Grab
Parameter
Composite
Total
Filtered
Composite
Grab
Total
Filtered
Ammonia Nitrogen
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Aluminum
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Arsenic
Max.
Avg.
Min .
Cadmium
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Calcium
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Chloride
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Chromium
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Copper
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Cyanide
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Fluoride
Max.
Avg.
Min.
23
16
9
0
0
0
-------
TABLE 2
(continued)
Inf luent-mg./l. Ef f luenr-mg./I.
Parameter
Grab
Composite Total Filtered
Composite
Grab
Total Filtered
Hexane Solubles
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Iron
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Lead
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Manganese
Max.
Avg.
Min .
Nickel
Max.
Avg.
Min.
97 51 32
55 42 24
27 17 12
3.25 1.72 0.44
1.51 1.11 0.36
0.62 0.47 0.25
2.05
1.35
0.88
0.18
0.16
0.11
0.98 0.40 0.35
0.34 0.29 0.24
0.04 0.13 0.10
69
36
15
1.46
0.99
0.52
0.65
0.51
0.33
0.24
0.15
0.09
1.38
0.38
0.04
33 26
28 18
19 8
1.30 0.41
0.69 0.32
0.46 0.21
- -
-
- -
- -
-
-
0.30 0.28
0.21 0.20
0.13 0.13
Nitrate Nitrogen
Max .
Avg.
Min.
_ _ _
_
- -
2.50
0.89
0.05
-
-
-
Organic Nitrogen
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Phosphate
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Phenol
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Potassium
Max.
Avg.
Min.
29.50
22.87
13.25
(P)
3.94
3.85
3.78
0.110
0.063
0.041
11.23
9.81
8.70
33.40
23.02
10.65
3.75
3.04
2.44
1.000
0.593
0.290
11.23
9.63
8.41
- -
-
- -
-
-
- -
- -
-
- -
_
- -
- -
-17-
-------
TABLE 2
(continued)
Influent-mg./I.
Grab
Ef fluent: -ing. /I.
Grab
Parameter Composite Total Filtere'd" Composite Total Filtered^
Selenium
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Sodium
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Sulfate
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Sulfide
Max .
Avg.
Min.
Tin
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Zinc
Max.
Avg.
Min .
0.200
0.070
<0.005
81.2
65.3
44.8
70.0
52.5
42.5
0
0
0
<0.10
<0.10
<0.10
9.95
1.80
0.22
1.78
0.74
0.28
0.85
0.31
0.11
0.200
0.070
<0.005
79.7
65.6
42.0
70.0
66.1
62.0
0
0
0
<0.10
O.10
<0.10
2.86
1.18
0.19
2.00 1.25
0.70 0.43
0.14 0.10
-18-
-------
TABLE 3: SUMMARY OF ANALYSES-MUSKEGON
HEIGHTS SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT
(PERIOD WITH LIME TREATMENT)
Inf luent-mg./I. Effluent-mg./l.
Grab Grab
Parameter Composite Total Filtered Composite Total Filtered
Ammonia Nitrogen
Max .
Avg .
Min .
Aluminum
Max .
Avg.
Min.
Arsenic
Max.
Avg.
Min .
Cadmium
Max.
Avg .
Min.
Calcium
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Chloride
Max.
Avg.
Min .
Chromium
Max .
Avg.
Min.
Copper
Max.
Avg .
Min.
Cyanide
Max .
Avg.
Min .
Fluoride
Max.
Avg.
Min.
31.
27.
22.
0.
0.
0.
<0.
<0.
-------
TABLE 3
(continued)
Inf luent-mg. /I. Ef fluent -mg. /I.
Grab
Parameter Composite Total Filtered
Hexane Solubles
Max. 99 107 29
Avg. 63 107 29
Min. 15 107 29
Iron
Max. 3.40 1.49 0.40
Avg. 1.41 1.49 0.40
Min. 0.31 1.49 0.40
Lead
Max. 4.50
Avg . 2.63
Min. 0.76
Manganese
Max. 0.21
Avg. 0.18
Min. 0.16
Nickel
Max. 0.16 0.07 0.03
Avg. 0.06 0.07 0.03
Min. <0.01 0.07 0.03
Nitrate Nitrogen
Max . - - -
Avg. - - -
Min. -
Organic Nitrogen
Max. 25.10
Avg. 18.58
Min. 12.05
Phosphate (P)
Max. 12.65
Avg. 12.42
Min. 12.20
Phenol
Max. 1.720
Avg. 0.574
Min. 0.260
Potassium
Max. 16.0
Avg. 15.5
Min. 15.0
Composite
149
27
2
4.00
0.73
0.11
0.50
0.35
0.20
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.11
0.06
<0.01
0.14
0.12
0.09
15.00
14.60
14.20
3.84
3.32
2.81
0.048
0.024
0.011
16.0
12.0
8.0
Grab
Total Filtered
11 10
11 10
11 10
0.04 0.02
0.04 0.02
0.04 0.02
-
-
_
-
-
- -
<0.01 <0.01
<0.01 <0.01
<0.01 <0.01
-
_
- -
-
- -
- -
-
-
- -
-
-
-
-
_ _
_
-20-
-------
TABLE 3
(continued)
Influent-mg;'/!.
Effluent-mg./I.
Grab
Grab
Parameter Composite Total Filtered Composite Total Filtered
Selenium
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Sodium
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Sulfate
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Sulfide
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Tin
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Zinc
Max.
Avg.
Min.
0.005
0.002
<0.005
93.0
86.5
80.0
80.0
80.0
80.0
2.40
0.28
0
0.47
0.30
0.20
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.005
0.002
<0.005
85.0
80.0
75.0
97.5
88.8
80.0
0.51
0.06
0
0.20
0.11
0.04
0.10 0.06
0.10 0.06
0.10 0.06
-21-
-------
TABLE 4: SUMMARY OF ANALYSES-MUSKEGON
HEIGHTS SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT
(PERIOD WITHOUT LIME TREATMENT)
Inf luent-mg./l. Ef £luent-mg./l.
Grab
Parameter
Composite
Total
Filtered
Composite
Grab
Total
Filtered
Ammonia Nitrogen
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Aluminum
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Arsenic
Max.
Avg.
Min .
Cadmium
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Calcium
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Chloride
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Chromium
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Copper
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Cyanide
Max.
Avg.
Min .
Fluoride
Max.
Avg.
Min.
28.50
23.56
18.75
0.22
0.22
0.22
0.09
0.09
0.09
0.045
0.022
0.002
50.0
50.0
50.0
109
109
109
0.64
0.26
0.10
0.150
0.087
0.050
.181
.072
.002
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0.021
0.021
0.020
-
-
-
-
-
-
0.24
0.17
0.12
0.130
0.80
0.050
.213
.089
.004
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0.021
0.017
0.009
-
-
-
-
-
-
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.060
0.040
0.030
.213
.086
.004
-
-
-
30.00
25.29
19.50
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
0.29
0.29
0.29
0.037
0.015
0.003
98.1
98.1
98.1
110
110
110
0.14
0.10
0.05
0.148
0.062
0.030
.120
.059
.024
0.30
0.30
0.30
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0.013
0.009
0.003
-
-
-
-
-
-
0.09
0.09
0.09
0.060
0.038
0.025
.060
.037
.013
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0.008
0.004
0.001
-
-
-
-
-
-
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.020
0.011
0.005
.052
.022
.002
-
-
-
-22-
-------
TABLE 4
(continued)
Influent-mg. /I. Effluent-ing ./I.
Parameter Composite
Hexane Solubles
Max . 9 6
Avg. 71
Min. 41
Iron
Max. 1.42
Avg. 0.92
Min. 0.28
Lead
Max. 1.01
Avg . 1.01
Min. 1.01
Manganese
Max. 0.99
Avg. 0.99
Min. 0.99
Nickel
Max. 0.19
Avg. 0.07
Min. 0.01
Nitrate Nitrogen
Max .
Avg.
Min .
Organic Nitrogen
Max. 24.90
Avg. 24.90
Min. 24.90
Phosphate (P)
Max. 12.20
Avg. 12.20
Min. 12.20
Phenol
Max. 0.420
Avg. 0.231
Min. 0.120
Potassium
Max. 11.0
Avg. 11.0
Min. 11.0
Grab
Total Filtered Composite
63 36 23
49 27 13
40 17 7
1.01 0.43 3.88
0.87 0.39 0.70
0.73 0.35 0.20
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.06 0.06 0.13
0.04 0.04 0.07
<0.01 <0.01 0.01
0.06
0.06
0.06
15.40
15.40
15.40
12.65
12.65
12.65
0.071
0.021
0.006
18.0
18.0
18.0
Grab
Total Filtered
18 17
13 10
8 5
0.44 0.22
0.34 0.13
0.23 0.07
-
-
- -
-
-
-
0.05 0.04
0.04 0.03
0.03 0.02
- -
-
-
-
- -
_ _
-
-
- -
- -
-
_ _
_
-
- -
-23-
-------
TABLE 4
(continued)
Inf luent-mg. /I.
Ef fluent -mg . /!_._
Grab
; Grat Grab
Parameter Composite Total Filtered Composite Total Filtered
Selenium
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Sodium
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Sulfate
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Sulfide
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Tin
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Zinc
Max.
Avg.
Min.
0.090
0.090
0.090
83.8
83.8
83.8
66.2
66.2
66.2
0.17
0.03
0
0.34
0.25
0.12
0.27
0.24
0.18
0.17
0.14
0.12
0.290
0.290
0.290
90.0
90.0
90.0
92.5
92.5
92.5
0
0
0
0.29
0.14
0.09
0.12 0.17
0.10 0.07
0.07 0.07
-24-
-------
The concentrations of parameters reported in Tables
2, 3, and 4 are reasonable for an industrial waste-sewage
system such as Muskegon and Muskegon Heights except for phenol.
The phenol concentrations found in the Muskegon Sewage Treat-
ment Plant influent and effluent appear to be reversed, with
the effluent being about 10 times higher than the influent.
The samples could not have been reversed for 21 days
for phenol analysis since the hexane solubles analysis is taken
from ^.h'S same bottle as the phenol and appears correct. With
an automatic SERCO sampler, a sample is collected for only
about 5 seconds per hour. It is suggested that the phenol
pollutant is a slug flow of short duration and high concentra-
tion. This change in distribution would increase the probability
of collecting a sample containing phenol. It should also be noted
that a small pumping station, serving the hospital, pumps in-
termittently at a rather high rate. It is possible that phenolic
wastes from this area may surge through and not be sampled in
the influent. The pumping station was usually activated between
9 and 10 a.m., during which period the bottles in the samplers
were being changed.
The occasional higher values found in both the influent
and/or effluent indicate the possibility of dumps of strong
waste which could upset a short detention period biological
system. In particular, the very high and very low pH values
detected could easily upset a system and suggest that other toxic
materials may also have been discharged but not detected. All
attempts to isolate dumps of heavy metals, cyanide, or other
toxic materials have been unsuccessful and limited by the time
and funds available in the present study.
-25-
-------
SECTION V
TRACK ELEMENTS IN SOILS
Introduction
Trace elements are those which normally occur in
water or soil in very small quantities. Some may be essential
for plant growth in very small amounts while others are non-
essential. In FWPCA's Report of the Committee on Water Quality
Criteria (203) a list of trace elements is given as follows:
aluminum, arsenic, beryllium, boron, cadmium, chromium, cobalt,
copper, iron, fluorine, lead, lithium, manganese, molybdenum,
nickel, selenium, tin, tungsten, titanium, vandium and zinc.
Trace element contents in sewage vary greatly among
municipalities. The elements typically contained in sewage
derived from municipal and industrial sources are: chromium,
manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, molybdenum,
cadmium and lead. The contents also vary on a daily or seasonal
basis and may range from below detectable limits in some samples
to concentrations in excess of 1000 mg/1 for common elements
such as iron.
The reason for the investigation of the effects of
trace elements in soils is to determine what, if any, long-
term, toxic soils conditions may evolve through the continued
use of treated wastewater for irrigation. The toxicities are
generally related to heavy metal concentrations in excess of
that which can be tolerated by the soil or plants. The approach
to this study has been to review extensively the avavailable
information on this topic.
The value of treated sewage and digested sludge as
soil conditioner to stimulate plant growth has been widely
recognized. With an increase in public acceptance, the appli-
cation of sludge to soils for ultimate sludge disposal and
soil improvement will become increasingly common. Sludges are
not balanced fertilizers. They are high neither in nitrogen
nor in phosphorus and are low to very low in potassium.
Evans (178) reports that heavy sludge applications containing
copper, boron and zinc have also produced toxic effects on
vegetables, particularly spinach and beans, when grown in
acid soils.
The majority of research thus far conducted on treated
sewage and wasted sludge as possible fertilizing materials in
the United States has dealt with only applications covering a
-27-
-------
short span of time. Research dealing with trace elements in
soils has been aimed at the beneficial use of the trace
elements as plant nutrients. No clear evidence of toxicities
and yield reductions to crops have been reported in the lit-
erature, perhaps because of the relatively short experience
of farm utilization and relatively low rates of application.
Long-term application of sewage to farms has been
experienced in Europe. Rohde (207) indicates that continuous
applications of sewage sludge containing significant amounts
of trace elements to agricultural soils could eventually re-
duce crop yields to uneconomical levels due to developed
toxicity. Rohde's work appears to be the only well-documented
report of heavy metal toxicity to plants induced by long-term
application of sewage to agricultural land (87 years at Paris).
Not enough research has been done regarding long-term disposi-
tion of trace elements and the effects on crops. However,
Horn (185) suggests that estimates of relatively short-term
(less than about 50 years) effects of sludge on soil properties
can be based on existing knowledge of soil compositions and
the chemical, bio-chemical, and physical systems operative in
natural soils.
Trace Elements in Sewage and Sludge
Horn (185) presents general concentrations of trace
elements that can be expected in sewage sludge from large
municipalities in Table 5. These elements are also present
in most mineral soils but in much different proportions than
those existing in sewage.
Trace elements in both raw sewage and treated sewage
were determined from composite samples collected at the Muske-
gon Sewage Treatment Plant and the Muskegon Heights Sewage
Treatment Plant. The ranges of concentrations are presented
in Table 6. More detailed information is included in Section
IV of this Report.
Trace Elements in Soils
Typical ranges of trace elements in soils are shown
in Table 7. Iron, a very common constituent of soils, and
cadmium, an exceedingly minor constituent, have been omitted-
from this table.
The character of soils affects the amounts of heavy
metals retained on a long-term basis. Soils with high clay
-28-
-------
TABLE 5: TRACE ELEMENTS IN SEWAGE SLUDGE
Concentration-mg./I.
Elements
Chromium (Cr)
Manganese (Mn)
Iron (Fe)
Cobalt (Co)
Nickel (Ni)
Copper (Co)
Zinc (Zn)
Molybdenum (Mo)
Cadmium (Cd)
Lead (Pb)
MSDGC
Range
26-580
5-143
661-9740
BDL*
Trace-150
24-690
90-2280
BDL-0.06
1-110
6-510
Average
181
48
2297
--
30
143
--
--
22
98
San
Range
0
ND**
ND
ND
0-0.75
20-33
67-200
ND
0.2.5
3-11
piego
Average
0
__
0.1
28
127
0.4
6
Sources of Data: The Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater
Chicago (MSDGC) and the City of San Diego,
Calif.
*Below detectable limits.
**Not determined.
-29-
-------
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-30-
-------
TABLE 7: TRACE ELEMENTS IN SOILS
Elements
Manganese (Mn)
Chromium (Cr)
Nickel (Ni)
Zinc (Zn)
Lead (Pb)
Copper (co)
Cobalt (Co)
Molybdenum (Mo)
Typical Range, ppm
200-1,450
5-1,000
5-500
10-300
2-200
2-100
1-35
0.2-5
Possible Range, ppm
3-10,000+
0.5-10,000+
0.4-4,500
2-4,500
0.2-2,500
0.1-250
0.1-100
0.1-200
Source: Mitchell, R. L., "Trace Elements in Chemistry of
the Soil," Ed. F. E. Bear, Reinhold Publishing
Corp., N.Y. (1955).
-31-
-------
contents have a greater capacity to absorb heavy metals owing
to fixation. Mineral soils containing large percentages of
layer silicate clay materials can fix substantial amounts of
heavy metals within their crystal lattices and also hold them
rather tightly as exchangeable cations on their negatively
charged surfaces. The exchangeable cations are available to
plants but are not easily replaced by other common soil cations.
Copper and other metals held by clays, will have strong re-
sidual effects which are harder to eliminate once established
in the soil.
On the other hand, sandy soils with little or no
content of clay minerals display little tendency for fixation
of metals by this mechanism. Sandy soils have a high pro-
portion of quartz which has no ability to absorb heavy metals.
Fixation that will occur in sandy soils is mainly a function
of the amount of organic matter present.
In either soil type, an increase in organic content
or an increase in soil pH to a near neutral or alkaline state
will increase its ability to retain heavy metals.
Generally, heavy metals, with the exception of molyb-
denum are more soluble in the acid range and become highly
mobile when the soil is below a pH of five. Heavy applications
of acid-forming nitrogen fertilizers may lower the pH and lead
to heavy metal toxicity. Such cases of toxicity may be over-
come by lime application. The addition of lime results in the
formation of insoluble carbonates of the heavy metals and also
fixation as phosphates.
It is well known that the heavy metals in soils are
closely associated with organic compounds forming stable
organo-metal complexes. Regardless of the nature of the com-
plexing agent, the stability of organic complexes of bi-valent
metal ions involves the following order Cu, Ni , Co, Zn. Cd,
Fe, Mn (Irving-Williams series) (190).
In general, heavy metal elements complexed by organic
compounds are fixed and largely unavailable to plants. Soil
organic matter therefore plays a vital role in the fixation of
applied heavy metals. In soils, the highest contents of heavy
metals occur near the surface where organic matter content is
also normally greatest. This has led to the suggestion that
where toxic quantities of heavy materials exist in the topsoil,
deep plowing might gradually alleviate the condition both by
dilution and by subsequent release of the metal through gradual
acidification and loss of organic matter in the lower depths
(210) .
-32-
-------
Heavy metals in soils with a high pH and containing
carbonates are precipitated in an insoluble form as carbonates
and also as phosphates. This recation is the basis for liming
to correct heavy metal toxicities associated with acid soils.
Frequently, in soils incompletely leached of carbonates, the
metals are concentrated in subsoil horizons where carbonates
are present and the pH is high. Uniform distribution of these
elements in soil profiles cannot therefore be assumed (181).
Heavy metals that are not taken up by plants or fixed
by stable organic compounds and clay minerals can be leached
to the groundwater. Certain organic compounds are water sol-
uble and having chelating properties. These can complex
metals, prevent their precipitation and allow them to be leached.
Mineral acids associated with mine drainage can also be highly
effective in dissolving and carrying metal salts into ground-
water and surface waters. Conditions that favor leaching also
favor increased availability to plants and, therefore, many
cases of metal toxicities have been associated with soils and
waters of a very low pH. Despite this, heavy metals are for
the most part fixed in soils and not leached out as indicated
by the low heavy metal contents in lakes and streams. Due to
the higher pH of sludge and the low buffering capacity of sands,
the pH should be increased to near neutrality in a short period
of time.
Effects of Trace Elements on Plants
Horn (185) has pointed out that the application of
sludge to soils not only improves soil structure but also
contributes major plant nutrients and micronutrients. He has
discussed extensively both the heavy metal effects on soil and
the nutritional aspects of a sludge - soil mixture. However
he has also pointed out that while certain soil properties
benefit from light or short-term applications of sludge, con-
tinued heavy applications may eventually become detrimental.
Lunin ejt aJL (203) states: When an element is added
to the soil in toxic amounts, it may combine with it to give
either of two results. First, it may decrease in concen-
tration so that it is no longer toxic. Second, it may increase
the concentration of that element in the soil. If the pro-
cess of adding irrigation water containing a toxic level of
the element continues, a steady state will be approached with
time in which the amount of the element leaving the soil in
the drainage water will equal the amount added with the
irrigation water, no further change in concentration in the
soil will occur.
-33-
-------
Therefore, irrigation water containing trace
elements may be added for many years before a steady state
is approached. A situation can exist then where soil toxic-
ities may not develop for years, decades or even centuries
from the continued addition of irrigation waters. The time
would depend on factors apart from properties of the water
itself. Changes in technology and economy could easily alter
circumstances significantly in such a long time.
Genetic differences in tolerance of plants to dif-
ferent elements or ions has been mentioned. Variability among
species is well recognized. Recent investigations by Foy
et al (182), working with soluble aluminum in soils, has
demonstrated that there is also variability among varieties
within a given species. This suggests the possibility of
breeding varieties to minimize phytotoxicity which may result
from a constituent in irrigation water.
Research dealing with effects of trace elements on
plant growth does not permit, in general, any conclusions re-
garding threshold values beyond which a specific plant will
react favorably. Most studies have been carried out with
several plant species in sand or solution cultures under a
wide variety of environmental conditions. It is difficult to
extrapolate from these sand and solution cultures to soil
conditions.
Soil conditions could influence the availability of
the element to the plant. Thus, amounts of elements that can
be tolerated in certain types of soil would not be tolerated
in other soils. Comprehensive reviews of literature dealing
with trace element effects on plants have recently been pub-
lished (167) (170) (202) . Additional research is needed to
predict reactions between ions in irrigation water and various
soil types, and the resultant effect on various plant species.
Limits for Irrigation Water
Lunin e_t al (203) , developing a workable progrcim of
acceptable limits for trace elements in irrigation waters,
defines two types of soil groupings that may be irrigated:
(a) lands having a significant fraction of well-drained soils
classified as sands, loamy sands, or sandy loams, and (b)
lands, made up principally of finer textured soils and gen-
erally more slowly drained.
Individual minor element limits for water to be used
on type "a" lands are calculated assuming that steady state
may be approached in a relatively short period of time and,
-34-
-------
therefore, that the concentration in irrigation waters
approximates that of soil solution. Upper limits that may be
set for minor element tolerances in water for type "b" lands
are somewhat more arbitrary. They are drawn largely from
maximum safe fertilizer additions that might be applied to
soils under the most favorable conditions for fixing the
element in the soil. Table 8 shows the suggested trace
element tolerances for irrigation waters.
Sodium Adsorption Ratio
Salinity and the ratio of sodium to calcium and
magnesium are important factors in judging the suitability of
water for irrigation. Soils commonly are not adversely af-
fected by saline irrigation waters if the sodium concentration
is low in relation to the concentration of calcium and mag-
nesium, but plants have difficulty in extracting water from
saline soil solutions. The osmotic pressure of such solutions
interferes with the movement of water from the solution into
the plant root, and under these conditions, the plants may
suffer from incipient drought.
A sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), which is a measure
of the effect of irrigation water on soil, of 8 or less is
considered safe for all uses in agricultural crop irrigation.
Values of 12 to 20 are marginal and continued use of waters
with values much greater than 20 would lead to decreases in
permeability. Soils with high SAR's are relatively impermeable
to air and water. They are hard when dry, difficult to till,
and plastic and sticky when wet. These adverse physical con-
ditions retard or prevent germitation and water removal by
plants and are generally unfavorable for plant growth.
The anticipated sodium adsorption ratio for the
Muskegon wastewaters appears less than 3, an indication of a
balanced concentration of sodium as against calcium and mag-
nesium. Table 9 presents the SAR values of the raw waste-
water and the treated effluents at various stages of treat-
ment in the proposed lagoon system as indicated by the results
of laboratory pilot studies.
Conclusions
A review of the available information on the sig-
nificance of trace elements in soils and the wastewater
sample test results reported in Section IV of this Report
indicates that the present levels of trace elements in the
Muskegon area wastewaters are not likely to interfere with
-35-
-------
TABLE 8: TRACE ELEMENT TOLERANCES FOR IRRIGATION WATERS
Element
Aluminum
Arsenic
Beryllium
Boron
Cadmium
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Fluorine
Iron
Lead
Lithium
Manganese
Molybdenum
Nickel
Selenium
Tin
Tungsten
Vanadium
Zinc
For Water Used Con- For Short-Term Use** On
tinuously on All Soils Fine Textured Soils Only
(mg/1) (mg/1)
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.75
0.005
5.0
0.2
0.2
*
*
5.0
5.0
2.0
0.005
0.5
0.05
*
*
10.0
5.0
20.0
10.0
1.0
2.0
0.05
20.0
10.0
5.0
*
*
20.0
5.0
20.0
0.05
2.0
0.05
*
*
10.0
10.0
*No limits proposed.
**The term "short-term" used here means a period of time as
long as 20 years.
Source: FWPCA, "Water Quality Criteria," (1968). Reference
203 .
-36-
-------
TABLE 9: SODIUM ADSORPTION RATIO OF MUSKEGON WASTEWATER
Item
Sodium, mg/1
me/1
Calcium, mg/1
me/I
Magnesium,
mg/1
me/1
SAR
Mixed Liquor
2-Day
Detention
Filtered
Feed
125
3
5
30
16
12
0
1
.0
.44
.4
.5
.0
.99
.84
@21
119
5
110
5
12
1
2
°C
.6
.20
.6
.52
.5
.03
.87
@4°C
118
5
200
10
12
0
2
.0
.13
.0
.0
.0
.99
.19
621
105
4
121
6
13
1
2
°C
.5
.57
.9
.08
.0
.07
.42
@4°C
105.
4.
118.
5.
12.
0.
2.
5
57
1
89
0
99
47
Note: 1. SAR = Na/ ~"N/(Ca + Mg)/2 (in me/1.)
2. Feed composed of 2 parts of domestic sewage and
3 parts of paper mill wastes from S. D. Warren
Company.
37-
-------
with its use as irrigation water. However, it is recognized
that a trace element monitoring program should be included as
a part of the operational framework of the wastewater manage-
ment system. This program would be used to assure a waste-
water of continuing acceptable quality.
-38-
-------
SECTION VI
LAGOON TREATMENT LABORATORY STUDIES
Introduction
Included in the laboratory studies were bench-scale
operations and tests to demonstrate the feasibility and effects
of different unit processes as well as to determine initial
design parameter values. This work, performed in the labora-
tories of Tenco Hydro/Aerosciences, comprised the following
investigations:
1. Bench scale operations of aerated lagoons
with varying detention times and tempera-
tures treating a combination of the City
of Muskegon and S. D. Warren Company
wastewaters. This work demonstrated the
treatability of the waste with average
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) reductions
ranging from 70 to 90 percent with two to
four days detention. Also developed were
aeration and oxygen demand factors which
will be useful in preparing the basis of
design for the aeration equipment.
2. Chlorine demand tests on the aerated lagoon
effluent. These tests demonstrated that
reasonable chlorine dosages (up to 10 mg./l.)
would be required for disinfection.
3. Sand sealing characteristics of the system
solids. This was performed to simulate the
degree to which these solids would assist
in sealing the bottom of the storage lagoon.
4. Sludge gas production of the system solids.
This test assisted in the determination of
certain characteristics of system sludge.
5. Algae growth tests on the aerated lagoon
effluent. The results confirmed that algae
growths would occur in the storage lagoons.
6. Column filtration tests of the aerated lagoon
effluent. These tests were run to determine
the effect of sand filtration on the color,
phosphates, and nitrogen present in the
-39-
-------
aerated lagoon effluent. The tests,
performed with. 5-foot and 10-foot columns
containing sandy soils from the irrigation
site area, showed significant reductions
in color, phosphates, and ammonia nitrogen.
Scope of Work
The purpose of this investigation was to conduct
laboratory studies on various aspects of the plan for treating
municipal raw sewage with pulp and paper wastewater. This
plan includes the treatment of the sewage - paper waste mixture
by aerated lagoons, followed by storage lagoon impoundment of
the aerated lagoon effluent. Water from the storage lagoon
will be used for irrigation. Basic evaluation parameters
were BOD and filterable solids reduction plus effluent BOD
and filterable solids (suspended solids) content as a function
of detention. Other design parameters included oxygen uptake
rate, alpha factor, oxygen transfer efficiency and k-, BOD
reaction rate values. Raw sewage collected at the City of
Muskegon Sewage Treatment Plant and wastewater from the S. D.
Warren Company (Division of Scott Paper Company) were used
for this study.
Treatment by aerated lagoons was simulated in the
laboratory using the fill-and-draw method and detention times
of 2, 4 and 6 days in constant temperature baths. Summer and
winter performances were approximated by operating the pilot
units at 20°C and 5°C.
The permeability of Muskegon soils using laboratory
lagoon effluent was tested, and the sealing ability of the
suspended solids was determinated.
The rate of gas production was measured from settled
sludge which will accumulate in the deep pond. This condition
was simulated in the laboratory by first collecting and re-
frigerating settled waste solids from the aeration units. Then
the sludge was allowed to ferment at approximately 22°C.
The quality of underground seepage from lagoon super-
natant (irrigation water) was also investigated using sand
columns of 5 and 10 feet. Also studied was the chlorine demand
of the lagoon supernatant as well as the growth of algae therein,
-40-
-------
Laboratory Procedures
Aerated Lagoons
The duration for the aerated lagoon study was 5 weeks.
Reaction cell volumes were 7, 7, and 10 liters for 2, 4 and
6-day units,respectively; one set of three for each temperature
of 20° and 5°C. Water baths were used to maintain the desired
temperatures.
Air was supplied to each unit by means of a 30 mm gas
dispersion tube. Since adequate dissolved oxygen levels were
readily obtained, the air rate was adjusted at a minimum to
maintain a completely mixed condition.
Feed for the units was prepared from 2 parts Muskegon
raw sewage and 3 parts Warren pulp and paper wastewater. Feed
volumes of 3.5, 1.7 and 1.65 liters were added daily to the
2, 4 and 6-day units, respectively.
Evaporation loss and temperature were checked daily,
while other paramaters such as, dissolved oxygen, pH, BOD,
settleable solids, total suspended solids and volatile sus-
pended solids were checked at least twice per week. BOD and
solids of mixed liquor and final (settled) effluent were made.
Sedimentation was done in an Imhoff cone with settleable solids
volume being recorded after 30 minutes. The supernatant was
siphoned off after one hour as final effluent for analysis.
Average weekly results are listed in Tables 10 and
11 for summer and winter operations, respectively. Table 12
gives the total chemical analyses on a typical feed, mixed
liquor,and final effluent of the aerated lagoon treatability
studies.
For design purposes the following parameters were
determined: oxygen uptake rate, alpha factor and oxygen
transfer efficiency. Oxygen-uptake rate is a measure of the
oxygen utilization of the biomass (MLSS). The alpha factor
is the ratio of the overall transfer coefficient, K a (20°C),
of the waste to that of water. Oxygen transfer efficiency is
the percentage of oxygen supplied that is absorbed by the
bulk liquid.
The oxygen uptake rate test was conducted in a 500
ml Erlenmeyer flask. Dissolved oxygen depletion as a function
of time was measured with a dissolved oxygen meter, while the
mixed liquor was being agitated by a magnetic stirrer. The
atmosphere was sealed off during the tests in order to eliminate
-41-
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the transfer of atmospheric gases into the liquid. Uptake
rates for high and low temperatures are tabulated in Table 13.
The alpha factor determination was conducted in a
2-liter jar. Air was supplied by a 30 mm gas dispersion tube
while the liquid was slowly agitated by a magnetic stirrer.
A rotameter metered the air flow rate. The liquid was first
de-oxygenated with sodium sulfite and cobalt chloride as a
catalyst. Dissolved oxygen concentrations (C^.) were taken at
frequent intervals and the overall transfer coefficient (KLa)
determined from the slope of (CS-C^-) vs Time on semi-log paper.
The saturation dissolved oxygen concentration is noted as Cs.
The KLa was then adjusted to 20°C by the following relationship,
(T-20)
KLa (20°C) = KLa/1.02 , where
T = Temperature in °C.
KLa (20°C) for tap water was obtained similarly. Alpha factors
were determined on a typical feed and mixed liquors, at high
and low temperatures, to check for any variation. Results are
given in Table 14. Oxygen transfer efficiency is defined by
the following:
Oxygen Transfer Efficiency =
02 absorbed X 100
0 supplied
Oxygen absorbed at zero dissolved oxygen level of the bulk
liquid is calculated from the relationship:
N = KLa (Cs) (8.34) V, where: N is the 02 absorbed
per unit time, Cs is the 09
saturation concentration or
the wastewater,and V is the
volume of the liquid.
In performing the oxygen transfer tests, the oxygen (air) supply
was measured with a rotameter and converted to units consistent
with N. Tests were run in a 2-liter jar at air flow rates of
1.5, 3.5, 3.5 and 7.5 scfh (standard cubic feet per hour) which
correspond to 35, 83, 130, and 177 scfm per 1000 cf (standard
cubic feet per minuteper 1000 cubic feet). Oxygen transfer
efficiency vs air supply rate is illustrated in Figure 1.
The BOD reaction rate constant of the feed and
settled effluent was determined by the Difference Method and
the use of Theriault Tables. BOD's for 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10
days were used. Seed for the BOD tests were obtained from a
local sewage treatment plant.
-45-
-------
TABLE 13 : AERATED LAGOON OXYGEN UPTAKE RATES
Oxygen
Wastewater
2
4
6
4
6
Day -Warm
Day -Warm
Day -Warm
Day-Cold
Day -Co Id
MLVSS
(mg/1)
188
213
202
172
180
Uptake Rate
(mg/l/hr)
7.
3.
3.
0.
0.
2
6
0
27
26
Uptake Rate
mg/1/hr/gm VSS
19
16
14
0
0
.2
.1
.8
.8
.7
Temp ( ° C )
24
24
24
5
9
TABLE 14: AERATED LAGOON ALPHA FACTORS
Wastewater Alpha Temp (°C)
Feed (Raw sewage & paper
waste) .88 22
Mixed Liquor:
2 Day-Warm .85 24
4 Day-Warm .93 21
2 Day-Cold .84 11
6 Day-Cold .82 7
-46-
-------
3.0
2.5
2.0
0)
4-1
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C
m
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c
r? 1.0
c»P
0.5
4 Days Detention-Warm
Temp. - 21°C.
012345678
Air Supply Rate - scfh
FIGURE 1: AERATED LAGOON OXYGEN TRANSFER TEST
-47-
-------
Permeability Test
A 2-inch I.D. column was used for permeability tests.
A constan.t water head was maintained above a 1-foot depth of
Muskegon area sand. The filtrate rate was recorded against
time and illustrated in Figure 2. The standard coefficient
of permeability, Ks, was determined from the following relation-
ship:
K = QL
s A(dh), where: Q is the discharge rate
L is the sand depth
A is the surface area
dh is the hydraulic head
The sand media was considered to approach a "sealed"
condition when the filtrate rate had approached a steady
state. The solids required to impregnate the sand media were
then calculated from a material balance of the input and
filtrate. The solids analyses are summarized in Table 15.
TABLE 15: LAGOON BOTTOM PERMEABILITY TESTS
Total Volatile
Suspended Suspended
Wastewater Solids-mg/1 Solids-mg/1
Feed 340 176
Filtrate (to 1 1/2 hours) 3 3
Filtrate Composite (1 1/2 hours -
24 hours) 8 8
Filtrate Composite (24 hours -
48 hours) 4 4
Sand permeability after impregnation by solids was
determined by the falling head permeability test in the 2-inch
column. The equation for permeability, k, is:
k = L log hp_ , where: hQ is the hydraulic head at start
dt 10 hL of test
h is the head after time t,, and
dt = (t, - t )
-48-
-------
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Sludge Gas Production Test
Accumulated waste sludge from the pilot units was
concentrated by repeated decantation over a period of several
weeks and used for this test. Gas production rate from en-
closed aspirator bottle was measured by liquid displacement
in a graduated column. Figure 3 illustrates the gas pro-
duction over the first 70 hours.
Column Filtration Tests
Column filtration tests were conducted to study the
removal of nutrients, color, and BOD from settled pond effluent.
For this test, treated waste from the lagoon units was allowed
to settle for over 30 days. The supernatant was then filtered
through 6-inch O.D. columns filled with Muskegon sand,with
approximately 6 inches of Muskegon turf on top. Each column
was washed with approximately 5 gallons of distilled water
prior to the start of test runs.
Hydraulic loading rates of 1.5 and 4.5 inches per
week of lagoon effluent were tested on 5 ft. and 10 ft. high
columns. The feed was added three times per week at a third
of the loading rates. In addition, 1/2-inch of rainwater
(distilled water) was added once a week to each of the four
columns. Complete results for 4 weeks are tabulated in Table
16.
Discussion of Results
Aerated Lagoons
Table 17 is a summary of the aerated lagoon studies.
BOD and solids reductions are tabulated for each unit with
their corresponding loading factors. The pond loadings,
assuming a 10 foot depth, range from 1390 to 2950 as pounds
of BOD per day per acre.
Table 17 shows that among the summer units,, detention
times and loading factors over the range tested had only
slight effect on BOD and solids reductions. Lower loadings
-50-
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produced more significant improvements in both BOD arid solids
reductions for the winter units.
The highest loading (2 days detention) for the summer
unit gave better performance than the lowest loading (6 days
detention) for the winter unit.
Oxygenation Parameters
The oxygen uptake rate per unit solids (Table 13) was
lower at longer detention time - 14.8 compared with 19.2
m9/l Per hour per gm VSS at 2-day detention. This may be due
to the more stable condition of bacterial growth existing in
units with 6-day detention. At a winter temperature of ap-
proximately 5°C the uptake rate was only 0.8 mg/1 per hour
per gm VSS.
The alpha factor of the feed (Table 14) was deter-
mined to be 0.88. Alpha factors of the mixed liquor at high
temperature was slightly different from the feed; but at low
temperatures the results was slightly lower. The magnitude
and trend of the values are reasonable.
Oxygen transfer efficiency varied with the air supply
rate from a high of 2.5% at 1.5 scfh (35 scfm/lOOOcf) to 1.2%
at 7.5 scfhs (177 scfm/lOOOcf). Other factors that may in-
fluence the efficiency under field conditions are: method
of aeration, temperature, depth and the overall geometry of
the lagoon.
Reaction Rate Constant
Reaction rate constants, k± (to the base 10), were
determined on a typical feed and settled aerated lagoon ef-
fluent at summer and winter temperatures. The k^-values for
the feed were 0.06 and 0.02 for 20°C and 5°C, respectively.
Values for the settled effluent were 0.05 and 0.09 for 20°C
and 5°C, respectively. The low k values indicate a slow
initial rate of bio-oxidation.
Permeability Tests
The standard coefficient of permeability, Ks, was
determined to be 0.15 gpd per sq. ft. per ft. of depth.
-54-
-------
After a period from 1.5 hours to approximately 24 hours, the
filtration rate was fairly constant at about 2.5 ml/min.,
which was approximately 1.4 percent of the initial rate. At
this point (24 hours) the sand was considered to approach
sealed conditions. The solids required to impregnate the sand
media were calculated to'be 0.2 Ib. per sq. ft. per ft. of
depth. The filtration rate between 24 and 48 hours decreased
to approximately 1.5 ml/min.
The column was allowed to filter continously for
4 days, after which time the permeability was determined by
the varying head test to be 2.3 feet per day.
Sludge Gas Production Tests
Gas production rate (Figure 3) at room temperature
from concentrated waste sludge averaged 0.65 ml/hr/gm of
solids over a period of 70 hours. Thereafter, production
rate tapered off and stopped completely after approximately
2 weeks.
Before testing, the solids concentration was 11.9%
with 60.7% fixed and 39.5% volatile solids. The solids con-
centration was reduced to 10.0% after the sludge was stabilized,
andconsisted of 65.6% fixed and 34.4% volatile solids. Total
gas produced over the 2 weeks period was 8420 ml, or 842
ml/gin VSS removed.
Column Filtration Tests
Initially the hydraulic loadings to the filtration
columns were 1.5 and 2.5 inches per week of supernatant feed.
Thereafter, the loading rates were 1.5 and 4.5 inches per week.
Generally, column filtration studies showed a reduction of
ammonia nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen and total nitrogen.
The trend was about 50% ammonia and total nitrogen reductions,
with only a slight reduction of nitrate. The 10-foot column
was only slightly more efficient than the 5-foot columns in
removing nitrogen.
Phosphate was reduced from an average of 1.9 mg/1 to
less than 0.09 mg/1. The 10-foot columns demonstrated a
greater degree of phosphate removal. Color was reduced from
450 units to less than 5 units in three columns. The residual
color observed in one 10-foot column was probably due to
coloration from the sand media. The soil in that particular
-55-
-------
column was obtained from a different location.
The average dissolved salt (as measured by Specific
Conductance) reduction was 62%. Both columns demonstrated
approximately the same degree of reduction. Average evapora-
tion losses for the third and fourth week were: 32 percent
from the 5-foot column and 52% from the 10-foot columns.
Chlorine Demand
Two sets of measurements were taken on chlorine
demand using 30-minute contact time. The first tests, Series
A, on May 27, 1970 indicated a demand of less than 8.2 mg/1.
This represents effluent directly from the pilot units with
little time for stabilization. The second tests, Series B,
were conducted on June 20, 1970 and gave a chlorine demand of
less than 4.6 mg/1. This decrease in demand is due to stabil-
ization of the pilot plant effluent after storage in a stimu-
lated lagoon. The results of the tests are given in Table 18,
TABLE 18: CHLORINE DEMAND
Test Chlorine Dose Chlorine Residual Total Coliform
(mg/1) (mg/1) (org./lOO ml.)
A-l 5.0 0 3,000
A-2 10.0 1.3 <10
B-l 4.0 0 <10
B-2 6.0 1.4 <10
Algae Growth
Pilot plant effluent both filtered and unfiltered
was seeded with algae and allowed to remain on the laboratory
bench under a fluorescent lamp. Within three days algae began
to develop in the filtered sample and within five days in the
unfiltered sample. Heavy growth occurred in both samples by
the end of two weeks. Quantitative data was not collected be-
cause limited funds and time prevented designing an experimental
arrangement capable of producing meaningful quantitative data.
-56-
-------
SECTION VII
SIMULATION MODEL
Introduction
The objectives of the simulation model study were:
(1) uo estimate the lagoon storage requirements under various
climatological conditions and for certain rates of irrigation
and (2) to evaluate the levels of selected water quality para-
meters within the water in the storage lagoons.
Storage requirements need to be evaluated so that a
sufficient volume is available for retaining the treated
wastewater when irrigation is not feasible. The quality of
the stored water was estimated utilizing mathematical re-
lationships for Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Dissolved
Oxygen (DO) , and Suspended Solids (SS) . Of particular interest
was the length of time during the "spring ice break-up" before
aerobic conditions would be re-established in the storage
lagoons.
Climatological Input Data
The major external input to the model was the clima-
tological data which provided the framework within which the
simulation of irrigation and evolution of water quality para-
meters within storage lagoons occurred.
Climatological data in punched card form (later
transferred to magnetic tape) were obtained for the Muskegon,
Michigan, Weather Station from the National Weather Bureau
Records at Asheville, North Caroline. The information in-
cluded the maximum daily temperature,minimum daily temperature,
daily precipitation, and daily measurement of snow and ice
cover for the years 1948 to 1969, inclusive. This range of
years, twenty-two in all, was considered sufficient for the
long-range simulation envisioned in the study. In the model,
only one data modification took place. This was the derivation
of average daily temperatures as the mid-point of the range
between the daily maxima and minima.
-57-
-------
The Model
The simulation model consists of two major components:
a quality model oriented to the study of major water quality
parameters (BOD, DO, SS) in the storage lagoons, and a quantity
model oriented to the study of storage requirements and allow-
able irrigation under specified operating rules. The model,
itself, with both components, as mentioned above, is sche-
matically represented on Figure 4. The partitioning shown in
Figure 4 represents the three operational parts of the model:
(1) generation of input parameters to daily operation, (2) the
simulation of daily operations, and (3) the statistical analysis
of daily operations over the time period of study.
The generation of daily inputs includes fixed inputs
into the storage lagoons of treated wastewater from the aerated
lagoons having the following quality parameter values: BOD=125
mg./l., D0=2 mg./l., SS=500 mg./l., Q-32 MGD. Variable daily
inputs consist of average daily temperature, daily precipitation,
and height of snow and ice cover made available from U.S.
Weather Bureau Records as discussed earlier. Also, initial
storage lagoon water quality parameters (BOD-20 mg./l., D0=6
mg./l., temperature of water-65°F, and initial storage of 2540
million gallons) are assumed at the beginning of the simulated
period of study and are updated with daily operations.
Daily operations consist of: (1) a decision regarding
the quantity to be irrigated (including the possibility of zero
irrigation) and the updating of quantity and quality of waste-
water contained within the storage lagoons.
The quantity to be withdrawn from the storage lagoons
is based upon the relationship in Eq. (1): Q = R + E - P, where:
Q = amount withdrawn (in.)*
R = maximum allowable irrigation rate (in.)**
E = Evaporation (in.)
P = Precipitation (in.)
*Quantity irrigated in inches is internally converted
to MG (million gallons) to conform to volume calculations else-
where .
**Maximum allowable irrigation rate is governed by
wastewater irrigation requirements plus an allowance for pre-
cipitation based on average weekly precipitation of 0.62".
The allowance for evaporation is computed by Eq. (2) :
E = 0.013 F (Tavg - 32), where:
E = evaporation (in.)
F - seasonal atmospheric constant
Tavg = average daily temperature (°F.)
-58-
-------
t-
Eoc
sw
So
z
uJ O
uJ
a.
n
tfUO
C
i.
s.
Initial Conditions
m Storage Lagoons
B.O.D.-- SOppm
D.O = 6ppm
Lagoon Temp= 65° F
Init. 5tor--2540MG.
Daily Exogenous
Inputs
Average temperature
Precipitation
Height snow cover
Treatment Lagoon
Inflow Water Quality
BO.D. =l£5mq/l
DO - Zmq/Z
56. =500mg/l
Q = 32MGD
Daily Quality Calculations
B.O.D. >
D.O.
S.5. > Storage lagoons
Temperature
[ce Cover J
Identify Anaerobic Cond.ftero
&.O.D. { no ice cover)
I
Daily Quantity Calculations
Stored Volume in Storage Lagoons
Quantity Irrigated '
Zero if avg. temp. -£ 3t° F
or if depth of frost >O.
or equal to Lrnq. Rate *
Evop. - Precipitation
I
Summory (for ail yeors of operation )
avq. max. ^ B.O.D. , _ ,
avq mm. I D.O. Alr Temperature
avg. mean r" S.S. Stored Volume
avq. st. dev.J Lagoon Temp. Irrigation
(by
Maximum Storage per Month over Period of
Operation
I
Average Nio. of Days in Month Wiihoui Irrigation
Maxirnum M0. of Days m Month with Anaerobic
Condition's (&OD * O, no ice cover)
FIGURE 4: SIMULATION MODEL DIAGRAM
-59-
-------
Under certain conditions irrigation is prohibited
(i.e., is equal to zero). These conditions are: (1) if
average temperature for the day in question is less than
32°F, (2) if frozen ground exists, or if snow and ice cover
exists. These decision conditions can be easily changed if
necessary.
After updating the volume contained in the storage
lagoons (accounting for the amount withdrawn and the daily
inflow of 32 million gallons), the quality parameters in the
storage lagoons are then updated using equations (3) through
(5) for BOD, DO, and temperature, respectively.
BOD Equation 3):
_ d
"(K,
where
La "
Lb =
t =
Kl =
K3 =
d =
initial BOD, (mg/1)
BOD after time 't' days (mg/1)
time (days)
deoxygenation coef.
deposition coef.
benthal demand rate (mg/l/day)
DO (Equation 4):
K2-K|-K3
K2 K| t«3
Lo
- d
(l-e-'Z'J + Doe-"2'
, where
D = initial D.O. deficit (mg/1)
a.
d, = D. 0. deficit after time 't1
t = time (days)
Kn = deoxygenation coef.
Ko = surface reaeration coef.
(mg/1)
-60-
-------
K = deposition coef.
p = photosynthesis oxygenation rate (mg/l/day)
d = benthal demand rate (mg/l/day)
Lagoon Temperature (Equation 5):
Tw = fATo +QTi , where
f A + Q
Tw - lagoon temperature (°C)
f = proportionality factor (wind, solar radiation, etc.)
Ta = air temperature (°C)
Q = inflow (MG)
Ti = inflow water temperature (°C)
A = surface area of lagoon (acres)
The daily operations are repeated for the period of
study. Upon completion of the daily operations, a statistical
summary is made in a manner such that an analysis is made for
each month over the period of study to obtain a representative
operation for each month of the year, (e.g., with 22 years of
operations, a statistical summary is made for the 22 Januarys
in question). This type of output enables one to identify
directly the long-term seasonal characteristics of operation.
Included in the monthly summary are mean, standard deviation,
minimum, and maximum of selected parameters. In addition, the
maximum number of days without irrigation and maximum number
of days with critical anaerobic conditions are determined.
Simulation Results
Typical computer results for the 22 years of operation
are presented in Table 19 for an average wastewater irrigation
rate of 1.5" per week and an irrigation area of 9,470 acres.
The computer output has been programmed to be self-explanatory.
-61-
-------
TABLE 19: SIMULATION RESULTS
(IRRIGATION RATE = 1.5 IN./WK.
Ai.UE: AVG.REPRESENTb AVb. JVEK iMfl . OF YEARS STUDIED
LAGOJN STORAGE LISTt-U IS WORDING VOLUME
ItJIAL LAG00N S T0KAGE= WORKING V0L. +1100 M.G.
AVERAGE WEEKLY IRRIGATION RATE =1.5 inches/wk.
YEARS:1948 TO 1969
MONTH:
N0. kJF DAYS IN MONTH:, 31
LAG33N LAGOON LAG00N LAG00N
OUTFLOW STORAGE D.J. B.O.D.
AVG. M.G.D. M.G. MG./L. MG./L.
MIN. 0.0 1059.0 0.00 32.51
MAX. 14.4 2006-7 0.23 38-27
MEAN 0.7 1531.0 0.03 35.67
STUEV 3.0 287.9 0.06 1.74
AVG. NUMbLR OF DAYS WITHOUT IRRIGATION F0R
MAX. STORAGE FOR MO,MTH = 2432.0 M.G.
OCCURRED IN YEAH: 1948
AVG. T3TAL MONTHLY IRRIGATION C ,) 1 ITFLO W) =
MAX. UAYS AMAEKOBIC CONDITIONS WITH NO ICE
YEARS: 1948 TO 1969 MONTH: 2
LAG90N LAGOON LAGJ^N LAGOON
OUTFLOW STORAGE D.O. b.J.D.
AVG. M.G.D. M.G. MG./L. MG./L.
MIN. 0.0 2038-7 0.00 38-40
MAX. 7.3 2900.6 0.00 41.08
MEAN 0.4 2= 10.9 M.G
MAX. DAYS ANAEKOalC CONUiriJNS n'lTH N0 ICE CJVEK- 0-
-62-
-------
TABLE 19 (continued)
YEARS:i94c; TO 1969
NO. OF DAYS IN M0NTH:, 31
AVG.
MI M.
MAX.
MEAN
STDEV
AVG.
LAG03N
OUTFLOW
M . G . D .
0. 0
67. 7
11.1
23.3
NUMBER OF
LAGOON
STORAGE
M . G .
2926. 4
3643. 4
3295.0
21 4. 5
LAGOON
D.0.
M G / L .
0.00
0. 00
0 . 0 0
o.oo
DAYS WITHOUT IRRI
MAX. STORAGE FOR MONTH=
OCCURRED IN YEAR: 1956
AVG.
MAX .
YEAR
AVG.
MIN.
MAX.
MEAN
STUEV
TOTAL MONTHLY IRRI
DAYS ANAE
S: 1943 TO
LAGOON
OUTFLOW
M. G. D.
0. 0
95. 5
48.0
42. 1
RUtUC C'^N
1969
LAGOON
STORAGE
M . G .
3005. 5
3650.0
3345.9
186. 1
4268 . 2
LAGOON
b.0. D.
MG./L.
41.15
42. 58
41.96
0. 44
CATION F
M. G.
CATION ( OUTFLOW) =
D IT IONS v,
iITH NO I
MONTH: 4
LAGOSN
D.O.
M Ci . / L .
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
LAG03N
a . 0 . D .
1G./L.
24. 19
42. 62
36.64
6.98
TOTAL
SUS. SOL
1000T.
259.9
261 .9
260.9
0.6
OR M0NTH=
343. 2
CE C3VEK=
N0.
TOTAL
SUS. S0L
1000T.
262.0
263-9
263.0
0. 6
LAGOON
TEMP.
C-
4.0
4. 7
4.2
0.2
27
M. G.
0.
OF DAYS IN
LAG00N
TEMP.
C.
4.5
7.6
5.8
1 .0
AIR
TEMP.
F.
17.4
50. 4
32. 5
8.5
MONTH:, 30
AIR
TEMP.
F.
31.2
61.9
45-3
3-2
AVG. NUMBER 0F DAYS WITHOUT IRRIGATION F0R M3NTH= 13
MAX. STORAGE F0R MON1H= 4802.1 M.G.
OCCURRED IN YEAR: 19bO
AVG. T0TAL MONTHLY IRRIGATION COUTHl_GW)= 1438.9 M.G«
MAX. DAYS ANAEROBIC CONDITIONS WITH N0 ICE COVER= 15
OCCURRED IN YEAR: 1943
-63-
-------
TABLE 19 (continued)
YEAj= 2130.2 M.G-
MAX. DAYS ANAfrtrtBI C CJNDI TI :-5N S WITH .NO ICE C''JVF.r<= 0.
-64-
-------
TABLE 19 (continued)
YEARS: 19
lry 196V
,\K<). JF DAYS IN MONTH:, 31
AVG.
WIN.
MAX .
MH.AN
S1UEV
LAGOON
0UTFL0W
M . G . D .
0. 0
115.0
53. 5
40. 7
LAGOON
STORAGE
M. G.
1 05. A
602. 6
365. 6
224. 5
LAG30N
U.9.
MG./L.
7.55
8. 39
« .03
0.26
LAG00N
B.0. b.
i-1 G . / L .
\?. 32
1 3-d 1
13-00
0- 46
TOTAL
SUS. SOL.
1000T.
268. 1
270. 1
269. 1
0. 6
LAG00N
TEMP.
C.
18.2
22. 1
20. 3
1 .2
AIR
I EM P .
F.
60. 4
78.8
70.2
4.8
AVG. DUMBER 0F DAYS WITH0UT iKRIGATItfiM F0R ,VI0NTH= 8
MAX. STORAGE F0R M3,NTH= 2509.0 M.G.
0CCURRED IN YEAR: 1969
AVG. TOTAL M0NTHLY IRRIGATION CUUTFL3w)= 165d.6 M.G.
MAX. DAYS ANAEROBIC C0NDITI0NS WITH NO ICE C0VER= 0.
YEARS:1943 T3 1969
M0NTH: 3
N0. 0F DAYS IN C10NTH:, 31
AVG.
MIN.
MAX.
MEAN
STDEV
LAGOON
OUTFLOW
M . G . D .
0.0
102. 6
35. 1
29. 5
LAGOON
STORAGE
M . G
0. 1
132. 4
39. 3
53.9
LAGQ0N
D.0.
MG. /L.
7. 66
a. 42
3. Orf
0. 23
LAGOON
b . 0 . D .
MG./L.
12. 14
1 3. 39
1 2. 79
0. 40
TO TAL
SUS. SOL.
1000T.
270. 1
272. 1
271.1
0. 6
LAG30N
TEMP.
C.
19. 1
22. 5
20. 7
1 .0
AIR
TEMP.
F.
58.6
79. 1
68.9
5. 3
AVG. NUMBER OF UAYS WITHOUT IRRIGATION FOR M0NTH= 8
MAX. STORAGE F3R M3NTH= 1195.rf M.G.
OCCURRED IN YEAR: 1950
AVG. T0TAL MONTHLY IRRIGATION C3Ul"FL3W)= 1038.1 M.G.
MAX. DAYS ANAEROBIC CJ'NOI TI ON S WITH NO I CL- C0VEF<= 0.
-65-
-------
TABLE 19 (continued)
JF U'\fS IM ,4J,\ITH:, 30
AVG.
MIN.
MAX .
MEAN
STDEV
LAGO
0UTF
M. G.
0.
96.
31.
28.
.jN
LOW
D.
0
4
6
H
LAGOON
STORAGE
M . G.
0. 0
112.8
23.6
33- 7
LAGOON
D.
MG.
/.
cS
7.
0.
0.
/L.
0 I
19
67
36
LAGOON
D. 0
M G .
12.
1 5.
1 3.
0.
. D.
/L.
80
45
98
rf2
TO TAL
SUS. SOL.
1000T.
272.2
?74. 1
273. 2
0. 6
LAGOON AIR
TEMP.
C.
1 4.
21 .
18.
1 .
9
2
1
9
TEMP.
F.
46.8
75. 7
61.5
7. 4
AVG. NUMBER OF DAYS WITH OUT I i\KI liA 1'IJiM FOR ,-10iMTH= 10
MAX. STORAGE FOR M0iMTH= 320.0 .I.G.
0CCLJRRED IM YEAH: 1964
AVG. T0TAL MJNTHLY IK;UGATI0iN) C0UTFL0W)= 948.3 «.G.
MA<. DAYS AiMAEMbIC C0NUI TI OiM S WITH NO ICE COVER= 0.
YEAKS:1948 TO 1969
I-13NTH: 10
,\10. iJF DAYS IN M0iMTH:.
31
AVG.
MI N .
MAX .
MEAN
STOEV
LAGOON
OUTFLOW
M. G. U.
0-0
91.4
32.0
29.0
LAG'OON
STORAGE
M. G.
0. 0
115.6
29. 1
34.7
LAG03N
D.O.
MG./L.
4. 1 6
7. 05
5. 62
0.89
LAGOON
b.0.D.
/iG./L.
1 5. 48
19. 22
1 7. 30
1.13
T0TAL
SUS. S'OL.
1 OOOT.
274.2
276. 2
.273.2
0.6
LAG30IM
TEMP.
C.
9. 4
16.0
12. 7
1 .9
A I R
TEMP.
F.
37. 4
66.7
51.5
7.8
AVG. NUM3E3 3F DAYS WITHOUT IRKIGATIuN F.jR ,«1'-J,-JTH= 10
ilAX. STORAGE FOR M3NTH= 215.4 .I.G.
OCCURRED IN YEAR: 1954
AVG. TOTAL MONTHLY IRRIGATION (OJI'FLO/J)= 992.5 M.G.
DAYS A,MAEr
-------
TABLE 19 (continued]
YK.ARS: 1945 rO 196'?
-JMT.l: 11
NJ. OF DAYS IN M3NTH:, 30
LAGJ3N LAGJ JN
OUTFLJJ STORAGE
AVG. M.G.U. M.G.
MIN. 0.0 12.8
MAX. 8?. 3 313.7
MEAN 24.3 121.2
STUEV 30.8 90.4
LAGJ ON
D.O.
MG./L.
0.70
4. 1 4
2.30
1.11
LAGJ JN
b . 0 . u .
MG./L.
19.21
22.56
21.16
1.10
AVG. NUMBER 0F DAYS ',
-------
Discussion of Results
Salient quantity results are depicted in terms of
maximum storage requirements in Figure 5 and in terms of average
monthly outflow (i.e., amount irrigated) in Figure 6. Maximum
storage requirements are conclusively (regardless of irrigation
rate) found to occur in April and May before the start-up of
spring irrigation. It should be noted that the storage volumes
reported in Figure 5 are "working storage volumes", to these
one must add 1100 MG of solids storage volume in order to deter-
mine the total lagoon storage requirements.
By referring to Figure 6, it is seen that maximum
wastewater irrigation occurs April to July with the peak varying
according to the irrigation rate. One should note that the
constraints on irrigation are primarily climatological during
the winter months and are primarily the availability of waste-
water during the summer months. An additional part of the
output of the simulation study was the maximum monthly storage
requirements for each of the 22 years. This information was
used as the basis in preparing Table 20 which reflects the
frequency of maximum lagoon storage requirements.
TABLE 20: LAGOON STORAGE
NO. OF YEARS, IN 22 YEARS, LAGOON STORAGE
REQUIREMENTS EXCEEDED
Average 3840 M.G. 4320 M.G. 4800 M.G.
Irrigation Rate (4 mo. @ (4.5 mo. @ (5 mo. @
inches/wk. 32 MGD) 32 MGD) 32 MGD)
1.5 831
1.75 810
2.0 810
2.5 710
With regard to the water quality aspects of the
simulation study, the results indicate that the quality values
are generally independent of the rates of irrigation. The BOD
level within the storage lagoons is estimated to range from
about 12 to 43 mg./l., with DO levels ranging from 0 to about
8 mg./l. Based on the data generated, there would be a period
of approximately three weeks after the "spring ice break-up"
before aerobic conditions would be re-established in the storage
lagoons. In the model, ice cover was assumed to exist between
December 1 and April 15.
-68-
-------
4500
Months of Year
FIGURE 5: MAXIMUM STORAGE REQUIREMENTS
-69-
-------
100
FIGURE 6:
Months of Year
AVERAGE MONTHLY OUTFLOW
-70-
-------
Simulation Program Listing and Documentation
The simulation program is written in FORTRAN IV for
acceptance by the ge mark I series computer. With minor con-
version it can be accepted by other FORTRAN IV systems (IBM,
CDC, Honeywell, etc.) as well. Running time for 22 years of
operation is approximately 10 minutes. A teletype time-sharing
system was used, and input - output (with the exception of
climatological data which were stored on magnetic tape to be
called into service via teletype) was by teletype.
The program listing is reproduced as Table 21 and is
followed by Table 22 which identifies the variables used in
the program.
-71-
-------
TABLE 21: SIMULATION PROGRAM LISTING
100SRPC
105 DIMENSI'JN THI 7rt( 3), K^OC 3) , K 1 ( 4)
110 C3M/I0N HALC 1 0) AKb.AC 1 0) ,HIR( 1 0) , AVTC 31 )
120 COMMON TLAGTC 31 ), STC 31 ) , tsDC 31 ) , DiJ00C 31 ) , 1'SC 31 >
130 CJMM0N NDC 1 2) , SETUPC bO) , SUM( -4, 1 2, 9)
1 40 COMMON B0D03C 31 >, QC 31 ) , X."i I N, XMAX, AVG, SUt^/>i\lAX
1 bO C0MM0N T0UTF. I * IMYKS* N YKA^ NYKi3> U0 WN C ]£!>., TFL3WC 12)
160 C0MM0iM I0UTFC 12),XMSTC 1 '^ , H Y h, MAX YRC IS), NAB
170 COMMON XNYriS^.-iAK'C 12),r-i^Y;LSET,LB,K^O^KT
190 CALL 0PENFC I,"YEAH 10")
200 CALL 0PEMFC4,"YEAR20")
210 CALL 0PENFC3,"YEAR05")
220 PRINT*"ENTER IN QUOTES NAME OF OUTPUT FILE"
230 INPUT, 1,3 UTF
240 PRINT 2
250 2 F0RMATC"ENTER VALUES FJR PRINT OPT* BEGIN YEAR, END YEAR,"/
260&" AND INITIAL VALUES F0R STORAGE, D0P, Bi3DP, TLAGP")
270 INPUT, IOPT,NYRA,NYRB, STOK, OOP, B0DP, TLAGP
272 PRINT,"MAX. WORKING STORAGE IN M.G."
275 XRRRAT=2.0
280 WRITEC25 4)
282 WRITEC 2J 339)
283 WRITEC 2;440)
285 WRITEC2J441) XKKRAT
290 4 F0RMATC"N3TE: AVG. REPRESENTS AVG. 0VER iM0. OF YEARS STUDIED")
292 339 Ft2RMAT< "LAGOON ST3kAGE LISTED IS ^0i\KING V3LUME")
293 440 FURMATC"TOTAL LAG03N STdRAGE=WORK ING V3L. +1100 M.G.")
295 441 FJRMATC" MAX. WEEKLY iKiUGATlON RATE=", F 4. 1, " IN."/)
300 WRITEC2;666)
310 NYRS=NYRB+l-NYnA
320 XNYRS=NYRS
330 E=2.71823182«
340 TLAGP=CTLAGP-32.)*5./9.
350 QI=32.
360 001=2.
370 B(3DI=12b.
3SO SSI=500.
385 TSS=0.
390 NDC1)=31
400 NDC2)=28
410 NDC3) = 31
420 NDC4) = 30
430 NDC5) = 31
440 NDC6)=30
450 ND(7)=31
-72-
-------
TABLE 21 (continued)
460 i\IU(d) = 31
470 NtX ;>) = 30
48 0 ,M 0 ( 1 0 ) = .3 1
490 .MIX 1 1 ) = 30
500 NuC12)=31
510 1x)rtR=P
520 HALC1 ) = 2.62/7.0
530 HAL(2)=2.62/7.0
540 AniEAC 1 )=4470-
550 AKEAC2)=aOOO-
560 ALrtG= 1 1 50.
580 Cl=29.
590 02=44.
600 XX1=1.21
610 XX2=0.97
620 TB=32.
630 X0 = 0.
640 TAVEP=32.
650 XLH=4000.
671 P=4.0
675 THITAC1)=1.047
677 THITAC2)=1.027
678 THITA<3>=1.047
680 K20C1)=0.18
690 K20(2)=0.2
691 K20(3)=0.
692 KT(4) = .007
700 FAEK=O.ooooi2
710 FLAG=O. 11
715 AAEK=36*43560
720 D0 1515 1=1,12
730 D3WiMCI) = 0.
740 XMSTCI)=0.
750 MARCI)=0
760 1515 TFL0WCI)=0.
770 D0 15 L= 1, 4
7SO U0 15 1= 1 , 12
790 D3 15 !<= 1 >9
800 15 SUMCU,I,X)=0.
810 990 NYr? = NYHB+1-NYKS
820 IFCMYR. EG- 43. 3 h. iMYR. l£0. 52. 3;<. ^Y K. EQ. 56-0i<.,MYR. Ea. 60.'JK.
830&MYK.EQ.64.OK.NYK.HO.68) G)
840 NL)
-------
TABLE 21 (continued)
920
93J
940i
950
970
9oO
93 1
982
983
984
985
986
937
983
989
990
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
11 50
1 160
1170
1180
1190
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
12bO
1260
1270
1280
1290
1300
1310
41 J
'I LAI
36
90
91
92
93
94
5(
10
10;
10;
99!
401
41
51
60
6 1
62
63
64
65
OOUW
G'J T'3 (90,90,90,9 1,9 1,9 1,92*92, 92,93,93,93) I
TIN=12.
G3 T0 94
91 TI,NJ=16-
G'3 T3 94
TIN=21.
G3 T3 94
93 TIN=17.
94 CONTINUE
DO 60 J=1,NAX
56 CONTINUE
IFCNYR.LE.5b) G0 Tw J01
G0 T3 102
101 REAUC 1,400) I YR, >i JN !»., I JAY, TEMPI , TEMPS, PKEC, HSC
GJ TO 995
102 IFCNYK. GT. 55. ANil.NYR.LE. 63) G3 P3 103
READC 3, 400) I Y k, .13NTH, I DAY, TEMPI, TErtP2, PKEC,HSC
GO T3 995
103 KEADC4,40J) I Y K, *k)NTH, I ijAiT , TM P 1 , TEMP2> PRFCC, H SC
995 TAVE=C Tr>lPl + T K>1 H2) / ki.
400 F0RMATC SX, 31 .?, 2F3. 0, F4. 0, 3X, F3. 0, 5X)
HVAL=HVAL-TAVE+32.
IFC TAVE. GT. 32- ) G3 T.T 41
TEMP=X0*XO+4S.*X,<1*C TB-TAVE)/XLH
HFRZ=SQHTCTEMP)
G9 T3 601
IFCX3.LE.O.) G.3 73 51
TEMP=4S.*Xr<2*( TAVE-32. )/XLH
HFR^ = X0- SQRTC TE.-iP)
IFCHFR^.LT- 0. ) HFR2=0.
G3 T0 601
HFRZ=0-
601 G'3 TO < 6 1 , 6 1 , 62, 62, 63, 6 3, 64, 64, 6 i, 6b, 66, 66) I
F = 0. 10 1
G3 T0 701
F=0.200
GJ T0 701
F=0.29o
00 1A 701
64 F= 0.294
G'J TJ 701
F = 0 . 1 9 4
TSS
-74-
-------
TABLE 21 (continued)
1 320
1 330
1340
1350
1360
1370
1 380
1390
1400
1410
1412
1413
1414
1416
1420
1430
1440
1450
1460
1470
1480
1490
1500
1506
1508
1510
1515
1520
1530
1540
1550
1555
Ib60
1565
1568
1570
1530
1590
1600
16 1 0
1620
1650
1670
1673
1679
1680
1682&
1685&
1690&
66
701
8 1
80
82
12
10
20
30
1 10
IF
*(
*C
*<
GO rs /oi
f --- 0 . 124
EVA-0.01J
IF(EVA.LI
r>
E-32. )
G.) t.VH=0.
32. ) GO F'.'j 20
.0.) GO TJ 20
TAVEP=TAV£
IFC I.GE. 12) GJ 1'J 80
IFCI.LT.4) GO TO 30
IFC I . GT. 4) GO TO 8 1
IFCJ.LE. 15) GB TO 80
HICE=0.
60 TJ 8 2
HICE=10.
C0NTINUE
IFC TAVE.LL.
IFCHFR£.GT.
00 = 0.
D0 10 K= l.iMAR
HIHCK)=HALCK)+EVA-PREC
Q0=Q0+HIRCK)*AREACX)/C1.547*24.)
IFCQ0.LT.O.) 00=0.
G0 T0 30
90 = 0.
TAVEC=C TAVE-32.>*5./9.
TAER=CFAER*AAER*TAVEC+QI*TIM)/CFAER*AAER+QI>
TLAGC=C SiaR*TLAGP+OI*'l AEl\+KLAG*ALAG*C TAVEC-TLAGP)
IFCTLAGC.LT.4.) TLAGC=4.
TLAG=TLAGC
D0 110 I 8= \> 3
KTCIB)=K20CIB)*CTHITACIb)**CTLAGC-20.))
CONTINUE
X=5.*KTC1)
SUO=C 475.-0.50)/C 33.b+TLAGC)
B0DS0L=C 0.48-0«012*TAER)*B0DI
LSET=C B0DI-B0DS3D/C 1 . - 1 ./CE**X) )
D0T=C D3P*ST0R+DOI i=UI )/C ST,D«+OI )
&OD=C B3DP*STOR+B00S0L*UI)/C ST3R+OI)
00. GT. ST0R+OI- 1 1 00. ; 00= ST ) K+ 01 - 1 1 00.
Sr0R=ST3R+OI-00
ST3R+OI
BODULT=B0D/C 1 . - 1 ./F.**X)
T=l.
BDR=KTC4)*LS£T*Cl.-l./CE**C3.f<-
-------
TABLE 21 (continued)
1698
1710
1720
1740
1750
1 770
1775&
1790
1795
1800
1810
1320
1830
1840
1850
1860
1880
1890
1900
1910
1920
1940
1950
1960
1965
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
2050
2060
2070
2080
2090
2100
2110
2120
21 30
21 40
2150
2160
2170
2180
2190
2200
I!
IF
50
+ 01
52
IFC
37
60
1 40
69
70
72
CALI
1 34
SUB
1 !
IFCDEF-Lf.0.) OEF=0.
HICE.LE-0.) GS TO
50
G0 T3 52
50 LB=CBi3DULT-BUK/CKTC 1 ) +< TC 3) ) ) * C 1 . / C E** CKTC 1 ) +K TC 3) » )
BDR/CKTC 1)+KTC 3))
B0DO = LB*C1.- 1./(E**X>>
52 CONTINUE
IFCD00.LT.O.) D00=0.
T0UTF=TOU'IK+U0
B0 UW= BJ LW*8 - 34* ST<) KV 2000.
B3D00C J) =B'JDJ
IFCD02. EQ. 0. . ANU.HI (JE.LE.O. . AND. ST0R.NE. 0. ) NAB=NAB+ 1
TSCJ)=TSS/2000000.
STC J) = ST'JK- 1 100.
BDCJ)=B0D
TLAGTCJ)=TLAG
QCJ)=00
AVTCJ)=TAVE
IFCIOPT.EU.1)G0 TO 37
WRITEC2; 1 40) J, a0» ST0R*
EQ.12) PRINT 140*J>QJ
6JDP=B0U3
TLAGP=1LAG
IFCIOPT.tO.1) GO TO 69
»\|RITEC2J 666)
FQRMATC I 3, 4X,F6. 1 * F« . 1, 2F6. 2., 5F6. 1 )
G0 TO 70
CALL MONTH
CONTINUE
NYKS=NYRS-1
G0 T0 990
CALL CENTUR
CL0SEFC2,I0UTF)
PRINT 134
134 FQRMATC"F0R RESULTS PLEASE LIST 0UTPUT
ST0P
END
ROUTINE STAT
NN=NXX
D0 99 I1 = UN.M
JL0 = I1+ 1
D0 99 J=JL0jNN
IFCSETUPCI I).LT.SETUPCJ)) G0 T0 99
TEMP=SF.TUPC II)
B3D0, BODlv, TSC J)» TLAG* TAVE. HFRZ
ST0R, U00, B0D0, B0DW* TSCJ), TLAG. TVE>HFRZ
FILE")
-76-
-------
TABLE 21 (continued)
2210
2220
2230
2240
SKTUPC I I ) = SE1 UP(J)
SKTUPC.J) = TF./.P
CONTINUE
X,-1Ii>J=Stri UPC I )
2260
2270
2280
2290
£300
23 I 0
2320
2330
2340
2350
2360
2370
2380
2390
2400
2410
2420
2430
2440
2450
2460
2470
2480
2490
2500
2504
2506
2510
2520
2530
2540
2550
2560
2570
2580
2590
2600
2610
2620
2630
2640
2650
2660
X.SU.1 = 0.
SUMSQ=0.
U0 96 II=UNN
XSUM=XSUM+SETUPC II)
SUMSQ=SIJMSO+SETUPC II >*SETUPC II)
XiM = NiM
96
SUEV=(XN*SUMSQ-(XSUM*XSU*l) )/CXN*CXN- 1
SOEV=SOKTC SUEV)
RETURN
END
SUBROUTINE M0NTH
DIMENSI0N AC 40)
W 3 J= l,i\IXX
3 SETUPCJ) = GlC J)
CALL STAT
A(1)=XMIN
AC8)=XMAX
A< 15)=AVG
AC22)=SDEV
DC3 4 J= UNXX
4 SETUPC J)=.STC J)
CALL STAT
AC2)=XMIN
AC9)=XMAX
PRINT 71,XMAX
71 F0RMATC 1X/F6. 1)
IFCAC9>.LE.XMSTCI) ) Gi3 T0 59
XMSTCI)=AC9)
MAXYRCI)=NYR
59 C0NTINUE
IFCNAB.LE.MARC I) ) GO 10 62
MARCI)=iMAB
0)
AC 16)=AVG
A(23)=SDEV
D0 5 J= 1,NXX
SETUP C J) =DO«30C J>
CALL STAT
AC 3)=XrtIN
AC10)=Xi-lAX
AC 1 7)=AVG
A(24)=SOEV
-77-
-------
TABLE 21 (continued)
2670
2680
2690
2700
2710
2720
2730
2810
2820
2830
2840
2850
2860
2870
2880
2890
2900
2910
2920
S930
2940
2950
2960
2970
2980
2990
3000
3010
3090
3100
3110
3120
3130
3140
31 bO
3160
3170
3180
3190
3200
3210
3220
3230
3240
3250
3260
U.5 6 J- l,ixJXX
iET'JPCJ) = bjL)OJ( J)
CALL Si" AT
A(4)=X;-iI,C
A( 1 1 )=X>iAX
AClc5)=AVG
A(2b)=SULV
DO 8 J=1,NXX
SETUP(J)=TSC J)
CALL STAT
AC5)=XriIN
AC 12)=XfiAX
AC 19)=Al/G
AC26)=SUEV
00 9 J=1»NXX
SETUPC J)=TLAGT( J)
CALL STAT
AC6)=XMIN
A<13)=XMAX
AC20>=AVG
10
03 10 J= !>i\IXX
SETUPC J) =AVTC J)
CALL STAT
A<7)=XMI,N
AC M)=XMAX
AC21)=AVG
AC28) = S1JEV
MUM=0
UO 20 L= 1 > A
U3 20 K= 1» 7
20 SUMCL*
D0 77 J= UfxlXX
JFCOCJ) .EG.O) KZ=K£-H
77 CONTINUE
XKZ=K2
DOWNC I >=D3WN(I >+XK£/XNYRS
TFLOWC I 5 =TFL3 WC I) + T3 UTF/XNf RS
RETUKlM
END
SUBR3UTINE CE.MTUR
DO 90 1=1,12
WSI TEC 2; 1 00),NJrhA+ 1 900»iMrKB+ 1900j
100 FBRMATC7H r EAKS: > I 4> 4H T'J , I 4, -i
I*NuCI)
, 7H M'3.vJTH:.
I 3,8X,22H
3270fiiM3.
DAYS I.'v rt J.v IX : > 1 3// )
-78-
-------
TABLE 21 (continued)
LAGS0M
, 67H
TEMP.
1 OOOT.
3310
3320
3330
3340
3350
3360
3370
3380
3390
3400
3410
341 5&
3420
3430
3440&
3450
3460
3470
3480
3490
3500&
3510
3520
3530
3553
3559
3560
3570
62
63
64
65
777
WRITEC 2J 62)
WRITEC 2;63)
V.'RITEC 25 64)
WRITEC 2;65)
F0RMATC "MI.M.
F0RMATC"MAX.
FOKMATC"MEAM
C
C
(
C
V
SU1C
SUMC
SUMC
">F7
"*F7
",fl
1
4
r
i
i
i
I,
>F
,f
,f
,F
K),
10.
10.
10.
1 0.
f\
f\
'.<
1
1
1
»
>
»
1
1
F
F
F
*
i
rf
3
3
7)
7)
7)
7)
d
LAGOON
OUTFLOW
< / ,65HAVG-
C.
. F9,
. F9,
F9.
11. G
,/)
'?., 3F9.
2,3F9.
2> 3F9.
2> 3F9.
LAWSN
u.O.
,1. 0.
T0TAL
B. J . D.
1 )
1 )
1 )
1 )
MUMBER
DAYS WITHOUT IRRIGATION F0R M0NTH=
1:
r-1. G. "/
<0UTFL0W) =
M.G.'V)
WRITEC 2}5) D0v
5 FORMATC/^"AVG.
» I 3/>
WRITEC 2;55) XHSTCI)>MAXYR(I)+1900
55 F0RMATC"MAX. ST0RAGE F0R MUMTH="F3.
"3CCURRED lit YEAR: "I 5/)
WRITEC256) TFL0WCI)
6 F0RMATC-AVG. TOTAL MONTHLY IRRIGATION
IFCMARC I ) . EQ. 0) GO Tel 76
WRITEC 2:66) MARCI),MZYRCI)+1900
F0RMATC"MAX. DAYS ANAEROBIC C0NUI TI OiM S WITH N0 ICE C0VER='M3/
0CCURRED IM YEAR:",15)
G0 T3 751
WRITEC 25 757)
F0RMATC-MAX. DAYS ANAER0BIC CONDITIONS
WRITEC2J 777)
C0NTIiMUE
66
76
757
751
90
RETURN
EMD
WITH N0 ICE C0VER= 0.
-79-
-------
TABLE 22
SIMULATION PROGRAM VARIABLE NAME IDENTIFICATION
Variable
Name
A
AAER
ALAG
AREA
AVG
AVT
BD
BDR
BODI
BODO
BODOO
BODP
BODSOL
BODULT
BODW
DBF
DOI
DOO
DOOO
DOP
DOT
DOWN
E
EKTT
EVA
F
FAER
FLAG
HAL
HFRZ
HICE
HIR
HSC
HVAL
I DAY
Description
Array used to store monthly
output summary
Area of aerated lagoon
Area of storage lagoon
Area of irrigation
Contains the means of a
given variable after ordering
Average daily temperature
Biochemical Oxygen demand in
storage lagoons
Benthai demand rate
BOD inflow from aerated lagoon
BOD outflow
BOD outflow
BOD initial for storage lagoon
Nonsetteable BOD
BOD ultimate
BOD weight
DO deficit
Inflow dissolved oxygen
DO outflow
DO outflow
Initial DO
Dissolved oxygen after mixing
No. days in month w/o irrigation
Natural logrithmic base 'e1
Factor in BOD-DO equations
Evaporation
Seasonal evaporation constant
Self-purification factor aerated
lagoons
Self-purification factor storage
lagoons
Amount of irrigation specified
Height of freezing soil zone
Height of ice on lagoon
Actual amount of irrigation
Height of snow cover
Heat value
Day of month from input data
file
Units
sq. ft.
acres
acres
rag/1
m.g/1/day
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
#
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
rng/1
mg/1
days
inches
inches
inches
inches
inches
inches
op
-80-
-------
TABLE 22 (continued)
Variable
Name
I OPT
IOUTF
IYR
K20
KT
KZ
LB
LSET
MAR
MAXYR
MXYR
MONTH
NAB
NAR
ND
NXX
NYR
NYRA
NYRB
NYRS
P
PREC
Q
QI
QO
SDEV
SDO
SETUP
SSI
ST
STOR
SUM
SUMSQ
T
TAER
Description
Flag to indicate output option,
O=daily I=monthly summary
Name of teletype input file
Year from input data file
Reaction rates at 20°C
Reaction rates at 'T'-°F
No. of days in given month
w/o irrigation
BOD after 1-day in lagoon
Settleable BOD
Maximum no. days anaerobic
conditions in any given month
Contains the year in which max.
monthly storage, XMST occurs
Year in which max. monthly
anaerobic conditions occur
Month from input data file
Contains the number of days in
month with critical anaerobic
conditions
No. of subareas at irrigation
site
Number of days in month
No. of days in a given month
Year currently being simulated
Beginning year of simulation
End year of simulation
No. of years in simulation
Photosynthesis oxygenation rate
Precipitation
Flow out
Flow in
Flow out
Contains the standard deviation
of a given variable after
ordering
Saturated DO
Used for statistical analysis
Suspended solids inflow
Stored volume in storage lagoons
Storage
Three dimensional accumulation
array
Used to compute standard deviation
Time in days
Average temperature of storage
lagoon
Units
mg/1
mg/1
days
year
year
days
days
no. years
mg/l/day
inches
M.G.
MGD
MGD
mg/1
mg/1
M.G.
MG
-81-
-------
TABLE 22 (continued)
Variable
Name
TAVEC
TAVEP
TB
TEMP
TEMP
TEMP 2
TFLOW
THITA
TIN
TLAG
TLAGC
TLAGP
TLAGT
TOUTF
TS
TSS
X
XK1
XK2
XKTT
KLH
XMAX
XMIN
XMST
XNYRS
XO
XRRAT
XSUM
YEAR 10
YEAR 20
YEAR 05
>F
MG
°c
°c
MG
Description Units
Average daily temperature °C
Previous day average lagoon
temperature °F
Temperature at bottom layer
of frozen soil cover °F
Temporary computer storage
location
Min. daily temperature from
input data file
Max. daily temperature from
input data file
Aug. Total irrigation outflow
for given month
Theta (6)
Temperature inflow
Temperature lagoon
Temperature lagoon
Temperature initial
Temperature lagoon
Total irrigation outflow for a
given month
Total suspended solids
Total suspended solids
Factor in BOD-DO equations
Temperature proportionality
factor for aerated lagoon
Temperature proportionality
factor for storage lagoons
Factor in BOD-DO equations
Specific heat conductivity
Contains max. monthly value of a
given variable after ordering
Contains min. monthly value of a
given variable after ordering
Contains maximum monthly storage
for any given month at any
given time of simulation MG
No. year of simulation in floating
point format years
Initial depth of frozen soil ft.
Wastewater irrigation rate in./week
Used to compute mean and
standard deviation
Input file name
Input file name
Input file name
-82-
-------
SECTION VI3 I
SOILS AND GROUNDWATER INVESTIGATIONS
Introduction
The purpose of the soils and groundwater investiga-
tions was to demonstrate the feasibility of managing the
groundwater levels in the irrigation site areas. Included in
these studies were nine test hole boring and two aquifer
test wells by the Layne-Northem Company, Inc. at the loca-
tions shown on Figure 7. Also shown on Figure 7 is the
initial irrigation site study area. The basic analyses and
interpretations of the test well data were done by Dr. W. E.
Keck of W. E. Keck & Associates, Inc., while the overall
analyses and interpretations of the soils and test well data
were under the direction of Dr. Jam^s E. Hackett.
The information developed confirmed the feasibility
of groundwater level management within the study area by using
drainage wells or drainage tile, depending upon the available
aquifer thickness. In areas where wells are feasible, spacing
is estimated to range from about 800 feet to about 4,500 feet
with approximately 50 to 2 wells required per square mile.
The larger spacing and resultant fewer number of wells per
square mile would prevail in areas having greater aquifer
thickness.
In areas having insufficient aquifer thickness for
drainage wells, drainage tiles could provide groundwater level
control, with spacings ranging from about 200 feet to 1,500
feet. As in the case of drainage wells, the larger drainage
tile spacings would prevail in areas with thicker aquifers.
Another result of this study has been the determina-
tion of the approximate maximum time needed to dewater portions
of the irrigation site area prior to operation of the system.
In sections where the ground is now completely saturated,
about 400 days would be required for dewatering. This time
would be less where the present zone of saturation is less.
Testing and Analysis Program
Test borings for formational data were drilled with
a 2-1/2 inch split spoon sampler. Split spoon samples were
taken at five foot intervals» Mechanical analysis of selected
samples were made for all of the test borings. Gamma ray logs
-83-
-------
19
TERT^v
LAKE(\J?
28 / 27
River
LEGEND
Test Boring or
Test Well Location
Initial Limits of
Irrigation Site
Study Area
FIGURE 7: TEST BORINGS AND TEST WELL LOCATIONS
-84-
-------
were provided for test borings B-l, B-3, B-7, B-9, and B-10.
Test borings B-l, B-3, B-5, B-7, B-9, and B-10 were
drilled in the initial stages of the investigative programs.
Based on results of these six initial borings, the locations
for test borings B-4, B-6, and B-12 were designated, and a
test well (70A) with two observation wells was drilled for a
short-term pumping test in the vicinity of test boring B-5.
Test borings B-4 and B-6 were drilled to better estab-
lish distributional characteristics of stratigraphic units and
to select the site for a second pumping test within the pro-
posed project area. Test well 70B was drilled in the vicinity
of test boring B-6 which was used as one of the two observation
wells for the pumping test, the second being drilled at the
time of construction of the test well. Test boring B-12 was
drilled on the uplands north of the Muskegon River outside of
the proposed project area to determine subsurface character-
istics of that area. The similarity of stratigraphic relations
north of the Muskegon River to the proposed project area was
demonstrated by this boring and no further investigations in
that area were felt to be justified during these studies.
Test wells 70A and 70B were drilled as pump wells for
short-term pumping tests to determine transmissibility co-
efficients of the underlying aquifer. Twenty-four hour tests
were considered to be of sufficient duration to establish
those hydrologic parameters most significant to meet the study
objectives within the time and financing limits set for these
investigations.
Both test wells were 8-inch diameter tubular wells
drilled to the base of the uppermost clean sand zone and were
fitted with 10 feet of gauze screen at the base of the well.
Well production data and water level responses in observation
wells during the pumping and recovery stages of the test were
made and were analyzed to determine coefficients of trans-
missibility, expectable pumping rates for drainage wells, and
projected well spacings at the respective pumping test sites.
Analyses of physical feasibility for the management
program based on the geologic and hydrologic data produced
by the testing program include: the definition of major
stratigraphic units underlying the project area and their
spatial relationships; ground-water depth and flow conditions;
regional hydrologic patterns of transmissibility, available
drawdown, drainage well spacings and drainage tile spacings;
and dewatering times for drainage installations. These analyses
provide the basis for general conclusions regarding physical
feasibility of the project area to provide the necessary
-85-
-------
drainage control for spray irrigation of waste water, dif-
ferentiation of management subareas within the project area
reflective of variations in applicable drainage control
measures, and additional investigative needs to substantiate
area characteristics suitable for general system design.
Geologic Setting of Project Area
The project area is underlain by deposits associated
with the galcial lake plain, the outwash plain and the Lake
Border morainal upland which are major physiographic elements
within Muskegon County. Regional description of geologic con-
ditions and relationships within the county are given in
"Physical Characteristics of Muskegon County" by J. E. Hackett
and T. A. Dumper, a report to the Muskegon County Regional
Planning Commission. The deposits of the glacial lake plain
and the outwash plain are underlain by sands and minor amounts
of gravel so similar in composition and texture that dis-
tinctions between the two cannot be made on a materials basis.
The Lake Border morainal uplands are underlain by a silty sand
clay till with some isolated deposits of sand and gravel. The
glacial lake and outwash sand are underlain by silty clay
till. The total thickness of these sands are determined by
test borings ranging from 17 feet to 130 feet. The surficial
distribution of these deposits and associated alluvium within
the project area are shown on Figure 8.
Because the area underlain by glacial till is too
low in permeability to be suited for wastewater applications,
only the lake plain and outwash sands were subjected to de-
tailed study. The physical feasibility for wastewater man-
agement by spray irrigation is largely a function of forma-
tional and hydrologic characteristics of these sands.
Stratigraphic Relations
Test borings within the project area demonstrate the
presence of three major Stratigraphic units in the subsurface,
These three units have been informally designated as zones A,
B and C for purposes of regional analysis. No attempt has
been made to establish'genetic relationships for the zones
although it is believed that zones A and B are related to the
glacial lake and outwash deposits and zone C is related to
the glacial tills that underlie the morainal uplands. In
general terms, zone A, the upper zone, consists of a fine to
medium, well sorted sand. Zone B, the intermediate zone, is
a sand zone of extremely variable composition, and zone C,
the basal zone, is a sandy clay.
-86-
-------
LEGEND:
ALLUVIUM - LAMINATED SAND AND SILT
WITH PEATY AND FIBROUS MATERIAL
LAKE AND OUTWASH PLAIN DEPOSITS -
SAND WITH A LITTLE GRAVEL
MORAINAL DEPOSITS - SILTY AND
SANDY TILL - SOME SAND AND GRAVEL
FIGURE 8:
SURFICIAL DEPOSITS
-87-
-------
The consistent occurrence of the three zones in
all borings conducted in the project area is evidence that the
three zones persist as correlatable units throughout the pro-
ject area beyond the boundaries of the morainal upland. The
stratigraphic correlations among borings logs in terras of
zones A, B and C are shown on Figures 9 and 10. The primary
basis for distinctions between zones A and B is the differ-
ences in the percent of fines (less than 200 sieve) obtained
by sieve analysis of split spoon samples and descriptions of
the character of the material observed by the driller,.
Graphical representations of percent of fines for each sample
analyzed are presented on Figures 9 and 10 along with the log
of materials encountered in each test boring to demonstrate
these relations. More detailed description of each of the
three stratigraphic zones is given below.
Zone A
Zone A is the uppermost zone underlying the land
surface throughout the project area excepting in the morainal
upland. The materials comprising zone A are predominantly a
fine to medium grained sand with generally less than 5 percent
fines (less than 200 sieve). Occasionally, coarser textured
beds or beds containing higher percentage of fines occur within
zone A but these appear to be thin and sporadic in occurrence.
Materials assignable to zone A were found to present on all
borings. The thickness of the zone ranges from less than 20
feet in test boring B-7 to more than 80 feet in test boring
B-l. The upper level of the zone of saturation, the water
table, occurs within zone A in all borings and as a consequence
the saturated thickness of the zone varies from the formational
thickness.
The low percent of fines and the good sorting of the
sands in zone A results in relatively high permeability. The
relatively high permeability, consistency of occurrence and
uniformity of texture that characterizes this zone makes it
particularly adaptable to regional hydrologic modeling and
analysis. The position of the zone immediately below land
surface and extending below the upper level of saturation
makes it the most critical zone with regard to water manage-
ment.
Zone B
The sequence of sand deposits underlying zone A are
variable in texture, generally contain higher percentages of
-88-
-------
o
1"
o
W
0
O
0
CO
m
Nl NOI1VA3T3
0
(O
K>
0
*
10
O
CJ
if)
-89-
-------
A
V
V
o).v
§ 8
-*
w
3J.ON 33S
FIGURE 10:
LOGS OF BORINGS -
SHEET B
o>
S
133J Nl NOI1VA3T3
-90-
-------
fines (in some units more than 30 percent) and are commonly
interbedded with units of silty clay. The general variability
and lack of uniformity of these deposits constitute a charac-
teristic zone consistently present between zone A above and
the silty clay deposits below. This sequence of materials
is designated zone B for correlation purposes. The distribu-
tion and textural characteristics of zone B is shown on the
correlation profile in Exhibit 3. Although some clean beds of
sand similar in character to sands in zone A with less than
10 percent fines occur within zone B, they are generally
thin, sporadic in occurrence and are overlain and underlain
by materials containing higher percentages of fines. Corre-
lation from boring to boring of individual textural units
within zone B was not attempted in the course of this study
as it was believed that the zone represented a highly complex
pattern of sedimentation and not susceptible to regional
correlation.
In all borings except boring B-10, the deposits of
zone B were judged to be inadequate in yield potential to
permit the development of drainage wells due to the low
permeability of the silty andpoorly sorted sands. In test
boring B-10, a sufficient thickness of clean and apparently
well sorted sand occurs in the basal part of zone B. How-
ever, the lack of continuity of these deposits in all other
borings within the project area and the presence of beds of
lower permeability overlying this permeable interval would
delimit the effectiveness of wells in this basal unit to
control water table levels at shallow depths below land sur-
face.
As a consequence of the regional characteristics of
zone B, it was not considered to be of hydrologic import with
regard to management of the groundwater system associated
with the wastewater application program. By considering the
top of zone B as the effective hydrologic base to the ground-
water system management, it is believed that analyses based
on the geohydrologic parameters of zone A only would con-
tribute the most usable and conservative results.
Zone C
The distinctive silty clay which comprises zone C
is the basal unit of that part of the stratigraphic section
of consequence to the management program. The silty clay
materials commonly contain 60 percent or greater fines and is
of such low permeability that it functions as the base of the
groundwater system immediately underlying the project area.
-91-
-------
Locally, the silty clay of zone C contain some minor beds of
sand and sand with gravel but these are of little consequence
to the general characteristics of this zone. The silty clay
is believed to be related tothe deposits of the morainal
uplands as the total thickness of water-laid sands of zones
A and B thin adjacent to the morainal area where zone C is
encountered at progressively higher levels.
Distributional Characteristics of Zone A
The regional extrapolation of geologic control data
and hydrologic characteristics require that stratigraphic
units have a predictable pattern of development. The geologic
control data obtained in the course of the feasibility study
substantiate the premise assumed for the interpretive analysis
presented in this report that zone A has a relatively consistent
thickness distribution pattern. The general thickness pattern
of zone A was indicated by the initial set of six test borings.
On the basis of the information obtained in these borings,
additional drilling sites were selected at the locations of
test borings B-4 and B-6 in anticipation that deposits char-
acteristic of zone A would be present at these locations and
that they would thin to the east and be well developed to the
west of test boring B-5. These conclusions were subsequently
borne out by the data obtained at test borings B-4 and B-6.
On the basis of the data obtained from the test bor-
ings , a thickness distribution map of zone A has been con-
structed and is presented as Figure 11. The map shows a
regular and consistent pattern. Zone A thins to the east
and south and thickens to the north and west. Zone A assumes
the form of a semi-enclosed basin with the axis of the basin
oriented to the northwest. Further data will be required to
refine the distribution pattern of zone A within the project
area, but because the existing control displays no reversals
to the pattern trends, it is believed that the general thick-
ness pattern does conform to that presented in Figure 11.
Groundwater Occurrence
The presence of the upper level of the zone of
saturation within the highly permeable zone A indicates that
water table conditions occur throughout the project area.
Conforming to the regional slope of the land surface, water
table elevations are highest to the east and south and slope
gently to the west. This regional slope of the water table
is affected by groundwater discharge to the Muskegon River,
Black Creek, and Wolf Lake. The projected elevation of the
-92-
-------
^LEGEND;
MORAINAL DEPOSITS
ISOPACH COUNTOUR
FIGURE 11:
THICKNESS OF ZONE A
50.0 POINT OF KNOWN THICKNESS
x
2 Miles
-93-
-------
water table within the project area, based on static water
levels in borings and surface expressions of the water table,
is presented on Figure 12.
Contour lines on the water table surface indicate
the general directions of groundwater flow. Groundwater in-
flow occurs primarily along the eastern boundary of the project
area and secondarily along a portion of the southern boundary.
Within the project area the present pattern of groundwater
flow is toward the Muskegon River, Black Creek, and Wolf Lake,
which functions as a local discharge basin.
With installation of drainage controls such drainage
wells and drainage tiles, the existing patterns of groundwater
flow will be extensively altered. The eastern boundary of the
area will continue to provide groundwater inflow as at present.
The western boundary of the project area will also function
as an area of groundwater inflow with diversion of flow toward
the operational site. The Muskegon River and the lower part
of Black Creek will continue to function as discharge areas
but with the planned reduction in water table elevation, the
upper part of Black Creek will function as a recharge rather
than a discharge area.
By subtraction of the elevation of the water table
from land surface elevation the regional patterns of depth
to groundwater can be projected. As shown on Figure 13, the
depth to groundwater is less than 5 feet over extensive areas
in the eastern and southern parts of the study area, along the
lowlands of Black Creek and immediately adjacent to Wolf Lake.
Depth to groundwater increases in the direction of Muskegon
River and adjacent to Black Creek. Along the northern boundary
of the area depth of groundwater exceeds 25 feet due to the
discharge gradient of the water table to the low-lying Muskegon
River.
Hydrology
Two aquifer tests were conducted in the vicinity of
test boring B-5 (test well 70A) and in the vicinity of test
boring B-6 (test well 70B). The aquifer tests were 24-hour
pumping tests using 8-inch diameter test wells and two ob-
servation wells. The primary purpose of the tests were to
establish the coefficient of transmissibility of the zone A
aquifer in areas of moderate thickness (63 feet at test boring
B~5)and in areas of thinner development (38 feet at test
boring B-6). The results of the two pumping tests are sum-
marized as follows:
-94-
-------
RAVENNA TWP
SULLIVAN TWP
LEGEND:
643 WATER TABLE ELEVATION
AT TEST BORING.
FIGURE 12:
WATER TABLE ELEVATION
AND GENERAL DIRECTION
CF GROUNDWATER FLOW
GENERAL DIRECTION OF
GROUND-WATER FLOW
-95-
-------
LEGEND:
Jill LESS THAN 5 FEET
FIGURE 13:
GROUNDWATER DEPTHS
[*!«! 10-25 FEET
25 FEET +
2Mll«5
SCALE
-96-
-------
Aquifer Test at Test Well 70-A
Pumping rate-100 gallons per minute.
Base of the aquifer at 63 feet. Static water
level 1.5 feet.
Saturated aquifer thickness 61.5 feet.
Calculated coefficient of transmissibility
(T)-27,200 gallons per day per foot.
Coefficient of transmissibility (T) at
operating depth 10 feet below land
surface-22,600 gal/day/ft.
Coefficient of permeability (T/aquifer
thickness)-443 gallons/day/ft.2
Storage coefficient-0.20.
Drawdown at both observation wells appeared to have
reached equilibrium in about 1000 minutes. The value of T
obtained in the test should have good reliability. According
to Dr. Keek's analysis, wells producing 300 gallons per minute
under these aquifer conditions would require a spacing of
about 1700 feet to maintain a stabilized water table at 10
feet below land surface at the midpoint between wells. A total
recharge (2) of rainfall infiltration plus wastewater applica-
tion of 0.15 gallons per day per ft. was assumed.
Aquifer Test at Test Well 70-B
Pumping rate-42.6 gallons/minute.
Base of aquifer 40 feet. Static water
level-2.5 feet.
Saturated aquifer thickness 37.5 feet.
Calculated coefficient of transmissibility
(T)-14,000 gallons/day/foot.
Coefficient of transmissibility (T) at
operating depth 10 feet below land
surface-11,200 gal/day/ft.
Coefficient of permeability (T/aquifer
thickness)-374 gallons/day/ft.
Storage coefficient-0.059.
Drawdown at the observation wells did not reach
equilibrium by the end of the 24-hour test. The calculated
values of (T) required adjustment and the value determined for
permeability could be low. Wells producing 95 gallons per
-97-
-------
minute under these aquifer conditions with an assumed total
recharge of 0.15 gallons/day/ft. would require a spacing
of 950 feet to maintain a stabilized water table at 10 feet
below land surface at the midpoint between wells.
Dr. Keek's analysis for drawdown relationships are
based on Weber's equation. Drawdown relationships under
various pumping rates and for various values of T as used
in this report are based on the Walton equation in which:
2
114.6 Q R(Z) r w
s = T and R(Z) = 268 x 105Q where:
s = Drawdown in feet
Q = Discharge in gpm
T = Transmissibility in gallons/day/foot
r = Distance in feet
w = Recharge in inches/year.
For w (total recharge) Keck applied a value of 0.151
gallons/day/ft. based on an infiltration of rainfall of
0.018 gallons/day/ft. and an infiltration of 0.133 gallons/
day/ft. from wastewater application. The latter figure was
determined on the basis of an application rate of 1.5 inches
per week for 52 weeks with 100% infiltration.
The values of (w) used in this report for regional
analysis and drawdown calculations is 0.055 gallons/day/ft.
with 0.018 gallons/day/ft. assumed as the recharge from rain-
fall and 0.0370 gallons/day/ft. due to the application of
wastewater. The latter figure is determined on the basis of
1 inch application for 43 weeks with a 50 percent infiltration
rate. In terms of inches per year w = A + R = 32 inches/yr.
where: A (recharge of applied wastewater) = 21.5 inches per
year and R (recharge from rainfall) = 10.5 inches per year.
Comparisons in drawdown values one foot from the
well between those calculated by the Weber equation and those
calculated by the Walton equation,using the same values for
w at all various pumping rates, showed that the differences
in results are not significant.
By using Walton's model, a comparison was made of
the impact that differences in recharge rates would have on
drawdowns at various pumping rates (Table 23) and consequently
on the well spacing required to maintain the water table at
a predetermined depth at the midpoint between wells (Table 24),
Comparative calculations were made with w = .055 gallons/day/
ft. or 32 inches per year at an assumed recharge rate from
wastewater of 50 percent of the application rate of one inch
-98-
-------
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2
per week for 43 weeks; and with w = .065 gallons/day/ft. or
42.8 inches per year at an assumed recharge rate from waste-
water at 75 percent of the application rate of one inch per
week for 43 weeks.
It is clear that significant differences in drawdown
response and required well spacing will result from different
recharge values resulting from wastewater application. For the
purpose of regional analysis to demonstrate the physical
feasibility for groundwater system management, a recharge rate
of 50 percent of the wastewater application rate of one inch
per week for 43 weeks was used. If the recharge rate, the
rate of application or the period of application varies from
those assumed rates, the drawdown effects and the well spacing
determinations will need to be modified correspondingly.
Regional Patterns
Assessment of the physical feasibility for groundwater
system management to an adequate degree to substantiate that
there is a reasonable potential for operational control of
water table levels and of groundwater flow patterns requires
that regional patterns of hydrologic factors relevant to such
control measures be established. Geologic relationships and
correlations define the physical framework within which hydro-
logic factors are inserted and extrapolated to determine such
distributional patterns. Distributional maps on the thickness
of zone A and depth to groundwater along with permeability
characteristics determined by well tests were used to define
probable regional patterns of transmissibility and available
drawdown which constitute the basic parameters for assessing
the feasibility for drainage wells, the maximum pumping rates
that can be anticipated, distance drawdown relationships and
anticipated maximum spacings for drainage wells and tiles to
achieve the desired control.
Regional patterns of transmissibility within the
pattern area are a function of the operational thickness of
the aquifer and permeability according to the expression T =
tP where T is transmissibility in gallons/day/foot, t is
saturated thickness of the aquifer and P is permeability in
gallons/day/ft.2
The operational thickness of the aquifer (t_) is the
saturated thickness of zone A during project operation, i.e.,
the stabilized level of the water table at the intersection
of pumping cones. In determining to/ a minimum depth of 10
feet to water was assumed for the project area. In areas where
depth to water is currently less than 10 feet, the operational
-101-
-------
thickness was determined by subtracting 10 feet (stabilized
level at intersection of pumping cones) from the total thick-
ness for zone A. In areas where the present depth to ground-
water is greater than 10 feet, the operational thickness was
determined by subtracting the present depth to groundwater from
the total thickness of zone A. The resulting map (Figure 14)
is the saturated thickness of zone A during management opera-
tions .
Regional patterns of permeability were arbitrarily
projected on the basis of the pumping test results. In those
areas where the operational thickness is greater than 30 feet,
a permeability of 443 gallons/day/ft.2 was projected as the
regional permeability. In areas where the operational thick-
ness is less than 30 feet, a permeability of 374 gallons/day/
ft. ^ was projected. Based on the relationship T = tQ x P, a
pattern map of the regional distribution of transmissibility
was constructed (Figure 15) .
In determining the maximum allowable pumping rates
for water level control wells, it is necessary to establish
the maximum drawdown for the well. The drawdown level should
be maintained above the top of the well screen to allow for
probable well loss and the future clogging of well screens.
According to the well test analysis report on well 70-A by
Dr. Keck, screening of about one-third of the aquifer thickness
utilizes about 90 percent of the yield theoretically available.
For purposes of determining the drawdown available at various
locations within the system, the available drawdown was deter-
mined by the following relationship: SA = tQ - (1/3 to = B),
where SA = the available drawdown, to = operational thickness,
and B - a five-foot buffer zone above the top of the screen. A
minimum screen length of 10 feet was assumed for those areas
where the aquifer is more thinly developed. Therefore, in
areas where to is 15 feet thick or less, the available draw-
down (SA) will be equal to 0 and an area limit is defined for
the use of wells to affect drainage. Also in areas where SA
is small and transmissibility is low, well yields would be
small and a correspondingly larger number of wells would be
required to maintain the water table at design levels, In
areas of thin sand cover where water table control cannot be
efficiently or effectively applied by discharge wells, control
can be established by the use of drain tiles. The avciilable
drawdown is shown on Figure 16.
Analysis of relationships that are developed in this
study are based on the interior well premise, that is,, that
no groundwater inflow is involved. Groundwater inflow will
be a factor along the margins of the project as finally de-
fined.
-102-
-------
LEGEND:
10
OPERATIONAL THICKNESS
FOR ZONE A. AQUIFER
STATIC WATER LEVEL GREATER
THAN 10 FT. FROM LAND SURFACE
STATIC WATER TABLE LESS THAN
10 FT. FROM LAND SURFACE
FIGURE 14:
OPERATIONAL THICKNESS
(To)OF ZONE A
-103-
-------
fe^i^-ijgp LESS THAN 5,000
5,000 - 10,000
10,000 - 15,000
15,000 - ,20,.000
SCALE
^\\\\\\\\V3 20,000 - 25,000
GREATER THAN 25,000
TRANSMISSIBIL1TY (gpd/ft.)
OF ZONE A .
FIGURE 15:
TRANSMISSIBILITY OF ZONE A AQUIFER
(BASED ON OPERATIONAL THICKNESS)
10,000"
-104-
-------
[LEGEND:
]SA = To -(1/3 To J-3)
To = OPERATIONAL THICKNESS
1/3 To = SCREEN LENGTH FOP,
90% PRODUCTIVITY
(ASSUMED MINIMUM = 10 Ft.)
B = BUFFER ZONE ABOVE TOP OF
SCREEN (ASSUMED MINIMUM = 5 Ft.)
SA = O WHERE To - 15 SEE EX. 7
«5« AVAILABLE DRAW
FIGURE 16:
AVAILABLE DRAWDOWN
-105-
-------
In order to establish the relative significance of
groundwater inflow in groundwater system management, an
analysis was made of the quantity of inflow that would occur
along the eastern margin of the project area if water levels
are maintained at a depth of 10 feet below land surface.
The amount of inflow can be determined by the
equation:
Q = TIL
where:
Q = quantity of water percolating through a given
cross-section of flow in gallons per day
T = coefficient of transmissibility in gallons/
day/foot
I = hydraulic gradient in feet/mile
L = length of flow cross section in miles
The transmissibility for the flow cross-section can
be determined from the equation T = PM where:
P = permeability in gallons/day/ft.2
m = aquifer thickness in feet
2
A permeability of 374 gallons/day/ft. , a flow cross-
section of 4 miles in length, an average aquifer thickness
of 25 feet and a hydraulic gradient of 12 feet/mile were
applied from the maps and data available. As a result a total
quantity of flow Q = 450,000 gallons per day was determined
for a four mile stretch along the eastern boundary of the pro-
ject area. It is believed that an inflow of this order of
magnitude can be readily accounted for by a relatively small
increase in the number of drainage wells or by appropriate spacing
of drainage tiles.
Inflow from Black Creek must also be considered in
final design. Under the assumed conditions of site operations,
the upper part of Black Creek could function as a losing stream
providing an inflow of water that would have to be removed by
the drainage facilities. No data is available to provide a
reasonable estimate of the quantity of inflow that could be
expected to be provided through the bed of Black Creek. Also
inflow from this source could be avoided by lining the channel
in some manner to prevent infiltration.
Use of Drainage Wells
Determination of distance-drawdown relationships of
discharge wells for the range in transmissibility estimated
-106-
-------
within the project area were based on the Walton model.
Graphical representations of the distance-drawdown relation-
ships at the pumping rate adjusted to the available drawdown
are shown on Figures 17 through 25, inclusive. A recharge
rate of 32 inches per year has been assumed in the deter-
minations .
Because the mathematical solution of the Walton
formula does not allow the determination of the maximum radius
of the cone, it was necessary to calculate this on the basis
of the area of the cone formula:
A = Q/w
where:
A = area of cone
Q - quantity of water removed in gallons per day
w = recharge rate (0.55 gallons/day/ft. )
The maximum radius of the cone (Rmax) represents
the distance to which the cone from a discharge well will
develop while pumping at the rate determined by the allowable
drawdown. Theoretical spacing between wells is, therefore,
equal to twice the radius.
Spacing between wells within the various transmis-
sibility ranges at conditions of 50 percent and 75 percent
infiltration of the application rate are given in Table 24.
The figures represent the spacing between wells when adjoining
cones abut at the point of zero drawdown. Therefore, as it
will be necessary under operating conditions to provide for
overlap of the cones, the distances in Table 24 represent the
maximum spacing between wells. According to the data pro-
vided in Table 24, spacing distances for control wells range
from about 900 feet for wells pumping at 25 gallons per min-
ute to 4400 feet for wells pumping at the rate of nearly 600
gallons per minute.
The number of wells required to discharge the quantity
of water recharged per square mile has been estimated from the
A = Q/w relationship or where the area of the individual pump-
ing cone is determined, in terms of the gallons per day pumped
by that well.
The number of wells within a square mile required to
discharge the water recharged within that square mile is
determined by the relationship: N = A/Ac where:
N = the number of wells
A = total area
Ac= area of the cone
-107-
-------
I cool
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700
600
500
400
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FIGURE 17:
DRAINAGE WELL DRAWDOWN
AVAILABLE DRAWDOWN = 5 FT
O O Q
<\J if)
DRAWDOWN IN FEET (s)
-108-
-------
600P
500f
400
300
200
O
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FIGURE 18:
DRAINAGE WELL DRAWDOWN
AVAILABLE DRAWDOWN = 10 FT,
DRAWDOWN IN FEET (s)
-109-
-------
Ul
UJ
LL
UJ
O
cc
LL
LU
O
O
O
FIGURE 19:
DRAINAGE WELL DRAWDOWN
AVAILABLE DRAWDOWN = 15 FT
O
DRAWDOWN IN FEET (s)
-110-
-------
UJ
Ul
LU
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IT
UJ
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cn
Q
FIGURE 20:
DRAINAGE WELL DRAWDOWN
AVAILABLE DRAWDOWN = 20 FT,
DRAWDOWN IN FEET (s)
-ill-
-------
1000
FIGURE 21:
DRAINAGE WELL DRAWDOWN
AVAILABLE DRAWDOWN = 22.5 FT
o
DRAWDOWN IN FEET (s)
-112-
-------
LU
UJ
U.
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o
tr
u.
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en
Q
FIGURE 22:
DRAINAGE WELL DRAWDOWN
AVAILABLE DRAWDOWN = 25 FT
o
DRAWDOWN IN FEET
-113-
-------
FIGURE 23:
DRAINAGE WELL DRAWDOWN
AVAILABLE DRAWDOWN = 30 FT,
O
DRAWDOWN IN FEET (s)
-114-
-------
t-
LU
UJ
UL
LL)
O
DC
UJ
O
I
O
FIGURE 24:
DRAINAGE WELL DRAWDOWN
AVAILABLE DRAWDOWN = 33 FT
8
DRAWDOWN IN FEET (s)
-115-
-------
in CM cr> O
coin ro ro
rocM
UJ
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UJ
O
CE
UJ
FIGURE 25:
DRAINAGE WELL DRAWDOWN
AVAILABLE DRAWDOWN = 35 FT,
O O
CM to
DRAWDOWN IN FEET (s)
-116-
-------
The number of wells required for 50 percent and 75
percent infiltration of the application rate are given in
Table 24.
These determinations imply that all of the area is
included within the area of the cone of influence of the
pumping wells. Because the areas of the cones are circular
in shape, the geometric relationships will not allow this
without overlap of cones. The results presented, therefore,
represent the minimum number of wells required per square mile
to handle the recharge. The data developed are, however,
useful in making relative comparisons between relative in-
vestments required for drainage by wells and drainage by tiles
as aquifer conditions vary within the project area.
Use of Drainage Tiles
Spacing of tile drains can be determined by two
basic formulas, the Donnan formula and the radial-flow formula
(Israelson and Hansen, 1962). The Donnan formula is based on
the assumption of lateral flow to a drain with an impermeable
stratum at some known depth below the drain. The radial-flow
formula is based on radial flow to a tile drain with an im-
permeable stratum at great depth or absent.
Factors affecting these formulas are permeability
P, distance to barrier stratum (Donnan formula only), drainage
coefficient D, and diameter of tile d (radial-flow formula
only).
Permeability used in the comparison was obtained by
well testing and is the average permeability of the aquifer.
The permeability needed for proper analysis is the permeability
of the soil to the depth of the drains. Geologic evidence
suggests that these permeabilities are likely to be lower than
those derived from well testing.
The quantity of water to be drained (Q and q) by the
tile is related to the drainage coefficient D. D largely de-
pends on the two factors of rainfall intensity and soil density.
In our case, D is also related to the daily rate of application
of watewater (q) and the travel time through the soil to the
drain in 24 hours. Tile spacings must be designed to handle
the higher intensity rainfall in 24 hours (example the 5"
storm). It is assumed when rainfall occurs irrigation of
wastewater will cease. Therefore D is directly related to
the higher hydraulic loading either from rainfall or irrigation,
In the comparison it was assumed that the higher hydraulic
loading was from rainfall. The q used was estimated to be 1%
-117-
-------
of the annual rainfall estimated to be 32" per year (.225
gal/day/ft. ).
A comparison of the formulas was made to determine
the depth at which the barrier stratum no longer affects the
Donnan formula. Beyond this critical depth the radial-flow
formula should be used to determine the tile spacing. Several
diameters of tile were used as this is an important parameter
in the formula. The comparison of the relation of H to Q as
determined by the formula is shown on Figure 26. In the com-
parison it was assumed that the tile was 50% filled. Distance
to the barrier stratum, H, was measured from the groundwater
surface.
The critical depth (He) occurs when the total flow
Q derived from both formulas is equal. Beyond the critical
depth, the Donnan formula no longer applies for determining
tile spacing. The radial-flow formula gives only one spacing
for a given hydraulic gradient as equilibrium conditions
occur. Data are given for the comparison on Table 25. As
tile diameter increases, He decreases.
Spacings for the tiles are shown in Table 26. Calcu-
lations for the spacing derived from the radial-flow formula
are also included. Spacing for various diameters of tile
were incongruent and an average spacing is presented. These
inconsistencies are thought to be caused by the method of the
derivation of the radial-flow formula as the depth of the
water, h, in the tile is also a function of the Manning
equation.
Dewatering Time
A preliminary determination of the time required for
dewatering using the same well spacing that would be required
to maintain the water table at an operational level of 10
feet was made in order to evaluate the potential significance
of this factor to system operation. The estimate! was made
in terms of the time required to remove by pumping, the volume
of water involved assuming that it was instantaneously avail-
able from the aquifer.
The following times were determined in arriving at
the estimate:
(1) Time for dewatering to the 10 foot level
assuming saturated conditions to land
surface.
-118-
-------
RADIAL-FLOW FORMULA
TTKL (H-h)
FIGURE 26:
DONNAN AND RADIAL-FLOW FORMULAS
(COMPARISON FOR CRITICAL DEPTH)
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TABLE 26: SPACING OF TILE DRAINS RELATED
TO SATURATED THICKNESS
Saturated
Thickness
Ft.
2.5
5
7.5
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Flow per Linear
Foot of Drain**
Spacing Between Tiles
Ft.
Diameter of Tile
50
79
103
121
177
219
255
286
314
340
2 feet
203
353
456
539
789
978
1135
*1560
*1560
*1560
1 foot
203
353
456
539
789
978
1135
1273
1398
*1560
1/2 foot
203
353
456
539
789
978
1135
1273
1398
*1560
*Radial Flow Formula Applies for that Diameter
**Based on Donnan Formula
Trial and Error Solution of Radial-Flow Formula for Tile
Spacing:
where Q = Sq
h = .5d
2 feet diameter
S = 1556 feet
Q = TTkL(H-h)
2.3 logi()s/d
Slog s/d = ffk'LH - . SdTTk
10 T73q
1 foot diamteter
S - 1589 feet
1/2 foot diameter
S - 1542 feet
Average Spacing = 1560 feet
-121-
-------
C2) Time for dewatering within the cone of
depression around the pumping well below
the stabilization level.
(3) Time for pumping additional water added
to the system by rainfall during the
dewatering process.
Calculations were made for conditions of pumping at
500 gallons per minute and at 25 gallons per minute which are
representative of the range of the pumping rates that are
likely to exist at maximum available drawdowns interpreted
for the project area. A specific yield of .20 was assumed
in the calculations. This figure obtained during well test
70-A should represent the maximum effective porosity.
At a dewatering rate of 500 gallons per minute:
(1) Dewatering 10 feet of aquifer:
Time = Volume/pumping rate
= Area of cone x depth x specific yield x 7.48 gal.ft.^
pumping rate x 1440 minutes/day ~~
= 13.09 x 106(Q/w) x 10 x 0.20 x 7.48
500 x 1440
» 272 days
(2) Dewatering the cone of depression:
Volume = 2 TfrA (Simpson's rule)
Time = 2.28 x 10 x 7.48 x 0.2
500 x 1440
= 47 days
(3) Rainfall accretion:
Time = pumping period x area of cone x rate per day/ft.
pumping rate x 1440 minutes/day
a. For 272 + 47 = 319 days of rainfall
time = 104 days
b. For 104 days of rainfall
time =34 days
-122-
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c. For 34 days of rainfall
time = 11.0 days
d. For 11 days of rainfall
time = 3.6 days
e. For 3.6 days of rainfall
time = 1.2 days
f. For 1.2 days
time = 0.4 days
Total dewatering time = (1) + (2) + (3)a - f = 473 days.
At a dewatering rate of 25 gallons per minute:
(1) Dewatering 10 feet of aquifer
O
Time = area of cone x depth x specific yield x 7.48 gallons/ft.
25 x 1440
= 272 days
(2) Dewatering the cone of depression
Volume = 2 TfrA (Simpson's rule)
Time = volume/pumping rate
= 8 days
(3) Rainfall accretion:
a. For 280 days of rainfall
time =92 days
b. For 92 days of rainfall
time = 30 days
c. For 30 days of rainfall
time = 9.8 days
d. For 9.8 days of rainfall
time = 3.2 days
e. For 3.2 days of rainfall
time = 1 day
Total dewatering time = (1) + (2) + (3)a-e =416 days.
-123-
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Therefore it is estimated that dewatering of the
aquifer saturated to land surface to a depth of 10 feet below
land surface will require more than 400 days assuming a
specific yield of 0.20 for the aquifer and the use of well
spacing where the water level at midpoint between adjcicent
wells is at a depth of 10 feet below land surface.
The time estimate may be too large because the;
geometric relations of the application area is likely to re-
quire overlapping of cones of depression to adequately in-
fluence the entire area and because the specific yield used
in the calculations is the probable maximum specific yield
that can be anticipated for the aquifer.
The estimate might be too low because time for re-
lease of the water from the area dewatered is not considered
in the calculations. However it is reasonable to assume
that the time for dewatering is likely to be in terms of
months rather than in days or weeks.
The dewatering time can be reduced by (a) increasing
the number of discharging wells in the site area by reducing
the spacing of water level control wells, or (b) by inserting
additional temporary wells to increase the pumpage raite during
the dewatering period.
The above calculations refer only to the area in
which water table is currently above the 10 foot depth level.
In the parts of the project area where water table is in ex-
cess of 10 feet, only the volume of water within the cone and
the accretionary rainfall during cone development need to
be considered. In these areas the dewatering time is likely
to be 1/2 to 2/3 less than the estimates given above and be
in terms of weeks.
Management Implications
The data and information acquired in this study are
believed adequate to demonstrate that site management of the
groundwater system to stabilize water table levels at desired
depths through the use of drainage wells and tiles is a
physical feasibility. However, because of regional variations
in thickness of the zone A aquifer and in depth to the water
table, management programs must be designed in terms of the
limitations and constraints as they are likely to exist within
the project area. The patterns of hydrogeologic conditions
developed in this study should provide the basis for preliminary
definition of broad design alternatives. Because of the need
for broad extrapolations in the analyses due to data limitations,
-124-
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the results presented in this study must not be considered
as precise determinations.
The analysis of the physical feasibility for project
area management indicates that there are five broad subareas
within the project area outlined on Figure 27 which relate to
management operations. These subareas are summarized briefly
as follows:
Subarea 1 - Areas with less than 15 feet saturated
aquifer thickness; water table less than five feet below land
surface. In this subarea there is no opportunity for the use
of wells for drainage control because of a. lack of available
drawdown. Drainage control can be accomplished by the use of
drainage tiles. For tile drainage it was assumed that tile
depth would be restricted to 7.5 feet and that the water
table would be maintained at a depth of five feet.
Subarea 2 - Areas with less than 15 feet of saturated
aquifer; water table more than 5 feet below land surface.
There is a lack of opportunity for the use of wells for drain-
age in this subarea as is the case in Subarea 1. In addition,
the use of drainage tiles is also constrained by the greater
depth to water table. In much of the area, depth to water
table is greater than 7.5 feet and tile depths in excess of
10 feet would be required.
Subarea 3 - Areas with more than 15 feet of saturated
aquifer; water table less than 7.5 feet below land surface.
In Subarea 3, both drainage wells and drainage tiles can be
used to control water table levels. The number of wells re-
quired for drainage control decreases with the increase in
thickness of the saturated aquifer and the spacings for drain-
age tile increases with increasing dkepth to the base of the
aquifer unit until a critical depth is attained. Beyond the
critical depth, ranging from about 40 to 60+ feet, depending
on the diameter of the drainage tile, a constant tile spacing
of about 1500 feet is anticipated. Within the subarea, control
of water table levels to a depth of 10 feet can be readily ac-
complished, whereas drainage by tiles is assumed on the basis
of a five-foot water table depth. Decisions regarding use of
tiles or wells within this subarea can be based on depths to
water table required and on the relative differences in cost
and operating requirements between wells and tiles.
Subarea 4 - Areas with more than 15 feet of saturated
aquifer; water table more than 7.5 feet below land surface.
The depth to water table generally excludes or severely limits
the use of drainage tile for drainage control. Throughout most
of this area saturated aquifer thicknesses are sufficient to
-125-
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LESS THAN 15' SATURATED
AQUIFER, WATER TABLE LESS
THAN 5' BELOW LAND SURFACE
MORE THAN 15 SATURATED
AQUIFER , MORE THAN 75 TO
WATER TABLE
FIGURE 27
MANAGEMENT
SUBAREAS
LESS THAN 15' SATURATED
AQUIFER; WATER TABLE
MORE THAN 5' BELOW
LAND SURFACE
MORE THAN 15' SATURATED
WATER TA8LE LESS
THAN 7.5' BELOW LAND. SURFACE
-126-
-------
provide high transmissibilities and wells would generally
function as an effective means of control.
Subarea 5 - Areas with ^a high natural gradient that
is adequate to discharge rainfall and wastewater infiltration
without well or tile control. A part of the project area ad-
jacent to the valley of Muskegon River has a high natural
gradient for groundwater discharging to this low-lying area.
With water level management in effect on the adjacent parts
of the project area away from the valley wall, the head above
discharge level that can be developed up to the required water
table control level will be suffienct to discharge the quantity
of water produced from the infiltration of rainfall and applied
wastewater within the area without special drainage provisions.
The boundary of the subarea with these qualifications has not
been defined and its position on the area map is therefore pre-
sented as indefinite.
-127-
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SECTION IX
IRRIGATION AGRICULTURAL STUDIES
Introduction
A part of the irrigation system investigations was
the preliminary appraisal of the agricultural aspects of the
project. This study was made by the Department of Agricultural
Economics of Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
and included inputs from various agricultural disciplines.
In addition to a review of the soils within the irri-
gation site study area, various agricultural management
alternatives were considered. Included were the following:
1. Sod production
2. Perennial grasses to be harvested as hay
or pasture
3. Continuation of Christmas tree production
in selected areas
4. Beef cattle operations
An evaluation of these options resulted in the general con-
clusion that the preferable alternative for the early stages
of the project would be the production of perennial grasses
with harvesting as hay or pasture. It was anticipated that
the implementation of other agricultural management alternatives,
such as cultivated crop production or beef cattle operations,
could follow.
Of particular interest in these investigations was
the analysis of the economic aspects of the project. The re-
sults of this work are included in this report.
Assumptions
Although it was recognized that groundwater level man-
agement would result in adequate drainage of the soils within
the study area,the soils were classified within the following
agricultural management groups:
1. Group a - Naturally well drained
-129-
-------
2. Group b - Somewhat poorly drained
3. Group c - Poorly drained
The total tons of forage dry matter produced are based
on a medium level of yields for the establishment period and
three levels of yields for the long-run period for the irrigated
areas (see Table 27) . Only a medium level of yields was assumed
for the nonirrigated land. The carrying capacity as measured
by number of steers that could be supported on the forage pro-
duced was based on a 50 percent and a 75 percent utilization
of dry matter produced.
It was assumed that a well established seed bed would
be essential in controlling erosion, and in providing the
basis for rental of the land to interested parties for harvesting
hay or grazing livestock.
The cost of establishing a grass stand on 7,550 acres
of irrigated land totals $155,135 or about $15.50 per acre for
the 9,950 acres (Table 28). Two thousand acres of cleared
land would not need to be seeded. If these costs were amortized
over a 10-year period, this would add $1.55 an acre to annual
costs (disregarding interest costs).
Costs of harvesting, hauling, and storing the hay crop
were based on current custom rates with some modifications for
the labor charge included. These per acre figures reflect the
cost of owning and operating mowers, rakes, windrowers, balers,
and wagons and the extra seasonal labor required to harvest
the crop. The costs are based on three cuttings for the irri-
gated land and two cuttings for the nonirrigated land.
Hay was prices at three levels to provide a range due
to differences in quality and distance to market. The following
prices were used in arriving at net returns.
Assumed price for hay:
Level of Per ton Per ton
prices dry matter 90% hay
Low $14 $12.60
Medium 18 16.20
High 22 19.80
The costs and returns for the steer enterprise were based on
recent cost-price relationships and reflect good management.
-130-
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-132-
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The Hay Crop Alternative
The per acre and total costs of harvesting, hauling,
and storing the hay crop from the 9,950 acres of irrigated
land are shown in Table 29. These represent three yield re-
lationships for the "a" and "b" and "c" soils. Per acre
costs, not including establishment of the sod, ranged from
$24.52 to $32.40 for the "a" soils to $29.25 to $38.70 for the
"b" and "c" soils.
The gross value of the hay crop was calculated for the
two soil groups using three levels of yields and three levels
of prices. Gross receipts per acre for the "a" soils ranged
from a low of $24.50 for the low yield and low price to a
high of $66 based on the high yields and a high price. These
same gross receipts for the "b" and"c" soils ranged from $35
to $88 per acre. A summary of these relations is shown in
Table 30. The low price of $14 could represent material that
would be suitable for bedding or feeding to low quality cattle.
The lower quality hay would also be acceptable for winter feeding
of beef cows.
The net return is the residual return after deducting
expenses from the gross value of receipts. This is what a
farmer would have left to pay a rental rate, to cover risks,
and to pay himself for his contribution to management and labor
in harvesting, storing, and either selling or feeding the
harvested crop. A look at these net returns for the combined
soil groups on irrigated land shows a wide range. With hay
priced at $14 per ton, returns are low even at the high level
of yields (Table 30). If a charge of $1.50 were made to cover
establishment costs, an operator harvesting 400 acres would have
a return of $11.50 per acre or $4,600 for his labor, management,
and land. Any rental charge would further reduce this return.
With a medium level of yields and a price of $18 or
more per ton of hay harvested, more reasonable returns are
available to cover management, labor, land rental, and risk
($18.53 - $26.79). Returns on the nonirrigated land are quite
low because of the expected yields (1.7 tons dry matter per
acre). This is, of course, the reason why much of the cleared
land in the area is not utilized except on a marginal basis for
crop production. Net returns for the long-run period ranged
from $3.05 to $17.44 per acre (Table 31).
The Steer ^Enterprise
The costs and returns per steer for the grazing period
were based on a net gain of 210 pounds, starting with a 600
-133-
-------
to
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pound steer calf and a cost of $26 per cwt. Returns to land,
risk, and to the operator's management and labor were $18.89
(Table 32).
The same residual returns were calculated for the
steer enterprise as for the hay enterprise (Table 33). These
were based on a 50 percent and 75 percent forage utilization
and three levels of forage yields. The estimated returns
during the establishment period on irrigated pasture are low
for the two levels of forage utilization ($9.49 and $14.24).
For the long-run period, returns ranged from $15.11 to $25.00
for 50 percent forage utilization, and $22.68 to $37.51 for
75 percent forage utilization. The estimated returns on non-
irrigated pasture during the establishment period are quite
low (Table 34). For the long-run period, net returns were
$13.06 for 50 percent utilization, and $19.61 for 75 percent
utilization. The relationship of steer weight to stocking rate
is shown on Figure 28. The stocking rate with 600 pound steer
calves is about 77 percent as high as for 400 pound steers.
Other selected factors affecting producers' costs and returns
are shown in Table 35. Dairy heifers may be another feasible
alternative for grazing the forage produced in the waste dis-
posal area.
Potential Full Time Employment and Rental Rates
A problem in maximizing rental returns from the irri-
gated land is arranging for sufficient operators to either har-
vest all of the acres for forage or to provide sufficient
animals to fully utilize the jforage. Assuming one man can
harvest approximately 400 acres of forage with an adequate
set of equipment, a rough approximation is that 25 farmers
would be needed to harvest the irrigated forage as hay. One
man can also probably look after 1,000 head of steers, except
during times when they need to be treated or moved. With medium
yields and a 75 percent forage utilization, 15 cattlemen would
be needed for the irrigated acreage. It would require 10
cattlemen with medium yields and a 50 percent forage utilization,
Of course, the simplest solution in arranging for a sufficient
number of operators would be to lease the entire acreage to
one firm.
The current cash rental rate for pasture and hay land
in western Michigan is typically $10 per acre. It is unknown
whether producers would be willing to pay this price (or a
higher one) at this time.
The return estimates previously discussed did not
completely charge for the producers' management and labor.
-137-
-------
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ating cost dol.
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City price relationships.
mission charges.
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ercent shrinkage on weight gained.
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-138-
-------
TABLE 33: ESTIMATED ANNUAL RETURNS OF STEERS
ON IRRIGATED LAND
Returns with Forage Utilization of
Itern 50 Percent 75 Percent
Establishment period:
Total returns $ 94,450 $141,675
Returns per acre 9.45 14.24
Long-run period:
Low yields
Total returns 150,364 225,660
Returns per acre 15.11 22.68
Medium yields
Total returns 189,467 292,039
Returns per acre 19.04 29.35
High yields
Total returns 248,781 373,266
Returns per acre 25.00 37.51
TABLE 34: ESTIMATED ANNUAL RETURNS OF STEERS
ON NONIRRIGATED LAND
Returns with Forage Utilization of
Item 50 Percent 75 Percent
Establishment period:
Total returns $ 14,319 $ 21,478
Returns per acre 8.00 12.00
Long-run period:
Total returns 23,386 35,098
Returns per acre 13.06 19.61
-139-
-------
100
95
90
rfl
tf
Cr>
C
-H
X
O
O
-P
-H
P
to
80
75
70
65
60
400
500
600
700
800
Weight of Steers When Turned
to Pasture - Pounds
Notes: 1. Curve based on pasture having carrying
capacity for 100 head of 400 pound
steers.
2. Daily gain is 1.5 pounds - 200
pounds total net gain from May 15
to October 15.
Source: Henderson, H. E., and Greathouse, T. R.,
Department of Animal Husbandry, Michigan
State University.
FIGURE 28: PASTURE STOCKING RATE FOR YEARLING STEERS
-140-
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TABLE 35: POTENTIAL EFFECTS ON COSTS AND RETURNS
Item
Conditions of animals
Sex of animals
Type of cattle
Potential Effect
The condition of animals when turned
to pasture heavily influences the
daily summer gain. The higher the
daily winter gain, the smaller the
daily summer gain. This can be ex-
plained in the following equation:
Daily summer gain = 2 - (.6 X daily
winter gain)*
Heifers produce up to 15 percent
less gain than steers, but have
similar stocking rates and costs.*
Daily steers out gain beef type
steers of comparable age and weight.**
Cross breds achieve up to 10 percent
greater gain than straight breds.***
*Henderson, H. E., Department of Animal Husbandry, Michigan
State University.
**Henderson, H. E., "Comparative Feedlot Performance of
Dairy and Beef Type Steers," Proceedings of Cornell Nutrition
Conference for Feed Manufacturers, 1969.
***Gregory, K. E., et. al., "Heterosis Effects on Growth Rate
of Beef Heifers," Journal of Animal Science, Vol. 25, May 1966.
-141-
-------
This cost must lx; cit ciuct.^c! in order to more clearly assess
potential rental, charges. The hay operation essentially re-
quires four months of a producer's time. (Although he may not
be fully employed for this entire period, he probably cannot
hold another job.) Assuming a 40 hour week and a $2,50 charge
per hour for the producer's time, the total annual cost of
the producer's labor and management amounts to $1,600, or
$4 per acre. For the livestock operation, approximately five
months of a producer's time is required. Again, assuming a
40 hour week and a $2.50 charge for labor, the total annual
cost amounts to $2,000 for a producer's labor and management.
Since one man can probably look after 1,000 head, this cost
per head amounts to $2.
Tables 36 and 37 show the estimated returns to land
and the producer's risk after the costs of the producer's
management and labor have been deducted. These figures are
potentially the maximum rental rates per acre that could be
paid with these enterprises. The actual rental rates that
farmers would be willing to pay would be something less than
these estimated values.
TABLE 36: ESTIMATED ANNUAL RETURNS FOR HAY
Hay Price Per Ton
Level of Yields Assumed* $14 $18 $22
Irrigated Land:
Low yields $-1.47 $ 6.86 $15.19
Medium yields 3.67 14,53 25.21
High yields 9.00 22.79 36.51
Nonirrigated Land** - .96 6.24 13.44
*Not computed for establishment period.
**Only medium yields assumed.
-142-
-------
TABLE 37: ESTIMATED ANNUAL RETURNS FOR STEERS
Returns with Forage Utilization of
Level of Yields Assumed* 50 Percent 75 Percent
Irrigated pasture:
Low yields $13.51 $20.28
Medium yields 17.03 26.24
High yields 22.36 33.54
Nonirrigated pasture** 11.68 17.53
*Not computed for establishment period.
**0nly medium yields assumed.
-143-
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SECTION X
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
During the course of the work many organizations and
individuals provided assistance and lent their cooperation to
the project. Sincere thanks are given to:
Muskegon County Metropolitan Planning Commission
Mr. Michael E. Kobza, Chairman
Mr. R. T. Dittmer, Director,
and Staff
Muskegon County Health Department
Dr. Paul R. Engle, Health Director
Mr. Jack Mason, Chief Sanitarian,
and Staff
City of Muskegon
Mr. Walter M. Brooks, Mayor
Mr. Martin Leyrer, Director of Public Works
City of Muskegon Heights
Mr. Kenneth Heineman, Mayor
Mr. Donald P. Ziemke, City Superintendent
S . D. Warren Company
Mr. John Moran, Director of Technical Studies
Mr. James V. Basilico, FWQA
Grant Project Officer
Michigan Department of Public Health
Michigan Water Resources Commission
Bauer Engineering, Inc., Chicago, Illinois
Michigan State University, Department of
Agricultural Economics
Tenco Hydro/Aerosciences, Inc., Chicago, Illinois
Layne-Northern Company, Inc., Mishawaka, Indiana
Dr. James Hackett, Blacksburg, Virginia
-145-
-------
Dr. W. G. Keck, East Lansing, Michigan
Gurnham and Associates, Inc., Chicago, Illinois
-146-
-------
SECTION XI
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-153-
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-155-
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