FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION
               NORTHWEST REGION

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            INDUSTRIAL WASTE GUIDE

                      on

              LOGGING PRACTICES
       U.S.  DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
Federal  Water Pollution Control  Administration
               Northwest Region
               501  Pittock Block
           Portland,  Oregon  97205

                February 1970

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                             PREFACE

     Logging is an industrial  activity which  takes  place  in  the
commercial  forest lands covering 40 percent of the  land area of
the Pacific Northwest.   Logging can—and at many locations  does--
degrade the quality of water in the streams draining the  forest
lands.  There is an urgent need for improvement of  logging  practices
in the Pacific Northwest.   This publication,  Industrial Waste
Guide on Logging Practices, is dedicated to the logging practices
which must be adopted by the logging industry if water quality is
to be protected in the streams of the Pacific Northwest.
     By its very nature, logging must disrupt the complex and
delicate equilibrium of the forest environment.  This is  particularly
true in clear-cut logging, a method of logging which is appropriate
on certain types of forests.  Yet trees must be cut to provide the
wood products our growing economy demands.
     How the logging is done has immediate  and long-term impacts
on water quality.  Well-planned and properly executed logging
operations will keep water quality degradation to the minimum.  But
such careful logging operations may add significantly to  the cost
of cutting and removing logs from the forests.  It  is a cost which
the forest land owners and the logging industry must recognize as
a necessary cost to protect the quality of  the waters originating
on and flowing through the forests of the Pacific Northwest.  It is
a cost which is paid in the end by the consumers who purchase the
many useful products manufactured from wood.

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IV


     The logging practices  required to prevent degradation are  as

significant as—and in the  same category as—the  requirements

placed upon pulp and paper  mills,  chemical  plants,  and municipalities

which are required to treat their  wastes to prevent degradation of

water quality and the resultant restriction in the  use of the waters

of the receiving streams.

     Logging is a widely dispersed industrial  activity.  The Atlas

of the Pacific Northwest I/ points out that the Pacific Northwest

contains "45% of the Nations's total saw timber volume, 54% of  its

softwood timber, and in addition millions of acres  of young, vigor-

ously growing trees that will  provide timber for future generations."

The text of the Atlas continues:  "The value of this resource  extends

beyond the provision of wood.   Forests are the principal vegetative

cover protecting the headwaters of the' rivers  of the entire region.

.  . .the forests provide much  of the summer range for cattle and

sheep, as well as year-round shelter for deer, elk, and other big

game.  They keep the mountain streams cool  and clear as a suitable

habitat or  'highway' for fish. . .  .  Much of this  forest land

contains scenery of a beauty and grandeur ranking with the best in

the United States."
I/  Highsmith, Richard M. (Editor), 1968, 4th Ed., Atlas of the
    Pacific Northwest Resources and Development, Oregon State
    University Press, Corvallis, Oregon, p. 53.

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                                                                 V
     The portion of this  quotation which  reads,  "They (the  forests)
keep mountain streams cool  and clear as a suitable  habitat  or
'highway1  for fish," is generally true.  Yet,  with  about 1,000,000
acres of forest land being cut each year (360,000 acres  of  this  by
clear-cut logging) in Oregon and Washington alone,  there is far
too much evidence of improper, low-cost logging  operations  resulting
in debris-clogged streams running turbid with  silt-smothered
spawning gravels and banks  stripped of the shade to protect the
cool waters.
     Carefully planned and managed logging operations must  be the
unvarying rule if water quality is to be protected.
     The first step toward this objective is a cogent statement
on the logging practices  which must be followed.  The Industrial
Waste Guide CM Logging Practices is that statement.
     The second step is full-scale adoption of these logging prac-
tices by forest land owners and a logging industry  which recognizes
their responsibility to the citizens of the Pacific Northwest.

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                         ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS





     The information presented in this report has been drawn from



many sources.  Much has been extracted from the policies, rules,



and regulations developed through the years by the agencies



responsible for administering the uses of public waters as related



to land use and land management.  Special recognition is made of



the assistance received from the United States Forest Service, the



Bureau of Land Management, the Pacific Northwest Water Pollution



Control Council, the Pacific Logging Congress, the School of



Forestry of Oregon State University, Oregon Department of Environ-



mental Quality, Washington Water Pollution Control Commission,



and various private logging companies.

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                             CONTENTS


                                                     Page

PREFACE	     iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS  	     vii

INTRODUCTION  	       1

    Forest Land Uses	       1

    Water Quality Considerations  	       2

         Sedimentation 	        3
         Thermal Effects 	        5
         Organic Leaching Products 	        5

    Water Quality Standards 	       6

    Forest Land Owners  	       7

    Logging Plans 	       9

LOGGING ROADS 	      11

    Road Location	      11

    Road Design	      13

    Road Construction	      18

    Road Maintenance	      20

TREE CUTTING	      23

LOG YARDING	      25

BUFFER STRIPS 	      29

    Perennial Streams 	      29

    Intermittent Streams  	      31

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                                                     Page



WATERSHED RESTORATION 	      33



    Logged Areas  	      33



    Roads, Skid Trails, Landings, and Firelines  .      34



         Permanent Roads 	       34



         Temporary Roads 	       34



         Skid Trails	       34



         Landings	       36



         Firelines	       36



    Slash Handling	      37



MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLY WATERSHEDS 	      39



ILLUSTRATIONS 	      41

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                          LIST OF TABLES
Table                                                     Page

  1    A Comparison of Random and Systematic Logging
      Road Layouts (H. J. Andrews Experimental
      Forest)	     12

  2   Relative Erosion Hazard of Logging Areas  in
      Relation to Site Factors	     14

  3   Recommended Seed Mixtures West of the
      Cascade Divide  	     35

  4   Recommended Seed Mixtures East of the
      Cascade Divide  	     35

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                           INTRODUCTION

                         Forest Land Uses

     The forest products industries are a cornerstone of the economy
of the Pacific Northwest States.  The raw materials for this
continually growing group of industries are extracted from the
forest lands by the activities collectively referred to as "logging."
Logging is an activity as widespread as the 70,200,000 acres of
commercial forest lands in the Pacific Northwest.  Logging operations
will continue on an expanding scale as forests are cut and regrown
to be cut again under systematic cropping and harvesting of trees
to meet the nation's needs for wood products.
     Forest lands of the Pacific Northwest are much more than a
source of raw wood for industry, important though that forest land
use is.  The forests which blanket the highlands and mountain zones,
where rain and snowfall are the heaviest, are the source of Pacific
Northwest rivers.  Small streams flow from the forest lands where
the heavy vegetative cover conserves and slowly releases runoff to
the streams.  These small streams combine with many others on the
way to the sea to form the large rivers of the Pacific Northwest.
Even though relatively small  in size, the clear, cold forest streams
are essential to the propagation of the region's numerous anadromous
and resident species of fish  which are of major value as the basis
of the commercial and sports  fisheries.

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     The forest lands  and  the  streams  they  support  have  great  value
for recreation.  They  provide  sites  of scenic  beauty  for picnicking,
camping, boating, swimming,  fishing, hunting,  and hiking.   In  short,
they constitute a locale offering opportunities  for outdoor re-
creation needed by the increasingly  urban  population  of  the Pacific
Northwest.
     Forest lands provide  habitat for  a wide variety  of  wildlife,
summer grazing of livestock, and sites for  dams  and reservoirs.
     The very nature of forest lands makes  them  lands of many  uses.
Hence, the concept of multiple use has been established  and
implemented in the management of forest lands, particularly, but
not exclusively, for forest lands in Federal ownership.   It is a
concept rooted in the conviction that  forest lands  can and should
be managed to preserve a balance among, and a place for, all forest
land uses.
     The cutting and removal of logs from forest lands is one  of
the many forest land uses.  But, how logging operations  are carried
out has impacts on all the other uses.  Not the  least of the adverse
impacts of improper logging operations is  the degradation of the
quality of water in streams originating in the forest lands.

                   Water Quality Considerations
      Logging operations all too  frequently  result in  serious deg-
radation of water quality, which, in turn,  results in adverse

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impacts on many other multiple uses of forest lands,  as  well  as  on
the uses of the waters of those streams far downstream from the
logged areas—even to the estuaries where rivers enter the sea.

Sedimentation
     The most obvious and most serious impact of improper logging
on water quality is the greatly increased sediment load  caused by
erosion of the mineral soils from the surface of logged-over areas
and from logging roads.  Measurements have been made  of  the sediment
loads resulting from accelerated soil erosion in logged-over areas
and from undisturbed forest lands.  Under natural  conditions, sediment
loads in the streams measured 10 parts per million (ppm) or less.
By comparison, suspended sediment concentrations in a stream imme-
diately downstream from an improperly logged area  exceeded 70,000
ppm--a measured increase of 7,000 times the natural sediment
content (Fig.lb.).-/
     Such sediment concentrations in forest streams of initially
high quality cause a degrading effect felt for many miles downstream.
The multiplicity of logged areas with high sediment inputs from
many small streams results in pollutional sediment loads of large
magnitude in the main stem rivers which these small streams feed.
The damaging effects of excessive sedimentation are numerous  and
widespread.
2/  All illustrations are assembled in  numerical  order at  the  end
    of this report.

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     The fresh  water habitat for resident  and  migratory  fish  is
significantly damaged with  reduction  in  the  number,  size,  and
general health  of fish.   Sport fishing opportunities  are interrupted
by extended periods of excessive turbidity.  Sediment loads seriously
reduce propagation of fish  by the silting  of spawning gravels and
the smothering of fish eggs and fry (Figs. 2 and 3).   This is a
consideration of particular significance in  small  headwater streams.
     Suspended sediment increases the cost of  treatment  of water
withdrawn for municipal  water supplies and causes  excessive wear on
turbines, pumps, irrigation sprinklers,  and the like, with increased
expense to water users.
     The deposition of sediments in rivers and estuaries increases
the need for, and the costs of, dredging to keep channels open for
water-borne transportation.  Such sedimentation also can signifi-
cantly alter the environment in, and productivity of, estuarine
areas which are known to be more productive of a high protein food
supply per acre than most agricultural land.
     Turbid, silt-laden streams impair the beauty of forest lands
so that people are deprived of a suitable streamside environment
for recreational use.
     Beyond these instream and downstream effects, there is  funda-
mental concern for the soil losses from logged-over areas.  Such
soil losses forecast inevitable reduction in the capability of the
land to produce growth of forests for future harvesting.

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Thermal Effects
     Logging of all trees to the water's edge exposes  the stream
to the full impact of heating by the sun with increases  of water
temperatures to levels damaging to the cold water fisheries (Fig.  4)
Water temperature increases are particularly damaging  in small
spawning streams in the summer months when the sun is  highest in
the sky, cloudless days more frequent, and stream flows  lowest.
     Measurements of summer temperatures in small streams flowing
through logged and unlogged forest areas show water temperature
increases of 14-16 degrees Fahrenheit in the unprotected stream
(Fig. 5).  Temperature increases of this magnitude produce stream
temperatures which are far in excess of optimum and are  even in  the
range of temperatures known to be damaging to resident and anadro-
mous fish which spawn, grow, and migrate in the small  forest streams

Organic Leaching Products
     Improper logging operations leave organic debris  and litter
in and adjacent to stream channels in the logged area.  As these
organic materials, in contact with surface and percolating waters,
go through the long-lived process of decomposition, measurable
increases in dissolved chemicals and plant nutrients occur in the
forest streams.  Of particular concern are the wood sugar products
readily released by leaching.
     The direct evidence of such water quality degradation is the

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growth of bacterial  slimes  and algae  which  thrive  on  the  materials
released by organic  decomposition.  Also evident is the  reduction
of dissolved oxygen  in the  intra-gravel  waters  of the spawning  beds
in small streams. Measurements reveal  reduction of dissolved oxygen
from saturation levels of 12 milligrams  per liter (mg/1), through
debilitating levels, to lethal levels for fish  of 2 mg/1.

                     Water Quality Standards
     Most of the forest land waters directly affected by  logging
operations are intrastate streams.   The States  of Idaho,  Montana,
and Oregon have established water quality standards  for their
intrastate streams.   In 1967, Oregon  established General  Water
Quality Standards covering all intrastate streams and is  now
proceeding with setting Special Water Quality Standards for specific
intrastate waters.  The State of Washington is  also  in the process
of setting intrastate stream standards on quality.
      Implementation of intrastate water quality standards, with
regard to degradation of water quality by widespread  land use
activities, such as logging operations, presents much more difficult
problems than the implementation of the treatment of  point sources
of wastes from industrial plants and municipalities.   In this
connection, the implementation plans for the Special  Water Quality
Standards now being established by the State of Oregon for intra-
state streams includes the following statement on logging operations:

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     In cooperation with the logging industry and other interested
     agencies and institutions, develop programs  to keep logging
     activities out of streams, leave undisturbed streamside veg-
     etative cover for cooling shade and thereby  also minimize
     resulting vegetative debris and eroded earth in streams.
     The Federal agencies involved in the management of forest land
areas, including the harvesting of trees, not only must abide  by the
water quality standards established by the states and the Federal
government for interstate waters, but also should abide by the
standards set by the states for intrastate waters.  As a practical
matter, this means that all Federal agencies having administrative
jurisdiction over commercial timber lands should  incorporate pro-
visions into their timber sales contracts which would prevent
pollution of streams through the logging operations over which they
have control.
     Some 60 percent of the commercial timber lands in the Pacific
Northwest are in Federal ownership and under Federal management.
Therefore, it is imperative that the Federal agencies utilize  their
authority to promptly implement procedures which  would assure
protection and enhancement of water quality through uniform
application of proper logging practices.

                        Forest Land Owners
     The role of forest land owners is the key to adoption of  logging
operations which will prevent, or hold to an acceptable minimum,
the degradation of water quality in streams traversing forest  lands.
The forest land owners own the logs which are to  be harvested.  They

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8





are in a position to control  logging operations.   It  is  reasonable



to assume that logging firms  will  carry out the  kind  of  logging



operations which they are required to do and for  which they  receive



adequate compensation.



     About two-thirds (46,000,000  acres) of the  70,200,000 acres  of



commercial land in the Pacific Northwest (Washington, Oregon,  Idaho,



and western Montana), is in public ownership. About  60  percent,  or



41,600,000 acres, is in Federal ownership.   Of this  amount,  36,000,000



acres of Federally owned commercial forest  land  are  in the National



Forests.  Bureau of Land Management lands account for 3,200,000



acres, and Indian lands managed by the Bureau of Indian  Affairs,



2,400,000 acres.  About 4,400,000  acres are in non-Federal,  public



ownership—state, county and municipal.



     About 34 percent, or 24,200,000 acres  of commercial forest  land,



is in private ownership.  Of this  total, it appears  that about one-



half is owned by the forest industries, such as  the  lumber  companies,



pulp and paper companies, and the  like.  Sizeable acreages  are owned



by the railroad companies.



     In summary, something approaching 85 percent of the commercial



forest land in the Pacific Northwest is owned by public agencies,



forest industries, or the railroads.  By and large,  it would seem



that these entities would retain ownership  of the forest lands



over long periods of time and, therefore, be most concerned  regarding



the long-range productivity of those forest lands.  Sedimentation,

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                                                                  9
which causes degradation of the quality of water in forest land
streams, also indicates significant soil  erosion and losses of the
relatively thin mineral soils of the sloping forest lands with the
inevitable reduction in the long-range productivity of future
forests grown on those lands.  Hence, increased efforts by these
owners to prevent or minimize water quality degradation are most
desirable, not only to prevent damage to fishery, recreational, and
aesthetic values which the general public holds in high regard,
but also in the interest of the future economic welfare of the wood-
products industries of the Pacific Northwest.
     With the remaining 15 percent of commercial forest lands
owned by miscellaneous private landowners, it is essential that
understanding be developed among this group regarding the significance
of the effect of logging practices on water quality and the need
to prevent soil erosion on forest lands.

                          Logging Plans
     Many factors contribute to the impacts of logging on water
quality, such as steep slopes, different exposures, inherent soil
credibilities, rates of vegetative recovery following logging, and
climatic factors.  The relation between topography and rainfall
intensity is especially important.  Full  application of today's
conservation knowledge in all phases of timber harvesting can reduce
water quality degradation.  To do this, each forested area must be

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10
carefully logged using a specific plan so tailored for that area
that all tangible and intangible losses and all  water quality deg-
radation will be kept within tolerable limits.
     An adequate tree harvesting plan includes  maps,  sketches,  or
pictures of the area to be harvested.  It gives  specifications  for
the building, use, and maintenance of a well-designed transportation
system.  It specifies the manner in which the trees are to be cut and
the way the logs shall be delivered to the transportation system
from the point on the watershed where they are  felled.  It identifies
the areas along perennial and major intermittent streams which  should
be left as buffer or filter strips.  It specifies the measures  which
should be taken to leave the logged area in a repaired condition  to
prevent undue erosion of the area during the period of regrowth.
     Compiled in the remainder of this volume are detailed recom-
mendations for controlling the adverse impacts  on water quality
which can be caused by logging operations.

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                          LOGGING ROADS





     Proper planning, location, design, construction, use, and main-



tenance of all logging roads--main roads, secondary roads, spur roads,



and skid trails—will reduce soil erosion problems in forest water-



sheds.  The following recommendations, pertaining to logging roads,



have been assembled under four headings.





                          Road Location



     1.  Locate all roads to avoid, or design them to counteract,



unstable soil areas.  Select the gradient which will provide for a



stabilized road prism with proper drainage.  Fit road locations



to the topography so that minimum alterations of natural conditions



will be necessary.  Use systematic rather than random layouts



(Figs. 6, 7 and 8).  An analysis comparing random road layouts



with systematic road patterns reveals that substantial savings in



cost and increased efficiency in logging operations are realized by



use of the systematic patterns (Table 1).



     2.  Locate roads on natural benches, ridge tops, and flatter



slopes to minimize harmful disturbances of the terrain and to enhance


                           3/
the stability of the roads.—   Use all available topographic surveys,



soil-type maps, and other soils and geologic information to select
3/  SILEN,  Ray R.,  1955,  "More Efficient Road  Patterns  for  a  Douglas-

    Fir Drainage:"   The Timberman,  Vol.  LVI, No.  6,  pp.  82-88.

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                             TABLE 1

    A COMPARISON OF RANDOM AND SYSTEMATIC LOGGING ROAD LAYOUTS
               (H. J.  ANDREWS EXPERIMENTAL FOREST)
                 Item
                                                  Road Pattern
                                              Random —'  Systematic —'
Road density, total in planned system--
  miles per square mile

Road density, amount actually constructed-
  miles per square mile

Area needed for road construction, acres
  per square mile of watershed

Area outside optimum yarding distance
  (400 - 900 feet), acres per square mile

  Less than 400 feet
  More than 900 feet
  Total

Percent of road system having grades
  of—

  8 to 12 percent £/
  4 to 8 percent
  0 to 4 percent
  Adverse:  0 to 4 percent —'
 5.59


 1.95
93
64.4
19.0
83.4
51.4
10.9
26.2
11.5
 4.97


 1.99
68
38.6
10.6
49.2
14.0
40.6
36.1
 9.3
          a/  Basis:   38.53 miles of road in layout of 3,273 acres.

          b/  Basis:   42.98 miles of road in layout of 5,534 acres.

          c_/  A few short stretches of road with favorable grades
              above 12 percent or reverse grades above 4 percent were
              built to avoid obstacles and are included in these
              classes.

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                                                                  13





locations which avoid steep slopes and unstable soils.   Field ob-



servation and evaluation is advisable in problem areas.   Give full



consideration to soil strength and cohesion to determine the proper



cut-and-fill slope ratios and to specify spacing for relief-drainage



culverts.



     3.  Locate roads on stable areas well  away from streams (Figs.



9 and 10).  Avoid routes through the bottoms of steep narrow canyons;



through slide areas;  through steep, naturally dissected terrain;



through slumps;  through marshes or wet meadows;  through ponds;  or



along natural drainage channels.  Where alternative locations



through stable areas are not available, incorporate corrective



stabilization measures into the road design.





                           Road Design



     Prescribe for each road those design specifications that are



best adapted to the given slope, landscape, and soil materials



(Table 2 and Figs. 11 and 12).  Use a balanced design or provide



waste or borrow areas that will produce a minimum of damage to soils



and water.  Cross streams where channel and bank disturbance will



be minimal.  Avoid excessive sidehill cuts  and fills, especially



near stream channels.  Design spur roads to follow the contour as



closely as possible.  Plan for retaining walls or riprap where



needed to increase the stability of fill embankments and cuts and to



protect fill embankments from water erosion (Fig.  13).

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                             TABLE  2

             RELATIVE EROSION HAZARD  OF LOGGING  AREAS
                   IN RELATION TO SITE  FACTORS
Site Factors
High
Erosion
Hazard
Moderate
Erosion
Hazard
Low
Erosion
Hazard
Parent rock
Acid Igneous

Granite, diorite,
volcanic ash,
pumice, some
schists
            Sedimentary and
              Metamorphic

            Sandstone,  schist
            shale,  slate,
            conglomerates,
            chert
                     Basic Igneous

                     (Lava rocks)
                     Basalt,
                     andesite,
                     serpentine
Soil
Light textured,—'
with little or
no clay
            Medium textured,
            with  considerable
            clay
                     Heavy textured,
                     largely clay and
                     adobe
Mantle
Stability
Slope
Unstable mantles
(cutbank stabil-
ity Class V)
Steep
(Over 50%)
Mantles of ques-
tionable stabil-
ity (Cutbank sta-
bility Class IV)
Moderate
(20 - 50%)
Stable mantles
(classes I, II,
and III)
Gentle
(0 - 20%)
Precipitation
Heavy winter
rains or intense
summer storms
            Mainly snow
            with some rain
                     Heavy snow or
                     light rain
Vegetation
and other
organic matter
on and in the
soil
None to
1i ttle
very
Moderate
amounts
Large
amounts
  a/  Soil texture refers to the size and distribution of the mineral
      particles in the soil, the range extending from sand (light
      texture) to clay (heavy texture).

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                                                                  15
     1.  In critical  situations, design for full-bench construction
rather than part bench and part uncompacted fill.   End haul  all
excavated waste material  to safe bench or cove locations or use
it in "through" fills by raising their elevation.
     2.  Reduce backslope sloughing by rounding the tops of cut
slopes.
     3.  Design fill  at an angle less than the normal  angle of
repose.
     4.  Clear trees  and other vegetation for only the minimum
essential width required for construction and maintenance of the
road and choose the design alignment and minimum road width
necessary to serve traffic needs.
     5.  Divert or otherwise dispose of all drainage so that it does
not pass over or collect in new cuts, fills, borrow areas, or waste
dumps.  Do this by providing bridges or adequate culverts at all
natural water courses both for permanent and temporary access or
haul roads.  Avoid channel changes and stabilize the fill material
of the approaches with riprap or abutments.  Where culverts must be
installed in large fills, use concrete or heavy riprap headwalls
and wingwalls to prevent erosion of the fill and to help direct the
passage of debris through the major culverts.  To prevent disturbance
of stream channel, use riprap, gabions (wire baskets full of large
rocks), or other structures where needed to protect roads that
must be constructed in canyon bottoms.

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16
     6.  Design culverts or bridges large enough to carry at least
a 25-year frequency storm.  West of the Cascades, use a 24-inch or
larger diameter culvert for all live stream crossings to minimize
fish migration blockages.
     7.  In order to reduce fish passage problems and pipe abrasion,
design to use bridges or "true-arch" (bottomless) culverts on
steep slopes (Figs. 14 and 15).  In locations where bridges or
bottomless culverts are impractical, design for culverts with in-
stalled baffle plates to provide for fish passage through the
culvert.  Orient culverts with natural  stream channels and extend
them beyond the fill slopes.  For anadromous fish passage, provide
an entrance pool at least 3 feet deep and 12 feet long at the out-
flow end of the culvert.  Stabilize the pool with barrier logs to
prevent erosion (Fig. 16).  Place the logs so there is no impassable
drop between the culvert and the stream.
     8.  Provide an adequate drainage system that will reduce both
the runoff concentration in the roadway and the saturation of poorly
drained soils  (Fig. 17).  Where justified by the volume of traffic
or the type of soil the road crosses, use roadside ditches and
culverts.  Give each relief culvert a minimum slope of one percent
and provide a sediment-catching basin at the entrance.  Use down-
spouts and other slope protection measures to avoid erosion of fill
areas  (Fig. 18).

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                                                                  17





     9.  Provide dips,  water bars,  and cross  drains  in  order  to



prevent water accumulations from eroding and  gullying skid trails



(Fig, 19).   Put such structures close enough  together so  the



collected water will be small  in amount and can easily  be diverted



off the road into safe  spreading areas.



     10.  Design temporary roads to drain by  outsloping wherever



possible.  On long slopes, space dips in the  road to assure diversion



of runoff from the road surface.  For fills with culverts, place



a dip at the downgrade  approach so  that in the case  of  a  flood or



plugged culvert, the excess water may flow over the  road  at that



point.  Use fords or other low level  crossings for small  streams



that have a high upstream debris hazard (Fig.  20).



     11.  Prevent muddy and turbid  waters from draining off the



roadbed and into streams.  Where necessary, make provisions to build



up the surface of dirt  roads with rock.  Pave, or otherwise stabil-



ize road surfaces in order to minimize subgrade failures, road



surface erosion, and road maintenance grading.  For  temporary paving,



use emulsified asphalt  where applications of  oil  or  sulfite-waste-



liquor type dust inhibitors could possibly wash into and  contaminate



receiving waters.



     12.  Obtain all road rock and  gravel from dry quarries or from



dry channels that are provided with adequate  protection against



sediment production. Do not "wet"  mine such  road rock  or gravel



from live stream channels (Fig. 21).

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18

                        Road Construction
     In many places, careless and improper construction of a high
mountain logging road can nullify all the effort expended in well
considered design and location.  Numerous mud-rock slides and land
slumps have started at the edge of such roads and, once started,
have carried through hundreds of feet of forested slopes.  Poor
construction and inadequate drainage have triggered land slumps in
watershed after watershed and have resulted in the most serious
form of accelerated erosion that occurs during timber harvesting.
     High quality road construction should be insisted upon by
the land owner or his representative.  Regular inspections should
be made during construction by a qualified engineer with authority
to assure that road construction meets design requirements.
     Therefore, during all phases of road construction, protect
water quality by using every possible and applicable soil and water
conservation measure.
     1.  Where the road design calls for full bench construction,
make the full cut, end-haul excess excavation from the cut, and
deposit it in stable locations well above the high water level.  Do
not deposit waste materials directly into any stream channel.  Where
necessary, compact all fill material to reduce the entry of water
and to prevent the fill material from settling.  Do not place any
woody or other organic debris  in the fill of any road.

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                                                             19





     2.  Collect all construction-area drainage and keep it out of



the streams.  Use seepage pits or other confinement measures to



prevent diesel oil, fuel oil, or other liquids from running into



streams.  Use drip collectors on oil-transporting vehicles.  Divert



water for sprinkler trucks a sufficient distance from the source



to the filling point to prevent overflow spilling or flushed tank



water from reaching the stream.



     3.  Keep soil disturbances to a minimum by constructing roads



only when soil moisture conditions are favorable.  Rough grade a



new road only as far as that road can be completely finished during



the current construction season.  Finish ditches and drainage in-



stallations on the section being worked upon before opening up



another section or before shutting down construction for the season.



     4.  Fully backslope each graded section except where vertical



cut banks are more stable than sloping ones.  In critical slump



areas, grade large cuts to slopes of not more than 1.75 to 1 and



use horizontal drain pipes.  Also, protect all large fill areas



with surface drainage diversion systems.  Place culverts so as to



cause the minimum possible channel disturbance and keep fill



materials away from culvert inlets and outlets.  During road con-



struction do not permit earth moving activities when the soils are



saturated.   Allow road machines to work in streambeds only for laying



culverts or constructing bridge abutments.  Divert streamflow from



the construction site whenever possible in order to prevent or min-



imize turbidity.

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20

     5.  Clear drainage ways of all  woody debris generated during
road clearing or construction.  Windrow the clearing debris and
crush it outside the road prism except where burning of the debris
is necessary to reduce the fire hazard, prevent insect infestations,
or to improve the aesthetics.

                         Road Maintenance
     Fully and thoroughly maintain all portions of the road system
to prevent water quality degradation from accelerated erosion during
heavy rainstorms.  This includes the regular maintenance of drainage
diversions, such as cleaning culvert inlets before and keeping them
clean during the rainy season to diminish the danger of clogging
and the possibility of washouts.  It also includes the inspection
of revegetation on obliterated spur roads, and reseeding where
necessary.  As specified for construction activities above, end-haul
and deposit all excavated material in safe bench or cove locations
well above the high water level.  Never deposit such material
directly into flowing streams (Fig. 22).
     1.  On all spur roads that outslope, cross drain them and re-
move all berms on the outside edge except those intentionally
constructed for the protection of road grade fills.
     2.  Retain outslope road drainage by performing proper main-
tenance grading.  This precludes both the undercutting of newly or
partially stabilized cut slopes and the leaving of a berm  (except for

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                                                            21






fill protection) along the outside edge of the road which might



concentrate drainage on the road (Fig.  23).   Before spring runoff



begins, remove all  ice and snow berms created on winter haul  roads,



     3.  Use extreme caution in the selection and application of



herbicides for controlling brush encroachment along road edges.



Do not let any such chemicals drift or  run off into streams to



cause objectionable tastes or odors in  the waters or to create



adverse conditions  for aquatic life or  human consumption.  Use



mechanical equipment in preference to herbicides for control  of



roadside brush.

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                           TREE CUTTING





     The total  annual  amount of wood harvested from the combined



States of Oregon and Washington approximates the equivalent of



16,000,000,000  board feet.   It is harvested from an estimated



1,000,000 acres of land of which about 360,000 acres  are clear-cut.



The harvesting  of any crop leaves an unused residue.   In the case



of trees, this  residue is made up of foliage, branches, bark, rotten



material, roots, and wood that is too small or of too low a quality



for any present day use.  In Douglas-fir forests the  average weight



of the logging  wastes  is about 40 tons per acre, and  it constitutes



a serious threat to the quality of the water which runs off the



cutover land (Fig. 24).



     The complex tannin and humic-acid solutes leached from logging



slash are a prevalent source of chemical  pollution of the water.



Hemlock trees,  for instance, have a high  tannin content in leaves



and bark.  Leachates from hemlock slash and alder leaves often dis-



color streamflow.  Large pieces of the coarse logging slash can



cause debris dams in channels and give rise to changes in the



physical nature of the stream course by causing accelerated erosion



and deposition.  Fine^organic material exerts a biochemical oxygen



demand that causes dissolved oxygen deficiencies.  Wood sugars



begin to leach  from any piece of new wood, regardless of its size,



as soon as it comes in contact with water.  Singly or in combination,



the above factors pollute many streams in the Pacific Northwest.



Such pollution  should  be prevented.

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24





     1.   Base the size,  shape,  and location  of clear-cut  blocks  on



an analysis of such things  as  forest regeneration,  logging  economics,



fire control, wildlife production, soil  protection,  aesthetic  appeal,



and water quality maintenance.



     2.   Reduce soil  damage by using a flexible logging plan.   Build



roads well in advance of tree  felling in order to  allow flexibility



in choice of logging conditions,  such as high  elevations  and northern



exposures for summer when the  snow has disappeared.   Also,  reserve



marshy ground and steep slopes  for summer, low elevations and



southern slopes for winter, and the opportunity to select different



tree species for harvest during any part of the year.



     3.   Consult with State and Federal  fishery and game  agencies



to determine the value of each stream as habitat for either resident



or anadromous fish.  If the watershed contains critical fisheries



which would be irreparably damaged by present  day  logging practices,



classify the drainage as unharvestable until suitable logging



techniques can be utilized.



     4.   Limb all logs before  yarding in order to  minimize dis-



turbance of soil and damage to reproduction and water quality



(Fig. 25).

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                           LOG YARDING





     Plan thoroughly and then yard the logs  carefully in  order  to



prevent soil  disturbances and other water pollution  hazards  along



skid trails,  on landings, and over the watershed in  general.



     1.  Correlate all  skid trail  locations  with cutting  areas,



topography, soil  types, and climatic factors.   Locate such  trails



carefully and drain them adequately so that  muddy and turbid waters



will be kept  out of stream channels.  Keep all  skid  trails  out  of



stream channels and off stream banks.   Use temporary log  or metal



culverts wherever such  trails must cross stream channels, and keep



the number of such crossings as few as possible.  Use each  skid



trail  only a  small number of times in  order  to  avoid soil gouging



and compacting and the  channelizing of runoff.



     2.  Avoid tractor  yarding on  all  saturated areas and on all



slopes steeper than 30  percent (Fig. 26).  On  critical  soils, limit



crawler-tractor yarding to slopes  of less than  15 percent (Fig. 27).



     3.  Suspend tractor logging during rainy  days and for  a day



or so thereafter.  Store logs ahead of the loading operation to



allow for yarding shutdowns on bad days.



     4.  Rather than having many long  skid roads coming to  only one



landing within the logging area, utilize a number of landings and



service each  one with a well constructed road.

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26





     5.  Locate log landing areas  on firm dry ground away from live



stream channels wherever possible.  Widening of the  logging road



will permit this in some places.   Borrow the material  for the  extra



fill from a long stretch of road  rather than from a  single spot,



thus keeping the cut slopes reduced in extent.   Use  cull  or un-



merchantable logs and chunks to form a cribbing on the downhill



side to support the fill for the  landing and thus minimize the



borrow excavation and help control slumping and erosion.



     6.  Wherever possible, yard  logs by lifting them free of  the



ground.  Where this cannot be done, yard them uphill by high-lead



cable  (Fig. 28) or by fixed or swinging skyline (Fig.  29).  Protect



all stream banks and channels by  bridging or at least by  lifting



the logs over streams rather than  dragging them through the streams.



Avoid disturbing steep slopes and  shallow soil  areas immediately



adjacent to stream channels.  Avoid undue disturbances of accumulations



of decaying vegetation which can  wash into and befoul  the streams



during rainstorms.



     7.  Minimize logging road construction on very  steep slopes  or



fragile areas by using skyline or  balloon yarding systems (Fig 30).



     8.  Consider the use of helicopters, balloons,  or modified



cable systems for logging of areas that would have high conventional



yarding costs or for fragile, sensitive areas

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                                                                  27
     9.  Take all  possible care to avoid damage  to the  soils  of
forested slopes, and to the soil  and water of natural meadows  as
well.  Minimize this damage by operating the logging equipment only
when soil moisture conditions are such that excessive damage  will
not result.
     10.  Avoid servicing tractors, trucks, and  similar equipment
on forest lands adjacent to roads, lakes, streams, or recreational
facilities.  Permit no contaminants to remain in the logging  area
following completion of operations.
     11.  Maintain in a clean and sanitary condition all  improvements
such as camps, mills, quarries, and the grounds  adjacent thereto
that are used in connection with the timber harvesting  process.
Locate all buildings, toilets, garbage pits, and other  structures
in those places that will prevent pollution of the water in streams,
ponds, or lakes.
     12.  Conduct all operations so as to preclude interference with
the resident or migratory fisheries of the area.  Do not divert the
water out of any stream without the written approval of the state
fishery biologist who has jurisdiction over the  area involved and
the state engineer who is concerned with the administration of
water rights.
     13.  Cooperate with research groups in developing  improved
methods of timber harvest that will reduce soil  disturbance,  lower
the cost of timber removal, and develop more complete utilization
of logging slash.

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                          BUFFER STRIPS





     Soil  erosion on, and logging debris  from,  roads,  landings,



skidways,  and slopes disturbed by yarding activities  during a  logging



operation  can seriously damage streams.  Much of this  damage can  be



prevented  by using all reasonable means and alternatives  that  will



keep every road and logging activity as far from the  stream courses



as possible.





                        Perennial Streams



     Logging can cause increased water temperatures  in perennial



streams.  Such increased temperatures make possible  the rapid  growth



of trash fish, slime bacteria, and algae.  However,  these higher



stream water temperatures tend to decrease with time  due  to stream



shade recovery.



     Therefore, leave buffer strips of native vegetation, including



an overhead canopy, between roads or logged areas,  and any perennial



streams they parallel (Fig. 31).  Buffer strips not  only  reduce the



quantity of sediment and logging wastes that reach  the streams, but



also help  prevent stream water temperature increases  and  loss  of



natural stream beauty.  Thus, they assist with  the  preservation of



water quality and the attainment of temperature objectives for fish



management.



     1.  Leave all hardwood trees, shrubs, grasses,  rocks, and



natural "down" timber wherever they afford shade over a perennial



stream or  maintain the integrity of the soil near such a  stream.

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30





     2.   Carefully and selectively  log  the  mature  timber  from the



buffer strip in such a way that shading and filtering  effects are



not destroyed.   Protect the buffer  strips  by leaving stumps  high



enough to prevent any subsequently-felled,  up-slope trees  from



sliding or rolling through the strips  and  into  the streams.



     3.   Neither an optimum nor a minimum  width can be set arbi-



trarily for buffer strips.  It is recommended,  however, that a



minimum width of 75 feet on each side  of the stream be used as  a



guide for establishing buffer strips.   At  the same time it must be



realized that the necessary width will  vary with steepness of the



terrain, the nature of the undercover,  the kind of soil,  and the



amount of timber that is to be removed.



     4.   For effective filtering of sediment, buffer strips  should



be wide enough  to entrap the material  that will be eroded from  the



road or the logged area above.  Under  some conditions  and with  care-



ful control in  adjacent logging areas,  a relatively narrow strip may



suffice.  On the other hand, where  road building or  logging allows



land slips to occur, the buffer strip  may  have  to be much wider and



other precautions may have to be taken  to  eliminate adverse effects



on the stream water quality.



     5.   One modification of the buffer strip plan calls  for the



removal  of only dead, dying, mature, and high risk trees  from strips



at least 75 feet wide on medium sized  or larger streams.   It provides



also for removal of all merchantable trees from within a  15-foot

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                                                                  31





strip along each bank of the stream.   Such removal  relieves  pressure



on stream banks and prevents weakening of the support for larger



trees and thus prevents stream bank destruction.



     6.  Where old growth timber must all be removed because it is



subject to windthrow (for example, pure western hemlock)  and where



it is difficult to leave full-width buffer strips  of timber  to



shade the stream, plan to re-establish cover along the stream after



cutting is completed.  Fast-growing deciduous species will  be re-



quired to restore shade as quickly as possible.  In the meantime,



leaving the understory vegetation as  undisturbed as possible will



result in the filtering of the runoff and the stabilizing of the



soil.





                       Intermittent Streams



     Many relatively small tributary  streams flow  only during the



wet season of the year;  however, they often produce substantial



flows which carry heavy sediment loads during intense or prolonged



periods of rain.  Therefore, along the channels of intermittent



tributaries, preserve adequate widths of undergrowth vegetation as



filter strips to prevent washing of sediment into  a perennial



stream below.

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                      WATERSHED RESTORATION

     Watershed restoration is  the intensified reclamation  or improve-
ment of land and vegetation that has  been so disturbed that  acceler-
ated erosion with soil  losses  and stream sedimentation will  retard
or prevent the regrowth of a protective cover.   A good restoration
program will re-establish this protective vegetative  cover to renew
the hydrologic balance by retarding and dispersing runoff.  It will
conserve the basic soil resource by reducing soil  erosion  and
providing soil stability.  It  will  deter rapid  runoff and  reduce
flood damages by lowering streamflow  peaks.   It will  minimize the
amount of sediment carried into the stream.   And it will enhance
the aesthetic considerations and recreational  use of  the watershed.

                           Logged Areas
     Clear-cut logging and yarding operations,  and the handling and
disposal of logging slash, disturb drastically  the land surface
of steep mountain slopes.
     1.  Control the erosion at its source on such disturbed areas
by hastening their reforestation.
     2.  Seed or plant adapted species  and,  where necessary, use
terracing, composting, mulching, and  fertilizing.

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34
           Roads, Skid Trails, Landings, and Pipelines
     A full restoration program will provide for herbaceous vege-
tation to be established quickly on such severely disturbed areas
as roads, skid trails, landings, and firelines.  Seed and plant
native vegetation to the fullest extent possible.  However, where
sufficient seed of native vegetation cannot be obtained, mixtures
as shown in Tables 3 and 4 have often been used with success, although
other mixtures may be utilized on specific sites.

Permanent Roads
     1.  Revegetate all road cut and fill slopes (Fig. 32).  Use such
measures as matting, mulching  (Fig. 33), fertilizing, seeding, and
planting.
     2.  Inspect all treated cut, fill, and disturbed areas frequently
and  apply immediately whatever additional soil stabilization measures
may  be necessary in order to prevent anticipated soil erosion.
Temporary Roads
     1.  Obliterate, blockade, and  stabilize all temporary spur
roads when no  longer needed for logging operations  (Fig. 34).

Skid Trails
     1.  Restore stream channels by removing temporary skid-trail
 crossings.
     2.  Obliterate and stabilize all skid trails after  logging
 the  watershed.

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                                  TABLE 3

                         RECOMMENDED SEED MIXTURES

                         West of the Cascade Divide
Species                                    Seed Per Acre
Orchard Grass                                 2 Ibs.
Timothy                                       2 Ibs.
Alta Fescue                                   2 Ibs.
Perennial  Ryegrass                            2 Ibs.

Total per acre                                8 Ibs.
                                  TABLE 4

                         RECOMMENDED SEED MIXTURES

                         East of the Cascade Divide

Species

Siberian Wheatgrass
Nordan Crested Wheatgrass
Pubescent Wheatgrass
Durar Hard Fescue
Topar Pubescent Wheatgrass
Intermediate Wheatgrass
Greener Intermediate Wheatgrass
Total per acre

Inches
0-9
5 Ibs.
5 Ibs.





10 Ibs.
Seed Per Acre

of (effective) precipitation
9-12 12-15 15-18
6 Ibs. 6 Ibs.
6 Ibs. 6 Ibs.
8 Ibs.
4 Ibs.
8 Ibs.
8 Ibs.

12 Ibs. 20 Ibs. 20 Ibs.
18-25



4 Ibs.
8 Ibs.

8 Ibs.
20 Ibs.

-------
36
     3.  If necessary,  build special  drains  on  abandoned  skid  roads
to protect stream channels or side slopes.

Landings
     1.  Locate log loading or log storage  areas  (landings)  along
ridge tops, on other areas having gentle slopes,  or along widened
road areas.
     2.  Place landings in the channels of  intermittent streams  only
in those emergency situations where no safe alternative locations
can be found (Fig. 35).  Adequately drain any landing that must  be
placed in such channels.  Immediately after completing all log
loadings from these landings, clear the channel to its full  ca-
pacity, spread the fill material in areas where it will remain
stable, and reseed those areas to herbaceous vegetation.
     3.  Upon abandonment, "erosion-proof"  all  landings by adequately
ditching or mulching with forest litter, as needed.  Establish
a herbaceous cover on those areas that will be used again in repeated
cutting cycles and restock to coniferous species  those landings,
located in clear-cut areas, that will not be reused for a long
time,  if ever.

Firelines
     1.  Limit tractor-built firelines to areas where they will not
 involve problems in soil instability.
     2.  Adequately "cross-ditch" all firelines at time of construction
 and  revegetate them with adapted grasses and legumes.

-------
                                                                 37
                          Slash Handling



     When planning the harvesting of timber, give full consideration



to the disposal of slash to prevent adverse effects on water quality,



Avoid creating large continuous areas of heavy slash and facilitate



handling and disposal of slash by suitable methods (Fig. 36).



     Encourage the reduction of debris, which could potentially



become a destructive agent during high streamflow, by insisting on



an aggressive salvage and prelogging program, fostering relogging



where a market exists, and setting clear, realistic criteria for



satisfactory stream clearance.  In preparing these guidelines



utilize estimates of how much of the area will be flooded so that



high hazard areas can be designated, avoided, and protected.



     Fit residue treatment to the need, area by area.  Extract all



large, sound residues and mechanically treat the remainder, if



possible, in lieu of burning.



     1.  Carry out slash disposal and regeneration programs con-



currently with logging operations in order to provide maximum



protection to the disturbed areas.



     2.  Treat all slash and logging debris in such ways as may be



appropriate in order that the facilities available may provide the



same or a better degree of fire protection for the cutover area



than that which was available for it prior to logging.  Reduce the



volume of the debris as much as possible by utilization of the woody



portion.   Also, incorporate into the soil as much of the finer

-------
38
portion as possible (Fig.  37).   This  will,  by  natural  means,  improve
the soil  structure and replace,  at least in part,  the  plant nutrients
for the next crop, some of which might otherwise find  their way  into
the streams.
     3.  Provide for soil  protection  in all slash  reduction plans.
If burning is the only practical means of debris disposal, do it
in such ways and at such times  that the organic litter and the soil
surface is not totally destroyed.

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                MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLY WATERSHEDS

     Undisturbed forested watersheds yield high quality water.  In
some places in the Pacific Northwest, the water from such areas can
be used directly for drinking purposes.  In many other locations, the
water is suitable for municipal supplies after a simple chlorination
treatment.
     Some forested watersheds in the Pacific Northwest have been
set aside as closed watersheds for the sole purpose of producing
municipal water supplies.  Access to such areas is carefully con-
trolled.  Soil disturbances and other potential water quality de-
grading activities are kept to an absolute minimum.
     Many municipalities rely on water supplies from multiple-use
watersheds because they have not been able to wholly or even
partially control man's activities on the watersheds that produce
their municipal water supplies.  Also, a few other communities that
do have complete control of their watersheds have contracted to
have them logged in order to harvest the renewable, natural timber
resource which they support.  The logging roads that have been built
are considered to be an asset because they permit access to the
watershed for the purpose of fighting wildfires.
     Special precautions are needed for road building and logging
in municipal water supply watersheds.

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40
     1.  Permit tractor skidding only at locations  specified  in  an
approved plan.   Do not allow log skidding across  live streams or
along paths that are parallel  to a stream and that  are closer than
100 feet of the stream.  Use bridges  or culverts  for all  stream
crossings.
     2.  Divert water used for filling truck brake  reservoirs or
for truck washing a sufficient distance from the  source to the
filling point to prevent spilling of overflow or  waste from reach-
ing the stream.
     3.  Locate contractor camps completely out of  municipal  water-
sheds.
     4.  At landings and other areas  where crews  are located,
provide sanitation facilities that comply with those Federal, state,
or local regulations that are the most stringent.
     5.  On domestic water supply watersheds, use well maintained
chemical toilets for disposing of body wastes and remove all  garbage
for disposal elsewhere.
     6.  Provide buffer strips to protect municipal water collection
and conveyance facilities.
     7.  Discourage soil scarification by crawler tractor, but if
exposing the mineral soil is the best method for  preparing a site
that is to be seeded, disturb the soil as little  as possible,
windrow the cleared material along the contour, limit the cleared
area between windrows to 75 to 100 feet of slope  distance, and
scarify not more than 60 percent of the area.

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ILLUSTRATIONS

-------
                          V
FIGURE la.   An early-spring sample  of water taken  from  a  creek  a  short
            distance upstream from  its confluence  with  a  small  tributary.
The water from the creek is used as a municipal water supply.   Ordinarily,
its quality is so high it needs  only chlorination.   This  sample contained
zero parts  per million (ppm)  of  suspended solids.

-------
FIGURE Ib.   This sample was taken from a small  tributary where  logging  in
            the stream channel  was in  progress  a short distance upstream
from the sampling point.   The sample had a total solids concentration of
70,192 ppm.   The suspended solids settled out rather rapidly  into a  1.5-
inch dark layer in the bottom of the jug.

-------
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                        30  60  90   IZO  150  180  EIO  240  270
                          TURBIDITY IN PARTS PER MILLION
                 FIGURE 2.   Effect  of turbidity on the
                             survival, production, and
                             catch of fish.I/
4/ U. S. Department of Agriculture,  Forest Service, Pacific Northwest
   Forest and Range Experiment  Station.  1969. Douglas-Fir Supply Study,
   p. 48.

-------
                  Q  '°
                  o
                  s_
                  O)
                  CL 80
                 LiJ
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                    60
                    20
                      0    10    ZO   30   40    50    60   70

                   FINE  SEDIMENT IN SPAWNING BED, percent
                FIGURE 3.  The  proportion  of salmon alevins
                           that develop  and emerge from
                gravel spawning beds  decreases as the rela-
                tive amount of  fine sediment in the gravel
                beds increases.§/
5/ Ibid., p. 49.

-------
FIGURE 4.   Removal  of trees  and  all  other vegetation  along  Needle  Branch
           eliminated the shading effect and permitted  peak stream water
temperature increases up to  16°F.   Needle Branch  is a small  tributary  of
Drift Creek, which  flows into the Alsea  River in  Oregon.  Photo  courtesy
Bureau of Land Management, U.  S.  Dept. of the Interior,  Nov.  1966.

-------
                    70
                  in
                  01
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                  o:
                  o
                  01
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                       NEEDLE BRANCH
                         (logged)
 1966  |
AFTER CLEARCUTTING ,
                          FLYNN CREEK
                          (not logged)
                                          1965
                                       BEFORE CLEARCUTTING--)
                    0000     0600     1200      1800
                               TIME  OF DAV
                                2400
FIGURE 5.  Water temperature  in  Needle  Branch  in  Oregon,  varied only some
           2°F. during an average  summer  day before the trees were remov-
ed by the clear-cut logging method.   It fluctuated  about  15°F. (58 and 73
degrees) after logging.  In Flynn  Creek,  a  control  (unlogged) watershed
nearby, the water temperature was  5  to  7  degrees  cooler than in Needle
Branch even before Needle Branch was  logged.   The water temperature in
Flynn Creek remained about the same  throughout the  study  because this
watershed was not logged.§/

      Optimum temperatures for fish  life  are considered to be:

      Resident situations (trout):
        Winter:  42 - 58°F.
        Summer:  45 - 68°F.

      Migration routes (anadromous salmonoids):
                 45 - 60=F.

      Spawning areas (resident and anadromous  salmonoids):
                 45 - 55°F.

      Rearing areas (resident and  anadromous salmonoids):
                 50 - 60°F.
6/  Ibid.,  p.  49.

-------
FIGURE 6.   The general  characteristics  of a random road pattern  serving  a
           number of clear-cut logging  units in the H.  J.  Andrews  Experi-
mental Forest in central, western Oregon, in a view eastward toward  the
summit of the Cascade Mountains.   Photo courtesy Forest Service,  U.  S.
Dept.  of Agriculture.

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     Present Roads

     Reserve Setting Roads

     Projected  Roads

     Present Cutovers
FIGURE 7.  The roads on the south side of Lookout  Creek  in  the  H.  J.  And-
           rews Experimental Forest were located in  "random"  fashion  and
built far enough each year to permit an annual  cut of  20 million  board
feet.  The roads were constructed according  to  the best  customary  prac-
tices, utilizing a thorough knowledge of the  terrain,  a  balance of
economic yarding distances, and good watershed  management principles.
However, since a systematic approach was not  followed, steep  grades were
prevalent, road density was high, and the yarding  coverage  was  relatively
poor.  Drawing courtesy Forest Service, U. S. Dept.  of Agriculture.

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           Present Roads
           Reserve Setting  Roads

           Projected Roads
           Present Cutovers
FIGURE 8.  A systematic  road pattern was used  on  the  north side of Look-
           out Creek  on  the H.  J. Andrews Experimental  Forest.  This
pattern has distinct  road levels, a minimum length  of climbing road, a
relatively low road density, and good yarding  coverage.   Drawing courtesy
Forest Service, U. S.  Dept. of Agriculture.

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            „*"
FIGURE 9.   Stable roads capable of supporting heavy loads can be located
           and constructed on steep slopes.   Note the added safety pre-
caution illustrated here of having the heavily loaded truck driving on
the inside of the road when going out of the watershed and the unloaded
truck using the outside of the road when coming into the watershed.  This
gives rise to the driving axiom for some private forest roads of:   "out-
side in. and inside out."  Photo courtesy Bureau of Land Management, U. S,
Dept. of the Interior.

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FIGURE 10.   Generally, a stream (lower right)  should be  separated  from an
            access road (upper left)  by filter strips of living vegetation.
Unfortunately, this temporary road,  built during an  emergency  timber sal-
vage program, did not utilize road construction practices  necessary  to
protect the stream.  Photo courtesy  Forest Service,  U.  S.  Dept.  of Agri-
culture.

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FIGURE 11.   Sometimes  topographic features  allow for little  choice  in  the
            location of a road.   In those cases, special  drainage and  other
stability features must be built into the road in order to prevent  its
being washed out during heavy storms.  This junction of the  Esmond  Creek-
Roman Nose Mountain roads (Sec.  29, T 19 S, R 8 W, Willamette  Base  and
Meridian) required much searching for a suitable location plus much care
in construction.  Photo courtesy Bureau of Land Management,  U. S. Dept. of
the Interior.

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FIGURE 12.   Esmond Creek-Roman Nose Mountain road junction after 10 years
            of use.   Continued stability of a difficult location such as
this requires constant, complete maintenance, especially of the drainage
system.  Note the regrowth of vegetation on the fill  material  and evidence
of erosion  around the end of the culvert.   For full  protection of the road
fill, this  culvert should be provided with a downspout (Fig.  18) or protec-
tive riprap.   Photo courtesy Bureau of Land Management, U. S.  Dept. of the
Interior.

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FIGURE 13.   Where feasible, safe, alternate locations  through stable areas
            cannot be found, incorporate corrective stabilization measures
into the road design.  Use those measures that will increase the stability
of fill embankments and cuts and provide fill  embankments  with protection
against water erosion.   Logs and posts  are serving as  effective protection
barriers for the stream in this difficult location where a protective fil-
ter strip or a better location for the  road did not exist.   Photo courtesy
Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

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FIGURE 14.   The water flows  through  this  well-placed,  pipe-arch  culvert
            as though it were a part of the natural  stream.   Fish  can
pass through it easily because nonnegotiable pools  were  not  formed and
the velocity of the water was not increased.   Photo courtesy Forest Service,
U.  S.  Dept.  of Agriculture.

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FIGURE 15.  A poor culvert installation can block fish migrations even
            though the culvert is otherwise well-designed,  of adequate
size, and expensive to construct.  Photo courtesy Oregon State Game
Commission.

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FIGURE 16.   Pools formed behind barrier logs  installed  below a  culvert
            assist fish passage during migrations.   Photo courtesy  Forest
Service, U.  S.  Dept.  of Agriculture.

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FIGURE 17.   Inadequate design  (culvert  too  small),  improper  placement  (fill
            not compacted or not protected),  insufficient maintenance  (cul-
vert clogged with  debris),  or  a  combination of  these  faults, often  results
in erosion  of the  fill material  and  expensive repair  bills.  Photo  courtesy
Forest Service, U.  S.  Dept.  of Agriculture.

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FIGURE 18.   Concentrations of road drainage require spec-
            ial disposal  precautions.  For instance, this
well-anchored, half-round downspout protects a loose road
fill from a culvert's concentrated discharges.  Note the
steel posts with the twisted wire binding which form a
secure fixed point for the metal channel.  Photo courtesy
Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

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FIGURE 19.   At the conclusion of a logging operation, block off all traf-
            fic and build water bars across all temporary roads.   Do this
before the first period of heavy precipitation occurs and while the neces-
sary equipment is still in the area.  Photo courtesy Forest Service, U.  S,
Dept.  of Agriculture.

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                            A concrete ford.
                 A temporary bridge of standard design.
FIGURE 20.  Concrete "fords" or easily removed, temporary bridges of
            standard design may be useful  on unstable streams having
a high upstream debris hazard such as is indicated by these cobbly
stream channels.  Photo courtesy Forest Service, U.  S. Dept. of Agri-
culture.

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FIGURE 21.   "Wet" mining road rock or gravel  directly from live streams
            creates excessive turbidity, which can be avoided by using
"dry" quarry mines.  Photo courtesy Forest Service, U.  S.  Dept. of Agri-
culture.

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FIGURE 22.   Waste  material  picked  up during culvert cleaning or other
            road maintenance work  should be dumped only in safe bench or
cove locations  so  as  to  protect  stream water quality.  Dumping it in streams,
as shown here,  seriously degrades  stream water quality.

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                 ^-^J-N \t,      ^^
*
FIGURE 23.  Well-stabilized roads should be kept fully maintained without
            undercutting the inside slope or building up a berm on  the
outside edge.  On this road, the berm on the outside extended for several
miles and kept the precipitation channeled on the road during an early
fall rain.  This caused washing away of portions of the tread.  The berm
was subsequently spread across the full width of the road.  Photo courtesy
Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

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FIGURE 24.   Huge quantities  of organic  debris  are  left  on  the  ground  after
            clear-cutting,  limbing,  and bucking  of a  dense stand  of old-
growth timber.   Any such organic debris that falls into, is dragged into,
or washes into  streams immediately begins  to degrade  the water quality.
Photo courtesy  Forest Service, U.  S.  Dept.  of Agriculture.

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FIGURE 25.   Smaller log sections with the limbs cut off cause the least
            soil gouging and thus minimize soil erosion and stream water
quality degradation during the skidding operation.   Photo courtesy Bureau
of Land Management, U.  S.  Dept.  of the Interior.

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FIGURE 26.   Indiscriminate use of tractors on steep hillsides causes exces-
            sive soil  erosion.  Crawler-tractor yarding should not be
allowed on  any slope steeper than 30 percent.  Photo courtesy Forest Ser-
vice, U.  S.  Dept.  of Agriculture.

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FIGURE 27.  Yarding logs can often be done economically with track-laying
            tractors.   However, on critical  soils, crawler-tractor yarding
should be limited to slopes of less than 15  percent.   Photo courtesy
Bureau of Land Management, U.  S.  Dept.  of the Interior.

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FIGURE 28.  Yarding the logs uphill will help disperse rather than concen-

i   •    j u    u6 overland flow of runoff.  When logging is completed and
logging debris has been fully utilized, or otherwise disposed of  this
area needs to be reforested to ensure a new timber crop and to protect
the quality of inflow to streams.   Photo courtesy Forest Service  U  S
Dept.  of Agriculture.                                            '  '

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FIGURE 29.  Swinging skylines with grapples are a fairly recent log-yarding
            innovation.  They are more mobile than fixed skylines, but cause
more soil disturbance because the heavier logs may be dragged most or all  of
the way to the landing.  They are similar to high-lead log-yarding systems,
but have the big advantage of being able to maneuver the logs past stumps  or
other obstructions.  Swinging skylines can help reduce stream water degrada-
tion during the logging operation.  Photo courtesy Pacific Logging Congress.

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FIGURE 30.   Balloon logging may eventually replace some  of the  older meth-
            ods.   It or helicopter logging may also permit timber harvest-
ing to proceed on fragile areas that should not be logged even  by use of
today's best systems and equipment.   Photo courtesy Lennen & Newell/Pacific,
Portland, Oregon.

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FIGURE 31.   Buffer strips of live vegetation between  roads,  clear-cut areas,
            and streams help protect water quality.   This  vertical  aerial
photo of an area on the Gifford Pinchot National  Forest has  an  approximate
scale of 4 inches to the mile.

    Pertinent points are:
    A.  Areas clear-cut logged  about 1945-1951  are  now well  stocked with
          coniferous trees  that are 10-15  feet  tall.
    B.  Areas clear-cut about 1964.
    C.  Uphill  cable yarding trails  on  recent clear-cuts.
    D. & F.   Main timber access roads.
    E.  Canyon  Creek.
    G.  Narrow,  fairly  short, dark  area is  strip  of timber left  to  protect
          stream from road  fill.  Gray-white areas at either end of buffer
          strip  are places  where  rocky  soil  and steep slopes  prevented  leav-
          ing a  protective  strip  of adequate width.
    H.  Tractor  logging trails.
    I.  Spur roads  to landings.
    J.  Scar in  clear-cut area  caused by off-road, downhill  movement of yard-
          ing equipment.

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FIGURE 32.   Seeded grass gives protection to roadside cuts and fills and
            reduces the rate of accelerated erosion.

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FIGURE 33.   Mulching with straw or other organic matter and seeding to
            adapted plant species helps stabilize raw road slopes.   The
four-man crew on the mulching machine in operation on this newly construct-
ed road includes a truck driver, supply man (on truck), machine feeder, and
nozzle operator.  Photo courtesy Forest Service, U.  S.  Dept.  of Agriculture.

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FIGURE 34.   This temporarily used,  now abandoned, log-hauling road was
            stabilized by seeding to perennial  grasses after the road
had served the purpose for which it was constructed.   If needed later,
this well-preserved road could be easily renovated.   Photo courtesy
Forest Service, U.  S.  Dept. of Agriculture.

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  WHEN Use
  F/H/SHCO-
                                                     /HIT/ILL CULVSK.T re
                                                     HstHPLE 3T%.EAW FLOW
                                                               AKE
                                                     BIG crtac/sH for? WIHTEH
                                                     AMD SPRJNS FLOW
FIGURE 35.  When  there is no other alternative,  a  log loading and
            storage  area may have to be placed  in  a valley location.
Such log landings  should be planned carefully,  drained during use,
and obliterated or stabilized after use.5/

5/ U. S. Department  of Agriculture, Forest  Service, California Region.
   1954.  A Guide  to Erosion Reduction on National  Timber Sale Areas.
   p. 16.

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FIGURE 36.   Douglas-fir seed germinates  best in  mineral  soil.   Disposal  by
            suitable method of most of the  small-sized  logging  slash  facili
tates the reseeding and replanting of a  Douglas-fir clearcut area.   Photo
courtesy Bureau of Land Management, U.  S.  Dept.  of the  Interior.

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FIGURE 37.   A protective mat of organic matter on  and in  the  soil  helps
            reduce the sediment load washed into streams.   Chopping  up
the logging debris with a brush or slash cutter will  help produce  such
a protective mat.   Photo courtesy Bureau of Land Management,  U.  S.  Dept.
of the Interior.

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