SW664C
I I!
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This publication, prepared by the
Franklin Institute Re-search Laboratories, Philadelphia. Pennsylvania,
under contract to the Federal solid waste management program
is reproduced as received from the contractor.
Any questions regarding errors or inconsistencies
should be referred directly to the contractor.
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SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
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Note: The Federal solid waste management program is unable to furnish reprints of the cited publica-
tions, with the exception of papers authored by program personnel. If copies of publications are not
available in local libraries, readers should contact the author(s) or publisher to obtain reprints.
An Environmental Protection Publication
This publication is also in the Public Health Service numbered series as Public Health Service Publication
No. 91-1968, Supplement K; its entry in two government publication series is the result of a publishing
interface reflecting the transfer of the Federal solid waste management program from the U.S. Public
Health Service to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NO. 53-60514
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
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SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT BIBLIOGRAPHIC SERIES
1941-1971
Since its beginning more than a quarter of a century ago, the Federal
program in solid waste management has had a number of organizational
aegises, as well as several organizational titles. One constant, though,
has been quite visible throughout the program's development, and that
is its unflagging interest in bibliography.
Collecting past data on a problem by a literature search is the
classic first step used in the scientific method of problem solving. Thus,
in 1941, the first workers in the Federal program searched the world-wide
literature for information that had been published on solid wastes.
The resultant bibliography was then published as a service to other
workers in the field and became a periodic publication in the Public
Health Service series. This step was taken again in 1965, following
the passage of the Solid Waste Disposal Act, when the early bibliographies
were reprinted and made more widely available. The literature search
was then extended through 1971, and the present bibliography is one
of those that will bring the series up to date.
-SAMUEL HALE, JR.
Deputy Assistant Administrator
for Solid Waste Management
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SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Abstracts from the Literature
1968
The Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965 (Public Law 89-272, Title II)
and its amended legislation, the Resource Recovery Act of 1970 (Public
Law 91-512, Title 1), authorized collection, storage, and retrieval of
information relevant to all aspects of solid waste management.
Although the literature represented by this bibliography does not
include all the solid waste literature published in 1968 numerous periodical
and nonperiodical titles covering both the foreign and domestic literature
were screened for inclusion. No effort was made to separate strictly
technical material from that which is more general. The bibliography
is arranged in categories corresponding to the various administrative,
engineering, and operational phases of solid waste management. Indices
include subject, corporate author, author, and geographical location cited.
Addresses of periodical sources are provided.
This project is the result of the combined efforts of the Solid
Waste Information Retrieval System (SWIRS) and the Franklin Institute
Research Laboratories under contracts PH 86-67-182 and PH 86-68-194.
Primary SWIRS personnel involved in this project were John A. Connolly
and Sandra E. Stainback.
-THOMAS F. WILLIAMS, Director
Technical Information Staff
Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
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CONTENTS
Page
Introduction v
Law/Regulations(includes ordinances and bills) 1
Economics(includes costs, fees, taxes, and
financing) 2
Storage(mcludes receptacles, containers
and sacks) 4
Collection and Disposal—General 6
Collection and Transportation of Refuse 19
Disposal(multisystems only). See also
Specific methods 35
Agricultural wastes(includes crop residues and
animal manures) 53
Automobile(abandoned autos, processing, separating
salvaging, reduction, collection of autos.
Recycling of automobile parts will be found
under Automobile, not under Recycling) 65
Compost/Composting(includes equipment processes
and marketing) 70
Processmg/Reduction(excludes composting and
incineration) 79
Incineration(includes all burning processes
and pyrolysis) 83
Incineration-Europe 108
Industrial wastes 123
Hazardous wastes(includes pesticides) 174
Packaging wastes(includes plastic, glass,
and metals) 176
Recycling(includes reclamation, utilization,
salvage, recovery and reuse).
See also Automobile 181
Fly ash utilization. See also Recycling 207
Sanitary landfill(includes all land disposal) 212
Street cleanmg(includes snow removal and
sweeping equipment) 223
Training, Education and Public Relations 225
Management(includes the facility as well as
overall concept of the system) 229
Analysis of solid waste. See Specific category
Bulky wastes. See Specific category
Health/Safety. See Specific category
Institutional wastes. See Specific category
Litter. See Specific category
Ocean disposal(mcludes all waterways)
Research. See Training, Education, and Public
Relations
Separation. See Recycling
Sludge(includes sewage sludge and slurry).
See Specific category
Transport(includes pipelines, pneumatic systems,
rail, truck, or barge haul). See Collection
and Transportation of Refuse
Addresses of Periodical Publications Cited 239
Author Index 249
Corporate Author Index 267
Geographical Location Index 271
Subject Index 275
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LAW/REGULATIONS
68-0001
Breidenbach, A. W. Research activities of the Solid Wastes
Program of the Public Health Service. [Cincinnati], Li S.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Mar. 1968.
16 p
The objectives ot the Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965 are to
initiate and accelerate a national research and development
program for methods of solid waste disposal, and to provide
technical and financial assistance to appropriate agencies in
the planning, development, and conduct of solid waste
disposal programs. The Congress assigned responsibility for
administering the Solid Waste Disposal Act to the Secretary
of Health, Education, and Welfare and to the Secretary of the
Interior. The Program functions through four distinct
activities: Systems Analysis and Operations Planning,
Technical Services, Demonstrations, and Research and
Development. The seven recommendations of the National
Commission of Technology, Automation, and Economic
Progress are presented. The distribution ot Hinds and projects
of the Solid Wastes Program are tabulated.
68-0002
Disposal problem outweighs judicial technicalities, rules New
York Supreme Court. Clean Air News, 2(14):2-3, Apr. 23,
1968.
In a case involving suits by two New York towns against a
contracting company to prohibit the open burning of trees,
stumps, and other debris, the New York Supreme Court ruled
that the materials be immediately burned because of the
urgency and complexity of the disposal problem. The case
involved the debris, such as trees and stumps, resulting from
clearing areas to build a highway. The State Department of
Health expressed concern as to whether such burning would
violate the State's air pollution control laws, but the court
had no jurisdiction in this matter.
68-0003
Milliken, S. O., M. D. Strauss, and R. Black. Legal
responsibilities for sewage disposal in an urban county,
American Journal of Public Health, 58(1).122-130, Jan.
1968.
A case study of the Cincinnati metropolitan area with respect
to the legal responsibilities for sewage disposal is presented.
The finding in this case Ts that the local health officer and his
agency are practically impotent legally. Effective community
health planning must be appropriately area-wide in scope. It
must deal realistically with the limitations and potentials of
existing legal authority and responsibility; it must bring to
bear the powers of governmental agencies along with the
poweis and flexibilities ot voluntary agencies; and it must
work to overcome obstacles created by man-made
boundaries. The responsibilities of various local government
units in sewage disposal regulations are outlined.
68-0004
Public corporation proposed to handle solid wastes. Compost
Science, 9(2).5-6, Summer 1968.
A bill introduced into the New York State Senate would
create a public corporation whose purpose would be to
improve the handling of solid wastes, to reduce
environmental pollution, and to provide for effective
utilization of waste material. The text of the bill is included.
The corporation would be governed by a board of directors
appointed by the Governor with the consent of the Senate.
The powers of the corporation would include: developing
procedures for reclaiming wastes, regulating the design and
composition of disposable containers; providing for the
removal and disposition of abandoned automobiles;
encouraging new technology for handling and disposal;
assisting in the construction of multiple-use facilities;
sponsoring conferences and studies; and receiving, investing,
and using property and money. The property, income, and
activities of the corporation would be exempt from taxes and
assessments.
68-0005
Removal and disposal of vehicles; law relative to the subject.
Public Cleansing, 58(7);325-330, July 1968.
'Disposal of Old Motor Vehicles,' Circular No. 8/65, issued
by the British Ministry of Housing and Local Government in
February 1965, enumerates the powers of a local authority in
dealing with abandoned cars. Section 74 of the Public Health
Act of 1936 enables a local authority to remove, on request,
refuse which it is under no obligation to remove, and the
circular treats such articles as old motor cars as refuse within
the meaning of the section. Section 34 of the Public Health
Act of 1961 enables a local authority to remove from vacant
sites any accumulations of rubbish which are detrimental to
the area. The Removal of Vehicles Regulations of 1961
enables local authorities to dispose of vehicles which are
abandoned on roads. Part III of the Civic Amenities Act of
1967 provides for the disposal of abandoned vehicles and
other refuse. Individual sections of that act are analyzed.
Statutory Instrument No. 43, entitled 'The Removal and
Disposal of Vehicles Regulation, 1968.' now constitutes the
law for the removal and disposal of vehicles abandoned on
the road or on land. The charges are prescribed, and these
regulations are summarized
68-0006
Solid Waste Disposal Act Amendment of 1968 Report of the
Corrtiittee on Public Works, U.S. Senate, to accompany
S.3201. 90th Cong., 2d sess., Report No. 1447. Washington,
U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968 33 p.
The purpose of bill S.3201 is to , extending for 1 year the provisions on
reseaii'h and assistance ioi State and interstate planning for
solid waste disposal. This ont-year extension will provide
sufficient time to conduct the study, recommended by the
President, to bring down the present high cost of solid waste
disposal and to improve research and development in this
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Economics
field. Working with representatives of the Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare, the Department of the
Interior, and the Department of Defense, Dr. Rolf Eliassen, a
professor of environmental engineering at Stanford
University, is undertaking a comprehensive review of solid
waste technology. Statements of various agencies, listings of
State-interstate solid waste planning grants, and changes in
the existing law are included.
68-0007
Slate regulation of solid waste disposal. Public Works,
99(5)-102, May 1968.
Under a law passed by the Ohio Assembly, the State will
regulate and health districts will license the location and
operation of solid waste disposal sites and facilities. The term
'solid waste' as defined here does not include earth or
material from construction, mining, and demolition
operations, nor slag and other substances which are not
harmful to public health. The State Public Health Council is
required to adopt regulations having uniform application
throughout the State. The law requires the regulation and
licensing to insure that sites and facilities will be located,
maintained, and operated in a sanitary manner. Anyone
desiring to establish a disposal site must submit the plans for
the facility to the State Health Department. Provision is
made requiring annual inspections, and a license may be
revoked or denied after a hearing.
ECONOMICS
68-0008
Buell, D. Private industry might cut red tape—solid waste
disposal—IV. Congressional Record, 114(42)'S2,845, Mar
14, 1968.
At a rate of $5,000 rent for the land, Melrose, Massachusetts,
plans to let a private company build an incinerator for the
town. The city is therefore released from the necessity of
floating a $1.5 to $2 million bond issue to maintain and
operate the incinerator, and can defray the cost of the bond
issue. Private companies, by receiving tax incentives to install
new parts, have advantages that municipalities lack.
Municipalities, because ot low salaries, usually cannot keep
skilled laborers to operate disposal systems. Padding the
sanitation depaitment with political appointees can also be
avoided.
680009
Chamberlain, G. M. Guaranteed-mamtenance purchasing.
American City, 83(6): 1 12-114, June 1968.
Low-bid buying, under old bidding procedures, generally
meant that the city could wind up with third-rate equipment.
low in initial cost but expensive to maintain.
Guaranteed-mamlenance purchasing means that dealers must
stand behind their product beyond the normal warranty
period. Also, it helps to cut down on costly repairs that
always seem to occur shortly after the warranty expires. At
last count, some 65 municipalities and nearly 40 counties in
28 States have bought equipment covered by a
guaranteed-maintenance contract. Under
guaranteed-maintenance bidding, the bidder must furnish a
bid price for the outright purchase of the equipment and a
guaranteed-maintenance cost for the expected useful life of
the equipment. Some jurisdictions have carried this one step
further to include a guaranteed repurchase price for the
equipment at various intervals within the useful life of the
equipment. With all three factors included, the procedure is
referred to as total-cost bidding or total-life costing. A
specific example concerning Chicago's purchase of a crawler
tractor is discussed.
68-0010
Chamberlain, G. M. Guaranteed-maintenance purchasing. Part
H-what are its disadvantages? American City, 83(7): I 29-130,
July 1968
Guaranteed-maintenance bidding allows all bidders to meet
specifications, and it includes several possible alternatives to
help produce the lowest net cost to the city. Also, it gives the
municipal official a chance to consider all the costs ot
equipment, ownership, and maintenance. Yet there are some
disadvantages that prohibit many local bodies from
paiticipating. Some of these disadvantages are. State and
local laws may hinder such bidding: unions may try to curtail
this practice; operating departments may oppose it:
dealerships or repair shops may not exist locally, cost records
to base bids on may not exist; and only a limited number of
manufacturers can comply. A purchasing agent's biggest
problem in selling guaranteed-maintenance or total-cost
bidding is convincing the operating departments of this
method's value. Often these departments do not keep
accurate cost records of their equipment. As a result, they
cannot determine their average monthly maintenance costs.
This means the city will have no yardstick with which to
evaluate a guaranteed-nuintenance bid. Other disadvantages
are the increase in needed, initial cash outlay and the
possibility of fewer interested bidders.
68-0011
Chamberlain, G. M. Guaranteed-maintenance purchasing. Part
111 — do manufacturers like it'.' What are some alternatives?
What is its future? American City, 83(8):102, 104-105, 137,
Aug. 1968.
Guaranteed-maintenance purchasing procedures are
discussed. Some alternatives currently in use in cities are
described. A large number of dealers have reported
submitting total-cost bids on a growing variety of equipment;
yet many of them report a lack of success when one or more
of the following factors are involved: the purchasing body
may have had inadequate experience or records on which to
base a sound total-cost evaluation; although a quality product
is clearly indicated, the law or purchasing committee requires
the lowest bid be taken; elected officials often stick with
low-bid buying oul of fear of public criticism. The purchasing
official or committee which evaluates all bids on an 'equal
basis' may then award the bid based on friendship, a
salesman's 'claim,' or a 'buy local' policy. Several factors that
make total-cost bidding work more effectively are' requiring
all bidders to submit performance bonds with their bids;
making specifications clear on all responsibilities for repairs
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0007-0016
and downtime charges; spelling out means of arbitration in
case of divergent opinions arising from some
misunderstanding; requiring all bidders to bid on the same
form; checking the bid with the legal department; making
sure the buy back is not a trade-in; and being aware of the
difference between gear-driven and clock-type hour meters
on engines when using these to record running times. Some
local governments have tried equipment rental as an
alternative. Some advantages of the leasing program are: any
unit can be transferred, depending on the work load, from
one department to another; if an oversupply of vehicles
exists, the extra units can be returned; and rentals allow the
district to expend its money over a period of time and not on
an original purchase.
68-0012
Frankel, R. J. Technologic and economic interrelationships
among gaseous, liquid, and solid wastes in the coal-energy
industry. Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation,
40(5):779-788,May 1968.
The importance of a comprehensive waste management
approach for analyzing and determining the minimum total
costs associated with environmental quality standards is
discussed. Two examples are given to illustrate that waste
production and waste handling alternatives must be
considered in an economic analysis of overall production
costs. Tables show: the operating costs for the closed water
circuit for handling liquid waste; operating costs for a
thermal drying plant; and operating costs for environmental
quality control. It is stated that the cost per ton for liquid
waste amounts to $0.06; for solid waste. $0.035; and for
gaseous waste, $0.021. These figures are applicable for a
complete coal preparation plant of 500-ton-per-hr capacity.
Based on a disposal tonnage of 370,000 tons per year (or
80% recovery), the operating cost of solid waste disposal per
ton of refuse is calculated at $0.10 per ton. By comparison,
this cost of solid waste disposal at the mine is considerably
less than the cost at the power plant site where fly ash and
bottom ash are disposed of at costs of between $1.00 and
$2.00 per ton. The capital costs tor solid waste handling
include conveyors for the dry refuse, crushers, dewatermg
screens, bins, sumps, bulldozers, and trucks for disposal to
designated sites. Estimated capital costs for such facilities are
about $250,000, or approximately 7 percent of the plant
cost for refuse handling. Estimated capital costs associated
with waste water control, solid waste disposal, and gaseous
wastes control amount to $750,000 or over 20 percent of
total plant capital costs. These could double if the coal
preparation plant were located near residential communities
where paniculate emission controls are more stringent. They
serve, however, to show that environmental quality control
constitutes an important segment of the cost of coal
preparation.
68-0013
Lippman, A. J. Spiraling costs mark waste industry over three
decades. Solid Wastes Management/Refuse Removal Journal,
11(1): 86-87, Jan. 1968.
Costs of wages, materials, supplies, taxes, and equipment for
the municipal refuse contractor have risen sharply between
1937 and 1967. Gasoline (taxes included) has increased from
15.98 to 33.90 cents per gal and oil from 35 to 79 cents per
qt Registration fees have nearly doubled for a 3(),00()-lb
truck. Drivers and loaders wages have risen from $24 and $21
per week to $126 and $116 per week, respectively. Social
Security taxes, averaging $0.48 weekly in 1937, are now
$5.97. A truck which cost $3,500 in 1937 now costs over
$12,000. The price of a bulldozer (D6, D7, or D8) is now five
or six times as lush as it was in 1937.
68-0014
Pricing for refuse removal. Public Cleansing, 58(2)'68-69,
Feb. 1968.
In 'Pricing for Refuse Removal,' a prize-winning essay in the
Theory and Practice of Pricing, published by the Institute of
Economic Affairs, the author Sudha Shenoy comes to the
conclusions that a market in British retuse should be
established and that refuse collection and disposal should not
be financed from the rates. A market in refuse disposal would
have the effect of curtailing a rising demand for additional
refuse removal services, resulting from the increasing volume
of refuse. The proposed market in refuse might be based on
individual contracts between householders and private firms.
Comparisons are made between the British and Indian
practices to illustrate that householders could be persuaded
to presort their refuse if there was a financial incentive. After
analyses of British refuse, it was concluded that it should be
possible to reuse most of it by way of salvage, heat recovery,
or composting.
68-0015
Ralph Stone and Company, Inc. Preliminary cost analysis. In
Land reclamation by accelerated stabilization; first annual
progress report. Los Angeles, Aug. 1968. p. 13-14.
A preliminary cost analysis of several alternative methods of
processing and disposing 250 tons per day of domestic refuse
was made. The methods considered were incineration, normal
sanitary landfill, composting, and controlled aeration for
both biological and in situ incineration. A tributary
population of 100,000 was assumed, and the per capita
production was estimated to be 5.0 Ib per day. The
composition was assumed to be 50 percent volatile matter,
25 percent inerts, and 25 percent moisture. The total per ton
processing and disposal cost tor the case study was projected
to be $8.53 for incineration, $1.50 for normal sanitary
landfill, $4.29 for composting, and $1.78 for controlled
aeration, disregarding the ultimate value of the completed
landfill.
680016
$214 million sought in New York City. Solid Wastes
Management/Refuse Removal Journal, 11 (2).22-24, 26, Feb.
1968.
Refuse and residue receipts by the New York City Sanitation
Department, amounting to 7,200 tons in 1967, are expected
to rise to 8,200 tons by 1977. The proposed budget for 1969
to 1974 of $214 million, is intended to modernize and
expand the city's system. Figuring prominently in the above
totals are two proposed incinerators, one in the South Bronx
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Storage
with a capacity of 3,200 tons per day, and one in the
Brooklyn Navy Yard with a daily capacity of 5,000 tons.
These would be built at a cost of $98 million. The balance of
the 5-year budget would purchase collection trucks and
incinerators with air pollution controls, construct marine
transfer stations, and provide marine loading and landfill
facilities, including barges. The proposed incinerators are
required to meet not only the current demands and those due
to normal growth, but also the additional load that will be
placed on the city's incineration facilities due to the ultimate
prohibition on burning any refuse in apartment house
incinerators.
STORAGE
68-0017
Sevan, R, E. Sacks in a city. Public Cleansing, 58(8):376-388,
Aug. 1968.
Experiments in Manchester, England, using paper sacks for
refuse storage have shown that the weight carried by the men
and the distance which they have to walk is reduced and that
the system is cleaner and quieter than the former method.
Public information and education was an integral part of the
scheme. Experimentation is still underway regarding the
optimum size of the sack opening and the sack's optimum
capacity. The cost of the method has not increased since its
initiation in 1963. Various problems are discussed such as:
the number of sacks to be distributed to each house; the
problems which arise when an unexpectedly large amount of
rubbish is produced in a particular house; and the changes in
the rubbish due to the introduction of 'smokeless zones,'
which completely prohibit burning. Plastic sacks were
initially considered, but their tendency to rip and the
difficulty of disposing of them led to the use of paper sacks.
68-0018
Can we reduce the waste in trash disposal? Safety
Maintenance, 135(3):43-44, Mar. 1968.
A containerized, disposable paper refuse sack for waste
disposal is described. An enclosed cabinet makes the refuse
sack system feasible for many areas where waste containers
were forbidden due to unsightlmess, sanitation problems, or
fire hazards. The large capacity of the sack reduces labor
costs, and the cabinet itself may be designed to satisfy
specific needs. Sacks are provided for dry, greasy, and wet
refuse.
68-0019
Collection of industrial waste at Greenock. Public Cleansing,
58(6):265-266, June 1968.
The burgh of Greenock, England, has successfully used a
large container system for the storage, removal, and disposal
of industrial waste. In early 1967, enough factories were
interested in an industrial refuse collection scheme to warrant
the attention of the Cleansing Committee. On the basis of the
capital expenditure for two vehicles and 42 containers, a
container rental and replacement fee was agreed upon. The
containers used are 8-cu-yd open skips. Container-handling
equipment is mounted on a short wheelbase chassis which is
suitable for maneuvering in confined spaces. After 6 months
of operation, over 70 containers are in use. Almost all refuse
collection and disposal in the town is under the control of
the local authority.
68-0020
Containers get into the act. Public Cleansing,
58(12):624-634,Dec. 1968.
At a meeting of the North Western Centre at Rochdale, Sept.
27, 1968, Mr. J. B. Carter, Deputy Director of Cleansing,
Bury, presented a paper entitled 'Container Services in a
Cleansing Department with Particular Reference to the Civic
Amenities Act, 1967.' The Council of Bury approved the
purchase of a vehicle fitted with container-handling
equipment together with 12 containers. It also approved
setting up 10 disposal sites throughout the district, regarding
this as the best way to meet the requirements of the act. A
capacity of 10 cu yd was selected for the containers, which
were finished in green to conform with the vehicle color and
to merge with the shrubbery which is to be a feature of the
permanent sites. The containers are emptied, as required, on
an interchange basis. Estimated charges and costs, vehicle
details, and collection statistics are listed. Maximum publicity
was given to the whereabouts of the sites, and no restriction
placed on the type of materials to be placed in the container.
The operation has been so sucessful that the introduction of
a second vehicle is planned.
68-0021
Hundertmark, G., H. F. Langer, and M. Koeij. Waste
containers made of plastic. Staedtehygiene, 19(8): 168-172,
Aug. 1968.
Since the specific weight of the wastes is becoming
increasingly lower, and it is not efficient to use containers
which are actually heavier than the waste itself, the use of
plastic containers is becoming increasingly popular. The new
low-pressure polyethylene waste containers (110, 90, and 70
liter, as well as 50 and 35 liter) are shaped such that they can
be emptied into the conventional waste-collecting trucks, and
their dimensions correspond to modern standards. The
experience gathered with such containers in the winter of
1962 to 1963 showed that normal low-pressure polyethylene
is not sturdy enough. Thus a new material was used for the
containers. It is a special type of low-pressure polyethylene
called Vestolen (density 0.960 g per cu m, softening point
124 C). The plastic containers must be shockproot. With
Vestolen A 6014, excellent results were obtained in this
respect. Moreover, it is very resistant to chemicals as well as
to varying weather conditions. Experiments performed with
these plastic containers show that they are also quite
fireproof. No glowing cigarette or burning match could
inflame the container with its lid closed. Various tests were
performed with the Vestolen containers since city
administrations asked for quality checks. The containers were
stored for 2 days at a temperature of 95 C plus or minus 3 C.
Fall, tilting, and spinning experiments, as well as a hanging
test at 20 and 40 degrees, were performed. The latter test was
performed to determine the deformation of the containers
under stress. All tests brought completely satisfying results.
(Text in German)
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0017-0027
68-0022
McElwee, W. C., and M. J. Wilcomb. Some effects of dispos-
able plastic liners on refuse handling efficiency. Journal of
Environmental Health, 30(5).501-509, Mar.-Apr. 1968.
Use of plastic disposable liners for refuse containers in
Lebanon, Ohio, a city of 8,000, resulted in a 20-percent re-
duction in loading time and a 12-percent reduction in overall
collection time. The liners were Virgin RHX-Elastomer
modified high density ethylene copolymer, 30 by 37 in., and
0.00125 in. thick. Its minimum liquid strength is 60 Ib, and
its tensile strength is 2,900 Ib per sq in. They cost about 7
cents apiece. Paper-covered wire twists are provided. Data
from studies indicated that liners appear to have a clear ad-
vantage over conventional cans with reference to speed of
collection from curb to truck. The liners are fairly strong,
and spillage and breakage occurred only rarely when the
sacks were overfilled. Dog damage was less for liners than for
cans. Weather had no effect on the liners, while cardboard
boxes tended to disintegrate. The liners were often used with
conventional cans, in which case they would prolong the life
of these containers by protecting them from rust and garbage
damage. Data from the studies are fully reported with graphs
and tables, and the results indicate a mean difference of 13.7
seconds plus or minus 1.7 seconds, and 14.1 seconds plus or
minus 1.7 seconds, at the 90 percent confidence level.
68-0023
Muller, H. J. Fundamental considerations for the selection of
the right waste container. Staedtehygiene, 19(6):121-124,
June 1968.
The selection of the right waste container is important for
the efficiency and economy of a waste-collecting service. Size
and material are equally important. Since waste problems
vary greatly from city to city, no one container can be
universally adopted. Cities of medium size tend to use a
35-liter container, but there are arguments pro and con for
any container chosen. The 35-liter container can hold half a
week's waste from an average household. The user buys and
maintains it, which relieves the collecting agency of repair
and maintenance. Some cities use a 110-liter plastic container
instead because of its light weight (empty 6.3 kg, full about
34 kg), its favorable price (35 DM), and its greater capacity.
Since today's waste is becoming lighter and bulkier, the
plastic container seems better adapted. However, plastic
containers do flip over, roll onto the street, and become
traffic hazards. In large cities (Munich, Hamburg, Frankfurt,
etc.) the 1,100-liter container is being used. Experts agree
that this larger container is an advance in efficient garbage
collection, particularly since an efficient cleaning method has
been found. A disinfectant is sprayed into the container after
it has been emptied. Also, washing trucks are occasionally
used to clean these containers. Paper bags are also more
frequently used. Seventy-liter and 110- to 120-liter bags have
been found very convenient. In selecting the right container,
hygiene, adequate capacity, low personnel requirements, and
economy are the main criteria to be considered.
(Text in German)
68-0024
Paper sacks are replacing garbage cans. Waste Trade Journal,
64(16)-56, Apr. 27, 1968.
Last year, residents of 14 European countries used 167
million disposable paper refuse sacks. Paper companies are
offering 30-gal paper bags, usually two-ply thick, which sell
for about 10 cents and are impregnated with chemicals to
protect them from water, grease, and hungry animals. About
7,000 tons of kraft paper have gone into making the 20
million paper refuse sacks consumed in the United States this
year. It is usually a municipal government that buys and dis-
tributes sacks aftei a local ordinance has made them official.
Homeowners usually pay for the sacks as part of the water
and sewage bill, or as a special charge. At present, half the
bags sold go to industrial plants, restaurants, and hospitals,
but it is predicted that homeowners will eventually be using
75 percent.
680025
Paper sacks in Florence. Public Cleansing, 58(3): 134-135,
Mar. 1968.
Florence has a population of 454,408 inhabitants and a total
of 165,845 householders. At the present time refuse is
disposed of at a tip 32 km away, and a two-shift collection
system is employed, the first from 7:30 am to 1:30 pm, and
the second from 1:00 pm to 8:00 pm. A total of 96,000
householders had been transferred to waterproof, two-ply
cellulose chemically treated paper sacks of 25-liter capacity
by the end of 1967. The standard team size consists of a
driver and two collectors, each serving between 2,200 and
2,400 householders per day. Sacks are collected from the
pavement, usually alongside doorways, and a clean sack is left
in the place of each sack collected. About 68,000 sacks are
required each week. The collection fleet is comprised of 33
OM (Tigre)-Bergomi with Norba bodies and 10 OM
(Tigre)-Bergomi (Ochsner) or Fiat 642-Bergomi (Ochsner)
vehicles.
68-0026
Polyethylene waste bag. Sanitaer und Heizungstechnik,
33(7):446, July 1968.
Containers for bandages and sanitary napkins can be replaced
by the 'Alumasc' polyethylene bag. The bag, which can be
collected with the regular waste, is especially suited for
hospitals, plants, and factories where mainly women are
employed. The wastes are thrown into the bag which, when
full, is hermetically sealed simply by pushing a button. The
sealing process takes 9 seconds. A red light comes on, and
when it goes off, the bag is sealed and can be taken out of the
frame. The frame has rollers and can be moved. The sealing
unit is operated at 6/12 volts. The input voltage is 200/250
AC 50/Hz; the power consumption is 500 watts. (Text
in German)
68-0027
Refuse in the bag. Surveyor and Municipal Engineer,
132(3987):30-32, Nov. 2, 1968.
Use of paper sacks in refuse collection is claimed to have the
following advantages: hygienic disposal of organic wastes,
efficient use of labor, dustless collection, versatility, noise
reduction, and improvement of tip appearance. Holders and
bags are somewhat more expensive in relation to metal bins,
-------
Collection and Disposal-General
but the advantages are generally seen to outweigh this fact.
Plastic sacks are sometimes used in conjunction with convent-
ional metal cans as liners. No disadvantages at incinerators or
tips have been noticed.
68-0028
Slatin, A. Self-standing refuse bag, new horizon for
polyethylene. Flexography, 13 (10):22, 58-59, Oct. 1968.
'Self-standing' polyethylene refuse bags are already specified
as acceptable to the municipal governments of several cities
in both the United States and Canada. The bag can be
contained within a can until collection time, but for actual
collection, only the bag, filled and closed, is placed on the
curb. This method of refuse collection has won the praises of
both residents and sanitation men. It reduces pickup time,
greatly improves sanitary conditions, and permits the use of
open trucks, since the refuse is completely enclosed. The real
success of this market depends on the acceptance and
specification of polyethylene bags by municipal governments.
The major effort to develop this market is being coordinated
by the Society of the Plastics Industry in cooperation with its
member companies, which have a proprietary interest in the
application. The effort centers around the establishment of
standards which will ensure high performance of the bags,
eliminate field failures, build the market, and prevent
abortive attempts. Under the current proposal, firms which
manufacture the bags will be encouraged to obtain a 'seal of
approval' from the National Sanitary Foundation. Use of the
seal would certify that the bags meet the specifications of the
National Sanitary Code. Garbage bags will be manufactured
from polyethylene or ethylene copolymer resin having a
density of 0.921 g per cu cm and tested in accordance with
ASTM D-1505 The bags will have a minimum weight of 11
Ib per 1,000 bags.
680029
Urge employing of plastic bins and continuous-loading
vehicles. Solid Wastes Management/Refuse Removal Journal,
11(2) 47, Feb. 1968
A report prepared in London's Department of Public Health
Engineering recommends the use of standardized plastic bins
to improve the efficiency of collecting urban refuse. Other
changes proposed include a minimum collection schedule of
once a week, and the use of continuous-loading vehicles in all
hut the smallest authorities. The Continental dustless loading
or disposable sack systems are considered the sole
satisfactory ones for collecting refuse from small dwellings.
Large buildings should use 1'4-cu-yd containers rather than
batteries of bins. Interchangeable 1 2-cu-yd containers offer
advantages in the case of large accumulations. Architects
should be required to present plans showing satisfactory
means of access for refuse collection.
68-0030
The affluent and the effluent. Waste management —
problems and prospects. Chicago, Railway Systems &
Management Association, 1968. 71 p.
A seminar, sponsored by the Railway Systems and Manage-
ment Association, emphasized the role of rail haul in solid
waste disposal. Among the topics discussed were costs of
solid waste disposal, refuse compaction and baling, transfer
stations, rail-haul systems, land reclamation, public relations
and pollution problems, and regional planning. Disposal
systems in Chicago, San Francisco, and Philadelphia were
discussed in relation to present or proposed rail haul of solid
wastes and subsequent disposal on marginal, possibly reclaim-
able lands. Appendices list RSMA officers for 1968 to 1969,
the constitution of the RSMA, and other RSMA publica-
tions.
COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL-GENERAL
68-0031
Asbury, A. D. Solid waste—a plan for collection and
disposal. Greenville, S.C., Greenville County Planning
Commission, Nov. 1968. 33 p.
Solid waste handling processes in Greenville County were
investigated. Problems caused by the proliferation of
independent refuse-handling agencies are mentioned.
Alternative methods of solid waste disposal are discussed
with the determination that the sanitary landfill method is
the most appropriate for Greenville County. Procedures for
selecting and preparing landfill sites are outlined along with
recommendations for operating nuisance-free landfills. The
desirability of considering future recreation and open-space
needs when evaluating landfill sites is discussed. Basic
organizational recommendations are included in an effort to
increase the efficiency of all refuse-handling systems
throughout the country. Recommendations include closing
over 200 illegal dump sites in the county. A network of
disposal containers, located at strategic places throughout the
county for the convenience of citizens in outlying areas, is
suggested. Countywide landfill responsibility should be
placed under the Greater Greenville Sanitation Commission.
Scales should be installed at all existing and future landfills,
and a minimum-fee system should be applied to all private
collectors according to tonnage delivered at the landfill site.
Commercial and industrial properties should be assessed
according to the cubic yardage collected and the frequency
of collection.
68-0032
Asbury, A. D. Existing collection and disposal operations in
Greenville County._In_ Solid waste--a plan for collection and
disposal. Greenville, S.C., Greenville County Planning
Commission, Nov. 1968. p.5-14.
Because of the multiplicity of units engaged in the collection
and disposal of solid waste, the total county picture is dif-
ficult to realize. An inventory of each service area is given to
demonstrate the functional relationships that exist now. At
least 16 private collectors operate within the county. Most
private collectors use county-owned landfills for disposal at
no cost. Yearly collection fees range from $12 to $30 for
residential dwellings. Spartan Waste Control, Inc., collects
more than half the yearly volume of the City of Greenville.
Varying degrees of efficiency, economy, and reliability are
found in the agencies now collecting solid waste in the
county. With the possible exception of the City of Greenville
-------
0028-0038
and the Town of Mauldm, most collection and disposal oper-
ations are operating at less than peak efficiency. The need for
additional funds is obvious. Municipal and district budget
priorities must be reassessed. Many of the citizens are aware
of the annoyance factors generated b\ some of the landfills
and dumps in the county. At least two dumps cause genuine
health hazards. Rats, flies, Utter, and dust are all side effects
of less than properly controlled sanitary landfills. Lack of
proper equipment and manpower arc the chief factors re-
sponsible for the less than efficient operation of county land-
fills.
68-0033
Asbury, A. D. Selecting the best disposal method for
Greenville County._In Solid \vaste-a plan for collection and
disposal. Greenville, S.C., Greenville County Planning
Commission. Nov. 1968. p.15-1 7.
Although open dumping is the least expensive of all methods,
serious health hazards should rule out its usage. The practice
of incineration is found mainly in the larger cities, and is
justified only when it costs more to transport the wastes to a
distant disposal site. Initial costs arc high; over $3 million
would be required for an incinerator designed to serve the
needs of Greenville County. Operating costs range from $3 to
$6 per ton of refuse. Composting was not considered
economical, either. As a result, a sanitary landfill was
recommended. It was estimated that a 75-acre site would be
required and that it would cost an initial $175,000 and
approximately $1 per ton to operate.
680034
Asbury, A. D. Planning considerations. j[n Solid waste - a
plan for collection and disposal. Greenville, S.C., Greenville
County Planning Commission, Nov. 196H. p. 19-26.
Selection of a sanitary landfill site involves consideration of
topography, drainage, accessibility, availability of cover
material, possibility of underground or surface water pol-
lution, proximity to residential neighborhoods, and the
ultimate reuse of the site. Using these criteria, a 5-year ac-
quisition program was outlined for Greenville County. It was
estimated that adequate facilities would cost approximately
$930,000.
68-0036
The big freeze. Public Cleansing, 58(3): 124-126, Mar. 1968.
In the Tynemouth/Wearside area of Great Britain, authorities
have been trying to implement the recommendations of the
Regional Refuse Disposal Committee. The Tynemouth group
has already found a site and appointed consultant-; to prepare
a scheme for an incinerator to handle the area's refuse. Other
areas are also searching for suitable sites for an incinerator. In
addition, steps are being taken to replace side-loading vehn.le,>
with rear-loading vehicles. Arrangements to implement the
Civil Amenities Act include: designating refuse disposal
works; controlling tips; cleansing depots and subdepots:
equipping disposal centers with large capacity bulk
containers; and providing paper sacks at a small charge. These
arrangements, supplemented with a free service for the
removal of bulky furniture and coupled with easy disposal of
scrap vehicles, would appear to meet the demands of both
the Civil Amenities Act and the Working Party report.
68-0037,
Bjoerkman, A. V. Sanitation in Jugoslav cities. American
City, 83(10) 135-138, Oct. 1968.
The statistics presented on sanitation practices ot Jugoslav
cities are drawn partly from personal visits and partly from a
report contributed to the Ninth International Congress on
Public Cleansing held in Pans in 1967. The average daily
refuse yield is about 2 Ib per person. Nineteen municipalities
used standard cans; none had a mixed stock, and eleven had
altogether unsuitable receptacles. Only new multi-stoned
buildings in big Jugoslav cities have central refuse chutes, but
due to a shortage of waste paper and lack of proper discipline
on the part of the users, they have not been successful. The
variety of refuse collection vehicles ranged from dustless
trucks to horse-drawn vehicles. The latter still comprise 15 to
20 percent of the country's collection vehicles. ITushers can
be seen in quite small towns but mechanical sweepers are
only found in the big cities. Only in exceptional cases is
incineration used. Sanitary fills should provide a temporary
replacement for dumps, but tuture Jugoslavian refuse should
be composted wherever possible. In the crowded city of
Belgrade, all downtown refuse collection and most street
cleaning is done at night. Fifty percent of all city streets are
cleaned daily, with a minimum frequency of once every 3
weeks in the outer districts.
68-0035
Beach city has enormous tree and plant waste. Solid Wastes
Management/Refuse Removal Journal, 11 (10): 12, 76-77,
Oct. 1968.
The presence of large hotels and private estates in Miami
Beach, along with the effects of hurricanes and the need to
keep the city spotless, place a large pressure on the city's
sanitation department. The problem is met in part by pro-
vision of six neighborhood collection points for yard refuse
and by the licensing of gardeners. In this way the formation
of illegal piles of tree and plant waste is inhibited since
inspeelors can locate the guilty gardener by his license. The
material from the local collection points is loaded into semi-
trailers and sent to a disposal site.
68-0038
Connolly, J. A., ed. Abstracts, selected patents on refuse
handling facilities for buildings. Public Health Service Publi-
cation No. 1793. Washington, U.S. Government Printing
Office, 1968. 320 p.
This volume contains 261 abstracts of patented equipment
and methods for refuse handling in residential and office
buildings; however, these inventions are not necessarily
limited to use within buildings. Areas of interest include
baling machines, bulk presses, refuse chutes, crushers, domes-
tic and on-sitc compactors, grinders, sackholders, receptacles,
refuse vehicles with detachable containers, and miscellaneous
items. Equipment diagrams accompany many of the ab-
stracts. Indices of contributing inventors and supporting
-------
Collection and Disposal-General
companies are supplied. The collection is designed to aid
investigators seeking original ideas for solid waste handling.
The objectives of each invention, as well as the apparatus
involved in its use, are presented.
68-0039
Cornelius, J. Solid waste management Kern County—1967.
Berkeley, California Department of Public Health, 1968. 19
P-
The data gathered in Kern County by the State Department
of Public Health during March 1967 as part of the California
Solid Waste Planning Study is presented. Thirty-seven
disposal sues were inspected and evaluated. Of special
concern in Kern County was the air pollution resulting from
open burning dumps as well as from the burning of agricul-
tural and special wastes. Revision of the county's refuse
management program from one based on open burning to a
program based on sanitary landfills is needed.
68-0040
Cornelius, J. Solid waste regulations; solid waste production.
hi Solid waste management Kern County —1967. Berkeley,
California Department of Public Health, 1968. p.1-11.
Kern County has adopted an ordinance which defines urban
areas and regulates the collection of refuse, including the
type and size of containers and collection rates. The Public
Works Department has issued rules and regulations for all
county dumps (see appendix). All incorporated cities in the
county have ordinances regulating refuse collection and
storage. Only one city ordinance regulates disposal of refuse.
Some of the city ordinances are over 25 years old and in need
of revision. In two of the cities the responsibility for solid
waste disposal planning has not been assigned. An estimated
2.5 million tons of solid waste were produced in Kern
County during 1967. These included 322,000 tons of
municipal wastes (13 percent), 82,000 tons of industrial
wastes (3 percent), and 2,117,000 tons of agricultural wastes
(84 percent). A breakdown of the wastes by type is tabula-
ted.
68-0041
Cornelius, J. Solid waste collection; solid waste disposal. In
Solid waste management Kern County—1967. Berkeley,
California Department of Public Health, 1968. p.12-18.
The cities of Bakersfield, Delano, Shafter, Tehachapi, and
Wasco provide public refuse collection service. Five cities
have mandatory household collection service. In all cases,
household garbage and rubbish are combined. Information on
the location, the areas served, and the owners of the 37
disposal sites is presented. Of the 37 sites evaluated, 20 are
privately owned, nine are county owned, three are city
owned, and five are located on Federal property. There are
an estimated 25 unauthorized disposal sites which were not
evaluated. Uncontrolled burning is practiced at 36 of the 37
disposal sites surveyed. Only three of the 37 sites had water
at the site, and only 21 sites had firebreaks. The State
Department of Public Health recognizes six categories of
disposal sites: the uncontrolled burning dump; supervised
dump with burning; modified sanitary landfill with
controlled burning; modified sanitary landfill; sanitary
landfill; and special-use sites.
68-0042
Davis, R. W. Automated waste disposal systems are coming.
Modern Hospital, 111(1):138, 140, July 1968.
Hospitals, with an estimated 12 Ib of waste per bed per day,
have had the choice of incinerating this waste, or having it
trucked away. Incinerating waste involves manual charging
and cleaning. Problems associated with this are: increasing
labor costs, improper charging, incomplete burning, fly ash,
and fire hazards. Removal of waste by truck costs more each
year because trucking costs and the amount of waste to be
removed continue to increase. A truly automated waste
disposal system, the result of improvisations on the Friesen
concept of hospital material processing and distribution, is
now available. In each department in the hospital, waste
material is placed in containers lined with disposable plastic
bags. At scheduled periods the bagged waste is collected and
removed, preferably by an automatic transportation system
which conveys the waste and reprocessible items to a
centralized decontamination room. All reusable items are
sorted, automatically washed, and sterilized. All waste
material is dropped into a waste-pulping unit, where it is
mixed with chemically treated water to control odors and
contamination. The resulting slurry is piped to a water press
unit which extracts most of the water, leaving a semi-dry,
homogeneous pulp. This pulp can be fed into a small inciner-
ator which is both odorless and smokeless. Pathological waste
can be fed manually at any time. A surge bin is used to hold
the excess waste pulp until it can be incinerated. Such an
automated incinerator system could pay for itself within 2
years.
68-0043
Engineering Foundation Research Conference; Solid Waste
Research and Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26,
1968. New York. 179 p.
The conference's program and preprints summarizing current
solid waste projects are included under eight major subject
areas, storage, collection, and transportation of solid wastes;
sanitary landfill; incineration; composting; agricultural and
industrial solid wastes; management and planning of solid
waste systems; training, and special solid waste research.
68-0044
Fitzpatnck, J. V., and F. E. Dalton. Major urban areas. In
The affluent and the effluent. Waste
management—problems and prospects. Chicago, Railway
Systems & Management Association, 1968. p.9-32.
The City of Chicago creates approximately 3 million tons of
refuse annually and disposes of it through three city-owned
incinerators, a city landfill, private incinerators, and private
landfills. A new city ordinance will ban refuse burning in
some 15,000 coal-fired apartment house boilers. It also calls
for the upgrading of incmeiators from an air pollution
vantage point. Test results at Chicago incineration plants
indicated that an average truckload of refuse includes: 70
percent paper products, wood, and rags; 11.7 percent dirt;
-------
0039-0049
8 5 percent grass: 4.6 percent cans and metal; 4.2 percent
bottles and glass; and only 1 percent garbage. The amount ot
garbage may vui> up to 5 pet cent. A new semee, the
collection of bulk} uash, will collect nearlv 500,000 cu yd in
1968 / fourth incinerator is being built with a water wall to
create steam for possible sale Lack of" landfill facilities and
the high incineration costs of up to S7 pt'f ton have
prompted the study ol refuse compaction and rail haul. The
compacted bloc ks could be used to reclaim recreational land
in Lake Michigan, strip mines, and quaincs. Tlie \!eliopo|H,,n
Sanitary District of Greater Chicago utilizes a /.impro unit to
make fertilizer out of waste organic solids. The costs of
disposing of activated sludge from sewage treatment plants
by various methods are compared Research is underway to
prove lhat it is possible to take, in a safe rnanntr, solutions of
3 percent solids .ip.i '.'7 percent vvaur from digester tanks
diiectlv to tanning fields. ,Vi experimental Sand iecldmatk-n
system is '!his'r.>:ed.
68-0045
HIM toff, I 1, D Refi.se, M.I.M>. and litter. Journal of the
Royal Society of Aits, 1 16 LSI45) "'50--Ai. Atic 1%8
In Lngland and Wales, 14 million tons ot house and trade
refuse are collected by local authorities each year. The total
cost is over -t-60,000 annually. The natuie ot the letuse is
changing lapidiv and one of the mam probU, ns is the growing
amount ol bulky refuse such as dutoniolvles furniture, and
appliances winch must be disposed of. "I here aic various
proposals for elimination of storage and colle^t'on, such as
pneumatic conveN^nc? of infuse and on-the-site incineration.
The mam methods, however, are controlled dumping,
sepaiation-incmeration, and pnlven/ation. Industrial waste is
geneuill) handled by mdnstri.i' v\aste contractors. The
problem of abandoned autos is being handled hy legislation
which provided a place for then disposal. Shredding is
proving to be a method which can provide valuable scrap
from old automobiles. Litter on the street* is being tackled
with both legislation and public education, and with more-
Utter bins. In the next 20 years the amount ot refuse is
expected to double. The number ot men willing to take work
as refuse collectors is not likely to increase, and piovisions
must start to he made now for handling tries*' problems.
68-0046
Glasgow reaches its ceu'ury Public Cleansing,
58(101.545-546 Oct I%8
On the I'lOtli anmv rsar} ot the formation ot the Glasgow
Cleansing Department, a booklet was published \\tnch tells
the stor} oi file evolution ol the department. In 1868 the
acreage of the iiij was 5,063: its population, 395,503. and
the tonnage ot refuse removed was 140,240. In 1967 the
acreage was 39.725, the population, 979,798, and the
tonnage ot tefuse ieceued was 390,000. The department is
equipped with the mosl modern plant and machinery, and
has concerned itself with the wv|t;ire of its employees
68-0047
Grav, \ < .Solid waste disposal at State University ol New
York, Albany Campus. MS. Thesis,Rensselaer Polytechnic
Institute, Tioy, N Y , -\ug. 1968 p. 1-3.
The primary purpose of this engineering thesis was to
investigate the problem ot refuse disposal on a university
campus, specifically on the new campus of the State
University of New York at Albany. The study includes,
firstly, a nationwide survey of retuse disposal methods
employed at apptoximately 60 American colleges and
universities. This survey provides a showcase lor any new
methods oi innovations in campus solid waste disposal.
Second!}, an investigation of the methods of refuse
collection and disposal on the Alban} campus ot the State
University of New York was made to stud) the possibility of
utilizing various methods of disposal, that is, the uses of the
sewerage system, of sanitary landfill, of incineration, and of
composting were thoroughly studied. Finally, the most
efficient and economical method was selected for campus
use. This was the utilization of the sewerage system and
samtarv landfill.
68-0048
Hart, S. A. Solid wastes management in Germany, report ot
the l!.S Solid Wastes Stud} Team visit, lime 25-July 8.
1967 I'ublic Health Service Publication No. 1812
Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968. 18 p.
In mid-1967, a nine-member team of scientists and engineers,
sponsored bv1 the 1 edeial Solid \Vastes Program, went to
S.urope to investigate the domestic refuse management
practices if Germany, The trip was designed to evaluate the
possibilities ot appl} ing German technology to U.S. needs
and to encourage mutual information exchange between the
two countnes. German domestic refuse is quite similar to
American domestic letuse; however, it does contain slightly
more ash, fewer cans and bottles, and less paper. Domestic
collection is almost invariably handled by the municipal
government. Collection is from the curbside, and containers
are dumped into the collection vehicle by a mechanized
lifting device. The dustless dumping originated because of the
high ash content. Landfillmg problems in Germany are
similar to those m the United States. Many small,
uncontrolled, open dumps arc in use, and no sanitary landfills
were observed. Composting is being practiced in nine
locations m West Geimany, but it is not a major refuse
disposal process because the economics are not favorable,
Howcvei, ictuse ii>,-ineu>tion that produces steam or
electricity is common. Although such incinerator plants are
models ,)f efficiency and good engineering, it still costs more
to produce stcvm ci electricity from refuse than from
conventional fuels. I lie public works departments and their
officials have a great deal of initiative and a relatively high
degree of independence. The municipal officials, to whom
the public works officials report, have a generous and
approving attitude toward waste management costs.
68-0049
Henningson. Durham & Richardson, Inc. General. In
Collection and disposal of solid waste for the Des Moines
metropolitan area, a systems engineering approach to the
.•fill I'roblem ot vihd w,)bte management; an interim
.cport ("manna.!:, L _• Departncnt of Health, Education,
and \Velfaii-. 1968. p 111-1 2)
Population and giowih patterns are investigated. The study
area encompasses 43(1 sq miles and includes 12 cities and
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Collection and Disposal-General
parts of two counties. The topography, geology, and climate
of the area are described. Des Moines, West Des Moines, and
Urbandale provide municipal solid waste collection, while
other sections are served by private haulers. Major disposal
sites are described and located on maps. All but one are
publicly owned. Land-use maps projected to 1990 are
included. The present population is 288,000. It is expected
to reach 361,000 by 1980, and 41 8,000 by 1990.
system would provide weekly collection of all domestic
waste, which is a change from the present practice of
collecting only garbage. Public collection would not be
offered to large multiple-family dwellings, nor to commercial
or industrial locations. Private haulers should be licensed and
regulated. The present Des Moines, West Des Moines, and
Urbandale garbage collection systems are described.
68-0050
Hennmgson, Durham & Richardson, Inc. Survey of solid
wastes. ln_ Collection and disposal of solid waste for the Des
Moines metropolitan area; a systems engineering approach to
the overall problem of solid waste management; an interim
report. Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare, 1968. p.2(1-43)
A study of the nature and magnitude of wastes from various
commercial and industrial firms is presented. The firms that
were surveyed deposited a total of 32 tons per day at public
disposal sites. A table gives a breakdown of the types of firms
and the quantities of wastes disposed of at public sites and
on-site. Domestic waste other than kitchen waste is not
presently collected. If all domestic waste was collected,
253,000 cu yd could be expected. The scrap market for
junked automobiles and the auto salvage industry in the area
are surveyed. Sections of the municipal code of Des Moines
regarding automobile disposal are reviewed, and
recommendations are made. The Dutch Elm disease problem
in the area and its effect on removal of tree wastes is
discussed. Treatment of packing house and rubber industry
wastes is reviewed. Sewage solid waste disposal is discussed,
and costs are given for various methods. A landfill survey was
undertaken to determine quantity and characteristics of solid
waste. Nine separate computer programs were developed to
organize the information. A volume, weight, and vehicle
analysis was carried out for wastes deposited at the landfill
sites. The origin of landfill wastes is discussed. Present and
future quantities of general, municipal, domestic, tree,
commercial, and industrial waste are given. Annual waste
quantities are expected to reach 1,500,000 cu yd or 783,000
tons by 1990.
68-0051
Hennmgson, Durham & Richardson, Inc. Collection of solid
wastes. _In_Couection and disposal of solid waste for the Des
Moines metropolitan area; a systems engineering approach to
the overall problem of solid waste management; an interim
report. Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare, 1968. p.3(1-41)
Analysis and recommendations for existing collection
systems is presented including data on records, routes,
performance, new work rules, standards, routes and crew
requirements, procedures for converting to new routes,
equipment, and costs. Cost comparisons of the three current
municipal systems and proposed systems for the collection of
kitchen and all domestic waste are presented. Operation of
the recommended Metropolitan Solid Waste Agency is
described. Data are given on personnel, equipment
requirements, and costs. An area-wide public collection
system is recommended to replace the various municipal,
contract, and private systems now being operated. The
68-0052
Henningson, Durham & Richardson, Inc. Disposal of solid
wastes._In_CoUection and disposal of solid waste for the Des
Moines metropolitan area; a systems engineering approach to
the overall problem of solid waste management; an interim
report. Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare, 1968. p.4(l-34)
Incineration, composting, and landfilling are generally
discussed. Sanitary landfill disposal is the best method for the
study area. Two sanitary landfill locations, sufficient in size
to dispose of the estimated study area waste for 1968
through 1 987, are proposed. Existing disposal operations are
described. These include sanitary and semi-sanitary landfills,
open dumps, and open burning dumps. These sites should be
closed when the new recommended sites go into operation,
but interim improvements should be made, especially in the
two Des Moines sites. Guidelines are given for improving
these sites into model sanitary landfills. Improvements can be
paid for by imposing a fee for the use of the site. Criteria and
data used in selecting the new landfill .sites are discussed, e.g.
land cost, zoning, and driving time. Factors to be considered
in developing the sites include the amount of land required,
the initial development, and operation. These factors are
discussed for the northeast and southwest areas of the total
study area Sanitary landfill cost estimates are examined.
68-0053
Henningson, Durham & Richardson, Inc. The metropolitan
solid waste agency. In Collection and disposal of solid waste
for the Des Moines metropolitan area; a systems engineering
approach to the overall problem of solid waste management,
an interim report. Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, 1968. p.5(l-10)
A Metropolitan Solid Waste Agency, responsible for the
collection and disposal of all solid waste produced within the
study area, is recommended. This agency would be governed
by a board composed of elected representatives of the 14
cities, towns, and counties in the study area. The agency will
provide collection services to all member municipalities on a
contract basis of approximately $10.80 per year per dwelling
unit. The agency will also operate the two sanitary landfill
sites. These will be open to anyone wishing to dispose of
solid waste for the approximate fee of $1.10 per ton. The
initial capital expenditures of the agency will be financed by
a revenue bond issue. Sufficient revenues are anticipated
from the proposed collection and disposal fees to retire the
bonds, as well as to provide the necessary maintenance,
operating, and administrative costs of the agency. Uniform
waste collection and disposal ordinances are recommended
for adoption by all agency member communities. Model
ordinances have been prepared, and are included in the
report.
10
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0050-0058
68-0054
Holbrook, J. A. Hospitals and the growing problem ofwaite
disposal. Hospitals, 42(5): 57-60, Mar. 1968.
Hospital wastes may be classified as follows: garbage, which
may be ground up and carried away m a sewer; wet waste
incompatible with a sewer and difficult to burn; combustible
wastes, paper, etc.; pathological and radioactive wastes,
which require special treatment; and noncombustible waste
such as glass and metals. Two of the major problems
confronting hospitals are transportation of the wastes withm
the hospital, and final disposition. Movement within the
hospital may be effected through pneumatic tubes
throughout the hospital, accepting both bagged refuse and
laundry, which may be separated at a central point. This
might still require cart movement from the central collecting
point. After separation of solid items, pulping of the wastes
into a slurry may still cause problems if the added weight of
the water clogs the system. The material must still be hauled
to a central point outside the hospital lor final disposal.
Sewage disposal and incineration can both become more
difficult due to increasingly stringent air and water pollution
laws. Hauling wastes can be highly expensive. Hospitals will
always have a problem disposing of pathologic waste, and an
incinerator will probably be a necessity. ,
68-0055
Ingram, W. T., and F. P. Francia. Introduction. In Quad-city
solid wastes project; an interim report June 1, 1966 to May
31, 1967. Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare, 1968. p.l(l-19).
The cities of Clifton, Passaic, and Paterson, and the township
of Wayne in New Jersey commissioned this study to
determine means for administering and operating a
regionalized disposal system. Each municipality is examined
separately, regarding both historical aspects and present
conditions of housing, rate or degree of development and
type of development, future population estimates, road
system, land area, and topography. Refuse collection method
and costs are discussed for each community. Maps, graphs,
and tabulations include: portion of Passaic County with
communities of Quad-city region; rate of change of decennial
population 1930-1960, population predictions individually
for each community; population data of the Quad-city region
to 1980; refuse collection costs of Scavenger contracts for
Clifton, Passaic, and Paterson; and unit costs of refuse
collection of Quad-city communities.
68-0056
Ingram, W. T., and F. P. Francia. Assay programs. In
Quad-city solid wastes project; an interim report June 1,
1966 to May 31, 1967. Cincinnati, U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare, 1968. p.2(1-59).
A program to determine the quantity, the composition, and
the physical and chemical characteristics of the wastes
contributed by commercial-residential, industrial, and
construction-demolition sources was undertaken. The weights
of each packer truck contracted to pick up municipal refuse
in the study area were obtained for one week in October,
January, and May to determine municipal production. An
analysis was carried out on one sample from a random load.
The laboratory sample was analyzed for moisture, volatiles,
ash, carbon, nitrogen, and BTU value. No less than 20
percent of the industrial operations in a specific area of a
given community were sampled by questionnaires and
interviews to determine generation, collection, and disposal
methods of the refuse. A survey was carried out to determine
the amount and characteristics of the solid wastes generated
in the study area by construction and demolition activities.
Data were obtained through primary sources, demolition and
construction contractors, and observation and calculations
were made of the weights of typical structures, from
one-family frame dwellings to industrial buildings. Street
sweepings, junk autos, and debris collected from a regularly
scheduled 'clean-up week' program are all estimated. Copious
and detailed data from every phase of each operation are
tabulated. Graphs and charts of these data are also provided.
68-0057
Ingram, W. T., and F. P. Francia. Meteorology. In Quad-city
solid wastes project; an interim report June 1, 1966 to May
31, 1967. Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare, 1968. p.3(l-13).
Meteorologically, the entire Quad-city area is dominated by
valley-slope configurations. The valley wind and slope winds
characteristically exhibit an intermittent pattern in which
steady-state conditions rarely persist for any length of time.
The topography of the area includes a series of ridge lines and
mountain chains which tend to isolate it from the coastal
plains. In addition to spot checks of the area, field
observations were conducted in October, November, and
January using a mobile weather observation unit. The unit is
taken to a station location where wind speed and direction is
measured over a 15-minute period. No prime weather station
existed in the area and readings from the closest station were
neither consistent nor acceptable. The route followed is
mapped, and data from a January survey are tabulated.
Photographs taken on several dates from the same station are
included. It is concluded that any stack emissions proposed
which would emanate from the vicinity of the valley floor
must be subjected to severe review from the standpoint of air
cleaning.
68-0058
Ingram, W. T., and F. P. Francia. Influence of geology on site
locations. ln_Quad-city solid wastes project; an interim report
June 1, 1966 to May 31, 1967. Cincinnati, U.S. Department
of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1968. p.4(l-23).
A study was made to present the geologic, topographic, and
hydrologic factors occurring in northern New Jersey that are
pertinent to the feasibility of locating solid waste treatment
and disposal facilities without incurring chemical and
bacterial pollution of ground and surface waters. The study
area is almost equally divided between the Highlands
Province and the Piedmont Plateau Province. The occurrence
of surface waters in the study area is detailed, and the five
water supply systems of the area are related to their
watersheds. The occurrence of groundwater in the study area
and a discussion of consolidated and unconsolidated
formations are given. The close proximity of the study area
to various surface and subsurface water supplies raises
concern about contamination of such waters by runoff or
11
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Collection and Disposal-General
leachate from a landfill located within the area. It is
recommended that any form of sanitary landfill be so located
that it will never be in contact with gioundwater or bedrock.
It should be located in glacial deposits well above bedrock
and the groundwater tables. A physiographic map including
major glacial features of the Passaic River basin is included, as
well as lithographic units of the Passaic County study area.
68-0059
Ingram, W. T., and F. P. Francia. Site investigation program.
In Quad-city solid wastes project; an interim report June 1,
1966 to May 31, 1967. Cincinnati, U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare, 1968. p.5(l-2).
The site investigation program included obtaining maps of
the sites and making aerial surveys. Engineering data relating
to major sewer, water, and electrical power utility lines were
obtained. From this data, nine sites were investigated in
detail. Inspections consisted of traversing the site and the
immediately surrounding area. Topography, ingress and
egress, roads or highways, land use, buffer zones, utilities,
groundwater, and wind conditions were all examined. If a site
was of particular interest, tax records were searched to
identify the present owner, the assessed value, and the area.
A plan of the candidate site was drawn up showing these
features, and a short report on the site was included. The
sites and details are not given here due to the sensitivity of
this type of project.
68-0060
Ingram, W. T., and F. P. Francia. Status of the formation of a
legal regional authority. In_Quad-city solid wastes project; an
interim report June 1, 1966 to May 31, 1967. Cincinnati,
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1968.
The participating communities received a Federal grant from
the Public Health Service to carry out this study. This study
included developing means for construction, administration,
and operation of a regionalized solid waste disposal
establishment. A formal resolution was signed detailing the
provisions of the grant and the role of the participating
communities. An ad hoc committee composed of the city
councils of each community was formed to draw up the
incorporation articles of an autonomous body to be known
as the 'Lower Passaic County Solid Wastes Management
Authority.' This authority would have the rights to: acquire
by any means personal or real property; negotiate contracts
or agreements; sue or be sued; receive Federal or State aids or
grants; and apportion costs and expenses based on valuation,
population, and other factors. It is expected that when the
professional staff completes its recommendation for a system
of solid wasle management acceptable to the four
communities, the legal authority will follow shortly.
produce an inert material that is useful as a coarse sand or
fine grave]. It is estimated that approximately 91 percent of
the estimated 6.05 Ib per day would be processible by
high-temperature combustion, whereas only 72 percent
would be processable by incineration. Specialized air
pollution device requirements were deemed necessary for
either process. Heat recovery from either process is probable.
Long-haul transport of the residue to sites which satisfy
sanitary landfill criteria might offer an interim solution.
Composting seems to have little potential of meeting the
requirements of urban needs in a metropolitan locale.
Operating costs are described as difficult to establish, but
data ranges from $2.60 to $6.67 per ton for incineration,
$3.00 to $3.40 for high-temperature combustion, $3.00 to
$4.00 for composting, and for haul landfill $4.00 to $5.00
per ton. A study considering each of these methods in detail
including the supporting technology and air-cleaning devices
necessary, is now recommended.
68-0062
Ingram, W. T., and F. P. Francia. Future work. In Quad-city
solid wastes project; an interim report June 1, 1966 to May
31, 1967. Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare, 1968. p.9.
In August the completion of a fourth assay of residential
refuse is planned under the grant to provide data on the
variations due to seasonal activity. The composition of
industrial waste, including a study of a composite if
necessary, will be investigated. A detailed engineering
investigation will provide for the construction of a
demonstration unit, after a demonstration grant application
has been prepared. Action to form the regional authority
must also be undertaken.
68-0063
Isaacman, T. Wesley saves money by 'throwing away meals.'
Modern Hospital, 110(6):106-107, June 1968.
Chicago Wesley Memorial Hospital is saving $30,000 annually
by using disposable trays, utensils, and containers that are
thrown away with the garbage. The hospital has been using
compactor units to absorb its debris. These are sealed
33-cu-ft boxes which contain built-in grinders and automatic
germicidal sprays. Three times weekly, a commercial firm
backs a compactor into one of the hospital's truck loading
bays. Sanitation personnel then dump all the hospital's solid
wastes, including garbage, junk, paper, and old furniture, into
the box, which then grinds the debris and squeezes it into as
small a bundle as possible. When the commercial firm brings
the next empty compactor, it carts away the full box. The
incinerator is still used, but no longer overheats as was its
custom before the compactor plan was adopted.
680061
Ingram, W. T., and F. P. Francia. Discussion of information.
hi Quad-city solid wastes project; an interim report June 1,
1966 to May 31, 1967. Cincinnati, U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare, 1968. p.8(l-5).
High-temperature combustion has been examined and shown
to produce a molten residue which granulates in water to
68-0064
Joint destructor plant scheme. Waste Trade World, 112(7):4,
Feb. 17, 1968.
A plan for a joint refuse disposal scheme is to be considered
by three local councils in Great Britain. They plan to
purchase more sophisticated equipment for separating paper,
rags, and metals. The urban council considered three
12
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0059-0069
alternatives to the joint scheme with the two rural councils'
use of a site outside the urban district which would involve
lengthy distances; a refuse plant for the urban council alone
which would cost about -fe-35,000; or disposal within the
urban area which would mean using valuable land.
68-0065
Ludwig, H. F., and R. J. Black. Report on the solid waste
problem. Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division.
Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Enpineers,
94(SA 2).355-370, Apr. 1968.
The need for investigation in all areas of solid wastes
problems is described, and management of these problems is
discussed. Technologies that could be applied to solving the
problems are described in detail for: incineration;
composting; sanitary landfill; grinding for sewer discharge;
salvage and reclamation; reduction in solid waste quantity;
collection and hauling systems, and air, water, and land
resources management. Recommendations include: alerting
decision-making public administrators to the problem;
recognition through a national conference, full
implementation of the Solid Waste Disposal Act, study of
salvage markets, development of new collection and disposal
methods; reducing air and water pollution; and review of
current legislation.
68-0066
Mead and Hunt, Inc. Western Jefferson County solid waste
disposal study. Madison, Wis., Feb. 1968. 21 p.
A feasibility study was conducted for five western Jefferson
County communities. They wished to jointly operate a
centrally located refuse disposal site and an associated
collection system. The information considered most
pertinent to the study was geographical location, population,
land use, quantities of refuse, present refuse collection
practice, and present refuse disposal practice. The major
refuse problems presently facing most of the communities are
the high costs of operating properly maintained disposal sites,
smoke and odor nuisance, and the scarcity of available land
for the disposal of refuse. A sanitary landfill disposal
operation, centrally located and jointly owned, has been
shown to be the most economical disposal operation. A
jointly-owned collection system of container trains, used in
conjunction with transfer packer trucks, has appeared to be
the most economical of investigated collection systems.
Weekly collection of mixed refuse appears to be a reasonable
frequency. The annual cost of the proposed collection and
disposal system will be approximately $1 32,000 or $6.33 per
capita. !f the surrounding ten townships are included as
customers, the communities' share of the annual cost will be
only $109,000 or $5.22 per capita. The initial cost of the
system will be $346,100 or $472,800 if the surrounding
townships are included The refuse disposal system should be
designed to handle the quantity of refuse generated through
the year 2000.
68-0067
Moore, I-;. J., L. t.andy, M. O Albl, D. M. Copenhagen, and
D. M. Kerr. The rail handling of municipal solid waste. In The
affluent and the effluent. Waste management — problems
and prospects. Chicago, Railway Systems & Management
Association, 1968. p.53-71.
Railroads are suggested as the most efficient, economical, and
permanent way of connecting the refuse generating area and
a final, esthetically appropriate, sanitary landfill operation. A
rail system consists of three basic units: a
truck-to-rail-transfer processing station, rail cars for handling
the refuse on the railroad, and a sanitary landfill operation. A
rail system can dispose of all manner of solid waste such as
demolition, industrial, junked automobiles, and trees. A plan
for two shredders would increase the capacity per transfer
station to 1,120 tons per day, allowing 8 hr per day lor
maintenance. The necessity of a well-planned public relations
program and a strict marketing approach to system analysis is
emphasized. A refuse press is described which produces 500
tons per 8-hr shift and requires a seven-man operation at the
transfer station. The container system and high compression
baling process, used for rail haul of solid wastes from the San
Francisco area for landfill disposal, is outlined. The system
serving Philadelphia and adjacent counties includes transfer
stations, shredding and baling operations, and landfill
operations. A 6,000-ton barge will also be operated for ocean
disposal of sludge and industrial liquid waste.
68-0068
Orth, H. City cleansing. Verein Deutscher Ingenieure
Zeitschrift, 110(14):599-602, May 1968.
The present state of the art of city cleansing is reviewed. For
cleaning streets and roads/ automatic sweepers arc used.
Sidewalks are cleaned manually A sludge suction truck,
operating according to the vacuum principle, is used to clean
gutters. Canals are cleaned with a high-pressure rinsing pump,
whose three-piston pump produces a water pressure of 80 to
120 atm. The hose, 1 20 m long, is attached to a spray nozzle
and can be lowered into the canal, and a hydraulic winch is
used to bring the hose back. Gasoline dischargers are cleaned
by trucks which suck fluids according to the vacuum
principle. Metal trash cans are increasingly being replaced by
polyethylene containers. Waste paper bags are now being
used to care for excess wastes. Large containers m agreement
with design standard DIN 2166 are favored in apartment
houses, schools, and hospitals. The containers are either
taken away full and empty ones left, or they are emptied into
trucks. Large factories use the 4,400-liler and 6.000-liter
containers. (Text in German)
68-0069
Refuse collection in Arkansas. Public Works, 99(5):68, May
1968.
A survey of refuse collection and disposal in Arkansas
municipalities was recently made by the Arkansas Municipal
League. The returns were segregated by population groups.
All but one community either utilized municipal collection
or licensed private contractors. Disposal by trench fill, open
dumping, and burning was reported. In 22 communities with
populations ranging from 1,000 to 2,000, 11 utilized
municipal collection, 10 utilized private contractors, and one
left the job to the individual. Disposal by trench fill was
reported by two places, all the others used open dump and/or
burning. In the largest population group, consisting ol tides
of 20,000 or over, municipal collection is provided by seven
cities, with one being served by a private contractor, three of
this group of cities use trench till disposal and one reports
closed burning.
13
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Collection and Disposal-General
68-0070
Refuse disposal study and plan. Prepared for the Central
Naugatuck Valley Regional Planning Agency, Waterbury,
Conn. Boston, Metcalf & Eddy, Engineers-Planners. Sept.
1968. 73 p.
This report, financed in par! through an urban planning
grant, is the first in a thiee-phasc study covering waste
disposal by the Central Naugatuek Valley Regional Planning
Agency, Connecticut. It describes the present refuse disposal
system and laws ot each of the 13 municipalities in the area.
Included are the volumes per capita of refuse now produced
and the costs of handling it. These figures are used to make
projections of the areas' needs up to 2010, the date that is
designated as the area saturation time Several plans to handle
the increased quantities of refuse are propounded, and oi
these, one is selected as the most practical. It first involves
exhausting the present landfill sites, and then convening to a
subregional plan in which neighboring municipalities share
new facilities. Many of the more important considerations in
the text are also tabulated by town. These included imenton
of present facilities, refuse quantities per capita per dav.
inventory ot present collection practices, comparative costs,
estimates of population growth, and evaluation ot proposed
disposal sites. There are also several maps showing (lie-
locations of the present sites, proposed sues, and the
proposed subregional arrangement.
68-0071
Refuse disposal study and plan. Present disposal practices.
Prepared for the Central Naugatuek Valley Regional Planning
Agency, Waterbury, Conn, Boston, Metealf & Edd_\.
Engineers-Planners, Sept. 1968, p.16-37.
The existing disposal facilities in the Central Naugatuek
Valley are listed according to the closest town. A total of 20
disposal facilities serve the 13 towns in the area. Eleven ut
these are landfills, three are dumps, two are piggeues, and
one is an incinerator. Types and amounts of refuse leceived
at these facilities are broken down and tabulated. The total*
of these figures indicate 115,1 70 tons of refuse was disposed
at municipal facilities m the area in 1966. Another 9,620
tons was disposed of privately. This is an average of 5.1 Ib pe-
person per day for all types of refuse. Industrial waste
amounted to 48,500 tons or 25 percent ol the total. There
are three municipal collection systems operating in the laige<-
cities, three municipal contract services, and some 30 major
private collectors operating in the smaller towns. There are
also numerous small private collectois operating in the (owns.
Two municipalities have transfei systems. The various
parameters ol the larger collection .systems are listed. All
municipal and contract services are paid tor by tax monies,
except tor the town of Cheshire, which charges indusnies
S25 monthly. Private collectors charge homeowners 5,1.50 to
S2.50 monthly. The transfer systems cost from S10 to $2o
per ton. The system costs for the various towns are compared
in bar chaits. Capital costs are difficult to consider since the
communities do not amortize the costs, and facilities are
frequently used for other operations. Industrial liquid wastes
are accepted at landfills or discharged into nvers. Both <•!
these arc considered bad practices, lunked automobiles,
septic tank pumpings, and bulking \vastes are other disposal
problems which are not handled properly.
68-0072
Refuse disposal study and plan Basic planning Criteria.
Prepared tor the Cential Naugatuek Valley Regional Planning
Agency, Waterbury, Conn. Boston, Metcalf & Eddy,
Engineers-Planners. Sept. 1968, p 38-45.
Estimates of futme refuse quantities are a necessary tactoi in
planning future collection and disposal systems for the
region. Ihese are based on past experience in the region and
in some cases, outside sources. Estimates arc made on future
service areas; piojections are made of population,
commercial, and industrial growth. The development of
contractor and pnvate disposal facilities is considered, too.
Charts projecting to the year 20XX (a projected year for full
development ot the general plan around 2010) are presented
showing population growth by tuvns. and refuse quantities
per c.ipiti) per day for each town Jht general ratios of these
variable* are not expected 10 chanye over the time period,
but the pmportion of refuse handled by municipal facilities is
expected to innease over the contracloi and pnvate facilities.
final's, a list of lecommended standards and baste practices
covering mcmuation landfills, and tiansfei stations, along
with tcf use haul distances for vaiious t> pes of transportation,
is given
68-0073
Refuse disposal study and plan. Adequacy Prepared for
the Central Naugatutk Valley Regional Planning Agency,
\V a t e i b u r y , Conn. Boston. Metcalf & Eddy,
Engineers-Planners, Sept. 1968, p.46-51.
Existing refuse systems are evaluated with respect to their
ability lo provide satisfactory service under anticipated
future conditions. To evaluate the existing disposal systems,
projccdons ot refuse quantities to be delivered to municipal
facilities is compared by decades up to 2000 with the
volumes icmainim' in fhe KindtiUs and dumps, upgiading
where necessary for samtaiv opeiation. The capacity of the
one inciieratur is also considered according to estimated
tiituie qjantities. The capacities ot these disposal facilities
uie also graphically icpresented in comparison with the
pio|ected refuse quantity loi the aiea. The intersection of'
these cuives is the ycji when the existing facility becomes
satuiated. lor most areas, (his otcuis before 1990. The
incinc'uior will be operating at full capacity by 1970.
however, with three —shift operation and no major down
penods, its use can be extended until 1985. Only one of the
contract disposal facilities is expected lo icrnain in use over
the entue penod. Piggeries are expected to be discontinued
because lhe> jie uneconomical. With noimal maintenance
and replacement, I he collection systems of all the
niiiniupalities appeal to be adequate, except that at
Naugatuek, which will iOon require additional (rucks. K the
transter stations are retained, they should be improved.
68-0074
Refuse disposal study and plan. Alternate plans Piepaied
lor the Central Naunatuck Vailey Regional Planning Agency,
\Vateibury, Conn. Boston, Metcalf &. fddy. Engineers-
t'ljmiets, Sept 1968, p 52-65.
All municipalities within the icgion will need to take
substantive action by 1990 in ordei to maintain adequate
14
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0070-0079
reluse services within theii areas, however, the dates toi each
municipality will vary according to their present setup. The
General Plan of Regional Development ol 1964 has
designated area;, for growth of industries and resident','- ui;tu
2010. Within this plan, 31 sites foi disposal aieas were
selected. These aic localed on a map a. [>iii 1'oHv.nd to handle the reluse ptoi'Vtt'd uti'i'
2(110 each uiumupaluy will retain full responsibility tor
refuse collection and disposal, all refuse m the legion will be
delivered to a large central disposal site; and transfer stations
'.vi 11 be used where long hauls are necessary; nearby low in
will be involved on a subregional baMs. By 2010 most lefuse
will probably have to be incinerated, and these units are more
economical when larger. Thus, the plan allows toi She
exhaustion of present landfills and gradual mergers to use
incinerators as they are built. Although different towns
would benefit from different plans, a comparison oi the
entire area shows one plan to be the most economical.
Special wastes, such as automobiles and chemicals, would be
handled separately. Automobiles might be shredded on a
Npecial machine purchased tor the area. Sewage sludsi. i ake
can be handled like refuse.
68-0075
Retuse disposal stud} and plan. Recommended pi.ri
Prepared for the Central Naugatu^k Valley Regional Planning
Agency, Waterbury, Conn Boston, Metcalf & Eddy,
Engineers-Planners, Sept 1 968, p 66-73.
Of the various described plans for refuse disposal and
collection, the subregional plan is the most advantageous in
cost, and it possesses substantial advantages such as flexibilm
and the probability that it will be the most acceptable of all
considered. Implementation of this plan is described in detail
and summarized m two charts. It involves !he foun,a>->;> of
four subregions wherein two towns participate in one
disposal facility, and it recommends new sanitary landfill
sites for the other five towns in the area. In each ease, the
condition of the present facility was examined so that
maximum use of it might be made before opening a new sue.
Several choices foi the management of the subregional
facilities are presented, and the le"o get rid ot it. At
Penn State, researchers ha\e found thai 1 part acid diamaae,
and 6 parts sewage plain el fluent will sweeten a polluted
stream, reduce the acidity of the mine diainage waiei. and
remove tioublesome phosphates and iron salts. Seattle is
going to mix beac'i -,and with wet digested vwauc sludge.
and then use it to reclaim four acres of ttdeland for a park.
68-0077
Robert and Company Associates, and Reynolds, Smith, and
IlilK Engineering study; solid wastes disposal, City of
Tampa, and Hillsboiough County, 1968. 81 p.
Solid \vas>e problems have developed in direct proportion to
the population giowth ot Hillsborough County,, which
includes the corporate municipalities of Tampa, Plant City,
and Temple Terrace The county is presently disposing ot
more than 372 tons per day of ret use, 230 tons ot which are
getieiated m counts areas and the remainder in Tampa. The
location of suitable new landfill areas has been a problem.
The methods and equipment employed to transport refuse to
existing landfills prior to the construction of a municipal
incinerator in Tampa are reviewed. Infoimation is presented
about the type and quantity of refuse generated in various
areas of the county, including the quantity collected by
franchise and private operators The resulting load to each
disposal area is tabulated according to measured 1967 and
proieucd 19H5 letuse generation. Disposal limits and load
centers are developed for six basic letuse generation areas and
three methods ot disposal (sanitary landfills, incineration,
and composting) are analyzed as to their effectiveness and
cost ftai^ter stations are considered as an auxiliary ;.i..ility
tor use in combination with one 01 more ot the methods. The
solid waste program developed toi each area isdescnbed. The
recommendations cover new land!ill sites and/or mechanical
refuse disposal plants, a fourth unit tor the Tampa
mcmcratoi, and improvements in existing rural landfills.
68-0078
Robert and Company Associates, and Reynolds, Smith, and
Hills, h \istmg collection and disposal methods. In
Engineering study; solid wastes disposal. City ot Tampa, and
Hillsboiough County, 1968 p.IIKl-'J).
Refuse collection 111 Hillsborough County is accomplished
independently by the three corporate municipalities (Tampa,
Temple Terrace, and Plant City), by franchise operators in
county areas, and by private companies and individuals who
collect and transport their own refuse to disposal areas. There
are wide variations in collection methods primarily related to
the type and si/.e of the collection organization and
equipment and the contiols exerted thereon. Refuse disposal
is provided by lampa and Hillsborough County. Temple
Terrace hauls icfuse to a county landfill, as does Plant City.
In the interim period between the shutdown of its landfill
opri iti,),is ,md the start up of a new incinerator, Tampa used
UvuU'iUs |ointly with the county. There ate presently nine
landfills strategically located throughout the county, each
operating on a daily schedule. Except for cooperative refuse
disposal with lampa, the county charges for all refuse
icceived .'.* the landfills.
68-0079
Robert and Company Associates, and Reynolds, Smith, and
Hills. Population and refuse quantities. En_F.ngmeermg study;
solid wastes disposal: City of Tampa, and Hillsborough
County, 1968. p.IV(l-13).
Hie Cxumated 1967 population of Hillsborough County is
44K.I 73 Of this total population. 299,968 individuals live in
15
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Collection and Disposal-General
the City of Tampa and 148,205 in unincorporated areas of
the county. By 1985 the total population of the county will
reach 709,930, the population of Tampa will be 341,430,
and that of the unincorporated area, 368,500. As determined
by a comprehensive weighing program, Hillsborough County
(exclusive of Tampa) now generates 437,730 Ib per day of
refuse. Tampa generates over 6 million Ib per week. The
present per capita refuse generation in the county (exclusive
of Tampa) is 4.08 Ib per day. The present per capita refuse
generation in Tampa is also about 4.08 Ib per day. By 1985
the per capita refuse generated will reach 4.58 Ib per day for
the county (exclusive of Tampa) and 4.5 Ib per day for
Tampa.
68-0080
Robert and Company Associates, and Reynolds, Smith, and
Hills. Analysis of collection and disposal methods. In
Engineering study; solid wastes disposal; City of Tampa, and
Hillsborough County, 1968 p.V(l-37).
Disposal limits and load centers were developed for six basic
refuse generation areas of Hillsborough County, Florida.
Sanitary landfills, incineration, and composting were
analyzed as to effectiveness and cost. Transfer stations were
considered as an auxiliary facility for use in combination
with one or more of the three disposal methods. The
operation of the nine existing landfills was found to be
adversely affected by faulty bulldozers and the lack of
standby equipment, which necessitated the rerouting of
refuse to more distant fills. The bulldozers should be replaced
by a compactor to obtain greater compression ratio of the
refuse. To make the landfill operations totally self-supporting
through disposal charges, the refuse received must be weighed
on automatic scales. These improvements would result in
processing costs of SI.00 to $2.00 per ton. The annual cost
of the rotary kiln incinerator in Tampa is $686,590. Based on
500 tons per day. refuse costs per year equal $3.86 per ton,
exclusive of the sale of salvaged material. Composting costs
for a plant with a capacity of 11 7 to 350 tons per day are
estimated at $4.76 to $7.83 per ton. The sale of salvaged
material would, however, reduce composting costs to $2.42
per incoming ton. Estimated costs of handling refuse at a
typical transfer station are SI.38 per ton.
68-0081
Robert and Company Associates, and Reynolds, Smith, and
Hills. Proposed immediate and long range solid wastes. In
Engineering study; solid wastes disposal; City of Tampa, and
Hillsborough County, 1968. p.VI(l-12).
Based on cost analyses of disposal methods, solid waste
disposal programs were developed for six areas in the City of
Tampa and Hillsborough County. The use of sanitary landfills
or a transfer station hauling to the Tampa incinerator is
shown to be cheaper than constructing mechanical refuse
plants of either the incinerator or composting type. It is
suggested that existing landfills in rural areas not only be
maintained, but upgraded. A new landfill site is
recommended for a combined city-county refuse generation
area. In this area, a transfer station combined with final
disposal by sanitary landfill would be less expensive than
final disposal by the city incinerator, provided the landfill
site is near the station. A transfer station is also an alternate
choice for another area where landfill sites are difficult to
acquire. If the transfer stations are not combined with
sanitary landfills, the Tampa incinerator will require
immediate expansion by the addition of a fourth unit.
Uniform disposal charges should be adopted for all disposal
facilities.
68-0082
Rogers, P. A., and D. R. Andres. Status of solid waste
management; California solid waste planning study, interim
report, v. 1. Sacramento, California State Department of
Public Health, Sept. 1968.
The interim report of a study performed by the California
State Department of Public Health under a U.S. Public-
Health Service Grant contains findings on an extensive survey
of California on solid waste. A summary presents the major
findings in each of the following categories, production,
administration and control, collection, disposal, planning,
and environmental effects. Appendices contain, maps of
disposal sites for the entire State and for each county with
related data by county, a summary of state laws, and
regulations related to solid wastes, and the definition of the
manufacturing section of the Standard industrial
Classification, used as a basis for a study on industrial
processing of wastes.
68-0083
Sanitary refuse disposal. Modern Hospital, 11 (3):179, Sept.
1968.
A new device packs disposables into enclosed containers. A
350-bed hospital is experimenting with a new technique in
sanitation, refuse compaction, storage, and disposal. It is
claimed that the new system replaced four of the six 10-yd
refuse containers previously in service and drastically reduced
burning loads in its gas-fired, 4-burner incinerator. The new
compaction system, called The Power Mite, is a small
hydraulic refuse stationary packer which can be hand loaded
from ground level, from a dock, or placed under a trash
chute. Depending on the density of the material, packing
ratios of ftom 3 to 6 to 1 are achieved. When the refuse
container is full, a truck-mounted handling unit picks up,
hauls, empties, returns, and locks the container to the unit.
One man and one truck do all of the work. Existing refuse
containers can be modified to work with the new unit at a
modest cost. The many advantages of the new unit are
outlined and presented.
68-0084
Sheaffer, J. R. Dimensions and trends in solid wastes. In The
affluent and the effluent. Waste management--problems
and prospects. Chicago, Railway Systems & Management
Association, 1968. p.35-38.
Various dimensions of the solid waste problem are related to
the large quantities of industrial wastes, and to waterway
pollution, building demolition, air pollution abatement, and
agricultural wastes. To provide an order of magnitude for the
solid waste disposal problem, an estimate is presented of the
volume of solid wastes produced in Cook County, Illinois, in
1966. The concept that solid wastes are resources is explored.
16
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0080-0090
Examples are cited of recycling solid wastes such as paper
and metal, utilizing sludge as fertilizer, and reclaming land in
the form of sculpturing. Several trends in solid waste disposal
efforts lead to considering the establishment of regional
materials reprocessing centers. The efficency of the railroad
industry regarding the solution of solid wastes disposal
problem is examined. The concept of large regional material
reprocessing centers will require rapid, high volume, long
distance transport of solid wastes.
68-0085
State Department of Health, Richmond, Virginia. The
sanitary disposal of refuse. Virginia Health Bulletin,
20(10).1-16, Feb. 1968.
Growth of population and continued use of present
merchandising methods only mean more refuse to handle.
Already refuse handling represents local government's third
largest expenditure of funds. Improperly handled domestic
refuse breeds a media for vectors and fire hazards. Three
aspects of the problem exist: storage, collection, and
disposal. Storage standards are established by local
ordinances. Collection is accomplished by a private collector,
a municipally operated system, and/or contract. Sanitary
landfills and incinerators represent the two most acceptable
methods of disposal. Salvaging and composting have strong
potential for future use. The Virginia State Health
Department requires all cities, towns, and counties to file
their disposal plans for the next decade, surveys all refuse
operations on a 20-year basis (financed by a U.S. Planning
Grant), and acts as a consultant on a Virginia Beach
demonstration project to create an amphitheater and coasting
ramp from refuse. It has also established location, planning,
and operating criteria for landfills and incinerators. These
requirements are listed in detail.
68-0086
Study of refuse disposal methods in Connecticut. Hartford,
Connecticut State Department of Health, Dec. 1968. 41 p.
In compliance with Special Act 375, the Connecticut State
Department of Health organized a study group consisting of
five committees, each to investigate a specific phase of refuse
disposal methods. The committees investigated: types and
quantities of domestic and bulky wastes; automobiles and
industrial wastes; the problem of fly ash and industrial waste
disposal; methods of disposal; available land for refuse
disposal; collection and transportation of refuse. It
formulated new legislation and amendments to existing laws
and regulations, especially such items needed to allow
implementation of other committees. Sanitary disposal of
solid wastes and certain liquid wastes is at present a serious
problem in Connecticut due to the increasing population and
the continuing loss of suitable land area. The economics of
constructing and operating a disposal facility calls for
regional and long range planning. Alternative and
recommended approaches are discussed. Excerpts from
committee reports and supporting tables and charts are
included.
68-0087
Technical services report on the management of solid wastes
in Bullitt County, Kentucky. Cincinnati, U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare, 1968. 68 p.
A comprehensive study of the solid waste disposal practices
in a small rural county in Kentucky was made. The wastes are
divided into residential, commercial and institutional,
industrial, and agricultural. The special problem wastes such
as abandoned autos are also considered. The two public
disposal sites in the county are discussed in detail as is the
variety of collection services available. A projection of future
waste generation is made, and an appendix covers the legal
aspects of the waste problem. Maps included show the
population distribution of the county, as well as the
abandoned autos and the roadside dumps. The routes of the
waste collectors in the county are also shown. Tables
summarize the data in the text including the generation and
disposal of industrial and residential wastes. A series of 32
photographs illustrate the disposal problems of the county.
68-0088
Technical services report on the management of solid
wastes in Bullitt County, Kentucky. Study procedure.
Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, 1968. p.10-11.
The study of the solid waste practices in Bullitt County
consisted of three general phases: a preliminary survey
involving several visits to the county by the Project Officer
and Director to gather information necessary for the planning
of the field survey; an aerial survey of the entire county to
locate the open dumps, junked automobiles, and small
indiscriminate dumping areas; and finally, a comprehensive
field survey. The survey included visits to all types of solid
waste sources, evaluation of residential storage, interviews
with industrial personnel, collection firms, and auto parts
dealers, and visits to open dumps and dumping areas.
68-0089
Technical services report on the management of solid
wastes in Bullitt County, Kentucky. Residential solid wastes.
Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, 1968. p.l 8-24.
The residential solid waste generated in Bullitt County was
estimated at 133 tons per week based on 1.75 Ib per person
per day. Of this, 94.4 tons is generated outside of the three
incorporated cities. A survey of the storage practices showed
open burning to be the most common deficiency. Uncovered
containers and littered areas were the next most common
problems in the whole county. The cities are served by
private collection firms which are optional to the
homeowner, but services are only available to a few of the
more populated areas of the rest of the county. Residents in
the outlying areas either dispose of their waste on their
properties or haul it to a dump. The use of home garbage
grinders is negligible.
68-0090
Technical services report on the management of solid wastes
in Bullitt County, Kentucky. Commercial and institutional
solid wastes. Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, 1968. p.25-30.
To estimate the total quantity of solid waste and its handling
by the 250 businesses in Bullitt County, a cross section of 94
was selected and surveyed. Of these, 32 were institutional
17
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Collection and Disposal-General
buildings such as schools, churches, and county buildings.
From this survey, it was estimated that all commercial
establishments generated 41 tons per week of solid waste. All
institutional facilities generated 15 tons per week. A majority
of the businesses use 55-gal drums for storage, while the
schools use 20-gal trash cans. More than half of the businesses
use collection services ranging from once a month to daily,
and 69 percent of all businesses burn all or part of their
wastes. Complaints are often received about these practices.
Tables are included showing the amount and type of waste
produced by each business surveyed and the disposal
variables encountered.
68-0091
Technical services report on the management solid wastes
in BuUitt County, Kentucky. Industrial solid wastes.
Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, !968. p.31-34.
Of the 14 larger industrial companies in the county, 11 were
visited and interviewed. Those surveyed produce 7 tons per
week of waste, excluding such materials as sawdust, dirt, and
concrete. Most of the waste is burned, and the rest dumped
off site. Seven of the 11 had acceptable storage facilities, and
three used commercial collection companies. The county has
no major problem with industrial wastes where companies
took care of them adequately.
68-0092
Technical services report on the management of solid wastes
in Bullitt County, Kentucky. Agricultural solid wastes.
Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, 1968. p.35.
Although the farm population of Bullitt County in 1964 was
20 percent of the total county population, the amount of
solid waste generated in farming activities did not influence
the collection and disposal problems of the non-farm
population. All farm wastes are either reutilized or disposed
of on the farm.
680093
Technical services report on the management of solid
wastes in Bullitt County, Kentucky. Special solid wastes.
Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, 1968. p.36-38.
Special solid wastes include abandoned automobiles, septic
tank solids, dead animals, and hazardous materials. An aerial
survey located at least 900 abandoned automobiles outside of
the five commercial auto-part companies which have an
estimated 2,500 junked cars. One septic tank pumping
company in the county lagoons the solids on a farm in the
center of the county. An estimated 90 small dead animals are
picked up by commercial haulers in the three cities of the
county, and the approximately 100 animals killed on the
county roads are picked up by the highway maintenance
crew or by local residents. Explosions and fires at
unauthorized dumps have indicated the dumping of
hazardous materials. This dumping is probably done by
industries located outside the county.
68-0094
Technical services report on the management of solid
wastes in Bullitt County, Kentucky. Collection services.
Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, 1968. p.3944.
The 11 collection firms in the county are thoroughly
outlined and a map is provided showing their routes. They
range in size from a company which serves an estimated
1,000 homes in a franchisee! area down to an individual who
collects from eight homes in his spare time in an area served
by three other collectors. Frequency of collection varies from
twice per week to twice per month. The routes cover the
densely populated areas only and they frequently overlap.
None of the 11 collection systems were considered to be
satisfactory, due to lack of suitable collection equipment,
operating records, and safety.
68-0095
Technical services report on the management of solid
wastes in Bullitt County, Kentucky. Disposal sites.
Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, 1968. p.45-60.
Both the Bullitt County dump and the Smith Farm Dump,
the two public dumps serving the county, were judged
unsatisfactory by the survey team due to lack of compaction
and daily cover, presence of insects and rodents, odors, and
fire hazards. The county dump is simply a disposal area open
all the time and accepting everything except septic solids and
hazardous materials with no records kept as to users or
amounts. The Smith Farm charges by the load and has
contracts with some out-of-county companies. It is divided
into separate areas for household and industrial wastes and
also for burnables and nonburnables. Salvaging is permitted
in return for bulldozing services. Three dumps in the county
have been ordered closed and are now partly covered by dirt.
Their condition is also unsatisfactory. The aerial survey
located 207 roadside dumping areas indicating proper
disposal sites are not convenient enough.
68-0096
Technical services report on the management of solid
wastes in Bullitt County, Kentucky. Solid waste generation
project. Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, 1968. p.61-63.
The county population in 1967 was estimated at 21,750 with
an average waste generation of 1.75 Ib per day or a total
production of 133 tons per week. The population is
projected to be 38,250 in 1987, generating 350 tons of solid
waste per week. No attempt was made to forecast the
industrial or agricultural development of the county.
68-0097
A technical services report; comprehensive solid waste study,
Johnson City, Tennessee. Cincinnati, U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare, 1968. 63 p.
A detailed description of the current waste collection in
18
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0091-0101
Johnson City is given. This study includes the on site storage
of wastes, their collection from residences and commercial
establishments, the transfer system, and their ultimate
disposal sites. The specific areas of the system that need
improvement include: fly control, labor productivity, and
commercial and industrial waste collection. A method of cost
allocation is suggested. The equipment force is studied with
suggestions for more efficient use as well as a study of the
dump and composting plant. The inadequacies of the city's
ordinances covering solid wastes are pointed out. The
appendices include specific cost data to back up the
recommendations for system changes in the text. There is
also a detailed breakdown of residential waste by material
types and amounts for different income residences. A group
of sample forms are included to implement the surveys
suggested in the text.
68-0098
Waste collection and disposal in Scarsdale. Public Works,
99(4)-165, Apr. 1968.
The Sanitation Department of Scarsdale, N.Y. provides three
collections per week for combustible refuse and one
collection per week for noncombustibles such as yard and
garden materials and household furnishings. Combustible
refuse is incinerated, while leaves, brush, etc. are disposed of
at the brush disposal area. During the year, the Village
Highway Department used this area for disposal of 491 loads
of leaves, 446 loads of logs, 632 loads of brush, and 71 loads
of miscellaneous materials. Private contractors brought in
2,540 loads of leaves, 2,284 loads of brush, 670
miscellaneous loads, and two loads of logs.
68-0099
Zepeda, F. Comparative study of solid waste collection and
disposal methods in the U.S.A. and Latin America. Solid
waste term problem CE 349. Morgantown, West Virginia
University, Dec. 1968. 13 p.
Latin American cities are characterized by a rapid growth of
population. Because of this fact, refuse generation grows at a
high rate and the traditional collection systems are readily
becoming obsolete. The refuse material consists mainly of
garbage and rubbish. The problem of abandoned vehicles is
not in any way comparable to that in the United States, since
old cars are taken apart and sold for their metal value. Their
household refuse has a greater density than that of the
United States, and it has a greater proportion of garbage than
of rubbish. Daily collection is practiced in most cities. By a
proper planning of refuse collection vehicles and disposal
sites a more et'licient collection system could be worked out.
The containers used are not made especially for refuse use
and vary widely as to weight and volume. Given the local
conditions of Latin American cities, curb pickup seems to be
the only applicable method of refuse collection. Perhaps the
most important difference between collection costs in the
United States and underdeveloped countries is the cost of
labor. In Latin America, equipment costs determine the cost
of collection. Transfer stations have not been used to a great
extent in these countries mostly because of the high initial
investment. Little has been done in Latin America to provide
sanitary disposal of refuse. Open dumps are everywhere, and
open burning is a common practice.
COLLECTION AND TRANSPORTATION
OF REFUSE
68-0100
American Public Works Association Research Foundation
Rail transport of solid wastes, a feasibility study, interim
report: phase one. Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, 1968. 168 p.
The objectives of the study are to determine the feasibility of
a new method of solid waste disposal. A comprehensive
evaluation is being made of the costs and benefits obtainable
from the collection, transportation, and disposal of solid
wastes from urban areas by the use of rail-haul techniques.
Phase one is concerned with the identification, development,
and setting up of the rail-haul and related solid waste
transport and disposal techniques. Phase two will deal mainly
with implementation of the rail-haul waste disposal concept
in cooperation with selected communities. Phase three will
consist of a comprehensive evaluation of the concept and
techniques as demonstrated under actual operating
conditions during phase two. The findings reported for phase
one are still tentative. The conclusions drawn from the
information presented suggest the following benefits' a
reduction of direct waste disposal costs; a change from
inadequate methods of disposal to desirable methods, a
better utilization of existing rail installations; a capability for
land reclamation; the establishment of an effective disposal
system; a potential for widespread application; a high degree
of flexibility; and attractive implementation opportunities. It
is calculated that solid waste rail haul will cost about $4.00
to $4.50 per ton, f.o.b. transfer station. The system-transfer
station/rail haul/sanitary landfill-was selected for further
evaluation.
68-0101
American Public Works Association Research Foundation.
Basic setting for the present solid waste rail haul study. In
Rail transport of solid wastes; a feasibility study; interim
report: phase one. Cincinnati, U. S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, 1968. p.10-15.
The major rail-haul/disposal system alternatives are
identified; the order of magnitude in the economics of solid
waste rail shipments is indicated, and the decision making
factors in the basic selection of the system to be investigated
in this study are outlined. Five major system structures are
considered with local collection common to each. The
remaining elements of the systems include various
combinations of transfer stations, rail haul, incineration,
sanitary landfilling, and composting. Rail rates are dependent
on specifying each of several dozen variables: the route
traveled, type and size of cars used, volume transported,
schedule frequency, and type of service required. The
economics of rail transport change considerably if large
volumes of wastes need to be transported. In terms of the
process cost of existing methods, it can be concluded that a
combination of rail haul and sanitary landfill offers the best
promise for the development of an economical solid waste
rail-haul approach. The average cost of sanitary landfilling is
reported to range from $0.05 to $2.00 per ton. The basic
system—transfer station/rail haul/sanitary landfill, was
selected for further evaluation.
19
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Collection and Transportation of Refuse
68-0102
American Public Works Association Research Foundation.
The methodology for this study. In Rail transport of solid
wastes; a feasibility study; interim report: phase one.
Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, 1968. p.16-36.
This study concerns both the technical and economical
feasibility of solid waste rail haul. Solid waste rail-haul
criteria are being developed through an analysis of waste
disposal needs as well as the existing disposal operations and
their ramifications. The following are also being studied'
composition and volume of solid wastes, the transfer 01
wastes into the rail-haul system; public health and
environmental factors: rail transport capabilities; sanitary
landfill disposal; and organizational, financial, and legal
implementation of rail transport. Correlated efforts for the
study include: identification of chemical constituents and
properties of solid wastes; evaluation of the potential impact
and significance of salvage operations; feasibility and value
study of chemical processing lor the shipment ot waste by
rail; investigation of the value ot sue reduction i-.hredding)
exploratoiy spot testing ot compaction of wastes:
comparison with the economics of non-uij modes of
transport; evaluation of strip mine operations in relation to
solid nastes; and snii-haul studies for selected communities.
Research on the compaction ol solid wi'stes A ill be
conducted within '.he framework r/ (he City ot Chicago
refuse compression lest program. Workshop* for Slut1.
otlicials and public agencies are pait of Hie pro|ec' efforts.
68-0103
American Public Works Association Rcseaich 1 windation.
Criteria for evaluating rail haul of solid wastes. Fn Rail
transport of solid wastes; a feasibility study, interim report
phase one. Cincinnati, U.S Department ->( Health,
Fducation.and Welfare, 196X, p 37-40
A guide was designed to serve the needs and best inteiests ot
the public at large and to take into account the concern of
groups which could be involved in the operations of a solid
waste rail system. The critena address themselves to the
characteristics of an ideal system. It is necessary to considei
the criteria combination in terms of an overall optimization.
The characteristics of an ideal solid waste disposal system are
identified as follows' the system should be capable ot
handling a great variety of materials and accommodating
large and small loads, sudden surges, and seasonal changes;
the system should meet public health and environmental
control standards and be aesthetically pleasing; the system
should operate reliably regardless of climate or weather
conditions and other disruptions; the system should be
capable of serving large and Mnall communities of various
types; the system should be competitive with other systems
in respect to total cost and other economic features, the
system should have organizational simplicity, offer options.
and adapt to user needs, and the system should be publicly
acceptable, be open to progress in terms of a product,
process, or method evolution, and hold promise lor side
benefits such as salvage or land reclamation.
68-0104
American Public Works Association Research Foundation.
Composition and volumes of solid wastes. In Rail transport
of solid wastes; a feasibility study; interim report: phase one.
Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, 1968. p.41-55.
A description of (he general composition, specific
constituents and properties, and volumes ol wastes is given.
The relevance of composition, volumes, and unit sizes and
the influence of salvagv M the rail-haul Astern aie discussed.
The ma|or sources Horn which wa'.u-s t ngtnaie can be
broadly .subdivided as jesideniial. municipal, commercial,
industrial, and agricultural, fables containing listings of
manufactured and natuial products i-n.'id in solid wastes and
their chemical constituents uie included Po'ential solid waste-
rail-haul volumes' are estimated for annual tonnages as well as
the potential daily shipment volumes and tho'r fluctuations.
Rail-haul system elements aftecUd bv the volumes and
composition of wastes include compjc'ion, material handling
operation1-, public hoalili, transpoil. and landfill, ['he
magnitude of '.ho in'luettce of salvage on the composition and
volumes of wastes depends on the type of material removed
and us quintitj in the waste. Salvage operations might be
performed on the landfill site anu ihe i or.i.\-initani <_ost
reduction \vouki o< LUF. The ienioL/al oi a iai^L proportion of
one type ol \vastes, Midi as paper waste, would atfect the
methods ol processing and transport, .md the environmental
andt;>-.t factois ol w.isti- di-| >stl.
68-0105
Amencan Public Works Association Ren-arch Foundation
transfer stations toi lail haul ot solid wastes in Rail
transport ol solid v, antes. J Vasibihu study; interim report'
phase one C in., in n.ili. !,'S Department of Health,
1 ducalion.and \\eMare, 1V6S p.So-sKS.
Iranslei stations .ire needed in wtuji-y 'ill solid wastes
rail-haul systems. F>pts ,irul sues . ' tr.i-istVi stations, their
physical interface ui'h the focal collection., waste processing
and compaction, ,i':d male-rial handlm' an- covered. Seven
basic transfer simon 'jyout concepts include a circular
design, an 'IF pattern, a lompiessed T' approach, and
conventional designs as found in existing stations. The
optimum design of a transfer station must take into atroun!
the factors associated with the design ol collection trucks,
collection logistics, and the unloading c-i wastes, the
in-station process and material handling requirement1, and
the loaditiL' of the rail cars. Processing wastes fo; rail haul
improves flic co>t-io-pi"-rforniance H !. : :,> s- . u i,j Di r .-•!.-!
compaction ot solid wjs't-s, Prelimmar\ a-sui's indicated ih;il
size reduction leads onlj 1,1 a partial ledtictjoti in vi)lume ot
wastes. A solid waste high-pressure compaction ti-st program
has been set up to develop eiilcna toi jircsses nut baling, it is
desirable to mininii'e nulerwl handling luruiions tli.-.jugh
the layout of the process and lo utih/c the force of gravity
whenever possible
68-0106
American Public Woiks Association Research Foundation.
The rail tiansport function in a solid waste disposal system.
_[n_ Rail transport ol solid wastes, a fcasibihfv study, intemn
20
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0102-0110
report: phase one. Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, 1968. p.99-135.
The rail link between one or more transfer stations and the
disposal site is considered. The rail haul of solid wastes might
be implemented by using either existing or specially designed
freight cars. Statistics on the railroad network in the United
States including the number and cost of the freight cars are
given. The applicability of boxcars, flatcars, gondola cars,
hopper cars, tank cars, and refrigerator cars to the transport
of solid wastes is considered. Data suggest that the cost
differential in the shipment of unprocessed wastes and that
of highly compacted solid waste decreases with an increase in
the total payload of the tram. The train configuration is
discussed in terms of train-type alternatives and locomotive
power. To gain access to desirable disposal sites, it may be
necessary to build new tracks in certain cases. An estimate
reported by railroad personnel is $75,000 to $100,000 per
mile or $15 to $20 per ft, excluding land. Broadly speaking,
rail-haul costing requires consideration of expenses for.
maintenance of way and structure equipment: the operation
of yards; way and through trains; general overhead and
operating expenditures; and the investment, foi shipments of
about 1,000 tons per day and 100 tons per car, it may cost
about $1.90 per ton to move wastes about 50 miles.
Tentative results of a rail netwoik analysis are shown.
68-0107
Sanitary landfill operations with rail haul of solid wastes. In
Rail transport of solid wastes; a feasibility study; interim
report: phase one. Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, 1968 p.136-155.
Some of the operational requirements encountered in
rail-haul sanitary landfills are indicated, the types of sites
potentially available are outlined, and some of the results on
the disposal of solid wastes in active strip mines aie
presented. No existing landfill is as large as the one which
might be needed in a solid waste rail-haul system. The larger
the amounts of wastes disposed of, the lower, it is expected.
the unit cost will be. The increase in scale of operations
suggests that a completely different type of equipment may
have to be used. The alternative types of landfill sites
include, sites commonly used in existing landfills, pits and
quarries, open pit mines, scrub land, marshes, abandoned and
active strip mines, active topography developments, offshore
islands and/or in lake and coastal areas, and the ocean. Only
one-third ot the 3.2 million acres, or 5,000 sq miles of land
disturbed by surface mining, has been reclaimed. The
opportunity for the disposal of solid wastes in active strip
mines depends significantly upon its economic attractiveness
to .he mining companies. The process flow ek-ments-iransier
from the rail car, haulage to the pit, and tinal disposition of
the wastes-determine the cost of the operation. It was
tentai-vel> concluded that U is feasible to dispose ot solid
\\astes in active coal mines at a cost ot substantially less than
$1 per ton.
68-0108
American Public Works Association Research Foundation.
Public health and environmental control in waste rail haul. In
Rail transport of solid wastes, a feasibility study; interim
report: phase one Cincinnati, U.S. Department ot Health.
Education, and Welfare, 1968. p. 156-1 60.
The environmental factors considered in the study include.
the identification of potential sources of pollution,
occupational hazards, and nuisance factors; their effect on
different system elements; the magnitude of the effects
anticipated with respect to the high volumes to be handled
by the rail-haul system; the pollution-related implications of
processing; and the development of suitable approaches as far
as possible and/or feasible to eliminate pollution hazards. A
special effort is being made to determine whether and to
what degree disease-causing organisms are likely to be
introduced into the system from different sources, their
possible concentrations, and the likelihood of their survival in
the unprocessed and processed wastes. Specific questions
which need to be answered in order to elucidate the proper
patterns for solid waste rail haul are. the amount and
composition of liquid released during compaction; the length
of time refuse can be detained in a transfer station; noise and
dust control methods that need to be applied; the type of
railroad car needed for wastes', the time that a loaded car can
stay at the station; the procedure if a car loaded with refuse
goes astray, and the implications of the high-volume solid
waste rail-haul landfills.
68-0109
American Public Works Association Research Foundation.
The organizational, financial, and legal implementation of
transporting solid wastes by rail, hi Rail transport of solid
wastes; a feasibility study; interim report, phase one.
Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, 1968. p.161-167.
The final decision on the application of waste rail haul will
have to be made, in most cases, by local community leaders.
Community workshops, with public agencies participating,
are important in determining rail haul feasibility, how the rail
haul should be executed in terms of local conditions, and
what specific benefits can be identified and dimensioned in
terms of both performance and cost. It is necessary for States
or State agencies to become involved, because solid waste rail
haul, by its very nature, will operate on a regional,
super-regional, mtrastate, or even interstate basis. The State
workshop is to pursue thiee basic objectives: to discuss the
functions States might execute to set up and to operate a
rail-haul system: to identify areas where existing State laws
and regulations might impede optimum performance, and to
enlist the cooperation of appropriate State agencies. The
departments mainly involved are Sanitation, Public Utilities,
Conservation, State Planning, and Industrial Development,
and the Governor's office. Specifically, the State workshop
might deal with the identification of State and Federally
owned land, the location of disposal sites, the operation of a
sanitary landfill network, public relations, and a rail-hau!
demonstration project. Examples of the alternatives tor tiic
legal entities which might be responsible for a rail-haul
system are given.
68-0110
Association plays major role in equipment development.
Solid Wastes Management/Refuse Removal Journal,
ll(5):24, 89, May 1968.
The Chicago and Suburban Refuse Disposal Association has
played an important role in the development and use of
21
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Collection and Transportation of Refuse
sanitary equipment in this city. In the early 1950s, when
Chicago passed an ordinance requiring use of totally enclosed
vehicles, this association proved to city officials that the
statute would seriously hinder collection of certain types of
wastes until suitable designs were developed. The early closed
vehicles, namely the Gar Woods, the Heils, and the Leaches,
were unsuitable tor hauling ashes, since the packer plates did
not develop sufficient upward thrust to move the material
properly. A unit developed by one of the contractors in
1957-1958 incorporated a hydraulic tailgate with steel covers
on the body top which proved practical in the removal of
ashes. In 1958 the Association informed city officials that it
could now conform to the previously passed ordinance.
68-0111
Babcock, H. A. Slurry pipebnes-the dark horse in the
materials handling race. In Proceedings; Mineral Waste
Utilization Symposium, Chicago, Mar. 1 968. U.S. Bureau of
Mines, and Illinois Institute of Technology Research
Institute, p.148-152.
Advantages such as adaptability to automation, relative
stability of operating costs, indifference to bad weather, low
construction and right-of-way costs, and easy maintenance
are inherent in pipeline transportation of solids. An approach
to economical design of pipelines is discussed. Preliminary
estimates and the designer's formula are given, and the
equation is used to plot curves of head loss vs. velocity at
constant concentration. With these curves, daily operation of
the line can be planned in accordance with production
schedules and storage facilities.
680112
Berry, L. H. Trash rack rake cuts downtime. Power
Engineering, 72(ll):75, Nov. 1968.
The Berry Trash Rake was designed to clean trash racks in
steam plants, pumping stations, and similar installations
making plant shutdowns to clear brush, logs, bark, leaves, and
other trash from the bottom of the racks unnecessary. The
rake has positive control and full maneuverability over the
entire rack and its immediate environs. Since all its motions
are powered, it can force its way through ice or other debris
and is not handicapped fay deep water. The boom of the rake
is carried on a four-wheel gantry which rides on a track.
Debris collected from the rack is brought to the platform on
the gantry for later disposal.
68-0113
Bevan, R. E. Refuse collection and disposal. Surveyor and
Municipal Engineer, 131 (3975):87-90, Api. 1968.
Pipeline carnage of house refuse to the disposal works could
develop as a 'dry' method using the vacuum principle now
being investigated at Westminster. Meanwhile, refuse disposal
and collection is an essential service and men are needed to
provide the service. For this reason, the job of refuse
collection must be made more desirable. The refuse which is
now with us is approximately 40 to 50 percent paper and 30
to 40 percent garbage by weight. This composition must be
carefully examined and its impact on refuse disposal practices
considered. Also, it makes an examination of the practice of
burning unseparated refuse necessary. The most essential
component of optimum refuse disposal is thought to be
national and regional coordination. New and more stringent
punishment for irresponsible dumping is recommended to
strengthen collection and disposal activities, especially in
regard to abandoned cars.
68-0114
Brown, G. E, Development of refuse collection vehicles and
thoughts on the future. Public Cleansing, 58(10):533-544,
Oct. 1968.
A hydraulically operated ejection plate giving horizontal
discharge is looked on as a means for discharging refuse
vehicles which are compacted so that they will not readily
discharge by gravity. This would simplify work at many
disposal plants and tips. Strain on the vehicle would be
reduced by using a rigid non tipping body. As an alternative
to long distance hauling of refuse in refuse vehicles or to
transfer stations, containerized handling of refuse is suggested
whereby a full, compacted load could be ejected into a large
hauling vehicle and remain intact. Noise abatement was
considered important, and use of electric-powered vehicles,
when and if they become economically feasible, is
considered.
68-0115
Bugher} R. D., and K. Wolf. Rail-haul refuse disposal...using
high-pressure compaction of wastes shows promising
economies. American City, 83(8).79-80, Aug. 1968.
The APWA Research foundation is engaged m a research
effort to explore the potential use of rail haul. The U.S.
Public Health Service's Solid Wastes Program is financing
two-thirds of the project. Rail haul could be incorporated
into all systems in which sufficient quantities of waste have
to be transported over long or even relatively short distances.
Rail haul can transport the raw waste or incinerator residue.
Three major elements of a rail-haul system are: transfer
stations, the rail-haul link, and the ultimate disposal
operation. Preliminary findings indicate that the compression
and/or baling ot refuse is the most effective and economical
way for handling wastes in a rail-haul system. Four different
train-types are under consideration: attachment to a regularly
scheduled freight train, a special train totally dedicated to the
hauling of wastes; the empty haul of an existing unit train;
and the Rent-A-Tram concept. Rail haul can be utilized in
conjunction with sanitary landfills and can complete land
reclamation projects quickly. Disposal of refuse by rail haul
might be accomplished at about $4 per ton.
68-0116
Coal pipeline revived to carry wastes. Electrical World,
17()n«):22, Oct. 28, 1968.
In a test sponsored by the Department of the Interior's
F'ederal Water Pollution Administration, the 108-mile
pipeline which served for a 4-year period to transport coal
from Cadiz to Cleveland, Ohio will transport wastes in the
reverse direction. In addition to helping Cleveland solve its
waste problem, the delivery of solid wastes is expected to aid
in the reclamation of the barren land resulting from strip
mining in Harrison County. A mixture of 95 percent water
and 5 percent solids, including sludge from the Southerly
22
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0111-0122
Sewage Treatment Plant, dredge material from Cleveland
Harbor, and fly ash from power plants, will be used in the
line. Before being sent through the 10-in. pipeline, the sludge
will be treated in the sewage plant to destroy odors.
68-0117
Conversion to municipal refuse collection results in multiple
benefits. Public Works, 99(2).78-79, Feb. 1968.
Saline, Michigan (population 4,200), was faced with the
problem of setting up a municipal rubbish collection system
in less than 2 months when the existing refuse contractor did
not renew his contract. A Diamond Reo split cab truck unit
with a 25-yd Gar Wood packer body was selected to fill the
need for a high-capacity packer and maneuverable refuse
truck. The city now provides complete garbage and refuse
pickup once a week. In adding the cost of operation,
maintenance, salaries, depreciation, and other expenses, an
annual net cost of $21,000 is projected-a saving of more
than $11,000 over the previous system. The quality of the
service has improved and the scope of operation has
expanded to include all rubbish collection.
68-0118
Crellin, A. D. An investigation into the vacuum system of
refuse collection. Public Cleansing, 58(8):409417, Aug.
1968.
The vacuum cleaner principle is employed to remove refuse
from a building to a transfer station or a separation plant. At
present, in Sweden, this system is used in a large hospital and
in a development of multi story dwellings near Stockholm.
The development, when completed, will cover 225 acres and
will consist of 3,000 flats divided into 30 blocks and served
by 144 refuse chutes. Since the plant began operation, there
have been no blockages or breakdowns reported and no sign
of wear in the transporter tube. The advantages of the system
include: expansion of the system to cover refuse increases by
increasing the number of transport operations per day;
freedom from collection vehicles, noise etc.; freedom to
collect refuse on any day without difficulty; automation,
which eliminates the need for refuse collectors and the
increasingly high wages which they command. The vacuum in
the exhauster is at three in. and the velocity of air in the pipe
is 55.2 mph, 81 ft per second. Twenty or 24-m. pipes are
utilized. The chute doors are designed to prevent the
introduction of large,unwieldy objects, and there have been
no problems with children or animals in the system. The
method of repair is to dig up the pipes at the point where
replacement or repair is needed.
68-0119
Denver eyes rail transfer stations. Solid Wastes
Management/Refuse Removal Journal. ll(l):8-9, 14, 18,
Jan. 1968.
The Denver and Rio Grande Railroad has submitted a
proposal to the City of Denver, Colorado, to dispose of
household wastes collected by municipal trucks which would
haul the refuse to a pair of in-city, truck-rail transfer stations
to be built by the railroad. The latter would haul the refuse
to a site owned by Landfill, Inc., which is reputed to own
enough land to assure disposal for the next 40 years. The
transfer stations would provide unloading ramps at which
eight trucks will simultaneously be able to discharge their
loads into a surge bin. The trash would be moved via a rotary
plow-conveyor belt system to shredders which would have
the capacity to accept trash with densities to 370 Ib per cu
yd, and grind and compact it at the rate of 350 cu yd per hr,
to a density of about 650 Ib per cu yd. The railroad proposes
to charge the city $4.50 per ton for a guaranteed minimum
of 875 tons of refuse per day. The cost would be offset by
money saved after stopping current trash burial and
incineration, and by the reduced mileage per trash duck. The
trucks now travel to a site about 12 miles from Denver, and
will have to travel further when present disposal sites are
closed.
68-0120
Efficient refuse collection. Public Works, 99(4):136, Apr.
1968.
About 35 tons of residential refuse and 25 tons ot
commercial refuse are collected daily in Merced, California,
which has a population of 24,000 and is the center of a
trading area of about 50,000. There are no private haulers 01
contractors operating inside the city limits. To facilitate
collection from back yards, a 70-gal can carrier on roller-
bearing wheels was developed. All commercial routes are
operated by one-man crews; residential routes by two-man
crews. A front-end loading truck has been purchased and a
complete city-owned container system has been initiated.
The entire downtown business district will soon be
containerized. The first diesel-powered packer has been in
satisfactory service for more than 2 years, and more will be
purchased.
68-0121
Evans, H. Transfer stations solve dump problems. Public
Works, 99(5):84-85, May 1968.
King County, Washington, which includes a dozen smaller
cities in addition to Seattle, utilizes transfer stations to solve
garbage disposal problems. The transfer station is built on
two levels, the upper for access by vehicles to be dumped and
the lower for trailer trucks to receive the refuse. Low-bed
trailers with tractors transport about 80 cu yd of refuse to a
central disposal site. Commerical backhoes were redesigned
to serve as compactors. A hydraulic scooper, fitted with
specially designed arms which pick up the big steel containers
and flip them over for emptying, was adapted.
Approximately 900 tons per day are handled in all seven
transfer stations. A sketch shows the two-level structure and
the layout of the unloading floor.
68-0122
The flow of solid wastes in pipelines. Compost Science,
8(2):11, Autumn 1967-Winter 1968.
Among the research projects now being supported under the
Solid Waste Program of the Public Health Service is a study
by Dr. Iraj Zandi of the University of Pennsylvania who is
exploring the pipeline collection and transportation of solid
wastes. Despite the potential of solid pipeline systems, the
23
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Collection and Transportation of Refuse
inability to accurately predict the headlosses that will occur
has been one of the factors impeding the development and
widespread use of hydraulic transportation. Experiments
have shown that ground-up municipal refuse could be mixed
with a small amount of water from the city sewer system and
pumped out of the city. Pipelines would only have to be of
2-in. diameter to carry the wastes of a town with a
population of 10.000 to 15,000. In the future, magnetic and
centrifugal sorting devices may be used to remove metals,
glass, and plastics for salvage. Industrial installations of
pipeline transportation in the United States and Europe are
listed.
68-0123
Fowler, J. A. The growing problem of garbage—and how an
engineer hopes to improve collection. One method under-
study: by pipeline. Pennsylvania Gazette, p. 16-20. Mar.
1968.
Metropolitan areas face urgent crises of .solid wastes disposal.
In 1965, Congress, recognizing this fact, passed the Federal
Solid Waste Disposal Act authorizing over $750,000 for
grants to study new collection methods. One such study
considers if pipeline collection and transport is workable and
more economical than truck collection. Trucking possesses
the disadvantages of being inefficient, unsanitary, unsightly,
and inconvenient, besides demanding land and unskilled
labor. With the pipeline-slurry method, homes and businesses
equipped with solid waste crusher machines would pulverize
garbage. Small, high-pressured pipelines would then transport
the gnndings through existing sanitary sewer lines to central
collection points for treatment, reclamation, composting, or
dumping. No delayed pickup, odor, vector, or fire problems
would result. The plan is an application of fluid mechanics:
waste water mixed with crushed waste travels speedily,
entrapping the solid waste particles, and carrying them
alongside. Experiments considered variables of size and
composition of the wastes, employing different pulverizers,
pipe size, speed of flow, and slurry properties. Although
more exploration is necessary to develop a cheap, efficient
system outside the lab, the findings proved that with present
technology solid waste can be crushed and pumped more
economically than present methods used by large towns.
Feasibility for small towns must be investigated. Social and
political implications, such as the effects on slums and
unskilled labor and financing the initial costs require
additional thought.
of speed is able to entrap solid material and carry it along,
waste water mixed with crushed solid waste traveling at a
high rate of speed should entrap the solid waste particles and
carry them along. Based on the data obtained, it is estimated
that the residents of Philadelphia will spend some $90.6
million over the next 50 years to collect and remove solid
waste to a distance of 50 mi. The study showed that it would
only take $88.3 million to put a completely automatic piping
system into operation.
68-0125
Freaney, J. A. Appendix G. Collection vehicles and disposal
equipment. In. Summer study on the management of solid
wastes; final report, v. 1. Cambridge, Urban Systems
Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sept.
1968. p.43-45.
Three areas of interest were covered and evaluated: an
incinerator which handles small volumes, a size-reduction
machine producing briquettes, and a German refuse vehicle
body. The incinerator and size-reduction machine are not
complete disposal answers, but could, if proven effective, be
useful for many industrial and commercial concerns. The
German refuse-vehicle body was by far the most promising of
all equipment observed. It could go far in reducing collection
costs, and it is described. A short list of recommendations for
future action is also furnished.
68-0126
Garbage ticketed for next fast freight. Engineering
News-Record, 181(22):36, Nov. 28, 1968.
San Francisco's city administrators have been authorized to
draw up a contract with Western Pacific Railroad to haul the
city's garbage into the Lassen County desert in northern
California. It is estimated that it will cost about $3 million
per year to haul 1,300 tons of garbage 375 miles daily to the
disposal site. The city will pay about $6.50 per ton for
shipment and Lassen County will get about $25 per ton for
taking the garbage which will be buried in trenches. In San
Francisco, Western Pacific plans to build a midcity garbage
transfer terminal where scavenger trucks would dump their
loads into containers. The containers would be shipped by
barge to Western Pacific's East Bay tracks for departure for
the desert. Citizen groups near the terminal and in Lassen
County are voicing protests.
680124
Fowler, J. A. Truck collection no longer is 'acceptable' for
city refuse. Compost Science, 9(2): 12-15, Summer 1968.
As a result of a study at the University of Pennsylvania, the
pipeline method is proposed to replace the present truck
method ol collecting garbage. Homes and businesses would
be equipped with some type of solid waste crusher machine,
simihar to sink disposal units but larger in sue. Owners would
empty garbage into chutes leading down to the pulverizers.
After the garbage was reduced, it would empty into pipelines
and be carried away. J he system would be onsite, and the
problem of delayed collection is eliminated. The idea behind
the plan is an application of a law of fluid mechanics: it a
liquid (slurry) or gas (pressurized air) traveling at a high rate
68-0127
Goodman, L. R. Strict truck regulations essential to fleet
operation. Solid Wastes Management/Refuse Removal
Journal, 11(10):30, 75, Oct. 1968.
Control instruments placed on vehicles have prevented drivers
from introducing practices that are deleterious to the
equipment. A device on the truck will cut off the engine
when a certain temperature is reached. A mechanical stop on
the accelerator prevents racing the engine to obtain faster
power takeoff action. Wooden shoes in refuse bodies have
been replaced by steel shoes with a modified track. These and
other measures have reduced maintenance costs and
downtime. However, since preventive maintenance is
difficult in the refuse industry, equipment is replaced every 2
years.
24
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0123-0134
68-0128
Hopper streamlines dirt collection. Water and Sewage Works,
115(8):36I, Aug. 1968.
To streamline the collection of dirt and sludge from
manholes which provide access to electric power lines,
Detroit Edison Company has turned to the use of a
truck-mounted, self-dumping hopper. A man shovels refuse
into a bucket lowered by a hoist, and when the bucket is full
its contents are emptied into the 2,000-lb capacity hopper.
Under the old manual system, it took one morning to clean a
single hole, while the new equipment makes it possible to
clean as many as a dozen per day.
68-0129
How to dispose of a cooker. Engineer, 225(5849):353, Mar.
1968.
The Greater London Council believes it has solved the
problem of the disposal of unwanted bulky articles by setting
up 38 depots throughout London for receiving such items
and later collecting them free of charge. There still remains
the problem of transportation and labor to get the item to
the depot.
68-0130
Lausch, J. How to transfer refuse—elegantly. American City,
83(lO):85-87,Oct. 1968.
A new refuse-transfer station serves the 150,000 residents
and numerous industries of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, and the
six townships surrounding it. For the 17-mile trip to the
landfill, 65-cu-yd transport trailers are used. The clients are
charged by the weights of their loads. These fees finance
completely the costs of both the transfer station and the
sanitary landfill. The loading system employs push-out heads
and pits 10 ft wide to insure adequate refuse storage
capacity, and an automatic sprinkling system is used to settle
dust and even deodorize when necessary. The structure is
equipped with tour dumping stalls on either side of a small
control room. If one of the two center stalls is chosen, refuse
drops directly into a refuse transfer packer on the floor
below, which periodically pushes this material into one of the
transport trailers. When filled, it leaves and another takes its
place. Five such trailers are used to shuttle between the
station and the landfill. Initial costs of the system, operation,
and specifications of the trailers and related equipment given.
68-0131
Mendoza, E. Larger trucks permit reduction in collection
crew size. Public Works, 99(4): 106-109, Apr 1968.
In 1966, the City of San Diego converted from a three-man
to a two-man refuse collection crew. The refuse service
comprises once-a-week, combined rubbish and garbage
collection in residential areas and multi-weekly collections in
commerical areas. The collection system is arranged around
three stations which operate as headquarters. A landfill is
located near each site. The change in crew size was permitted
by use of a 25-cu-yd packer truck instead of the 20-cu-yd
truck which had been used before and through establishment
of a higher paid classification to which workers may be
promoted. The two-man crew now collects the same average
workload, 14.25 tons, as the three-man crew did formerly
due to reduced travel times. Direct cost savings have been
realized-the old system cost S7 83 per ton vs. $6 24 per ton
for tne new system. Safer operation, promotional
opportunities, reduction of total number of personnel, and
improved public relations are cited as additional benefits.
68-0132
New collection trucks solve sanitation problem. Public
Works, 99(8). 109, Aug. 1968.
Garfield Heights, Ohio, has been able to switch from
biweekly to weekly refuse pickups due to the purchase of
two 40-cu-yd capacity Gar Wood (T-100) refuse collection
trucks Data are provided showing savings in diesel fuel, oil,
and repairs between the T-100 and conventional 20-cu-yd
packer. Instead of handling the city's refuse operations by six
units on a 6-day basis, the department uses only five units,
with one being held in reserve, in a 5-day week. With the new
trucks it has been possible to eliminate special pickups after
residents clear their attics or garages of rubbish and debris
and the larger 40-cu-yd capacity enables refuse to be
collected all day without a midday trip to the local landfill
680133
Perl, K. Economic management of domestic waste collection
by motor vehicles. Ingegneria Sanitaria, 16(5):362-364,
Sept.-Oct. 1968.
A mathematical formula developed by F. C. Wuethnch is
used to make certain deductions about the transportation
cost of solid waste by motor vehicles. Several curves are
established and minimum collection costs are determined
with load capacities from 3 to 20 tons per car and
transportation ot material up to 50 km. The number of
employees connected with the collection varies from three to
seven, depending upon the distance; the greater the distance,
the lower the supporting crew (three men for 46-50 km), and
the shorter the transportation line, the more numerous the
workers (seven men for 0.0-0.8 km). It is also noted that cost
decreases with increase in load capacity of the vehicle.
However, the savings of transportation costs between a
vehicle carrying 20 tons and one of 10 tons for a distance of
2 km is only 1.5 percent. This economy increases to 9
percent when the distance goes up to 50 km. Calculated
optimal capacity is 15 tons and minimal capacity
approximately 6 tons. These formulae can only serve as a
guideline and may not correspond to actual conditions.
(Text-Italian)
68-0134
Quon, J. E., M. Tanaka, and A. Charnes. Refuse quantities
and frequency of service. Journal of the Sanitary Engineer-
ing Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil
Engineers, 94(SA2):403-420, Apr. 1968.
Significant changes in the quantities of refuse from wards 17
and 25, City of Chicago, as a result of the initiation, in 1966,
of twice-a-week pickup service in approximately one-third of
the living units serviced was determined. A method for
25
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Collection and Transportation of Refuse
making comparisons based on information from similar
neighborhoods and identical time periods was developed and
used in the analysis. Forward 17, the twice-a-week pickup
service resulted in 83 ib per week per living unit, while the
once-a-week pickup service resulted in only 51 Ib per week
per living unit. Similar analysis for ward 25 resulted in 80 Ib
per week per living unit for twice-a-week service and 66 Ib
per week per living unit for once-a-week pickup service. The
percentage increase in refuse quantity with greater frequency
of collection was independent of the season and essentially
constant.
68-0135
Ralph Stone and Company, Inc. Field survey and analysis. In
A study of improved refuse collection systems comparing
one-man with multi-man crews. Cincinnati, U.S. Department
of Health, Education, and Welfare, June 1968. p.3-44.
A program was initiated in July 1967 to undertake
comprehensive field surveys of refuse collection operations of
four cities and two private collection firms located in
California. These surveys were intended to determine:
collection time for various crew sizes and collection methods;
travel time between collection stops; the number of
refuse/service stops; and the number and type of containers
at each service stop. Abbreviated field surveys were made at
other locations throughout the country. The field survey data
are summarized in tabular and graphic form. One-man crews
were more efficient than multiman crews for curbside and
alley collection. Multiman crews were more efficient for
backyard carryout collection of refuse. Significant savings in
curbside collection time were achieved by the use of
disposable containers such as paper or plastic bags. Extensive
studies of a TRAC (Truck Rear Actuated Control) unit
indicated average man-hour savings of about 25 percent.
68-0136
Ralph Stone and Company, Inc. National survey of collection
practice. In A study of improved refuse collection systems
comparing one-man with multi-man crews. Cincinnati, U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, June 1968
p.44-63.
A total of 234 cities in 42 different States, with a total
population of 37,397,837, cooperated in the study by
supplying system data. The ratio of cities providing public
collection service as opposed to private collection was
approximately 2/4 to I. Rear-loading equipment received
the greatest use. The majority of sanitation collection
equipment was serviced by a three-man crew. The most
common location designated for municipal refuse collection
was a combination of curb and alley There was a preference
for either once or twice a week collection in the sampled
cities. Lasl time accident experience leported by 80 cities
averaged 1,457 accidents per year. A sample of 166 cities
reported average collection costs of SI 7.66 per ton per year.
68-0137
Ralph Stone and Company, Inc. Time and motion analysis.
(n A study of improved refuse collection systems comparing
one-man with multi-man crews. Cincinnati, U S. Department
of Health, Education, and Weltaie, June 1968 p.63-95
Based on motion picture and video tape recordings, a list was
made of basic human motions required to perform the refuse
collection task in one-, two-, and three-man systems and
MTM (Methods-Time-Measurement) values were applied The
basic motion data was formulated into the elements:
dismount from truck, walk to container location, grasp and
pick up container, pivot and walk with container to loading
location, dump container contents, pivot and return with
container to storage location, place container on ground and
pivot, return to cab, and mount truck. Figures illustrate the
results and methodology of the time and motion anal) sis for
curbside, backyard, and alley collection, and modified
curbside collection by one-, two-, and three-man crews.
Special analysis was applied to problems of fatigue and delays
due to such things as parked cars, spillage, and scavenging.
68-0138
Ralph Stone and Company, Inc. Mathematical model In A
study of improved refuse collection systems comparing
one-man with multi-man crews. Cincinnati, U.S Department
of Health, Education, and Welfare, June 1968. p.95-145.
A limited mathematical model was developed describing the
time required for the collection of refuse. The factors
included in the model were: mean quantity of refuse per
collection stop; driving time between the route and the
disposal site; mean collection time at each collection stop and
travel time to the next stop; total nonproductive time; and
mean disposal time per load at the disposal site. Most of the
simulation work was conducted to compare one-, two-, and
three-man collection crews for curbside collection with a few
simulations completed for backyard, alley, and modified
curbside collection systems. The volumetric capacity of the
refuse collection vehicle and unit cost per ton were compared
for various crew sizes and services. A series of nomographs
has been devised to give the refuse collection operation
manager tools for the study of the internal workings of his
operation.
68-0139
Ralph Stone and Company, Inc Equipment. In A study of
improved refuse collection systems comparing one-man with
multi-man crews. Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, June 1968. p.145-149.
Background information, specifications, and brochures on
refuse collection equipment suitable for use by a one-man
crew were compiled. A summary of pertinent specifications
from manufacturers of American equipment was included.
Photographs illustrate typical Furopean equipment. Of
existing American-made refuse collection equipment, the
side-loading, packer type vehicle is probably best suited for
one-man operations regardless of methodology This
equipment enables !he operator to complete the collection
tasks with a minimum of lost-time effort. With curbside
collections, the side-loading packer equipped with nght-hand
drive may prove more efficient. Rear-loading packers are
satisfactory for one-man operation, although somewhat less
efficient than side-loaders in terms of crew time.
68-0140
Rapid collection system. Materials Reclamation Weekly.
Il3(l).30, July 6. 1968
26
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0135-0144
A system, which lifts containers up the sides of vehicles and
dumps the contents which are then compacted, is now being
manufactured in Great Britain. It is already in considerable
use in many countries under extreme climatic conditions. It
is operated by a low speed, high torque, piston hydraulic
motor. Three standard sizes are available having lifting
capacities of 8, 12, and 16 tons. A wide choice of standard
body types is available. The system can he readily installed
on standard commencal vehicles. One of the two designs
available, the VL Nalli 2, incorporates an inner compacting
wall operating on rails and powered by a hydraulic motor.
Waste bins are automatically lifted up the side rails and
dumped, returning the emptied container to the operator
who then controls the compacting wall by hand levers. The
VL Nalh J2 is a similar container, but loading is done
manually through two side doors. Both containers weigh
about 2 1/2 tons and can carry up to 6 1/2 tons. Volume is
approximately 20 cu yd A patented device insures that the
two steel cables exert an even pull.
68-0141
Refuse chutes standard. Public Cleansing, 58(5).252, May
1968
British Standard 1703 was first prepared at the request of the
Building Divisional Council in order to indicate a general
design and suitable materials for refuse chutes for multistory
buildings. The first edition included certain matters
concerning the use of domestic refuse systems which at that
time were not covered by a British Standard Code of
Practice, CP 306. The various methods of jointing the chute
components, methods of connection with the hoppers, and
general guidance on installation are covered in this code. The
standard specifies requirements for refuse chutes in the form
of one or more vertical pipes receiving refuse from successive
floors in a building and discharging it into refuse storage
containers, housed with a chamber situated at the lower end
where bulk removal takes place at intervals.
68-0142
Refuse disposal via railroad. Public Works, 99(7).92, July
1968.
A 4 year contract was authorized by the Philadelphia City
Council for the disposal of refuse by landfill in strip mines of
upstate Pennsylvania. Under the terms of the contract, at
least 260,000 tons per year of refuse will be moved on the
Reading Railroad to the strip mine sites. The cost of disposal
will be S5.39 per ton as compared with present costs of
$7.50 per ton. Two transfer stations will be built in
Philadelphia near existing incinerators and along the Reading
tracks, where the refuse will be processed (shredded and
baled) for loading on cars. The city will operate a fleet of
trucks necessary for the collection of household and
municipal refuse, and will collect it and transport it to the
transfer stations for disposal. The refuse will include rubbish,
garbage, ashes, street and inlet cleanings, and public refuse
not normally collected by the city. Pathological products,
hospital or nursing home refuse, or any material specifically
excluded by the State Health Department will not be
included. The basic design for the transfer stations includes
two shredding machines, a compressor and baler, two
overhead cranes, and two railroad tracks each capable of
handling six cars. The landfills will be in the strip mine areas
in upstate counties, including Carbon, Luzerne, Schuylkill.
and Northumberland. The maximum depth of each layer of
trash is to he 4 ft. Each layer will be covered with a
maximum of 2 ft of fill compacted by bulldozers. This will
eliminate air pockets. Trash fill will stop 20 ft below the
surface of the stripping. The final 20 ft will be filled and
compacted using the loose earth, clay, and shale in and
around the stripping, and capped with a runoff dome. The
surface will be planted with a fast-growing particularly
adapted evergreen of a species recommended by State and
other experts. State inspectors will continually monitor the
operation.
68-0143
Refuse in the pipeline. Surveyor and Municipal Engineer,
132(3982). 1-2, Sept. 27, 1968.
In a brief section of his presidential address given to the
Institution oi Public Health Engineers, Gwilym Roberts said
that curbside collection of domestic refuse was not consistent
with modern public health standards. One solution for
suburbia lies in the under sink waste disposal unit. Pipeline
disposal in some form seems to hold out the only practicable
answer. In this case, the sewerage systems must be made large
enough to handle extra bulk, and the function of disposal
works must be expanded to deal with more and different
solids. Various authorities are using refuse as a fuel, and the
next step could be to pipe the fuel to the boilers.
68-0144
Rolfe, D G. Raising productivity in the refuse collection
service. Public Cleansing, 58(6);293-306, June 1968.
This paper, which was presented at a London meeting April
19, 1968, discusses ways of increasing productivity in refuse
collection service: incentive bonus schemes, container
systems; and other methods of collection. The lommonly
used incentive bonus schemes, advocated by Report No. 29
of the National Board for Prices and Incomes in 1967, do not
seem to increase or maintain productivity. He suggests that a
locally agreed rate that would make unnecessary a bribe to
complete work that was already paid for. New methods or
equipment reducing labor requirements should be
introduced. An investigation by the Work Study Officers to
assess the true labor costs of all systems of refuse collection is
suggested. The system of refuse collection should provide
sufficient space for later requirements and should be flexible
enough for changes. A collection service which is cleaner and
quieter to operate, requiring a driver and only one man rather
than the present British Standard (B.S.) container teams is
suggested. A refuse compression and packaging device, that
can be chute or hopper fed, and that is no larger than a B.S.
container, or the use of plastic liners for the containers is
recommended. The adoption of a large container system with
capacities up to 12 cu yd is also recommended, although this
may eventually be replaced by three developments- the Dcva
system whereby refuse is hydraulically pressed into paper
bags ready for collection; containers with built-in
compression devices, and direct loading. A discussion of the
paper and the author's reply is included.
27
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Collection and Transportation of Refuse
68-0145
Saigon garbage situation serious too. Clean Air News,
2(5):19-20, Feb. 20, 1968.
With nearly 2 weeks of uncollected garbage in the streets, the
Saigon Sanitation Department moved one step closer to a full
resumption of serviee as 183 garbage collectors and 194
stieet sweepers reported back for work. The security
problem, the city wide curfew, the displacement of thousands
of city dwellers, and a curious apathy added to the sanitation
problem. The government began ordering families to burn
their garbage in the street, leaving the city with a smoky,
acrid smell. The sanitation department has a budget of about
$1.5 million fora city of about 2 million.
68-0146
Schultz, G. P. Managerial decision making in local
government; facility planning for solid waste collection.
Pii.D. Thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., Jan. 1968.
263 p.
The purpose of this study is to discover a rationale for
facility planning for a solid waste collection system and
devise an operational decision model consistent with the
rationale. The role of such work in the decision-making role
of a system manager in local government is emphasized
throughout. A serious attempt has been made to describe the
important decisions to be made and to adapt methods to
these problems. The decision model which is developed
consists of several submodels, each of which provides a
proximal solution for a subset of the decision variables. The
submodels are the typical facility and serviee area, the facility
location pattern, and the facility timing strategy. The
derivation of each of these models, the assumptions, and the
functions used are detailed with graphs and illustrations. Data
developed through use of an hypothetical city are given. The
facility location and facility timing simulation programs and
a list of references are appended.
68-0147
Schultz, G. P. Introduction._In_Managenal decision making in
local government; facility planning for solid waste collection.
Ph.D. Thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., Jan. 1968.
p.1-9.
An attempt to develop methods to be used by the manager of
a public solid waste collection system to plan a set of
facilities for a city is presented. Careful study of the contexts
in which a system manager works, the general form of the
system, and the rationale for decision making as well as the
design of specific systems, and the choice of the best one, is
considered. The collection of solid waste from households is
the subject and the collection vehicle transfer station-haul
vehicle system is the system used. The decision problem had
been reduced to choosing a facility plan consisting of an
optimal pattern of facilities for each of several points in time.
The mission of the solid waste collection system is to provide
a specified frequency and quality of service over some
planning period for all community members at minimum
cost. The measure of output of the system is the volume of
domestic solid waste picked up, processed, and transported
to a disposal site. To gam insight into the critical issues of
solid waste collection problems, literature was reviewed and
interviews conducted. However, data was not available, so the
forms of the descriptive models used are based on a rational
explanation of the system rather than direct empirical
evidence. In order to avoid the need for very complex
models, a set of simple functions involving critical parameters
was selected. The decision model is divided into three
submodels; a hypothetical city is introduced, and an optimal
facility plan is generated using the submodels.
68-0148
Schultz, G. P. Managerial decision making in local
government. j_n Managerial decision making m local
government; facility planning for solid waste collection.
Ph.D. Thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., Jan. 1968.
p.10-29.
Decisions concerning the kinds of solid waste collection
facilities to be provided, and the allocation of funds and the
distribution of costs and benefits resulting need to be made.
A system in which the effects of budgeting and planning
decisions are estimated by public managers and the ultimate
decisions are made by elected representatives is assumed. The
two major kinds of criteria used to justify public
expenditures are economic efficiency and economic welfare.
Economic efficiency is handled by evaluating efficiency
criteria; economic welfare criteria are met (hrougli the
political scheme. In a centralized decision making system, a
hierarchy of decision levels exist: budgeting, urban planning,
system planning, system programming, and design and system
operation. Analysis, based on empirical evidence of needs and
resources and rational comparison of alternative programs, is
believed to be necessary to maximize the effectiveness of the
overall program of public services. The system manager must
make planning programming and operating decisions.
However, the difficulties are reduced because a great many
factors are given by market and political forces. A rather
sophisticated methodology has been developed for system
analysis which draws on existing disciplines such as
economics, mathematics, and statistics. In addition, new
fields such as operations research, systems analysis, and
management science are being adapted to public systems.
68-0149
Schultz, G. P. Solid waste collection service. In Managerial
decision making in local government; facility planning for
solid waste collection. Ph.D. Thesis, Cornell University,
Ithaca, N. Y., Jan. 1968. p.30-57.
In 1965, an estimated 150,000,000 tons of solid wastes were
collected and disposed of by private and public services. The
cost of collection and disposal was about $3 billion. Annual
collection and disposal for the City and County of Los
Angeles in 1960 were estimated to be $5.65 per capita of
which about 80 percent was spent on collection facilities and
operations. The source system of the solid waste system is
the set of residence units within the jurisdiction of the solid
waste agency. A collection system consists of collection
vehicles and, in some cases, transfer stations and long-haul
vehicles. The benefits to households of collection systems
include health and convenience. Because of this growing
importance, serious attempts to understand the issues
involved, to develop a better technology, and to increase the
effectiveness of current technology are cited in various
28
-------
0145-0153
publications and studies. The mam reasons for introducing a
systematic approach to facility planning are to make the logic
of decision making more explicit and to allow more relevant
data from the specific situation to affect the decisions. The
planning of facilities is considered along with the design of
other elements of the system. A decision model is a coherent
framework for describing the system and for
decision-making, using such concepts as the production
function, cost function, and decision rule to form a decision
model.
68-0150
Schultz, G. P. The decision model. In Managerial decision
making in local government facility planning for solid waste
collection. Ph.D. Thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.,
Jan. 1968. p.58-72.
Although the decision-making problems involved in planning
a solid waste collection system are difficult, the general form
is described. The system elements are collection vehicles and
their crews, transfer stations, associated equipment and
personnel, and long-haul vehicles and their drivers. A typical
transfer station is illustrated, and photographs of operations
are included. The processing activities which take place at a
transfer station are considered. Processing parameters derived
from operating, maintenance, repair, and cleaning procedures
are the same for all facilities. The routes to be covered by
collection vehicles are programmed by a central scheduling
office to reduce travel time, to assure that the vehicles are
filled, and to distribute arrival times at the transfer facility to
avoid queuemg. The pickup frequency is an important system
parameter. It is assumed that the most efficient form for the
service area of a single transfer station is a contiguous area
surrounding the facility.
68-0151
Schultz, G. P. Basic cost functions and parameter estimates.
In_ Managerial decision making in local government; facility
planning for solid waste collection. Ph.D. Thesis, Cornell
University, Ithaca, N. Y., Jan. 1968. p.73-90.
The decision problems involved in facility planning require
carefully stated models describing physical and cost
relationships among variables. The critical variables should be
quantifiable, and their relationships clear enough that
mathematical models can be used to describe them. The
variables involved in a system may be categorized into
environmental, system, and mixed, parameters. Each of these
variables is explained in detail. The overall decision model
developed here begins by establishing a facility
capacity-location and a service area size-form which are
typical for the city as a whole for some point in time. Next,
typical facilities and service areas are distributed over the city
and modified to form an efficient set. Then in response to
demand, facilities are expanded in a manner which minimizes
cost over a long planning period. The steps which make up
this model are grouped into three independent submodels:
the typical facility and service area submodel; the facility
location submodel; and the facility timing submodel. The
purpose of each submodel is to minimize direct cost per
household. A sensitivity analysis is used to determine the
extent to which costs change if the values of parameters or
decision variables differ from expected values. The decision
model is a device for organizing available information; the
network of assumptions have to be adjusted to each specific
problem.
68-0152
Schultz, G. P. Basic cost functions and parameter estimates.
In Managerial decision making in local government: facility
planning for solid waste collection. Ph.D. Thesis, Cornell
University, Ithaca, N. Y., Jan. 1968. p.91-117.
The derivation of basic cost functions for facility
construction, processing activities, and collection activities to
be used in the submodels are noted. The facility cost is
determined by non-quantifiable attributes of the facility
(facility quality) which are assumed constant for all facilities
at all points in time, and by initial facility costs which may
be determined through use of functions given. The function
for determining annual facility cost is also given. The
functions necessary for determining processing costs are
detailed with definitions and assumptions implicit in its
derivation. Collection activities include travel from the
transfer station. Costs associated with these activities are
rental equivalents for collection vehicles and wages for
vehicle crews. Further simplifying assumptions used are. each
household receives the same number of pickups per week;
travel time is proportional to distance and collection vehicle
capacity is constant, crew size is constant, and each crew-
works an 8 hr day. The variables to be used are defined, and
functions for determining collection costs are given. The
parameters of the cost functions would ordinarily be
estimated trom data in the city; the values here are derived
from existing systems or assigned plausible values. Processing,
collection, and household parameters are defined.
680153
Schultz, G. P. The typical facility and service area. In
Managerial decision making in local government; facility
planning for solid waste collection. Ph.D. Thesis, Cornell
University, Ithaca, N. Y., Jan. 1968. p.118-180.
A method is developed for choosing the optimal capacity and
location for a typical transfer station and the optimal size
and shape of its service area. An optimization model to
produce a solution for a city in which household density and
solid waste output are uniform over space and unchanging
through time is proposed. The principal conceptual device
used is the statement of each component of average annual
cost per household as a function of the radius of a circular
service area. An optimal solution can be found for each
facility capacity if the sum of the component cost functions
is a 'U-shaped' function of the service radius, that is, if the
minimum value occurs at some point between zero and
infinity. Under conditions of an isotropic transport system
and uniform household distribution, the optimal service area
form will be a circle centered on the facility. Using this form
of service area, the facility, processing, and collection costs
are determined, and the methods and functions used arc
given. Numerical examples were used to compute costs for all
facility capacities from 1 to 20 and for service radius
increments of 125 miles to 10 miles. Figures show the total
annual cost per household for facilities having 2, 5, 10, 15.
and 20 bays, assuming previously determined parameter
values. Costs for the optimal solution and the quantities of
29
-------
Collection and Transportation of Refuse
other physical inputs and outputs of the system are
determined. Direct and indirect haul zones are defined. The
number of facilities required can be approximated by
dividing a zone aiea by the optimal service area.
68-0154
Schult?., G. P. The facility location pattern. _ln_ Managerial
decision making in local government; facility planning for
solid waste collection. Ph.D. Thesis, Cornell University,
Ithaca, N. Y., Jan. 1968. p.151-180.
The facility location pattern is determined by minimizing
collection costs-the problem being to place facilities where
the sum of the distances from each household to the nearest
facility is minimized. An hypothetical city having an irregular
distribution of households and an average density of 3,500
households per sq mile is proposed. The typical service area
previously defined is used to estimate the approximate
number of facilities needed, and a location algorithm is used
to define specific facility locations and service area
boundaries. An optimal location pattern will be a partial
equilibrium solution, in that no further change in location of
transfer stations or service area boundaries will result in a
lower cost per household. For the modified Maranza location
algorithm used, the theory is defined and the application and
parameters used in its application to this problem are
considered. Printouts show examples of the Household
Distribution map, location patterns, and a Final Service Area
Map. Also included is an information table giving the
coordinates of each facility, the number of people served by
each, and the collection cost per household for the facility.
Costs for various numbers of facilities and costs for each
service area are tabulated.
68-0155
Schultz, G. P. The facility timing strategy. In Managerial
decision making in local government; facility planning for
solid waste collection. Ph.D. Thesis, Cornell University,
Ithaca, N. Y., Jan. I 968. p.l 81-226.
A facility timing strategy is a set of decisions concerning the
initial size ot each facility, the size of increments to these
facilities, and the times at which they would be built. The
optimal timing strategy results in the lowest cost per
household over a relatively long planning period. Proposed
models on facility timing are considered, and the effects of
long-run and short-run strategies on the urban planning level
examined. When the household distribution is largely fixed
early in the planning period, the facility location pattern
should be based on the distribution for a time early in the
period, functions considering the expansion in demand and
costs are given. Models developed include forecasts of
demand as a function of time and measure the costs of excess
capacity and excess demand. A product inventory model is
designed to determine the optional number of items to
produce per production run and the optimal interval between
runs, as developed for manufacturing situations. A facility
inventory model is proposed which can be applied to the
timing of construction of increments when the demand is
increasing at a constant rate. Another model, which requires
the assumption that facility locations and service areas are
fixed hut could allow the introduction of changes in a
number of parameters, is also proposed.
68-0156
Schultz, G. P. Conclusion. _In_ Managerial decision making in
local government; facility planning for solid waste collection.
Ph.D. Thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., Jan. 1968.
p.227-239.
The anticipated expansion in public services suggests that
there will be an expansion in solid waste collection as well. A
study of the transfer facility method of solid waste collection
to discover a rationale for facility planning for a solid waste
collection system and to devise an operational decision model
consistent with the rationale may, therefore, be useful. A
serious attempt has been made to describe the important
decisions needed and to adapt methods to these problems.
The decision model which has been developed consists of
several submodels, each of which provides a proximal
solution for a subset of the decision variables. In applying the
model to the hypothetical city proposed, it has become
apparent that: the direct costs of domestic solid waste
collection for a city are significant when compared to costs
for other urban services; the part of solid waste collection
costs directly attributable to facility capacity, location, and
timing is relatively small compared to pickup costs; and the
sensitivity of costs to small changes in the value of facility
planning decision variables is low.
68-0157
Schultz, G. P. Appendix A. _In_ Managerial decision making in
local government; facility planning for solid waste collection.
Ph.D. Thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Jan. 1968.
p.240-247.
Before establishing an optimal location pattern for transfer
stations, it is necessary to know the time required for
collection vehicles to travel between potential facility sites
and the sub-areas of the city which might be in its service
area. It is necessary to discuss the general nature of network
problems before describing an algorithm for determining the
shortest route. These definitions and functions are given. The
Dantzig Shortest Route Algorithm is detailed and a numerical
example provided. The information provided in this section is
necessary to establish the optimal location pattern for
transfer stations.
68-0158
Sheffield's driver training scheme. Public Cleansing,
58(3): 115-119, Mar. 1968.
When the policy was changed and it was envisaged that the
majority of vehicles for refuse collection would be driven by
petrol or diesel instead of being electrically propelled, a
driver training course was instituted. Special apparatus,
pictorial methods, lectures, and discussions were used to
teach the principles of water cooling systems, gears,
hydraulics, and driving. The lectures included the operation
of the electric vehicles for new drivers. A 32-question
examination concluded the course.
68-0159
Skornyakova, R. Kh. Efficiency of regular direct garbage
removal in Novorossiisk. Hygiene and Sanitation,
33(l-3):431-433, Jan.-Mar. 1968.
30
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0154-0164
Daily garbage removal in Novorossnsk is effected by having a
garbage truck arrive at fixed stations at regular times each
day so that the inhabitants can carry and discharge garbage at
the trucks. The garbage is removed in trucks of the type M-93
(with a volume of 6.5 m) and each truck has a driver and a
laborer. The system required extensive preparatory and
explanatory work and was introduced in gradual stages. The
system resulted in the utilization coefficient of the trucks
going from 0.68 in 1960 to 0.82 in 1965. The size of the
crew was reduced from 3 to 2 and 30,000 rubles were saved
which were formerly needed for sanitation and maintenance
of garbage bins. Flies and rodents were reduced, and soil and
air pollution eliminated. Household refuse from public spaces
and restaurants, etc., is removed in bins and clean bins are
substituted each day. The area served by this plant has a
population of approximately 120,000.
68-0160
Suspended rail crane for the transportation of refuse.
Elektrizitaetswirtschaft, 67(1 8):553, Aug. 1968.
Nofil-Transportautomatik. Aulendorf (Wuerttemberg, West
Germany) bought a suspended rail crane for the
transportation of domestic, industrial, and bulky wastes to
the market. The crane is suspended either on single or double
rails. It is able to carry 500 to 2,500 kilopounds of waste. If
it is suspended on double rails, it is capable of lifting its load
up to 20 m, with a speed of 15 m per minute. The crane
travels with a speed of 40 to 50 m per minute along the rails.
The lifting and driving motors are optionally designed either
for 48 volts or for 380 volts three-phase current at 50 Hz,
The rail sysUm can be equipped with automatically
controlled switches. The control of the entire system is either
partly or fully automated, or tt can he controlled by a
computer. The ctane brings the wastes from (he trucks to the
storage bunker or directly to the incinerator or the
composting plant. (Text-German)
68-0161
Taylor, A. British local authorities' example lor overseas
buyers. Surveyor and Municipal Engineer, I 32(3990):34-37,
Nov. 23, 1968.
British cleansing appliance manufacturers have long been
exporting equipment of standard design and equipment
where specifications have required some amendment to meet
special local circumstances. Actual examples of service to
overseas markets include, bulk refuse compaction trailers;
Dumpmasters for refuse collection; load suction and
mechanical sweepers; and gully emptiers, cesspool emptiers,
and dual-purpose units. Anti-corrosive treatment both for
bodies and body frames is often necessary. Illustrations of
some of the vehicles available for export are included.
68-0162
Tope, O. Vehicle and equipment exhibition of the
Association of Communal Waste Disposal and City Cleaning
Departments in Saarbruecken (1968). Staedtehygiene,
10(12):280-287, Dec. 1968.
On June 26, 1968, the largest exhibition of the Association
of Communal Waste Disposal and City Cleaning Departments
was opened. Numerous waste disposal trucks were on display,
the largest of which had a capacity of 28 cu m. One truck
had a two-stage compactor which reduces the volume to
one-fourth. Generally, all disposal ducks '•howcd a trend
toward better compaction and taster and simpler loading.
One displayed wreckage compacter could compress a car
body to 20 percent of its original dimensions. All known
types of cais and small trucks can be compacted with it. A
waste crusher was displayed, thai was capable of rcdu< '••"•
volumes by 50 to 70 percent. Several truck- *oi •-'
canal system were also shown at the exhibition. !NI_V>. ^n. ,
sweepers which wash away the dirt underneath parked cars
and brushes which loosen dirt with high pressure water lets
and subsequent vacuuming were shown. The used w.itei is
recovered by cleaning it \\ilh a filter. This method is highly
controversial since toxicants and bacteria arc chstnbulect vivor
the entire route. Multi-purpose vehicles loi collecting .street
and market dut, sand, soil, oil, etc . which are already in use
in the United States were introduced Almost all types of
waste incinerators were on display. The importance of careiul
waste gas cleaning was stressed, since plant miunes were
observed recently in the vicinity of muneraiors. \ \vas!c and
sludge composting plant with incineration ol the residues w;,>
shown. (Text-German)
68-0163
Truitt. M. M., J. C. Liebman, and C. W. Kruse. User's guide to
the simulation model (model 3 ol volume I). In fetminal
report of an investigation of solid waste collection policies, v.
I & II. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University, Department ol
Environmental Health, Aug. 1968. 23 p.
Instructions to the user for operation of the model are
included. 1 ourteen variables are under the user's control.
Among these ate. collection frequency, truck capacity,
location of transfer station, location of disposal site, and the
real urban tract for which the model simulates a collection
system that may be bounded, as desired by the user, with a
maximum population constraint of approximately 300,000
people. The system control card, which is the next to the last
card in the entire program and upon which aie punched nine
variable values which control system policies to a large
extent, is described. The variables individually considered and
the columns in which the values must be typed are indicated.
The geographic information required for that subprogram is
specified and examples of data collection and use in the
subprogram are given. The field performance information and
cost variables and the manner in which their values are
presented are also discussed. Computer requirements and
output arc considered.
68-0164
Truitt, M. M., J. C. Liebman, and C. W. Kruse. A survey of
pertinent literature. In Terminal report of an investigation ot
solid yvaste collection policies, v I & II. Balurnoit, Johns
Hopkins University, Department of Environmental Health,
Aug. 1968. p.l 3-24.
The survey of pertinent literature is divided into two major
parts. The first is based on a suivey of publications of the
collection practices in America, and the second deals with
literature concerning digital computer simulation. Both
sections deal primarily with very recent literature. Each
31
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Collection and Transportation of Refuse
reference is given a brief abstract relating to the sections of
interest in the development of this report. The first section
contains 13 refeiences and the second, 14 publications. The
latter references are not necessarily related to solid waste, but
contain approaches and discussions relating specifically to
other topics that are nonetheless relevant to this publication.
Work which specifically applied digital computer simulation
to municipal solid waste collection was done at Northwestern
University by Quon et al., 1965.
68-0165
Truiu, M. M., J. C. Liebman. and C. W. Kruse. The policies
and structures of models I and 2. In Terminal report of an
investigation of solid waste collection policies, v.l & II.
Baltimore, lohns Hopkins University. Department of
Environmental Health, Aug. 1968. p.25-49.
The purpose of Model 1 is to determine the collection
potential and associated costs of a collection truck operating
under a set of stochastic conditions within the framework of
an 8-hr work day. The model simulated the fielding of 180
collection trucks and each was ascribed a constant
neighborhood density. Other variables held constant for
individual runs are: number of days since last collection,
collection frequency per week, season, truck capacity, and
sue ot crew. On each run the Model was programmed so that
groups of 30 trucks each were sent to six different collection
areas, each area being a different distance from the final
disposal sites. Tabulations are included of some runs and
actual selections of controllable variables. Flow charts are
included for the principal subroutines of Model 1 Model 2 is
essentially Model 1 with a policy change in that each of the
180 trucks is given a definite task assignment of some
number of households from which to collect. No decision
making is programmed into Model 2 to determine if another
trip should be made; the only question asked is if all units
have been served. The controllable variables and the
subroutines which differ from Model 1 are shown. A general
schematic of the two models is included, and a more detailed
figure is given showing the interaction of the mam program
with the 33 subroutines.
68-0166
Truitt, M. M., J. C. Liebman, and C. W. Kruse. Fortran IV
coding of the simulation model. In Terminal report of an
investigation of solid waste collection policies, v.l & 11.
Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University. Department of
Environmental Health, Aug. 1968. p.25-69.
The computer program is in the FORTRAN IV language and
was run under an IBSYS monitor on an IBM 7094 computer.
The installation consisted of an IBM 1401 RAMAC system
(used as a slave to the 7094) and a 7094 equipped with two
data channels with eight tape drives per channel, a printer,
and a card reader. An average run required 3.90 minutes. The
model should run equally well on any electronic data
processing system having a FORTRAN IV compiler, an
input/output device, and at least 20,000 words or equivalent
of core storage. The FORTRAN IV coding of the simulation
model is reproduced on 42 pages.
68-0167
Truitt, M. M., J. C. Liebman. and C'. W. Kruse. Results from
models 1 and 2. In Tummal report of an investigation ot
solid waste collection policies, v.l & II. Baltimore. Johns
Hopkins University, Department of Knvironmental Health.
Aug. 1968. p.50-75.
The results from Models 1 and 2 loi the number of housing
units serviced by a truck per da> is indicated graphically and
tabulated for various inns. The sensitivity of responses lo
random number sequences from three successive runs is
tabulated and graphed. Six runs made to determine the effect
of season on collection indicated that there were no
statistically significant differences in the collection rates, but
they did indicate a significant difference in Ib per person of
waste generated. Some results from these runs aie tabulated
and graphed. A cost comparison of semiweekly and triweekly
collection frequency indicated a longer average workday and
a greater average tonnage for the first collection days than lor
the last. The unit costs of semiweekly and triweekly service
by neighborhood type are given graphically. A five-wav
analysis of variance study was made to determine the
significance of different variables on the cost in dollais per
ton of the entire collection operation. The variables weie:
capacity of trucks, density per acre of housing units, seasonal
conditions, days since last collection, and haul distance. The
percentage of worktimc spent by trucks in diffciem activities
during the day is illustrated by j\euge values fiom two tuns
given both in graph and table form Runs were also made to
secure results from comparison of dollars per ton costs ot
semiweekly collection. Graphically, the curves decrease
asymptotically in the direction of increasing task
assignments.
68-0168
Truitt, M. M., J. C. Liebman, and C. W. Kruse. The policies
and structure of model 3. In Terminal report ot an
investigation of solid waste collection policies, v.l. & II
Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University, Department of
Environmental Health, Aug. 1968. p.76-114.
A sample is given of results from a run of Model 3. A run
simulates the activity of 20-cu-yd collection trucks in a
particular area for one week. Model responses include the
week's costs in dollars per ton of the collection trucks's
operation, of the transfer station operation and of their sum.
Mileage figures, distribution of overtime, summation of trips
made, tonnage by days, costs by days, and average length of
working days are presented. The general limitations o' this
Model are that only one transfer station can exist Only one
final disposal site, and one sue of collection truck and haul
vehicle can exist. However, each of these may by changed
with different runs. Seven policy decisions must be made, the
extent of the area to be investigated, frequency of collection;
size of collection trucks; sue and type of transtei stations, its
site and routes to it; the final disposal site and routes to it;
and overtime pay. The actual model structuie may be
thought of as being divided into three blocks the model
accepts policies, initializes variables to proper values, and
carries calculations for truck assignments by days ol \\ • 'k.
The simulation ut 6 days' activities is made with summaries
of system responses at the end ot each day. a summary of the
entire week's activity is made and applicable calculations
32
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0165-0173
carried out, and the system responses are listed. The
subroutines are listed and described, and flow charts are
given.
68-0169
Truitt, M. M., J. C. Liebman, and C. W. Kruse. Conclusions
and summary. In Terminal report of an investigation of solid
waste collection policies. v.I & II. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins
University, Department of Environmental Health, Aug. 1968.
p.135-152.
Some limitations of the present study include lack of actual
operating data in some areas and defects in the neighborhood
classification system. The model proving runs gave figures
slightly above those actually found by the city but the
differences were easily attributable to random number
sequences and variations in the real system. They indicate a
fairly accuate model. The disposal site and transfer site
planning costs may be determined by the model. The critical
haul distances for transfer station feasibility indicate that the
station will be equally desirable if the frequency of collection
is semiweekly or triweekly. The equipment, planning, effects
of queueing, and the number of trucks and their assignments
are analyzed. The results from Models 1 and 2 serve primarily
as a basis for Model 3, but they also gave insights into the
relation of relative costs of tri-versus semiweekly collection.
The seimweekly collection system was the more costly,
primarily due to the time and mileage in the collection
neighborhood; however, the triweekly collections averaged
shorter workdays.
68-0170
Truitt, M. M., J. C. Liebman, and C. W. Kruse. Appendix
A-E. In Terminal report of an investigation of solid waste
collection policies. v.I & II. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins
University, Department of Environmental Health, Aug. 1968.
p.153-216.
Appendices A through E contain, in order, data from the City
of Baltimore; data other than Baltimore; data gathering
forms; cost calculations for semiweekly and triweekly
collection; and results from Model 3. The data of the City of
Baltimore includes equipment in operation, waste generation
by month, monthly variation in solid waste production (5
year average), traffic analysis, tests for significance of
neighborhood type and collection frequency on collection
rates for four neighborhood types, assumed collection rate,
speeds, analysis of dumping procedures, and incinerator
service times. Further data were gathered for the purposes of
this study. Data from cities other than Baltimore included
information on existing transfer station operations and costs.
Data gathering forms used for collecting traffic speed and
collection speed data are included. Cost calculations for
semiweekly and triweekly collection and the results from
Model 3 are in the form of tabulations of various runs.
68-0171
Vondrak, G. H. Transfer station shrinks the dead haul.
American City, 83(2):100-101, Feb. 1968.
The City of Dearborn, Michigan, uses 60-yd compacting
trailers to haul its refuse from a transfer station to a
refuse-disposal site 26 miles away. The transfer station is
equipped with three hoppers and an opening for a fourth.
Each hopper is independently powered by a stationary Hobbs
Hyd-Pak power unit that adjoins it at the upper level. Down
below, 60-yd compaction trailers are parked under each
hopper, waiting for the loads of refuse that are discharged
above the collection packers. The collection trucks back into
the upper level of the station and discharge the refuse into
the hoppers which each hold 20 cu yd. Hydraulically
powered sliding bulkheads at the bottom of the hoppers
control the transfer of the refuse to the big trailers.
Stationary pumps run by electric motors send hydraulic fluid
through quick-connect hoses attached to the trailers,
activating the hydraulic cylinders, and thereby moving the
packer plate inside each trailer. The packing plates exert
111,000 Ib of pressure, compacting refuse to upwards of 700
Ib per cu yd. Each trailer is equipped with a load ejection
system to discharge the load at the disposal area.
68-0172
Waste transport by suction—a hygienic improvement.
Staedtehygiene, 19(12):4, Dec. 1968.
Centralsug GmbH, Hamburg, West Germany, offers a new
suction transport system for rubbish and other types of waste
accumulating in hospitals, office buildings, and apartment
houses. Transport by suction has been introduced in Sweden
where such a system has been installed in hospitals. In
Sundbybeig, a suburb of Stockholm, this transport system
has come to replace waste disposal trucks. The transport of
soiled laundry and wastes by suction requires less personnel
than the common waste collection system by trucks. The
system operates automatically. Through a pipe system with
valves in floors and walls, the waste can be sucked into the
incinerator installed in the basement of a building (hospital,
apartment house, etc.). The operating costs of the system are
low since all exhausters operate only while something is
transported. (Text-German)
68-0173
Wilson, D., and J. A. Freaney. Appendix E. Comparison
between alternative collection methods. In Summer study on
the management of solid wastes; final report. v.I.
Cambridge, Urban Systems Laboratory, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, Sept. 1968. p.40-41.
Rough calculations are presented to show some of the
advantages obtainable by automating the pickup system.
Marginally lower costs for the home-compaction system over
the paper-bag system were found, but this difference is not
significant all values assumed in the. ^aleuiation arc high!..
variable. Paper bags show no high costs and considerable
fringe benefits in conventional collection provided that
high-speed packer trucks are used. A five-alternative chart vs.
costs is presented.
33
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Collection and Transportation of Refuse
680174
Wolf, K. W. Rail haul as an integral part of waste disposal
systems. In The affluent and the effluent. Waste
management—problems and prospects. Chicago. Railway
Systems & Management Association, 1968. p.39-52.
A description is given of the work being done by the
Research Foundation of the American Public Works
Association on rail haul of solid wastes, partially financed by
the Solid Wastes Program of the U.S. Public Health Service.
Solid waste disposal involves a mass market requiring the
adaptation of techniques used in mass production, as well as
those used in the transportation and handling of large
volumes of materials. Operational and marketing factors of
the solid waste disposal field are reviewed. The rail-haul
system is viewed as being in competition with other disposal
systems such as incineration, composting, and sanitary
landfill. The most dangerous competitor for the rail-haul
system is the local landfill and the collection truck trailer
transfer approach. It is estimated that rail haul should not
cost more than a maximum of $4 50 per ton. Rail transport
mighf pursue three functions' transport gathering and
accumulation of the materials, i.e. train assembly from
different origin points and storage. Shipping densities for rail
haul are estimated at about 2,000 Ib or one ton per cu yd.
Shredding costs are estimated at $0.80 to $0 90 per ton and
compacting at $1.73 to $2.60 per ton. Calculations of
transfer station operations suggest a goal of $1 00 'o $1.50
per ton. Rail haul combined with compaction and land
reclamation provides numerous advantages which might
change the attitudes of people towards wastes from other
areas.
68-0175
Wolf, K. W., C. Sosnovsky, and V. Babich. The-potential
benefits of rail-haul as an integral part of waste disposal
systems. In Engineering Foundation Research Conference,
Solid Waste Research and Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis.,
July 22-26, 1968. New York. (Conference Preprint No. A-3.)
the aid ot crushers, mixed with a small percviuagc o! waste
water of the community, and dumped out to the point of
disposal. Studies indicated that the task of collecting and
removing solid waste in a pneutno-slurry system can be
accomplished with the present technology Slumcs up to 12
percent solids by weight have been pumped Over a penod ol
50 years, the combined pneumatic and slurry pipeline-
transport of solid waste will be less espensno than truck
collection if solid waste has to be transported a JISMIKV o''
50 miles or more to the point ol disposal, as is presently
proposed in the City of Philadelphia There is already some
useful information available concerning wet oxidation which
points to the usefulness of this method for the disposal ot
solid waste slurry.
68-0177
Zandj, I. Pipeline collection and removal of domestic solid
wastes. In Engineering Foundation Research Contcience;
Solid Wasic Research and Development, 11, Beaver Oam, \Vp, ,
July 22-26. 1968. New York. (Conference Pieprml No. A-2 )
Research on the feasibility of pipeline transport of solid
waste and an economic comparison ol pipeline and truck
collection are being carried out. Pneumatic tiatisport of
domestic solid waste is possible and normal hoi-sohol-J solid
waste can be crushed 10 pioper sue loi piping. Soiiu was
slurries with concentrations up to 12 percent by weight aie
already conveyed through pipes, Ijndej certain condition--,
the combined pnuematic and slairy pipeline >rdti-,poti 01
solid waste will be less expensive than truck collection v, 'er ,'
penod of 50 years if solid wa^te has to he ft irtsp- .^d i
distance of over 50 miles. A reasonable advance in the
technology of crusher-pump units will make the pipeline
system more economical than truck collection even K,r
shorter hauls. An extension of the economical companson to
two different communities is under \vay.
Findings to date from the American Public Works
Association rail-haul study indicate that the compression
and/or baling of refuse is the most effective and economical
way for handling wastes in a rail-haul system. The benefits of
waste rail haul are: possible cost of $4 per ton; reduction of
air and water pollution: capability for land reclamation such
as worthless mining land; relative immunity to weather
conditions and damages to part of the system, and
applicability to large and small communities. It is
recommended that the States actively consider the
establishment of suitable disposal sites in terms of waste rail
haul.
68-0176
Zandi, I. Collection and removal of municipal solid wastes by
pneumo-slurry system. Compost ScinnA fh2i 7-1 1. Summer
In the pneumo-slurry system the solid waste will be collected
from points of origin to a few central locations via vacuum
lines At these central points the waste will be presided with
68-0178
Zandi, I., and J. A. Hayden. Collection of mui>K
-------
0174-0182
ground to small particles before being injected into the
pipeline to be carried to its destination by the carrier fluid.
This system, although not yet fully perfected, was found to
be feasible. Monetary aspects are not clear, because there are
not enough systems on which to base any data. However,
projected cost is figured and is presented in tables along with
graphs and figures explaining the pipelines.
DISPOSAL
68-0179
Adam, R. Problems of waste disposal in the USA. Wasser
Luft und Betrieb, 12(3)'162, May 1968.
To the many problems of American cities is added a most
difficult one, that of eliminating wastes. Disposal sites have
become scarce and, if the waste is incinerated, air pollution is
increased. About 6 to 8 Ib of waste per inhabitant
accumulate daily, twice as much as 20 years ago. Dumping is
the most common method of disposal but cities are searching
for new ways. Washington, D.C., for instance, wants to close
an incinerator on its outskirts because it contributes greatly
to air pollution. Philadelphia signed a contract a short while
ago to transport 1,200 tons of waste per day to abandoned
mines in Pennsylvania. Washington, D.C., will probably use
the same solution. Nine counties in the San Francisco Bay
area dump 60 percent of their waste into remote sections of
the bay, but a commission of the State of California has
decided against this solution. In Boston, there is now a plan
to construct a large boat with an incinerator on board. The
residues from incineration will be dumped far out in the
ocean. The City of New York is in an especially bad
situation. Almost all wastes are burned. In addition to
municipal incinerators, there are about 2,000 smaller ones in
apartment houses. If only 40 percent of those stopped
incineration, 800 trucks would be required to transport the
waste. Also, when a sanitary disposal site is selected
complaints come from as far as 15 miles from the site. The
collection, transportation, and elimination of 1 ton of waste
costs $30 in New York, three times the cost of transporting 1
ton of coal from Virginia. For the entire United States, the
cost of dealing with 165 million tons of waste per year is $3
billion. Los Angeles is considered lucky, because it has
numerous gorges in the mountains nearby where waste can be
safely dumped. The grinding and composting of waste is less
common because the produce cannot compete with chemical
fertilizers. (Text-German)
surface water; a secluded area; a plan for use of the land after
landfill completion; cooperative use with neighboring
communities if possible; adequate amount of the right
equipment; refuse covered at the end of each day with 6 in.
of earth/and at the completion of the fill, covered with 2 ft
of earth; intermediate cover on all cracked or eroded areas on
a weekly basis; maintenance and operation of fill by qualified
personnel; no burning of refuse or garbage allowed; and
provisions for insect and rodent control when necessary.
Incineratois, although acceptable, cost large sums of money
and increase cost of refuse removal. They cannot handle
unburnables, which creates the need for dual collections and
disposal of incinerator ash. The plans and specifications of an
incinerator should be prepared by a qualified legistered
engineer and operated and maintained under the direct
supervision of a person qualified by experience and/or special
training in the field of incinerator management.
68-0181
Arnst, F. Garbage disposer. Staedtehygiene, 19(6)'124-125,
June 1968.
The garbage disposer is generally installed in the kitchen sink
of households and hotels. Its main advantage is hygienic and
fast elimination of all organic and putrescible wastes. Many
authorities reject its use because they fear that it will
overstrain the canal system. This fear, however, is unfounded.
According to regulations, each canal system must be able to
take a 30 percent load of sand, which poses a much greater
problem, since sand is heavy and settles to the bottom.
Pumps and all sorts of canal dredging units must be used to
prevent any clogging. Organic substances, however, remain
suspended m the water and are carried away instead of
remaining in the canal system. Moreover, they activate
sewage sludge. The amount of organic waste washed down
the drain from the garbage disposer is also very often
overestimated. From the 3 liters of waste accumulating per
capita only 5 percent is organic matter, while water
consumption is about 200 liters per capita daily. However,
not everyone can afford a garbage disposer. Considering all
this, there is no reason to re|ect the disposer. The amount of
inorganic matter is usually very low, so there is no need for
closer study of the problem of abrasion. Strangely enough,
waste collectors are opposed to the garbage disposer because
of a ridiculous fear that the wider use of it takes away (heir
jobs. They ignore the fact that only wet and putiescible
material wluch actually poses the greatest problems to the
waste collector (freezes in winter, smells in summer) is
eliminated by the disposer. (Text-German)
68-0180
Anderson, J. From the editor. Virginia Health Bulletin,
20(10):1-14, Feb. 1968.
The mounting refuse problem makes it imperative that
communities develop clean and aesthetic methods of refuse
disposal. With present technology, there are two methods of
disposal which are acceptable from a public health
standpoint, sanitary landfill and incineration. Salvaging and
composting hold great promise for the future. Landfill guides
set the following standards: sufficient land to provide a
disposal site for many years; reasonable haul distance from
source and all-weather access to the site; sufficient and
suitable cover material; no danger of polluting ground or
68-0182
Bergling, S. Lulea refuse incineration and sludge-drying
plants. Public Cleansing, 58 (4):192-199, Apr. 1968.
Since 1950, the yield of refuse per person in Sweden has
increased 5 to 10 percent. Since the existing refuse tip in
Lulea can only be used until 1970, and new sites are difficult
to find, a refuse incineration plant was decided upon. Refuse
will be transported by truck and tipped into a reception pit
capable of storing refuse for at least 3 days. Connected to the
pit will be a power-operated device for breaking up bulky
waste. The plant's two furnaces will have a refuse capacity of
6 tons per hr each. Each furnace is provided with a flue-gas
35
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Disposal
cleaner for wet separation, designed as a cascade scrubber. A
sewage treatmenl plant, nightsoil treatment plant, and a
destruction plant for waste oil are being built at the same
place as the incineration plant. It will be possible to use the
heat of combustion from different operations for drying the
sewage sludge in rotary dryers, as well as to burn waste oil
products in the refuse furnaces and in the sludge-drying
plant. The construction cost of the refuse incineration plant,
combined with the drying plant for sludge, is estimated to be
about 5 million Swedish kroner.
68-0183
Black, R. J., A. J. Muhich, A. J. Klee, H. L. Hickman, Jr., and
R. D. Vaughan. The national solid wastes survey; an interim
report. Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare, 1968.53 p.
The interim report consists of five papers, each presented at
the 1968 Annual Meeting of the Institute for Solid Wastes of
the American Public Works Association, Miami Beach,
Florida, Octobei 24, 1968: The Foundation Provided by the
New National Data' by Ralph J. Black, Deputy Chief, Solid
Wastes Program, Environmental Control Administration,
Consumer Protection and Environmental Health, Public
Health Service; 'Sample Representatives and Community
Data' by Anton i. Muhich, Chief, Systems and Operations
Planning, Solid Wastes Program. 'The Role of Facilities and
Land Disposal Sites' by Albert J. Klee, Chief, Operational
Analysis, Systems and Opeiations Planning, Solid Wastes
Program; 'The Challenge That The National Survey Presents'
by H. Lamer Hickman, Chief, Technical Services, Solid
Wastes Program; 'National Solid Wastes Survey, Report
Summary and Interpretation' by Richard D. Vaughan, Chief,
Solid Wastes Program. The information presented is
preliminary in that it represents partial fulfillment oi a
national solid waste survey scheduled for completion in
1971.
680184
Breidenbach, A. W., H. L. Hickman, Jr., and J. DeMarco. The
potential role of analytical chemistry in solid waste
technology. [Cincinnati], U.S. Department of Health,
Kducadon, and Welfare, [1968J. 13 p.
A paper presented at the Twelfth Conference on Analytical
Chemistry in Nuclear Technology, Gathnburg, Tennessee,
Oct. 1968. The problems of sampling and analyzing solid
wastes, the challenge that is before the field of analytical
chemistry, what is currently being done in the field, and what
must be accomplished in the field of analytical chemistry are
discussed. Data charts are furnished by the Bureau of Solid
Waste Management on physical characteristics and
geographical distribution of municipal solid wastes. Other
areas of present need involve the development of field
measuring devices to help overcome the problems of
sampling. This is a major accomplishment in other
environmental pollution fields. Moisture determinations in
the field would be an improvement. Gases must be measured
and monitored in place, and water leachates that can contain
more varied substances than those found in industrial or
municipal waste waters will need monitoring. A broad
challenge exists because of our limited knowledge about the
chemical composition of solid waste.
68-0185
Buell, D. Regional plans needed for future—solid waste
disposal—I. Congressional Record, 114(42):S2843, Mar. 14,
1968.
Protesting odors, rodents, and pollution, Saugus,
Massachusetts', citizens picketed the DeMatteo dump. John
O. Stinson, Ipswich town manager and former Saugus town
manager, said the cost of dumping must include cost of
putting out fires, damage to equipment, depreciation of teal
estate, and discomfort of neighbors. A ton of refuse disposed
in a sanitary landfill costs $3.00 to $3.50, compared to $7.00
to $10.00 in an incinerator, but incineration is necessary for
densely populated urban areas. Larger tonnage in regional
disposal should result in cheaper costs. Incineration at sea is
under study at Harvard University. New high-heat
incinerators may be able to produce residues satisfactory for
road fill. Areas are experimenting with combining
incineration with production of steam, electric power, and
desahnization of sea water.
68-0186
Buelow, R. W. Ocean disposal of waste material. In
Transactions; National Symposium on Ocean Sciences and
Engineering of the Atlantic Shelf, Philadelphia, Mar. 19-20,
1968. [Washington], Marine Technology Society, p.311-337.
Studies by the Northeast Marine Health Sciences Laboratory
of the two main sewage sludge dump areas, the New York
Bight serving the New York Metropolitan Area and a site off
Delaware Bay serving Philadelphia and others in the Delaware
River region, were planned to aid in defining the problem and
in planning future investigations. Emphasis was given to the
spread of bacterial contamination caused by the discharge of
sewage sludge. Shellfish are capable of concentrating and
holding bacteria, viruses, and toxic substances which can be
transmitted to consumers of the shellfish. The quantity of
sewage sludge disposed of at present is approximately 12,600
cu yd per day in the New York Bight and 1,400 cu yd per
day off Delaware Bay. The results of the investigation
showed that there was a rapid decrease in the conform
indicator. Samples taken in the wake of a discharging barge
resulted in total cohform MPN of 1 50,000 per 100 ml for the
Delaware Bay Study and in excess of 2,400,000 per 100 ml
for both fecal and total conforms in the New York Bight
Study. There was considerable sludge covering the bottom of
the New York Bight disposal area. This is detrimental to
production of surf clams. The bacteriological data indicate
that a well regulated sewage sludge disposal program would
not cause widespread bacterial contamination. High
concentrations of copper were found in seawater samples
collected in the New York Bight Acid Waste Dump.
68-0187
Burchmal, J. C. A study of institutional solid wastes; an
interim report. Morgantown, West Virginia University, 1968.
15 p.
The specific aims of the study are to; determine the physical
and chemical composition of the solid wastes from one
medical school and hospital complex; determine whether
bacteria and viruses are present to any significant degree in
the waste; provide a classification basis and obtain quantity
36
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0183-0192
values for the wastes of various departments; establish a safe
procedure for studies on potential pathogenic wastes; provide
information about solid wastes that can be used by designers
of medical complexes; and develop a sampling procedure
which could be used in future studies. Various methods of
solid wastes disposal and volume reduction are utilized within
the Center. These included incineration, burial, selling, and
discharge to the sanitary sewer. Radioactive wastes are
disposed of by periodic burial. The design of sampling and
weighing procedures to obtain weights, estimated volumes,
types, and generation origins of solid wastes within the entire
center is outlined. The total cost of refuse handling and
disposal comes to $77,280 per year and using a rough
approximation of 1,000 tons of refuse generated per year,
this gives a eost of $77.28 per ton. Solid wastes, generated by
the different portions of the hospital for given dates, are
tabulated. Sampling data is placed on format sheets for card
punching so that the computer may be used to analyze the
data.
68-0188
Bury meets new law with Edbro Bucket Loader. Public
Cleansing. 58(7).354-356, July 1968.
In compliance with Part 3 of the Civic Amenities Act,
effective July 27, 1968, which obliges local authorities to
provide convenient sites for household refuse, and to dispose
of vehicles abandoned on or near the highway, the Bury
Corporation Cleansing Department in Lancashire has utilized
an Edbro Bucket Loader mounted on a Dennis Paxit V 12-ft
wheelbase chassis. The Edbro hydraulic materials-handling
equipment is being used with 10 buckets as mobile refuse
dumps, and without the buckets to lift and carry derelict
vehicles. The buckets are situated at strategic locations based
on street-sweepers' operating areas, and every householder is
within a mile of a dump. The buckets are emptied when
necessary. Buckets are also being used at the department's
refuse-disposal plant, both as receptacles for articles which
will not go through the separation equipment, and to collect
dust and cinders from the hoppers. This second application
used roller jacks. Buckets will be used in the future for large
household pickups. Other uses of the vehicle and its lifting
equipment are discussed.
680189
Calhoun, F. P. Avoiding pollution from refuse disposal.
Mining Congress Journal, 54(6): 78-80, June 1968.
Refuse piles cause a pollution problem as well as an eyesore
when abandoned. Every refuse pile has its own peculiarities,
and no single formula can be developed for all conditions,
although adhering to a few basic principles will eliminate air
and water pollution problems. A suitable site should be
conveniently located and be able to hold at least 10 years'
production of refuse. How to use the area without causing
pollution should be determined. All vegetation should be
lemoved before covering the area with refuse, maintaining a
cleared area at least 50 ft beyond the refuse. Diversion
ditches to prevent surface runoff water from entering the
refuse must be provided. A trench should be dug along the
lower edge of the area to key the refuse into stable ground
and to prevent slippage of the pile. Refuse should be spread
in layers 2 to 4 ft thick, and should be thoroughly compacted
to avoid the entry of water and air and to prevent
spontaneous combustion. Sides ol the pile that extend above
ground level should be covered with at least 2 ft of top soil.
The sides should be terraced at 10-ft intervals with an 8-ft
flat area and a 35-degree slope between terraces. When a pile
is to be abandoned, the top surface should be covered with 2
to 3 ft of top soil and planted. Vegetation improves
appearance, prevents erosion, and reduces drainage trom the
pile.
680190
Chapman, R. A., and C. J. Rogers. Hydrolysis of municipal
refuse. In Engineering Foundation Research Conference;
Solid Waste Research and Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis.,
July 22-26. I 968. New York. (Conference Preprint No. H-2.)
A spectrophotofluorometric method is being used to
determine the quantities of glucose and furfural produced
from the cellulose in polymeric materials in the presence of
acid, high temperature, and pressure. Four variables will be
considered in optimizing the hydrolysis process, temperature
of the mixture, acid concentration, sample concentration,
and time of reaction. Once the process is optimized using
pure cellulose, mixed samples of paper found in municipal
refuse will be hydrolyzed. Other subjects under investigation
are; utilizing sugars to grow microorganisms for high quality
protein livestock feed and the production of polyesters, and
the utilization of straw and gram hulls to produce iurfurals,
chicken feed, and cattle feed.
68-0191
Corps of Engineers studies alternative dredging waste
disposal. Environmental Science and Technology. 2(3). 169.
Mar. I 968.
Diked disposal areas offer possibilities for the disposal of
polluted harbor dredgings, according to Brigadier General
Robert M. Tarbox, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. At the
recent Lake Michigan Water Pollution Enforcement
Conference, Gen. Tarbox stated thai a 4-year program for the
construction of such areas at the 15 most critically polluted
harbors of the Great Lakes would cost $95.5 million in
construction costs for the dikes, plus an additional annual
cost tor harbor maintenance, according to Corps estimates.
For more than 40 years, the dredged material has been placed
in authorized disposal areas in deep waters of the Great
Lakes. In accord with current U.S. policy, disposal areas for
retaining dikes must be provided at local expense as part of
the local cooperation required for the projects. Eight
localities are presently working with the Corps, and other
possibilities such as disposal in pits and mines arc being
considered.
68-0192
Day and Zimmermann, Inc. Population growth. In Solid
waste disposal report for counties of Manatee and Sarasota,
Florida. Philadelphia, Pa., 1968. p.24-27.
The combined population of both counties is expected to be
323,500 in 1980. This represents a total increase of over \Vi
times the current combined population. The population
centers of both counties are expected to remain in a 5 mile
37
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Disposal
wide strip of land bordering the Gulf of Mexico. This
represents a north-south growth pattern in each county
resulting in a continuous urban corridor stretching from
Palmetto in Manatee County to Englewood in Sarasota
County. No significant changes are expected to result in the
industrial climate for either county prior to 1980. With the
development of a deep-water port at Port Manatee the
industrial picture could change, but this is not anticipated
until alter 1980.
68-0193
Day and Zimmerman, Inc. Solid refuse generation. In Solid
waste disposal report for counties of Manatee and Sarasota,
Florida. Philadelphia, Pa., 1968. p.28-32.
Three basic factors which can affect the amount of solid
refuse generated in an area or community are: geography,
economics, and industrial and manufacturing activity. The
current amount of solid waste generated per capita per year
in Manatee County and Sarasota County is 1,240 Ib and
1,22(1 Ib per capita per year, respectively. The overall
national avetage of refuse produced pet capita is 1,620 Ib per
capita per year. The economic and industrial activity factors
reduce the average quantities generated in the two counties,
while the geographical factor is the only one tending to
increase the average. Practically all of the refuse produced in
each county originates in households, commercial business
establishments, restaurants, or institutions. Tropicana is the
one industry producing a significant amount of solid waste in
Manatee County. Currently, this plant disposes of 240 tons
of solid waste per month in public landfills. To determine the
future solid waste disposal requirements for Manatee and
Sarasota Counties, it is necessary to (breast the population
changes and the per capita refuse production changes. Using a
2 peicent increase and 1,230 Ib per year per capita for 1967,
projections were made of refuse quantities to the year 1980
for Manatee and Sarasota Counties.
680194
Day and Zimmerman, Inc. Proposed solid waste disposal
facilities. In Solid waste disposal report for counties of
Manatee and Sarasota, Mori da. Philadelphia, Pa., 1968.
p.33-68.
The solid waste disposal facilities which were proposed are:
county operated sanitary landfill, incineration, composting,
truck transfer station, private solid waste disposal facility,
disposal of bulky metal items, and shredder installation for
oversize waste. Based on current costs and projected
quantities of solid waste, sanitary landfilling should be
continued in both counties through 1980. It is estimated that
the costs of sanitary landfilling will be $1.85 per ton in each
county. Each county should establish an independent
department within the county government which will have
complete responsibility for all solid waste disposal within the
county. In 1980, the counties should evaluate the desirability
of incineration and composting versus sanitary landfilling. At
that time, it may be necessary to construct truck transfer
stations since likely sanitary landfill sites may be located in
the eastern portions of the county and out of range for
economical compactor truck operation. With the added cost
of a transfer station, it may be desirable to have a
combination of incineration or composting and sanitary
landfilling, or truck transfer stations and sanitary landfilling.
All these alternatives should be reviewed in 1980.
68-0195
Deep well disposal of problem
126(41:148-150, Apr. 1968.
wastes. Factory,
A growing number of industries are using deep well injection
to dispose of wastes which are either too difficult or too
expensive to handle by more conventional techniques.
Efforts to recover useful byproducts or regenerate acids from
steel mill pickle liquors have not been very successful. A
typical deep-well installation is described which goes down to
6,000 ft below the surface into a layer of sandstone and can
handle 100,000 gal per day of highly concentrated wastes. In
one plant, it was estimated that it would cost $32,900 per
month to neutralize acids compared to $5,100 for deep well
disposal. Where recovery of calcium chloride and potassium
chloride salts from brine wastes is not economical, brine has
been injected at 320 to 359 gal per minute under 400 to 450
psi into dolomite and limestone layers 4,000 ft below ground
water sources. Surge ponds handle excess flow. Excess sludge
from activated sludge plants has been thickened and then fed
at 60 gal per minute into two wells at 600 to 2,000 psi. After
4 years, the deep well sludge disposal has cost only
three-quarters of the equipment costs of incineration and half
the operating costs.
68-0196
Deep well injection is effective for waste disposal.
Environmental Science and Technology, 2(6):406410, June
1968.
In the past 4 years, the number of waste injection wells
drilled in the U.S. has more than doubled to about 110. More
than half of these were drilled by chemical, petrochemical, or
pharmaceutical companies for the disposal of organic and
inorganic wastes. At present, injection systems are heavily
concentrated in the north-central and Gulf Coast states where
favorable geology, industrial concentration, and existing
legislation favor subsurface disposal systems. The technology
of injection (based on brine injection) is already highly
developed. At an acrylomtrile-producing plant, the waste
stream was incinerated at an operating cost of $600,000 per
year. Initial costs of a deep-well system will run about
$270,000, and its annual operation about $100,000. In this
case the porous sandstone layer, 3,000 ft below the surface,
offers efficient lateral dispersion. The majority of wells are
less than 6,000 ft deep and some systems have been built for
under $50,000. Most State regulations governing drilling and
deep-well disposal systems are aimed primarily at the
protection of ground water supplies and mineral deposits.
Additional research is required with regard to specific
geological structures.
68-0197
Eight year growth began with 400 customers. Solid Wastes
Management/Refuse Removal Journal, 11 (10):36-37, Oct.
1968.
Some of the unusual problems encountered by one disposal
contractor in Florida are described. Smoldering and burning
38
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0193-0-102
coffee beans, and coffee bean dust are unusual wastes and
drivers collecting them are equipped with tire extinguishers
to prevent their trucks from catching fire. Since there are
strictly enforced regulations against dumping refuse in
Florida's coastal waters, the company provides specially
designed container services to ships when they drop anchor at
Jacksonville. The company's landfill site is so low that as
soon as a hole is dim for the purpose of burying refuse, the
cavity fills to overflowing and must be pumped out at least
once during the dumping operation.
68-0198
Elliot. A. M Subsurface waste disposal problems. Watet and
Sewage Works, 11. ing it.
on a recent tour of refuse incineration plants in Europe The
ultramodern icfuse incineration plant in Munich is also a
power station. In Houston, there was a composting plant
capable of utilizing some 300 tons of garbage each Ja>, but
what little was composted resulted in moie compost than the
market could absorb. The compost was piled into high hills
behind the plant exposed to the sun. Anolhet compost planl,
in Florida, was hailed in 1 year as a tremendous achi^\ ,'nu'nt,
but \vis shut down the nexi year, proving a public nuisamc.
In Georgia, 'in open dump with open burning that prodiK'-d
clouds of black smoke was viewed. In Germany, a practical,
economical, pollution-free, odor-free answer to San
Francisco's recurring crisis in refuse disposal was found. In
West Beihn, a modern structure housing a steam-production
and cinder block-making plant is fueled b> the ivn>,<_ ot 1.1
million Vvest Berlmers. sonic 2,0(M, urn-, e, ch u,i\.
Reclamation of JI.HVCI for heal and light and p, dm-iion ot
bricks to be used in reconstructing the city indicates the
completeness of refuse utilization. Uuesseidorl, .. modern
city experiencing a great regeneration Irom the destiuction of
the War, also has a lefuse plant tor the production of
electrical povvei.
68-0201
Experts see spy-proof "waste basket". Waste Trade Journal,
64(38).8, Sept 28, 1968.
Spy-piooi discard oi industrial and business documents is
guaranteed by a high-capacity 'wet wastebaskct'. The Wascon
machine consists of a steel tank, nearly filled with water,
with steel blades around a run near the bottom, and a steel
disk imbedded with jagged carbide teeth. All material is
destroyed by pulverization while the water dissolves the ink.
A water press squeezes about 45 percent of the water out,
and the resulting semidry pulp is dischaiged into a disposal
receptacle.
68-0199
I'.nviioninental engineering stars at A.SCE Chattanooga
meeting. Civil Engineering, 38 (6) 44-51, June 1968.
The American Society of Civil Engineers National Meeting on
Environmental Engineering, held in May 1968, is reported.
Several solid waste disposal topics were discussed. In tases
where TVA power plants obtain their coal from strip mines,
TVA now requires reclamation of spent mines. The Water
and Waste-Water Technical School at Neosho, Missouri has
tiair.ed more than 2.000 people since I960. \ second school
is to soon be opened in Middle town, Pennsylvania. Cornell
University representatives reported on problems in handling
animal wastes. A hill was constructed using municipal refuse-
in the city of Virginia Beach, its sides will form an
amphitheater tor theater events and a soap box derbv hill,
while the top will be used for parking.
68-0200
Ertola, J. A. Garbage power. San f rancisco Business,
3(48) 52-58, Aug. 1, 1968.
The president of San Francisco's Board of Supervisors
recounts experiences of a group of civic and business leaders
68-0202
Fales, E. D, Jr. Yom community, is it a s'lant . teibug'1
American Home, 17(2): 16, 18, 19, Mar. 1968
Today's inciedible volume of packaging increases the serious
dump problems of nearly every American community. In a
few years, the average family will toss out 60 pounds of
waste daily. Numerous existing methods ot disposal aie
highly unsatisfactory. Until recently, San Francisco garbage
had been dumped into its bay at Brisbane, California. In
Boston, the Atlantic Ocean has been considered k" refuse
disposal. Westehester, New York, proposed hauiint! its trash
away by a midnight train, and dumping it at some distant
location. Not only have the lands and waters become
polluted, but the sky also. Ordinary burning cut', waste
volume in half, but adds smoke, fumes, and dust 'o the air.
More satisfactory solutions might be extra-hot incineration,
sanitary landfills in dry areas, composting and salvage, and
pounding and grinding to convert refuse into a new kind of
soil. New ideas for refuse collection include disposable trash
bags and waste pipes which would flush away household
garbage. Though each of these methods has its
diawbacks predominantly in cost — they all may
contribute to solving the tremendous solid waste problem in
America.
39
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Disposal
68-0203
Floyd, E. P., and N. S. Ulmer. Methods for the physical and
chemical characterization of solid wastes. In Engineering
Foundation Research Conference; Solid Waste Research and
Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26, 1968. New
York. (Conference Preprint No. H-6.)
A project was initiated under the Solid Wastes Program, U.S.
Public Health Service, to determine, recommend, and publish
analytical methods which can be employed to measure
satisfactorily the physical and chemical parameters of solid
wastes. Research efforts have been concentrated on
procedures for the determination of five chemical
constituents of solid wastes. Oven-drying, freeze-drying, and
extraction-drying procedures have been compared, and a
modified combustion furnace and absorption train are now
being evaluated to determine their applicability in the
gravimetric determination of carbon and hydrogen in refuse.
The Coleman Nitrogen Analyzer technique and several
digestion-distillation procedures are being investigated in
relation to determination of total nitrogen. Various
modifications of the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
method are being employed in determining the BOD of
incinerator quench water.
68-0206
Freed, V. H., R. R. Groner, and J. F. Harbour. Chemical
transformation of solid waste. In Engineering Foundation
Research Conference; Solid Waste Research and
Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26, 1968. New
York. (Conference Preprint No. H-4.)
Chemical transformation is being evaluated as a potentially
useful means of treating solid wastes in order to reduce bulk,
produce useful products, and reduce air and water pollution.
The general composition of straw, bark dust, and composted
municipal refuse is reported in tabular form. The utilization
of the components found in these solid wastes (cellulose,
metals, glass, lignins, and animal and vegetable matter) may
require separation by solvent extraction, hydrolysis,
distillation, or degradation. A list of potential applications
for extracted cellulose is presented. Straw, paper, and other
wastes have been subjected to treatment with urea,
phosphoric acid, and potassium salts to raise the
concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
Straw, paper, and bark dust have been subjected to
high-pressure hydrogenation to obtain a hydrocarbon oil.
Cellulose has been extracted from straw, bark dust, and
compost through the formation of cellulose xanthate.
68-0204
Floyd, E. P., and N. S Ulmer. The sampling and preparation
of solid wastes for analysis. In Engineering Foundation
Research Conference; Solid Waste Research and
Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26, 1968. New
York. (Conference Preprint No. H-5.)
A research project was initiated by the Solid Wastes Program,
U.S. Public Health Service, to define the variables affecting
the character of both the total solid wastes and the sample
selected for analysis. Another objective was to develop,
evaluate, and establish techniques, instruments, and
equipment for the selection, collection, handling,
preservation, storage, shipment, and preparation of samples
of all types of refuse before, during, and after processing.
Processing may be by incineration, sanitary landfill, or
composting. To facilitate the removal of water from refuse,
compost, and incinerator residue prior to particle size
reduction or additional analyses, oven-drying, freeze-drying,
and extraction-drying procedures have been investigated. A
Sears Compost Grinder, a Wiley Mill, a W-W Hammermill, and
a meat grinder have been employed to grind various solid
waste samples, while mixers and homogenizers have been
utilized in an effort to increase sample homogeneity.
68-0205
For solid wastes: squeeze and package. Chemical Week,
102(14):55,Apr. 6, 1968.
It is reported that if a 3000-ton Japanese refuse processing
press is utilized, there is no need to sort waste, there is no
need to incinerate, waste is compacted into sealed blocks,
and the aerobic and anaerobic bacteria sealed into the blocks
are eventually killed, thus eliminating a health hazard. The
process involves three basic steps: compression, asphalting,
and packing. The blocks can be used for ocean dumping,
landfill, and for such construction as building foundations,
shore protection, and flood prevention works.
68-0207
Freestone, A. Environmental sanitation on Indian reserves.
Canadian Journal of Public Health, 59(l):25-27, Jan. 1968.
The environmental problems of 83 reserves with 31,000
people in Saskatchewan, Canada, are described. The
sanitation program of the Department of Indian and
Northern Health Services, Canada, included health education
workshops. Water systems have been completed or are under
construction. Garbage disposal clean-up campaigns were
organized and promoted. A few waste disposal grounds have
been established, usually of a landfill type. Only one village
has organized garbage pickup.
68-0208
Garbage: rosy new future as raw material. Chemical
Engineering, 75(9):82-84, Apr. 23, 1968.
Current solid waste disposal technology is reviewed and the
steadily increasing tonnage of disposable solid waste in the
United States is stressed. The per capita discharge of solid
wastes has grown in the past 35 years (1930-1965) from 2.2
to 4.5 Ib per day, with 30 million tons of paper, 4 million
tons of plastic, 48 billion cans, and 26 billion bottles thrown
away in a typical year. Several new attempts at a solution of
the disposal problem are enumerated. They include: the
concept of compressing garbage into building blocks
developed in Japan, the conversion of wastes into a fibrous
mass extrusion into combustible fuel blocks (planned by the
Eriez Mfg. Co.), and the construction of a ski slope from
compacted garbage near Chicago. Improvements in
conventional ways of solid waste disposal are also mentioned.
Open burning is now prohibited in landfill operations;
instead, wastes to be disposed are covered daily with a layer
of clean earth. Attempts to reduce the costs of waste
transportation, estimated at 75 percent of the total handling
expenses, are being undertaken by the American Public
Works Association in Chicago and the University of
40
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0203-0214
Pennsylvania. The university is studying the feasibility of
running a liquid slurry of solid waste through a pipeline.
Other problems under study are the disposal of junked cars
and packaging materials.
68-0209
Garbage situation alarming, say experts. Clean Air News.
2(6):7-10, Feb. 27, 1968.
New York City produces 7 million tons per year of refuse
and the average American is responsible for 4.5 Ib per day of
trash. Solutions offered include: compressing garbage into
bricks used for landfill or building material, composting
refuse into fertile humus for crops, and transporting trash to
abandoned mining cavities. Disposable items which are not
destructible, and incinerators which spew tons of soot into
the air are serious problems. Sanitary landfill has consumed
nearly all the accessible open acreage around major
cities—New York City's landfill program uses up 200 acres
of swampy lowland per year. According to some planners,
crushing of wastes with a compacting device, and then rail
hauling to rural areas would have many benefits. The
ultimate solution for garbage would be its conversion into
something useful.
68-0210
Godin, P.. and ]. Belko. A new approach to cage waste
disposal in a canine laboratory. Laboratory Animal Care,
18(3)'401-404, June 1968.
A dog cage is described which has been in use 3 years,
housing 25 animals in a small area, yet meeting all the
requirements for good animal care. The cages are
custom-installed prefabricated fiber glass, featuring a central
dram that ties into existing public sewer lines. The cage
drains through a 2-in. plastic pipe into a 3-in. soil line, which
drops into an indirect waste system to a 4-in. soil trap An
automatic flush system connected to the drain lines reduces
both odors and labor. This is controlled by a day-mght timing
device. The labor involved in cage cleaning has been
decreased by half The general condition of the dogs has
improved, and the number of parasites has diminished.
Moisture resulting from evaporation has been minimal. Some
of the advantages of a center drain cage design are: the depth
of each battery is less than 3 ft, permitting a greater number
of cages in the installation; waste is easily washed into the
cage dram without moving the dog if further cleaning is
necessary, and the plumbing fixtures are easily serviced
through the front panels.
68-0211
Golueke, C. G., and S. A. Klein. Treating combined liquid
and solid wastes. Presented at 1968 Conference of California
Water Pollution Control Association, Santa Rosa, Apr. 24-25,
1968. 15 p.
The traditional distinction between solid and liquid wastes in
the classification of material and the method of treatment is
increasingly difficult to maintain Some factors contnbutmg
to this loss of distinction are trends toward regional
jurisdiction, industrialization of production ot animals for
slaughter and animal products, change from automotive to
pipe transport, and the processing of wastes to reclaim
resource materials. Four methods, anaerobic digestion, wet
oxidation, biological fractionation, and photosynthetic
reclamation, can be used in treating aqueous suspensions of
the organic fraction of wastes Research and practical
experience demonstrate that the addition of the garbage
fraction of solid wastes imposes no need to alter present
anaerobic digestion practices. Research on the use of wet
oxidation, biological fractionation, and photosynthetic
reclamation in treating aqueous suspensions of solid wastes is
in preliminary stages. However, these systems can probably
be successfully applied to solid wastes to produce useful
materials as part of the treatment process.
68-0212
Hamburg, F C. Economically feasible alternatives to open
burning in railroad freight car dismantling. Paper 68-179.
Presented at Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control
Association, St. Paul, Minn., June 24-27, 1968. 25 p.
A study was performed under contract with the Solid Wastes
Program, Public Health Program to determine methods of
railroad car dismantling in which pollutant emissions could
be reduced to acceptable levels or eliminated entirely. Eight
criteria and eleven candidate methods were evaluated by
application of a forced decision model. The two highest
scoring methods were: emission-controlled wood incineration
within the confines of each car b) means of a special st.-ck or
hood configuration; and the use of high-pressure waier jers to
cut away the wood. The water jet method holds piomise of
wide applicability to the cutting, penetration, fragmentation,
and disposal of solid material. These methods have been
demonstrated in principle by actual field tests performed on
box cars in scrap yards.
68-0213
Hoffman, D. A., and R. A. Fitz. Pyre'ysis of solid municipal
waste. In Engineering Foundation Research Conterence,
Solid Waste Research and Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis.,
July 22-26, 1968. New York. (Conference Preprint No. C-1.1
The feasibility of pyrolysis as an economic method of
decreasing the volume of solid municipal waste was
investigated. First the composition of 'typical refuse' from
San Diego's three sanitary landfills was determined. It was
found that about 50 percent of the material was construction
debris and fill dirt. The average composition of the balance of
the waste is tabulated. Pyrolysis investigations were made
using the 'typical refuse' samples (without glass and rnetal) at
four temperatures. The products of the pyrolysis weie gases,
pyrohgneous acids, and residual char. The evolved gases were
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, hydrogen,
ethane, and ethylene. Data indicate that a p> rolysis operation
using the combustible portion of San Diego solid waste will.
once raised to the chosen opeiatmg temperature, sustain
itself by the energy derived from the incineration of its own
products.
68-0214
Iglehart, C C Municipal trial-and-ciror decisions called
appalling Solid Wastes Management/Refuse Removal
Journal, 11( 101.48, 64, Oct. 1968.
Lack of public interest in solid wastes disposal has resulted in
trial and enor methods being applied to disposal pioblems,
-------
Disposal
with resulting waste ot money. Rural Kentucky dumps refuse
along the roadside, but the small political subdivisions lack
the resources (o support acceptable disposal operations 1 he
Kentucky Slate Department of Health has attempted to cope
with the above problems bv establishing a full-time planning
agency within the Division ot [• nvironmental Health for all
solid waste activities. Aftei June 13, 1968. permits will be
lequired for the construction, operation, or maintenance of a
new solid waste disposal site or facility or for !he transfer ot
an old one. It will now also be possible to lorm refuse
disposal districts through action by the couits
68-0215
IiiL'ram, \\ T . and I( P I'r.meia. Investigation of existing
disposal facilities _In Quad-city solid wastes project; an interim
report June 1, 1966 to May 31, 1967 Cincinnati, U.S.
Department of Health. Ktucation. and Welfare, 1968
P 6(1-10).
Pnvafe landfills presently in use for disposal of solid wastes
collected in the Quad-city area were investigated as to
opcr.mou and tost. All are located in the New ,leise\
meadow lands with the exception ot one which is located in
an area known as the Great Piece Meadows-Hatfield Swamp.
Gas and smoke, differential settlement, underground and
abov>-r.round fires, poor access load maintenance, and dust
geii.'i.iti'jr uere among problems noticed. Cos! vaned from
fpn.vjnalely >1 50 to N4 01) pel ton. Increasing social and
gov eminent pressure upon these operations makes
incineration more attractive Six plants were examined and
visiu'd and extensive technical, constinotion, and operating
costs data were obtained Construction costs varied from
S2.600 to SI 0,000 pei ton pei day A suitable plant toi
Quad-city is estimated to cost about S8.000 per ton pei da).
exclusive ol land and elaborate an cleaning facilities
Composting, including the Dano system, the Rasping system.
'!!-• \ an Maaneu System, and the Hammermili System, was
examined Ihiough mteiviews with five companies Costs for a
300 ton pei day plant were estimated at S5 to S6 per ton of
piocessc-d maierial Grinding, salvaging, compaction,
shredding, and combination shiedders, and composting \\eie
considered to be only paitial solutions. High-temperatnre
combustion, using (he Melt-Zit system, v\as estimated to save
an opeialmg cost of $3.30 to S3 40 per ton ot processed
material Rail haul and sanitary landfill to areas distant from
the ptoJucing area Mate a tentative operatnm cos! ot'S} to S5
per ton from ti.mslci station to final disposal
68-0216
The Institution's evidence to the Working Party on Refuse
Disposal. Journal ol the Institution of Municipal Engineers,
951 i) 77-78, Mai 1968
The statements of the Institution on the subject ot refuse
disposal aic reprinted. Disposal plans must be drawn with the
knowledge of town and eountr> planning requirements, and
the possible link-up with sewage disposal must be given
serious consideration. Land reclamation and otlu"
engineering works must be carried out on sound principles
Refuse disposal must be organized: Joint 01 regional schemes
.ire to be encouraged Oil-site reduction ot refuse should be
encouraged, i c home incinerators, and garbage disposals.
Reduction in bulk of refuse, through maceration and
compression, should be encouraged Incmeiation may result
m expensive hauling of refuse, but should be considered
because it both reduces the bulk and improves the qualities
ot leluse and can further provide municipal power. Tipping
should he continued, where possible, keeping in mind the
possibilities of land reilamation. Materials lending themselves
to icclamation and salvage should be salvaged where possible,
and the economics of fertilizei pioduction trom refuse
should be considered. Some dcsvee ot stand,ir ii'.itic-i >t
lefuse plants might p,-nve ijsetul liom 'he point ot view ot
paits and training ol opeiators Research and information in
the field will be ol the gieatest value to the authorities
Liaison with ci,mmirvt\ services and industtial coiKeins
must be encouraged and expanded
68-0217
International work group loi waste research Gas und
Wasserfach. Wasser. Abwasser. 109(10) 261. Mar. 1968
The international work group for waste research (IAM),
Zuerich, Swit/erland, issued a leaflet. No. 31, in December
1967. I he leaflet contains artides on "The Blood Forming
tftecl of Composted Waste on Young Pies,' by V. Teensma,
'Method for the Planning and Preparatory Work in the
Construction ot Plants to Utilize Household Wastes,' by G
Sundhoff. 'What is the Capacity of a Waste Incinerator Plant'?'
by Wuhrmann: and 'Accumulation and Elimination of Oily
Waste,' bv R. Bopp. die leaflet was issued by the secretariat
ot the IAM E>i Rudolf Brjun, Eig. Anstalt hier
Wasserversorgung, Abwasserremigung und Gewaesserschutz.
CH-8044 Zuerich. Phvsikstrasse 5. (Text in Geiman)
680218
Kennedy. J. C. Cunenf concepts in the disposal of solid
wastes. Journal of Environmental Health, 3H2;:149-l53,
Sept -Oci , I 968
Reduction oi degrading wastes inlc forms which are least
offensive to the environment is accomplished by mechanical
processes such as samtaiv landfill; thermal reduction such as
pyrolysis, biological reduction such as composting; and
chemical reduction. Synthesis of waste material involves an
operation which makes the waste of value to the economic
community, mechanical, thermal, biological, and chemical
methods are used to accomplish this In reduction processes,
the .ispect ol quantity is dominant, to satisfy both spaeial
and public health leqtiirements, whereas m synthesis
techniques, the qualitative aspects are more important as
both market factors and public health requirements must be
considered. The chosen techniques are evaluated through
consideration of various operational indices. The basic indices
are weight. \,>iuvnc, tun •. an 1 cost These indices aie
discussed biietiy and then use in obtaining insights into
operation of a s\ stem, and in comparing sv steins, is stressed.
Much icscarch is needed to tin'her identify and establish
these operational indices so that a more positive relationship
with the natural envnonment may be obtained.
68-0219
Keunc, H. Pollution of the sea. Chemie-lngenieur-Teehnik.
40(6) A263-A267. Mai 1968
In the fall of 1967. two international symposia were held at
which the pollution of the sea by waste watei. sludge, and
-------
0215-0223
solid wastes from municipalities and mdustnes was discussed.
The first symposium was held between September 19 and 22,
1967 in Helgoland, The papers dealt with the mam sources of
the pollution, with processes which modify the distribution
and composition of the pollutants, with the consequences of
the pollution, and with local aspects. From what was said it
became clear that there is no research going on to discover
the effects of the waste material on marine life. At present all
kinds of waste go into the North Sea. e.g. domestic and
industrial wastes, hot waste water, oil, radioactive wastes, etc
Waste material in containers may only he dumped into the
deep sea. Solid wastes dumped into coastal waters must be
soluble, or if the\ are insoluble, they must be fine ground
and must have a specific weight ot more than 1.2. [n
addition, they must not impair biological piocesses. Sludge is
dumped in great amounts into the North Sea. It is shipped
from Germany and Great Britain in special boats. At the end
ot" the symposium it was asked that the Northwest fc'uropean
Sea Board issue a list of waste materials which are most
dangerous to marine life, and prohibit their dumping into the
sea. The second international symposium dealt mainly with
protecting the seaeoasts from pollution, and it was held
m Hamburg The effects ot waste on the sea cannot be
exactly determined. No criteria for toleiance limits can be
given. It is possible that bactena contained in domestic \\astc
can be ingested by sea fauna and, thiough them as
intermediate hosts, become a source of infection for the
population. Organic substances in the waste also destroy
fauna in lagoons and river outlets. (Text in German)
68-0220
Mackintosh, G. R. Efficient disposal of kitchen waste. New
Zealand Journal of Agriculture, 1 1 7(l):56-59, July 1968.
Aftei the Waikato Hospital Board studied its garbage disposal
system, it was decided that mechanical grinding and sewerage
disposal could have disadvantages which outweighed their
advantages. Several costly machines and additional plumbing
would be required in addition to expensive maintenance. Of
most concern, however, was the waste of good pig feed. The
collection room facilities at the hospital are described. Each
of the hospital's three kitchens has a garbage collection room
where converted 20-gal milk cans with attached lids are
placed on mobile, three-wheeled trolleys and wheeled, when
full Each evening the full cans arc removed and a clean can is
placed on each trolley by the contractor The advantages of
this hygienic, labor-savinii, and noiseless system are' no labor
or transport expenses in conveying food wastes to central
collection points, no need for labor, or large quantities of
boiling water and facilities formerly required to clean empty
containers, no purchase of containers or frequent repair
expenses, and no smells, or flies. Food w-aste is not stored in
kitchens overnight, and stands tor pig food are eliminated as
is spillage resulting from tipping ot waste from small drums
to large containers. 1 10111 the contractor's point ol view, the
food waste is received m bettei condition and a greater
proportion of the waste is made available for pood pig food
68-0221
Mechanization is key to low-cost tree removal Public Works,
99(1) 104-105, Jan 1968.
A tW'O-man tree removal operation, which utih/es a
truck-mounted, 5-ton telescoping crane, chain saws, a 12-in
brush chippei. and a chip truck is described An 85-tt dec
can be removed in 1 hr. including chipping the branches on
limbs too big to be run through the chipper, and raking the
aiea. Use ot the cuine, a Pitman H\dra-Liti, allows lemoval
ot large sections ot trees nr one cut The Pitman ttood.'Chiii-k
brush chipper reduces branches to onc-tifteenth of then
original volume and deposits (hem in a (jrpaulm-co\ ercd chip
truck It is estimated that the diipper 'inmniiAs haulage
costs. In the future, the chips max be sold instead t><
dumped
68-0222
Merz, R C . and R. Stone. Quantitative study of gas
produced by decomposing refuse Public Works,
99(1 1) 86-87, Nov. 1968
The gas produced by a fixed amount of refuse was measured
by use of a 10,000-gal undergiound. sealed,
refuse-containing, storage truck constructed of \'r\\\ A-36
steel, and equipped with thermistors and with perforated
piping at top, bottom, and mid-depth to measure the evolved
gasses. Temperature trends ovei a period of 750 dav- ,md gas
production of the decomposing refuse aie shown. Gas
production for the first month was 39.3 cu ft. However, by
the end of the second month, all gas production ceased.
Temperatures within the tank were also found to be
decreasing. On the 62nd day, 450 gal of water were added
The water did not result in an increase of gas production or a
temperature rise, and a vacuum was produced The 230th dav
saw a resumption of gas production and by the 250th day gas
production amounted to 42 cu ft. In the ensuing 300 days,
there was a uniform rate of gas production resulting in a total
of 2,025 cu ft. Although the internal temperatuie did
decrease over a 100-day period, the temperature range of 120
to 105 F was favorable for bacterial activity, as represented
by the constant rate ot gas production.
68-0223
Metcalf & Eddy, Engineers-Planners. Recommended refuse
disposal plan. Norwich, Southeastern Connecticut Regional
Planning Agency, Feb. 1968 114 p
Refuse disposal practices m the Southeastern Connecticut
Region were studies, and recommendations were made for a
refuse disposal plan. Private, contract, and municipal facilities
were surveyed. Present methods ot municipal disposal include
dumping, sanitary landfill, and in one case, incineration. In
addition to domestic refuse quantities, industrial and
commercial waste, junk automobiles, sewage sludge, and fly
ash quantities were determined and projections were made of
future waste generation. Average annual costs for operating
refuse systems were compared. Standards for refuse disposal
were recommended. Facilities were categorized as to whether
they should be abandoned, improved, or continued to 1990
in their present condition. F'our alternative plans loi refuse
disposal were identified The adoption of a subregional plan
which involves central incineration and a subregional sanitary
landfill was recommended The Connecticut Public Health
Code Requirements Concerning Disposal of Refuse and basic
cost data used in the analysis of alternative plans arc
appended.
43
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Disposal
68-0224
Met calf & Eddy, Engineers-Planners Existing refuse
situation; definitions and available refuse disposal methods.
In Recommended refuse disposal plan Norwich,
Southeastern Connecticut Regional Planning Agency, Feb.
1968. p 9-1 7.
Several terms, whose meanings are a prerequisite to
understanding the refuse disposal plan, are defined. Scientific
and technical advances have resulted in only three available
and satisfactory methods for general refuse disposal These
methods are samlaiy landfill, composting, and incineration.
An important consideration is that cover material is not
available on-site at many otherwise suitable landfill locations.
Dumpin" space required for sanitary landfill is several times
that needed for the disposal of incinerator residue and
noneombustibles. If not sold, composting residue must be
given away or disposed of as landfill. The final product
amounts to about 50 percent of the raw refuse by volume.
Disposal of refuse by composting is no! recommended for
southeastern Connecticut. The major disadvantage of
incineration is cost Assuming the disposal of bulky wastes
directly at the landfill site without prior incineration, any
given disposal area would last three to four times as long with
the incineration disposal method as it would with sanitary
landfill. Special disposal methods discussed included garbage
grinding, on-site incineration, hog feeding, shredding, salvage,
and dumping at sea
68-0225
Metcalf & l-ddy, Engineers-Planners Existing refuse
situation, status of refuse planning, an inventory of present
refuse collection and disposal practices, in Recommended
refuse disposal plan. Norwich, Southeastern Connecticut
Regional Planning Agency. Feb. 1968 p 18-46.
The 17 municipalities in the southeastern Connecticut region
have been typically inactive in refuse planning, especially
long-range planning. Only New London, North Stomnpton,
and Groton have determined long-range disposal needs and
have developed the plans to take care of the problem on a
town basis. Refuse disposal facilities were grouped according
to the basis for their service into three classifications,
municipal facilities, contract facilities, and private facilities
The municipal refuse disposal facilities in the region are
described in terms of their type, ownership, service area, site
characteristics, land use, zoning, quantity of refuse, and kinds
of refuse handled. Four contract disposal facilities are
described and 'heir locations are indicated The most recent
operating cost data for the vanous towns and collection
districts in southeastern Connecticut are listed. The factors
which have significantly affected operating costs for refuse
disposal arc the following' type of disposal facility, source of
cover material, facility operation and control, and types
refuse accepted Special waste problems were classified as
follows industrial and institutional—hazardous and
nonhazardous. junk vehicles, sewage solids, and special wastes
such as fh ash
680226
Metcalf & Eddy, Engineers-Planners Existing refuse
situation. Estimated future refuse disposal requirements. In
Recommended refuse disposal plan. Norwich, Southeastern
Connecticut Regional Planning Agency, Feb. 1968 p 47-54
The estimates of future quantities to be handled by
municipal facilities are projections of the quantities based on
population projections for the set vice areas, future
commercial and industrial growth, and the estimated effect
of contractor and private disposal facilities. The year-round
and seasonal populations by towns for 1966 were estimated
and then projected tor the years 1980 to 1990 Based on the
regional development plan for southeastern Connecticut, a
major regional industrial area is proposed for the industrial
triangle around Waterford. Norwich, New London, and
Groton have been identified as subregional commercial
centers to serve the legional population in the yeai 200(1.
Increases ranging from 1.1 to 1.6 times the present per capita
refuse quantities are estimated lor the years 1980 to 1990
The cunent rate of junk car production is one car pei year
for every 25 7 people. By 1980 and 1990, there will be one-
car for every 18 and 16 persons, respectively. By 1990,
the projected rate of production of sewage solids is estimated
at 0.30 Ib per capita per day.
68-0227
Metcalf & Eddy, Engineers-Planners Existing refuse
situation. Adequacy of existing disposal methods and
locations for present and future use In Recommended refuse
disposal plan. Norwich, Southeastern Connecticut Regional
Planning Agency. Feb. 1968. p.54-70
Recommended standards for general refuse disposal methods
in southeastern Connecticut are presented. Municipal
tacihties arc presently used to dispose of approximately 86
percent of all reluse produced in the area With the exception
of the New London incinerator, the method of disposal for
all municipally disposed tetuse is some form of
dumping -either sanitary landfill, modified sanitary landfill.
or open dumping. Each facility was evaluated according to
the relationship between the cumulative volume of material
covered and the available space, its location with respect to
existing land use, and whether the present method of disposal
is acceptable. The facilities were grouped under the following
categories sites recommended for abandonment by 1970,
1980, or 1990, sites suitable for continued use through 1990
with moderate corrections in disposal methods; and sites
suitable for continued use through 1990. Based on design
capacity and predicted future refuse quantities, the New
London incinerator was judged capable of meeting needs
through 1990. It was concluded that all the existing contract
facilities can continue in use with proper corrective measures.
68-0228
Metcalf & Fdd>, Engineers-Planners. Recommended refuse
disposal plan. Alternative refuse disposal plans. In
Recommended refuse disposal plan Norwich, Southeastern
Connecticut Regional Planning Agency, Feb. 1968. p.72-93.
In studying solutions for southeastern Connecticut regional
refuse problems, four general faclors have been considered'
availability of suitable sues, including land use
considerations, political implications, costs, and flexibility of
solutions. Sites must be in an area designated for either
industrial or very low density land use A 50 percent safety
factor in size is applied for long-range land area requirements.
The preservation of water resources, natural resources, and
natural features must be considered. Three possible
44
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0224-0233
alternative plans were studied They are designated as
follows. Total Regional Plan, Subregional Plan, and
Individual Municipal Plan. The first plan places the service of
the entire region under the control of a single solid waste
disposal authority. The Subregional Plan considers central
incineration only or central incineration with subregional
sanitary landfills. The Municipal Plan is based on the
responsibility for disposal service remaining with each
individual municipality. A cost comparison for the various
alternative plans is presented With respect to average annual
costs the Subregional Plan with central incineration and
sanitary landfills is the most favorable. The plans were also
compared with respect to the available sites, transfer stations,
timing, and the size of towns.
68-0229
Michaels, A In 1978. Solid Wastes Management/ Refuse
Removal Journal. 11(1) 79. 94, Jan 1968.
Between 1939 and 1963. production of paper products rose
from 1 3 million tons to 39 million tons, while the percentage
of waste paper used in paper production has diminished from
over 30 percent in 1939 to under 20 percent in 1967. thus
greatly contributing to the problem ot disposing solid wastes.
The National Research Council of the National Academy of
Sciences estimates that current daily refuse disposal amounts
to 4.5 Ib per capita, and will rise at the rate of 2 percent per
year. This implies that the corresponding 1978 level will be
approximately 5.7 Ib per person per day. The composition of
solid wastes has likewise changed. The percentages of food
wastes and household ashes have decreased, while the
percentages of glass and metal have risen. It would appear
reasonable to assume that household ashes will continue to
decline and may be insignificant as a component of refuse by
1978. Paper waste is expected to maintain its current relative
position or even to increase it. Plastic wastes may mciease.
The shift in population from rural lo urban areas is
continuing, and 75 percent of the population will be urban
by 1978. Thus the concentrations of refuse \vill inciua.se,
while the land available for refuse disposal in urban areas \\ill
decline. The manner in \\hich the problem of wastes disposal
will be handled in the future will depend on such factors as
public concern, technology, and governmental actions.
68-0230
Muhich, A J . A. J. Klee, and P. W. Bntton. Preliminary data
analysis; 1968 National survey of community solid waste
practices Public Health Service Publication No 1867
Washington. U S. Government Printing Office, 1968 483 p.
Due to provisions of the Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965,
the Solid Wastes Program of the Public Health Service has
undertaken a nationwide survey of solid waste disposal
practices and problems. The survey is being conducted in
conjunction \\ith a State and interstate planning grant
program. Data from thirty States and the District of
Columbia received before July 1, 1968, are included in this
publication Information from three additional States
partially surveyed by Solid Wastes Program personnel is also
presented. The publication gives basic statistical summaries of
the national survey data. It not only reports on community
practices, but it assesses disposal sites and facilities as well.
National analyses are presented for community data and land
disposal sites and facilities, regional analyses are given loi the
community data and the land disposal sites In addition, an
urban-rural comparison is provided tor the community data
A separate analysis for incinerators is given. Attributive and
continuous types of response are discussed 'Sample size' and
'percent response1 are given for both types. Attributive
response applies when an answer can be placed in a limited
numbet of categories, e.g.. 'Yes' or 'No', 'regulations
enforced', 'no regulations', or 'regulations not enlorced'. '[he
continuous response, dealing with quantitative data, is
treated somewhat differently Such data applies when an
ans\\ei is a count or measur'nieiii Inumbo ol animals,
estimate in yards, etc.) and is siimmaii/ed as 'total," 'mean,'
'standard deviation,' '1967 population responding.' and 'mean
per thousand
68-0231
New method of bagasse disposal at Mhlume factory. South
African Sugar Journal. 52(7) 619. July 1968.
The Mhlume (Swaziland) Sugar Company's mill sutleied
from a Unge surplus of bagasse, the disposal of which finally
became extremely expensive. After extensive studies, a Rees
Burner was adapted to burn bagasse at a rate of some 8 to 10
tons per hr. Since the beginning of the present sugar crop,
this burner has been in continuous operation and has
successfully burned the entire sinplus of bagasse. Operating
costs arc limited to the pay ot two unskilled workers plus the
cost of power required for two 25 hp tan motois. The
bagasse is being burned completely and even alter seven
weeks of operation, il has not yet been necessary to lemove
any ash. There are also no smoke problems.
68 0232
Nomvovens are latest wave in the disposables sea Modern
Hospital. II 1(4). I 36, 138, Oet 1968.
Disposable patient bedding and apparel have been adopted in
both special and routine applications in main hospitals.
Theda Claik Memorial Hospital in Neenah. Wisconsin, has a
large modern incinerator only 60 tt from 'he laundry sorting
room, where nonwoven fabrics are separated from
conventional linens. Roosevelt Memorial Hospital in Chicago
has an unsatisfactory incmeratoi which might be
supplemented or replaced with a haul-away nash disposal
process Geneial Hospital in Ponliac. Michigan, expects u> use
a grinder plus a haul-away system to dispose ol nonwoven
sheets, pillow cases, and gowns
68-0233
Per capita waste geneiation near 35 pounds a day. Chemical &
Engineering News, 46(4):16, Jan 22. 1968.
Solid waste generation is now nearly 35 Ib per capita per day,
including 2.5 Ib of domestic, commeicial/mdustnal. and
demolition wastes, 8 Ib ot vegetable wastes (mainly from
agriculture and canning), and 19.5 Ib of animal wastes. To
handle these wastes, numerous techniques are applied, none
of which is completely satisfactory. New ways to handle solid
wastes are being sought, including various kinds of slurries
and suspensions, composting, and possible conversion of
paper to protein. Landfill is often a solution (o dispose of
45
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Disposal
solid wastes, and incineration gives the largest reduction in
volume (50-70 1) but can lead to air and water pollution
problems. The Louisiana delta country where the water table
is near the surface presents a special problem, and the
Louisiana Gulf Research Institute, affiliated with 26
universities in the State, and with the backing of civic
organizations and major industries, is currently engaged in a
Louisiana-wide environmental research program to solve
pollution problems. The program includes developing a
master plan which \\ill be modified almost continuously.
68-0234
Pollution-control system destroys underground-storage waste
products. Gas Age. 135(1 l):15-19, Nov. 1968.
The problem of how to dispose of liquid waste (70" water
and 30r,? hydrocarbon-mercaptan) from underground gas
withdrawal operations has been solved by the use of a
high-temperature chemistry process in a pyro-decomposition
system. Originally, the waste was collected and dumped into
an open, dish-shaped excavation and set afire. The odor was
offensive and the plumes ot smoke could be seen for miles.
The pyro-decomposition system consists of a heavily
insulated, refractory-lined stack, a burner assembly, a blower,
a pumping system, and suitable piping, valves, and controls.
The fine dispersion of waste combustibles and high operating
temperature (2,400 F) combine to make atomization and
ignition almost simultaneous. lomzation takes place in the
upper area of the stack ensuring controlled, pollution-free
emission from the top of the slack.
680235
Proceedings, Third Annual Meeting, Institute for Solid
Wastes, Miami Beach, Oct 22-24, 1968. Chicago, American
Public Works Association. 96 p.
The technical papers presented at the meeting covered such
topics as: the system design approach to solid waste
management, personnel accident prevention; development of
public acceptance for site acquisition; the National Solid
wastes Survey; one-man operated collection vehicles; rail haul
of solid wastes, and street sweeping as a means of controlling
water pollution. Also included are: a report to the
membership, a list of committees and their members,
membership lists, and the by-laws of the Institute for Solid
Wastes.
68-0236
Rasch, R Common disposal of communal and industrial
wastes. Energie, 20(4).112-114, Apr. 1968.
The disposal of communal and industrial wastes is one of the
most pressing problems of today. At present, sanitary landfill
is the most widely used disposal method because of its low
costs. Another method, dumping wastes into the sea, has
become highly controversial The safest way to dispose of the
waste is, doubtlessly, by incineration. It has been in use long
enough so that valuable experience has been gained. I-or
instance, crushing of waste prior to incineration is of great
advantage, because it homogenizes the waste which
guarantees better combustion, so that no organic substances
aie left. Waste crushing becomes indispensable whenever
communal and industrial wastes are burnt together, since the
weight and heating value of industrial wastes differ greatly
from those of domestic waste. The consistency also varies a
great deal. For liquid and gas wastes, muffle furnaces and
rotary tube furnaces are well suited. In the past years,
frequent standstills have occurred due to corrosion. Fly coke
and soot and components such as hydrogen chlorine in the
unburned gas attack the heat exchanger material.
Homogemzation of waste helps a great deal to reduce
corrosion. A parallel flow combustion reduces susceptibility
to corrosion because the waste material dries and ignites
rapidly. The flue gases are usually cleaned in electrostatic
precipitarors, since the dust content in the cleaned gas may
not exceed 150 mg per cu m at 7 percent carbon dioxide
according to the new air pollution law. No cloth filters have
been used yet with waste incinerators. To avoid dew point
corrosion, the waste gases are cooled down to 200 or 300 C.
The slag which remains from waste incineration is usually
dumped, except in Berlin where the slag is treated for further
use as construction material. (Text in German)
68-0237
Rees, D F Refuse disposal—way ahead for Britain.
Surveyor and Municipal Engineer, 132(3977):33-34, Aug 24,
1968
The problems involved in refuse disposal in Great Britain are
discussed from the viewpoint of the contractors and
manufacturers who deal with refuse disposal equipment. The
advantages and disadvantages of controlled tipping,
incineration, and pulverization are listed It is felt that an
unrealistic attitude toward pulverization schemes is held by
various authorities. A suggestion is made that the Working
Party on Refuse Disposal issue an early Interim Report
providing guidance in all aspects of waste disposal and
utilization.
68-0238
Refuse analysis at Aberdeen. Public Cleansing, 58(2):70-71,
Feb. 1968
A three-deck riddle was constructed in Aberdeen for refuse
analysis. The top deck utilizes 1 3/4-in steel mesh, the
second, 3/4-in. steel mesh and the bottom 5/16-in. steel
mesh. Trays are fitted below this for collection of dust and
fines. Material for analysis is selected on the basis of
neighborhood so that a cross section of refuse might be
obtained. It is weighed and analyzed. The results indicate
differences in refuse composition as compared with the
refuse of southern Scotland and England
68-0239
Refuse disposal (NSCA Memorandum). Smokeless Air,
38(146) 234-235, Summer 1968.
In dealing with refuse disposal systems and Clean Air
agencies, the Society recommended that the scope of the
public cleansing service should eliminate the need for the
46
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0234-0243
disposal ol refuse in small amounts, the disposal of refuse
(including old motor tars) should only he permitted in plants
01 on licensed sites, and disposal plants should comply with a
code designed to eliminate the emission of smoke, dust, and
Himes Tlie Society is in accord \\ith the Civic Amenities Act
\\lnch enables a householder to dispose of his unwanted
material through the regular ret use removal arrangements or
at specially provided sites, \ similar commercial arrangement
would eliminate attempts to burn icluse, which conflicts
wi'h Clean Air principles. Where a large amount of refuse is
to be disposed ol. facilities should be provided for disposal
t.p the sue, either b> incineration, tipping, or other methods.
I he Soacn advocates the registration of these disposal units
b) the local authority There is a lack of recognized
opeiation standards for disposal plants with regard to control
ot emissions The Society advocates the acceleration of
icsearch and the development of a code which would
achieve incineration in properly designed incinerators.
completely smokeless incinerators, the elimination of dust
and grit, the prevention of dust and grvt becoming airborne
dining handling, stricter control ot tipping to eliminate tire
iisks and th'.1 contiol ol the disposal units to eliminate dust
aiui grit.
68-0240
Refuse disposal in London. Surveyor and Municipal Engineer,
112(3992).5r>, Dec. 6, 1968.
In the 1967-68 report of the Refuse Disposal Branch of the
Greater London Council Department of Public Health
Engineering, it was estimated that the weight of London's
reinse will increase by 70 percent over the next 20 yr. At
present, the Council is dependent on land reclamation for the
disposal of 90 percent ot the refuse received. The scarcity of
tipping sites, the high cost of pulverization treatment and
transportation to distant sites, lead to a basic policy of
incineration for the bulk ol London's refuse. The council is
also implementing a system for the disposal of old motor
.ehicies and bulky household items. The London boioughs
aie able to make use ot a car-crushing plant which is operated
by a contractor for the Council.
6R 0241
)<• iiise disposal plants f o i
?:M5879) 472, Sept. 27, 1968.
Thailand. Engineer,
1 our refuse disposal plants to be installed in Thailand are
designed to turn organic refuse into compost while inorganic
i c i he tin e plants in Bangkok will be
\ • .' lectivmg 320 tons per day of refuse and
pi'iCi-ssing this amount continuously at the rate of 40 tons
p.' hr, a Thonburi plant will have half this capacity Refuse is
puiverueu, teirous ingredients are extracted, and the refuse is
passed to two separator systems. The coinpostable refuse is
'Vn c> nv.:y,-J to the 'ermentation house where tempeiatures
to "'!' ( 'M more The initial fermentation takes 5 days,
after whicn the product is tiansferred to a storage area where
it is left to cool and mature for 4 to 6 weeks. The compost is
distributed as a soil conditioner Rejects from both separators
are transferred to the incinerator and clinker discharges are
eilher transferred back to the compost or disposed of
separately by lorry.
68-0242
Report of the governor's task force on refuse disposal
Prepared by the Task Force with the Assistance of the Rhode-
Island Statewide Comprehensive Transposition and Land
Use Planning Program. Providence, State of Rhode Island,
Feb. 1968. 57 p. (Distributed by National Technical
Information Service, Springfield. Va., as Publication No. PB
177 859.)
A general review of the refuse disposal problems in the State
is presented, and a cooperative State and local program for
the solution of these problems through 1990 is detailed. The
majority of the communities in the State use inefficient and
unhealthy disposal methods which are of particular concern
in a highly urbanized state with a limited amount of vacant
land Sanitary landfill and incineration are recommended as
the only feasible general disposal methods for the
communities at this time. Composting, high temperature
incineration, and other experimental methods are to be
considered for the future. The estimate and forecast of refuse
loads is based upon a current estimate of 5 Ib per capita.
Local governments should have the entire legal responsibility
for the collection and disposal of all refuse generated within
their holders. State government should develop and mam lain
an area-wide plan for retuse disposal, enforce regional
arrangements, provide technical assistance, and sel minimum
standards. It is suggested that an annual State grant-m-aid
fund of 40 cents per capita be apportioned to communities.
Legislation to implement the proposals is presented.
68-0243
Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center Summary report
advanced waste treatment research program, July 1964-July
1967. Water Pollution Control Research Series, Advanced
Waste Treatment Research WP-20-AWTR. Cincinnati, L'ederal
Water Pollution Control Administration, 1968 98 p
Because of the need to prevent further pollution, only a
limited number of solutions to the disposal problem are
available. These include storage in sealed subsurface cavities
or isolated surface ponds, disposal in the ocean, and
conversion to innocuous or useful materials. A discussion of
some ot the processes of removal are suspended solids
removal, organic removal processes such as electrodialysis,
reverse osmosis, and distillation, and advanced treatment
methods. A sunmiarx ot conveyance costs for rail, trucking,
and pipeline are furnished in a table. Not all of the disposal
methods are practical, and some do not completely fulfill the
requirements of ultimate disposal. Complete disposal
methods are incineration with conveyance of the ash to the
sea, or direct conveyance of the waste to the sea. One point
demonstrated bv past studies is the high cost of conveying
wastes long distances to the sea. Disposal methods such as
conversion ot waste to useful and innocuous forms deserve
extensive investigation since they will icduce or eliminate the
need for conveyance. In many sewage treatment plants
today, sludge is incinerated and the ash is disposed of as
landfill.
47
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Disposal
68-0244
Robinson, W. D. Shredding municipal and industrial refuse
for incineration. [New York), American Society of
Mechanical Engineers. Mar. 1968. 6 p.
Shredding of industrial and municipal refuse for disposal by
incineration, landfill, or other methods will play an active
role in disposal techniques of the future. For mass burning on
grates the maximum particle size would not be as important
as the bottom size. For partial suspension burning in furnaces
at less than molten temperatures, the shredded topsize is
most important and will likely be limited to 1 or 2 in. In
maximum suspension burning, dry bottom furnace, control
of size is most important with 1A in. maximum topsize
probably the requirement. A retort or cyclone type furnace
at about 3,000 F with molten slagging walls, where the
shredded material is blown into the furnace tangentially in a
cyclonic pattern, requires a maximum tolerable topsize of
about 4 in. The swing hammer type hammermill seems best
suited to refuse service. Design criteria are given for the
weight of the machine, rotor inertia, hammer weights and tip
speed, shear and impact forces, rotor configuration, and feed
and discharge devices. Electric motor, diesel, or steam turbine
arives are available. Combined power and maintenance costs
are estimated to be under $1.00 per ton. A hood fabricated of
steel plate and a screen are recommended for dust and
shrapnel containment, and a dust collection system may be
required I or refuse applications, noise levels will be less than
with automobiles.
68-0245
Sarofim, A. F. Appendix C. Pyrolysis. In Summer study on
the management of solid wastes; final report, v.l. Cambridge,
Urban Systems Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Sept. 1968. p.34-37.
A brief description of pyrolysis is given, and us potential and
problems are discussed. Pyrolysis involves destructive
distillation in an inert atmosphere, usually carried out
batchwise in an externally fired kiln. Two of the factors that
detract from the use of pyrolysis for refuse disposal are the
cost of reducing the refuse size to 3 in. or less, and the need
for multiple small units in a plant of any appreciable size.
The char produced from the pyrolysis of refuse is more than
50 percent metal, glass, and ash. The sale of the charcoal
product requires prior separation from these inert materials,
and it is expected that the reduction in size that would occur
in the process would yield an inferior product. An
investigation of the economics of the separation and the sale
of the charcoal product is needed. It is doubtful that any
significant credit can be obtained from the sale of the
pyrolysis products. The operating cost would be expected to
be higher than for an incinerator of the same capacity,
due to high maintenance costs. Pyrolysis is seemingly not an
economical method of disposing of refuse. However the use
of pyrolysis for the disposal of demolition lumber may have
potential, depending of the value of the charcoal produced.
68-0246
Schinzel, A. The behavior of substances difficult to
decompose in the soil and in groundwater. Gas, Wasser,
Waerme, 22(2):23-31, Feb. 1968.
After a brief description of the various layers of soil down to
the ground water level, the possibilities of foreign substances
penetrating into ground water are discussed. There are two
possibilities: substances may reach the ground water
naturally, by the movement of liquid substances carried deep
into the soil by gravity and taking solid substances with
them; or they may penetrate artificially, from sump holes,
from sand and gravel pits which have been stripped of the
humus layer, from disposal sites for solid wastes (some types
of waste attack humus which means that substances can
penetrate the ground water layer without experiencing any
decomposition), and from burial sites for animal carcasses,
for leftovers from fish arid meat canneries, and from human
cemeteries. Substances which decompose slowly in the soil
and which pollute ground water include chlorine, flurine, and
to some extent sulphate ions. Salt used to keep roads free of
snow penetrated the ground water and contaminated the
drinking water in an entire area in Massachusetts. Nitrate is
also very difficult to decompose as shown by an incident
involving leaking nitrate bombs. The drinking water of an
entire area around the site (U.S.A.) was contaminated by the
buried bombs. Fluorine contamination of ground water has
been observed near a fertilizer plant in New Mexico. Cyanide
was found in ground water near a disposal site for the
aluminum plant in Ranshofen, Austria. Oil is another
substance which decomposes in surface waters only in the
presence of adequate oxygen, warm temperatures, and
adequate plankton. Wastes from coking plants and oil
refineries, such as tar and asphalt, are known to remain in the
soil for many centuries. If they come into contact with
water, large amounts are dissolved and carried into the
ground water. Phenols spoil ground completely as do
substances carried by the waste water from dry cleaning
plants and the paper industry. Pesticides and detergents also
pose a great danger to the ground water. (Text in German)
68-0247
Sebastian, F. P., and P. J. Cardinal. Solid waste disposal.
Chemical Engineering, 75(22):112-117, Oct. 1968.
A multiple hearth incinerator disposes of sludge with 60 to 75
percent moisture and reduces it to one tenth of its original
weight without additional fuel. The ash is sterile and inert.
The discharge volume is about 10 percent of feed, and the
discharge can be used in landfill or in bricks and concrete
blocks. Tabulated are; ultimate disposal methods and costs;
typical combustion values of waste materials; standard
multiple hearth furnace sizes; and multiple hearth operating
data and costs. Fluidized bed incinerators, which utilize a
fluidized sand bed onto which mechanically dewatered sludge
is fed, are described. The system operates under oxidizing
conditions of 1,400 to 1,500 F. Wet air oxidation oxidizes
sludge solids in liquid phase without mechanical dewatering
by applying heat and pressure and using air to oxidize
combustible matter. Such a plant in Chicago shows sludge
processing costs at $33.26 per ton of dry solids. This cost is
divided almost equally between capital and operating costs.
Low pressure oxidation is used to condition sludge for,
vacuum filtration and landfill. The Porteous steam injection
process is a mechanical process which changes the physical
structure of sludge. One advantage of the process is that it
eliminates conditioning chemicals. Deep wells are not usually
suitable for solid waste disposal because of plugging of the
rock formations into which the stream is discharged. Sanitary
landfill is frequently the cheapest method of disposing of
sludge where there is a suitable site nearby.
48
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0244-0252
680248
Sludge disposal at sea Civil Engineering, 38 (8).62-63, Aug
1968
Philadelphia's sewage disposal pljnt on the hanks ot the
Delaware River serves an area that discharges an aveiage of
15(1 million gal of waste water eveiy day, and processes daily
about 200,000 Ih ot solids The activated sludge treatment
includes scieemng. grit removal, primary sedimentation,
anaerobic sludge digestion, and final sludge disposal by
seagoing barge. A series of five lagoons was being used as
long as space permitted, but Minlies \\tre undertaken to
determine final sludge disposal. Incineration \\as rejected and
a proposal for dredging the lagoons, with a portable, 10-in.
hydraulic dredge, and loading a 2,700-ton barge with the
residue was adopted. Before dredging begins, the thickened
sludge is made less viscous by adding water. The n-suit ing
material averaged close to 10 percent solids b> weight. The
barge-filling operation takes about 8 hr, after which it is
hauled 110 miles to the sea by a 1,600-hp tugboat. The
sludge disposal area, about 10 miles out a! sea. is located over
a large hole in the floor of the sea. Tin" discharge, through
valves in the bottom of the barge, is manually controlled and
the running time of the round trip is 30 hr. Cost is estimated
at approximately $4 per thousand gal, and some 100 million
gal of liquid waste matter are handled in 150 trips per year
68-0249
Smith, B Incineration of ships' garbage in north is barrier
against stock diseases from overseas. New Zealand Journal of
Agriculture, 116(1).14-15, Jan. 1968
Ship garbage, which can contain meat scraps, may introduce
foot and mouth, and other diseases into New Zealand. The
Animal Diseases Prevention Regulations. 1966. require everv
port or airport handling overseas vessels or airciaft to install
incinerators to burn all the collected garbage 'Ihe
incinerators used must be designed to cope with the high
water content and the numerous bottles and cans found ;n
the refuse. F.xeess liquid is drained off into evaporating trays
within the incinerator. Bottles are incinerated and reduced to
molten glass Special containers were designed to avoid
spilling liquid garbage After the arrival of an overseas vessel.
a number of these containers are put on by a Northland
Harbour Board employee. When full, or on request, the
garbage containers arc collected bj the garbage collecting
boat and taken to Limestone island The empty drums and
floors are steam-cleaned, and disinfectant toot baths are
placed at the entrance to the incinerator room Port
agriculture officer-- maintain proper handling of garbage on
board, and us a icsult, the risk ot 'hi introduction of di^tav
through ships'-jarb.ig , lias been greatK re\
68-0250
Smooth flow and no bottlenecks Waste Trade World.
112(5). 11, 13,1 eb 3. 1968
A plant in Glas"o\v is laid out to faci'iUMc niovemejtl of
material and to eliminate boil! jneik-,. ih • IK;.HV is
surrounded b> A 20-tt wiue roaii\\,'.y wl»uh t e.'imts Ionics to
circulate freely, branching oft '« deliver waste into either end
ot the rectangulat factoiy 01 to proceed to collect wasu* lion:
the storage area To '^ievent bottlenecks the designers
duplicate paper handling facilities at either end ol the
building. Conveyors are used extensively, from the delivery
of the waste papei to the sorting and delivery of the paper to
the baler. Conveyors are also used to deliver the paper to the
sorting areas on the upper floor The baler is a Shirtclitt
Bulldozer baler with a ram rate of 10 strokes per minute,
which is well suited to the mixed paper and shavings, low
wrappers, ,,nd coated broke which the firm handles. It also
has a feed hoppei capable ot dealing with unshredded paper
at conveyor belt speed
68-0251
Sorg, T J . and R. L. Cummins Commercial solid wastes
studies. In Fngineenng Foundation Research Conference,
Solid Wasle Research and Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis.,
July 22-26, 1968. New York (Conference Preprint No. H-l.)
\ 3-week study was conducted by the Solid Wastes Program,
U S. Public Health Service, on the solid waste produced by
several types of commercial establishments in Cincinnati.
Ohio. I-our to eight various size stores were selected for each
type of retail store- -clothing, d:ug, grocery, hardware, and
restaurant. The information collected was analyzed to
determine any relationship between solid waste generation
and size-related factors A correlation coefficient was
calculated lor the solid waste generation weight and each size
factor for each type ot commercial store. Preliminary results
of the study indicate correlations in clothing, dtug, hardware
stores, and restaurants between amount of solid w-aste per
business day. and gross receipts. Other correlations were
found between the amount of solid waste per business day
and the area of store, average yearly inventory, equipment
value, number ot employees, and in the case of restaurants,
number of customers served per day. In groreiv stores, no
correlation between solid waste generation and size factors
was apparent
68-0252
A study ot solid wastes disposal and their effect on water
quality in the San Francisco Bay-Delta Area. [Sacramento],
California Department of Public Health. 1968. v.p.
This report is in reality a combination of two reports,
covering solid wastes in general, and water quality in
particular. On a population basis, the 13.8 million tons of
solid waste generated during 1967 in the San 1'rancisco
Bay-Delta Area represented 13.4 Ih per capita per day. There
are 147 active sites in the Bay-Delta area for solid waste
disposal, of which only 11 are classified as sanitary landfills.
It was concluded that landfilhng will continue to be the
primary means ot solid waste disposal within the study a,e,<
for the next 10 to 15 years, and that during this pen. «i "lie
small open dump will be elimmatfi' and s.,me of the bay
ndeland and marshland landl'il's w;'; i< dually be replaced by-
large inland can1.. >;•;•• in tne future, there will probably
be J1 iiun-.'ei! i,iif.;st in incineration and in grinders to
di«pos. ol solid waste to the sewerage systems. A greater
emphasis should be placed on developing coordinated,
long-ntiMic plans loi ^did waste management. Furthermore,
policv and planning decisions tVi solid waste disposal,
including future site locations, should he established on a
regional ba-is. Considerable discussion is made of the water
quality situation in the Bay-Delta aiea Contact of adjacent
49
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Disposal
water with solid wastes has long been a problem in
maintaining water quality in the area. Conditions examined
were discharge of decomposable solid to water, water passing
through levees, drainage emerging from fills during ebbing
tide, discolored water adjacent to fills, leachate emerging
from fills, and serious odor production. Surface water
pollution from solid waste disposal sites in the arej is
estimated to be small Water quality lecommendations are
made for the area, based on the studies made and the
categories covered. Data are included on each municipality of
county covered in the report, and there are five appendices
followed by a list of references
68-0253
Solid waste production. In A study of solid wastes disposal
and their effect on water quality in the San Francisco
Bay-Delta Area [Sacramento j, California Department of
Public Health, 1968 p.3.1-3.10.
The term solid waste here includes all solid or semisolid
waste material having little or no value. In addition, the term
includes demolition waste, street sweepings, sewage
treatment residue, industrial solid wastes, agricultural
manure, crop wastes, and other miscellaneous materials. Solid
waste production in the Bay-Delta area has been grouped into
three general categories: municipal wastes, industrial wastes,
and agricultural wastes. The total amount of waste generated
in the Bay-Delta area was determined by analyzing each
segment (municipal, industrial, and agricultural) separatelj
with a summation made of all segments for the total.
Considerable use was made of waste generation factors These
factors generally relate the average quantity of waste
produced over a period of time to a basic unit of production.
Factors such as Ibs-per-person-per-day ueie utilized for
municipal waste. Several tables are given foi piesent waste
production in each of the above three areas, as well as
projected figures up to the year 2UOO Population growth foi
the area is projected in 10-year increments. The annual solid
waste production in the .study area is expected lo increase
from 1 3.8 million tons per year in 1967 to almost 30 million
tons per year in 2000. There is also piesented a
county-by-cotinty analysis of projected municipal solid waste
production in Appendix. A, and in table 3.10, a projection is
made o''agricultural waste pioduction to the year 2000.
68-0254
Solid waste disposal. In A study of solid wastes disposal and
their effect on water quality in the San Francisco Bay-Delta
Area. [Sacramento], California Department of Public Health,
1968. p.4.14.42.
Seven factors are listed which may affect the type of disposal
metisol utilized for solid waste. Methods of disposal for tla-
San Francisco Bay-Delta area are listed and described. The
landfill method is the niost widely used throughout the area,
sanitary landfill being the most .icccptahle form from ,1
public health standpoint. The usual form in this area however
is some type of modified landfill. Incmeraii< M hjs r it K;"'i
utilized to any great extent, and no municipal mcnKidu<.,
were operating at the time of this report Composting cannot
be considered an ultimate disposal means, since the inorganic
material must lie disposed of by other means. As a result.
composting is very limited in application in the Bay-Delta
area Grinding units have been installed in most commercial
esubhsh men > s thro'uthoiit the area and !uv ' ««i,-i
satisfactory results. Salvage and reclamation cannot be
considered exclusively as a means o! disposal, but metals and
other materials are salvaged to some degree in the area.
Fifteen hundred tons ot cans per month aie salvaged and
reclaimed for use in the copper mduslry. Ocean disposal ot
municipal refuse is no longer practiced because ot cost and
the threats to recreational uses ol the coastal areas Ope"
burning is practiced only outside the Bay Area An Polhuiori
Control District. Pyrolysis is used u in.ly tuo plan's in tin
Bay-Delta area. Garbage feeding to hogs has decreased greatly
in recent years. The counties are deficient in their planning.
Some counties have no a; nu> pmgnm1 relative ,o solid w,.sk-
disposal under their planning Osi!> fi,'_ have some kind ol
joint or cooperative program with another county or city.
Ten of the counties have solid waste ordinances, eight of
which have standards for disposal site operalion Only four
include requirements to protect water quality. Disposal sites
are classified, and disposal site description data is given in
Table 4.4 The remaining capacity ot the active Mtes still
available lor use is about 219,000 acre ft. Only I I ol the 103
General L'se Disposal Sites were classified as sanitary landfills
68-0255
Influence of solid wastes on water quahtv In A study of
solid wastes disposal and their effect on WM-.'i quality in the
San Francisco Bay-Delia Area. [Sacramento! , California
Department of Public Health, 1968 p S.I -.s 51.
When solid waste residues of any type are disposed to the
soil, a potential water quality impairment exists. Even if a
solid waste is incinerated, the ash will contain soluble
substances which may dissolve in runoff and percolating
water and thereby atfeci the quality ot ihe adjacent surface
watet or underlying ground watci The principal problems
produced by solid wastes involve leached materials, changes
in the characteristics of waters exposed to decomposing solid
waste, and gaseous end products which result from 'he
decomposition of organic matenals. Closely related to ihe
solid waste problem is the disposal ol small quantities of
liquid and semisolid materials, these arc wy difficult In
manage. A great deal o) discussion was given to changes in
estuarine water during contact with tideland disposal site
fills. Tidal changes can cause a baektlow of watei fr,>,n the
bays into estuaries, with resultant pollution if these bay areas
are locations of waste disposal fills. These fill areas
themselves often become ^naerobK since all ,iv.iilai"< ; \yg 'n
may be consumed by the biota .ic'ixe in de^'inij'osif. rhc
organic matter of the fill. Leachate from solid wastes is
discussed at length, and the effects on surrounding soil ana
water if such leaching occurs, Gas production in solid waste
disposal sites is discussed with its effects on water quality
A comprehensive -ye'ion on the Ba;-n '' di KI
used in the evaluation, along with backg -uau I'lfo'niaiion.
68-0256
Present effects ot si id waste disp,:,ul > •< •' iK-r < i >'ity MI >;c
study .iiea. In A siudy ol -ciH w.c'.s' t. p ,vn a u! tn •"
effect on ware, quality in the San r-ranciS'..> bay-Delta Area.
[Sacra men to | fain'oni'. Oepai 't\en< c; Pubi,, Me.i'di
p6 1-6 39.
Water samples were collected at s,- ei> s.ih.-j vvasle disposal
sites to obi.(in 'jstmi i/cs (,| ((,- ,.(«.•,
50
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0253-0259
materials discharged from the disposal sites which could
cause impairment of the quality of the water of the bay and
delta. Various water situations were noted at these sites,
including drainage leaving fills at low tide conditions,
discolored water adjacent to fills, water passing through levee
systems, leachate emerging from fills, and placement of
wastes directly into the water. The disposal sites considered
were those in Albany, West Contra Costa, Acme Fill,
Alameda City, Palo Alto, Davis Street, and South San
Francisco. Each is adjacent to the bay system, and the results
of each study were given in detail. To determine the presence
and range of volatile fatty acids in typical landfill leachate, a
series of samples was analyzed using gas chromotography.
Eleven samples were tested by the Department of Public
Health's Sanitation and Radiation Laboratory. Industrial
waste disposal was examined by testing the characteristics of
tank bottom wastes disposed at Industrial Tank, Inc.'s, Vine
Hill facility. Various pollutants are discharged into the
Bay-Delta surface and ground waters, and quantitative
estimates were made of pollutant loadings. Such types of
material as biodegradable material, floating debris, nutrients,
solids, toxic substances, and taste and odor-producing
materials were studied. A water quality impairment rating
system was developed, since it was not possible to accurately
estimate the quantitative pollutant loading imposed on the
water from each solid waste site in the study area. Sites were
categorized by a rating which estimates the general range of
the pollutant loading. In this way, an approximation could be
made represent! g the relative significance each disposal site
has on the quality of the water in the Bay-Delta area.
68-0257
Future solid waste management practices and effect on
water quality in the Bay-Delta area. In a study of solid
wastes disposal and their effect on water quality in the San
Francisco Bay-Delta Area. [Sacramento], California
Department of Public Health, 1968. p 7.1-7.4.
The solid waste disposal methods currently in use in the
Bay-Delta area, will undoubtedly continue to be used in the
immediate future. It is difficult to visualize any radically new
disposal techniques being used in the next 10 to 15 years. It
is expected that landfilhng will continue to be the primary
means of solid waste disposal for the foreseeable future.
Landfill disposal site locations and operating practices are
expected to change. It can be fully expected that the use of
open tidelands for refuse disposal will generally be prohibited
in the future. A trend towards the use of inland canyons or
other inland submargmal land for future large disposal sites is
anticipated. Longer hauling distances will probably be
required in the future, due to relocation of sites to more
remote inland areas. Many of the existing landfill sites will be
exhausted and completed within the next 10 years. The solid
waste production increase, which will occur in the Bay-Delta
area as a result of population and industrial growth, will
require large disposal volumes Open dumps however, will
undoubtedly be prohibited in the study area within the next
few years. The next 10 to 15 years will see an increasing
interest in incineration of solid waste. A very favorable
potential for expanded use of grinders for the disposal ot
refuse to existing sewers will also develop. Other processing
methods such as composting, pyrolysis, or destructive
distillation are not expected to be utilized to any large extent
in the foreseeable future in the Bay-Delta area. In terms of
solid waste management, there is a growing pressure and
trend toward regional management of wastes. Regarding
future water quality in the Bay-Delta area, the consensus is
that water quality hazards or threats from solid wastes will
actually lessen as improved disposal techniques and greater
management controls are effected. The major threats will
come from land disposal sites. Preliminary guidelines for solid
waste management to protect water quality have been
prepared for many specific wastes.
68-0258
Stumpf, H., and W. Schleuter. Basic considerations on the
role of planning in the disposal of waste.
Elektrizitaetswirtschaft, 67(18)'517-521, Aug. 1968.
Presently about 8.5 to 9 million tons of waste accumulate
annually in the Federal Republic of Germany. Of these 92
percent are dumped, 5 percent are deposited in sanitary
landfills, 2.3 percent are incinerated, and 0.7 percent are
composted. The increase in wastes over the last 10 years is
illustrated in a diagram. The federal laws concerning the
dumping of wastes are briefly reviewed. The specific amounts
of wastes of some West German cities and municipalities are
listed. Before a municipality decides on a type of waste
disposal, extensive preliminary investigations are absolutely
necessary. First, the types of wastes that accumulate in the
respective municipality must be determined as well as the
amounts. Questionnaires are to be sent out for this purpose.
An analysis of the wastes helps to determine whether they
are putrescible and are thus suited for composting or how
combustible they are. Moreover, the location of the site for
the composting or incinerating plant must be carefully
considered. Easy access, closeness to the place of
accumulation, the existence of a sewage plant nearby, etc.,
are all essential criteria for choosing a site. As far as
incinerators are concerned, it must be pointed out that the
higher the capacity of the plant the more economically it will
operate. The laws limiting dust emission must be studied. It
must also be determined what end products are left, and how
they are eliminated. A decision must be made on how to use
the heat or whether to use it at all. The costs of various
methods must be compared. There is a considerable
difference in investment costs involved in various types of
incinerators. The recommended costs lie between 50.000 and
100,000 DM. (Text in German)
68-0259
Talbot, J. S. Some basic factors in the consideration and
installation of deep well disposal systems. Water and Sewage
Works, 115(R.N. 1968).R213-R219, Nov 29. 1968
Three major considerations in deep well disposal are:
economic, public relations, and legal factors. The deep
disposal system consists of a well or wells and surface
equipment including treaters, tanks, filter, pumps, transfer
piping, and controls. The principal limitations of deep well
disposal are those of geology and the nature of the waste.
Wastes with a large amount of suspended solids which are
difficult to remove or which are unstable or incompatible
with the injection formation are usually considered
unsatisfactory for injection into the subsurface. Suspended
solids may be removed by sedimentation or filtration. Some
formations \vill accept paniculate matter if they possess
51
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Disposal
fracture or vulgar permeability, or if fractures may be
extended or induced by injection pressures. An example is
given of the operation of activated sludge disposal wells at
Midland, Michigan. The cost of well systems vary from less
than $20,000 to well over $1.500,000. If proper care is not
taken in the design and construction of the system, pollution
or other damage may be caused to potable surface or ground
water supplies and to commercial mineral resources. In many
cases, deep well disposal is the best and cheapest technique
that can be used.
68-0260
Thompson, M. Control of environmental pollution, the
problem of solid wastes. In N.I Sax. Dangerous properties of
industrial materials. 3d ed. New York, Van Nostrand
Remhold Company, 1968 p.128-132.
The solid wastes problem consists of the storage, collection,
transportation, and disposal of unwanted wastes from
residential, commercial, industrial, and agricultural sources.
Such wastes include not only solids, but also the liquid
component of industrial and institutional wastes which, for
various reasons, are not handled by liquid waste treatment
facilities. Composting is a volume reduction method for
handling refuse It produces final products which must be
disposed of by sale, incineration, or sanitary landfill.
Incineration is not a method of disposal; it merely reduces
the total volume of wastes by 80 percent. An extension of
the sanitary landfill technique is the utilization and
reclamation of abandoned stnp mines, salt caverns, quarries,
etc. The organization and administration required to handle
the total unwanted wastes problem efficiently for a
community can very considerably. Comprehensive studies by
an experienced and competent engineering firm are necessary
if communities within an economic service area are to be
served individually and collectively by the most efficient
collection, transportation, and disposal system.
Comprehensive studies must identify and present and future
problems and provide alternative solutions.
68-0262
Wasserman, L. P. Marine pollution on the continental
shelf-helpful or harmful? In National Symposium on Ocean
Sciences and Engineering of the Atlantic Shelf, Delaware
Valley Section, Phila., Pa., Mar. 19-20, 1968. p.339-343.
As land area for dumping becomes scarce, schemes are being
proposed to solve the problem by disposing of wastes at sea.
Planning and control, coupled with research into oceanic-
waste disposal can turn this potential threat into a great asset.
Using proper disposal techniques, wastes can serve as a source
of nutrients, shelter, and breeding grounds for plant and
animal life. But is is not known what concentration can be
called food and what concentration is toxic. The situation in
the ocean is complicated by currents, animal life, and our
limited knowledge of marine ecology Some major areas for
investigation are considered. With adequate supervision, the
wastes of society can be dumped or pumped onto the
continental shelf in a manner that will improve the land, sea,
and air of this planet.
68-0263
A waste/sludge composting plant for Heidenheim, West
Germany. Staedtehygiene, 19(8):178, Aug. 1968.
The city council of Heidenheim, West Germany, decided to
place an order with Voith Mullex GmbH for the construction
of a composting plant with incineration. The plant will take
care of all the wastes accumulating in the city including
sewage sludge, bulky wastes, and wastes from abattoirs. The
plant has been designed for a population of about 60,000,
but it can also process the wastes for the neighboring villages
without any extension. The waste is shredded according to
the Dorr-Oliver method. The composting process is
performed according to the open air method newly
developed by Voith. The capital investment costs for the
plant alone, without land costs, is estimated to be 3.5 million
DM. (Te\;t in German)
68-0261
Treatment and disposal of wastes. Public Cleansing,
58(2):62-64,Feb. 1968.
The views of a group of experts who met in Geneva in
December, 1966, to discuss problems on the treatment and
disposal of wastes are contained in a WHO report The
pretreatment of industrial waste, or means for burying toxic
liquid chemicals, should be considered for waste waters
which should not be handled at a municipal sewage plant.
The production of solid wastes is increasing and is presently
at least 700 kg per capita per year. This fact, combined with
the changing nature of the wastes themselves, requires further
research into the design of furnaces and in the methods of
dealing with refuse. Efforts should be intensified to persuade ,
manufacturers to provide means of reducing wastes at their
source. The group found that further research is needed in
the field, and research funds should be an integral part of
provisions for the construction and operation of plants for
the management of wastes.
68-0264
Watson, J. L A. Master plan for town refuse disposal. Public
Cleansing, 58(4)'161-165, Apr. 1968.
Stage one of a master plan for town refuse disposal is a
study of the Greater Tel Aviv area by a consultant
experienced in problems of this character. The consultant
will work under the direction of the Inter-Ministerial
Committee for the Disposal of Town Waste. The Ministry of
Health will supply all relative information in its possession
through the Sanitation Division and District Health
Departments. The four objects of the study are:
determination of the degree of inadequacy of the present
methods of waste disposal; assessment of the magnitude of
the problem and its expected growth; analyzing various
disposal methods suitable to Israeli conditions; and proposing
a solid waste disposal system. The following types of solid
wastes were surveyed: domestic refuse, bulky refuse; market
refuse; and industrial waste. The composition, weight,
volume, and moisture content of domestic refuse will be
determined Disposal sites for sanitary landfill will be located.
52
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0260-0270
68-0265
Work group for waste disposal founded.
Rohr-Armatur-Samtaer-Heizung. 23(2). 144, Feb 1968.
At a meeting in Frankfurt. Germany, on Octobei 31, 1967,
the Workgroup for Waste Disposal (AFA -
Aibeitsgeinemschaft fuer Abfallbeseitigung) was founded. It
was immediately joined by nine associations which arc active
in the field of solid waste disposal and water pollution
control. The names of these organizations are listed, and the
opinion is expressed 'hat additional gioups would join
I Text in Geiman)
68-0266
Young, R. Deep well disposal-cure all or tioublemaker0
Plant Engineering, 22(23)' 126-128. Nov 14,1968.
'[lie fundamentals of deep well disposal are those of geology
and the nature of the waste. Surrounding the disposal rock
section must be impermeable rock that will contain the liquid
waste. The injected liquid must be ol low viscosity, and metal
content, have very small amounts of suspended solids, a pli
of less than the bnne in the lormation into which it is
pumped, a high specific gravity, and the liquid should not
have any self-polymerizing materials, bacteria, or dissolved
gases. Each well vanes in cost, depth, and type of material
accepted. Extensive engineering studies must be undertaken
before a well can be drilled. Illustrations include areas m the
United States where injection is feasible, some data on wells
already in operation, problems encountered, and a typical
deep well installation.
AGRICULTURAL WASTES
680267
Adamse, A. D. Bulking ot daii> waste activated sludge. Water
Research, 2(10):715-722, Nov. 1968.
The phenomenon ot bulking ol a dajry waste activated sludge
was studied in relation to known and estimated data
concerning two types of microorganisms involved in the
mechanism of bulking, Sphaerotilus, and Arthrobacter-hke
bacteria. Reduced oxygen supply, resulting from the rush
dissimulation rate of the carbohydrate traction of the dauy
waste, along with the ability to accumulate storage
compounds and the discrepancy between the potential and
actual carbon to nitrogen ratios of Ibis waste, were
considered to be the main factors in stimulating growth of
Sphaerotilus, and thus to be responsible for bulking.
Alteration of the nutiitional conditions caused an
improvement of the growth of Arthrobacter-hke bacteria,
and this led to a pronounced relative suppression of
Sphaerotilus, resulting in the restoration of the settling
properties ot" the sludge.
680268
Adamse. A. D. Formation and tinal composition of the
bacterial flora of a dairy waste activated sludge. Water
Research, 2(9) 665-6 71, Oct. 1968.
The formation, as well as the final composition of the
bacterial flora of dairy waste activated sludge was studied
systematically, using a well-defined dairy waste as the
substrate. A comparison of the bacterial flora of the dairy
waste activated sludge developing from the initial to the
optimal stage in an oxidation ditch and in a laboratory
apparatus, showed a close similarity between both systems,
so that the latter may be used for representative experiments.
Adaptation of the bacterial flora to the supplied waste was
found to he a slow process. The composition ot the flora
altered with time until, ultimately, it consisted
predominantly of corynetorm (Arthrobacter-hke) bacteria.
Next to these, considerable amounts of Achromobacteracese
were found. Pstudumonailacesc, initially present in laige
numbers, dtopped to the least important of the three majoi
groups of bacteria. The alteration of the bacterial groups
coincided with an alteration of the physiological
characteristics of the total activated sludge flora. In the final
state, two-thirds of the isolated bacteria gave a neutral
reaction on Hugh and Leifson media and more than half were
nonproteolytic. This is in agreement with the predominant
position held by the group of coryneform, particularly
Arthrobacter-hke bacteria. The brown color of the activated
sludge may be attributed to Flavobactena.
680269
Adamse, A. D. Response of dairy waste activated sludge to
experimental conditions affecting pH and dissolved oxygen
concentration. Water Research, 2(10) 703-713, Nov. 1968.
When activated sludge was fed a normal amount of artificial
dairy waste, a sharp drop of pH and dissolved oxygen (DO)
was observed immediately due to the ready dissimilation ot
the carbohydrate fraction of the substrate. Decomposition of
the protein fraction started later, proceeded at a much lower
rale, and was accompanied by a slight fall of pH and DO for a
more prolonged period of time. The drop of pH during
dissimilation of the carbohydrate traction was caused by a
transitory occurrence of acid intermediates in the suspension.
Tins was assumed to be due to the fact that, in spite of very
vigoious aeration, the oxygen absorption rate was unable to
meet the increased demand foi oxygen and therefore, the
oxygen absorption rate became a limiting factor in the
oxidation of the carbohydrate fraction of the substrate. The
difference found between the dissimilation rate uf the
carbohydrate fraction and that of the protein fraction caused
a discrepancy between the potential and actuaJ carbon to
nitrogen ratios of the substrate. Analyses of the acid
intermediates showed that acetic acid was accumulated in the
activated sludge suspension when DO was present, whereas
lactic acid was found when DO was absent.
680270
Aguila, N The effects of burnt canes and trashes on factory
operations Sugarland, 5 (3) 13, 32, 35, Apr. 1968.
Although planters contend that burning canes facilitates
harvesting, eradicates pests, and gets rid of trash, the author,
representing the miller's point of view, argues that burnt
tanes result in low sugar recovery, high molasses production,
delay of work in the boiling house, and definite loss in
milling capacity According to Deomano (1956), burning
canes destroys material in the fields that are potential humus
tor the soil. The effects of non-sugar in the processing
operation is discussed Raw sugar ciystallized from binned
53
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Agricultural Wastes
cane juice is believed to have poor refining qualities with
poor filterability, color, and fnableness. Large amounts of
trash (any material delivered to the factory in conjunction
with cane from which no sugar is obtainable) has detrimental
effects on the entire sugar factory operation. The weight of
the trash reduces the percentage of sucrose in the milled
cane. Trash lowers the capacity of the mill, and introduces
impurities which change boiling house control calculations
and slow down clarification. It lowers the efficiency of
inhibition, increases the fiber in cane, and reduces sucrose
extraction. It is suggested that the milling contract include
the provision that burnt sugarcane should be accepted only
upon special agreement, between the parties, with respect to
conditions under which the sugarcane should be milled.
68-0271
Animal waste utilization group formed in Canada. Compost
Science, 9(3):17-18, Autumn 1968.
The Utilization of Animal Wastes Committee of Ontario,
Canada, headed by L. R. Webber, has adopted the following
program, a pilot study of livestock density and land for
disposal; investigation of areas of future development;
management practices in handling solid, slurry, or liquid
manures; odor control and abatement in rearing areas, and
storage facilities; health problems; and study of land areas for
disposal. In a paper presented at the Eighth Industrial Water
and Wastewater Conference in Lubbock, Texas, June 1968,
guidelines to land requirements for disposal of liquid manure
were presented. The committee has prepared a table showing
the land requirements for two levels of manure applications
on corn land. The quantities of phosphorus and potassium,
that reach the ground water from manured cropland, appear
to be insignificant, but nitrogen applications may contribute
significantly to ground water pollution.
68^)272
Axtell, R, C. Integrated house fly control: populations of fly
larvae and predaceous mites, Macrocheles muscaedomesticae,
in poultry manure after larvicide treatment. Journal of
Economic Entomology, 61(l):245-249, Feb. 1968.
The population of 3rd-instar larvae of house fly, Musca
domestica L., and adults of Macrocheles muscaedomesticae
(Scopoli), which are predaceous on the eggs and Ist-mstar
larvae of the house fly, were determined at intervals before
and after the application of 12 insecticides to the manure
under caged laying hens. Selective toxicities which could be
used to advantage in larvicidal fly control were not found.
The few chemicals which did not destroy the mite population
gave very little control of fly larvae, while those which gave
some control of fly larvae (for periods up to 2 weeks) were
deleterious to the mite population. The mite population
increased very slowly following decimation by insecticide
treatment, while the numbers of fly larvae increased rapidly.
It was concluded that larvicidmg of the manure with
nonselective insecticides is detrimental to mite predators of
the immature stages of the house fly, and should not be
practical. Selective application methods for adult fly control
are preferable and efforts to refine these methods should be
intensified. Very temporary control of fly larvae may be
accomplished with some chemicals, but the resurgence of the
fly population is rapid. In the absence of manure inhibiting,
predaceous, mites, the fly problem may become greater than
it was originally. Integrated control of the house fly is not
yet a reality.
68-0273
Cassell, E. A. Studies on chicken manure disposal. Part 2.
Chemical dewatering. Albany, New York State Department
of Health, May 1968. 244 p.
The feasibility of the use of chemical dewatering techniques
for the disposal of chicken manures was investigated in three
studies on: the generation of cost data for the application of
vacuum filtration to chicken manure treatment; dewatering
of chicken manure by centrifugation; and dewatering of
chicken manure by a hydraulic press. The total annual cost
for dewatering chicken manure by vacuum filtration varied
from $0.20 per bird per year to an excess of $1.20 per bird "
per year. The total annual cost decreased with increased farm
size. Chemical costs were estimated to be $0.20 per bird per
year. The solid-bowl centrifuge appeared to be best suited for
dewatering diluted manures, such as manure from liquid
handling processes. The catiomc polyelectrolyte used did not
significantly effect the solids content of the cake but did
improve the recovery of the chicken manure. The hydraulic
press was found to be well adapted to small farm use because
of its operational simplicity and ability to be adapted for
intermittant or batch use. The press cakes from the hydraulic
press had a total solids content of 45 to 55 percent. The
addition of polyelcctrolytes did not appear to increase the
total solids in the press cake.
680274
Compaan, J. P., and E.J.B. Bishop. Pineapple fruit waste as
silage. Farming in South Africa, 44(l):28-29, Apr. 1968.
The fruit canning factories in Port Elizabeth and East
London produce between 50,000 and 70,000 tons of
pineapple fruit waste annually. The waste from pineapple
fruit processing, including the outer peels and cores of the
pineapple, make very acceptable silage. Dehydration of the
waste is expensive but produces a stock feed called pineapple
bran. Silage of the material and dehydration for periods of
more than three weeks produces very acceptable silage. Dry
matter content is low for normal silage (14%) and the
concentration of nutrients is also low. The silage has to be
supplemented with the nutrients in other forms. Shrinkage
on the order of 48 percent makes hauling costs significant in
use of this product. Copious run-off of juice is experienced
during silaging. This requires good drainage.
68-0275
Control and Disposal of Cotton-Ginning Wastes; a
Symposium, Dallas, May 3-4, 1966. Public Health Service.
Publication No. 999-AP-31. Cincinnati, U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare, 1967. 103 p.
A symposium on the problems on cotton-ginning wastes was
sponsored by the National Center for Air Pollution Control
of the Public Health Service and the Agricultural Engineering
Research Division, Agricultural Research Service, U.S.
Department of Agriculture. Technological changes in cotton
harvesting and cotton ginning and the wider use of pesticides,
54
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0271-0280
desiecants, and defoliant chemicals in cotton production
suggested the need Cor the conference. The proceedings
umtain information on the following subjects, the roles of
local. State, and 1'ederal agencies in controlling air pollution,
the roles ot the State extension's gin and mechanization
specialists, methods employed in harvesting cotton:
operations and characteristics of the cotton gin: trash
disposal practices, methods of collecting lint cotton trash; air
pollution studies of cotton gins in Texas; Irash collection and
disposal systems; the design and operation ot the in-line
filter, consideration tor determining acceptable ambient and
source concentrations foi particulates from cotton gins, and
iccommendations foi needed research and development.
68-0276
Dale, A. C. Disposal of dairy cattle wastes by aerobic
digestion In Engineering Foundation Research Conference;
Solid Waste Research and Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis.,
July 22-26, 1968. New York. (Conference Preprint D-6.)
Specific determinations that should be earned out in the
development of an aerobic digestion system for the disposal
ot dairy cattle wastes are. chemical composition, physical
characteristics, and the undigested contents of the wastes,
effect of temperature on the aerobic digestion rate of the
wastes; loading rates of dairy cattle wastes to the water that
will permit satisfactory biological decomposition when the
mixture is supplied with air; separation of undigested feeds
and foreign matter from manures, adaptation ot a known
oxygenation system; and separation of digested sludge from
the effluent. One oxidation ditch, with a rotor aerator
operating under a slotted floor in a free stall dairy barn and a
floating aerator in a waste lagoon, is being tested Laboratory
work under way consists of several digestion studies to
determine factors affecting the degradation of manure such
as. loading rates, time, temperature, particle size, and
bacterial culture moculants.
680277
Das Gupta, P. C., and A. K. Mazumdar. Jute stiek cellulose as
a raw material for industrial nitrocellulose. Research and
Industry, 13(3)' 152-1 53, July-Sept. 1968.
The possibility ot using jute stick, which is rich in cellulose
(about 40/6), as an alternative starting material for
nitrocellulose production has been investigated. About 2
million tons of jute stick is available in India each year as an
agricultural by-product. Procedures have been worked out,
on a laboratory scale, for the production of lacquer-grade and
celluloid-grade nitrocellulose. The characteristics of the
nitrocellulose prepared from jute stick show close conformity
with the relevant Indian Standards Specifications.
68-0278
Day, D. L. Oxidation ditches for waste disposal. International
Journal of farm Building Research. 3 2-7, Dec. 1968.
The oxidation ditch is an efficient, low-cost process for the
treatment ot municipal waste. Several of its aspects make it
seem desirable for use in a confinement livestock
waste-treatment system. The aerobic method is an odorless
process whose final products are water, carbon dioxide, and
stable minerals. The oxidation ditch can be integrated into a
self-cleaning, slatted-floor system. However, control of
foaming is an immediate problem that must be solved before
the process can be unconditionally recommended.
Operational criteria must be developed if the method is to
serve tor complete treatment of livestock manure, with an
effluent that can be accepted by public health and water
board standards. It should be recognized that control of
odors emanating from dung cellars does not necessarily insure
an odorless building, as odors can be liberated from the
surfaces of slatted floors. Adaptations of the oxidation ditch
for the treatment of livestock manure are forthcoming, in
view of the intense research that is in progress in the United
States and abroad. However, until the current problems are
resolved, the disposal of livestock manure in a manner that
does not create an odor nuisance and a water pollution
hazard remains a complicated problem. It appears that an
additional stage of treatment will be necessary if an effluent
is to be produced which is up to public health and water
board requirements for discharge into a water course.
Removal of solids to a secondary stage of treatment, <•!
extended aeration in another oxidation ditch might be
possible for achieving complete stabilization. Poor settling
characteristics of the sludge usually accompany incomplete-
treatment.
68-0279
Day, D. L., D. D. Jones, and J. C. Converse. Field testing the
oxidation ditch for swine waste. In Engineering Foundation
Research Conference; Solid Waste Research and
Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26, 1968. New
York (Conference Preprint E-4.)
Severe foaming, poor sludge settling characteristics, brief
periods of ammonia release, and incomplete treatment are
some problems that need further research if oxidation ditches
are to adequately treat livestock waste. A satisfactory low
odor condition in the oxidation ditch has been achieved in
many field tests. Surplus sludge can be spread as a slurry or
irrigated without objectionable odor if the disposal is made
before the sludge has a chance to turn septic. The principal
parts of an oxidation ditch are described and illustrated in a
schematic diagram. Swine waste has a much greater
concentration of organic matter and fibrous lignaceous
material than municipal waste. The BOD of liquid hog
manure is usually 30,000 to 50,000 ppm. A second building
on the University of Illinois swine farm has been equipped
with an oxidation ditch. The rising amount of sludge has
been utilized in a field test to separate solids in an indoor
oxidation ditch.
68-0280
Dugan, G. L., C. G. Colueke, and W. J. Oswald.
Photosynthetic reclamation of agricultural solid and liquid
wastes. In Engineering Foundation Research Conference,
Solid Waste Research and Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis.,
July 22-26, 1968. New York. (Conference Preprint L-l.)
The object of this research is to convert agricultural wastes
now causing environmental problems into reclaimable
material. A detailed study will be made of the basic
characteristics of an integrated anaerobic fermentation and
55
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Agricultural Wastes
algal growth system for agricultural wastes on a pilot plant
scale. Reaction kinetics and overall performance of an
anaerobic reactor or pond, followed by an algal growth
reactor or pond, will be studied. Recirculation of algae-free
effluents will be employed for odor control and nutrient
transmission. Chicken manure was selected as the waste to be
used in the first part of the project. Experiments conducted
so far show that dried manure is digested only with difficulty
and that gas production is lower than that obtained when wet
manure is used. The design and construction of the pilot
plant is outlined.
68-0281
Esmay, M. L., and J. S. Boyd. Drying as a means of animal
waste management. Proceedings, American Petroleum
Institute, Division of Refining, 48:82-89, May 1968.
Drying as a system of waste management can be applied to all
types of manure and provides an end product which can be
stored indefinitely and causes no air or water pollution.
Reducing the moisture content of manure from
approximately 75 percent to 5 to 10 percent for purposes of
utilization or disposal shows promise. An experimental drier
for this consists of sloping trays which vibrate, letting the
manure migrate downwards against an updraft of heated air.
An experimental test showed a total cost for 357 Ib of wet
poultry manure of 69 cents per hr and a weight reduction of
water vs. wet weight of 76.7 percent. A ton of dried manure
would cost, for fuel and electricity, $16.60 to produce.
Depreciation and fixed costs would increase this total to
between $20 and $25. An analysis showed that 44 percent of
the non-protein nitrogen was lost during the drying process.
Dried poultry manure is estimated as being salable at
approximately $20 per ton. Thus drying is suggested as a way
of minimizing environmental degradation and providing
opportunities for use of manure as fertilizer where wet solid
or liquid manure would be unacceptable.
68-0282
Farm wastes. Water and Waste Treatment, 12(4): 131,
Nov.-Dec. 1968.
Experiments carried out in Holland on the aerobic treatment
of farm wastes were continued under a research grant from
the Ministry of Traffic and Water Affairs. Three experimental
plants began operation at the end of 1967 and three privately
owned plants are in operation: oxidation ditches lined with
plastic or bituminous material, an oxidation tank of
reinforced concrete, and a reinforced concrete ditch. The
only correct basis on which to design an extended-aeration
plant for treating farm waste is the BOD loading per kg per
day. The capacity of the ditch or tank can be calculated,
assuming a minimum mixed liquor suspended solids
concentration of 6000 mg per liter. It is cheaper to operate
plants of this type on an intermittent basis, with the aerator
being stopped and sedimentation taking place in the ditch or
tank before the effluent is discharged.
68-0283
Gibbons, J. Farm waste disposal in relation to cattle. Water
Pollution Control, 67(6): 622-626, 1968.
Changes in the pattern of farming such as the development of
silage feeding systems, the larger numbers of animals per man
employed, and the greater density of livestock per acre, have
affected the nature of the manure disposal problem. Dairy
cows cause the main problems of waste disposal. With the
advent of cubicle-housmg/low-labor systems, the traditional
methods-using straw to absorb the liquid, or piping the
manure to a liquid-manure tank or blind ditch—have become
inadequate. The manure now has to be handled as slurry
which inevitably means organic irrigation. Recently the
spreader-tanker is giving place to a manure spreader which
can deal with firm slurry. Care must be taken to exclude
silage effluent from farm drains, and to avoid the possibility
of its seeping into ground water supplies. Factors affecting
the choice of housing systems and methods of effluent
disposal are considered.
68-0284
Gin trash curbs wind erosion. Agricultural Research,
17(6):15, Nov. 1968.
Application of gin trash to exposed loamy fine sand may help
cotton farmers cut wind erosion losses and also reduce waste
disposal problems at the gin. Applications of 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7,
and 10 tons per acre of trash were tested. The 5-ton
application, considered the best, completely covered an acre
and cut soil losses 87 percent. The 3-ton rate cut soil losses
67 percent. Plots of ten 40-in. rows, 15 ft long were used.
Although the trash was spread by hand in tests, a standard
manure spreader could apply up to 20 tons per acre. Test
plots were subjected to wind velocities equal to 55 miles per
hr.
68-0285
Gunary, D. The availability of phosphate in sheep dung.
Journal of Agricultural Science, 70(l):33-38, Feb. 1968.
Sheep grazing good pastures may void 7 to 8.5 Ib phosphate
per head per year in dung. The fertilizing value of this
substantial amount of phosphate is of practical interest. The
amount of labile phosphate released in two soils from
incorporated sheep dung (of two phosphate levels) was
determined in a pot experiment. The inorganic phosphate in
dung was initially highly available, but it diminished in value
after a period of contact with soil. The organic fraction of
the phosphate had only small availability. A further pot
experiment where dung was applied to the surface of the two
soils indicated that, although dung phosphate may be readily
available, its value for grass depends on good contact between
the dung and the roots.
68-0286
Raines, M. Slurry storage-under high rainfall conditions.
Agriculture, 75(6):281-284, June 1968.
The advent of cubicle housing for dairy cattle has brought to
many farms the problem of slurry storage and handling,
especially in a flat land area with high rainfall. A workable
system was designed for a farm that had to provide slurry
storage for a period of at least 8 weeks for a held of 48 dairy
cows housed in cubicles bedded with sawdust and shavings.
The layout and operation are described in detail. A pit 36 ft
square was excavated to a maximum depth of 2 ft and lined
with concrete blocks to a height of 2 ft above ground level. A
concrete apron 1 2 ft long was provided for the easy access of
56
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0281-0292
machinery to empty the pit. This experience indicated that in
constructing such a pit, approximately 120 cu ft capacity per
cow should be provided for 60- to 70-day storage. The slopes
must be satisfactory, with the ramp sloped not more than 1
in 9, and with the fall in the pit floor about 1 in 24. The
areas where the slurry is produced should be covered, and
drainage water and long fodder must be excluded from the
pit. The pit should be emptied whenever the weather is
suitable for field spreading.
68-0287
Hart, S. A. Agricultural wastes management in the future.
Agricultural Engineering, 49(12): 729, 752, Dec. 1968.
Three areas in which improved agricultural waste
management will be necessary in the future include: livestock
and their wastes; crop residue problems; and municipally
generated wastes disposed of agriculturally. Manure problems
occur when, for example, the livestock farmer confines 5,000
to 50,000 animals in a feedlot of 25 to 200 acres about 4
miles from a city, and when a poultryman confines 100,000
chickens in cages with Vi sq ft of floor space per hen. The
main limitation in manure management today is economics.
The problem of odor control needs further study. The
mechanization of crop harvesting has created problems in
residue management and especially in tomato picking where
spoiled fruit is left to rot in the fields. Municipal solid wastes
can be disposed of economically by making a poor grade of
compost to be spread onto a specially reserved small parcel of
land at the maximum assimilation rate. Someday in the
future this land could be returned to agriculture or converted
to subdivisions. Questions of irrigation, drainage, leaching,
and pH control need to be answered. Training the engineer in
sanitary engineering, combined with an agricultural
engineering specialization, is recommended.
68-0288
Hunt, P. G., and T. C. Peele. Organic matter removal from
liquid peach waste by percolation thiough soil and
interrelations with plant growth and soil properties.
Agronomy Journal, 60(3):321-323, May-June, 1968.
To determine the effectiveness of the soil in reducing the
BOD of liquid peach cannery waste and the interrelations of
the waste with soil properties and plant growth, peach
cannery waste of three concentrations was applied to Cecil
sandy clay loam and Lakeland sand. Lysimeters were used
with Coastal bermuda grass. The soil was artificially placed in
the lysimeter to simulate sub-soiling to a depth of 50.8 cm.
The waste was applied at a rate of 2.54 cm per hr with total
amounts of 7.62 cm twice a week. No ponding was observed,
indicating an infiltration rate of at least 2.54 cm per hr. A
total of 82.55 cm of waste was applied during the season.
The BOD was reduced 98 percent by the Cecil and 64
percent by the Lakeland soil. Yield of the grass decreased
somewhat as the waste increased, but was higher in all cases
that the non-irrigated controls. Application of the waste
increased the exchangeable sodium in the soil, but no
appreciable effect on soil structure was found.
68-0289
Ishida, M., and T. Shirai. Fluidized incineration of chicken
droppings. Kagaku Kogaku, 32(5):459-463, May 1968.
The design of the fluidized-bed incinerator is shown in a
diagram with the dimensions, materials, and parts identified
in English. The experimental ranges for the incineration of
chicken droppings are given in a table (also in English). The
temperatures recorded after the deposit of chicken droppings
on the fluidized bed are shown in a graph. Formulas are
developed for the theoretical heat loss, the heat transfer rate
from chicken droppings to bed, and the weight of the final
product. The nomenclature used in the development of ail
these formulas is defined in English at the end of the article.
68-0290
Johnson, R.D. New process transforms corn wastes to protein
feed. Chemistry in Canada, 20(12):3940, Dec. 1968.
Laboratory experiments determined the controls necessary to
give yeast a competitive growth advantage in waste
treatment. In treating unpasteurized corn processing wastes,
the only difference from the activated sludge process was the
control of pH and the presence of sulphur dioxide in the
waste. With a pH between 4.0 and 5.0, and temperatures 22
to 30 C, only the yeast appears to grow. At a pH range of 5.5
to 7.0, the biomass became mainly bacterial, and many of the
normal activated sludge organisms were found. The yeast can
be used as a high protein feed material or be blended with an
existing corn gluten feed material.
68-0291
Jones, K. B. C. Farm waste management - lessons from
America. Agriculture, 75(5):213-218, May 1968.
Disposal of farm wastes is briefly considered, comparing the
United States and the United Kingdom. Methods of disposal
of waste on land and operations utilizing partially treated
municipal sludge on forest plantations for irrigation purposes
are described. Use of lagoons was considered disappointing
since a simple lagoon was not capable of digesting a
reasonable volume of solids for an extended period.
Extended aeration, including the Pasveer ditch, is considered,
but the lengthy times involved and the volume of waste to be
treated would probably make this uneconomical. Planning to
reduce the waste problem including proper location of farms
and adequate attention to disposal is essential to waste
management. Research into the nature of farm wastes is
encouraged to develop further methods of dealing with it.
68-0292
Krane, D. Experiences with the elimination of annoying
odors. Wasser, Luft und Betrieb, 12 (8):482483, Aug. 1968.
The Federal Republic of Germany has several chicken farms
with 200,000 to 500,000 chickens. One chicken produces
about 200 g of manure per day; thus a farm with 200,000
chickens has a daily accumulation of 4 tons of manure. Some
of the manure is used as fertilizer. But the agricultural
demand of manure varies with the seasons. The farmer,
however, must be able to get rid of his manure at any time of
the year since it cannot be stored. To solve the problem,
attempts have been made to convert the manure, which has a
water content of 75 to 80 percent, into a dry, odorless
fertilizer. The manure is very often dried at temperatures
between 400 and 850 C. Due to the decomposition of
nitrogen-containing organic substances, a process which
begins at a temperature somewhat above 100 C, intensive
odors develop. To avoid this, a new drier has been
constructed. It is heated with steam. A group of pipes runs
through a sheet steel pan. The manure falls into the pan and
57
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Agricultural Wastes
is shoveled into the packet-shaped pipe segments. The pipes
have a temperature of 140 C. The maximum temperature of
the manure is 70 C. The gas arising in this process has a
temperature of 90 C. The dust content is reduced in a wet
cleaner to less than 50 mg per cu m. Other methods, which
tried to render waste gases from manure driers without odor,
have not been as successful. (Text in German)
68-0293
Loehr, R. C. Animal wastes; a national problem. Presented at
American Society of Civil Engineers Environmental
Engineering Conference, Chattanooga, Tenn., May 13-17,
1968. 59 p.
As livestock feed lot operations increase, so will the problems
associated with handling, treatment, and disposal of waste.
Pollution caused by wastes from animal production facilities
can be detrimental to the environment. Education and
training activities are vital to the successful attack on the
animal waste problem. Coordinated research activities should
be initiated to investigate and control the processes for waste
handling, production, treatment, and maintenance. Also they
should provide detailed date on the quantity and quality of
any solid, liquid, or gaseous material that results from these
processes as well as feasible ultimate disposal techniques for
untreated solids and liquids. Land disposal projects should
collect data on crop response, on the effect of pollution
caused by rainfall and runoff, and on the maximum quantity
of wastes that can be applied to the land. Anaerobic
treatment processes are unlikely to be sufficient by
themselves. Aerobic systems without preliminary anaerobic
units may be feasible with dilute animal wastes. Sanitary
landfill is a possibility for dry and semisolid wastes.
68-0294
Loehr, R. C. Pollution implications of animal wastes-a
forward oriented review. Ada, Okla., U.S. Federal Water
Pollution Control Administration, July 1968. 175 p.
The magnitude of the animal waste disposal problem is
discussed, presently applicable technology is examined, and
areas where additional information is needed are outlined.
Trends in animal and manure production are described in
detail. Water pollution and the health aspects of pollution
relate to increased production facilities and confinement
feeding of animals. Waste treatment and disposal methods
include anaerobic digestion, aerobic systems, anaerobic
lagoons, land disposal, incineration, and composting. Animal
production and waste treatment costs are tabulated, and
various treatment processes are compared and evaluated. The
authority for the abatement and control of pollution from
agricultural sources exists within the Federal government.
Recommendations are included for developmental research,
field research, and education in the techniques of animal
waste treatment and disposal. A bibliography is included.
68-0295
Loehr, R. C. Trends in animal production. In Pollution
implications of animal wastes-a forward oriented review.
Ada, Okla., U.S. Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration, July 1968. p.9-23.
The number of livestock raised for slaughter is expected to
increase at about the same rate as the population. The
number of commercial livestock feeding operations will
increase as will the numbers of animals per production unit.
The north central States will continue to feed the majority of
the hogs; the north central, south central, and western States
will continue to feed the majority of cattle; the south central
and Atlantic regions will continue to raise the majority of the
broilers; and the other poultry populations may be fairly well
distributed throughout the nation. Because of increased
livestock production, increased numbers of production units,
and increased numbers of animals per production unit, the
problems associated with the handling, treatment, and
disposal of wastes from these units are just beginning to be
realized, and will be magnified in the future. Statistics are
given for per capita consumption of meat; distribution of
hog, cattle, and poultry production; number and capacity of
feedlots;and farm and livestock projections.
68-0296
Loehr, R. C. Manure production. In Pollution implications of
animal wastes-a forward oriented review. Ada, Okla., U.S.
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, July 1968.
p.24-53.
Published values for estimated animal manure production
vary due to differences in housing and management practices,
type of rations fed, analytical techniques employed, and
manure handling and collection techniques. The evaluation of
animal waste characteristics is summarized. The trend toward
more confinement feeding will create greater concentrations
of waste. These wastes will be of a greater pollutional nature
as the feed rations slowly change to feeds that contain less
roughage and more biodegradable material. A number of
States have a per capita equivalent animal population greater
than the human population. About half of the beef cattle
feedlots have capacities for 2,000 head, and 10,000-head lots
are not uncommon. These lots will produce wastes, on a total
solids basis, equivalent to that from communities of
approximately 36,000 and 182,000 population, respectively.
Broiler operations may house from 100,000 to 1,000,000
birds. These operations produce wastes comparable (o
communities of approximately 10,000 and 100,000
population, respectively. Animal waste production m the
United States exceeds that of the human population.
68-0297
Loehr, R. C. Pollution hazards. In Pollution implications of
animal wastes-a forward oriented reveiw. Ada, Okla., U.S.
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, July 1968.
p.54-68.
Production facilities and confinement feeding of animals have
been developed with little planning and concern for the
nuisance and pollutional characteristics inherent in the
facilities. The economics of pollution and nuisance control in
animal production is an important factor and may mean the
difference between the success or failure of the facility.
Information is lacking on the pollution potential inherent in
spreading wastes on land. Both ground and surface water
contamination can result as the soluble components, such as
nitrates and chlorides, are leached into the ground and as
runoff moves a variety of potential pollutanfs overland.
Seasonal, soil, and crop variations determine the maximum
quantity of waste that can be put upon the soil without
58
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0293-0302
causing problems. Methods to minimize the nutrient
contribution of animal waste treatment facilities and
confinement feeding operations for land disposal of solid and
liquid wastes are discussed. The color of the liquid fraction
from confinement and treatment facilities could be
detrimental to discharge and water reuse.
680298
Loehi, R. C. Waste treatment and disposal. In Pollution
implications of animal wastes-a forward oriented review.
Ada, Okla., U.S. Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration, July 1968. p.69-109.
Coordinated interdisciplinary activities involving sanitary
engineers, agricultural engineers, economists, agronomists,
and those interested in animal husbandry are needed.
Adoption of processes used for municipal and industrial
wastewater treatment are not likely to be successful with
animal wastes unless process modifications are made for
differences in waste characteristics. Because of the quality of
animal wastes, anaerobic processes will be a part of many
feasible systems treating animal wastes. Afiaerobic processes
may be controlled and used as manure holding facilities, or
controlled to accomplish optimum organic decomposition as
well. Aerobic treatment processes can be used, although
additional data is needed on the quality of the effluent from
the aerobic processes, the effect of shock loading conditions
occasioned by slug loading of preliminary anaerobic units,
the effect of temperature variations, and the cost of
operating and maintaining such systems. Land disposal is
becoming less economical due to the large quantity of wastes
generated, the costs of transporting the wastes to suitable
disposal sites, and the availability of inexpensive fertili£ers.
Incineration, wet oxidation, and sanitary landfill are possible
disposal methods. There is no profitable method of livestock
manure utilization. European practices can be a guide for
potentially successful American systems.
68-0299
Loehr, R. C. Costs. In Pollution implications of animal
wastes-a forward oriented review. Ada, Okla., U.S. Federal
Water Pollution Control Administration, July 1968.
p.l 10-144.
Size and costs for a number of treatmenl processes were
explored. Combinations of processes will be necessary to
meet the needs of specific operations and locations. Since the
wastes originate as semisolid material, it may be better to
handle and dispose of the wastes as a semisolid, rather than
increase the volume to be handled and process it as a liquid
slurry. From the size and cost standpoint, simple anaerobic
units, mechanical or diffused aeration systems, simplified
incineration units, low pressure, wet oxidation, and sub-soil
injection of wastes should be explored as potential processes
for animal waste treatment and disposal. Although almost no
information relating to animal waste treatment processes is
available, a summary comparison of the cost of possible
treatment units is given. Available data are included for- the
cost of cattle feeding operations; the cost of liquid hog
manure disposal, and the size of possible anaerobic lagoons,
wet oxidation, incineration, composting, and land disposal
units.
68-0300
Loehr, R. C. Legal. In Pollution implications of animal
wastes-a forward oriented review. Ada, Okla., U.S. Federal
Water Pollution Control Administration, July 1968.
p.145-150.
Authority for the abatement and control of pollution from
agricultural sources exists within the Federal government,
although it has not been used in a specific case. The basic
policy of water pollution control can be found in the Water
Pollution Control Act of 1948 and subsequent legislation.
States are awakening to the need to provide adequate
regulations concerning the disposal of animal wastes. Kansas
is one of the first States in the United States to adopt
regulations for the control of water pollutants from animal
feedtot operations. Since many feeding operations are more
than 5 miles from any city, it is unlikely that local legislation
will be effective. It will be necessary to supplement and
parallel any regulatory and enforcement activity with a
planned educational program and a productive research
program. The achievements in England, accomplished by
better regulatory control and by continuing education and
research, are briefly reviewed.
680301
Loehr, R. C. Summary and recommendations. In Pollution
implications of animal wastes-a forward oriented review.
Ada, Okla., U.S. Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration, July 1968. p.151-161.
Animal wastes constitute one of six farm wastes whose
management and disposal have become one of the most
challenging problems of modern farming. Suitable solutions
to the problem require identification and analysis of the
properties of the wastes, handling procedures, treatment
techniques, utilization methods, and ultimate disposal.
Ultimate disposal of most of the stabilized waste material will
have to be on agricultural lands. Recommendations for
developmental research include studies of: the economics of
waste control, handling processes and systems, treatment
processes and systems, effect of the effluents and solid
residues on the environment, and pollutional parameters.
Recommended field research and development cover: land
disposal studies, animal management studies, effects on the
environment, waste and water refuse, and demonstration
projects. Formal training at M.S. and Ph.D. levels, senior
fellowships, workshops, and dissemination of information to
the general public, the agricultural community, and personnel
operating abatement systems are suggested educational
measures.
68-0302
New approach to disposal of cotton crop wastes. Agricultural
Research, 17(6):13, Nov. 1968.
An experimental machine promises to dispose of old
cropstalks and roots in cottonfields by cutting the stalks and
removing the roots in a single operation, separating 88 to 97
percent of the roots. The machine consists of a modified
framework of a commercial trailing rotary cutter with an
added standard toolbar on the rear. Best results for a cutting
device attached to the toolbar were obtained with a pair of
16-in., high-lift, sweeps with trash rods extending to the rear.
59
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Agricultural Wastes
The sweeps lift the soil 3 in., and the rods give additional lift
to the stubble, separating it from the soil. There was no trash
buildup within the machine, which performs satisfactorily
under both wet arid dry field conditions, and can be operated
at speeds up to 8 miles per hr.
680303
Pontin, R. A., and S. H. Baxter. Wastes from pig production
units. Water Pollution Control, 67(6):632-638, 1968.
Ixind disposal and composting are outlined as two methods
for the disposal of increasing quantities of slurry from
intensive pig production units. Compared with domestic
sewage, piggery wastes are two or three times as slrong and
possibly twice as difficult to treat by lagoomng, anaeiobic
digestion, biological filtration, and activated sludge processes.
Experiments were carried out at a piggery to determine the
possible application of oxidation ditches. The final effluent
from these trials contained a considerable amount of fine
suspended matter which did not settle, but which could be
removed by filtration. Modifications to the cianfier will
facilitate pumping out settled sludge and allow the solids in
die secondary ditch to be reduced. Sludge drying was not
successful despite the presence of fiber in the sludge. The
cost of oxidation ditch treatment is estimated to be less than
that of providing dung channels and slurry storage.
68-0304
Proceedings; Second National Poultry Litter and Waste
Management Seminar, College Station, Texas, Sept. 30-Oct.
1, 1968. Texas A&M University. 229 p.
The Second National Poultry Litter and Waste Management
Seminar was held for the purpose of discussing possible ways
of managing and disposing of poultry litter and cage manure
to meet future needs of the dynamically growing poultry
industry. The papers presented were. The waste disposal
problem in agriculture; Mission impossible: control odots in
poultry production; Environmental control-concepts and
practices; Poultry litter management on Dclmarva; Litter for
brooding and confinement turkeys; Microbiological aspects
of poultry wastes; Digesting poultry manure under cages;
Nutrient recycling; Recycling poultry wastes and insecticides,
The effect of reusing poultry litter on diseases and breast
blistejs, Trace mineral content of poultry litter and manure;
Effects of poultry litter on certain horticultural crops;
Dehydrating poultry wastes in Britain; and the theory and
practices of anaerobic lagoon for successful waste disposal.
68-0305
Riley, C. T. A review of poultry waste disposal possibilities.
Water Pollution Control, 67 (6):627-631, 1968.
Wastes from laying hens, about 90 percent of which are
housed, is a maior disposal problem. This manure has higher
nitrogen, phosphoius, and potassium values than any other
agricultural waste, but is sticky and difficult to handle.
Traditionally, this waste has been applied to the land with
questions arising concerning diseases and soil fertility. During
pait of the year, it must be stored for periods of up to 12
weeks. Mechanical drying and heat drying of the manure has
been investigated in order to utilue the waste as fertilizer or
animal feed. Laboratory experiments have indicated thai if
caustic soda were added to the manure, the odor would
almost disappear and the number of cohtorms would be
reduced. The disposal of waste from deep-litter and broiler
houses is not a great problem because the material is clean,
easy to handle and can be disposed of on land. The inedible
by-products of poultry processing stations are treated in
various vvays to produce fertilizer, animal feed, and fats.
Processing waters can be treated successfully by the
activated-sludge process.
680306
Rilcy, C. T. Wastes from the poultry industry. Agriculture,
75(8);374-376, Aug. 1968.
Hatchery waste, a mixture of condemned cockerel chicks,
incubator fluff, and shells from hatched chicks, can be
treated to produce a protein level up lo 36 percent. Manure
from growing stock can have a moisture content of up to 70
percent and it can have an extremely high nitrogen and
valuable protein level. Investigations are underway in freeze
drying to produce a fertilizer from the manure, and in
recycling the manure's nitrogen to ruminants as a source of
protein. The deep litter from broilers, usually a mixture of
sawdust plus fecal matter, is the most easily handled and
friable manure and carries the highest nitrogen content of
any agricultural wasle. Problems in recycling this waste to
ruminants include' uncertain fiber and moisture content, and
the danger of transferring pathogens. Feathers and offal from
broilers give waste materials used to make protein feed,
fertilizer, and other items for agriculture and industry. These
wastes at present do not have a substantial return to the
producer, but investigations are being made into the waste
disposal disciplines to try to develop returns for the
producer.
68-0307
Schmidt, G. P. Handling of animal leees from pig fattening
farms. Hygiene, 14(12).910-914, Dec. 1968.
The fcces and stable wastewater to be removed in
pig-fattening farms have to be gradually processed in a
manner unobjectionable in hygienic respects, as the rotting
fecal wastes involve critical hygienic problems—the
transmission of pathogenic germs which is made worse by
flies. The relevant data published in the literature are
evaluated, and the possibility of processing such feces and
stable wastewaters in a manure lagoon is discussed. In
addition to the manure lagoon system already operating at
Wolgast, m the District of Rostock, where the wastewaters
processed in the lagoons are subsequently utilized for
agricultural purposes, further manure lagoons should be laid
oul under economically justifiable prerequisites, for they can
be operated cheaply and simply. This type of manure lagoon
system not only helps to utilize ail organic matter but will
also provide hygiemcally unobjectionable conditions in the
pig-fattening farms. (Text in German)
68-0308
Science and improving our environment; how agricultural
research prevents pollution. Agriculture Information Bulletin
No. 319. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office,
1967. [12p.l
Agricultural scientists are actively fighting pollution to
safeguard good health. Silt, dust, farm wastes, and pesticide
60
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0303-0312
residues are all troublesome pollutants. Tons of trash are
dumped illegally upon farmland in addition to the usual farm
wastes. Livestock are now producing more than 2 billion tons
of manure each year. A few large producers dehydrate
manure, bag it, and then sell it to home gardeners and
commercial growers. Others build lagoons that too often
discharge fertilizer nutrients into waterways. Agricultural
engineers have proposed using the fertilizer elements from
manure lagoons. A series of basins, planted with grass, would
serve as mechanical and chemical filters to purify the runoff
water from lagoons. The forage could then be fed to
livestock. Feathers, as well as dried citrus molasses and other
wastes of fruits, vegetables, and crops are also used as feed.
They can now be dried into a nutritious product. Research is
being conducted to find new methods of controlling
insects-methods that will reduce the use of chemical
insecticides or lower the amounts necessary. Natuial enemies
of insect pests, certain viruses and bacteria, arc proving
effective alternates to chemical insecticides. Soil scientists are
seeking ways to protect crops from radioactive fallout. An
emergency standby process has been developed for washing
strontium 90 off wheat.
684)309
Soutar, D. S., and S. H. Baxter. Disposal of effluent from the
piggery. Agriculture, 75 (4): 165-170, Apr. 1968.
Handling of pig effluent in sludge form involves careful
consideration of the design and management of the pigpen.
Sludge effluent systems can handle only limited amounts of
bedding, and this factor can affect the sludge. Sludge storage
requirements and methods, conveyance, dangers from the
toxic gases that result from letting the sludge stand, and
disposal of the sludge on land are considered. At the present
state of development, properly organized field distribution of
sludge as fertilizer is probably the most satisfactory answer to
disposal, but this often gives rise to objectionable odors. Use
of the Pasveer oxidation ditch shows promise in treating the
sludge and producing acceptable effluent.
680310
Taiganides, E. P. Engineering properties of farm wastes. In
Engineering Foundation Research Conference; Solid Waste
Research and Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26,
1968. New York. (Conference Preprint E-5.)
The management of animal wastes has become a national
problem with the trend toward confinement production of
animals. It is estimated that 90 percent of laying hens, close
to 100 percent of broilers, 30 to 40 percent of swine and
dairy cattle, and a continuously increasing number of beef
cattle are being raised in confinement. The characteristics of
the farm waste problem may be evaluated through an analysis
of the phenomena associated with their generation, transport,
processing, utilization, and disposal. As shown in tabular
form, part of the problem is due to the nature of the wastes
themselves which are not fluid enough to be pumpable by
conventional pumps, nor to decompose without putrefaction,
nor are they dry enough to be transportable as odor free bulk
materials. Soil-plant systems offer the best potential for the
utilization of animal wastes.
680311
Taiganides, E. P., and R. K. White. Origin, identification,
concentration and control of noxious gases in animal
confinement production units. Columbus, Department of
Agricultural Engineering, Ohio State University, 1968. 20 p.
The conditions that generate noxious gjses, what those gases
might be, and how they might affect animals and under what
circumstances these gases could cause death arc analyzed.
The principles involved in the control of odors and noxious
substances are discussed. There is no scientific evidence that
odors themselves affect the health of animals or humans. It is
inhaling the gases, not their odor, no matter how distasteful
the odor might be, that has a health significance. We must
resort to analytical means for the detection of odorless gases
and for the quantitive measurement of all gases. The most
important gases generated within an animal confinement unit
are: carbon dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, methane,
and a host of organic compounds such as organic acids,
inercaptans. skatols, etc., in trace quantities. The danger is
breathing air devoid of oxygen. The source of oxygen inside a
confinement building is atmosphenc air which is 20.1 percent
oxygen. This quantity can easily be depleted in a
confinement unit full oi animals with no renewal of air
through forced ventilation or natural drafts. Provisions
should be included to have oxygen reach every spot where an
animal will keep its nose for several minutes. The major
noxious gases are summarized in a table. The control of
noxious gases and preventive measures arc enumeraled.
Under no circumstances should the contents of manure pits
under slotted floors in farrowing houses be stirred unless the
house is completely ventilated at the time of stirring.
68-0312
Thompson, P D Methods for disposal of poultry manure
New Zealand Journal of Agriculture. I 16( IH4-49, Jan.
1968
Poultry manure from laying cages should be removed at
frequent intervals, and because of its high moisture content.
it is not convenient to handle. Flies can be eliminated by the
complete removal of the droppings every week, and by
keeping the manure dry. Poultry manure has a high organic
content with a good percentage of useablc nitrogen,
phosphorus and potash. The actual weight and volume of the
droppings will depend mainly on its moisture content One
thousand laying birds will produce approximately one ton
(32 cu ft) of manure a week. Poultrj manure can be disposed
of in three steps' the collection of droppings from the cages;
the removal of the droppings from the house, and the final
disposal of the manure. Various mechanized i em oval
machines have been constructed to collect the droppings.
After removing the manure from the house, the manuie may
be treated as fresh manure, with or without the addition of
water, the prime consideration being volume Sludge disposal
is pal ticularly effective where fresh droppings are cleaned out
regularly Indoor lagoons (under the cages) and outdoor
lagoons or oxidation ponds are another method oi dealing
with liquid manure Indoor lagoons rely on anaerobic and
some aerobic bacteria for the breakdown ol the manure,
whereas in the outdoor lagoons the breakdown is niamlv by
aerobic bacteria. Manure drying appears to be the most
promising method of dealing with the dail> production ot
61
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Agricultural Wastes
manure from large-scale battery units. None of the units
available so far are fully automated
68-0313
Total harvester chops stover for silage as it shells corn. Crops
and Soils, 21(2):21, Nov. 1968.
A total corn harvesting machine, built by agricultural
engineers at Iowa State University, picks and separates corn
from the stalk, field shells the corn, and chops the stalk,
leaves, cobs, and husk to make stover silage. The stover silage,
when properly supplemented with minerals and balanced
with protein, provides a cheap feed for brood cows. Crops
harvested with the 'Beefmaker' machine yielded 7,100 Ib per
acre of shelled corn and 5,800 Ib per acre of stover silage.
68-0314
Van Dam, J., and C. A. Perry. Manure management, costs and
product forms. Compost Science, 9(2):26-27, Summer 1968.
A case study was undertaken to determine the actual cost of
removing and disposing manure from a beef feedlot in Los
Angeles County. Manure was prepared for marketing in three
basic forms and sold under four pricing conditions. At least 6
months were allowed for manure to cure in a compost pile
before processing. Product forms for marketing included:
unprocessed, composted manure, processed, composted bulk;
and processed, packaged compost. The combined fixed and
variable costs per cu yd amounted to 10.5 cents for
unprocessed, 65 cents for processed, and $1.88 for the
packaged form. The weighted average selling price per cu yd
was $3.80 for packaged; $2.40 for processed; $1.40 for
unprocessed, and $1.00 at the stockpile for unprocessed
manure. The processed bulk product had the greatest net
revenue based on net returns, product form volumes, and
weighted average price, less total costs. It was concluded that
a livestock feedlot operator could realize a profit from the
sale of manure.
68-0315
Wasleigh, C. H. Wastes in relation to agriculture and forestry.
U.S. Department of Agriculture Miscellaneous Publication
No. 1065. Washington, Mar. 1968. 112 p.
The situation regarding wastes in relation to agriculture and
forestry is very thoroughly treated with Literature references
to specific points cited. Areas covered are: wastes as (hey
affect the agriculture and forestry industries; wastes
contributed by the agriculture and forestry industries;
research, ongoing or completed, by the U.S. Department of
Agriculture and State agricultural experiment stations
contributing to the amelioration of waste problems; and
problems in waste management requiring attention in
agriculture and forestry. Ten major categories of materials
which contaminate the environment in relation to agriculture
and forestry are: radioactive substances, chemical air
pollutants, airborne dust, sediments, plant nutrients,
inorganic salts and minerals, organic wastes, infectious agents
and allergens, agricultural and industrial chemicals, and heat.
680316
Waste problems of agriculture and forestry. Environmental
Science and Technology, 2(7): 498-503, July 1968.
Because it has become more economical to build soil nutrient
levels by applying synthetic fertilizer from a bag rather than
using animal manure, a waste disposal problem has
developed. Removing the waste from animal quarters and
spreading it on land represents a significant cost to the meat
producer. Suburbanites moving into agricultural areas have
protested against accumulations that give off malodors. A
report from the Department of Agriculture lists goals of
identifying and destroying odor-producing bacteria prevalent
in manures, treating manure to eliminate flies and vermin,
and developing better procedures for applying manure to
cropland. Controlled burning is the only economically
feasible technique for disposing of forest trash (an average of
25 million tons per year). However, this produces air
pollution. The total contribution of processing wastes
(agricultural, meat, etc.) to water, air, and land
contamination is tremendous. The amount of processing
wastes can be lessened by the development of useful
products, the improvement of processes so that less waste is
produced, and the development of ways of treating wastes
before disposal in streams. There is need for widespread
control of plant disease agents and allergens. Other
environmental contaminants in relation to agriculture and
forestry are: radioactive substances, chemical air pollutants,
airborne dusts, sediment, plant nutrients, inorganic salts and
minerals, organic wastes, agricultural and industrial
chemicals, heat, etc.
68-0317
White, R. K. Analysis of volatile gases from animal wastes
using gas chromatography. A review and abstracts of selected
references. Agricultural Pollution Control Research
Laboratory Report No. 1 6. Columbus, Ohio State University,
1968. 16 p.
A review and abstracts of selected references on the analysis
of volatile gases from animal wastes is presented. In order to
determine the conditions under which the offensive odors
from animal wastes are generated, the volatile compounds
must be separated, identified as odorous or non-odorous,
identified qualitatively, and evaluated quantitatively.
Sampling and collecting techniques basically use a cold trap
of dry ice m acetone and/or a cold trap of liquid nitrogen.
Sensory identification of odorous components includes the
use of a stream-splitter on the effluent from a gas
chromatograph. Qualitative identification of odorous
components can use retention time, peak enhancement or
elimination, selective chemical absorption of effluent peaks,
and mass and infrared spectral techniques. Quantitative
analysis of odorous components is associated with peak
height or area. An internal standard method of quantitative
analysis is discussed.
680318
Wit7,el, S. A. The nitrogen cycle in surface and subsurface
waters. Madison, University of Wisconsin Water Resources
Center, Dec. 1968.65 p.
The objectives of the nitrogen cycle studies arc' to determine
sources of nitrogen and phosphorus which are contributing
factors to lake eutrophication; to determine what
contributions originate from farm animal wastes and other
farming operations; to determine what effect season of
application, frost conditions, and snow cover have; to study
losses of N and P to subsurface water as the rate of
application of animal wastes is varied; to study plant recovery
of N fertilizers; and to study action of microorganisms in the
62
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0313-0322
v f- •:' ;he nitrogen cycle. Plots receiving no manure and
from which plant residues have been removed had more
surface runot't and produced lower yields when compared
«'ith those whirr receive manure incorporation into tru soil.
oiound water which supplies the base flow in stiejms,
probably contributes less than 20 percent of the total
> ii,;ii", m the streams. In pervious soils under high fertilizer
ar'pii,'iM.'i'S considerable leaching of N to ground water wa<
'.•up';' ' i si, "lio" moderatelv permeable soiK in one studied
;r ' ,.',i"> .it the farm wells produce water aiteadv
exceeding the safe level of nitrates. The evidence clearly
indicates that N added to the soil, in the form of commercial
k-i iill/- , >r a. manure in excess of crop needs, may result in
'.or.suieiaole movement of nitrate N to ground water.
%' i u organisms capable of rapid nitrification have been
' • r . Re,;- ••, ,.!' i> \u level. •>! both mtraie and nitiiieare
v., .,i- • ,; ,,Ji 10 call for an intensive program ol restart,!;.
Phosphor- is 1-st through runoff when it flows over or
.-oi'vs u.;n~' ,oosed animal wastes on frozen giound 01
feejli 'is.
btJ-0319
Wit/el, S. A. Ground water pollution in the Rib falls
Community. Marathon County. In The nitrogen cycle in
>i. ii^, 'tiii subsurface waters. Madison, University of
Wisconsin i",ak; Resources Center, Dec. 1968. p. 10-1 3.
' L, . ' this part ot the north centni area ot
HMon-xin s sucn that high amounts ot nitrates aie expected
10 show up in the ground water as a sensitive indicator of
dangers n.":i current practices of waste disposal and fertilizer
,i, pdciti.i Man> weUs are shallow, improperly constructed.
;i>, i'i. I" • 'd nd are influenced by excessive applications
.-1. - -r h .'I 6d tons to the acre around
... . .;. \\ -it,'!! 'hi nitrate radical content ot the
UuMiestK Hater supply on a dairv farm was lound to be 158
"•i- per hit • !!".• farmei was advised to bring in \ife watei tor
di'.ukiiif, nij , '..'king. Continuing studies on this and other
wells in tiie area have shown a high nitrate concentration in
tl, '- !'s, that is, containing more than 45 ppm ot nitrate-,.
S:- ' .,* wells . ;- dnlkd well:, loss than ICO !( u> depth were
,«pi 'i. contain High nitrite contents in leiad.m to nitrates.
S-, liiov wells 'bviously collecting drainag' fr IPI feedlots,
rti.'Mrc pits, sin- drainage, and similar soi, s were hu:h m
nitrites and in bacterial counts, namely total bacteria, total
KiUtotm, and even fecal coliform counts Tlie leaching of
>ol,,M iiifates is apt to occur during pui.-ds of heavy
lamfall in (Ins area, particularly in late fall and early spring.
The piocess is accelerated when the soil is not fiozen, and no
veiret.ifion is growing to remove both nitrate ar.d moisture
firm t]u soil.
68-0320
Witzcl, S. A. Migiation ot nitrates in soils as bearing upon the
problem of nitrates in subsurface waters. In The nitrogen
cycle in surface and subsurface waters. Madison, University
of Wisconsin Water Resources Center, Dec. i9fi8. p.14-23.
Nutrient losses due to percolation were deter,nined by using
soil protjle samples taken at various levels tluough and belm\
i'1 •' zone. The samples were diu'vt.'d for ammonia
radtuii. niiiite radical, nutate radical, and total organic
nitrogen. The chemical analyses were made on water, soil,
plant tissues and waste with the Bremner-Keeney apparatus.
The effect ot soil type, soil management, cropping practices
and land use on farms, and amounts and movement of
nitrogen through the soil protile were studied. Results
completed to date include three sets of profile samples i,f
cropped and virgin soils taken at three experimental farms.
Data show that total recovery of fertilizer nitrogen by the
crop as soil nitrogen ranged from 48 to 64 percent, and that
recovery under fallow conditions was 99 percent. Results
obtained on the movement of nitrogen through the soil
profile suggest tli:>t the sampling of soil profiles will provide
much needed information on the forms and amounts of
nitrogen present, their rate of movement, their relation to
manure and tertili^e; j lactices. and the extent of pollution ot
underground water. \ comparison between the profiles of
virgin and cropped soils \\illgi.c a good id1;;' '" the \AU,I* lo
\vhich the rate ot pollution ot undjr^iound \\aiu with
nitrate has changed since the land w;>s first placed under
cultivation. Studies are being continued on nitropeii
movement through soil profile in relation to manure a,id
nitrogen applications, barnyards, feeding lots, MH! 15 pe,
topography, various cropping practices, and virgin conditions.
68-0321
Witzel, S. A. tcologtcal relations of pollutional bac'cria
peicolatmg in fertile agricultural soils. In The nitrogen cycle
tn surface and subsurface waters. Madison, University ot
Wisconsin Hater Resouices Center. Dec. 1968 p.24-25
The first experiments on movement of pollution bacteria
through soil were done on a laboratory scale with soil
columns set up on the lystmeter principle. Water was fust
passed through to equilibrate to about field capacity
moistuie. In a silt loam soil, the coliform bacteria with
starting counts of 10 million per ml ot uater \vert trap}-,'; u.
the fiist 8 m. of soil in the columns. In sand, they passed
through 2 ft and still showed over 100,000 ml in the water
collect'1!!. Ir< a tield experiment, 5-gal metal pails (with
bottoms cut off) were set to about three-quarters of their
depth into a field of Miami silt loam. One set of three pails
received a manure w.ile. ^iu/ry in amounts to repiescnt 15
tons pcv at,se; a second set, 80 tons per acre, a third, i5 tons
per acre, followed a week later by an additional 15 tons per
acre application, and a fourth set, untreated controls. Counts
of both coliform and cnterococci in the manure slurry were
determined to be approximately 10 million and 100 million
per ml, respectively. Differential counts showed both types
of pollution bacteria to be removed b> adsorption within the
first 14 in. ot soil.
68^)322
Witzel, S. A. Effects of agricultural practices on ground water
quality. In The nitrogen cycle in surface and subsurface
waters. Madison, University of Wisconsin Water Resources
Center, Dec. 1968. p.26-36.
The effect of nitrogen fertilizer, applied at high rates on
growing irrigated crops, on the quality of ground water was
investigated. The light sandy soils of central Wisconsin were
selected for the study, and a total of 17 well points were
driven to lull screen depth (4 ft) below static water table, on
the periphery, and at critical points within a sequence of
eight fields. The rainfall for the study period totaled 16.39
in., and irrigation was applied to certain fields. Results
indicated that fertilizers do contribute to the nitrate
63
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Agricultural Wastes
concentrations in the ground water in this area, therefore
shallow wells would not always provide a safe water supply.
Water from one test well was above the toxic level of 10 mg
per liter of nitrate N nearly 50 percent of the year. There
may be a buildup of nitrates in the aquifer to increasingly
greater depths with continued application of fertilizer and
the conversion of more of the land to intensive crop
production. The irrigation well is deep into the aquifer, and it
is picking up high nitrate concentrations in the draw-down
cone.
nitrogen from agricultural wastes, fertilizers, legumes and
precipitation, except for losses in surface runoff, the
volatilization of ammonia, and denitnfication with gaseous
nitrogen being lost to the atmosphere. While representing
only a small pan of Ihe total base flow, the contributions of
sewage plant effluent from rural villages, cheese factories, and
from some pooiiy located barnlots, may have supplied most
of the P and K. By diverting raw wastes to land disposal and
treated wastes to tertiary treatment, more of the P and K
could be removed from tins base flow.
68-0323
Witzel. S. A. Biological nitrification-is it a source of the
nitrite or nitrate in surface and subsurface waters? In The
nitrogen cycle in surface and subsurface waters. Madison,
University of Wisconsin Water Resources Center, Dec. 1968.
p.3942.
A survey of Aspergillus and Penicillium species for their
nitrifying ability, and tests of selected soil and water samples
as to relative activity of their autotrophic and heterotrophic
nitrifying populations were carried out. Nitrifying species
were found in all groups of Aspergillus. Of the 24 species of
Penicillium, none produced nitrate in Schmidt's Medium,
while 21 of the 24 did when 0.5 g per liter of sodium nitrite
was added. In general, it was found that the tested active
nitrifying cultures contained many actinomjcetes and
gram-bacteria. Of 47 cultures tested for heterotrophic
nitrification, 45 produced nitrite-nitrogen in the range 5 to
154 per micro g per ml; the average was 48.8 micro g per ml.
Because the heteroptrophs concerned are common and
widely distributed, they must be considered in ecosystems
where nitrification occurs. Experiments with nitrification in
water slurries of poultry manure have been carried out, and
some very active heterotrophic nitrifiers, mainly
aetinomycetes, have been found. Literature on feedlot runoff
shows very high production of nitrates under conditions in
which autotrophic nitrification is highly unlikely. It was
concluded that biological nitrification is certainly one source
of the problem levels of nitrate and nitrite in water.
68-0324
Witzel, S. A. Plant nutrients in base flow of Southwestern
Wisconsin streams. In The nitrogen cycle in surface and
subsurface waters. Madison, University of Wisconsin Water
Resources Center, Dec. 1968. p.4346,
A study of the base flow on 38 water sheds from 2.2 to 88
sq. miles in size and confined to unglaciated, deeply
undulated southwestern Wisconsin terrain was undertaken to
obtain a measure of the degree of pollution prevailing in the
streams during base flow. At that time, they represent ground
water, plus any added effluent from sewage plants, milk and
cheese factory wastes, or feedlot drainage. Biweekly samples
were taken and analyzed for N, P, and K. The 1967 data
showed an unusual and unexplained high level of organic
nitrogen for some streams on May 23. These were deleted in
computing the average for 1967. The high levels may have
been caused by some unusual local conditions such as whey
discharge from cheese factories, cattle standing in the stream,
or other occurrences. The small amount of nitrogen
compounds in these streams was equal to about 10 percent of
the nitrogen received annually through precipitation. The
vegetation on these lands was recovering much of the
68-0325
Witzel, S. A. The Lancaster plots. In The nitrogen cycle in
surface and subsurface waters. Madison, University of
Wisconsin Water Resources Center, Dec. 1968. p.47-49.
Present-day practices still include the daily or periodic
hauling of animal wastes to fields throughout the winter. The
nearly level fields have been favored with higher waste
applications. A set of eight small plots, 10 by 40 ft in area,
were established for the purpose of obtaining nutrient losses
through runoff under controlled conditions. The treatments
on these plots wete -.el up to determine the effect of animal
waste applied on the land and the conditions under which it
is applied on the amount of nutrient losses. The plots were
equipped for runoff retention and sampling in all seasons.
The treatments were made with dairy cow feces and urine
applied at the rate of 15 tons per acre. Corn was grown on all
plots, received startei fertilizer in the row, and was harvested
for silage. The 1967 results represent the most adverse
conditions possible; these were accompanied by high nutrient
losses. A three-quarter in. rainfall occurred only 2 hr after the
manure had been applied on frozen ground \viihoul snow
cover. The three-quartei in, runoff from '.his ram cor tained
17 percent of the N and 6 percent of the total P that was
present in the treshly applied manuie. After subtracting the
nutrient losses in the control plot runoff from those in the
runoff from the plots receiving manure applied on frozen
ground, two plots were found to have lost 19.8 percent of
the N, H.3 percent of the soluble P, and 12.2 percent of the
total P contained in the waste application.
68-0326
Witzel, S. A. Quantifying nutrients from an agricultural
watershed. In The nitrogen cycle in surface and subsurface
waters. Madison, University of Wisconsin Water Resources
Center, Dec. 1968. p.50-56.
A 12-month study was made of the nutrient lossi-i from a
6.5-mile watershed. While the soil a> generally considered to
be quite adequately drained most of the time, the waterways
are not fully developed, and as a result a considerable amount
of runoff tends to accumulate in depressions to form ponds
during snow melt and in rainy seasons. The agriculture in the
area is largely dairying, with pasture, and the farm crops are
corn, oats, and alfalfa. Seven determinations were made on
each sample, total organic nitrogen, ammonia, nitrogen
dioxide, nitrogen trioxide, Ortho P, total P, and soluble K.
Nutrient losses during runoff were from 72 to 80 percent of
the total yearly losses except foi nitrate which was about 58
ptn,en: of the total. Extensive Winter spreading of mam n >n
the fields in a year of average snow cover may have a greater
effect on the amount of losses in a normal year. For the year
under study it could be concluded that about 75 percent of
64
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0323-0331
the nutrient losses were in the periods of runoff from the
land, and about 25 percent were in the base flow. The
monthly nutrient losses peaked during the high flow months.
While this was not a normal year for snow melt and the usual
heavy wintei or early spring runoff, the effect of winter
manure spreading on frozen lands did show up. Over 20
percent of the annual nutrient losses resulted from 10
percent of the annual runoff in February, while only 10
percent of the losses came from 18 percent of the runoff in
April.
68-0327
Witzel, S. A. Fennimore Watersheds 1967 runoff and nutrient
losses. In The nitrogen cycle in surface and subsurface waters.
Madison, University of Wisconsin Water Resources Center,
Dec. 1968. p.57-59.
Four small watersheds located near Fennimore, Wisconsin,
were selected for a study of nutrients in the runoff from
strictly agricultural land. A water sampler was developed for
the collection of samples at predetermined increments of rise
and fall in the stages of the flow over the weir. A record of
the amount of manure, pasture days for cattle, and mineral
fertilizer applications provided information of N, P, and K
applications to the land. There were two periods of runoff
during the 12-month period, the first, accounting for
approximately 75 percent of the total losses of N, P, and K
occurring from one in. of rain and snow melt on January 24,
1967; and the second following 0.6 in. of rain on Maich 23
and 24, followed by snow melt dunng the last week of the
month. The relatively high percent of nutrients lost on a
pastured area, which received no winter manure, is probably
due to cattle leaving a large amount of their droppings in the
ponded area immediately above the weir. On the basis of
1967 data, a year when nearly all surface runoff resulted
from rain on frozen ground and melting snow, there is little
evidence to support the claim that winter application of
manure is a serious stream pollution hazard. The nutrients
lost in surface runoff, however, were about five times those
in the base flow of southwestern Wisconsin streams.
68-0328
Witzel, S. A., L. B. Polkowski, E. McCoy, et al. Farm animal
waste disposal research at the University of Wisconsin. In
Engineering Foundation Research Conference; Solid Waste
Research and Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26,
1968. New York. (Conference Preprint E-2.)
Major sources of pollution and nutrient losses are being
studied in relation to: runoff from paved barnlots; stacked,
piled or dumped manure; and manure applied to frozen
ground. Anaerobic tank storage of liquid manure is proving
to be most effective in preserving plant nutrients. An
experimental lagoon was found to contain a bacterial
population for waste reduction comparable to the soil's,
which can break down substances, except lignin, quite
rapidly. Test plots have been used to determine the recovery
of nitrogen fertilizer in the crop, the amount remaining in the
soil, and the movement of residual nitrogen through the soil
profile. A field problem is being investigated in an area with a
confined aquifer in a prosperous Wisconsin community where
the zone of pollution of the groundwater now extends to the
bottom of the water resource, and nitrates have been found
in the range of 30 to 100 ppm. The results of research are
being used to solve pollution problems on the farm and to
inform farmers of potential hazards of pollution.
68-0329
Wymore, A. H., and J. E. White. Treatment of slaughterhouse
waste using anaerobic and aerated lagoons. Water and Sewage
Works, 115 (10)-492498, Oct. 1968.
A treatment plant for wastes from a hog slaughterhouse,
consisting of a lagoon system utilizing both anaerobic and
aerated lagoons, was suggested, since existing facilities (an
extended aeration plant and a 4-acre polishing lagoon) were
greatly overloaded. Design criteria were determined from a
24-hr survey of the plant, which had a designed kill rate of
3,800 hogs per day. The effluent data, design criteria, lagoon
system design, and an analysis of the air flotation tank
influent of the old waste treatment plant are tabulated.
Laboratory analysis of the various effluents, evaluations of
the various parts of the system, and average unit removals in
percentages are also tabulated. The entire system removes 99
percent of unfiltered BOD and 98.6 percent of the suspended
solids.
AUTOMOBILE
68-0330
Alpiser, F. M. Air pollution from disposal of junk autos.
Presented at 61st Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution
Control Association, St. Paul, Minn, June 23-27, 1968.
Durham, N.C., National Air Pollution Control
Administration, June 1968. 19 p.
Restrictions on open burning have forced experienced scrap
dealers to rely more and more on the use of fragmentizers
because the visible emissions from these processes are usually
less than a No. 1 Ringelmann. The fragmentizer offers a
partial solution to the disposal problem for large
metropolitan areas, but domestic pressures for high quality
and lower price scrap may seriously affect process economics
if foreign sales are reduced. A medium or small metropolitan
area may benefit from the installation of a medium or small
auto shredder or macerator. Careful consideration of the
scrap market and the availability of junk autos is necessary
before investing in a fragmentizer or shredder. Two of the
most promising new processes for auto disposal are the
pyrometallurgical purification of chopped auto scrap and a
process which combines low grade, nonmagnetic taconite ore
with the scrap to increase iron content. The effectiveness of
air pollution control equipment for these processes has not
yet been determined.
68-0331
Andrews, J. B. Operation junklift-a community public works
program. Public Works, 99(4): 96-98, Apr. 1968.
The location and legal release of junked automobiles in
Portland, Maine, was carried out by volunteers from the
Neighbor Center and Neighborhood Youth Corps enrollees.
The city's contribution to the removal phase was two dump
trucks and one small crane. Service organizations secured
donations of flatbed trailers, additional cranes, and volunteer
manpower. Over 400 cars were removed and deposited at a
designated staging area. A contractor crushed the vehicles in a
machine powered by a Ford V-8 engine, and trucked them to
a company in Everett, Massachusetts, where they were
shredded and eventually reprocessed to high-grade steel.
65
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Automobile
68-0332
The automated carbeque comes to Britain. Materials
Reclamation Weekly, 112(24):23, June 15, 1968.
A Japanese franchise for the supply and installation of an
automated plant for the disposal of old motor cars has been
granted to Motherwell Bridge Tacol Ltd. Known as the
Carbeque, this barbeque for cars can handle one car every 6
minutes, producing clean, tired steel scrap by disposing of all
cellulose, plastics, wood, leather and nonferrous components.
It consists of an oil-burning, high combustion chamber
capable of taking three cars at a time, and a rotary chucking
unit consisting of two hydraulically operated rams which
revolves the cars so that molten nonferrous material falls
clear. Car bodies less engine, gearbox and back axle
assemblies are loaded on trolleys and moved into the
combustion chamber. The trolley is tilted so that the vehicle
shell falls into a high-powered piess and then passes to a
baling machine. The bale is guillotined to a suitable size and
loaded by conveyor. Equipment may be added to reclaim the
nonferrous metal although the limited amount produced is
hardly worth separating. The carbeque is provided with grit,
dust and fume handling equipment in compliance with the
requirements ot the Clean Air Act. Three of these automated
plants are in operation in Japan and another is being
constructed in Chicago. (Also appears in 'Car Crusher from
Japan', Surveyor and Municipal Eng., 131(3968):51, June
22,1968).
680333
Bird, A. P., and F. J. A. Shults. Scrap car disposal: a joint
session. Public Cleansing, 58(8):432-443, Aug. 1968.
Car crushing and fragmentation is being used in London for
the disposal of abandoned automobiles. The autos are first
stripped of tires, engines, gas tanks, and radiators, and are
then delivered to the car crusher. The concept of planned
obsolescence has produced an increasing number of
abandoned automobiles. The treatment of this scrap has
become sophisticated to a high degree. Approximately
40,000 cars per year and ten assembly sites are involved in
the operation. The laws governing the removal of the autos
are considered, and the necessity for the individual boroughs
to procure a reliable contractor to remove cars and to spell
out the terms of the contract in detail is stressed.
68-0334
Brown, R. R., and F. E. Block. Copper removal from steel
scrap by thermal treatment. U.S. Bureau of Mines Report of
Investigations No 7218. Washington, U.S. Department of the
Interior, Dec. 1968. 15 p.
To determine the practicality of removing copper from
automobile scrap by thermal treatment, several laboratory
scale experiments were tried. Test specimens, produced by
wrapping bare and insulated copper wire around small steel
coupons, were heated at 600 to 1,150 C in various
atmospheres for differing periods of time under both static
and dynamic conditions, i'lie test procedures and data are
detailed. The test indicated that adequate removal of copper
cannot be effected by thermal treatment above the melting
point of copper. The copper present in scrap as insulated wire
is embrittled by thermal treatment at 800 to 900 C if the
contains lead, and the embrittled copper is almost completely
removed by mechanical action such as tumbling. Chemical
pretreatment of specimens to cause embrittlement of copper
and the magnetic separation of oxide scale were also studied.
Tests showed that bare copper can be embrittled by
depositing waterglass (sodium silicate) with thermal
treatment.
68-0335
Cars and dumps. Public Cleansing, 58(4):186-190, Apr. 1968.
At a meeting of the Midland Centre at Newcastle-under-
Lyme on February 23, 1968, part three of the Civic
Amenities Act, 1967, was discussed. The object of the act is
to place a duty on local authorities to ensure that adequate
facilities are available for the orderly disposal of disused
vehicles, equipment, and other rubbish, and to provide these
authorities with power to take action against people who do
not take advantage of the facilities. In some cases, the owner
of a vehicle is located and a notice is sent telling him where
the vehicle is, and requiring him to remove it withm 21 days.
Authorities may charge owners, when located, for the
removal from highways, storing, and disposing of vehicles.
Publicity, informing the public of places where refuse would
be accepted and pointing out the penalties involved should be
given through local public newspapers. It was suggested that
disposal plants for scrap be run in conjunction with iron and
steel works.
68-0336
Dean, K. C., R. D. Groves, and S. L. May. Copper
cementation using automobile scarp m a rotating drum. U.S.
Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations No. 7182.
Washington, U.S. Department of the Interior, Sept. 1968. 12
P-
The comparative merits of using shredded automobile scrap
in a rotating drum and shredded tinplate in launders for
copper cementation were assessed. The materials, equipment,
and procedures used are described, and the results compared
as to efficiency and cost of operations. The tests established
that the scrap in the rotary drum precipitated copper faster
and more completely than shredded, detmned, tinplate scrap
in a launder, and with comparable iron consumption also.
Although power is required to rotate the drum, the faster
precipitation and continuous recovery of cement copper are
advantages of the tumbler method. Cost evaluation indicates
that the rotary drum method, which uses relatively low-cost,
and readily available shredded automobile scrap, is
competitive with the launder method which uses relatively
high-cost shredded tinplate scrap or detmned shredded cans.
68-0337
Discriminatory railroad freight rates constitute a barrier to
solving the city's junk car problem. Waste Trade Journal,
64(29):3,July 27, 1968.
Tae increasing problem of auto salvage is discussed. Until
recently, obsolescent iron and steel flowed in a natural cycle
from user to scrap processor. This natural cycle has slowed
down because of the inability of scrap processors to
transform items economically into usable scrap for
66
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0332-0342
steelmakmg. This has occurred because increased freight rales
have been imposed on the iron and steel scrap industry by
the railroads. There is a backlog of junked autos because
these freight rate increases can neither be absorbed by the
processor nor passed on to the consumer. In February, 1968.
the ICC ruled that it on and steel scrap and iron ore were
directly competitive and limited the increase in scrap rates to
the same 10 cents per ton maximum allowed for iron ore.
and highway networks, are available. It has been established
that an auto salvage dealer cannot economically haul vehicle
hulks more than 35 miles to a scrap piocessor. Since open
burning is prohibited in Illinois, many lunked hulks are
accumulating. The inclusion ot a S30 disposal fee in the
purchase price of each ne\v car is suggested.
68-0338
Economical car salvage. Science News, 93(8). 181) Feb. 24,
1968
A continuous operation lor melting iron from old cars was
patented (U.S. Patent 3,367,769) by Clarence C. Schott of
Baltimore, Maryland. In the process, two cars are squeezed
together, then loaded into a furnace stack with a fuel oil fire
at the bottom. The iron is melted in the furnace, which burns
with a short supply of air to minimize oxidation of the metal.
The partially-burned gases from the furnace are exposed to
enough air further up the stack to burn them completely.
Heat trom this combustion burns any nonmetalhc
components in cars further up the line.
68-0339
Elger, G. W.. W. L. Hunter, and C. E. Armantrout. Removal
of nonterrous metals from synthetic automobile scrap on
heating in a rotary kiln. U.S. Bureau of Mines Report of
Investigations No 7210. Washington, U.S. Department of the
Interior, Dec. 1968. 17 p.
Four tests with synthetic scrap mixtures heated at various
temperatures under oxidizing and reducing conditions were
conducted to determine the feasibility of removing
nonterrous metal impurities from autmobile scrap by thermal
treatment in a rotary kiln. The treated scrap mixtures were
melted in an electric arc furnace and cast into small ingots for
impurity evaluation. Analyses showed that the ingots were all
essentially tree from residual metal impurities except copper.
Data indicated that in an oxidizing atmosphere, the
percentage of copper removed increased with treatment
temperature, while a reducing atmosphere was found not to
be temperature dependent. Copper was embrittled under
some of the operating conditions and was mechanically
removed by fragmentation. The details of each testing
procedure are given along with copious data and illustrations.
68-0340
Goddard, L. Illinois auto salvage waste pollution control. In
Engineering Foundation Research Conference; Solid Waste
Research and Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26,
1968. New York. (Conference Preprint No H-3.)
The problems of automobile salvage in Illinois revolve around
the reuse of scrap in the steel manufacturing process. At
present, steel mills do not use sufficient amounts of scrap at a
break-even economic level to induce dealers to move scrap m
an orderly flow. There are three fragmentation types of
installations in Illinois, one which costs $3 million, and the
other two which involve investments of $1 million each. This
type investment can only be justified in centers of dense
population where water transportation, as well as good rail
68-0341
Automobile blight-where we stand. Augusta, Maine, Keep
Maine Scenic Division, State Park Recreation Commission,
11968]. I9p.
The Keep Maine Scenic Committee has searched for solutions
to the problem of junked cars, and is attempting to serve as a
clearing house for information on this subject. A brief
background history of junk car disposal is given, and trends
in vehicle scrappage are tabulated Consideration ol soil
conditions is recommended before attempting to bury cars in
pits as pail of a cleanup campaign. The three Maine statutes
covering automobile blight (anti-litter, miscellaneous
nuisance, and junkyard and auto graveyards) are included, as
well as the regulations for screening junkyards, and the
general statutes of Connecticut and Rhode Island concerning
abandoned vehicles. Maine State Police have conducted
junkyard enforcement programs resulting m approximately
1,500 investigations and fines as high as $500. Portland's
operation junklift is descubed in detail. Many junked ears
have been shipped from Main to Everett, Massachusetts
where a Proler plant with a capacity of over 1,000 cars per
day shreds automobile bodies. It is suggested that a burial lee
be imposed on all new vehicles, scrap dealers be made eligible
for state guaranteed loans for equipment; and landscape
assistance be provided for junkyard operators.
68-0342
Makar, H. V., B. W. Dunning, ,li , and H. S. Caldwell, Jr.
Laboratory studies on the use of sodium sulfate for removing
copper from molten iron. U.S. Bureau ot Mines Report of
Investigations No 7199. [Washington), U.S. Department of
the Interior, Nov. 1968 14 p.
Tests were performed to obtain a quantitative description oi
the effectiveness of sodium sulfate for removing copper from
molten iron and to determine the effectiveness of sodium
sulfate on actual auto scrap. The tests weie conducted on
induction melted heats of iron averaging 0.5H and 1.50
percent initial copper. The sodium sulfate was added in
powder form in amounts ranging from 2.9 to 43.8 percent of
the weight of iron being treated. The data showed that
copper removal for the various sodium sulfate treatments
followed a similar trend, regardless of the iron composition
that was tested. Copper removals ranged from 3.3 to 74.5
percent down to less than 0.10 peicent. Copper removals
were generally accompanied by sulfur removal, and the initial
sulfur contents, ranging from 0.10 to 0.20 percent, were
reduced to as low as 0.02 percent. High temperatures and
long slag reaction times tended to induce copper and sulfur
reversion from the slag, but, generally, the sodium sulfate
treatments were effective up to approximately 2,820 F with
reaction times not exceeding 1 minutes.
67
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Automobile
680343
Nashville firm to install Southeast's 1st auto shredding plant;
cut air pollution problems. Waste Trade Journal, 64(14):!, 4,
Apr. 13, 1968.
The Steiner-Liff shredding power plant of Nashville,
Tennessee, generates 2,000 hp and is capable of surging to
5,000 hp 3 times per minute. Devices for the control of air
pollution include a furnace chamber afterburner and two
magnetic separator systems for removing pure steel from
nonferrous materials. The shredding plant will incorporate
'throw-away' hammers that can be changed weekly without
the need for additional labor expense. The plant is designed
to produce 600,000 Ib per day of pure scrap steel. Total time
for destruction of an automobile is 60 seconds.
68-0344
New ideas for tackling old cars. Materials Reclamation
Weekly, 1 1 3(19):196-197, Nov. 9, 1968.
A 500-ton capacity Hydra-Shear is claimed to operate on a
principle new to the scrap industry. The process involves a
three-step system consisting of an hydraulically powered
shear, a 700 hp condenser, and a magnetic separator to
remove nonmetallics and nonferrous metals. A series of
conveyors link the various components. The condenser unit
produces fist-size, nugget-shaped pieces of steel, with a
density from 80 to 120 Ib per cu ft. The machine will
produce from 8 to 15 tons per hr. An explosion suppression
system crushes a car to scrap nuggets in about 30 seconds.
Safety detectors prevent dust arising from the scrapping
process from exploding. Other ideas include a
hydrometallurgical process that turns steel scrap into
high-purity iron powder. Shredded car scrap in a rotary drum
device will precipitate copper from acidic sulf'ate solutions
faster and more completely than will shredded, detmned,
linplate scrap in a gravity launder. Besides speeding the
reaction time and giving a cleaner copper product, the car
scrap rotary drum method precipitates and removes copper m
a continuous process and allows the use of an often
objectionable solid waste.
68-0345
Ogden, M. Engine-powered shredder for car body disposal.
Diesel and Gas Turbine Progress, 34(7):35, July 1968.
A Phoenix, Arizona, company is processing discarded car
bodies, tin cans, metal stampings, and other scrap metal and
selling the fragments to copper smelters and steel mills. A
Waukesha L7040G natural gas engine provides the power for
the metal fragmentizer. The engine is equipped with four
Vortox oil bath air cleaners, A product called 'slabs,' created
with an electrically driven hydraulic press, is sold to steel
mills. Car bodies go into the ripper—a Mosely Automatic
Snippy-located alongside the engine shed. Cans and
stampings bypass (he ripper unit All metal goes into a
specially designed hammermill where chunks are reduced to
approximately 8 in Nonterrous metals are placed on a trash
belt, and paint and waste materials are removed by burning in
a gas-tired rotary kiln. Further magnetic separation follows.
68-0346
Open burning of old autos. Waste Trade Journal, 64(9):26,
Feb. 29, 1968.
The president of the National Federation of Independent
Scrap Yard Dealers told the Subcommittee on Air and Water
Pollution, of the Senate Public Works Committee that before
instituting regulations against open burning of automobiles,
alternative methods should be presented. Possible alternatives
are: hand stripping, controlled incineration through chamber
type and small batch-type incinerators, and fragmentizing or
shredding.
68-0347
Oren, O. H. Artificial reets; a short review and appeal. FAO
Fisheries Circular FRs/C305. Rome, Italy, Food &
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Dec. 1968. 6
P-
In the last 10 years, the Government of Japan, atter
recognizing the importance of artificial reefs and fish
apartments, has invested millions of dollars in this method of
improving the marine habitat. One type is the 'gyosho', an
artificial reef, constructed from junk, trees, broken boats
filled with waste and all kinds ot solid and semisolid trash.
More recently, hollow concrete blocks were used. In Italy
efforts are being made to convince industry to begin
experimenting with artificial reefs using scrap cars. There
have also been some developments in establishing artificial
reefs in Israel. The planned dumping of old motor cars,
railway cars, tractors, agricultural machinery, etc., would
improve the countryside, provide a common solution to
disposal problems as well as create artificial reefs in large
bodies of fresh water. A list of references is included.
bb-OJ4»
Ralph Stone and Company, Inc. C'opper control in ve
scrap with special emphasis on component desig
Angeles, Mar. 1968. 109 p.
A study was made of copper-containing vehicular
components for the U.S. Department of (lie Interior, Bureau
of Mines, Solid Wastes P;ogram, Contract 14-09-0070-382
Some components and hulk samples of recent (1957 and
1967) domestic and imported automotive models and other
trucks (1950 and 1953) were analy/ed for copper content at
the Stone Company's laboratory. The eopper-tonlaminy
components, their location, and attachments were identified
Time-motion field studies were applied to a representative
cross section of salvage and scrap processing yards to
establish prevailing component-removal techniques, times,
equipment, and related costs. Recent innovations in scrap
processing equipment and methodology were studied in
relationship to scrap quality, productive etliciency, and
economic feasibility A ma|or el tort \\as to recommend
unproved vehicular design for the purposes of leducing
coppei content and facilitating the removal of
copper-containing components. Numerous supporting data
and illustrations are appended.
68
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0343-0354
68-0349
Ralph Stone and Company, Inc Summary. In Copper control
in vehicular scrap with special emphasis on component
design. Los Angeles, Mar. 1968. p. 1-6.
The principal deterrent which restricts wider acceptance of
purchased automotive scrap in steelmakmg today is the
contamination of scrap steel by residual elements such as
copper, nickel, zinc, chromium, lead, molybdenum, and
other nonferrous metals. Of these contaminating elements,
copper is by far the most significant because it is present in
the largest quantity and creates undesirable characteristics in
the finished steel. The technical-economic factors involved in
removing the copper components, the development of
recommendations and conclusions for improving automotive
steel scrap quality through better automotive design, and the
control of copper components are investigated. Quality
sheared automotive slab is a relatively recent innovation in
the scrapping industiy. The central piece ot operating
equipment is a combination baler-shearer. This unit first
compresses the automotive hulk into a rectangle about 2 by 2
by 20 ft in length. The scrap log is fed into a guillotine shear
which cuts it into predetermined lengths. The quality of the
sheared scrap, as with the No. 2 bundle, depends on the
thoroughness of the stripping operation pieccdmg the
baler-shear operation. Trained crews remove not only all
copper components, but also all zinc, chrome, stainless steel,
and nonmctalhc contamination. The total time required is 40
to 60 man-minutes per ton of product.
68-0350
Reichmayr, J. High intensity fuel burner for steel scrap
melting. Blast Furnace and Steel Plant, 56(11): 1,003-1,006,
Nov. 1968.
The prevailing large quantities of automobile scrap make the
use of scrap important. Various factors appropriate to the
reuse of scrap are considered as they affect the melting and
reuse cycle. Oxidation of the metal and heat loss are two
problems. For scrap melting, highet firing rates of more than
200 million Btu per hr will be required prior to reaching
economical production rates. The high intensity burner with
oil atomization, called the toroidal burner, provides this. The
design and operation of the burner are considered, and
illustrations are given These new high intensity fuel burners
are causing changes and may keep the open hearth furnace
competitive with the Basic Oxygen Furnace as long as there
are excessive amounts of scrap to be cleaned up.
68-0351
Reid, L. C. A study of scrap disposal in the Fairbanks-North
Star Borough, Alaska. College, Alaska, U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare. Apr. 1968. 42 p.
The scrap disposal problem and several alternative solutions
are explored. Physical inventories and personal interviews
were used to estimate the amount of scrap in the area. A set
of mathematical models was devised to determine the
replacement rate for automobiles. Results showed that once
the backlog of automobiles has been processed, there would
be an average of 2,700 vehicles per year available for scrap.
The potential industrial scrap consists of outdated
construction and heavy mining equipment, assorted boilers,
etc. Automobiles and light scrap may be prepared for
shipment by burning and baling, flattening, or shredding.
Alternatives to the accumulated scrap problem ate. do
nothing; collect and store autos in a central location, bury
autos in a central location; ship to Seattle: prepare scrap and
smelt in an electric furnace; use the autos for flood control
structures, or prepare scrap local!} and sell by type in Japan.
It is recommended that scrap be prepared locally and sold by
type in Seattle. To accomplish this, the Fairbanks-North Star
Borough should petition the general manager of the Alaska
Railroad for an emergency rate reduction to $10.75 per ton
for a one-}ear period. Also, it is recommended that a tax ot
$1.50 per motor vehicle per year should be levied on all cars
registered in the Fairbanks-North Star Borough area to help
finance scrap dealers.
68-0352
Taking the danger out of breaking up old cars. Public
Cleansing, 58(10):51 1-512, Oct. 1968.
The safe handling of gasoline tanks has caused concern in the
auto-wrecking field. A new aerosol discharges a mixture of
nonflammable gas and liquid into the tank, rendering it
completely safe. The contents of the aerosol consists of a
mixture of a chlorinated solvent and an aerosol propellent
which is a chlorinated fluormated hydrocarbon. The produce
renders the tank safe for a long period after treatment, even
if a residue of gasoline has not been drained off.
68-0353
Test held on the burning of junk cars. Waste Trade Journal,
64(51).6,Dec.28, 1968.
State officials joined with representatives of the Nebraska
New and Used Auto Parts Assn. to observe the burning of
two junk ears in a demonstration to determine the most
feasible means of vehicle disposal with a minimum of
contamination to the atmosphere. The gas tank and tires
were removed from the first car, and its windows were
smashed, while it remained m an upright position. After fuel
oil that had been poured over the car's seat was ignited, the
vehicle burned for 15 to 20 minutes and emitted dense
smoke for about the first 15 minutes. The smoke was too
thick to be measured accurately on a pollution scale. The
second car was tipped over and holes wcie punctured into
its top and bottom. The seats, tires, floor mats and gas tank
were removed and the ear set afire. It burned for 10 to 12
minutes, but dense smoke cleared after the first 3 minutes ot
burning. The burning of junk cars is currently prohibited
within the Omaha city limits, but new air pollution control
ordinances are under consideration.
68-0354
Transport of wrecked cars-no longer a problem. The mobile
KUKA wrecker solves it. Staedtehygiene, 10(11):8, Nov.
1968.
The pickup and transport of wrecked cares is quite expensive
nowadays. This is mainly due to the bulkiness of this waste
69
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Compost/Composting
material. Not more than two to three car wrecks can be
loaded onto a truck. Keller and Knappick GmbH in Augsburg,
West Germany, solved the problem by introducing a car
wrect which can be easily mounted on a truck. The
compacter can be used with all known types of auto bodies.
It reduces the volume of the wreckage to 20 percent of its
original size, thereby quintupling the loading capacity of
trucks. A hydraulic crane loads the wreckage between the
two compacting plates and removes it again afterwards. The
compacter, too, operates hydraulically. The maximum power
of one compacting plate is 36 tons in the center. It takes 5
minutes to compact one auto body (daily capacity: 80 to
120 bodies). The compacter weighs about 7,000 kg, its outer
dimensions are: length 7.5 m, breadth 2.45 m, height about
33m. (Text in German)
68-0355
Vehicle burning centres an urgent need. Materials
Reclamation Weekly, 113(8):15, Aug. 24, 1968.
The organization of car-burning centers by local authorities
has been suggested by Scotland as a solution to the disposal
problem. These centers could be accommodated in a
worked-out quarries, where burning and stripping could be
done. Since the new tire legislation was introduced, tires are
normally in good shape and would represent an initial salvage
asset.
68-0356
Webb, A. W. R. High cost of clearing cars. Public Cleansing,
58(12)-621-622, Dec. 1968.
Since the Harlow Urban District Council, Great Britain, was
authorized to operate the provisions dealing with abandoned
cars in the Civic Amenities Act, 1967, voluntary surrender
and clearance of abandoned vehicles has gone up to 700
vehicles per year, almost double the previous rate. However,
public relations and administrative costs have become a
problem. Staff involved has included street inspectors, depot
foremen, clerical and accounting, and the senior staff involved
in interviewing irate owners. The administrative cost will be
at least LI,000 for the year with only an average income of
-E2 for certain vehicles. The system set up to follow the
regulations of the Act required a systems analysis chart, and
17 forms (two printed by the Ministry, five prescribed in the
regulations, and 10 for internal use). The briefing of staff for
the commencement of the operation has also been
complicated.
COMPOST/COMPOSTING
and grinders, conveyors, digesters, windrow formers, special
aerating devices, and temperature controls. A composting
contract with a city should provide for disposal sites as well
as treatment costs. Shredding and low-cost composting
treatment could provide for continued use of many landfill
sites, and recycle wastes back into the environment.
68-0358
Biologic decomposition of organic wastes. Samtaer und
Heizungstechmk, 33(9):539-540, Sept. 1968.
A new method of decomposing organic wastes has been
developed by Rikard Lindstrom in Sweden. The method
involves relatively little cost. Organic wastes from the kitchen
and excreta are collected in a container of special
construction. The wastes are decomposed biologically. The
decomposed end products can be used as fertilizer. Such
wastes as glass and metal are, of course, not disposable by
this method. No water must be added. The lower part of the
container is completely closed so that no substances can
escape into the ground. During the decomposition process,
steam and carbon dioxide develop and the volume of the
wastes is considerably reduced. The container has three
compartments- two are connected to the toilette and the
waste collection bin in the kitchen, respectively, the third
stores the decomposed end products. The container has
openings for air access. The ventilation pipe must be
insulated against too much cooling, and, where necessary (in
extremely cold climates), it must be heated. This method is
suitable for thinly populated, remote areas. Illustrations and
a detailed description of the container are given.
(Text-German)
680359
Calorific value oi a sample from the Gainesville Compost
Plant. Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, 1968.
A determination of the calorific value of undned 'reject'
material trom the Gainesville Compost Plant was made m
order to gain some idea of the heat that would be generated
during its combustion in an incinerator. The 'grab' sample
consisted of ground paper, plastics, and other light materials
removed pneumatically at the ballistic separator and
transported by pipe to a burner. A Wiley Mill was employed
to reduce the entire sample to particles that could pass
through a sieve with 2 mm apertures. The calorific value was
determined using a Parr Adiabatic Calorimeter. The calorific-
value of the sample was 2,969 cal per g. It was concluded
that, when burned, each pound of undried reject material will
generate approximately 5,344 Btu.
68-0357
Announcing: a 'new' treated waste product-non-saleable
compost. Compost Science, 9(2).2-3, Summer 1968.
Composting may be considered as an intermediate process for
treating refuse prior to its ultimate disposal, and not just a
method for producing a saleable commodity. Composting is
often cheaper than incineration and more sanitary than
landfill. It is suggested that companies in the composting
business offer equipment for sale to cities including shredders
68-0360
Calorific value of samples from windrow 17D at the
PHS-TVA compost plant, Johnson City, Tenn. Report
SW-RDCP-2. Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, May 1 968. 4 p.
The calorific value of 8 weekly samples of Windrow 1 7D was
studied to determine whether there is any correlation
between the heat of combustion, and the age of the compost
being processed from a mixture of ground municipal refuse
70
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0355-0366
and sewage sludge. The calorific values were determined using
a Parr Adiabatic Calorimeter. Inspection of the analytical
data reveals a slight decrease in the calorific value ol the
compost from day 0 to 7, a slight increase from day 7 to 14,
and then a continuous decrease trom days 14 through 49.
The largest decrease in the calorific value appeared between
days 42 and 49. It was concluded that there is a decrease in
the calorific value with an increase m the age of the compost
after day 14
680361
Cheema, A. S. India develops urban compost-sewage use plan.
Compost Science, 8(2) 13-15, Autumn 1967-Wmter 1968.
Two schemes, urban compost and sewage utilization, have
been in operation in India to encourage and persuade local
governments to utilize urban wastes. While towns and
medium-sized cities in general have adopted composting with
success, it is m the big cities that the conventional method of
composting poses several problems. Mechanued composting
offers solutions to the problems of disposal in big cities,
including sewage sludge disposal. In order to ensure
production of good quality urban compost, standards for
separating refuse and reinforcing compost have been
suggested. Samples from each compost center must be
analy/ed periodically. The total expected utilization of
sewage is estimated at 350 million gal per day, which would
irrigate an area of 70,000 acres. Various measures have been
suggested to provide loan assistance to local governments, to
provide transport facilities for taking compost to farmers'
fields, to requisition land for compost depots, and to train
sanitary inspectors in the technique of compost making.
68-0362
Compost utilization and food spoilage. In The Food
Protection and Toxicology Center Annual Report—1967.
Davis, University of California, 1968 113 p.
The proper utilization of compost is a key aspect in any large
scale program of solid wastes management through
composting. The research objectives of (his project are to
determine the rate and the extent of growth of food spoilage
bacteria and tungi during composting of municipal garbage,
food processing wastes, and livestock manures; study the
effect of such composts on the populations of food spoilage
bacteria and fungi in soil; develop techniques and systems for
compost production and utilization which will reduce the
number of harmful bacteria, bacterial spores, and fungi in the
finished compost, the soil, and on raw food products;
determine the effects of such composts on the physical and
chemical properties of soil which affect its total productivity,
and to disseminate the knowledge gained to encourage the
use of compost in feed crop production.
68-0363
Compost-turning unit developed by Ohio company. Compost
Science, 8(2);18, Autumn 1967-Winter 1968.
A new unit, specifically designed for composting waste
materials in windrows, is in use at the composting plant in
Johnson City, Tennessee. The Cobey Composter is a
self-propelled, diesel-powered machine that travels through
windrows of materials dumped from a truck or ejected by
truck-mounted packer units. The unit is designed to accept
windrows of approximately 8 ft wide by 5 ft high. It can
aerate and reduce particle size at the rate of 1,000 to 4,000
tons per hr depending upon density and weight of material,
At a Crestline, Ohio, plant, material is processed once every 3
days, and the composting cycle is nearly complete for
windrowed material after 14 days.
680364
Composting around the world, obstacles to success. In 1968
Sanitation industry yearbook 5th ed. p.38-39, 42, 4446,
48-50.
High labor costs and low fertilizer and peat prices hurt
composting. Results of a survey showed that the average
gross cost to process 1 ton of refuse was $4 45 m Europe
The weight of the compost was 46 percent > raw refuse.
Average income from compost sales was $2.73 per ton or 90
cents per ton of raw refuse. Glass, earthenwaie, paper, and
plastics must be removed before treatment More emphasis is
being placed on incineration than composting in the
Netherlands. V A.M (NV Vmlafvoer Maatschapij) found that
transporting compost long distances destroys its economic
feasibility. In France, undesirable materials must be disposed
of by landfill or incineration, thus adding to overall
composting costs. Israeli municipal governments subsidize
composting plants. A New Zealand plant earned 42 percent
of costs through compost sales. Compost solids will be
increased by only 6 to 10 percent by adding sludge, but it
will quicken the process and improve the nutrient quality.
However, the operation is made more complex and costly.
Raw sludge contains harmful germs. There have been
complaints of foul odor m the St. Petersburg, Honda, plant.
Mobile, Alabama, cannot find sufficient markets The
$650,000 facility at Johnson City, Tennessee, is studying
composting as a method of sanitary and economic disposal.
Another demonstration plant is in Gainesville, Honda.
68-0365
Composting operation handles refuse and sludEe. Public
Works, 99(3):84,Mar. 1968.
Disposal of 400 tons of municipal refuse and 120,000 gal of
activated sludge is being accomplished daily under a 20-year
contract for the City of Houston using the Metro Waste
Process. This patented digestion process produces up to 250
tons per day of marketable organic compost. The refuse is
first separated to salvage paper, rags, glass, ceramics and
metal. The paper and rags, 12 percent of the total refuse
input, are baled and sold. A Bird Concurrent Flow
Centrifugal thickens the waste-activated sludge, which is
added to the refuse to produce higher moisture and increase
nitrogen content by 1 to 2 percent. After mixing with the
sludge, the refuse undergoes a natural bacterial digestion and
breakdown process in digester tanks for 6 days, with process
temperatures rising to 165 F. The compost is ground,
screened, dried, bagged, and sold for soil conditioning and
mulching
68-0366
Hampl, A. Composting wastes in Czechoslovakia. Compost
Science, 8(2):27-29, Autumn 1967-Winter 1968.
The main sources of raw materials used in composting plants
in Czechoslovakia, in addition to household refuse and
71
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Compost/Composting
sewage, are fly ash, industrial wastes, slaughterhouse, fruit,
and vegetable wastes, and inferior coal and lignite dust. Each
year 450,000 tons of waste are processed in 20 composting
plants, which in conjunction with 150,000 tons of peat, yield
600,000 tons of industrial composts. The manufacturing
procedure, which on the average takes 40 days, consists of
setting up the heap, first shoveling, second shoveling, and
shipping. In summer, the proportion of sludges and seasonal
waste from food-processing plants is increased. Peat is added
in all plants in the proportion of 10 to 50 percent of the total
matter of the heap. The product must comply with
requirements for homogeneity, structure, odor, consistency,
and degree of decomposition. The production cost is
primarily affected by the cost of transportation, while the
processing itself is simple and inexpensive. The value of
increased crops expressed in terms of money is 2 to 3 times
the value of the commercial compost applied.
68-0367
Fate of insecticides in composted agricultural wastes.
Compost Science, 9(3):22, Autumn 1968.
The portion of raw fruits and vegetables, received for
preservation by canning or freezing, which is generally
discarded as solid waste, has the highest level of insecticide
residue. Research was conducted by the National Canners
Association Research Laboratories to obtain a better
understanding of the degradation of insecticides by microbial
or chemical action during the aerobic composting of fruit and
vegetable waste from the canning industry. The refuse was
composted by conventional batch-type and continuous
thermophilic procedures for a period of 120 days, followed
by 180 days of curing. Bacteria appeared in the greatest
numbers for both compost methods, and were followed by
actinomycetes, then fungi. The presence of added insecticides
did not influence the numbers of microorganisms or their
distribution. The concentration of diazinon and parathion
rapidly declined in both processes, while the thermophilic
composting was more efficient in reducing the concentration
of the organophosphate insecticides, and Dieldrin was more
efficiently degraded in the batch process. The curing phase
had little or no effect on the insecticide.
68-0368
First-rate compost from refuse. Farming in South Africa,
44(4):9,22, July 1968.
The Dano process produces high-grade compost for farmers
needing stabilized, odorless, medically safe humus, free of
pathogenic material. One operation realizes the granulation
of" the dry wastes, the thorough mixing of wastes of all types,
the control of moisture content, and the complete aeration
of the wastes being treated. Depending on the composition of
the raw material, 100 tons of refuse will normally produce
about 70 tons of compost. A 50 ton per day plant requires
about 2 acres for the plant and stockpiling operation. The
compost may be used annually at about 5 to 20 tons to the
acre or as landfill.
68-0369
F'lorida garbage plant makes its presence known too strongly.
The Wall Street Journal, 171 (30):8,Feb 12,1968.
A $2 million 'showpiece' refuse reclamation plant in St.
Petersburg, Florida, has been closed because it produced foul
odors. The facility handled 600 tons of garbage per week and
converted it to soil conditioner and fertilizer. The stench
arose when bacterial action was interrupted by environmental
changes. International Disposal Corporation, owner of the
plant, believes the problems are solvable, and, if the odor can
be eliminated, hopes to regain the 20-year contract cancelled
by the city council.
68-0370
Fuller, W. H., E. W. Carpenter, and M. F. L'Annunztata.
Evaluation of municipal waste compost for greenhouse
potting purposes. Compost Science, 8(2):22-26, Autumn
1967-Winter 1968.
Research was conducted to evaluate the practical use of
municipal compost with and without nitrogen and/or soil as a
medium for use in growing potted plants under greenhouse
conditions. Results indicated that compost appears to have
more buffering capacity to protect plants from excessive
nitrogen than most organic materials now in use. The
greenhouse plants tested responded to use of compost in soil
up to soil ratios of 1 to 4. Nitrogen provided additional
stimulus to growth. Except for tomatoes, the addition of 0.5
percent N to compost was too high where the compost was
used in proportions of 1 to 0, 1 to 1, or 1 to 2. Ammonium
sulfate was a poorer source of nitrogen than urea, since it
resulted in a higher residual salt content of soil at the same
levels of N. The poor growth of chrysanthemum, snapdragon,
and gerbera could be attributed more to a serious inhibition
by salts than to toxic effects of the soluble N. There is
evidence that plants grow better when the nitrogen sources
are placed into the compost and the compost-soil mixes are
allowed to stand and incubate for a week to 10 days before
planting. In general, where more compost is used, less N is
necessary for fortification of the compost.
68-0371
Golden, C. A. Studies for the development of procedures and
standards for fly-free composting techniques. In Engineering
Foundation Research Conference; Solid Waste Research and
Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26, 1968. New
York. (Conference Preprint D-l.)
The windrow composting method attracts large quantities of
flies. A comprehensive population dynamics study of flies
and other arthropods attracted to composting sites is being
conducted by the Solid Wastes Program to obtain knowledge
for formulation of new compost plant operating procedures
to produce fly-free compost. Methods are being studied to
effectively conceal, neutralize, or eliminate the more
important fly attractants in refuse, gaseous ammonia, and
excessive moisture.
68-0372
Harmsen, H. Recultivation of waste water dumping areas.
Staedtehygiene, 19(4):76, Apr. 1968,
Berlin has about 12,000 ha where waste water has been
dumped and the soil completely leached out. It can no longer
retain water, so that even after short dry periods the
vegetation suffers. It was decided to stop dumping waste
water and make the area agriculturally usable. This will be
done by spreading compost over the entire area. The compost
will be a mixture of manure and sewage sludge processed by a
72
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0367-0376
compost-milling machine, which will convert the manure and
sludge mixture into ripe compost in 6 to 8 weeks. The odor
disappears after the first of three treatments The milling
machine treats as much compost per hr as the crane does per
day, namely 150 to 300 cu m, and the loss of nitrogen is
reduced to 8 or 10 percent with the milling machine. It is
best to mix the compost with soft coal ashes in the ratio
three pans ot manure and one part ash The
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Compost/Composting
680377
Kalinske, A. A., and G. L. Shell. Report of studies on
composting dewatered sewage treatment plant sludge. In
Engineering Foundation Research Conference; Solid Waste
Rescaich and Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26,
1968. New York. (Conference Preprint D-5 )
The feasibility of composting dewatered waste treatment
sludge using mechanical equipment to provide the proper
conditions to obtain high-rate destruction of the volatile
matter by the thermophihc aerobes is being studied. The
dewatering is accomplished by vacuum filtering a mixture of
'fresh' primary and secondary treatment sludge from a
conventional trickling filter plant that treats domestic wastes.
Composting sewage treatment plant sludge alone, without
combining it with garbage and refuse, provides a method of
producing an innocuous, odor-free product that may have
intrinsic value or rnay be disposed on land without creating a
nuisance. Preliminary studies show that sludge entering the
cornposter has a moisture content of 75 percent, and that
after a detention time of 5 to 10 days, the moisture content
of the tinal product is reduced to 35 to 40 percent. The
temperature in the composting material was about 140 to
150 F.
68-0378
Kane, B. F... Ji. Development of a thermophihc fungous flora
in a municipal waste compost system. M.S. Thesis, University
of Honda, Gainesville, 1968 75 p.
Research was carried out to develop sampling and cultunng
techniques adequate to the task of defining the thermophihc
fungous population that exists during high-rate composting,
to follow the development of such a population during
routine composting operations, to carefully examine the
environmental conditions of composting tn terms of the
environmental requirements of the thcrmophilic fungi, and to
study their growth under a variety ot environmental
parameters. The entire study was conducted on one type of
high-rate municipal composting system, the Metro Waste
Composting Plant in Gainesville, Florida. The compost plant
operation and its schematic flow diagram are included. A rich
flora was found to be present at most stages in the digestion
period. From these samples, 304 unifungal cultures were
established including Aspergillus, Chaetomium, Humicola,
Mucor, Thermoascus, and Torula. None of the isolates
exhibited any special ability to grow anaerobically under the
conditions provided. Only Chaetomium thcrmophile was able
to utilize cellulose as a carbon source. The compost mass
exhibited a great deal of variation in moisture and gas
compostion. After the third day of composting, temperatures
were unfavorable for growth of the thermophilic fungi in the
bulk of the compost. A bibliography is appended.
680379
Kershaw, M. A. Composting—A general review. Process
Biochemistry, 3(5):53-56, May 1968.
Composting degrades, but does not dispose of refuse. The
humus has been used as substitute fertilizer but high cost and
the poor quality of the fertilizer produced prevent
widespread acceptance of the technique. Sewage sludge
improves the natural process and plays the part of an
activator. It also can serve as the basiv of the organic matter
of the compost. In preparing refuse for use in composting,
the aim is to produce an organic residue of uniform size, free
from foreign or unwanted matter. By using sludge as an
activator and moistener for the refuse, some assistance
toward relieving the sludge disposal problem is given. Plants
now active in Europe include one which handles the waste of
a sugar beet factory. In Scotland, Maidenhead, and
Leatherhead in the British Isles, composting is standard
practice. In Holland, use of composting is probably the most
common. The changing character of domestic refuse raises
some problems, since up to 50 percent of some refuse
consists of materials not suitable for composting.
68-0380
Klee, A. J. Factors in the variability of physical, chemical,
and biological measurements ot compost windrows. In
Engineering Foundation Research Conference; Solid Waste
Research and Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26,
1968. New York. (Conference Preprint D-4.)
To insure adequate control of the composting process at the
joint U.S. Public Health Service-Tennessee Valley Authonty
composting project, Johnson City, Tennessee, and to provide
satisfactory descriptions of its intermediate and final
products, it was necessary to develop statistical sampling
programs for various physical, chemical, and biological
measurements. Four tests of importance in monitoring the
developing compost are: temperatuie, oxygen, pH, and
moisture. 1 lie biological tests involved may be classified as
indicator organisms or as pathogens. Variability in
measurement can result from at least four sources.
longitudinal and cross-sectional variability (changes as
samples are taken from various locations along the windrow),
sampling eirors, and analytical errors. Composting schemes
have also been evaluated, along with optimum sampling
location points and sampling tuning strategy, in order to
characterize a windrow at a given point in time at lowest
sampling cost.
68-0381
Knuth. D. T. Composting of solid organic waste. Battelle
Technical Review, 1 7(3): 14-20, Mar. 1968.
Composting, when applied to the disposal of solid organic-
wastes, is controlled to accelerate the biological
decomposition processes which occur naturally. The material
requires pretreatment through some degree of waste
separation, and then grinding, shredding, or rasping to mix
and aerate the wastes. Digestion requires microorganisms,
nutrients, moisture, temperature, aeration, and suitable pH.
The C/N relationship is optimum at between 30/1 and 35/1,
and steps must be taken to adjust the nitrogen content so
that decomposition is not slowed, or nitrogen gas or
ammonia given off. The maintenance of a sufficiently high
temperature is necessary to insure destruction of pathogens,
especially it sewage sludge i: used to supply nitrogen. The
effects ot high temperatuie, used to accelerate the process,
and the actual microorganisms involved need further
research. The formation of nitrates is also being studied
because they are serious water pollutants and may slow the
process since most microflora which utilize inorganic
nitrogen grow best on ammonium nitrogen. A basic
understanding ot the mechanisms ot composting ofters
possibilities for product improvement. These products may
then be marketed at a competitive price.
74
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0377-0385
68-0382
Kolb, L P. Municipal composting; some economic
considerations. Compost Science, 8(2):9-ll, Autumn
1967-Winter 1968.
Examples are given of the problems and failures of Phoenix,
Arizona, and Mobile, Alabama, in composting municipal
refuse due to overly optimistic forecasts of the demand for
compost A study of 21 composting plants around the world
revealed an average operating deficit of $3.38 per ton. A
realistic analysis of the feasibility of composting in a given
locality should be based on the following considerations
composting is not a money-making operation; the amount of
income to be realized from sales of the end product is the
critical prediction in any feasibility study; time, money, and
talent must be allocated to the development of a market for
compost; all possible markets should be explored. A
promising new concept for the disposal of the produce of
composting plants is the use of the unmatured product in
sanitary landfills. The main drawback of this plan is that,
although land will be reclaimed, no income will result. Future
research efforts are needed to develop a rational method of
market prediction, and to develop techniques for tailoring
end products to fit local needs.
68-0383
Mercer, W. A., and W. W. Rose. Composting fruit and
vegetable refuse; part III, final report. Berkeley, National
Canners Association Western Research Laboratory, June
1968. 33 p.
Compost experiments are summarized and methods of
analysis of compost are presented. Studies were conducted in
an effort to find a solution to the growing solid waste
problem generated by fruit and vegetable canning operations.
Initial studies were conducted using small-scale, batch-type
operations to determine the requirements for composting this
raw material. Due to the high moisture content of cannery
waste, moisture absorbent materials were necessary to
maintain optimum conditions for successful aerobic
degradation of the waste. Several types of materials were
tested. Rice hulls and sawdust, both waste materials, proved
most satisfactory. The fruit waste solids subjected to the
composting process were mainly reduced lo ammonia, carbon
dioxide, and water, thereby leaving little residue to increase
the bulk of the compost mass. Objectionable conditions, such
as odor and the attraction and breeding of insect and rodent
pests, did not develop. To improve the waste handling
capacity of the windrows, waste additions were made
periodically after the compost mass had attained
thermophihc temperatures. With constant provision of raw
materials, thermophihc conditions were continuously
maintained.
68-0384
Mercer, W A., and W. W. Rose. Windrow composting of fruit
waste. In Composting fruit and vegetable refuse; part III;
final report. Berkeley, National Canners Association Western
Research Laboratory, June 1968. p.2-26.
Two windrows, each 40 ft in length and 9 ft in width, were
constructed. To evaluate the effects of forced aeration on the
compost mass, perforated copper pipes were imbedded in the
asphalt beneath one windrow. Air was supplied by a
positive-displacement rotary blower with a capacity of 12 cu
ft per minute. The second windrow served as the control.
Waste slurry was applied to the surface of the rice hulls
through a flexible 3-in. rubber hose connected to a pipe from
the diaphragm pump. Thorough mixing ol the wet \\aste and
moisture-absorbing materials was accomplished with the
turning mechanism. The windrow was reformed as the
mixture was redeposited in front of the machine. Waste
additions were made on alternate days, and the windrow
turned after each addition. Samples were collected foi
laboratory analysis before each turning. Temperatures were
token in each windrow at depths ot 12 and 18 in. at several
points along the length ot each row. Degradation of the
organic material occurs most rapidly under conditions
favorable to the growth ot the thermophihc microorganisms.
The organisms are most active when environmental
temperatures are between 120 and 140 1. The rise in
temperatuie was more rapid than the rise in temperature
within the non-aerated control windrow. Changes in pll value
of the compost mass served as a secondary indicator oi
microbial activity, reaching 6.9 on the 12th day. Results ot
temperature, pH, and moisture determinations aie given.
Chemical analysis of the rice hulls, fruit waste, and samples
of compost at the beginning and end of the experiment are
shown. The windrows, turning equipment, grinding
equipment, and instrumentation arc illustiated.
68-0385
Mercer, W. A., and W. W. Rose. Summary of compost
experiments, methods of analysis. In Composting fruit and
vegetable refuse, part III; final report. Berkeley, National
Canners Association Western Research Laboratory, June
1968. p.27-32.
Bin-type experiments-involving fruit waste, produce-house
waste, open windrows, and closed-wall windrows-arc
discussed. Dry materials such as municipal compost, rice
hulls, white pine sawdust, and coffee grounds performed
satisfactorily in absorption of moisture and maintenance of
moisture and porosity of the compost pile. Shredded
redwood bark and wheat straw failed to provide conditions
necessary for the composting ot fruit wastes. The maximum
weight ratio of fruit to dry material successfully composted
was 250 Ib of peach solids to 1 00 Ib of municipal compost.
Aerobic conditions in the composting mixture were
maintained by a schedule in which an initial turning was done
24 hi after layering the fruit and dry material into the bins,
followed by daily turning for 5 to 6 days and turning
thereafter on alternate days until the process was completed.
Offensive odors did not develop during the composting of
fruit waste solids. Produce-house waste, such as that
discarded by grocery stores, can be composted when mixed
with a dry material such as nee hulls. Windrow composting
was found to be a feasible method for study of the disposal
of large quantities of fruit waste. Windrows could be turned
by machine for the purpose of mixing and aerating the
compost mass. With stationary walls, the windrow height of
nee hulls could be extended to 5 to 6 ft, resulting in higher
internal temperatures. Continuous composting at
thermophihc temperatures was shown to be a feasible
method for the disposal of fruit wastes. Grab samples of the
basic materials and compost mixtures were collected and
composted for laboratory analysis. Carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorous, potassium, pH, moisture content, and
temperature were analyzed.
75
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Compost/Composting
68-0386
Mercer, W. A., and W. W. Rose. Windrow composting of fiuit
waste solids. Compost Science, 9(3): 19-21, Autumn 1968.
The National Canners Association Research foundation
initiated a study of the composting process as a possible
means of reducing high-moisture organic waste to stable,
innocuous material. Bin-type experiments were conducted
with fruit and produce-house waste. Rice hulls, selected to
serve as a dry material, were combined in open windrows
with cannery wastes and aerated by mechanically turning the
compost mass. To improve the waste handhng capacity of the
windrows, waste additions were made periodically after the
compost mass had attained thermophilic temperatures. With
stationary walls, the windrow height of rice hulls could be
extended to 5 to 6 ft, resulting in higher internal
temperatures. An automated system was developed to handle
the waste, grind and transport the material to the windrow,
add the waste, and turn the windrow. Continuous compost
operations were found to be a feasible method for the
disposal of high moisture organic waste.
68-0387
Mobile compost is selling "Quite Well." Compost Science,
9(1):14, Spring 1968.
After a series of problems, the Mobile, Alabama, composting
plant is operating without odors and is marketing the product
as a soil conditioner in the southeast. The plant uses a series
of Gruendler grinders to pulverize refuse, later windrowing
the ground material. When the composting plant, which is
capable of processing 300 tons per 12 hr, is not operating,
city refuse is taken to cither of two landfills operated by
Mobile. The soil conditioner is bagged in 25- and 50-lb
packages and sold in supermarkets, seed and garden shops,
and other retail outlets. Much of the compost has been used
satisfactorily on lawns, golf courses, parks, flower beds, and
nurseries.
68-0388
Modern handling method makes instant waste. \Vjste Trade
World, 112(9):13,Mar 2, 1968.
A complex system of mechanical handling is enabling the
City of Leicester to deal with 325 tons of refuse daily After
removal of salvageable materials, the iefuse is retained in
stabilizers, mixed with sludge, and air is blown into the mass,
creating ideal conditions for fermentation. Vibrating screens
separate the 'fine' material from non-compostable stuff, and
the compost is then matured and bagged.
68-0389
Moscow refuse makes good compost. New Scientist,
40(621)-252,0ct. 31, 1968.
A compost producing plant, capable ot dealing with 600 tons
of refuse, per day was recently opened near Moscow. Heat
for the total operation is provided by burning 150 tons of the
waste. An electromagnetic system removes all iron
constituents, and nonmagnetic metals are separated with the
aid of a high-frequency detector. Glass, china, and stones are
crushed to powder in a special hammermill, and elastic and
fibrous components are thoroughly chopped. The mixture is
passed into a fermentation tower where it is kept moist and
well mixed. Most disease bacteria and weed seeds are
destroyed by the relatively high temperature. After a
thorough fermentation, the contents of the tower are again
sieved. 1-our days after refuse is received, it leaves the plant as
a homogenous compost mixture.
68-0390
Olds, J. Houston compost plant-second year report.
Compost Science, 9(1)T8-19, Spring 1968
In its second year of a 20-year contract, Lone Star Organics
Inc. is receiving $3.78 per ton foi the first 300 tons, and
$3.40 lor any excess tonnage from the City of Houston,
Texas, for composting its refuse. Comparable costs lor an
incinerator would have amounted to over $6 per ton.
Approximately 2,000 tons of refuse per week is received,
including 75 percent paper and rags, 13 percent garbage, 7
peicent tin cans, 1.5 percent large pieces ot iron, 2 percent
rubber and plastics, and 0.5 percent aluminum and
nonferrou.s metals. Much of the iron, paper, and tin cans are
salvaged. A 500-hoisepower hammermill grinds the remaining
material, which is then conveyed into one of four digestion
tanks, each 360 ft long, 20 ft wide, and 8 ft deep, where it
stays 4 days. The digesting unit is equipped with two blowers
with a capacity of 50,000 cu ft per minute. The final
temperature range is 165 to 1 70 !•'. The composting bed is
turned over by a 15-ton agitator traveling on rails. The
finished compost is marketed under a brand name, and other
potential markets and uses are being explored.
680391
Olds. J. What's the best way to sell compost? Compost
Science, 8(2).3-4. Autumn 1967-Wmter 1968.
It is suggested that (he disposal of composted garbage is the
responsibility of the municipality where the garbage
collection took place. The compost may be spread on
privately owned land or government owned land. The
application of city-produced compost on county, State
and/or federal land could be set up as a reimbursable
program, whereby the city would be allotted so much per ton
for having used its compost to improve specified lands. When
privately owned composting plants have failed, the reason has
generally been because expected profits from sales did not
materialize, and the finished compost piled up on plant
grounds. City owned compost could be distributed on a
schedule best suiting its locale, and thus avoid the problem of
stockpiling. If city produced compost is to be sold, it can be
sold by existing fertilizer companies which already have
markets for their product line. This compost exerts a plant
feeding effect in excess of its analysis for nutrients because
the nutrients are released slowly to the plant, and humus acts
to cause the release of nutrients that are locked up in the
mineral traction of the soil.
680392
$1 1/2 million composting plant closes. Solid Wastes
Management/Refuse Removal Journal, 11 (51:23,64,66,80,
May 1968.
The S(. Petersburg, Florida, composting plant has been closed
because it was a public nuisance. An investigative committee
found (1) lack of preventive maintenance causing frequent
76
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0386-0347
breakdowns; (2) a poor building design, (3) offensive odors,
and (4) a malfunctioning dryer which was supposed to
remove odors. Beyond the cited nuisance factors, the mam
reasons for the shutdown are economic This plant, like all
others investigated, has been operating at a loss due to high
labor costs, lo\v prices of fertih/.cr and peat, and high
non-organic content in the composting-plant output.
Moreover, there appears to be no steady market for the
product. Costs of such plants have been underestimated in
the past, according to the Office of Solid Wastes. In addition,
the presence of plastics and paper and paper products lowers
the quality of the material. Studies of plants over the world
showed deficits ranging from S.32 to $5.32 per ton of
compost. Only through subsidization can composting plants
continue to operate.
68-0393
Organic soil conditioners for sale. Compost Science, 9(2)'17,
Summer 1968.
Production ot Milorgamte, Milwaukee's granular activated
sewage sludge, has increased to about 80,000 tons per year,
and annual sales volume is $3,500,000. The city compost
plant in Mobile, Alabama, is manufacturing a product under
the label of Mobile Atr Organic Soil Conditioner. The Mobile
plant can process 300 tons of city garbage in a 12-hr period,
using a serves of Gruendler grinders to pulverize refuse, and
later vvindrowing the ground material. The I-'airfield Digester
System used in Altoona, Pennsylvania, to turn out (''airfield
Organic Hum Builder will soon be operating in San Juan,
Puerto Rico. In germination and early growth of tomato and
pepper seedlings, the compost produced at the Metroganic
plants in Houston, Texas, and Gainesville, Florida, has been
found to be supcnoi to sphagnum peat. A Public Health
Service Grant has been awarded to Cerntos, California, to
study improved sanitan methods of composting manure.
68-0394
Pilot composting plant. Surveyor and Municipal Engineer,
131(3967):51, June 15. 1968.
S. S. Morns, city engineer ot Cape Town, stated that should
the R400,000 pilot composting plant and incinerator located
adjacent to the Athlone sewage treatment works prove
practical and economically efficient, substantial extension
can be expected in the future. Successtul composting will
allow the salvage and reuse of large quantities of garbage and
other refuse as a marketable product, and will solve the
problem of finding new disposal sites. Valuable nutrients and
humus-making material would be returned to the soil. The
pilot plant treats 40 tons of refuse daily. The product will be
conditioned with digested sludge in seven fermentation cells,
then aerated for approximately 5 days. lion will be removed
by electromagnets, and the residue pulverized and screened
down to -1 size. The material will be stored in a maturation
building for 1 to 3 months, depending on the condition of
the stabilized compost.
68-0395
Pratolongo, G. The digestion of solid waste in Italy-problems
and relative solutions. Ingcgnena Samtana, 16(3):217-220,
May-June 1968.
Urban solid waste has a market value in Italy. Depending on
its composition, the waste is transformed into fertilizer if it
has a high amount of organic matter, or incinerated to 10
percent of its original volume when a large percentage of its
composition is of cellulosic or synthetic nature. In an
agricultural economy, the utility of compost is evident.
Manufacturing cost of compost varies from 1,800 lire per ton
to 2,500 lire per ton. The average sales price is 3,000 lire per
ton permitting a profit of 500 to 1,200 lire per ton. To
achieve a good compost it is necessary to comminute the
organic waste, and then homogenize it so that within 60 days
aerobic fermentation has taken place. The best particle size is
between 1 5 to 20 mm, because it results in proper porosity
for the fermentation process. If the product is too fine,
sulfur-containing compounds may develop, hampering
correct fermentation. Good compost must be properly
'stabilized.' When the solid waste contains too many
cellulosic compounds, the biodegradibihty of the substance is
considerably slowed. Although compost is of great
importance to Italy, mixed plants which can both degrade
the waste to fertilizer or incinerate it are preferred, due to
their flexibility. The ratio of waste transformed to fertilizer
or incinerated will depend upon the plant location. In one
case, a 50 to 50 ratio was usual. (Text-Italian)
68-0396
Prochal, P., and A. Schoenowit?, Comparison of physical and
chemical properties ot composts from municipal refuse in
Warsaw, Kielce and Cracow. Gaz, Woda I Techmke Samtarna,
42 (10)338-342, Oct. 1968.
Three kinds of composts were examined from plants in
Cracow, Kielce, and Warsaw. The first two are open-air field,
compost producing plants, the latter makes use of an
imposted DANO biostabihzer. Prior to composting, no refuse
identification was made and data from literature were used
instead. Their tabulation reveals structural resemblance, but
proportionality diversities. The operation of the specified
three plants is reviewed in terms of the technologies and
equipment employed, and the methodology ot sampling and
testing is indicated in detail. The evaluation was carried out
with emphasis on physical rather than chemical analysis, as
the former has been neglected so far in all specified
composting plants. The results are tabulated, and disclose
information about compost weight and bulk densities, size of
fractions, and numbers of structural components involved.
The chemical analysis reveals satisfactory correspondence ot
the produced composts to natural manure, possibly
suggesting the addition of potassium for quality leveling of
composts. It is concluded that the composts examined,
representing composts from municipal refuse as such, are
suitable for substituting for stable manure, if certain
proposed measures are observed during and after composting,
and prior to compost field application. (Text-Polish)
68-0397
Rao, T. R. K. Discussion on role of compost plants in India
as urban amenity and as a source of organic fertilizer. Journal
of the Institution of Engineers, 48(6) 148-149. Feb. 1968.
The role of compost in India as a method of disposing of
refuse and of producing organic fertilizer is considered.
Questions relating to the amount of rubbish to be expected
from a typical town and costs to be expected from a
composting plant and methods of arousing appropriate
interest in farmers for the use of such compost are raised.
77
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Also, separation of inert materials such as broken glass, tin,
bricks, etc., before the compost is manufactured, is
recommended to improve its attraction to users.
68-0398
Regan, R. W., and J. S. Jens Cellulose degradation in
composting. In Engineering Foundation Research
Conference. Solid Waste Research and Development, II,
Beaver Dam, Wis , July 22-26, 1968. New York. (Conference
Preprint D-2.)
Cellulose, the ma|or component of paper, is biologically a
very stable material and is probably the major rate-limiting
component when composting is the treatment process.
Studies were carried out to determine whether the
degradation of celluiose can be accelerated by placing the
microorganisms associated with composting under controlled
environmental conditions. Microbial activity is measured by
carbon dioxide production, the rate of oxygen consumption,
and nitrogen metabolism; these are then correlated with pH,
temperature, and moisture to define the' optimal environment
for cellulose breakdown. A medium comprised entirely ot
newspaper, with added nutrients, is being used. Future
studies will be conducted using a representative synthetic
refuse.
68-0399
Rohde, G. New technology with efficient compost crusher.
Staedtehygicne, 19(4).77-78, Apr. 1968.
A group of scientists in Berlin. Germany, has mechanized the
natural composting process of cow manure, pig manure, coal
ash, and other oigamc waste material in drying beds. A very
efficient crusher, the essential element, having 60 HP, crushes
the materials to pieces of 3 to 5 cm in size. It has two
operating speeds (about 100 and 200 m per hr). The crusher
travels along beds where the manure is spread and crushes it.
This process is repeated two or three times. The crushing,
mixing, and aerating are performed by a drum in one
operating step. After about 6 to 8 weeks, the manure
compost is ripe. The advantages ot this new composting
process arc" the loss m nitrogen is reduced to 0 to 8 percent;
the manure is decomposed by tungi, rather than by anaerobic
bacteria; and pathogenic bacteria are killed by the high
temperatures achieved (about 60 C) and by the antibiotic
substances produced. This ripe manure compost allows roots
to spread and grow deeply, whereas roots do not grow
properly in rotting manure. Organic residues can be mixed
with the manure compost. Soft coal ash can be added
because this will add calcium, magnesium, potassium, and
considerable amounts ot boron, copper, and molybdenum.
Composting can be carried out as any tune, even at
temperatures below zero. Productivity is much higher than
with the crane used at present. The crusher can process
300,000 cu m, while the crane T 1 72 can handle only 48,000
cu m. The costs of composting are lowered from 2.7 MDN
(I asl German Mark) to 0.5 lo 1 MDN per cu m compost.
(Text-German)
680400
Salable items in refuse. Public Works, 99(3) 1 10. Mar. 1968.
Boulder, Colorado, is employing composting with salvage as a
means of refuse disposal. Salable items per ton of refuse
included: 120 Ib of cardboard, 80 Ib of tin cans, 4 Ib of
aluminum, 30 Ib of other metals, and 8 Ib of rags.
Non-composting materials, such as glass, plastics, and wood,
were removed previously. Six men pick material from a
42-m.-wide conveyor. Refuse remaining after picking goes to
a pregnnder, and then to the windrow area.
68-0401
Sibtga, J., and Z. Rewtcki. The composting of wastes in
Czechoslovakia. Gaz, Woda I Techmke Sanitarna,
XLII(1):18-19, Jan. 1968.
The wastes composted in Czechoslovakia are industrial in
character. The chief aim is to obtain organic fertilizers for
agricultural needs. The sanitary aspects of waste removal are
of secondary importance. The production of compost in
Czechoslovakia is carried out according to a fixed program
based upon careful observance of the existing stock of wastes
forming the raw material for composts. The distribution
pattern of the materials used for composting is given, and
information about governmental regulations concerning
processing and the numerical account of the composting
activities m Czechoslovakia in the past is presented. Until
1970 the production of composts should be increased up to a
total of 10 million tons of incoming materials. The present
utility value of various wastes falls within the range of 5 to
200 crowns per ton. The economic value of various waste
components is estimated in terms of their financial
equivalents, and the activities of an industrial composting
plant m Plana near Ceske Budejovice are described. This plant
has been active since 1960, and its present output is about
50,000 tons per year. (Text-Polish)
68-0402
Speight, B, W., J. Kaufmann, L. Creek, and W, L. Gaby. A
study of the occurrence and persistence of pathogenic and
indicator organisms in refuse sludge composting. In
Lngmeering Foundation Research Conference; Solid Waste
Research and Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26,
1968. New York. (Conference Preprint D-3.)
Investigations were carried out on the use of existing and/or
new methods that will allow the quantitative recovery of
relatively low levels of pathogens and indicator organisms
such as the colifonns, Staphylococcus, Salmonella, Shigella,
B^acijIjjMi ce£eus, Kndamoeba histojytica, and A .scans
lumbnocoides from raw or digested sludge, raw refuse, and
compost. The time in the composting process when the
pathogens or indicator organisms can no longer be recovered
was also determined. The procedures used in examining
samples of sewage sludge, raw refuse, and refuse-sludge
mixtures taken at various times from the compost windrows
are listed.
68-0403
Spohn, K. How ripe is compost1'
19(6):116-I20, June 1968.
Staedtehygiene,
The compost made of city wastes is not always produced by
microbial decomposition, thus guaranteeing the maturity of
the product, but is instead crushed in machines, heated, and
treated according to various methods. The product obtained
looks like mature compost, but it is just crushed waste or
78
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0398-040')
sludge which may have been subjected to a short rotting
process. If piled in a heap, it begins to heat up or mold. The
end of these processes, however, is no sure sign of maturity
either, but garden cress sown on the compost to be tested
will demonstrate its maturity within 5 days. When the cress is
eut and weighed, from 10 g of seeds about 60 to 100 g
output should result from ripe compost. No germination at
all or poor growth arc sure signs of an unripe compost. A
much faster way to test compost is to grow the fungus
Verticillium cmnabarium on it. Twenty-four hr after sowing,
its growth can be seen with a lens. Dense growth indicates a
npe compost. The only problem with this test is that it is
rather complicated, so that it can be performed only in a
laboratory. The sulphide test and the nitrogen test also give
immediate answers. These methods are based on the finding
that the redox potential of fresh wastes is on the reductive
side, and, with increasing maturity, moves towards the
oxidative side. A favorable redox potential does not
necessarily stay that way; lack of air in the compost or in the
soil may cause a return to anaerobic conditions, but this
occurs less frequently than in unripe compost. When the
redox potential is on the oxidative side, the sulphur has been
converted into sulfate and the nitrogen into nitrate.
(Text-German)
68-0404
Sunawma, U. A system of composting in West Java,
Indonesia. Compost Science, 9(2) 22, Summer 1968
The farmers and gardeners of West Java have practiced
composting using a primitive system for many centuries. The
Indore system of composting, now carried out by the
Department of Agriculture, requires a minimum size for the
compost heap of 1 by 2 by 1 in high. The aeration was
improved by making vertical holes in the heap with a rod. As
a safeguard against fly breeding, the outside edges of the heap
are composed of grass material or mud. The compost was
generally ready to use after 5 months. More efficient and
faster methods of composting involve the use of composting
microbes. Composting with the addition of microbes,
especially for paddy-straws or paddy-straws combined with
municipal refuse required only 4 to 6 weeks. The compost
also had a high content of organic matter as plant nutrients.
68-0405
Toth, S. J. Chemical composition of seven garbage composts
produced in the United States. Compost Science, 9(3):27-28,
Autumn 1968.
The garbage composts that were subjected to detailed
examination included: compost sorted to remove glass and
metals: sorted compost with sewage sludge, leaves, and grass
clippings, or mink manure; ground and unground compost,
and finely ground compost. The moisture content values
ranged from 9.8 to 33.3 percent. The composts, on the basis
of their mean nitrogen, phosphorus pentoxide and potash
contents, can be considered to be a 1 to 1.5 to 0.7 fertilizer
with a low order of availability. The mean organic matter
content was 876 Ib per ton, and the ash and acid-insoluble
ash contents were high, indicating the presence of inert
materials. The total N contents ranged from 0.64 to 1.66
percent. The potash contents were low. The total phosphorus
pentoxide was relatively high, probably due to the presence
of bone fragments in the composts.
68-0406
Wadie, K. A. O. Soil improvement practices in Ghana.
Compost Science, 8(2): 17, Autumn 1967-Wmter 1968.
The several soil groups in Ghana covering the forest /one,
coastal savanna zone, and interior savanna zone are hi icily
described. In the northern regions ot Ghana, on the granitic
soils, the farmers practice a settled system of farming in
which the land around the compound is cropped
continuously. The Extension Service of the Ministry of
Agriculture has encouraged farmers to bed their cattle on
straw and accumulate as much of the nutrients from the
excreta as possible during the night. The compound land
receives all the farmyard manure and household refuse. A
mixture of grass bedding and animal droppings is periodically
applied to cereal erops grown around the compounds.
PROCESSING/REDUCTION
68-0407
Crushing with a hammernull. Tonmdustrie Zeitung und
Keramische Rundschau, 92(6) 227-228, June 1968.
In the course of a paper titled 'Principle and field ol
Application of Hammetmills', an extensive survey of the
production of the HAZEMAG company was given. After the
end of the war, crushing machines were systematically and
consistently improved. New fields of application opened up.
Of the various types of HAZEMAG hammermiils briefly
described here, only those used for crushing wastes are
pertinent. Special hammermiils (construction Andres, type
M) are used for this purpose. When wastes have been crushed
before incineration, the efficiency of the furnaces can be
considerably increased. (Text-German)
68-0408
DiFlhppo, J. D., and J. F. Malina. Compaction of size
reduced refuse. Technical Report EHE 05-6801. Austin,
University of Texas Center for Research in Water Resources,
May 10, 1968. 63 p.
The changing character of refuse is considered, and
quantitative and qualitative aspects of refuse disposal are
reviewed. It is suggested that sanitary landfills can be
improved with respect to land utilization by size reduction of
refuse. Data are presented for the compaction characteristics
of composite refuse and individual components, including
paper, leaves, ash, glass, tin cans, garbage, wood, and plastics.
From the data, predictions can be made regarding the
advisability of size reduction. Results of the compaction
study indicate that moisture content docs not affect the final
dry density of compacted refuse, dry weight rather than wet
weight of refuse determines the volume of refuse required for
a sanitary landfill.
68-0409
DiFihppo, J. D., and J. F. Malina. Literature review. In
Compaction of size reduced refuse. Technical Report KHE
05-6801. Austin, University of Texas Center for Research in
Water Resources, May 10, 1968. p.3-20.
Data from the literature are presented to illustrate the
changing composition of refuse. They indicate a trend toward
79
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Processing/Reduction
a driei refuse mixture and increased volume of refuse per ton
of weight. Because the garbage content of waste is decreasing,
hauling garbage to farms presents only a partial solution to
waste disposal. Composting has met limited acceptance due
to difficulties in applying compost to the land. Incineration
has the disadvantage that 25 percent of municipal refuse is
noncombustible or not suitable for combustion. Moreover, as
indicated from New York City data, incineration processing
costs are S5.55 per ton, as contrasted to the $0.50 to $2.00
per ton reported for sanitary landfills. However, landfills can
also be uneconomical if the round trip mileage to the fill
exceeds specified limits. The tendency toward distant sites
could be decreased by making local sites aesthetically
acceptable or by constructing the fill in such a manner that it
could be used for major construction. One method of
improving a landfill for effective land utilization is to
improve refuse compaction by particle size reduction. The
reduction is accomplished by grinding, shredding, rasping, or
similar mechanical action. Size reduction plant costs amount
to about $3.00 per ton processed, less the income from the
sale of salvage.
68-0410
DeF7ihppo, J. D., and J. F. Malina. Procedure. In Compaction
of size reduced refuse. Technical Report EHE 05-6801.
Austin. University of Texas Center for Research in Water
Resources, May 10, 1968. p.21-27.
Compaction characteristics were determined for size-reduced
composite waste and the following individual components:
paper, leaves, ash, glass, tin cans, garbage, wood, and plastics.
Materials which were not already size reduced in nature were
ground in a Wiley Mill, then placed in a cylinder to determine
their uncompacted density. An automatic tamper was used
for the compaction tests. The tamping involved dropping a
known weight a known distance into a mold containing the
sample. Several readings were taken on a sample height. The
levels of compactive effort at which heights of a sample were
determined were 25, 50, 100, 200, 300, and 400 blows
corresponding to 375, 750, 1500, 3000, 4500, and 6000 ft-lb
of energy. To determine their moisture content, samples were
weighed and dried at 75 C for 48 hr. After cooling to room
temperature, the refuse was weighed again.
68-0411
DiFilippo, J. D., and J. F. Malina. Results. In Compaction of
size reduced refuse. Technical Report EHE 05-6801. Austin,
University of Texas Center for Research in Water Resources,
May 10, 1968. p.2843.
Compaction tests were run on size-reduced composite refuse
and its components, including newsprint, magazine paper.
cardboard, tin cans, plastics, glass, wood, ash, leaves, and
garbage. The dry density per cu yd was determined over a
range of moisture contents and compaction efforts. For each
sample, the mean of all moisture contents at each compactive
level was computed, and the standard deviation from the
mean determined at each level. The data are shown
giaphically as compactive effort vs dry density and are
tabulated in appendices. Over the range studied, moisture
content was not significant for newsprint, cardboard, wood,
or composite samples. However, moisture was an important
parameter in determining the dry density of magazine paper
and leaves
68-0412
DiFilippo, J. D., and J. F. Malina. Discussion. In Compaction
of size reduced refuse. Technical Report EHE 05-6801.
Austin, University of Texas Center for Research in Water
Resources, May 10, 1968. p.4449.
Compaction tests of size-reduced composite refuse and its
individual components demonstrated that dry, rather than
wet weight determines the volume required for sanitary
landfills. Moisture content did not affect the final dry density
of the composite compacted samples studied. In compaction
tests at 100 blows, the dry densities of all individual
components, except wood, constituted 80 percent or more of
the composite dry density. Since the dry densities of the very
lightest and most prevalent components are not much lower
than composite dry density, it is possible that composite dry
density of refuse is at a low point and will increase in the
future. Associating lowest moisture content with lowest wet
density, and highest moisture content with highest wet
density, the range of dry density for a conventional sanitary
landfill would be 455 to 765 Ib per cu yd. These values
compare to the 100 blow compactive level dry density for
composite size-reduced refuse of 838 Ib per cu yd, and the
400 blow compactive level dry density of 915 Ib per cu yd.
This indicates that some dry density improvement is attained
by size reduction. However, the densities observed do not
indicate that size reduction will produce a high grade material
unless other modifications are made in the compaction
procedure. Mixing with soil is suggested.
68-0413
Equipment for crushing waste and loading it into an
incinerator. Wasser, Luft und Betneb, 12(ll):7l7, Nov.
1968.
To achieve a steady and uniform incineration of waste it is
important to crush it first, but problems are encountered in
the crushing of waste when it comes to plastic or fiber
material from the paper industry This fibrous waste may
block the path from the waste storage room to the loading
zone of the incinerator, if it is not shredded first. To avoid
this, it is suggested that a screw conveyor with sharp spikes
all over its surface be used. The tips of the spike rows have
sharp edges which gives them the ability to cut as well as tear.
By means of this conveyor, fibrous waste is not only torn but
cut into small pieces which enter easily into the loading zone.
The inventors of this special type of screw conveyor are Karl
Zielenski and Franz Fahle, of Leverkusen, West Germany.
(Text-German)
68-0414
Feldman, M. M. Shredding of bulky wastes for New York
City. In Engineering Foundation Research Conference; Solid
Waste Research and Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July
22-26, 1968. New York. (Conference Preprint A-4.)
A project being conducted in New York City is studying the
design and construction of a plant to shear and shred a wide
range of bulky solid wastes to a manageable size, for either
disposal in sanitary landfill, or in preparation for
incineration. The bulky wastes will include construction and
demolition wastes, household appliances and furniture, logs,
obsolete pienng and piling, hazardous floating harbor debris,
automobile tires, and other difficult refuse. The plant will be
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0410-0420
provided with maximum flexibility in being able to feed
material either into shear alone, shredder alone, or shear
followed by shredder. Material will be received by truck or
by barge with emphasis on the former.
floor of the rear hopper before feeding it into the body;
further compaction takes place through the latter process, so
that a total compression is of the order of 3 to 1. The average
payload is 3 tons.
68-0415
Japanese firm develops refuse compressor. Compost Science,
9(1):22, Spring 1968.
A new invention, the garbecue, consists of a giant hydraulic
press, which makes 5 to 7 ton cubes of garbage. When they
are threaded with wire and encased in cement, the cubes
become building blocks. Covered with asphalt or vinyl, they
can be used as landfill, or used under water for making
artificial islands or peninsulas. The garbecue creates no
nuisance in the way of air or water pollution. There is no
odor to the finished blocks, for the heat generated in the
press (212 F), along with lack of oxygen, destroys bacteria.
Kofu, Sagamihara, and Yokosuka, Japan will soon have
garbecues in operation compressing 300 tons per 24 hr. These
units cost $730,000 each, while a larger unit which can
handle 3,000 tons per 24 hr will cost $7,160,000.
68-0416
Marsden, C., R. R. Farrant, and E. W. Dore, Refuse
pulverizing installation, Poole. Journal of the Institution of
Municipal Engineers, 95 (6): 177-186, June 1968.
A pulverization process for refuse disposal was chosen over
incineration, composting, or sanitary landfill by a town with
a resident population of 96,000 and an annual refuse tonnage
of 35,000. The economy of the town (Poole, England) is
based primarily on industry, although holiday trade is
important. The four reasons for choosing pulverization were:
it provides homogeneous landfill material as required by the
Poole reclamation projects; the resulting tip is acceptable
within a built-up area without 'covering material'; the
processing plant provides a fixed base giving continuity of
collection rounds, maximum benefits from salvable materials,
and reduced transportation costs to tip due to bulk reduction
in refuse; and it was a most suitable way of increasing daily
capacity at the disposal works, while still retaining and
utilizing the design capacity of the existing incineration
plant. A diagram of the refuse pulverizing installation is
given. The design of the plant is discussed with respect to
input considerations, reception building and garage, grabbing
crane and dust suppression, picking building, the
Fermascreen building, the discharge building, metal baling,
water supply, electrical services, paper baling, civil and
structural design, and labor and plant costs. Also discussed in
detail are transportation to the tip and land reclamation.
Breakdowns of building cost and estimated working expenses
are given in appendices.
68-0417
New concept in special duty refuse collection. Surveyor and
Municipal Engineer. 1 31(3946):66. Jan. 20, 1968.
To meet problems encountered by cleaning authorities in
connection with the collection of trade refuse, sacks, wooden
boxes, and cartons, several new features have been
incorporated into a compaction vehicle, Compressload 3. The
hydraulic loading mechanism crushes the refuse onto the
68-0418
New pulverisation machinery by A.B.C. Public Cleansing,
58(5).243-246, May 1968.
A range of machines, designed to meet the pulverization
requirements of the majority of refuse disposal processes, has
been introduced. One machine possesses novel features,
including a horizontal feed arrangement, a converging track
pre-crusher and disintegrator, which, it is claimed, simplify
basic installation and enable complicated conveying
arrangements to be eliminated. The Crusher/Disintegrator is
horizontally fed by means of steel convergin crushing tracks,
and incorporates several safety features. Under a contract
with the Greater London Council, a machine will pulverize
municipal refuse at a rate of approximately 15 tons per hr. A
generous feed entry is provided which will enable, if
necessary, bulky waste such as refrigerators, gas stoves,
rubber tires, and items of furniture, together with waste-bin
refuse to be reduced to a consistent particle size. The
installation of these machines also fits in with the needs of
landfill operations, incinerator feed, power generation,
composting plants, paper shredding, and fragmenting sheet
metal.
68-0419
A new waste compacting machine. Elektrizitaetswirtschaft,
67(18):552, Aug. 1968.
The transportation of wastes always poses a great problem.
Wastes have a relatively low specific weight, but they are
usually very bulky. Containers with a volume of 4 cu m are
capable of transporting on the average only 400 to 600 kg of
wastes. But if the wastes are compacted before they are
transported, about five to ten times the amount of waste can
be transported; for instance, the 4 cu m container holds 3 to
6 tons of compacted waste, and this increases the economy
of transportation considerably. For compacting the waste, a
machine can be used like that manufactured by the Ries
company. The machine achieves a compaction of 1:8
(domestic wastes) and 1:12 (industrial wastes). An
illustration of the machine is given. (Text-German)
68-0420
Poole plumps for pulverisation. Public Cleansing,
58(7):357-360,July 1968.
A new pulverisation plant in Poole, England was designed to
supplement the existing incineration plant and sanitary
landfill operation. The process ot pulverisation was adopted
over disposal by incineration, composting, and sanitary
landfill because it produces homogeneous landfill material as
required by the Poole reclamation projects; the resulting
dump is acceptable without covering material; and the
processing plant provides continuity of collection rounds,
maximum benefits for salvageable materials, and reduced
transportation costs. Extensive experimentation and research
concerning the design and construction were undertaken. The
plant consists of five Fermascreen units. Refuse is emptied
81
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Processing/Reduction
into a 12 ft deep pit, and transferred by grab into a smaller
plate feeder and then to the elevating conveyor. The
conveyor transports the refuse from the reception hopper to
the enclosed picking section on the top floor of the main
Fermascreen building, where salvageable material is removed
by hand and discharged down chutes to bins. The remaining
material passes to the Fermascreen drums, and is processed
for sanitary landfill. The patented Fermascreens are fitted
with wire mesh screening panels, and are covered by
automatically operated hinged doors. Water is added to the
refuse within the Fermascreen, which is rotated to break
down the material. The hinged doors are then opened and the
machine automatically screens out all materials less than two
in. in size. Magnetic and dense particle separation are later
utilized.
68-0421
Pulverization—sense or nonsense? Public Cleansing,
58(9):486-489,Sept. 1968.
Pulverization does not contribute to effective incineration
and does not greatly improve a properly run, controlled
landfill operation. Good land reclamation practice, coupled
with pretreatment of refuse, can treble the cost of refuse
disposal with no real advantages for the outlay involved. The
only advantage is in a relatively shallow landfill operation
where the life of the site could be extended. It is
questionabie whether the cost of pulverization, coupled with
landfill costs, is justified. Incineration should be considered
as an alternative.
68-0422
Pulverization at British site reduces matter by 50 per cent.
Solid Wastes Management/Refuse Removal Journal,
ll(2):16,Feb. 1968.
Objections to establishment of a landfill site in a rural area
near Worthing, Sussex, were overcome when the operating
authority agreed to pulverize the refuse before dumping. The
advantages of pulverization are: destruction of most flies,
eggs, and larvae brought in with the refuse; rapid
consolidation, which, by excluding oxygen from the fill,
reduces the danger of spontaneous combustion; and swift
settling of the layers which allows tractors and other vehicles
to ride on the fill without difficulty. Pulverization reduces
the bulk content by approximately 50 percent, thus doubling
the useful life of the fill. The smallest economical plant
requires an input of approximately 10 tons of refuse per day.
68-0423
Rear-loading compactors. Solid Wastes Management/Refuse
Removal Journal, 1 1(1).83, Jan. 1968.
A rear-loading refuse packer in three sizes-] 8, 20, and 25 cu
yd capacities-has been added to the line of solid wastes
collection equipment manufactured by Hobbs Trailers.
Compaction is controlled from two boxes, one on each side
of the hopper at the rear of the unit. The packer plate and
loaded hopper are raised by hydraulic cylinders, after which
the plate scoops refuse downward and forward into the
packing compartment. Safety devices include a toggle switch
which can stop the packing cycle at any point. Refuse is
compacted at more than 83,000 Ib pressure. Expulsion of
refuse at the disposal site is accomplished by raising the
taili'ate mechanism and expelling the contents with a
hydraulic ejection plate which forms the front wall of the
main body when it is filled. Control levers for this operation
are directly behind the driver's cab. The rear-load mechanism
and the hopper descend by gravity.
680424
Reeves, E. G. Pulverisation. Public Cleansing, 58(6):283-292,
June 1968.
Pulverizing can be classified into three groups: (1) fine
pulverization of domestic refuse; (2) coarse pulverization of
domestic refuse; and (3) pulverization of bulk refuse. Fine
pulverizing is achieved by either hammermiils or the rotary
drum type of pulverizer, coarse pulverization by hammermiils
or impactor shredders, and reduction of bulk refuse by
hammermiils or impact breakers. Hammermiils operate with a
high peripheral speed, but with the disadvantage of not
accepting uncrushable material. Therefore, safeguards should
be incorporated in the form of magnetic separators or mass
detectors. The Gondard and Tollemache units incorporate a
ballistic separation section which automatically separates the
uncrushable materials. The extensive range of hammermiils
available incorporates either single rotor or double rotor
construction with swinging or fixed hammers and capacities
up to 70 tons per hr. The rotor consists of a series of steel
discs, located on a horizontally mounted rolor shaft, with
fixed or swinging hammers located between these discs. Size
reduction is largely controlled by the spacing of the bars
within the lower grid. In the Holmes-Hazemag Novorotor
Hammer Mill there is no provision for a grate in the base of
the mill, the reduction being achieved by hammers with
shredding teeth within the discharge section, which
eliminates the possibility of choking. Sufficient reserve power
in the order of 50 to 60 percent of the actual absorbed power
is essential. The principle of operation in rotary drum type
pulverizers is reduction by means of attrition after the
addition of a controlled quantity of watei. The drums can be
circular, octagonal, or hexagonal in cross-section, and units
falling into these categories are the Vickers Seerdrum, the
F'ermascreen, and the Volund pulverizers of John Thompson
Constructions Ltd. The Motherwell Bridge Tacol unit and the
Dorr-Oliver refuse treater are also discussed.
68-0425
Reeves, E. G. Pulverization. Public Cleansing, 58(7):31 2-314,
July 1968.
The equipment currently available to provide a coarse
pulverization of domestic refuse and the reduction of bulk
refuse for incineration or sanitary landfill is described. A
coarse degree of pulverization is obtained by means of
hammermiils or impactor shredders, and the article implies
that these pulverizers will accept all refuse without any
pretreatment or separation. A degree of pulverization is
obtained which is coarser than that currently being obtained
from high speed hammermiils. Jeffrey-Diamond Ltd. has
developed a new heavy duty hammermill known as the
'Wakefield Refuse Pulveriser,' which combines the advantages
of both the rotary screen and hammer type pulverizers. The
peripheral speed is greatly reduced compared to conventional
hammermiils, and together with large discharge grids, it
effectively minimizes teduction by attrition with a reduction
of 50 percent in power requirements. The W. C.
Holmes-Hazemag impactors have shredders which will accept
any type of domestic bulk or industrial refuse and reduce it
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0421-0431
to an acceptable size. The impactoi shredder is a single rotor
machine with a series of cams arranged to intermesh with a
series of teeth positioned at the lower end of the two heavy
impact plates suspended in the shredder housing. All that is
required is a vibrating feeder to ensure even dosage of refuse
to the pulvenzer. The introduction of these two new designs
of refuse pulverizer is an attempt to reduce the high
operating costs associated with pulverization, and to offer a
unit which will accept all refuse.
68-0426
Reeves, K. G. Refuse disposal-pulverization. Public
Cleansing, 58(4).156-160, Apr. 1968.
The part that pulverization can play in the treatment of
refuse in relation to the accepted means of disposal is
outlined. With pulverized refuse, areas of land, particularly
shallow depressions which could not have previously been
considered for tipping of crude refuse, can be utilized. The
finer the pulverization, the less will be the need for top
covering material. The risk of fires is also virtually eliminated
and the tip is largely rodent free. The pretreatment of refuse
by pulverization before composting enables unusable
components to be rejected and disposed of by some other
means. With the emergence of coarse type pulverizers with
relatively low operating costs, thought can now be given to
the prepulverizing of all refuse prior to incineration. This
coarse degree of pulverizing will render the refuse more
homogeneous, and because of its constant nature, will ensure
an even burn out within the incinerator.
68-0427
Refuse pulverizing plant for Dundee. Public Cleansing,
58(3):146-lSO,Mar. 1968.
Before 1932, over 80 percent of all the refuse in Dundee was
tipped, but with the completion of a separation incineration
plant which dealt with 100 tons per day, the amount to be
tipped was reduced to 80 tons per day. By 1964 the weight
of refuse for disposal was 240 tons per day, and all tipping
sites had been filled. Pulverization appeared to offer the
lowest capital cost, and produced a material which could be
tipped without the problems associated with the tipping of
crude refuse. A pulverizing plant was built to handle 20 tons
per hr of refuse. After separating bulky materials and ferrous
materials, the refuse is conveyed to the main pulverizer, a
British Jeffrey-Diamond swing-hammer machine. Pulverized
refuse is compressed into containers of 28 cu yd capacity by
one of four Simon Compactors. A Simon-Morbo rotary
stoker will be used to incinerate trade waste which cannot be
pulverized.
68-0428
Tip space problem solved at Wallingford. Surveyor and
Municipal Engineer, 131(3950):76, Feb. 17, 1968.
Shortage of tipping space prompted the investigation of
pulverization of refuse which is totalling about 35 tons per
day. A single unit Mark II Vickers Seerdrum was installed in a
simple, prefabricated building. The pulverizer utilizes the wet
rotation principle, whereby the tensile strength of refuse is
reduced by the addition of moisture, and the turbulence and
shearing action of the internal deflection plates causes a rapid
breakdown of the original material during a 45-minute
retention period. One of the features of the Seerdrum is that
the attractive product can be used for shallow filling, without
the creation of nuisances, thus increasing tip availability.
68-0429
Wallingford R.D.C. install Vickers Seerdrum pulveriser.
Public Cleansing, 58(4): 1 85, Apr. 1968.
A single unit Mark II Seerdrum was installed at the Long
Wittenham tip. The unit is loaded by a tractor shovel
operating from the reception slab and power is supplied by a
100 kVA diesel generator. Refuse is loaded through an
improved design throat, where water is incorporated to
establish a moisture content of 40 to 50 percent, a rate of
flow indicator being included in the supply line. Wallingford
has a population of 21,000 and produces 35 tons of refuse
per day. With an input capacity of about 9 tons the
installation is readily capable of meeting surge demands and
future increases in the quantity of refuse.
68-0430
Waste compactor. Wasser, Luft und Betrieb, 12(10):650, Oct.
1968.
At the Hannover (West Germany) fair, a waste compactor
was on display which had a compaction power of 30 tons, a
lift of 1,100 mm and a loading opening of 1,400 by 850 mm.
It operated with a speed of two double lifts per minute. The
electronic control equipment of the compactor was installed
in a trunk which also held the monitoring device. The
compactor switched itself off automatically when personnel
came in contact with the protecting rail mounted around the
loading zone. When the maximum compaction pressure was
reached, a lamp lit up at the trunk, and a buzzer indicated its
operating state. The compaction room itself was tightly
sealed off after it was filled to capacity. (Text-German)
INCINERATION
68-0431
Bacher, J. H., and E. D. Ranard. Use of mathematical
planning models to predict incineration requirements. In
Proceedings; 1968 National Incinerator Conference, New
York, May 5-8, 1968. American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, p.1-11.
Methods were developed to give fairly good estimates of
future waste reduction requirements on the county and State
level. The methods are less accurate when used on the
municipal level. A series of models was developed for the
State of Connecticut and could form the basis for similar
planning models in other States. The technique of stepwise
curvilinear regression analysis was used to generate these
mathematical models. The input information necessary to
execute these models was taken from a 'transportation' study
conducted by Connecticut. The transportation study
investigated the effects of land use, population, and
manufacturing intensities on highway requirements. A
well-known mathematiel technique for expressing one
variable (tons per day of incinerator capacity) as a function
of several others (population, population density,
manufacturing employment, etc.) was also employed. A
compilation of the Connecticut utilization model 1975
83
-------
Incineration
projections in term of tons of refuse incinerated per county is
presented.
68-0432
Bailie, R. C., D. M. Donner, and A. K Galh. Potential
advantages of incineration in fluid/zed beds. In Proceedings,
1968 National Incinerator Conference, New York, May 5-8,
1968. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, p.12-! 7.
The potential advantages offered by the fluidized bed furnace
for the combustion of a wide variety of solid wastes are
presented, along with a description of a fluidized bed. A
small pilot plant for the investigation of solid waste
combustion is described. The fluidized bed has many
potential advantages as a compact low-cost solid waste
incinerator. The preliminary experimental runs in the small
pilot plant indicated that volumetric heat generation rates in
the range of 100,000 to 150,000 Btu per hr per cu ft can be
realized The bed appears stable and the control of the bed
simple. The major problems encountered in the pilot plant
are associated with feeding waste material into the bed. Two
screw feeders were used, a continuous flight and a segmented
flight. Neither of these was able to feed the waste materials,
including sewage sludge, shredded paper, and shredded
garbage. The pilot plant has no provision for the removal of
ash from the bed. For almost all of the materials that have
been burned, the ash produced has been carried away with
the hot exhaust gases. The combustion gas leaving the bed is
cooled and passed through a water scrubber. For fluidized
beds to burn sewage sludge, the sand bed is completely
replaced at suitable intervals. Experience with cans led to a
bed at 1,500 F showed that the tin cans disintegrated and left
the bed, whereas aluminum cans remained.
68-0433
Barbeito, M. S, L. A. Taylor, and R. W. Seiders.
Microbiological evaluation of a large-vojume air incinerator.
Applied Microbiology, 16(3):49()-495, Mar. 1968.
Two semi-portable metal incinerators, each with a capacity of
1,000 to 2,200 standard cu ft of air per minute, were
constructed to sterilize infectious aerosols created for
investigative work in a microbiological laboratory Kach unit
has about the same air-handling capacity as a conventional air
incinerator with a brick stack, but costs are about one-third
The units are unique in that the burner housing and
combustion chamber are airtight and utilize a portion of the
contaminated air stream to support combustion of fuel oil.
Operation is continuous. Aerosols of liquid and dry
suspensions of Bacillus subtihs var. niger spores and dry
vegetative cells of Serratia mareescens were disseminated into
the two incinerators to determine the conditions required for
sterilization of contaminated air. With the latter organisms
(concentration 2.03 times 10 to the seventh power cells per
cu ft of air), a temperature of 525 I1', measured at the firebox
in front of the heat exchanger, was sufficient for sterilization.
To sterilize 1.74 times 10 to the seventh power and 1.74
times 10 to the ninth power wet spores ol B. subtihs per cu
ft, the required temperature ranged from 525 to 675 F and
625 to 700 F, respectively. Air-sterilization temperature
varied with each incinerator. This was because of innate
differences of fabrication, different spore concentrations, and
the use of one or two burners. With dry B. subtihs spores
(1.86 x 10 to the eight power per cu ft), a temperature of
700 F was required for sterilization. With dry spores, no
difference was noted in the sterilization temperature for the
two incinerators. The incinerator installation is illustrated.
The incinerator was installed at an cost of approximately
$40,000.
68-0434
Bowen, 1 G , and L Brealey. Incinerator ash-criteria of
performance. In Proceedings: 1968 National Incinerator
Conference. New York, May 5-8, 1968. American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, p. 18-22.
Criteria which apply to the degree of burn-out on a furnace
burning mixed household and trade refuse are discussed.
tmphasis is placed on the ash discharged from the end of the
grate, since this represents the bulk of the ash produced by
incineration plants. The classical approach to burn-out is to
employ 'carbon-in-ash' techniques familiar to combustion
engineers designing grates for boiler plants. In Germany, an
alternative chemical technique has been developed. The most
sophisticated solid fuel technique gives carbon-m-ash between
05 percent and 2.0 percent. The following criteria for the
completeness of combustion of material leaving the grate are
given m order of importance: bulk reduction, odor, lack of
mold growth, ability to sustain rat infestation, and
contribution to water pollution. Test techniques available for
assessing these criteria are described. Actual samples of ash
from continental and British incinerators were examined. The
data obtained help very little in constructing a test relevant
to the odor of ash. In all the tests, the numbers from the heat
tests are considerably greater than those from the German
method. The test results on unmcincrated screened refuse
suggest that such material causes no more trouble than
clinker emanating from other plants tested. It was concluded
that a nitrogen test at 600 C coupled \\ ith an air test at 800 C
might be the most informative m assessing organic and fixed
carbon contents
680435
Brown, R. L Which dust collector is right for you? Rock
Products, 71(2)'76-80, Feb. 1968.
Scrubbers, bag houses, and electrostatic precipitators offer
efficiencies of 99.9 percent and residuals as low as 0.01 g per
cu ft. Some questions to consider in choosing equipment are:
what is the industrial experience on similar installations; is
the dust reusable, is the temperature, pressure, or moisture
content a limiting factor; is the dust or gas corrosive'' A
service offered is that of a test engineer furnished at a per
diem rate to formulate and conduct tests on already
operating equipment. If the application is unique, pilot
equipment is available to determine expected performance. A
mobile pilot precipitator is rigidly mounted on a 32-ft
semi-trailer. It is single chamber, four to five lanes wide with
adjustable spacing, two 4-ft fields with 7-ft field height. The
unit was designed to establish precipitator parameters, and to
investigate the effect oft of changing gas conditions on
precipitator performance. From the many tests performed, a
scale up iactor has been established to correlate the results
reliably to the full size plate-type unit. A three-tube pilot
unit is another example of available test equiqment. Other
m-plant tools available are the mechanical and electrical test
tower, flow laboratory, research and metallurgical laboratory.
Specifications should include basic design criteria such as
84
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0432-0440
design pressure, design temperature, and dust density.
Hoppers, dust removal equipment, access facilities, insulation
and siding, wiring, lighting, unloading storage, and reluimllmg
costs of erection are factors to be considered carefully
68-0436
Buell, D. Engineers envision Utopian methods-- solid waste
disposal-V Congressional Record, 114(42)-S2£45-S2,846,
Mar. 14, 1968.
The Melt-Zit Destructor in Massachusetts operates at
lempeiatures of at least 3,000 1 so that combustible
materials are completely destroyed. Noneombustibles, about
3 to 5 percent of the total, ate dischaiged Irom the furnace as
a molten stream, which, when cooled, forms a sterile metallic
silicate that can be used lor shingles, fireboard, road
foundations, or subsoil. Before incineration, most of the
refuse is sorted. Metals are removed for sale as scrap. Further
down the conveyor, lumber is removed for shredding m
preparation as mulch. Materials like glass, bricks, and cement
are giound into gravel Fibers and plastics, if mixed, can be
used in wallboard Hard plastics are giound and blended with
a solvent in order to produce a crude, yet marketable, plastic.
The cost for the complete process is about $3 per ton. Heat
trom the equipment can be used to puniy thousands of
gallons of salt or brackish water, or to produce steam tor
eleetncity generation, thus further reducing costs Garbage is
regularly used m a West European process to operate steam
turbines. Another innovation is the conversion of surplus
World War II Liberty Ships into offshore incinerators, a
possibility under study at Harvard University. The wastes
would be burned at sea, and the residue disposed of 30 ft
below the ocean surface.
68-0437
Buell. D. Weymouth incinerator sets example- solid waste
disposal-IE Congressional Record, 114(42):S2.843-S2844,
Mar 14, 1968
Sixty percent of the original volume of refuse burned at the
Sommerville, Massachusetts, incinerator remains as residue to
be conveyed to a dump. Black smoke and fly ash pollute the
air Smoke is consumed by maintaining 1,400 to 1,800
degree temperatures in the 300-ton daily capacity,
$1.356,000 Weymouth incinerator. If the temperature is too
low, dry rubbish is inserted; if too high, wet garbage is
inserted. Fly ash is curbed by a $75,000 scrubbing chamber
containing waterspray baffles. A 185-foot chimney helps
settle particles. Odors are controlled by spraying disinfectant
in storage pits. Only 1 8 percent remains as residue. Formerly
the Weymouth dump accepted only rubbish, garbage was sent
to piggeries. Now garbage and rubbish are both incinerated,
costing each householder $5.52 for incineration and $9.31
for collection annually A shredding plant in Everett grinds
up junk automobiles and bulky wastes.
68-0438
Bump, R. L. Conditioning refractory furnace gases of
electrostatic precipitator application. In Proceedings; 1968
National Incinerator Conference, New York, May 5-8, 1968.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, p.23-33.
The refractory furnace necessitates a dependable and proven
system to handle gases after they emanate from the final
state of combustion, and betore they enter the precipitator.
Three systems can be used to precondition the high
temperature gases. The first is an evaporation cooling tower.
In this case, the turnace design terminates with the last
combustion chamber, and the tower is installed as a separate
piece of equipment The cooling is done entirely by water. In
the second scheme, the furnace design may be such as to
accommodate a combination water-air system. The hot gases
are cooled partially by water and partially by air intiitration
The final system is one in which the furnace design is such
that the cooling is done entirely with water, but m the hack
end of the furnace rather than in a separate evaporation
cooling tower. A typical installation of each system is
described With identical incinerator e\haust conditions fiom
a typical 250-ton furnace, the 'Water and Air Cooling' system
results in a 57 percent larger gas volume to treat. The 'Water
Cooling' system results in a higher water dew point which is
favorable to the precipitator and results in a less conservative
sizing factor for that system. The end result is that the 'Water
and Air Cooling' system requires a precipitator with a 77
percent larger collecting surface area to do the same
collection |ob as the 'Water Cooling' system precipitatoi. In
the 'Water and Air Cooling' system, the expensive refractory
and acid brick lined evaporation cooler is eliminated, and (In-
visible vapor plume at the stack discharge is reduced.
68-0439
Bump, R. L. The use of electrostatic precipitators on
municipal incinerators. Journal of the Air Pollution Control
Association, 1 8(12)'803-809, Dec 1968.
Effective control of emissions from municipal incinerator
exhaust gases is becoming more important due to stricter
Federal and State regulations. Baffled spray chambers give
efficiencies in the 50 percent range. Spray cooling chambers
are necessary adjuncts to use of a cyclone collector or
electrostatic precipitator in the case of a refractory furnace,
or water-wall furnace, without a waste heat boiler. Wet
scrubbers give efficiencies in the 90 to 96 percent range with
a 4 to 6 in. WC drop. Mechanical collectors depend on
particle size of the dust and the diameter of the cells with
resultant pressure drop efficiencies generally m the 75 to 80
percent range. Electrostatic precipilators requne little
pressure drop and give efficiencies at times in excess of 99 5
percent. Detailed illustrations of each type of equipment and
of the Pans, Munich, and Birmingham, England, electrostatic
precipitator installations are included. The operations of
these last specific plants are also described. Tabulations
include: refractory furnace data, water cooled furnace data,
levels of permissible emission and equipment capability, data
on specific installations using precipitators; and summary ot
international refuse composition by percenlage.
680440
Burckle, J. O., J. A. Dorsey, and B. T. Riley. The effects of
the operating variables and refuse types on the emission trom
a pilot-scale trench incinerator. In Proceedings; 1968
National Incinerator Conference, New Yotk, May 5-8, 1968.
American Society of Mechanical Engmeeis p 34-41
Since the trench incinerator for the thermal destruUion ot
wastes having a high calorific value and a low ash content is
attractive from the standpoints of construction and operating
costs, attempts have been made to apply it to the problem of
85
-------
Incineration
disposal of municipal refuse, landscape refuse, and certain
industrial wastes. These wastes possess fuel characteristics
different from those for which this incinerator was originally
designed. Air pollutant emissions were defined for a trench
incinerator burning three types of refuse material: low ash,
moderately high heat content material characterized by cord
wood; high ash, high heat content material, such as rubber
tires; and high ash, low heat content material like municipal
refuse Use of a trench incinerator for the disposal of the high
ash content materials generated participate emissions which,
in all cases, exceeded 1 grain per standard cu ft at 1 2 percent
carbon dioxide and is, therefore, not recommended. For
disposal of low ash, high heat content materials, the data
indicate that, except for nitrogen oxides, emission levels from
the trench incinerator may be acceptable if rigid operating
controls are predetermined for the specific refuse materials.
Tor the disposal of municipal refuse, the trench incinerator is
significantly infenor to the multiple-chamber municipal
incinerator. i
68-0441
Campbell, H. J., and A. L. Fnedland Considerations in
incinerator design with respect to community acceptance In
Proceedings: 1968 National Incinerator Conference, New
York, May 5-8, 1968. American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, p.4249.
Master planning, for community incinerator design to meet a
community's current refuse disposal needs, involves
consideration of more factors than just the design of the
facility. These considerations fall into two major
classifications .social and economic. Sites should be selected
in relation to current population densities, anticipated
population expansion patterns, projected land use in the area
under consideration, the health and comfort of those
presently living in areas adjacent to the plant, and the
projected total incineration needs of the community.
Thought must be given to the future use of the site when it
may be no longei economically feasible to'operate because of
obsolescence, exhaustion of surrounding areas requiring
landfill, or a shift in population density. Plans can be made
for the future use of both site and structures for such
developments as a community recreation area, an industrial
park, or the core area for future housing. A typical master
plan for an incinerator site showing a typical phase
development over a 20- to 30-year period is illustrated. The
construction of a plant with a nominal rating of 300 tons per
day was recommended to replace an existing 30-year-old.
90-ton plant. The plan included the following actions
acquisition of additional acreage adjacent to the site for
residue burial; relocation ot offices and demolition of an
existing incinerator; construction of a community building;
and development of the site to upgrade the area and to utilize
part of it for a sanitary landfill which, when completed,
would provide a recreational facility.
68-0442
Campbell, H. J., and A. L. Fnedland. Incinerators and the
public. Mechanical Engineering, 90(12):3843, Dec 1968
In the development of an incinerator, design factors to be
considered include not only the size and location of the
incinerator, but also the possible effects that the incinerator
may have on the community. Aesthetic considerations and
plans for possible use of filled land for recreational purposes
must be included. The development of plans for a new
300-ton incinerator plant and adjacent recreational facilities
is detailed with photographs.
680443
Campbell, H. J. Jr., and A. L. Freidland. Planning a municipal
incinerator to gam community acceptance. Civil Engineering,
38(8):64-67. Aug. 1968.
A municipal incinerator installation requires consideration of
many factors. Site selection cannot simply remain a process
of choosing a location far from population, or an available
piece of land or a site chosen from political expediency.
Population densities, trends, available landfill, collection
routes, and distances must be considered. Total incineration
needs, both present and projected, must be considered.
Determination of plant size and capacity should be based on
its ability to satisfy present and future community needs.
Also, the benefits derived from building, for example, two
150-ton plants, rather than a single 300-ton plant, may
outweigh the additional cost involved if an assured
continuous burning capacity is thus provided. Plant
obsolescence must be considered and the relative merits of
various types of equipment considered. The site planner must
also consider the use of the plant location for recreational,
private, or industrial use after the present function is
outlived. Also the actual structure should not be a detriment
to the area where it is located Good design of the building,
both inside and out, can have the additional benefit of
attracting employees to an occupation which is not now
considered desirable.
68-0444
Cardinal, P. J. Multiple hearth incineration Water and Waste
Treatment Journal, 12(2)'62-67, July-Aug. 1968.
The multiple hearth furnace is the most widely used means of
incinerating sludge in the United States. This review of the
basic design features of the multiple hearth furnace, when
used as an incinerator, includes the general physical design.
Data from studies indicate that the sludge varies only slightly
in its travel across the drying hearth in both temperature
(generally not exceeding 160 F) and in moisture content
(between 40-50%) before its entry into the very high
temperature combustion hearth. This fact, (that the sludge
remains only a very short time at the distillation
temperature) accounts for the ability of the multiple hearth
furnace to burn the sewage solids effectively, and yet
produce no obnoxious odors, even though the gas outlet
temperatures are between 500 and 1,200 I-'. The exhaust
gases are scrubbed before discharge into the atmosphere, and
the pressure drop associated with such mechanisms has
resulted in the use of an induced draft fan instead of natural
draft for most furnaces Multiple hearth furnaces can be
automated to any degree desirable. The sludge parameters are
considered for most efficient operation of the incinerator and
typical parameters,_and their Btu values are given to illustrate
that incinerators must be prepared to handle a broad range of
values. Ash from a multiple hearth incinerator is dry and
contains less than 1 percent combustible material. Operating
costs are given for several plants and vary by size of plant and
according to the characteristics of the sewage. A summary of
operating requirements are tabulated for treatment plants
86
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0441-0449
processing wastes of 10,000, 20,000, 50,000, 100,000, and
1,000,000 people. Pertinent data Upon which these figures
are based are also given.
68 0445
Casimir, D. .1., D McBean, and J. Shipton. 1 luidization
techniques in food processing Hood Technology in Australia,
20<10)-466467.469,()ct. 1968.
Applications ot fluidized processing in the food industiy
include: freezing and cooling, drying, blanching and cooking,
particle coating and instatizing, heat processing ot canned
foods, and combustion of wastes The autogenous
combustion ot concentrated liquid food wastes (20-35',?
solids) in a fluidized bed without additional fuel has been
suggested. The system uses temperatures up to 300 !•' to
achieve complete combustion. It is a complete disposal
method, by which every type of fluidizable \vaste can be
destroyed without yielding smoke, odor, visible ash, or any
other harmful effluent
68-0446
Cermglia, V. I. The consultant's role in furnace design and
selection. In Proceedings, 1968 National Incinerator
Conference, New York, May 5-8, 1 968. American Society of
Mechanical Engineers p.50-52
The problems cunently lacing the consulting engineer in the
design and construction of municipal incinerator plants are
discussed. Specific consideration is given to the role ot the
engineer in the design and selection of the various items of
component equipment and the expectations ultimately to be
derived from an operating standpoint. Municipal officials are
demanding more complete programming of projects, starting
with feasibility studies, public presentations, planning for
construction costs, and in some instances, advising the actual
financing The consultant is being pressured not onh for
increased accuracy in cost estimates, but he is expected to
assume a greater responsibility in regard to the contractors'
and manufacturers' performance as well as the supervision of
construction and the ultimate operation of the entire facihu .
There is a need for a freer exchange of information between
consultants on past experience with contractors, suppliers,
and/or manufacturers of Hems of iclatively new concept and
desmn.
68-0447
Cohan, L. J., and J. H. I'crnandes. The heat value of refuse
Mechanical Engineering, 90(9) 47-5 1, Sept. 1968
Incineration is used for a large variety ot" wastes. Mixed id'use
has a heating value approaching 5,000 Btu per Ib as fired.
which is equivalent to 10 million Btu per ton ot refuse.
f'igures given indicate that this available energy can generate
approximately 100,000 Ib of steam per hr, which can be used
to generate electricity A proposal is made for a burning
system, not presently in cotnmencal use, which provides the
unique features of thermal drying and maximum heat
utilization. The refuse, reduced to 2 in. or smaller, is fed into
the furnace The principle of overfeed firing is employed, and
the refuse is fed into the furnace at registers high enough to
permit drying of the refuse before it reaches the grate at the
bottom ot the furnace Turbulence is provided by blowing
tangentially heated air at high velocity at various furnace
levels. With proper heat recovery equipment, unit efficiencies
in excess of 80 percent can be achieved. A figure illustrates a
proposed method by which water-cooled furnaces can be
used to affect a tradeoff with air pollution devices without
the use of the byproduct steam or hot water. A completely
water-cooled furnace can be used to produce hot water tor
heating and air conditioning systems At the present time
incinerator heat uses may be limited by the down-time of the
incinerator plant. The problems may be overcome, and the
uses tor incinerator-generated steam include not only power
geneiution but district heating systems or process plants, air
conditioning and refrigeration, space and water heating,
desalination of seawater; using the condensed steam as
superheating energv in a nuclear power plant: and direct
hot-gas powering ot a turbine (a suggestion for the design of
such a system is outlined) which might be the forerunner of a
completely self-sustained mcmeiator plant.
68-0448
Coleman, L. W , and L. F. Cheek. Liquid waste incineration.
Chemical Engineering Progress, 64(9).83-87, Sept 1968.
A liquid wastes incinerator has been developed by the Rohm
and Haas Co. at its plant near Houston. Texas. The wastes are
residues from various chemical processes- gummy organics,
light hydrocarbons, waxy solids, and heavy, viscous oils. A
range of liquid waste properties is tabulated The basic
requirement was the incineration of the solids in the waste
liquids. Design features included an oil burner tip which
would pass solids of at least 1/2-m. diameter using small
amounts of air, and a combustion chamber which would
complete the combustion. Supplementary fuel was used to
bring the combustion chamber up to an initial operating
temperature of 800 to 1,000 F. The volume of the chamber
was calculated by assuming a 100,000 Btu per hr per cu ft of
furnace volume heat release rate. Details of the oil burner
nozzle assembly and combustion chamber are shown in
schematic drawings. The incinerator will burn at least 450
gph without smoke or excess furnace heat. Temperature
readings of furnace walls indicated a temperature of 2,070 1'',
considered to be maximum under present conditions. The
basic design of the Houston incinerator could be readily
modified for application to a wide range of problems
68-0449
Cnss, G. H., and A. R. Olsen. The chemistry of numerator
slags and their compatibility with fireclay and high alumina.
In Proceedings; 1968 National Incinerator Conference, New
York. May 5-8, 1968 American Society o1 Mechanical
Engineers, p.53-60.
Fused ash on incinerator walls damages retractones and
interferes with incinerator operation. Slag samples from the
walls of nine municipal incinerators were investigated for
chemical composition and fusion characteristics. The
differences in behavior of two slags in contact with four
types of refractory are shown. Twenty-five individual slag
samples were found to vary widely in composition, not only
from incinerator to incinerator, but within the same
incinerator. The average analysis for silica, alumina, iron, and
calcium were found to be close to that of a previous study
indicating that there is perhaps a useful typical composition.
This average analysis is not unlike blast furnace of cupola
87
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Incineration
slags in fundamental chemistry, except that it contains more
minor components such as copper, nickel, lead, tin, and
barium. Weight change of the samples on ignition was an
interesting variable and one that may prove important in
predicting slag behavior. Fusion tests on selected slags of
widely different compositions show that they can easily
become sticky at temperatures where most municipal
incinerators operate, and would be readily available to adhere
to and/or penetrate the refractory structure. The slag sample
with a high ferrous iron content softened and adhered at a
substantially lower temperature. In general, superduty
fireclay brick appears to be an excellent choice where slag
buildup is not a serious problem For problem areas, a
conventional 90 percent alumina refractory appeared to offer
no particulai advantage, whereas an extra dense,
mulhte-bonded corundum brick seemed to be advantageous.
A phosphate-bonded high alumina refractory showed
outstanding ability.
68-0450
Cnss, G H., and A. R. Olsen. Further investigation of
refractory compatibilities with selected incinerator slags. Part
II. In Proceedings; 1968 National Incinerator Conference,
New York, May 5-8, 1968. American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, p.61-68.
Incinerator slag adherence to and penetration into
refractories were investigated in the laboratory. The
refractory compositions included burned superduty fireclay,
high alumina, chrome-magnesite, and plastic materials. Two
slags obtained from a continuous incinerator and a
batch-type incinerator were used. Two types of tests were
conducted. In the usual static type test, 1 in. holes were
diamond drilied into the ends of nine-inch brick, and the
cavity was charged with the selected slag. The other test
consisted of placing 34-g cylinders of slag on pieces of
refractory. Both compositions were then heated for 5 hr at
either 2,200 or 2,300 F. The test results indicated that
phosphate-bonded refractory brick and plastics appear to do
well in resisting incinerator slag attack. The 75 percent
alumina phosphate-bonded products also appeared to be as
resistant to attack as the more expensive 90 percent high
alumina refractories. Superduty fireclay brick still would be
an excellent choice in many areas of the incinerator, but for
problem areas phosphate brick should provide an extended
safety margin. The phosphate-bonded plastics should
definitely be considered for maintenance and emergency
repairs.
68-0451
Cross, F. L., and E. W Ross. Effluent water from incinerator
flue-gas scrubbers. In Proceedings; 1968 National Incinerator
Conference, New York, May 5-8, 1968. American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, p.69-72
Florida's new air pollution control standard for incinerator
emissions is 0.2 grains per standard cu ft (corrected to 68 !•,
1 atm, dry). Florida water quality standards for various
chemical constituents and the increase of these constituents
in incinerator scrubber effluent are shown. More recent
incinerators constructed in Florida have included not only a
spray scrubbing system, but also a flooded impingement plate
through which the gases have to pass before leaving the plant.
Corrosion problems at two incinerator installations are
discussed. It was concluded that in order to meet water
quality standards, the scrubber water must be treated to
neutralize excess acidity and to remove chemical
constituents. The studies indicate that it is perhaps better to
keep control on a dry basis rather than to use a wet-scrubber
system. Although wet scrubbers are reducing emissions to 0.2
g per cu ft and downwards to 0.1 g per cu ft, dry control
methods (bag houses or electostatic precipitators) can reduce
these limits even turther.
68-0452
Dalzell, W. H., and A. F. Sarofim. Appendix B Incineration.
In Summer study on the management of solid wastes: final
report v.l. Cambridge, Urban Systems Laboratory,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sept. 1968. p.23-33.
A review of the present technology, and identification of the
problems that need to be solved in order to reduce
incineration costs are discussed. Refuse has an average lower
heating value of about 4,500 Btu per Ib, compared with
values of around 7,800 and 13,000 Btu per Ib for wood and
coal, respectively. The combustion of refuse is complicated
by differences in Btu value and variations in size and
moisture content of the feed. Other areas that require
investigation are the regulation cf the air supply to reduce
the amount of excess air, and particulate emissions. If the
geographical and economical problems are solved, it is
probable that resistance to the acceptance of steam from
incineration will be encountered until sufficient evidence is
provided that this source of energy will not be subject to the
whims of city politics. The ash from incineration is about
one-fifth of the mass of the original refuse, and it is useful in
construction. Small-scale units have proportionately higher
operating costs, and all small units present an air pollution
problem. Total costs and cost breakdowns vary widely. Cost
breakdown is given for two large modern incinerators as a
guide in the orders of magnitude to be expected. Operating
costs of two units are also given. A list of recommendations
for cities and regional planning are furnished, as well as an
outline where research is needed.
68-0453
Day & Zimmermann, F.ngineers and Architects. Special
studies for incinerators; for the government of the District of
Columbia, Department of Sanitary Engineering. Public
Health Service Publication No 1748. Washington, U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1968. 80 p.
Six separate investigations of disposal of municipal refuse by
incineration in the District of Columbia were carried out.
Heat and can/metal recovery are examined in depth, since
utilization of byproducts is an important aspect. The
economics of providing such facilities are also considered in
relation to the overall scheme of the proposed plant. Size
reduction of bulky metal objects and oversize, burnable
waste contribute greatly to the efficiency of the plant;
however, this requires the installation of specialized
equipment. The economic practicality of utilizing such
processes is discussed. The chemical constitutents of effluent
gases and the air pollution hazards are estimated An
evaluation of various abatement devices is also given. All
factors, such as performance standards and aesthetic
objections, are reviewed for this feasibility study on the
disposal of municipal refuse in a specific area In an effort to
-------
0450-0458
aid in the development of incinerator design and operating
techniques, a control laboratory is utilized An itemized list
of necessary equipment and installation costs is presented.
680454
DeMarco, J., and J. W. Leckman. Guidelines for the design
and operation of municipal solid waste incinerators. In
Engineering Foundation Research Conference; Solid Waste
Research and Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26,
1968. New York. (Conference Preprint No. C-7.)
The Solid Wastes Program has initiated a project to
coordinate the technology available to improve incinerator
design and operation. Guidelines are being developed with
the assistance of a panel of incinerator experts on the
following topics: basic data, weighing, receipt and handling
practices, furnaces and appurtenances, identification,
characteristics, and control of environmental pollutants,
instrumentation and controls, heat recovery, salvage and
reclamation, special wastes, utilities, and performance
evaluation. The guidelines are neither standards nor
regulations but are parameters that will minimize
environmental pollution and optimize economical and
effective incineration.
68-0455
Direct flame method of incineration for combustible
solvents. Air Engineering, 10(4):32-33, Apr. 1968.
Direct flame incineration, utilizing heat exchangers to
conserve Btu's, is a practical system for disposing of solvents
from processing systems if looked at from the standpoint of
initial investment, maintenance, operating costs, and effective
fume elimination. The object of incineration is to destroy the
contaminants by oxidation, producing harmless
byproducts-carbon dioxide and water. A full-scale direct
flame incinerator has been installed in a laboratory to
simulate industrial applications. The incinerator is capable of
heating to 1,800 F. It was found that combustion efficiencies
in excess of 95 percent are available if temperature,
turbulence, and time factors are regulated. Due to the
variation in solvent concentration, the incineration operating
cost will be between SO.86 and $1.06 per hr, per 1,000 cu ft
per mm, when using the Raw Gas Burner System. Heat
recovery may be added for a savings of better than 30
percent in operating costs.
68-0456
Engdahl, R. B., and J D. Hummell. Power from refuse.
American City, 83(9):119, 121-122, 124, Sept. 1968.
Today, because of the improved methods of collecting and
hauling refuse, and the increasing quantities of paper
products (usually more than 50 percent), plastics, rubber,
and other highly combustible materials, refuse can have a
heating value of 5,000 Btu per Ib or more. The quantity of
such material from a municipality averages between 200 and
250 tons per day per 100,000 population. About a dozen
large plants, most of them built since 1964, are burning
refuse and generating power in Germany. Two older plants
are operating in Switzerland, one in Holland, and a new plant
in England. A plant to make steam is now being built in
Canada and two are being built in Japan. These plants cost
more than the refractory-chamber incinerators with
inefficient air pollution control devices, and American
municipalities have avoided them simply because of this
additional cost. The electric utilities, both public and private,
must enter a new field of operation that involves the legal
aspects of utilities engaging in refuse disposal, the
management problems arising when electric utilities work
with public or private refuse haulers, different concepts and
skills required for the operation of refuse-burning boilers; and
modification of the present laws governing utilities to permit
them to make a reasonable profit while serving the waste
disposal needs of the community. The decision to use refuse
as a fuel for power generation depends upon: the dollar value
of the refuse as fuel; the cost to utilize the refuse, and the
cost of disposing of the refuse by some other means. Cost
comparison tables are given. Cities now pay between S4 and
$7 per ton to incinerate refuse in plants which cannot meet
future air pollution control standards, and these costs will
rise as more efficient fly ash control equipment is used.
680457
Essenhigh, R. H. Burning rates in incinerators. Part I: a
simple relation between total volumetric and area firing rates.
In Proceedings. 1968 National Incinerator Conference, New
York, May 5-8, 1968. American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, p.87-93.
Of all the problems involved in incineration, one of the more
obscure is that concerned with determining the maximum
duty or capacity of an incinerator. A simple relation is
derived between the area firing rate, the total firing rate or
incinerator capacity, and the average volumetric reaction
rate. This equation has essentially the same form as an
empirical semiloganthmic equation used in practice.
Comparison of the two has enabled the calculation of
combustion intensities for different waste types. The
combustion intensity for a waste with 10 percent moisture is
about 18,500 Btu per cu ft per hr, but this drops to 1,400
Btu per cu ft per hr ( a factor of 20 difference) as thy
moisture rises to 85 percent. This influence of moisture is
greater than expected
68-0458
Essenhigh, R. H. Burning rates in incinerators. Part II: the
influence of moisture of the combustion intensity. In
Proceedings; 1968 National Incinerator Conference, New
York, May 5-8, 1968. American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, p.94-100.
The influence of moisture in reducing incinerator capacity is
attributed to the extra thermal load it places on the flame;
this so reduces the average flame temperature that the
average burning of the waste is significantly decreased. The
actual change in flame temperature is quite small, but the
effect is greatly magnified by the high temperature
coefficient of the reaction. Analysis of published
experimental data gave an activation energy of 22 kcal, which
is consistent with combustion of smoke. When moisture
reduces the flame temperature, the burning time increases,
and the input of air and fuel (waste) has to be reduced to let
the stay time increase to match the burning time. The
reduction in incinerator capacity is directly due to the
reduced reactivity of the reactants (mostly smoke, volatiles,
and similar gaseous combustibles). The influence of other
89
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Incineration
factors directly introduced by the moisture such as dilution,
decreased stay time, etc., is evidently negligible. Increase of
incinerator capacity is therefore best achieved by increasing
the flame temperature. This can be achieved directly b>
reducing the excess air, if the overfire air mixing can be
improved. In the future, the problems to be solved center on
maintenance of the combustion in the fuel bed, and on
increasing the rate of burn-up of the gases, volatiles, and
smoke in the overfire volume of the incinerator.
68-0459
Essenhigh, R. H. Incineration—a practical and scientific
approach. Environmental Science & Technology,
2(7):524-534, July 1968.
A method for the selection of experiments in incinerator
research was formulated and flames of a realistic engineering
size were investigated. The concept of successive
development of complexity of the pulverized coal flame was
later applied to the incinerator problem. Three broad levels
of research are discussed. The Building Research Advisory
Board recommended for investigation: the design and .size of
combustion chambers; the amount, location, and effect of
combustion air; the location and distribution of auxiliary
heat; and the influence of ventilation. In narrowing the
choices for investigation, all levels of research above the test.
or idealized, incinerator were excluded. Four areas are now
being studied, investigation of the kinetics of waste materials
during reaction; combustion study of burning bed behavior in
a small combustion pot; cold model studies of the
aerodynamic patterns in an incinerator; and construction and
instrumentation of a small test incinerator The research
objective is to obtain information on the equations, values of
constants, and other factors governing combustion behavior
in the incinerator To identify the possible modes of behavior
of an incinerator, the incinerator is regarded as a box with
two zones: Zone 1—the solid fuel bed through which
underfire air is passing, and Zone H—the overbed combustion
volume in which gaseous combustibles are mixing with
overfire and air. I-our possible reaction modes are given
68-0460
Fernandes, J, H. Incineration air pollution control In
Proceedings; 1968 National Incinerator Conference, New
York, May 5-8, 1968. American Society Of Mechanical
Engineers, p.101-1 16.
The emission problem, the various methods of incinerator
particulate emission control, and their relative costs are
discussed. An accurate determination of stack emissions can
be obtained only by actual tests based on samples taken in
the duct leaving the air pollution control equipment Air
pollution control equipment described and illustrated include
the mechanical (cyclone) collector, the wet gas scrubber, the
electrostatic precipitator, and the fabric filter collector. The
most widely accepted criterion for classifying particulate
collection equipment is the weight efficiency. The weight
efficiency relates the quantity of the dust collected to the
dust that enters the collector with the gas. Another
important collector performance criterion is the fractional
efficiency curve, sometimes called the size or grade
efficiency The approximate cost of air pollution control
equipment per ton per day of incinerator capacity can be
developed on the basis of the following assumptions; 600 F
inlet gas temperature; 150 percent excess air; and 5,000 Btu
per Ib refuse. The capital cost reduction for air pollution
control equipment, ID fan, ducting, and stack when the flue
gas is cooled indirectly, is illustrated graphically. The
interrelationship and a comparison of the various air
pollution control equipment systems are summarized with
respect to performance, size, and cost
68-0461
Fichtner. W., and F. Martin Service requirements of a
modern, large refuse incineration plant. In Proceedings; 1968
National Incineration Conference, New York, May 5-8, 1968.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, p 1 1 7-122.
Three main requirements of waste incineration are: the
avoidance of water and air pollution by complete combustion
of the refuse, low- disposal costs b> erecting large plants with
heat utilization; and continual improvement of combustion
techniques. Plants in which waste heat has been utilized can
be operated within a collection area comprising the
equivalent of to 1 1/2 million inhabitants on an economically
feasible basis. The particular combustible properties of the
refuse impose design and planning conditions which must be
recognized and followed in the layout of the incineration
plant, the exhaust gas purification s> stems, pioblems of firing
control of the grate, the temperatures in the furnace, the
discharge of the combustion residues, and the boiler
construction. Operating experience is important in order to
combat difficulties within the plant, in particular, problems
of corrosion. High costs of incineration plant construction
can be recovered by suitable plant design, effective utilization
of the heat of combustion liberated, and by the proceeds
from the sale of byproducts. Two idealized cases of steam
generation with refuse were investigated. How the high costs
of capital repans and staff are offset by proceeds, with only a
small part of the costs not recovered, is shown for electric
power generation and heat supplied to a district heating
network, and for electric power generation and sea water
de.saltint;
68-0462
Fife, .1 A Controlled combustion for solid wastes disposal.
Heatim:, Pipm«, and Air Conditioning, 40(3). 140-147, Mar.
1968. "
Continuous feed and batch-type incinerators for the disposal
of typical American refuse are described and illustrated.
Furnace stokers, residue removing systems, the supply of
combustion air, and furnace heat balance are included in the
discussion. Particular emphasis is devoted to furnace design
to minimize the size and cost of all downstream air pollution
control equipment.
680463
Fleming, R R. Frank answers to some hot incinerator
questions. American City, 83(5):96-98, May 1968.
The problem of incinerator shutdowns is related to design
inadequacies which can be minimized by consulting an
engineer with experience in the field. Most failures are
probably due to overloading in older incinerators and
insufficient draft in new ones. New incinerators must meet
new and stringent air codes, and every new device added to
90
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0459-0467
clean the air reduees the draft The incinerator designed tor
North Hempstead, New York, needed a 6-m. draft through
the furnace train, because it loses 1.5 in. in the water spray
and 3.5 in. in the cyclones. Without the 200-hp induced-draft
fan, poor burning would occur and smoke would escape
through the ports. There is a draft bypass that opens
automatically when the gas temperature exceeds 600 I-
Consulting engineers and equipment manufacturers can tram
the staff of an incinerator plant and help insure successful
operation The selection of a Hazemag refuse crusher for the
Buffalo, New York, incinerator was made after seeing one
operate in Europe. The biggest change in incinerator design
has occurred in the field of air pollution control systems. A
chart of emission factors for typical incinerators is included.
68-0464
Flower, F. B Incineration; a method of industrial waste
disposal. Presented at Air Pollution Control; Third Annual
Conference, Oakland University, Rochester, Mich., Nov. 13.
1968. lip.
A paper presented at the Third Annual Conference on Air
Pollution Control at Oakland University, Rochester,
Michigan, November 13, 1968. listed these reasons why
incineration might be selected as the ultimate disposal
method; (1) it is the most economical, (2) the waste
materials are not suitable for disposal by other methods, (3)
incineration gives the need reduction in volume; (4)
incineration changes the waste to a nonputrescible and
nontoxic material. Everything must be a gas in order to burn
Therefore, generally, it is more difficult to burn liquids than
gases and still more difficult to burn solids than gases without
air pollution. The completeness of combustion depends upon
time, temperature, turbulence, and air. The temperatures
within industrial incinerators should be in the area of 1,400
to 2,000 F. The three basic methods of destroying organic
gaseous wastes through incineration are by (1) flares; (2)
furnaces, and (3) catalytic incinerators. Bulky solid refuse
can be incinerated in a commercial incinerator, provided the
material can first be reduced by mechanical means to a
manageable si?.e Bulky refuse can be burned in batch-fed
grateless furnace incinerators with secondary combustion
chambers. An open trench type of incinerator can often be
found satisfactory for bulky refuse with a high heat and low
ash content.
68-0465
Fluid bed incinerators studied for solid waste disposal.
Environmental Science & Technology, 2( 7):495-497. July
1968.
Fluid bed units, which are established in the field of sewage
sludge incineration, are being considered for solid refuse
disposal. Fluid bed techniques have become the basis for
many industrial chemical reactions because of the intimate
contact that can be obtained between a solid and a fluid
phase in these units. Much work has to be done before fluid
bed techniques can be applied to the combustion of solid
waste. More efficient feeding methods have to be developed,
as well as ways to remove the ash and unoxidized materials
from the bed. Other problems relate to maintaining an air
distribution that keeps solids of varying size and density in
suspension in the bed. Fluid beds are compact and simple to
operate and control, and cheaper to construct than
conventional grate-fed incinerators. Combustion is rapid and
complete with a minimum of undesirable combustion
products. A typical fluid bed reactor consists of a lower
chamber for distributing the fluidizmg gas, a middle section
where the desired reaction occurs, and an upper section
where the gas passes out of the bed. Hi gh combustion
efficiencies occur at relatively low and uniform temperatures
with little production of oxides of nitrogen. The need for low
quantities of excess air is probably the major advantage of
fluid bed incinerators. Because of the widely varying
composition of refuse, fluid bed refuse incinerators need an
auxiliary fuel to maintain stable bed tempeiatures. A variety
of auxiliary fuels is acceptable, including waste low- grade
coal. Preliminary data runs demonstrated that volumetric
geneiation rates of 100,000 to 150,000 Btu per hr per eu ft
can be realized The major problems encountered deal with
feeding material into the unit Some pretreatment, such as
sorting and shredding of the solid waste feed, may be
necessary.
68-0466
Goldfarb, I. J., and R. McGuchan Thermal degradation of
polyesters; 1 Aliphatic polymers. Technical Report
AFML-TR-68-182, Part I. Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,
Ohio, Air Force Materials Laboratory, Air Force Systems
Command, Oct. )968. 41 p (Distributed by National
Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va as Publication
No. AD 678883.)
A study has been made of the pyrolysis of eight aliphatic
polyesters prepared from various diacids and diols. The
polymers start to degrade at about 275 C by random scission
of the ester linkage, and they are comparable to polethylene
terephthlate with respect to thermal stability. Provididng a
beta-hydrogen atom is available in the dtol portion of the
ester, which was the case for the polymers studied, the
classical cyclic mechanism observed for the decomposition of
simple esters is applicable. Differences in degradation
behavior are best explained in terms of secondary reactions
which are dependent upon the nature of the end-groups
formed by scission, and on the chain length of the acid and
diol used to prepare the polymer Thus, olefimc end-groups
break down to aldehydes, dienes, cyclic etheres, and enols
while acid end-groups give carbon dioxide, cyclic ketones,
and cyclic anhydrides. Water is produced by anhydride
formation and dehydration of hydroxyl end-groups. The
overall kinetics were consistent with a random mechanism.
but deviations from the simple random picture were
concluded for some polymers and probably resulted from
cross linking. Kinetic parameters were evaluated from
programmed TGA data; activation energies of approximately
40 kcal per mole and preexponential factors of about 10 to
the 1 2th power per minute were obtained.
68-0467
Green, B L. Boiler for bark-burning Power Engineering,
72(9):52-53, Sept. 1968.
A major southeastern paper mill has been burning bark in one
of its boilers for six years The boiler, which has a rated
evaporation capacity of 300,000 Ib per hr, is equipped with
rotary regenerative air preheaters, and it works on a 75
percent to full load capacity on a continuous basis When the
bark supply is insufficient, the boiler is switched to natural
91
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Incineration
gas operation, and the option exists to convert to coal firing
should the need arise. The system equipment specifications
include, horizontal flow package regenerative air preheater
(L|ungstrom), mounted atop the boiler to permit use of
boiler-heated air, thus reducing the condensation problem:
traveling grate stoker; large tube cyclone fly ash collector;
and an hydraulic ash-disposal system. The boiler itself was
designed to burn 35 percent bark, and 65 percent natural gas.
Operating logs show that the percentage of bark has reached
as high as 80 percent. No significant problems in the overall
operation have occurred since its installation.
68-0468
Heaney, F. L. Regional districts for incineration. Civil
Engineering, 38(81:69-72, Aug. 1968.
Studies indicate that substantial savings can be realized by
using regional incinerators. A study developed for a
municipality of 40.000 persons indicated savings on the order
of 40 percent if they join with other nearby communities to
form a district of 160,000 persons. In planning an incinerator
installation, many preliminary studies are necessary to assure
the best criteria for size and location of the incinerator.
Actual measurements of representative sohd wastes to be
disposed are important, and available disposal areas should be
catalogued. A topographical survey of the proposed site
should be undertaken. Elevations, floor plans, equipment
lavouts, and costs should be estimated. Labor, utilities, and
mamtenence cost estimates should be figured for the annual
budget. An example of these statistics for a specific set of
circumstances is detailed. Air pollution control standards
include the provision that the emission of fly ash be less than
0.35 Ib per 1,000 Ib of flue gas corrected to 50 percent
excess air. El ectnc precipitators have demonstrated a
capacity to meet these limits at a cost directly proportional
to the volume of flue gas they will handle. Cooling is
accomplished best by waste heat boilers. Water sprays or
ambient air cooling usually add considerably to the cost of
the installation. The background for much of the material
presented here was obtained from studies performed in
furnishing technical assistance to the Metropolitan Area
PI anmng Council, which covered about 100 cities and towns
in eastern Massachusetts.
68-0469
llotfrnan, D A , and R. A. Fitz. Batch retort pyrolysis of
solid municipal wastes. Environmental Science &
Technology, 2(11)-1,023- 1,026, Nov. 1968.
Pyrolysis, with its concomitant volume reduction, was
considered in an application to municipal wastes by the
Utilities Department of San Diego, California. Typical
samples of actual wastes were used, corresponding to a
material bulk density of 4.38 Ib per cu ft The pyrolysis was
carried out in a 12-by4-m. stainless steel retort The products
of the combustible fraction are gases, liquids, and a solid
residue. The gaseous products have been studied, and
chromatography and infrared spectroscopy methods are now
being worked out for the liquid products. Experimental data
show the influence of four process temperatures on the
quantity, quality, and measured calorific values of products
of pyrolytic decomposition The process can sustain itself by
incineration of its products. Should a salvage market exist for
any of the gases, liquids, or solids resulting from pyrolysis,
the process may be manipulated to provide a financial return.
The residual char is comparable to semi-anthracite coal, and
constitutes an easily transportable fuel. The inert solids from
the process are sterile and represent satisfactory fill material.
Volume reduction is in excess of 50 percent The capital cost
per ton per day of output is tentatively put at approximately
2/3 of that of incineration.
68-0470
Houston orders cleanup' new techniques used Chemical
Engineering, 75(6):96-97, Mar. 11, 1968.
An incinerator designed for the treatment of waste oil and
the use of refinery waste to nourish a secondary treatment
facility arc briefly described. High excess-air ratios; high
refractory wall temperatures; and a cyclone tire box arc some
of the features of the new smokeless incinerator. The
activated sludge plant will receive ammonia-rich waste water
from a nearby refinery to help furnish the necessary nutrient
for the bacteria. At the new facility there will be two
aeration basins. After aeration and contact with biological
cultures, followed by retention and clarification, the water
will be discharged Solid residue will be concentrated, dried,
and disposed of as landfill. BOD will not exceed 100 ppm on
a monthly average, 125 ppm on any 24-hr average, and 150
ppm for any spot sample at the new plant.
68-0471
Hyde, P. E. Particulate sampling of wigwam burners.
Corvalhs, Oregon State University, School of Torestry
Research Laboratory, Oct. I 968. 12 p.
Present methods for determination of paniculate emissions
require that calculations and measurements be made of. the
weight of all non-gaseous emissions in a sample of flue gas,
the volume, temperature, and pressure of this sample of flue
gas; and the volume flow of the flue gas stream. A miniature
glass cyclone was developed by the Los Angeles County Air
Pollution Authority to catch particles larger than 5 microns.
A modified Aerotec Dust Collector was used by the Oregon
State Engineering Experiment in 1957 The methods and
equipment for sampling participate emission from wigwam
burners was considered. The recommended isokmetic
sampling train includes a 7/8-m. diameter sampling probe
with provision for velocity equalization by a
calibrated-null-balance; hot-wire; anemometer system; a
cyclone or dry filter, three Greenburgh-Smith impingers: a
dry-gas meter; and a vacuum pump. Differential-pressure
measurements to insure isokmetic sampling may be unreliable
in wigwam burners because of low velocity of the gas. (From
the study: Disposal of Wood and Bark Wastes by Incineration
or Alternative Means)
68-0472
Incinerator reduces fire hazards and maintenance Plant
Engineering, 22(1 1) 59, May 30, 1968.
A I aige alumimzed-steel industrial incinerator was installed
for the burning of Kraft paper, corrugated cartons, and
wooden crates. The burning of scrap is contained, thus
decreasing potential tire hazard. The uml provides nearly
completed combustion, and only a small amount ol smoke is
released at a height of 89 ft The cone-shaped burner has a
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0468-0477
base diameter of 72 1/2 ft and double-wall construction.
resulting in efficient cooling action on the burner and a
strong air flow into the upper part of the incinerator. Labor
savings have been achieved with the unit because it is no
longer necessary to bulldoze material before and after
burning.
68-0473
Incinerator spews superclean exhaust. Chemical Engineering,
75(12).60, 62, June 3, 1968
The operation and specifications of a two-chamber trash
burner, which burns combustibles in the lower chamber and
consumes polluting smokes, odors, and participates in the
upper chamber, are presented. The burner may be charged
manually or automatically by conveyor belt. The incinerator
can burn waste at the rate of 3 million Btu per hr. Typical
test results show Rmgelmann O exhausts. Particulate and fly
ash determinations average about 0.04 grains per cu ft of
exhaust. The trash burner is suggested for industrial,
commercial, and institutional incineration, specific
applications include loading docks, shipping and receiving
rooms, warehouses, terminals, laboratories, and offices.
680474
Ishu, K. Incinerator-technical view and recent tendency
Part 1. Energy and Pollution Control, 20(4) 19-25. Apr.
1968.
Current incineration facilities and practices for solid wastes
and the practical problems associated with them are outlined.
Collected refuse is normally brought to storage or directly to
the incinerator While permitting the adjustment of refuse
quality and continuous feeding, existing storage facilities
present a problem of odors, flies, rodents, and waste water
which short storage avoids. After pretreatment such as
separation, grinding, and pre-drying, the refuse is thrown into
a hopper. Cham grate or reciprocating feeders supply the
refuse to drying equipment winch utilizes waste gas as a heat
source. Incinerators for low grade coal are suitable for refuse,
although several incinerators, such as rotary kiln or pit type,
are in use. for the gas loop, forced draft is adopted for
almost all types. It is difficult to control the temperature
range of most incinerators. Since the temperature of waste
gas is 200 to 600 C, it is utilized for air and water heaters.
Dry and wet ash handling systems are used, depending on the
type of incinerator, but the use of the former type is more
common. Dust collection is conducted by wet- and dry-type
equipment such as cyclone and electrical precipitators. Waste
water from the incinerator hows pH 3-5. high suspended
solids and a dark brown color, which is hard to eliminate.
(Text-Japanese)
68-0475
Ishn, K. Incinerator-problems on design. Part 2 Energy and
Pollution Control, 20(5):7-12. May 1968.
Refuse may be roughly considered as a mixture of rubbish
and garbage. Their ratio in the refuse affects the combustion
rate, the air supply rate, the volume of a combustion
chamber and size of chimney. The combustion rate and
required air supply rate were found to decrease with
increasing garbage ratio, while the ratio ot required air supply
rate to the theoretical air supply rate, which would be a
measure of combustibility, increased with the minimum at a
70-3(1 ratio. The heat output calculations in the combustion
chamber showed that increasing volumes were required with
increases in the rubbish ratio. Required draft can be
calculated from the fnctional loss through conduits and
refuse An increase in the fnctional loss with increasing
rubbish ratio may be due to the increase in air supply late
and the temperature of the gas. An increase in the fnctional
loss with the increase in garbage may come Irom the
increasing resistance of the icfuse. The height of a chimney
can be obtained from draft and gas temperature calculations,
which will be proportional to the calorific value. When there
is more than 40 percent rubbish involved, a chimney of
greater height is required. (Text-Japanese)
68-0476
Jacobson, A. R. Modular incineration system is developed.
Public Works, 99(7):1 16, July 1968.
A modular incineration system has been developed to seive
small communities—those with populations ot 10.000 to
30,00. The solid wastes disposal system consists ot
factory-assembled modules and includes an incinerator, a
receiving and storage building, a conveyor system, an air
pollution control system, a stack, a residue system, and
instruments and controls. Developed by Combustion
Engineering, Inc., of Windsor, Conn , and designed to handle
three tons of solid \vaste per hr, it has a low initial cost,
requnes a minimum of space, and has low maintenance costs.
It has four major elements- materials handling, with
sufficient storage capacity to permit accumulating refuse
during trucking hours and scheduled downtime, incineration,
with refuse being carried by conveyor to the charging bucket
and raised to the combustion chamber where it is leveled and
advanced until the noncombustibles drop off; residue
removal, which features a sealed residue conveying system;
and air pollution control, in which gaseous discharges are ted
into a gas cleaning subsystem and thoroughly 'scrubbed.'
68-0477
Japanese incineration system for household refuse Materials
Reclamation Weekly, 1 1 2(26): 11, June 29. 1968
A refuse plant, developed by the Takuma Holler
Manufacturing Co. Ltd, Osaka, has individual furnaces with
capacities of up to 500 tons per day. and it has up to four
furnaces which can be fed from one refuse pit and charging
crane. A feeder at the bottom of the chute controls the
movement of the refuse into the furnace. Refuse moving
through the furnace is turned by the reciprocating action of
three grates Ash discharges from the last grate, and is
subjected to final extract by drag-link through a water seal.
Odor is minimized through the use of the air preheater and a
fan, which draws combustion air from the sealed refuse
collection pit. Combustion on the grates takes place at a
surface temperature of 920 to 950 C, with one of two oil
burners used to augment combustion below 700 C Waste
gases pass through a primary grit arrester with an air
preheater and a bypass section, and are cooled to 800 C by
water spray quenching, and then cooled again to 350 C. They
then pass through an electrostatic prectpitator and a dry
multi-cyclone before being blown to the chimney. The use ot
hot gases quickly reduces the moisture content ot the refuse,
and the ash How is carried by conveyor, through water, to
the ash pit.
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Incineration
68-0478
Jerman, R, I., and L. R. Carpenter. Gas chromatographic
analysis of gaseous products from the pyrolysis of solid
municipal waste. Gas Chromatography, 6(5):298-301, May
1968.
The laboratory pyrolysis of solid municipal waste requires a
method of analysis for H2, O2, N2, CH4, CO, CO2, C2H4,
and C2H6. This paper describes a method by which the above
gases are determined qualitatively in a single sample, while
quantitative determinations were made employing two
samples and two parallel columns. Total qualitative analysis
time was 19 minutes. Total quanita*'ve analysis time was 20
minutes. An F&M Model 700 gas chromatograph. equipped
with a Model 240 temperature programmer and a gas
sampling valve, was used. A Speedomax H recorder, equipped
with a disc integrator, was used to record the signal A
four-way selector valve was installed downstream of the gas
sampling valve, allowing sample injection on either of the
parallel columns. A thermal conductivity detector, equipped
with hot wire W-2 filaments, was employed. The full
specifications, parameters, procedure, calculations, and re-
sults are given.
68-0479
Kaiser, E R. The incineration of bulky refuse II. In
Proceedings, 1968 National Incinerator Conference, New
York, May 5-8, 1968 American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, p.l 29-1 35
Conventional incinerators are not designed to cope directly
with logs, tree stumps, branches, truck tires, demolition
lumber, furniture, mattresses, and the like. Tests of two
primary chambers of the same general type are reported, and
the findings are coordinated. The practicability of
hearth-type furnaces for the incineration of oversized
burnable wastes was shown. Truck loads containing logs,
demolition lumber, furniture, and tires were tractor charged
into the furnace. Burning rates averaged 18 Ib per hr per sq ft
of refractory hearth area Secondary combustion space is
necessary to burn smoke that is generated in the furnace. ITy
ash emission is low because of the minimal flow of underfire
air. Proposed designs for incineration of 2 to 20 tons per hr
are shown. The experience to date on the two bulk-charge
furnaces in Detroit and the test furnace in Jersey Ci ty
provides the following guidelines for future designs: assume
charging rate by tractor at 500 Ib per minute and not over
three charges in succession before door is reclosed: for
charging from one door, allow for a furnace depth of 25 lo
32 ft maximum and a bridge wall 8 ft high and 13.5 in. thick;
assume 7,000 Btu per Ib of refuse for mixed air-dried refuse,
and 5.0 Ib stoichiometnc air per Ib; supply ample air to the
primary chamber to control the gas temperature at the
bndgewall, which should not exceed 1,800 !•', provide gas
residence time in the secondary space of about one second;
and provide a rubber-tired tractor with bucket for removing
ashes.
68-0480
Kaiser, E. R. Continuous incineration of municipal refuse. In
Engineering Foundation Research Conference; Solid Waste
Research and Development, II, Beaver Dam. Wis., July 22-26,
1968. New York. (Conference Preprint No. C-5.)
Several years of tests at the Oeeanside Refuse Disposal Plant
on Long Island, New York, have provided data on refuse
analysis, pit density, residue analysis, and wall temperatures.
Studies on the refinement of the heat and material balances
for continuous incinerators, the combustion process, and
heat transfer are being continued. The testing of the overall
process will be developed gradually By measuring and
analyzing the flue gases and residue, a better monitoring of
the refuse analysis may be realized than by sampling and
analyzing the refuse. The control of under fire stoker air is
under development, and the prevention of sidewall slag
adhesion by ventilated silicon carbide tiles is being
investigated
68-0481
Kaiser, E. R. Incineration of bulky municipal refuse. In
engineering Foundation Research Conference; Solid Waste
Research and Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26,
1968. New York. (Conference Preprint No. C-6.)
Tests have been completed on two types of tractor-charged
furnaces. Applied research is continuing on plant designs in
which unshredded bulky items are charged. Several new
bulk-charge furnaces, based on the research, are under
construction. Because of the field application ot moving
grates for burning shredded oversized waste, studies of the
shredders and performance of the stokers are to be made.
The higher burning rates on the grates must make up for the
cost of shredding.
68-0482
Kaiser, E. R. Investigation and evaluation of the Melt-Zit high
temperature pilot incinerator. In Engineering Foundation
Research Conference; Solid Waste Research and
Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26, 1968 New
York. (Conference Preprint C-2.)
A new method of burning refuse and converting the
noncombustibles into a molten slag has been developed. The
slag includes glass, ceramics, ash, and metals in o\ide form
that dram from the furnace into a water bath, where they
cool and fragment into a frit of black glassy sand. The pilot
furnace is a vertical shaft, chute-charged at midheight with
refuse and coke. I-orced air is supplied low in the furnace.
The coke generates the melting temperature. The incinerator
is scheduled tor testing to determine the capacity rating of
the unit, and the products of combustion, emissions, coke
consumption and general performance.
680483
Kaiser, E. R The sulfur balance ot incinerators. Journal of
the Air Pollution Control Association, 1 8(3)'1 71-1 74, Mar
1968.
Available data on the sulfur content of refuse components,
incinerator residues, and flue gas are reported. The findings
are correlated to establish a judgement as to the approximate
sulfur balance (or municipal incinerators Municipal refuse
usually contains 0.10 to 0 15 percent sulfur. During
combustion a major fraction is tixed in the ash, which
contains alkaline oxides. The fixed sulfur apparently occurs
as sulfates in the residue and fly ash. It appears that the
sulfur content of the fly ash collected and emitted increases
with the amount of alkaline oxides present, although the
formation of sulfates of iron, calcium, and magnesium is also
possible in incinerator atmospheres. It is concluded that the
94
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0478-0488
sultur in typical municipal refuse is distributed by
incineration in large furnaces, half to grate residue,
one-fourth to collected and emitted fly ash, and one-fourth
to the stack gas as SO2
68-0484
Kaiser, K R., and S. B. Irnedman. The pyrolysis of refuse
components Combustion, 39(1 1) 31-36, May 196S.
Exploratory tests ot destructive distillation of organic wastes,
and the prospects tor complete gasification of the organic
matter are reported The objective is to determine the
quantity and quality of the product gas that might be
produced for use as a hot, raw boiler fuel, and possibly for
chemical manufacture. The major class of refuse is that from
households, consisting primarily of paper products with less
than 10 percent each of glass, metal, and garbage, and less
than 5 percent each of textiles, wood, plastics, and dirt.
Organic matter is basically cellulose but significant amounts
of fats, hydrocarbons, proteins, and other orgamcs are
present. Ten refuse components from domestic waste were
distilled on a laboratory scale, the gaseous products were
analyzed, and the yields determined Gases included mainly
CO2, CO, H2, and C1I4 with mixture calorific values of 300
to 400 Btu per standard cu ft. By heating to 1,500 F, the
organic matter in municipal refuse can be converted to gas,
organic liquid, water, and char in roughly equal proportions
by weight. Relative yields will be affected by the rate of
heating Higher yields of gas result from rapid heating.
Complete gasification of the hot char carbon would be
accomplished by supplying air or oxygen with steam.
68-0486
Kaiser, E. R., C. D. Zeit. and i. B. McCaffery. Municipal
incinerator refuse and residue. In Proceedings; 1968 National
Incinerator Conference, New York, May 5-8, 1968. American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, p. 142-153.
Tests at five municipal incinerators showed various density
ranges in the storage bunker and wide variations in the
average \\eight ol grapple loads and in the chemical and
physical composition of the refuse. Moisture contents of
composite ssmples ranged from 19 to 42 percent. An average
refuse analysis and Btu content was denied that is useful for
plant design, provided that allowance is made for the seasonal
variations in refuse. The average calorific value of organic
matter in refuse is no 8,800 to 9,000 Btu per Ib, on a dry
basis. Paper is 50 percent of the refuse. Together, the
percentage of glass and ceramics exceeds that ol the metals.
The compositions of incinerator residues were determined on
two lots which indicate the proportions of metals, glass.
clinker, and other materials present. The combined siftings
from the stoker grates had a low (3.19 percent) content of
combustible matter, essentially equal to that of good grate
residue. A physical analysis was made on 782 Ib of grate
residue from the Stamford, Connecticut, incmeiator. The
burnout was good: less that 3.5 percent of the remaining
matenai was combustible. Clinkers pioduccd at the
Oceanside Refuse Disposal PI ant. Long Island, New York
contained fused ash, glass, ceramics, and oxidized metal,
which accounts tor the lower glass and metal content of the
remaining residue. The ash analysis andash fusion
temperatures of refuse components indicate that glass is the
most readily fusible component but ash from other sources
will also fuse at 2,000 to 2,300 K
68-0485
Kaiser, K. R , and W. B Trautwein. Prevention of fused
deposits on incinerator walls. In Proceedings, 1968 National
Incinerator Conference, New York, May 5-8, 1968. American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, p. 136-141.
When fused accumulations of glass, ash, and residue metal
occur on the lower side walls of municipal incinerators, the
movement of grates and burning refuse i^ obstructed. To
prevent such deposits it is necessary to chill the walls near the
burning refuse. A new and successful method of doing this
involves the use of steam spray nozzles. These are described
in detail, together with test data and costs In one example
saturated steam was available from the incinerator boilers at
450 psi. The affected wall zone was 18 ft long. The fixed
grate trunnions along the sidewalls provided opportunity for
mounting a steam pipe above the grate. The steam nozzles
were 1 /8 in. drilled holes, spaced 6 m. apart, for a total of 36
holes. Increasing the steam pressure increased the height of
the clean wall surface. Optimum results were obtained with
the nozzles angled 6 to 8 degrees toward the walls, and with a
manifold pressure of 60 psi. Calorimeter tests showed that
the steam entering the manifold was 98 percent saturated.
Wall face temperatures were lowered by the steam jets. As
the average steam output of the boiler is about 75,000 Ib per
hr average, the sidewall nozzles consumed about 3.4 percent
of the steam output The gam in furnace performance and
steadier steam production more than made up for the steam
consumed by the jets. With two 300-ton-per-day incinerators
in operation, steam consumption was estimated to cost $0.42
per ton of refuse.
680487
Kahka, P. W. Influence coefficients to relate municipal refuse
variations to incinerator design. In Proceedings; 1968
National Incinerator Conference, New York, May 5-8, 1968.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, p.154-1 70.
The variability of municipal refuse is difficult to predict or to
compensate for in incinerator design. A computer program
has been developed which provides influence coefficients
which relate refuse variation to incinerator design parameters.
The coefficients were found to be relatively independent of
most operating conditions, and they were reduced to a
handful of brief tables. The coefficients indicate that modest
increases in refuse heat content can potentially cause
overloading of air, gas, and quern h water handling systems,
requiring incinerator operation at reduced capacity Heat
absorption equipment could potentially be used to
compensate for future changes in refuse characteristics.
Selected graphs are presented and discussed.
68-0488
Kenahan, C. B.. P. M. Sullivan. J. A. Ruppert, and E. !•'.
Spano. Composition and characteristics of municipal
incinerator residues. U.S. Bureau of Mines Report of
Investigations No. 7204. [Washington], U.S. Department of
the Interior, Dec. 1968. 20 p.
Experiments are detailed in which reliable methods for
sampling and analyzing municipal residues were established,
95
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Incineration
and the composition and characteristics of the residues were
determined. Samples were obtained from a variety of
grate-type furnaces and from a rotary kiln furnace. The
samples were processed on a batch basis and separated into
categories by a variety of methods including screening,
magnetic separation, air separation techniques, and
handpicking. The main components of the residues were
determined to be metal and metal oxides, glass, and ash.
Glass constitutes nearly half of the residues by weight, total
metallics average over 30 percent. While utilization of these
fractions would reduce greatly the volume of landfill required
for disposal and would contribute to pollution abatement
and the conservation of mineral resources.
68-0489
Kronbach, A. J. A study of incinerator plant space
conditioning prepared for Southeastern Oakland County
Incinerator Authority, Royal Oak, Michigan. In Engineering
Foundation Research Conference; Solid Waste Research and
Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26, 1968. New
York. (Conference Preprint No. C-9.)
Adverse working conditions in the raw refuse handling areas
and the residue discharge tunnel, as well as in other areas of
the Southeastern Oakland County incinerator plant, are due
to inadequate space and contamination of the atmosphere.
Three alternate systems capable of meeting the design criteria
are discussed. All systems utilize similar equipment such as
fans, dust collectors, filters, and precleaners. Careful
operation of the refuse cranes and dump trucks can minimize
the dust generated. Installation of adequate dust control
systems was estimated to cost from $419,300 to $463,400 in
capital investment funds and annual costs from $68,100 to
$74,900. After the results of a dust analysis program are
ascertained, the economic desirability of the system, the
effect on the health of the operating personnel, and the
effect on maintaining the equipment will be evaluated.
68-0490
LaChapelle, D. G., J. L. Tarbox, J. C. Maloney, et al. A
field-expedient incinerator (Project Tee Pee). Report
NDL-TR-98. Edgewood Arsenal, Md., U.S. Army Nuclear
Defense Laboratory, Jan. 1968. 132 p. (Distributed by
National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va., as
Publication No. AD 664 118.)
The objectives of the Tee Pee field test were to evaluate a
portable incinerator that concentrates contaminated
combustible materials, and to evaluate any airborne
radiological hazard resulting from the combustion process.
The Tee Pee combines the concepts that have been proved to
be effective in more complex incinerator systems: overfire
combustion air for improved gas stream turbulence; a
secondary combustion zone to minimize discharge of
unburned materials; and tangential firing of burners to induce
a rotating gas stream. The components in knocked-down
form occupy only three pallets, each 4 ft by 8 ft by 3 ft, so
they may be transported by pickup or flatbed truck. The
gross weight of the entire Tee Pee system never exceeds
3,000 Ib. The incinerator employs five oil-fired burners that
ignite the waste material and reduce particulate emissions.
I'bur incinerations or 'burns' were conducted with rough-cut
lumber that was contaminated with the radioisotope
lanthanum 140. Average burning rates in excess of 600 Ib per
hr were achieved. The average weight reduction was 115 to 1.
The resultant downwind concentration of airborne
contaminant was always below the Maximum Permissible
Concentration for the isotope used. It was concluded that the
Tee Pee is a practical device for efficient field-expedient
incineration and concentration of combustible radioactive
waste.
68-0491
LaChapelle, D. G., J. L. Tarbox, J. C. Maloney, et al.
Operations. In A field expedient incinerator (Project Tee
Pee). NDL-TR- 98. Edgewood Arsenal, Md., U.S. Army
Nuclear Defense Laboratory, Jan. 1968. p.8-18. (Distributed
by National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va.
as Publication No. AD 664 118.)
The geometry of the Tee Pee was that of a 12-sided truncated
cone having a base diameter of 10 ft and a top diameter of 3
ft. Mounted on the top was a 3-ft-high cylindrical screen of
12-gauge locomotive-stack netting which served as a spark
arrestor. Total height was 16 ft. The Tee Pee was equipped
with 5 oil-fired burners positioned over a 4-ft-deep ash pit.
Each of the burners featured continuous ignition and an oil
recycle system. In normal operation, the three primary
burners were used in the firing mode until the charged
material began to burn freely by itself. At this time the
primary ignitions were switched off, and the primary burners
were used for overfire air supply only. The two secondary
burners were fired continuously for the duration of the burn.
They served as afterburners to minimize discharge of any
unburned material that might arise from the primary
combustion zone. Damper air supplied through 6-in. draft
dampers provided combustion air and surface cooling. To
provide engineering information regarding effluent gas
temperatures, effluent flow rates, auxiliary fuel consumption,
and surface temperature, the incinerator was outfitted with
appropriate instrumentation.
68-0492
LaChapelle, D. G., J. L. Tarbox, /. C. Maloney, et al.
Operations (cont'd). In A field-expedient incinerator (Project
Tee Pee). NDL-TR-98. Edgewood Arsenal, Md., U.S. Army
Nuclear Defense Laboratory, Jan. 1968. p.19-31.
(Distributed by National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, Va. as Publication No. AD 664 118.)
The incinerator evaluation experiments were conducted in an
isolated area on the west central perimeter of Camp McCoy,
Wi sconsin. The Tee Pee was positioned in such a way that the
requirements for downwind sampling of the effluent were
met. To sample the airborne effluent, four arcs of filter-type
samplers were set up at radial distances of 6, 45, 90, and 180
meters east of the Tee Pee. To sample fallout from the
incinerator effluent, aluminum pans were mounted on 1.2-m
pedestals downwind from the Tee Pee. A 16-m portable
tower, positioned 25m west of the Tee Pee. A 16-m portable
tower, positioned 25 m west of the Tee Pee, was
instrumented to provide meteorological data. Radiation
counting equipment consisted of a gamma radiation counter
and a low beta counter. The short-lived radioisotope La-140
was used to produce both the liquid and the solid fallout
simulant. Six hundred board feet of rough-sawed oak lumber,
1 in. thick, was used in each of the four burns. The lumber
96
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0489-0496
for the burns was prepared as follows: burn 1,
lanthanum-tagged partieles ranging from 75 to 150 microns
were affixed to the lumber with a dilute lacquer spray; burn
2, lanthanum-140 in solution was brushed onto the lumber;
burn 3, lanthanum-tagged particles ranging from 20 to 75
microns were 'dusted' over the lumber; burn 4,
lanthanum-140 in solution was brushed onto the lumber.
Personnel outfitted in protective clothing and gas masks
entered the pit and shoveled the bulk of the ash into a 20-gal
galvanized steel container with lid.
68-0493
LaChapelle, D. G., J. L. Tarbox, J. C. Maloney, et al.
Experimental results and discussion. In A field-expedient
incinerator (Project Tee Pee). NDL-TR-98. Edgewood
Arsenal, Md., U.S. Army Nuclear Defense Laboratory, Jan.
1968. p.32-48. (Distributed by National Technical
Information Service, Springfield, Va. as Publication No. AD
664 118.)
Charge activity, ash activity, fallout activity, and airborne
and effluent activity data are tabulated and graphed. Average
burning rates in excess of 600 Ib per hr were achieved.
Average weight reduction (the ratio of input weight to
resultant ash weight) was 115 to 1. With a variety of
simulants and activities, and under the conditions of the
experiment, the resultant downwind concentration of
airborne contaminant was always below the Maximum
Permissible Concentration (MFC) for the isotope used. It was
concluded that the Tee Pee is a practical device for efficient
field-expedient incineration and concentration of
combustible radioactive waste.
68-0494
Laffey, W. T. The incineration of chemical wastes. Industrial
Water Engineering, 5(6):28-31, June 1968.
The disposal of the byproducts of manufacturing has become
increasingly complicated, because solving one problem may
create another. Process wastes are generally categorized as
gases, liquids, or solids, and various methods other than
incineration may be used to reduce or remove them. In using
incinerators the design reflects the properties of the three
types of waste. A combustible gas must be transported to a
boiler installation, making sure no foreign substances are
present. If burning in a boiler is not feasible, then the flare
stack or other types of controls which maintain the proper
air-to-waste ratios should be considered. Liquid wastes must
be changed to a gas to burn, and this is usually accomplished
by atomizing the liquid to a particle size 40 microns or
smaller so it may be volatilized. Highly combustible wastes
such as benzene, acetone, etc., can be burned in the open.
The design of an incinerator for a partially combustible liquid
waste is complicated because the incineration of the waste
will take place only after the auxiliary fuel has been
completely burned, and all the heat has been released. Several
incinerator designs are illustrated and described. Incineration
of solids is the most difficult of the three because of their
different chemical compositions and forms. The greatest
problem is controlling the feed rate. If the material can be
reduced to small uniform particles, then the feed can be
better regulated. One solid waste incinerator, developed by
the DuPont Co. to burn cellulose wastes, features air
admitted through a series of closely spaced, high-velocity
nozzles which results in thoroughly mixing the air and fuel at
a high temperature. The development of fluidized beds makes
use of an air stream, directed into j plenum chamber and
through grates into sand at a rate to expand and fluidize the
bed, in addition to furnishing the required air tot
combustion. During incineration, certain products may result
that require special equipment for removal, e.g., collectors
for particulates or scrubbers for inorganic salts.
68-0495
Marshalla, A., G. Crawford, and M. Nolan. Conversion factors
for source emission measurements for incinerator flue. In
Proceedings; 1968 National Incinerator Conference, New
York, May 5-8, 1968. American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, p.176-179.
As more government agencies pass air pollution codes and as
existing codes become more stringent, the need for
incinerator dustloading values has become critical. Since
there are two basic units to express source emission
dustloading concentrations, formulas arc presented for
comparison. The initial results of dustloading tests are
meaningless without applying the appropriate correction:
both a 50 percent excess air and a 12 percent carbon dioxide
correction standard are in widespread usage. In any
dustloading test, the type of refuse or fuel being consumed,
the temperature and pressure of the atmosphere, and the
components of the flue gas must be taken into account. The
formulas presented include these variables. All the formulas
have been based on the assumption that the fuel or refuse
being burned only contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Furthermore, all the formulas have been derived on a dry
basis. Since the percentage of carbon monoxide is normally
zero or very small in a proper incinerator operation, its
effects on the conversion and correction formulas have been
neglected. A special slide rule has been developed which
greatly simplifies the use of various formulas.
68-0496
Matsumoto, K., R. Asukata, and T. Kawashima. The practice
of refuse incineration in Japan. In Proceedings; 1968
National Incinerator Conference, New York, May 5-8, 1968.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, p.180-197.
The history and development of Japanese refuse incinerator
facilities up to the present are described. Prior to World War
II, the majority of refuse incinerators used in Japan were
small, batch-fed, fixed grate furnaces. The governement
passed emergency legislation in 1963 calling for
environmental facilities. Refuse in Japan has a far higher
moisture content and lower calorific value (heating value 500
to 1,300 kcal per kg, 40 to 70 percent moisture content)
than that of Europe or America. To completely burn this
refuse at high tempertures, the Japanese have used
continuous-feed mechanical incinerators which are equipped
to preheat the air used for combustion. Drying equipment
has also been used to decrease moisture content. A
reciprocating stoker which properly shakes the refuse layers
must be used to prevent blow-off. The performance of the
stoker is a highly important factor from the standpoints of
operation, maintenance, and control. The hot gas drying
method, in which combustion gas is rccnculated for drying,
and the operation of typical incinerators employing this type
of drying equipment, are described. Incinerator flue gas
corrosion problems are being studied. Diagrams of various
Japanese incineration plants are included.
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Incineration
68-0497
Matusky, F. E., and R. K. Hampton. Incinerator waste water.
In Proceedings; 1968 National Incinerator Conference, New
York, May 5-8, 1968. American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, p.198-203.
The effluent water from residue-quenching and fly
ash-conveying incinerator plants is contaminated by dissolved
and suspended matter. The waste water from five plants,
which have various grate designs and fly ash-handling
systems, was investigated to establish the amount and
characteristics of the contamination. Furnace capacities vary
from 90 tons per day to 250 tons per day, with two to four
furnaces per plant. Water sampling was done during normal
operation, and analyses were made by independent testing
laboratories. Some of the measurements that were taken (o
describe the waste water were: temperature, dissolved
oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen
demand, hydrogen ion concentration, alkalinity, solids tests,
and odor tests. Comparing incinerator wastes to the typical
sewage, it was found that the odor characteristics are about
the same. Depending upon the amount of the entrainment of
the gas in the scrub water, it is possible to have either an acid
or basic reaction in the residue conveyor. Al kaimity ranges
are higher than those for sewage. Total solids are high in
residue conveyors and fly ash-handling systems, ranging from
1,300 to 12,000 ppm or 0.1 percent to 1.2 percent.
Suspended solids are low. The BOD is generally less than that
of sewage. Water conservation by reuse and improved residue
quenching is indicated as a means of minimizing the problem.
Odor control may be achieved by chemical sterilization of
closed water systems.
68-0498
McAteer, D. J. Incineration of sewage sludge. Process
Biochemistry, 3(4):60-62, Apr. 1968.
Use of a multiple hearth furnace to incinerate sewage sludge
and produce completely inert solids has advantages in that it
is odor free, and unlike other furnaces designed for
incinerating waste materials, has no open burning grate. The
furnace consists of a series of horizontal, refractory hearths
positioned one above the other. A vertical rotating shaft
moves the material across the hearth to the drop holes
through which they fall to the hearth. There are three zones
in the furnace: drying, combustion, and cooling. Distillation
of volatiles from the sludge takes place in the combustion
zone where temperatures from 1,450 to 1,600 F burn them
completely, thus eliminating obnoxious odors. Temperatures
at the furnace outlet may vary from 500 to 1,200 F. Design
considerations for a multiple hearth furnace used to burn
sludge are given; also given are calculations on the
requirements for autothermic combustion. The most
important factors are moisture content, volatiles and inerts,
and the calorific value of the combustibles.
68-0499
McLouth, B. F., H. J. Paulus, and A. J. Roberts. Incineration
of epoxy glass laminates to recover piecious metals. In
Proceedings; 1968 National Incinerator Conference, New
York, May 5-8, 1968. American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, p.] 71-1 75.
A St. Paul, Mi nnesota , firm was faced with an air pollution
problem that dealt with the recovery of precious metals from
electrical circuits, printed on epoxy-impregnated fiber glass
laminates. This recovery meaat incineration of the scrap and
the rejected printed circuits, which liberated a considerable
amount of unburned hydrocarbons and obnoxious odors. A
prototype unit with an afterburner was successfully tested,
and plans were made for a new incinerator with a feed-door
arrangement to provide adequate charging facilities, and to be
as gas tight as possible. The combustion chamber was to have
a volume of 191 cu ft and the afterburner chamber a volume
of 43 cu ft. Twenty ft of 16-m. refractory-lined stack would
raise the stack discharge to approximately 38 ft above the
incinerator base. A control system was designed that should
assure proper burner operation and unit temperatures, and at
the same time be flexible in case adjustments were necessary.
After several weeks of testing, the incinerator was accepted
by the company. Because of the variance in type and
consistancy of the epoxy scrap, trained personnel must be in
constant attendance during the first several minutes of each
firing period. The new incinerator simplified the recovery of
the precious metals by producing more consistant ash
quality. This helps defray the cost of fuel consumed by the
three burners. Polyesters and other plastics, as well as wool
and vinyls, have since been burned in this incinerator, all with
equal success.
68-0500
Michaels, A. What good incineration means. Part I--history.
American City, 83(5):83-86, May 1968.
Since World War II, several changes in American living habits
have become apparent, and these changes have profoundly
affected solid waste disposal practices generally, and
incineration in particular. The movement of people into
urban areas has increased congestion and reduced the
availability of waste disposal space. Packaging changes
increased the quantity of waste contributed by each
individual and reduced the amount of organic garbage in the
waste. The concentration of people in urban areas also
increased the concentration of pollutants in the air, water,
and land, resulting in stringent pollution laws. At present, the
per capita rate of refuse production is increasing at a rate of 2
percent per yr, which, when compounded with a 2 percent
per year population growth, results in an overall increase of 4
percent per year. Since recognizing that incineration is a
complex process requiring the application of sound
engineering principles, incineration engineers have made
significant advances in the design and operation of
incinerator plants. Since heat value is the primary factor in
computing furnace sizes and combustion air requirements,
the need for obtaining refuse characteristics becomes
obvious. A recent design for an mcmeratoi was based upon
burning refuse containing a combined total of 30 percent
moisture and noncombustible waste. To obtain a heat value,
the designers assumed that all the combustible waste was
cellulosic with a heat value of 8,360 Btu per Ib, or assumed
that the waste to be burned contained a heat value of 8,360
Btu per Ib times .70, equalling 5,850 Btu per Ib. A recent
bomb-calorimeter test of several samples in this refuse
showed that it had an average heat value of 5,770 Btu per Ib.
68-0501
M i i.ujls, A. What siood incineration means. Part II—design
parameters. American Cily. 83(6) 88-90. June I 968.
The materials handling function can he divided into four
categories: refuse receiving and storage; furnace charging.
98
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0497-0505
conveyance through the furnace: and residue removal Most
plants use the overhead traveling crane to convey waste from
the storage pit to the furnace, f-or many years, a majority of
the incinerators in America operated on the batch charge
principle. A majority of the new incinerators use movable
grates to convey the refuse to the discharge area. Today, the
three most popular types of grates in the continuous charge
plant are the chain or bar and key traveling grate, the rocker
arm grate, and the reciprocating grate. Residual removal
systems include direct discharge into a dump truck or
container, discharge into a water trough equipped with a
chain flight or pan-type conveyor, and discharge into a
sluicing trough. These equipment and methods do an
acceptable job in handling 'normal' municipal refuse within
limits, but problems arise when unusual materials or moisture
conditions develop. The most troublesome of these waste
materials at the present time are oversized burnable wastes
including building demolition materials, discarded furniture,
and tree and brush waste. To date, no American community
has developed a plant capable of handling oversized burnable
wastes. The combustion function can be divided into three
categories: ignition, combustion, and pas cleaning. To meet
designing limits, an incinerator should operate at
temperatures between 1,300 and 2,000 I1. At present, most
urban communities permit participate emissions of 5 to 10 Ib
of fly ash per 1,000 Ib of refuse processed. This represents a
removal efficiency of 60 percent. The wet baffle
impingement and dry mechanical cyclone systems are
discussed.
68-0502
Monroe, K. S., Jr. The incineration of aqueous wastes. In
Proceedings, 1968 National Incinerator Conference, New
York, May 5-8, 1968. American Society of Mechanical
Fngmeers. p.204-210.
An increasing number of incinerators are being built to
dispose of aqueous wastes that may contain only traces ot
combustible material. The three basic methods of tteating
aqueous waste by incineration are treatment: by heating
only , by saturated vapor heating, and by superheating vapor.
The Schutt process is an example of the first method, which
involves only the heating of the aqueous waste. Calculations
were made to determine the variables involved when the
aqueous waste was only to be heated with combustion
products. The second basic method covers the area of heating
and partial 01 complete evaporation. If an aqueous waste
contains orgamcs with high boiling temperatures, then the
organics can be concentrated and sprayed into the
combustion flame to burn. Another area of application for
saturated vapor heating is the control and recovery of solid
emissions. The third method is that of combining heating and
evaporation of the water, and superheating the resultant
vapor directly in a llame. If the aqueous waste is injected into
a flame properly according to the principles previously
stressed, the water will be superheated as well as evaporated.
The system is applicable for small streams, where the
relatively high fuel costs may be less than equipment
depreciation and the maintenance costs required for more
complex systems. I or large streams, a careful evaluation of
the superheated vapor incineration versus the evaporation
incinerator should be made. Calculated data are presented for
the significant variables that govern temperature and heat
input. A review of flammable zones is given.
68-0503
Monroe, I- S , and C. I". Haves. Incineiation. In Industiial
waste disposal. New York, Remhold Book Corporation,
1968. p.190-239.
Incinerators arc usually classitied by the type ol waste they
burn-gas, liquid, or solid, although combinations of these
types aie found. Incmeratois are also classified as direct
flame and catalytic. When this is done, the mcineiators aie
being classified according to then method ot operation. With
all types, however, the best way to rate the capacity of an
incinerator is to establish the total amount ot heat it can
process in an hour. In practice this requires some analyses of
the chemical and physical composition of the industrial
waste. Subsequent calculations relate the analyses to the final
design of the incinerator. There is some discussion of ho\\
this is clone in the case of direct flame and catalytic
incinerators.
68-0504
Montreal incinerator design loi a bellci enviionment. Public
Works. 99(101.128. Get 1968.
Montreal's Incineiatoi No 3 \\ill have tour furnaces, each
rated at 12.5 tons pel hi. and they will have 20 peicent
continuous overload capabilities. The refuse storage pit is
large enough for 48 to 60 hi ot lull scale operation At an
anticipated load factor of 87 percent, the incincijlor will
process 335,000 tons of letuse per yeai. A special type ot
shear-crusher will accomodate bulky items Steam, pioduced
by the operation, will be utilized in various ways. Air
pollution control featuies will include the use ol electrostatic
pvecipitators to reduce the emission of dust to less than 0.15
Ib per 1,000 Ib of gas.
68-0505
Morgan, J. 1 ., and C M. Saul. The Zimmermann process in a
soda pulp mill recovery system development of a commercial
process Appita. 22(3KiO-75. Nov 1968
The Zimmerman 01 'wet combustion' pioccss has been
applied al a pulp and papei mill to chemical and heat
recovery fiom black hquoi produced by the soda process
(zeio sulphidity) of alkaline pulping. I'oi a black hquoi
treatment system, viitually complete oxidation is required
for maximum chemical and heat lecovcry. The conventional
evaporation, incineration, and dissolving steps in the recovery
circuit were replaced by a new process which has proved to
be efficient. There is no fume loss and negligible chemical
loss. The recovery ot thermal values as usable steam is
significantly higher than conventional practice. Pilot plant
experiments with a continuous reactor, which showed that
the process was technically1 feasible, are desenbed It was
found that a reaction tempeiaturc of 608 1 and piessure of
2,925 pound-force per square inch would be required to
oxidize 97 to 99 peicent of the organic matter to carbon
dioxide and water. A solution of sodium
carbona te/bicarbonate, suitable lor caustici/ation, was
produced A commercial unit, equivalent to a 30 long ton per
day pulp mill capacity, which has been in production for a
year, is described. The performance and opeiation of the unit
is discussed in relation to the predicted chemical and thermal
recovery efficiencies. A comparison with present recovery
99
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Incineration
practice indicates the future of the Zimmerman process in
large alkaline soda pulping mills. Pilot plant and commercial
plant flowsheets are included.
improvements and determination of optimum operating
conditions for waste disposal, with stiict control ot key
variables. A photograph of the incinerator is shown.
68-0506
NAPF member designs low-cost incinerator. National
Engineer, 72(l):8-9, Jan. 1968.
Edward T. Knox has received a patent on his design of a
municipal incinerator which reportedly will sell for about
half the cost of present equipment. The unit uses a series of
let heads, usually 11 1 per unit, and is constructed ot
air-cooled firebrick. This air is used in an overfire air
combustion medium. The one-man unit operates without
grates, does not require a holding house for debris, and is
electrically automated The incinerator is batch fed by one 01
more receiving hoppers; each holds 15 cu yd of debris at one
time and is located on the outside of the incinerator The
unit does not have a smoke stack, is 92 to 97 percent smoke
free, and causes no water pollution
68-0507
New driftwood incinerator for New York Harbor. Public-
Works, 99(9):99-100, Sept. 1968.
An open pit incinerator with controlled overfire air to deal
with the approximately 600.000 cu ft of driftwood from
New York harbor is being constructed to replace open
burning on two large incinerator barges anchored in the
upper bay. The furnace is a box-shaped structure measuring
25 ft by 20 ft by 17 ft. A 2-ft layer of sand at the bottom
will act as a buffer. The capacity is estimated at
approximately 10 tons per hr. With the furnace loaded to 2/3
of volumetric capacity and with a bulk density of 25 Ib per
cu ft, the charging capacity tor the furnace is 62 5 tons.
Combustion air is supplied at three levels ot the furnace on
all three sides. The ignition system is three retractable gas
burners with 5-tt flame lengths. The drift-collection vessels
will transfer filled nets of driftwood directly into a dumping
pan whieh accommodates two net loads and which spills its
contents directly into the center of the furnace. Air pollution
control will utilize manual control of the overfire and
sidewall air, and a water spray curtain over the fire will clean
the gas and prevent the escape of burning embers. Residue is
expected to be minima), however, the expanded metal screen
on top of the unit can be removed by a truck crane to give
access to the pit. The cost of the new facility is estimated to
be S2 million, and it is expected to be ready tor tests by early
1969.
68-0508
New incinerator test facility helps solve air pollution
problems Industrial Heating, 35(8):1,464. Aug. 1968.
A new, large and versatile incinerator has recently been
installed in the Research Laboratory of Surface Combustion
Division, Midland-Ross Corp., Toledo, Ohio. This facility was
developed to incinerate samples of waste materials quickly,
and to establish requirements applicable to different types ol
available incmeiator designs for disposal of oxidizable waste
chemicals and vapors. Asa typical example, industrial solvent
fumes have been incinerated, resulting in 98 percent
conversion of hydrocarbons. In addition, this experimental
system will be used for the development of equipment
68-0509
Nowak, !•' Corrosion problems in incinerators Combustion,
40(5)-32-40, Nov. 1968.
Use of refuse as fuel for steam generation plants engenders
many problems including heavy deposits, more frequent
outages, and gas-side corrosion of heating surfaces. It is
impossible to compare incinerators with boilers fired with
gas, oil, or coal. The reasons are the inhomogeneity of the
waste materials and the corrosive components of the flue gas.
An examination of the various types of corrosion and erosion
which are likely to occur and the temperatures involved are
given, as well as recommendations for boiler construction to
alleviate these conditions. Measures taken in the design of the
firing equipment and furnace serve to increase operating
periods and protect heating surfaces. This makes incinerator
plants possible which can generate steam at pressures and
temperatures comparable to other thermal power plants,
thereby making use of the heat and realizing some cost
return. Illustrations show flow conditions in primary and
finishing superheater, zones of highest corrosion in refuse
furnaces, material losses in refuse furnace, and various
examples of material loss of components.
68-0510
Ohio incinerator installation planned. Clean Air News,
2(16)-4, May 1968
Two new municipal incinerators planned for Montgomery
County, Ohio, will have four scrubbers to clean the flue gas.
The installation will reportedly be the largest in the world to
mcorparate wet scrubbing. Designed to handle as much as
220,000 cu ft per hr of incinerator flue gas at 2,000 V, each
Peabody scrubber has an internal diameter of 15 ft 6 in. The
designed cleaning capacity is for an outlet dust loading of
0 25 Ib pei 1,000 Ibs of flue gas (corrected to 13 percent
CO2), with a total pressure drop across the unit of only 4.5
w.c. Apart from removing solid particles, the scrubbers will
also remove gaseous pollutants such as sulfur and nitrogen
oxides
68-0511
O'Malley, W. R. Special factors involved in specifying
incinerator cranes. In Proceedings. 1968 National Incinerator
Conference, New York, May 5-8, 1968. American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, p.211-21 5.
One of the most important components in handling of waste
is the overhead bucket crane used to transport refuse from
the storage bins through rehandhng and mixing, and then to
the incinerator furnace hopper. This material handling duty
cycle is always continuous and always strenuous Five classes
of cranes are defined and distinguished These classifications
allow the crane builder to arrive at a number ot frame
capacity ratings. An effective incinerator crane must provide
bearings, gearing, shafts, and structures able to withstand the
rigors of the most severe duty. The planned capacity of the
incinerator plant must be determined, and a layout of the
area must be prepared which delineates the size and location
of all bins, furnaces, and hoppers. The structural aspects of a
100
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0506-0517
good crane specification are tightly bound to structural
considerations in the incinerator itself. Deep-carbunzing of
wearing parts is an important consideration. Depending on
the type of refuse involved, the crane will be equipped with
either a grab bucket or a grapple. Electrical design features
that should be considered are' motors, crane control
appaiatus. speed control devices, and conductor systems
Provisions must also be made for spare parts, instruction of
operators, and call-back service as a basic responsibility of the
crane builder.
68-0512
Oviatt, C. A. The effects of incinerator residue on selected
marine species. In Proceedings of the Annual North Eastern
Regional Antipollution Conference, University of Rhode
Island, Kingston, July 22-24, 1968. p.l08-lH).
Research was conducted to determine the effects of
municipal incinerator residue on marine life so that
predictions applicable to large-scale dumping can be made.
Another objective was to determine the physical
characteristics of a suitable offshore dump site. Bioassay
experiments were used as the basic method for evaluating the
toxicity of incinerator residue The species used for the
experiments m order of resistance were: the quahaug, the
common tnummichog, juvenile winter flounder, first and
second stage lobster larvae, the common prawn, juvenile
menhaden, and the sea scallop. Of all species tested, the sea
scallop showed the highest sensitivity An incinerator residue
component with particles less than 12 mm in diameter
appears to have a low grade toxicity to which some species
are sensitive. Angular particle shapes of the residue may be
the cause of observed mortality. Species not sensitive to the
residue appeared to thrive on it The incinerator residue
apparently improved the sediment environment for the
quahaug. At a designated dump site, even low-grade toxicity
and solution and decay of the material could not prevent this
area of the bottom from becoming harmful to marine life
because of the increasing amounts of material that is
dumped. The problem is actually one of containment.
68-0513
Pagan, A. R A sequel-solving the problems of a pit
incinerator. Public Works, 99(2).84-85, Feb. 1968.
Some problems have been associated with the operation of
the Bergen County, New Jersey, low-cost, forced-air pit
incinerator which serves as a means of extending the useful
life of existing landfill areas Since the structural integrity of
the incinerator has been impaired by constant pounding and
push-feeding material into the pit through a chute, the walls
of the pit were rebuilt from the concrete base using an 1 1-in.
thick reinforced concrete wall with reinforcing bars. Two
layers ot firebrick were used instead of one, and 1/2-m thick
asbestos cementboard was placed between the firebrick and
the reinforced concrete A second incinerator of this type
will be larger to facilitate loading. A successful feature of the
installation has been the relative freedom from smoke
problems.
68-0514
Pearl, D. R. What the future holds for incinerators. American
City, 83(10):121-162, Oct. 1968.
Incineration seems to be the only practical answer to
mounting refuse disposal problems in heavily urbanized parts
of our nation. Future incinerators will emphasize more
effective pollution control devices, the salvaging of heat
energy, continuous rather than batch feeding, and automatic
residue collection. This article draws from 'A Review of the
State of the Art of Modern Municipal Incineration System
Equipment,' a detailed report by the author for the Public
Health Service This section probes the promising future of
incineration with predictions ot coming improvements in
individual techniques, which together comprise an
incineration system Different types of furnaces, burners,
controls, scrubbers, cyclones, bag filters, crushers, and
spreaders are discussed
68-0515
Pilney, .1. P , and E. E. Erickson. Fluidized bed fly ash filter.
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association,
18(10):684-685,Oct 1968.
Removal efficiencies of fly ash from air streams by a
fluidized bed of solids were measured experimentally, by
weight, in a 4 in. ID glass fluidization column. The effects on
fly ash removal of the following variables were investigated'
particle size of the bed medium, fluidization characteristics
of the bed medium, time of run, bed depth, fly ash loadings
of the fluiduing air, superficial velocity, and humidity of the
fluidizing air. The bed media used were silica sand,
agglomerated fly ash, aluminum silicate, polystyrene beads,
and wax particles. Using 400-micron agglomerated fly ash
particles as the bed medium, 0.5-m. beds fluidized at 0.5 ft
per second resulted in 98.5 percent removal at a relative
humidity of 45 percent and complete removal at a relative
humidity greatei than 70 percent. Using 400-microrv
polystyrene beads, at a superficial velocity of 0.3 ft per
second, resulted in removal efficiencies as high as 99.7
percent.
68-0516
Pollutionless refuse incineration
Engineering, 13(12).1,653, Dec 1968.
British Chemical
The Takuma system of refuse incineration is a continuous
closed system which achieves complete combustion without
atmospheric pollution. A unique grate design insures efficient
transport of the burning refuse, and creates maximum
disturbance and aeration of the furnace bed. Operation is
automatic, and unit capacities can vary from 60 to almost
1,000 tons per day. Wastes gases are passed to the stack via
the dust-extracting equipment and a heat exchanger. A waste
heat recovery system is also included. It can generate either
steam or hot water for power generation and/or district
heating purposes.
68-0517
Plan end to open burning in Hawaiian Islands by 1970 Solid
Wastes Management/Refuse Removal Journal, 11(2).14, Feb.
1968.
The Waipahu refuse dump, 15 miles from Honolulu,
currently burns some 300 tons of rubbish per day. It will be
replaced by an incinerator by 1970, and at the same time, the
current open burning will be discontinued. The principal
objection to the present dump is an esthetic one, since the
smoke is not only unsightly, but also deposits ashes and other
debris in Waiahu or on Ewa Beach on windy days.
101
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Incineration
68-0518
Proceedings; 1968 National Incinerator Conference, New
York, May 5-8, 1968 American Society of Mechanical
Engineers. 354 p
The conference was sponsored by the ASME Incinerator
Division in cooperation with the Air Pollution Control
Association, the American Public Works Association, the
American Society of Civil Engineers, and the Incinerator
Institute of America. The papers presented covered such
topics as: incinerator design, air pollution control;
incineration in Europe and Japan; corrosion problems;
incineration of bulky wastes and packaging materials; refuse
composition; incinerator waste water and residues; and
incineration plant equipment. Numerous charts and
illustrations accompany the text.
68-0519
Pilot studies. In Land reclamation by accelerated
stabilization; first annual progress report. Los Angeles, Ralph
Stone and Company, Inc., Aug. 1968. p.15-23.
Pilot plant facilities were established to demonstrate
improved volume reduction. The concepts employed were
underground incineration; rapid biological oxidation by
controlled aeration; moisture application, heating, and
natural thermophihc heat generation; improvement of odor
and particulate filtration and adsorption by varying the soil
cover in terms of depth, type, moisture content, and charcoal
admixture; and other chemical and physical methods for
accelerated degradation. Three cylinders of 24-m._7diameter
asphalt-dipped steel pipes were used for biological oxidation
and the bottoms were sealed with a three-m. course of earth
and mastic. Cylinders 1 and 2 contained air distribution
piping embedded in a gravel course, while cylinder 3 was
naturally aerated. T li e r e was more biochemical
decomposition in Cylinder 1 than in Cylinder 2, as indicated
by greater volume reduction. Because of cylinder boundary
effects and excess air, the temperatures were below that
desired for optimum decomposition. Cylinders 4 and 5 for
underground incineration were two 55-gal steel drums, 22.5
in. in diameter and 35 in. high. Burners were installed to
initiate combustion, and tubing was provided for aeration.
Experimental data indicate that underground incineration of
refuse is technically feasible.
recovering copper and tin from the iron fractions, preferably
by leaching without loss of iron, still remains. Later, research
will be conducted on the recovery of mineral values
contained in fine ash, pulverized glass fractions, carbonaceous
slimes, and table tailings.
68-0521
Rao, T. R S., G. Gelernter, and R. H. Essenhigh. Scale up of
combustion pot behavior by dimensional analysis. In
Proceedings; 1968 National Incinerator Conference, New
York, May 5-8, 1968. American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, p.232-236.
The nature of dimensionless groups characterizing
combustion behavior in an incinerator was established. In
particular these groups should determine the influence of
scale in transposing results from the combustion pot to the
incinerator. The analysis indicates that if F is the burning rate
per unit area of grate, and k is an effective reactivity
coefficient, then the ratio (F over k) can be expressed as a
function of a minimum of four groups involving nine
parameters. From inspection of these groups, it would seem
that their values may well be the same in both systems for
the same range of dimensional parameters. It follows from
this that the scale factor involved should be unity, i.e.,
combustion and burning rate data obtained in a combustion
pot should transpose to an incinerator bed without change.
Other factors then being equal, the area burning rate can only
be increased if k is increased.
680522
Refuse incineration. Public Cleansing, 58(9):454-455, Sept.
1968.
The reports given at a one-day symposium at Winchester,
England, on matters concerning refuse incineration are
discussed. Plant design, waste heat recovery, refuse
constituents and calorific values as they affect plant design,
and economic aspects relating to large-scale incineration,
were topics of the papers delivered. Three manufacturers
discussed their methods of incineration. In addition, there
was some discussion of a traveling grate known as the Class
'L,' and a circular Simon-Boulger cell with a rotary stoker.
68-0520
Rampacek, C. Fxtraction of metal and mineral values from
municipal incinerator residues-a progress report. In
Engineering Foundation Research Conference; Solid Waste
Research and Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26,
1968 New York. (Conference Prepring No. C-12.)
One of the major research projects in the Bureau of Mines is
concerned with the metal and mineral waste that currently
occur in disposing of municipal refuse. The composition and
characterization of incinerator residues has been investigated,
and methods are being developed for continuous mechanical
separation of residues into categories of materials suitable for
further metallurgical processing and refining. The most
promising procedure consists of screening the residues,
magnetic separation, drying and shredding, and treatment in
a low-intensity wet magnetic separator. The problem of
680523
Roberson, J. E. Bark burning methods. Tappi,
51(6).90A-98A, June 1968.
For a paper mill utilizing pine, approximately 12 percent of
the entire wood supply received is bark and it must be
burned. The number of shifts per week that the woodyard
operates directly affects the size of the burning equipment
and may influence the type selected. Modern bark-burning
methods utilize traveling grate spreader stokers, suspension
firing, and cyclone furnaces. Technical design guides
currently in use by the three major manufacturers for these
firing methods are tabulated. Each firing method is reviewed,
and their pertinent operating characteristics are discussed.
Several considerations are presented as a checklist to
prospective purchasers of bark-burning equipment. Some of
the major considerations are adequate bark-burning capacity,
102
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0518-0527
properly sized bark, controlled bark flow, careful selection of
burning equipment, and careful selection of furnace size
68-0524
Rohr, F. W Suppression of the steam plume from incmeiator
stacks. In Proceedings, 1968 National Incinerator
Conference, New York, May 5-8, 1968. American Society of
Mechanical Engineers p.216-224.
Various methods are described by which the air pollution
control system of a municipal incinerator can be designed to
suppress the steam plume caused by the moisture in
combustion gases. The methods include: electrostatic
precipitation of water droplets from fogged air; mechanical
separation of water droplets from togged air; absorption or
adsorption of water vapor, mixing of the moist gases with
relatively dry, heated air; condensation of the moisture by-
direct contact with water or a cold surface; and scrubber
exhaust reheating the gases. For a comparison of the
technical feasibility of the various methods, a design ambient
air temperature of 20 F was chosen for the flow diagrams and
charts. Cost comparisons of systems for suppression of steam
plumes at 20 F and 40 F were determined. Although the
construction costs for any of the systems are higher than a
basic scrubber system, the operating costs are not
proportionally higher. The operating costs for the basic
scrubber include the cost of water which is lost by
evaporation. The system, which involves mixing with heated
ambient air, can be operated at less cost than the basic
scrubber system without means for vapor suppression
because of reduced water costs The cost of scrubber systems,
with the means for suppression, is related to the lowest
design ambient air temperatures at which the system is to be
effective and to the method of dehydration of the flue gases.
The costs of these systems for use at tcrnperatuies above 20
F may be comparable to wet scrubber systems in which no
provision is made for supression
68-0525
Rousseau, H. The large plants for incineration of domestic
refuse in the Paris metropolitan area. In Proceedings; 1968
National Incinerator Conference, New York, May 5-8, 1968.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, p 225-231.
The quantity and composition of refuse, handled by the
T.I.R.U (Traitement Industnel des Residus Urbains) in its
four incinerator plants located around Pans, are described.
All four plants are equipped with incineration furnaces and
are connected to the railway system in order to send ash
residue to the sanitary fill. The Ivry and Romainville plants
can also prepare the resulting product for soil amendment by
screening, scrap iron removal, and grinding. Of the total,
three-quarters (1,200.000 tons) are incinerated, and the rest
is divided equally between soil improvement and sanitary
landfill. The St. Ouen and the Issy-les-Moulmeaux plants are
discussed in detail, as well as the Ivry plant which will shortly
be opened. The St. Ouen plant includes four Volund
furnaces, the boilers of which have suspended tube-nests for
vaporization and superheating After being desuperheated,
the entire supply of steam is sold to the municipal heating
system or to an industrial client. The furnaces of the
Issy-les-Moulmeaux plant use the Martin grate, repulsing the
refuse upstream in order to insure effective mixing. The dust
collection system is electrostatic, has an efficiency of more
than 98 percent, and extracts more than 50 tons of fly ash
per day. The use of boiler power, designed for a higher
heating power than is normally used today, has exceeded 75
percent with a mean evaporation of 33.8 tons per hr, i.e. a
yield of 177 ton of steam per ton incinerated. Some
electricity is utilized for the requirements of the plant itself,
and the rest is sold to the French Electric Power Board. A
new annual operation cost of $2.78 per ton is expected.
680526
Schoenberger, R. J., and P. W. Purdom. Classification of
incinerator residue. In Proceedings; 1968 National
Incinerator Conference, New York, May 5-8, ly^S. American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, p.237-241.
In order to evaluate the environmental impact of
incineration, incinerator residue was classified according to
the amount of combustible material that remained after the
burning process Raw and incinerated refuse was analyzed in
three fractions a water soluble fraction-thai part of the
refuse or residue which can be leached by water through
surface infiltration or ground water saturation; an other
soluble fraction-soluble in petroleum ether; and a volatile
fraction-combustible, exclusive of free carbon. In additon,
the water soluble fraction was analyzed for alkalinity,
hydrogen ions, nitrogen, phosphates, chlorides, sulfates,
sodium, potassium, iron, and dissolved solids. It was found
that although the incinerated and raw refuse resulted in
approximately the same amount of dissolved solids, the
character of the solutes was quite different. The raw refuse
had a higher percentage of organic material, while the
incinerator residue contained more inorganic salts.
68-0527
Schoenberger, R. J.. and P. W. Purdom. Residue
eharacten/ation according to furnace design. Piesented al
American Society of Civil Engineers Environmental
Engineering Conference, Chattanooga, Tenn., May 13-17,
1968. 17 p.
A table gives data on residue from three different continuous
feed incinerators. Each plant had one inclined stoker for
drying and ignition, and one horizontal stoker for
combustion. Two of the plants had supplemental I.D. fans,
while a third relied upon natural draft The design capacity of
all three plants was similar. The data indicate that a
significant difference does exist in the character of residue
from incinerators. This conclusion was reached despite the
fact that there is no one comprehensive way to analyze the
character of incinerator residue. As a consequence, there is
also some discussion of the basic tests that are used. Among
them are two basic tests used in the classification of any solid
waste matter, the test for volatile materials, and the test for
ether soluble materials. The term 'volatile matter', as used
here, describes the quantity of combustible material which
remains in the residue after incineration. Other organic
solvents may be substituted for ether to perform still other
analyses. A table is included which indicates the tests that are
recommended if a complete characterization of solid waste is
to be undertaken.
103
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Incineration
68-0528
Schoenberger, R. J., N. M. Trieff, and P. W. Purdom. Special
techniques for analyzing solid waste or incinerated residue. In
Proceedings: 1968 National Incinerator Conference, New
York, May 5-8, 1968. American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, p.242-248.
Methods were developed to determine the nitrogen, carbon,
hydrogen, protein, chemically-decomposable organic (CDO),
and calorific values of solid waste or incinerator residue. The
chemical composition of two types of residue and unburned
solid waste was determined using these methods. Carbon and
hydrogen determinations were done through a combustion
analysis, which is essentially a scaled-up modification of the
Steyermark micro procedure. The nitrogen determination is
the conventional Kjeldahl procedure. The CDO
determination for oxidizable organic material is a
modification of the IRGRD procedure. Calorific value was
measured with a Parr Peroxide Bomb Calorimeter. The ether
soluble and water soluble fractions were extracted using a
Soxhlet apparatus and the designated solvent. One type of
residue was obtained from a batch-feed circular furnace, and
the other type from a two-stage, continuous-feed traveling
grate unit. The range for a particular analysis is large. This
indicates a large daily variation between samples, due to the
fact that samples were taken randomly with no regard for the
influence of weather, time, or season. Calorific value-percent
carbon correlation coefficients were interpreted by noting
that refuse is primarily carbon in the form of cellulose.
Results indicate that a relationship can exist between some of
the common analytical procedures, namely between carbon,
hydrogen, and percent volatile, and the special techniques
used to characterize the unburned portion of residue such as
CDO, nitrogen, percent water soluble, and percent ether
soluble.
68-0529
Schulz, J. I(". Factors involved in the design of high rise
chimney and chute systems. In Proceedings; 1968 National
Incinerator Conference, New York, May 5-8, 1968. American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, p.249-272.
Some of the building conditions of high rise construction are
presented so they may be recognized and incorporated into
the design of chimney systems. The natural pressure of a
building is the pressure which is produced by the difference
in weight between the inside and the outside air. When shaft
openings are examined, it is found that the pressure at each
floor is undiminished within the shaft, thus a shaft opening
which has a friction loss equal to that of a floor will have
more effect upon the building pressures than the floor
opening. Refuse, trash, or laundry chute openings should be
kept as small and as tight as possible and should be equipped
with a device that prevents air from entering the chute when
it is open. The effect of wind upon building pressures and
chimney terminations is reviewed. When a chimney is
terminated in the eddy zone it allows pollutants to be carried
to the building where they may enter the living area by
following the normal air flow patterns. The wet chimney and
other problems may be minimized by combining the boiler
chimney, the incinerator chimney and the refuse chute in a
single cluster. Practices for reducing wet chimney problems
are summarized. Recommendations, including diagrams, arc
given for: design of refuse chute and incinerator system for
buildings up to 10 stories; purging of refuse chutes by heat
from the incinerator burners; leakage of chimney gas into a
building; maintaining adequate temperatures in a chimney;
chimney installation when a draft inducer is not required:
and chimney installation in which a draft inducer is required
because of the gas washer.
68-0530
Setteducato, N. M. Demonstration incinerator to have
electrostatic precipitator. Public Works, 99(3):99-100, Mar
1968.
The multipurpose incinerator of the City of Stamford,
Connecticut, is part of a demonstration project, which is
partially financed by the Public Health Service. The purpose
of the grant is to develop new techniques for eliminating air
pollution caused by incineration of domestic, commercial,
and industrial solid wastes. The facility, with an estimated
construction cost of more than SI million, will provide for
the incineration of the area's solid wastes which, because of
size or content, cannot be accepted into the main incinerator.
It is estimated that a maximum of 50 automobiles per day
will be converted to baling steel by the incineration of all
paint, rubber, plastics, and other contaminants. Two other
ignition chambers will handle 175 tons per day of oversized
bulky wastes. Gases from the three ignition chambers will
enter an adjacent central combustion chamber, where they
will be completely comsumed along with liquid wastes which
are introduced by spraying. An electrostatic precipitator,
having a capacity of 160,000 cu ft per minute at 600 !•',
removes a large percentage of the finer dust particles leaving
the flue gas which is 90 to 95 percent free of pollutants. The
ash and residue will be disposed of in an adjacent landfill.
68-0531
Shuster, W. W., and J. S. Gilbert. Partial combustion of solid
organic wastes. In Engineering l-oundation Research
Conference, Solid Waste Research and Development, II,
Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26, 1968. New York. (Conference
Preprint C-4J
The possibilities of reacting certain organic components of
solid wastes with limited quantities of oxygen to reform
them into simpler organic compounds of economic interest
was investigated. Efforts were directed to the design,
construction, and calibration of equipment used for the
study. Einely divided paper and 'Orgro,' a dried sewage
sludge, were fed to the reactor. It was found that the
products obtained from 'Orgro' appeared to be more
numerous and more complex than those from paper.
Preparative gas chromatography and infrared spectroscopy
methods were found satisfactory for identifying the
products. Runs were made using various ratios of air to
nitrogen in the reacting gas. The products included carbon
dioxide, methanol, propylene, ethylene, methane, butane,
and butene.
68-0532
Silva, A. Mechanical draft fans for the modern incinerator. In
Proceedings; 1968 National Incinerator Conference, New
York, May 5-8, 1968. American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, p.21'3-277'.
The performance characteristics of forced and induced draft
fans are presented with special reference to incinerator
104
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0528-0536
applications. In order to make fan requirements valid, the Ib
of air or gas per hr, and/or the density in Ib per cu ft, and the
elevation in feet above or below sea level must be known.
The ideal forced draft fan arrangement is either single or
double inlet. Variable inlet vanes should be used for volume
control, and since very few plants can offer completely
dust-free air even from outside the plant, vanes with all
bearings and operating mechanisms outside the airstream
should be used. This is especially essential if fans are pulling
air from in-plant locations such as the ash pits or tunnels.
storage pit, or even the operating floor. The radial tip fan is
the best choice for an induced draft system, when the gas to
be handled is not clean. Even if a mechanical collector is
used, quantities of fly ash will still get to the fan. Where
electrostatic precipitators are to be used, the obvious choice
would be an airfoil-bladed fan. Radial tip, backward inclined
flat blade, and airfoil wheels can be good choices when a wet
scrubber is used. Special blading and fan construction for use
under corrosive conditions are discussed.
68-0533
Smith, R. A., J. Hornyak, and A. A. Carotti. Analysis of
stack effluent from municipal incinerators. In Engineering
Foundation Research Conference; Solid Waste Research and
Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26, 1968. New
York. (Conference Preprint C-8.)
The objectives of the current program are to evaluate
seasonal variations in the refuse, stack emissions, and quench
water from the municipal incinerator in Long Island. New
York, and four different types of incinerators in the New
York area. Another objective is to identify and quantify
specific inorganic and organic compounds present in the
stack effluent. Equipment for the collection of representative
samples of stack effluent was designed, and its high efficiency
as a trapping system was experimentally demonstrated.
Results of a partial analysis, using gas chromatography and
infrared spectrophotometry, indicated that water recovered
from the traps contained acetone, aeetaldehyde, methanol,
ethanol, methylethyl ketone, high molecular weight alcohols
and benzene. The major components of gas samples were
nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide.
68-0534
Smith, R. D. Feasibility study of applying jet-engine
technology to refuse incineration. In Engineering Foundation
Research Conference; Solid Waste Research and
Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26, 1968. New
York. (Conference Preprint C-3.)
It has been shown that incinerators using jet engine
technology are feasible and can reduce incineration costs by
providing saleable products such as electric power and steam.
Fach incinerator consumes approximately 400 tons of refuse
per day. If all a city's refuse were converted to electric
power, it would supply approximately 10 percent of the
city's needs. Refuse is burned at elevated pressure (90 to 180
psia). and work is extracted directly from the hot gas by
expansion through a turbine; the heat remaining in the gas
after expansion is converted to steam in a \vaste heat boiler
The hot gas is cleaned at an elevated pressure immediately
downstream of the combustion chamber to preclude
paniculate matter from entering the turbine. Pressurized air
is supplied to the combustion chamber by the compressor, a
jet engine (gas turbine), the turbine of the engine extracts
work from the hot gas to drive the compressor, in addition to
driving an electric generator.
68-0535
Stephenson, J. W. Incinerator design with operator in mind.
In Proceedings, 1968 National Incinerator Conference, Ne\\
York, May 5-8, 1968. American Society of Mechanical
Engineers p.287-294.
Since the average designing engineer cannot acquire sufficient
operaing experience to become familiar \\ith all the pioblems
faced by plant personnel, details considered minor b> the
designer may, if not properly treated, become ma|or
problems or inconveniences in plant operation or
maintenance. Suggestions by leading municipal incinerator
plant operators, based on many years' experience, are
presented for consideration by designers. Operators generally
feel plants should be designed with firm capacity adequate to
handle the daily refuse load. Plant structures and facilities
should be designed and sized for 24-hr operation, even
though planned operation may be only one or two shifts.
Refuse receiving, storage, and handling facilities should
receive particular attention. The designer or a qualified
representative should be on the job throughout the
construction and start-up period to supervise construction,
intital operation, and tests. Specifications should be clear m
placing responsibility for adjusting, testing, and initial
operation of all equipment and the entire plant. Attractive
surroundings and adequate comfortable facilities are
important in attracting and holding competent personnel.
Operators are unanimous in wanting a truck scale at all
plants. Well-lighted and ventilated, enclosed, tipping areas are
preferred, and the need for an adequately sized storage pit
with sprays for fire protection, dust control, and rugged
cranes is emphasized. Most comments related to operation
and maintenance of incinerators mention air pollution
control design. Chimney design, forced draft problems,
instrumentation and controls, waste supply and drainage.
heating and ventilating, electrical equipment, and facilities
for maintenance are also discussed
68-0536
Stermtzke, R. F., and M. Dvirka. Temperatures and air
distributions in large rectangular incinerator furnaces. In
Proceedings; 1968 National Incinerator Conference, New
York, May 5-8, 1968. American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, p.295-302.
Proper design and operation of municipal incinerators \vith
combustion and excess air delivered in correct quantities, at
the right place and at the right time, will result in controlled
optimum operating furnace temperatures and reduced
refractory maintenance cost by virtue of limited slagging
reduced stoker maintenance costs, and considerable
reductions in potential particulate emissions. Basic theories
of furnace design and their application in modern refuse
burning furnaces are discussed with some preliminary and
partial test data (observations based on experience in the
operation of various types of municipal incinerators) While
many designers assume an average operating temperature
range of 1,600 to 1,800 F, some specifications stipulate a
temperature range of 2.200 to 2,300 F as a safe upper limit
of the refractory lining. The characteristics of the current
105
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Incineration
refractory enclosures, and the intimate supporting structures
indicate that temperatures in this range, over a prolonged
period of time, will cause some deterioration and shorten the
life of the refractories. Temperatures in excess of 1,800 I-
will cause excessive slagging due to the presence of low fusion
point fly ash and the diversity of chemical composition of
the waste materials, such as plastics and glass. The optimum
safe performance of a given furnace is usually obtained by
providing plus or minus 70 percent of total air as overfire air.
and up to plus or minus 60 percent of total air as underfire
air. Recommendations are made for the design of combustion
air systems.
68-0537
Stickley, J. D. Instrumentation systems for municipal refuse
incinerators. In Proceedings, 1968 National Incinerator
Conference, New York, May 5-8, 1968. American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, p.303-308.
The basic control systems used in modern incinerators are
outlined. An incinerator must be controlled so that it will
effect complete combustion of refuse and prevent the lelease
to the atmosphere of offensive gases and smoke.
Instrumentation systems help the operator accomplish these
purposes under varying fuel conditions at a minimum cost
per ton of refuse burned. In addition, they help to keep the
incinerator and associated equipment from being damaged by
high and/or rapidly fluctuating temperatures. In order to
assure an adequate flow of underfire air, it is desirable that
the actual air flow be controlled. To insure complete
combustion of all volatile matter, the furnace outlet
temperature is usually maintained in the 1,700 to 1,900 I
range. The temperature control system does this by
continually varying the total amount of air that is delivered
to the furnace. As a result, a draft control system is necessary
to maintain the proper pressure in the furnace. In addition,
to prevent damage to the dust collector and the induced draft
fan, the hot gases from the furnace must be cooled to
approximately 650 I'. In some of the modern incinerators, a
control system for multiple unit cyclone collectors is
necessary. Pressure, temperature, and flow indication
instruments, as well as smoke density monitors and alarms,
should be installed. The sophisticated techniques of ratio and
cascade control of interrelated variables are examined as tools
for more effective operation of incinerators. Schematic
drawings for the control systems are provided
68-0538
The switching on of a modern refuse plant at Sileby, Leics.
Machinery Market, (3528):62, 66, June 27, 1968.
Barrow-on-Soar Rural District Council, Leicestershire, has
put into operation a -t-250,000 refuse incineration plant to
handle the rubbish collected from its district of 65,000
people. The plant will be capable of dealing with a maximum
110 tons of domestic refuse per 8-hr day. Burning capacities
are based on the assumption that 40 percent by weight of
incoming refuse will be extracted in the form of screenings
and salvage. Collection vehicles discharge their loads into the
reception hopper, which has a capacity of 140 cu yd and is
fitted to an extraction plant to prevent dust nuisances. A
rotary screen removes fine materials from the refuse before it
reaches the salvage section. The two steel-cased incinerator
units each consist of four cells with a semimechamcal trough
grate design. These have a rear combustion chamber and
provision for hand-feeding bulky articles or condemned
carcasses Provision is made to quench the clinker before it is
deposited in the storage yard. Gases pass through a water-trap
type grit arrester, reinforced with a spray system, on the way
to the 1 75-ft chimney.
68-0539
Tanzer, F. K. Pneumatic conveying for incineration ot paper
trim. In Proceedings, 1968 National Incinerator Conference,
New York, May 5-8. 1968 American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, p 309-317
Design parameters were developed for a pneumatic system
that would convey paper trimmings and shredded resins from
multiple sources to boilers 1,400 ft away. The trim is
collected at numerous winders and carried through several
ducts to a large booster fan which then sends it to a cyclone
separator where it accumulates. The air which leaves the
cyclone is withdrawn and washed by a wet, centrifugal,
blower-scrubber. Meanwhile, the paper from the bottom of
the cyclone is withdrawn and washed by two high-pressure
blowers and then delivered through a 6-in pipeline to a
central powerhouse. The system has been operating
successfully for three years, so the velocity needed in the
pipeline, the size of the blowers, the needed horsepower, and
the proper air-to-paper ratio have all been determined In
another project, a large multi-pipe conveyance system to
handle scrap from various photographic finishing operations
was installed. Material is shredded and then conveyed to a
horizontal automatic baler. Another part of the system
involves a 1,000-ft conveyor line from the production area to
the plant boilers Both systems have been designed to handle
200 Ib of paper per minute Schematic diagrams of the
disposal system for waste paper trim, and of the scrap paper
disposal system with balers are presented.
68-0540
Trainor, H. W. Special boilers tor waste fuels. Power
Engineering, 72(2) 42-44, I
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0537-0545
68-0541
Tucker, M. G., and T. A. Hegdahl. Comprehensive testing of
municipal solid waste incinerators. In F.ngmcering
Foundation Research Conference: Solid Waste Research and
Development, II, Beaver Dam. Wis., July 22-26, I 968. New
York (Conference Preprint C-14.)
The Solid Wastes Program has scheduled a series of tests on
incinerators of various designs including1 continuous and
batch-fed 'standard' refractory-walled furnaces with differing
grate characteristics, 'water-walled' furnaces, rotary kiln
furnaces, teepee burners, and pit incinerators. The results, to
be obtained while charging at 100, 75, and 50 peicent of the
rated design capacity of the units, will be monitored. Some
factors to be studied in detail during these tests are.
composition, rate, and method ot solid waste charging;
combustion performance characteristics: instrumentation and
controls, effluent characteristics; economics, working
conditions; effluent and residue disposal; and maintenance
and sanitation.
68-0542
Utah State Division ot Health Weber County incinerator
environmental evaluation study. U.S. Department of Health.
Education, and Welfare, 1968.
The purpose of the planned study is twofold, to provide
agencies with an evaluation of the facility and to provide the
Solid Waste Program with detailed data on specific aspects of
the incinerator. Of primary interest in the evaluation of the
plant are the efficiency of the incinerator; the effects of the
operation on its envnonment as indicated by the quality of
the stack emissions, and the acceptability of the disposal of
the solid residue and liquid effluent; the acceptability of the
work environment; the economics of maintenance and
operation; and the effectiveness and efficiency of the plant.
Of ...Iditional interest are the effects of the various system
components; the relation between the influent solid wastes
and the effluents, evaluation of specific plant design; and
testing sampling techniques. The procedures used during the
course of the study are presented. In addition, in an effort to
improve our understanding of municipal incineration, a series
of detailed evaluation studies has been planned. Of major
importance to the studies is a detailed analysis of the solid
waste influent and the gaseous, liquid, and solid effluents of
the incinerator. A brief outline of analytical techniques for
analyzing combustible and putrescible matter, especially with
chemical techniques from the Drexel Institute of
Technology, is appended.
68-0543
Wakabayashi, T. Utilization of heat energy generated by
incinerators. Energy and Pollution Control, 20(6):9-15, June
1968.
Continuous and automatic incinerators are examined as a
feasible source of hot water. The following conditions were
assumed: A, B, C, and D cities have populations of 50,000,
100,000, 150,000 and 200,000 respectively; the total length
of the main hot water line from the incinerator to the area
supplied is 6 km; the production of refuse is 600 g per capita
per day; the average low grade calorific value is 850 kcal per
kg; and there are three workers in three shifts. For four eities,
the amount of refuse to be collected, its calorific value, the
costs of an incinerator with a boiler for hot water and a
sinking fund for these facilities were calculated Also, the
costs of labor, maintenance, auxiliary fuel, and refuse
collection were obtained. The costs for hot water mains and
the production of hot water were also calculated. The latter
varied from 315 to 280 yen per ton of hot water. Finally, the
difference between the sinking fund for facilities with a
boiler and those without one was figured as one ot the
criteria for the determination ot the price of hot water. It
was concluded that the quality of the refuse must be
improved before it is possible to effectively use the heat
energy trom incinerators. (Text in Japanese)
68-0544
Watkins, A M. New incinerators burn the smoke, too.
Popular Science, 192(2).149-15 1, Feb. 1968.
Smokeless and odorless incinerators appear to be the solution
to many household trash and air pollution problems. These
compact incinerators burn 75 to 80 percent of the trash and
garbage in the average home. All refuse is burnt to a fine
white ash. The key to the operation is a second stage or
afterburner that burns any unburned particles that get past
the first set ot flames. The incinerators can handle loads from
I'/z to 2 bushels. The average size is around 22 by 33 inches.
They are engineered with numerous safety features and need
little maintenance, and they operate on any kind of gas.
Their average price is SI65 Class A or Class L chimneys are
prerequisite for incinerator operations Illustrations of the
incinerators are included.
68-0545
Woodruff, P H , and G P. Larson. Combustion profile of a
grate-rotary kiln incinerator. In Proceedings; 1968 National
Incinerator Conference, New York, May 5-8 1968. American
Society of Mechanical F^ngineers, p.327-336.
A study was made of a 300 ton per day grate-rotary kiln
municipal incinerator that was a subject of public complaint
because of fly ash and odors. Sampling data were obtained at
the end ot the rotary kiln, in the secondary combustion
chamber, just ahead of the spray chambers, and in the stack.
Samples were also taken at varying elevations at each point in
the combustion process. Data was obtained on gas
temperatures, particulate loading, hydrocarbons, oxygen,
carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. Sampling data have
been correlated with refuse loading and general operation
characteristics of the incinerator to produce typical operating
profiles. The profiles illustrate gas flow and combustion
characteristics of materials as they arc burned in this type of
incinerator Recommendations were made for modification
of the combustion air supply and gas mixing systems. The
incinerator should be operated on a 7-day basis. The floor
operator should make the necessary adjustments to keep the
temperature above 1,500 F. The amount of underfire air
presently being introduced should be reduced, and a portion
of this air diverted over the fire bed in the primary chamber
for the purpose of reducing the amounts of suspended fly-
ash. The feasibility of reducing infiltrated air into the ash pit
through the diversion gate assembly should be investigated.
An engineering study on the feasibility of installing
appropriate baffles or checkerwork across the secondary
combustion chamber, at the point after the gases have passed
over the existing bridge wall, would be the next step.
107
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Incineration-Europe
68-0546
Zinn, R. E., and W. R. Niesscn. Commercial incinerator
design criteria In Proceedings; 1968 National Incinerator
Conference, New York, May 5-8, 1968. American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, p.337-347.
Upgrading the capabilities of commercial and industrial
incinerators is necessary in view of projected trends in
packaging materials which herald incieased amounts of
plastics, metal foils, and glass. An incineration system must
be able to handle a wide variety of wastes, and be able to
consume refuse of high moisture content. Incineration
devices must include adequate air pollution control systems.
High combustion ctficiency must be realised, and the ash
icsidue should be easy to handle. Rapid burning
is required in order to provide a high disposal capacity per
square foot of floor area. In order to provide for safety,
operator comfort, and to reduce oxidative corrosion, external
surface temperatures should be minimal The mcineiation
characteristics of important packaging materials are reviewed
and packaging trends are projected through 1975. The
following specific design principles were developed, a burner
appears necessary in the primary chamber and in the
secondary chamber; air control is necessary; an efficient,
integrated air pollution control device is necessary;
gratelessness is highly desirable if coupled with agitation
which is also highly desirable; and continuous flow of refuse
and ash is needed. To review the economics of incinerator
operation and in order to have a cost framework for the
designing purposes, a simple mathematical model of net
incinerator costs was prepared. Below about 200 Ib per hr.
almost any incinerator operation is uneconomical.
INCINERATION-EUROPE
68-0547
Arndl, K. H. 72 years of waste incineration in Hamburg.
Klektrizitaetswirtschatt, 67(1 8).543-547, Aug. 1968.
The first plans for the construction of a waste incinerator
plant in Hambuig, West Germany, date back to the year
1893. Its construction was prompted by an outbreak of a
cholera epidemic the year before. This plant operated until
1924 In the years 1912 and 1913, two further waste
incinerator plants began operation. In the year 1931, the
plant in the 'Borsigstrabe' was opened with a daily capacity
of 300 tons. In 1956 it was modernized The installation ot
five furnaces now permits it to operate continuously. It is
capable of incinerating 285,000 tons (about 1.3 million cu
m) of domestic wastes. The plan! has a storage bunker with a
volume of 8.500 cu m. The longitudinal combustion chamber
is equipped with a Von Roll grate which is divided into a
predrying and combustion grate. The temperature in the
combustion chamber is kepi within certain limits, because at
more than 1,000 C the slag sinters, and below 800 C odors
are emitted. Oil burners are installed as auxiliary burners and
to ignite the furnace. The heat which arises is used for the
production of steam. The flue gases are cleaned by
electrofilters. The fly ash is sucked through pipes into a
collecting container, from which it is pressed into silos With
14 percent by weight, the slag forms the highest portion of
the residues (scrap y/'r and fly ash 6','f by weight). It is used in
the construction of roads. Hamburg has about 1 85 million
inhabitants and an annual accumulation ot waste of more
than 3 million cu m. The increase m waste in the last year
was 6.1 percent. The construction of a new plant in I 972 has
also been planned. An incinerator for industrial wastes is
being erected close to the existing domestic waste
incinerator. (Text in German)
68-0548
Association tor erection ot a common incinerator in the
Niederrhem Brennstofl-Waerme-Kraft. 20(9).408, Sept.
1968.
The association was formed on April 2, 1968 by eight cities
(Duisburg, Oberhausen, Dinslaken, Rhemhausen, Walsum,
Moers, Homberg and Voerdc) m the Niederrelnn area, West
Germany. The cooperation ot these cities has many
advantages. It decreases the investment costs of the
incinerator from 53.2 million to about 38 million DM.
Additional costs are saved by using fewer operating
personnel The association will also be concerned with the
elimination of the residues from incineration. It plans to
supplement the plant by a samtaiy landfill for dumping the
ash. The eight cities have a total population of 1,016,550.
The annual accumulation of combustible wastes will total
295.830 tons, of \\liich 200,000 tons will be domestic refuse
(i.e. 180 kg per inhabitant). The heating value fluctuates
between 800 and 2,500 kcal per kg. Unfortunately the
incineration of industrial wastes is not included in this plan.
This will be the task ot the individual companies. The wasie
incinerator plant will consist of three furnaces with a total
capacity of 50 tons per day and this plant can work
continuously in three shifts. Steam production will amount
to 65 tons per hr at 40 atm and 300 C. An electrofilter will
clean the flue gases. Cost calculations indicated 39.4 million
DM tor investment costs. 6.13 million DM per year
incineration costs, and 648.000 DM per yr lor personnel
costs. The specific incineration costs will be 19.20 DM per
ton of waste without heat utih/ation, and 1 2.60 per ton of
waste with heat utilization. (Text m German)
68-0549
Bachl, H The importance ot remote heat supply plants,
incinerators, and offpeak electric heating systems for keeping
the an clean, demonstrated hv the example of Munich. Staub
Remhaltungder Luft, 28(2):65-71, Feb. 1968
The air pollution problems stemming from remote heating
plants and incinerators are the mam subjects discussed, but
some information on waste disposal in the City of Munich is
given along with a graph. Munich's two incinerators are
located north and south of the city (the latter is still under
construction), and they deliver heat to an attached remote
heat supply plant. The incinerators burn almost all the
domestic wastes which until recently were dumped in the
outskirts ot the city or were shipped to the North Sea and
dumped there. However, only a few disposal sites are left
which are not potentially dangerous for groundwater. Thus
the incineration of wastes has become more and more
necessary, in spite of protests that it might cause a
consideiable increase in air pollution. For economic reasons
the mcmeratois had to be erected within the city. This
reduced transport costs Domestic wastes pose considerable
problems when incinerated. A do/en such domestic waste
108
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0546-0553
incinerators pollute the air ot New York City to an alaimmg
degree, despite the prevailing winds trom the sea. The U.S.
Secretary of the Interior visited the Munich incinerators 2
years ago and found them exemplary A graph shows the
amounts of waste which will accumulate within the next tew
yeais The graph also illustrates the amount of the wastes
which can be incinerated. Alter the second incmeratoi in the
south of the city is in operation, the entire domestic wastes
ot Munich can be eliminated by incineration. The incinerators
will supply 5 to 8 percent of the power required by the city.
(Text in German)
68-0550
Bauer, H., L. Michna. and G.L. Geer. Additional distnct
heating from the extension of the Stuttgart reiuse
incinerating plant Elektnzitatsvvirtschaft, 68(25)806-811,
Dec. 1968.
The increase ot the amount ot letuse, along w ilh the mciease
ot the heating value of refuse in the City of Stuttgart, made
the installation of a th11 d incinerator in the
Stuttgart-Muenstcr incineration plant necessary. To be able
to use all the experience gained with the tirst two
incmeratois, a design similar to the first two incinerators was
chosen. The incinerator has two separate combustion
chambers for the incineration of refuse and the burning of
oil. The flue gases fiom the two combustion chambers aie
conducted separately to a transverse flue where they are
united. An electrostatic precipitator is installed tn the
furnace. The cleaned flue gases leave through a 181) m high
stack In order to reduce the dust content of the flue gas to
the legally required 150 mg per cu m, the electrostatic
prectpttator has been designed for a collection efficiency ot
more than 98 percent. As \vith the two predecessors, a roller
grate with six rollers \vas selected. 'Ihe refuse combustion
chamber has been designed for a maximum heating value ot
2,500 kcal per kg refuse, at the full capacity of 20 tons pei
hr. A wet slagging facility is attached to the incinerator The
boiler has a capacity of 125 tons of steam per hr at a pressure
ot 66 atm and a hot steam temperature ot 525 C.
(Text m German)
68-0551
Baunch, G Development ot furnaces lor sludge incineration
Wasserwirtschalt-Wassertechmk, 18(5) 146-150, May 1968.
Three furnaces are described which are suited to incinerate
sludges. The first is a multistoried unit which has a
comeally-shaped helix that runs along the inside from the top
to the bottom. With this furnace the sludge is first
dehydrated to a water content between 70 and 75 percent by
weight. It is then transported down the center of the furnace
along the helix and subjected to drying heat along the way.
Since the sludge has a low calonfic value it is necessary to use
additional burners to fully consume the sludge. The second
furnace is a turbulent layer type which utilizes a tluidi/.ed
bed of quart/ sand. This unit includes a rotating vacuum
filtei which is used to lower the water content of the sludge
prior to incineration. This process features high incineration
temperatures in the range of 1,150 to 1,200 C. The third type
of furnace dries and consumes the waste m a rotating, sheet
steel tube which is heated from the outside. The design of
this last furnace is such that the sludge can be led parallel or
countei to the flow ot combustion gases There are also
provisions tor injecting additional air into the combustion
/one. Illustrations ot all three furnaces are given. (Text in
German)
68-0552
Bellendort, 1 . Operating expetiencc with a double lotalmp
diuin toi the incineration ot industrial wastes at the
Chemische Werke Hules AG BrennstottAVaerme-Kraft,
20(9) 414419, Sept 1968.
The double rotary drum furnace, which has been in operation
at the chemical plant, Huels AG, since August 1966, was
designed with a capacity of 2,400 kg per hr at a mean heating
value of 5,000 kcal per kg All combustible wastes
accumulating in the plant, from paper to plastic material and
waste oil, are burned in the tuinace. The air inlet tor the first
drum is 2.8 m, that ot the second drum 3 5 m. Both drums
together have a length ot 15 m. The numbers of revolutions
per hr of the two drums is adjustable, but the first is kept at
between 7.5 and 30 revolutions per hr and the second
between 6 to 30 revolutions per hr. The second drum can
rotate to the left or to the right The flue gas temperature, at
its end. is about 800 to 1,000 C. A cooled pipe grate has been
installed behind the second drum. To heat up the lurnace, an
oil burnei is used The furnace is also equipped with an
afterburning chamber with a square cross section of 2.5 to
4.5 m. Waste oil can be burnt here if the flue gas does not
reach the requisite 800 C at the end of the drum. The boiler
has a capacity of 1 2 5 tons per hr at 25 atm and 380 C. After
12,300 operating hr, it can be said that the plant operates
quite satisfactorily The plant has had to be switched off 29
times for repair work. The cooled loading chute has caused
the most trouble. The investment costs ot the plant
amounted to 3,300,000 DM without a chimney, which
existed aheady, but it includes the cyclones, storage room,
access roads, and pipelines (Text in German)
68-0553
Boese, R. West Emopean incinerators are better than those ot
the U.S. Energie. 2()(7/8)'2()7, July-Aug. 1968.
Although the per capita accumulation of waste in the United
States is higher than in Western l-.urope, the U.S. techniques
are not as well developed. In Western Europe, foi example,
particulate emissions averaged 0.7 kg per ton of incinerated
refuse, while the U S. average \vas 5.5 kg per ton. The
number of working hr per ton ot incinerated waste m
Western Furope amounts to 62 to 72 percent of those spent
in the United States. The legal requirements coneeining noise
and dust emission are also sttffer in Europe. Delivery of the
wastes to the incinerator involves, in Europe, only 3.5
percent of the total costs of an incinerator, whereas it
amounts to 4.9 percent in the Unites States. Electronic-
devices are employed in Europe to determine weight,
electromechamc scales are used in the United States. In
Europe, the storage rooms are tightly sealed off from the rest
of the plant to avoid dust penetiation, but in the U.S., no
such measures are taken. The European incinerators arc-
jacketed by solid sheet steel walls with only small inspection
windows, since no stokenng is lequircd with the mechanical
grates used. Water curtains are rarely used m the United
States, although they save the expenditure ot enormous sums
109
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Incinera tion- E urope
on fireproof lining. In Europe, the use of waste gases for
remote heating or the generation of electric power is also
widespread. (Text in German)
68-0554
Brandt, H., and H. Heer. Particular dedusting problems in
refuse incineration plants. Vereinigung der
Grosskessel-Besitzer, 48(2): 11 8-1 26, Apr. 1968.
The dust emission from incinerator plants has been limited
by law to 200 mg per cu m for plants with a capacity of up
to 20 tons per day, and limited to 1 50 mg per cu m for plants
with a daily capacity of more than 20 tons per day. There is
also a regulation which requires that the smoke from
incinerators must be lighter in color than value no. 2 on the
Rmgelmann chart. Hue gases and dust must be subjected to a
minimum temperature of 800 C to make them sterile and
free of odors. Hue gases must pass through chimneys of
certain minimum height. Dedusters and electrofilters cannot
withstand temperatures of 800 C and more, so in practice, it
is necessary to cool the waste gases. This can be done in long
unprotected waste gas channels made of steel (for smaller
plants only) or in waste gas boilers by injecting water or cold
air. With the lattei two methods the volume of the waste gas
is considerably increased. A cooling system which does not
miect water or air is actually more desirable. l>or example.
waste gases can be cooled to about 750 C by exposing them
to unprocessed wastes, and then cooled to 400 C by using the
extra heat. Incinerator plants with energy production are
more demanding as far as dedusters are concerned. The
combination of incinerator plants with auxiliary oil or coal
burners affects the dedusting devices in varying degrees.
Mechanical dedusting devices and electrolilteis are described
The heterogeneous composition of the waste makes it
necessary that the short term dedusters withstand
temperature increases of 50 C without damage.
(Text in German)
68-0555
Braun, R. How completely shall refuse be incinerated?
Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft, 20(9):409-411, Sept. 1968.
To answer the question, how completely refuse shall be
incinerated, three points must be taken into consideration:
what is necessary to permit efficient heat utilization; how are
costs affected by transporting residues to dump sites; and
what are the consequences of dumping such residues'' As
far as the first point is concerned, the most effective
incineration is determined by experience. As to the second, a
somewhat lower or higher percentage of incineration residues
has hardly any effect on the costs of transportation. The last
point is important. Dumping of slag and ash can lead to two
types of hazards spoilage of the groundwater, and emission.
The content of biologically decomposable, unburnt
substances m the incineration residues must be determined It
must also be determined how high this content may be
without causing hazardous conditions. A new method,
developed by G. Rolle and R Orsamc, determines the carbon
bound to decomposable organic substance. A table lists some
of the results of slag and ash samples, taken directly from
incinerators or from dump sites. The amount ot carbon
bound to organic substances, which are decomposable by
microorganisms, was found to he between 1.2 and 11
percent Based on the few tests made, RolJe concludes that a
carbon content of 2.5 percent plus or minus 1 percent (dry
substance) in the decomposable organic substance is a safe
critenum. Considerable variations m the quality of the slag
from the same plant have been found. (Text in German)
68-0556
Burning t'oi good riddance. Chemical Week. 102(20) 59-60,
May 18, 1968
Bayer's S4.5-milhon incineration plant can take a yearly
throughput of 40,000 metric tons of difficult-to-dispose-of
wastes from the production of 10,000 chemicals in the
Leverkusen. West Germany, works. The operating cost is $20
to $25 per metric ton, an increase over the former cost of $3
to $4 per metric ton for disposal by burial. Steam recovery
amounts to 25 metric tons per hr. Only about 10 percent of
the original volume of solid and liquid waste material is left
after incineration. The system complies with five stringent
control requirements set by local authorities. Mixing solid
and liquid wastes has given the best incineration results in
terms of volume reduction and economy of operation. Solid
wastes are collected at 300 places in the complex and hauled
to the storage bunker where a grab crane picks wastes from
three tanks in rotation. This results in the maintenance of a
fairly constant heating value. A dispensing sluice sends the
solid matter to a rotary kiln, where it stays for 30 to 60
minutes.
68-0557
Debatable points on incineration. Public Cleansing,
58(9):47M74,Sept. 1968
Regional schemes lor refuse disposal were discussed at a
meeting on refuse disposal in Bolton, Fngland. In modern
incinerators, tumbling the refuse is not considered necessary.
The possibility of burning sewage sludge with refuse is a
problem, since sludge is difficult to burn. Other problems of
interest to the participants were clinker, steam production
from refuse, and the conditions necessary to bring
incineration to approximately the cost level of tipping.
68-0558
Diamant, R. M. E. Economics of refuse incineration. Air
Conditioning, Heating, and Ventilating, 65(9): 18, Sept.
1968.
The grate temperature m refuse incinerators is far lower than
in either coal or oil-fired installations (about 1,830 I ). The
large quantity of slag produced (about \S'/t in volume of the
refuse fed into the furnace) carried away a large quantity of
sensible heat. The efficiencies of refuse incinerators are low,
and the output of heat per unit size is also rather low,
indicating that the plant must be larger than other heating
plants. When refuse incinerators are used for district heating,
it is best for them to supply the base load, with peak loads
earned by oil or coal-fired furnaces, exemplified by the
municipal heating system in Paris It is not possible to make
the sale of heat pay for the operating costs of a refuse
incineration plant In every plant built so far, operating costs
have been subsidized by the authority wishing to dispose of
its refuse.
110
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0554-0564
68-0559
Diamant, R. M. F. Refuse burning for district heating. Air
Conditioning, Heating, and Ventilating, 65(8). 1 8, Aug. 1968.
The use of conventional oil or coal-fired furnaces for refuse
incineration by mixing a quantity of refuse with conventional
fuel, has met with unfavorable results. It has been found that
the refuse lowered the combustion efficiency of the oil. In
addition, it was not possible to fully utilize the heat that was
available in the refuse. As a consequence, specially designed
furnaces are recommended. Other drawbacks associated with
conventional furnaces are the extra expenses for handling the
refuse and ash produced, as well as increased maintenance
and plant costs. The difficulties of using refuse as fuel are:
the material contains up to 40 percent water; it has variable
size, moisture content and calorific value; it has an average
density of only 1 8 to 19 Ib per cu ft varying with different
components, and it is made up of very soft and very hard
components. It is therefore necessary to design furnaces for
refuse incineration so that the fuel is properly dried before
combustion, and so that it is turned and agitated for
complete combustion The following types of furnaces are
available: fixed grate, chain grate without mixing action, and
chain grate stokers with mixing actions systems.
68-0560
Diamant, R. M E. Refuse incineration for urban heating
systems. Air Conditioning, Heating, and Ventilating,
65(6):21, June 1968.
Most European countries are attempting to use the calorific
content of waste materials for district heating purposes.
Combustion reduces the refuse to about 10 to 20 percent in
volume. The residue produced is completely inorganic and
makes a hard core that can be used as a building material. Use
of small refuse incinerator', having capacities of less than
9,000 tons per year, is generally a more expensive process
than removal by controlled landfill, as it is impractical to
make use of the heat produced. In Germany, costs are said to
exceed those of controlled landfill by about 50 percent Very
large incinerators, making full use of the heat produced, arc-
more economical. It is estimated that the cost of burning
refuse in some laige incinerators, using heat to generate
electricity, can run as little as 60 to 70 cents per capita per
year. The trend is for these costs to drop even further, as the
calorific value of refuse rises and the size of plants increase.
68-0561
Diamant, R. M. h. Refuse incineration for urban heating
systems. Air Conditioning, Heating, Ventilating, 65(7)'6,
Julj I 968
The nature and calorific value of refuse differs according to
the country or town from which it is obtained. Its
composition has changed significantly during the last 30
years, with the tendency showing an increase in calorific
value In Switzerland, it is estimated that the average calorific-
value of refuse has doubled during the last 15 years. An
analysis of a Danish town's refuse contribution to the
calorific value is given, and the nature of refuse m various
countries is compared. The calorific value of refuse in the
United Kingdom is much higher than that in most other
countries, since the refuse contains a large quantity of partly
burned coal from open fireplaces. Calorific values m Sweden
and the United States are around 3,300 to 3.500 Btu per Ib
680562
Eberhardt, H.. and W. Mayer. Experiences with refuse
incineration in Europe. Prevention of air and water pollution,
operation of refuse incineration plants combined with steam
boilers, design and planning In Proceedings, 1968 National
Incinerator Conference, New York, May 5-8, 1968 American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, p.73-86.
European steam generators with refuse tiring must meet a
number of stringent legal requirements tor air and water
pollution control. Emission limits are tabulated. Hue dust
collectors have over 98 percent efficiency. I'urnace and boiler
design arc considered in detail. The most economical solution
for cooling of flue gases with a temperature of 800 to 1,100
C for medium-sized and larger refuse incinerator units
consists of a series-connected steam geneiator To obtain the
most economical plant for given local conditions, it is
necessary to determine the size of the firing chamber. It is
shown in diagram form that incinerating the maximum
volume of refuse at a maximum heating value is not
economically justified. Corrosion of boiler and superheater
tubes is largely prevented b\ maintaining oxidizing
conditions in critical areas. Leaching tests of raw refuse,
composted refuse, and incinerator residue show less giound
water contamination from residue Problems in planning and
design of the Mannheim incinerator are detailed. Special
recommendations are made concerning reliable operation of
refuse bunkers, as well as the management of refuse delivery.
68-0563
Ebert, F. H. Incineration of refuse with heat utilization.
Elektnzitaetswirtschaft, 67(18):528-535, Aug. 1968.
Since 1964 a number of mcmeiators have been put into
operation in West Germany. Statistics which cover all
operating incinerators, as well as those under construction,
show that all larger incinerators utilize waste heat. A diagram
illustrates the development of waste incineration with heat
utilization since 1960. At present, the refuse produced by
about 75 million people, is incinerated. There are vaiious
types of incinerators with heat utilization. There are those
where only wastes are incinerated such as the Volund system,
the Von Roll incinerator etc. Then there are the boilers
heated with wastes and conventional fuels such as in the
plants of Essen-Karnap, Stuttgart-Muenster, and
Munich-North And finally there are special types of
incinerators such as the one of Munich-South. Here separate
furnaces have been installed for the incineration of wastes
and the conventional fuels, but they are connected in tandem
for the production of steam. (Text in German)
68-0564
Edmonton incineration plant. Public Cleansing,
58(4):200-202, Apr. 1968.
Construction of the first of the new incineration plants at
Edmonton, in the London Borough of Enfield, is under way
on a 27 1/2 acre site which was formerly used as a sewage
sludge drying bed. The refuse will be unloaded under cover
1 1 1
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Incineration-Europe
from the collection vehicles into storage bunkers which will
have a capacity of 22,875 cu yd. Two, overhead, travelling,
S-cu-ydy grabs will feed 1,330 tons per 24-hr day, 7 days per
week into a set of five rotary grate incinerators. The heat
from the incinerators will be used to raise steam in boilers
mounted above the moving grates. The steam will drive four
main turbines and the output of 27 megawatts will be fed
into the Electricity Board's distribution system. Residual
material such as ash and clinker will be separated to provide
another source of income. The incinerator gases, having been
cooled while passing through the boilers, will flow into a row
of five electrostatic precipitators, which will limit stack
emission to 0.05 grain per cu ft The plant will have a 328-ft
reinforced concrete chimney. The total estimated cost of the
plant is-t9,826,129.
68-0565
The effects of variations in the composition of refuse on
some incinerator design parameters.
Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft, 20(9):428429, Sept. 1968
Any planning of an efficiently operating incinerator must
take into account the influence of daily, monthly, and annual
fluctuations of the chemical composition of wastes and their
calorific values To determine how much the composition of
the waste may change, and what effects these changes will
have on some of the design parameters, the equation H sub 0
= 141 (%C) +619 (<7rH -^0/8) is used. The values were varied
as follows: H sub O from 2,225 to 4,450 kcal per kg, C from
24 to 40.5 percent, H from 3.5 to 7 5 percent, 0 from 20 to
30 percent, H2 from 30 to 11 percent, noncombustible
material from 22.5 to 11 percent, and the C/H ratio from 24
to 10.8. A diagram plotting the heating value vs. the C/H
ratio shows that increases in the heating value depend on the
increasing contents of tree hydrogen. Moreover, the
combustion products at a capacity of 900 kg per hr were
determined for certain waste compositions, heating-values.
excess air and heat losses. Specific heat and enthalpy are
determined, as well as the amount of water needed to cool
the flue gases to temperatures of 540, 400, 260, and
120C. (Text in German)
sulfates are present in sufficient amounts in all incrustations,
some chloride and sulfate corrosion is unavoidable. From the
extensive literature on corrosion a general pattern of chloride
and sulfate corrosion can be seen. Above 400 C a cyclic
process takes place which initiates temperature-dependent
corrosion. There are three types of this: (1) corrosion in the
gaseous state; (2) corrosion due to the formation of iron
chloride and alkaline iron sulfate; and (3) corrosion due to
the decomposition of iron chloride and alkaline iron sulfate.
The latter two take place in the molten slag phase. No high
temperature corrosion occurs in the incinerator of the BASF
because the pipe temperatures are never above 400 C. A
graph plots the dependence of corrosion rate on pipe
temperature. (Text in German)
68-0567
F'mk, F. and M. B. Ussar. Domestic refuse as fuel. Verein
Deutscher Ingemeure Zeitschrift, 110(25): 1,110, Sept. 1968.
The amount, the composition, and the characteristics of
domestic refuse change with the season. During the winter
months, the amount of refuse lies about 10 to 25 percent
below normal. The volume of the refuse fluctuates by 15
percent around the mean annual value. Areas attractive to
tourists show less fluctuation. As far as the composition of
the waste is concerned, the sociological structure of the
population is of importance. Districts in which coal-heated
stoves and ovens are still in use have a high amount of ash in
the refuse during the winter months. But the difference
between the winter and summer refuse became less apparent
over the last ten years. Domestic refuse shows a characteristic
combustion behavior: it ignites rapidly but burns slowly.
Domestic refuse is now burned in incinerators which have
grates Rotating vortex incineration, which proved to be
suited to industrial wastes, is rarely employed, although it
would be suited for this purpose as well. Any economic
calculations must take into account the costs for the
transport of the refuse to the incinerator. The larger the
incinerator and the larger the area it serves, the more efficient
its operation can be. With the present development of
incineration technique, the optimum capacity of incinerators
lies between 300 and 600 tons per day. (Text in German)
68-0566
Fassler, K., H. Seib, and H. Spahn. Corrosion in refuse
incineration plants. Mitteilungen der Veremigung der
Grosskessel-Besitzer, 48(2): 126-139, Apr. 1968.
The condition of the waste heat boiler in the incinerator for
the Badische Amlin-& Soda-Fabrik (BASF) after 42,000
operating hr is described. Despite a sometimes high hydrogen
chloride content in the waste gases, no abnormal corrosion
was seen in the waste gas tubes (maximum temperature in the
tubes 350 C). Severe corrosion had occurred, however, on the
rear walls of the tubes, between the furnace and the boiler
where incrustation was prevented by the turbulence of the
waste gas flow. To prevent this corrosion, flat iron straps
were soldered to the rear wall of the tubes. This increased the
life of the rear wall threefold. Using chemical analysis, and
X-ray fluorescent and X-ray fine structure analysis, the tube
incrustations at various points in the waste heat boiler were
studied. The incrustations of the economizer were also
analyzed with an electronic microprobe. The results of all
these tests are given. They showed that since chlorides and
68-0568
Franzke, H. H. The designing of incinerators - illustrated by
an example of a waste incineration-remote heating plant.
Elektrizitaetswirtschaft, 67(18):521-527, Aug. 1 968.
The planning and designing of incinerators is illustrated by
the example of the City of Iserloh in West Germany. First, all
possible methods of waste disposal were scanned for their
usefulness. Dumping was not feasible because no dump sites
were available in the area. The idea of composting had to be
abandoned because there was no market for the compost.
Therefore, it was decided that the wastes should be
incinerated. It was found that it was economical to use the
waste heat not only for the generation of electricity, but also
for the remote supply of heat. The design of the incinerator
was mainly determined by the fact that a waste accumulation
of 70,000 tons per year was to be expected with the heating
value lying between 800 to 2,000 kcal per kg. Three furnaces
equipped with traveling grates, each with a capacity of 8 tons
per hr, and an auxiliary oil burner, were decided on. Next the
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0565-0573
size of the storage bunker was determined. A sure heat
output of 10 Geal per hr can be expected from these waste
incinerators. Since the remote heat supply plant requires 60
Gcal per hr, it was decided that oil should be used for heating
these boilers. During the summertime, the heat cannot be
fully used by the remote heat supply plant and has to be
conducted off into the atmosphere. Two air condensers serve
for this purpose. In eonelusion, details ot the construction of
the plant are discussed. (Text in German)
68-0569
Goepfert, J., and H. Rcimer. The incinerator in Frankfurt am
Mam. Energie, 20(7/8).191-206, July-Aug. 1968.
Since the City of Frankfurt am Main no longer has enough
waste disposal sites, it has had to turn to incineration. The
plant with a capacity of 1,000 tons per day, which has
already been designed and erected, is coupled to a remote
heat supply piant. In the first full year ot operation, a total
of 242,000 tons of waste were incinerated by the two
furnaces. Two other furnaces are just now (1967) beginning
operation. Of the 288,000 tons of steam, 249,000 tons were
delivered to the remote heat supply plant. The storage
bunker of this new incinerator can hold 8,600 cu m of waste
(dimensions 72 by 14 by 8.50 m). Sixteen trucks can empty
their load simultaneously into the bunker. Two cranes bring
the waste to the incinerators. Each has a grab capacity of 3
cu m. Of the four Von Roll furnaces, each has a maximum
capacity of 15 tons per hr. Three furnaces can be operated
simultaneously; the fourth furnace is used as a standby. The
waste falls thiough a vertical, cooled chute onto the grate. A
shaker loader automatically portions out the loads which
charge the furnace. Primary air is drawn in from the storage
bunker. Secondary air is blown m above the grate to avoid
low oxygen zones. The flue gases are drawn in by an exhaust
tan and cleaned in an electrostatic precipitator. Part of the
cleaned gas is returned to the boiler: the fly ash is discharged
into a water-filled basin. The slag is treated for further use in
a scrap packaging plant which is also attached to the
incinerator. The power supply of 6.0 kV comes trom the
neighboring remote heat supply plant Old oil can also be
incinerated by this plant at a rate of 10 tons per 24 hr
(Text m German)
68-0570
Gozo, L Incineration of organic material containing mud in a
tluidized bed oven. Ingegneria Sanitaria, 16(4):294-299,
July-Aug. 1968.
The overall incineration process consists of four principal
steps: removal of inorganic components; dehydration of the
mud; incineration under fluidized conditions; and smoke
treatment. Each step, however, admits of considerable
variation. One of the contaminants, sand, is removed by
centnfugation. In addition thickeners can be used to provide
a more homogeneous mixture before it is dehydrated.
Vacuum filtration with or without chemical additives
(ferrous sulfate, lime) or a stainless steel separator can be
used to dehydrate the material to about 30 percent solids.
During incineration, naptha and methane may be added,
should this be required for satisfactory combustion. The mud
is completely burned within 1 or 2 minutes. Fluidization
decreases the amount of excess air from 20 to 40 percent and
that reduces mechanical maintenance of the equipment. The
smoke treatment, disintegration, and cooling of ash and
smoke, are performed under standard conditions.
(Text in Italian)
68-0571
Heenan-Nichols continuous grate incinerator at Birmingham.
Public Cleansing, 58(2):76-84, Feb 1968.
A pilot plant utilizing the Heenan-Nichols continuous grate
was built at Birmingham to determine the problems and
difficulties associated with the design before contracting for a
complete plant. The pilot plant operation from July, 1966 to
November, 1967 is detailed, including problems encountered
and how these were resolved. When the grates are preset
according to the season and the nature of the domestic
rubbish, the system works with extreme smoothness, giving
satisfactory residue. The dust burden, measured at the
chimney base, and measured in grains per cu ft at STP, and
with the spray equipment operating, was 0.615 and 0.636.
Two full-scale incinerators are to be built utilizing the
information derived from the tests.
68-0572
Heiny, B. Incinerator for solid and liquid wastes.
Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft, 20(5):212-214, May 1968.
The incinerator plant of the Volkswagen factory in
Wolfsburg, Germany, is described. Each day, the incinerator
has to eliminate 140 cu m solid wastes, 2 cu m waste oil and
oil sludge, and 4 cu m wax. It operated originally according
to the flame chamber melting method developed by
Wotschke (cf. Brenstoff-Waerme-Kraft, 16(8):383-391), but
when too many problems arose, it \\as extensively modified
and another method of incineration was chosen. A new
incinerator was built. The modified plant consists of two
parts: the incinerator with the waste storage bunker, and the
heat utilization plant. The incinerator is loaded with the aid
of a crane. Two rotating rollers transport the waste into the
interior of the furnace. An oil burner is used to ignite the
waste. The bottom of the combustion chamber rotates. The
liquid slag flows into the post-combustion chamber. Here the
incineration is completed. The waste oil and the sludges reach
this chamber via two Ghelfi burners. The waste gasses go to
the boiler (capacity 12 Gcal per hr). With the heat gained
here, about 15 percent of the entire heat requirements of the
Volkswagen factory are covered. The incinerator has a
capacity of about 3 tons per hr. The heat price of 17 DM per
Gcal, which is necessary to cover all operating costs including
amortization and insurance is comparable with the heat price
of conventional heat plants. Several illustrations of the plant
are given. (Text in German)
68-0573
Herrmann, L. Incineration of chemical refuse m cooled
muffle and rotating drum furnaces. Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft,
20(9):423-426, Sept. 1968.
The muffle furnace, which was first used for the incineration
of chemical refuse, had no cooling system. High repair costs
and long periods ot inoperation, however, made the
installation of a cooling system necessary. The entire furnace
wall was removed, and the sheet steel casing was lined with a
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Incineration-Europe
pipe system for natural water circulation. The space of 200
mm between pipes and casing was stuffed with glass wool.
The pipes terminate on the top and at the bottom in a
ting-shaped water collector. The pipe system is designed for a
maximum capacity of 5 tons per hr saturated steam at 15
atm. The heating surface is about 90 sq m, the volume of the
combustion chamber of the muffle is about 20 cu m. Liquid
wastes are injected by burners of the simplest construction.
An additional burner serves for heating up the muffle
furnace. The ash can only be removed when the muffle is at a
standstill. Because of the satisfactory experience with the
waste cooled muffle furnace, a rotating drum furnace with a
LaMont pipe system was constructed next for the
incineration of residues from chemical plants. The plant has
been designed for a capacity of 800 kg per hr of liquid refuse
and 1,000 kg per hr of solid refuse. The steam which is
produced amounts to 2.3 tons per hr at 22 atm. The plant
has a concrete storage bunker with a volume of about 8.5 cu
m. The flue gases are cooled to about 400 C and cleaned by
cyclones. (Text in German)
68-0574
Hille, I1'. Incineration of residues from refuse composting in a
rotating drum furnace Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft,
20(9):419-423,Sept. 1968.
The rotating drum furnace for incinerating residues from the
composting of refuse in Landau, PfaU, Germany is described.
The furnace has actually two drums, one for drying, and one
for the incineration process. Both drums have a separate
drive. The drum for drying the composting residues is
generally operated with a speed of about 2 rpm, the
combustion drum with 0.2 rpm. The two drums can be either
counfer-rotated, or rotated in the same direction. A crane
loads the composting residues into the drying drum. The
residues from the incineration are cooled, and then
discharged in the dry state. A wet cyclone is used for cleaning
the flue gases, which are cooled to the point of condensation
by injecting water. Occasionally, accumulating sludges are
mixed with the composting residues and incinerated. Waste
oil is injected into the combustion chamber via special
burners. Four burners are installed in the furnace, one with a
capacity of 50 to U)0 kg per hr at the afterburning chamber.
The plant in Landau has been in operation for 3,000
operating hr and so far has operated satisfactorily. The plant
operates with a capacity of 15 to 20 tons per hr. Hardly any
repair work had to be performed. The countercurrent
principle which is employed, and which requires a drying
drum of heal resistant steel, is, however, only well suited for
the incineration of refuse with a relatively low heating value
and a high water content. It has been found that refuse with
a lower heating \alue of about 2,200 kcal per kg can be
incinerated. Illustrations of the plant and the equipment are
given. (Text in Geiman)
680575
Hirayama, N., K. Hishida, S. Konno, and T. Ohira. Research
on lefuse incinerators from the viewpoint of smoke
properties. Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Municipal
engineers, ( I (47):902-92), Oct. 1968.
The test results of comprehensive research carried out by the
Department of Public Nuisance, Tokyo, concerning the
influence of the type and design of incinerators, operating
conditions, and refuse properties on pollution due to smoke
and ash, provide information for the improvement of the
present policy of incinerator design and maintenance. Fifteen
plants in the Tokyo area were selected for measurements, and
the results of 10 typical incinerators are listed. The upper
limit of the furnace outlet temperature, which is 950 C at
present, was found to be slightly too high, considering the
content of nitrogen oxides discharged from the furnace. It
was difficult to decrease the content of organic acids, even
through high temperature incineration. Satisfactory dust or
fly ash collecting performance is illustrated for electric filters
and the Doil scrubber. Problems for future study include.
reexamination of test methods; relation of gas property and
furnace type; special treatment of plastics; and improvement
of batch combustion type incinerators.
68-0576
Hirsch, M. Corrosion of the heating surfaces on the flue gas
side due to formation of iron chloride in waste incinerators.
Energie, 20(2).32-35, Feb. 1968.
The chlorine liberated in the incineration of PVC (polyvinyl
chloride) may be present in the flue gas either as elementary
chlorine, or as hydrogen chloride. The fractions of chloride
and hydrogen chloride depend on the partial pressures of the
water and oxygen that is present. Since computations assume
a moisture content of 30 percent by volume. The tests used
in this report began with three types of wastes which
contained 0.5, 5.0, and 25 g chlorine per kg waste.
Furthermore, oxygen concentrations of 9.0, 1.0, 0.1, and
0.01 percent by volume in the flue gas were used. Results
show that above 300 C, chlorine is present in the flue gas in
form of hydrogen chloride. Chlorine forms volatile metal
chlorides with various metals. In the waste incinerator, it may
react with the iron in the heat exchanger material to form
ferrous or ferric chloride. At the concentrations and
temperatures prevailing in combustion chambers in which
corrosions were observed, ferrous chloride is preponderantly
present. A computation of the partial pressure of ferrous,
chloride shows that in an oxidizing atmosphere, no
remarkable corrosion is to be expected. This situation
changes when carbon or carbon monoxide is present. In
waste incineration, an oxygen deficiency may develop due to
the heterogeneous material even when the process takes place
with a considerable air surplus. As a consequence, excessive
amounts of carbon monoxide form in the flue gas, and
ferrous chloride corrosion of the heating surface becomes
feasible. (Text in German)
68-0577
The importance of small incinerators.
Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft, 20(9):428, Sept. 1968.
A report on the meeting of the Association of Municipal
Motor Vehicle and Street Cleansing Departments which was
held between June 25 and 30, 1968 in Saarbruecken, West
Germany, is given. The highlight of the meeting was a paper
presented by W. Kaupert, 'Selected Examples of New
Composting and Incineration Plants.' The paper was mainly
concerned with small incinerators, which perform an
important task, but which are always neglected in discussions
or descriptions of incinerators. Special mention was made of
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0574-0582
(1) a muffle furnace tor incinerating about 1.5 tons per hr
(about 6 Gcal per hr) ot waste oil, solvents and plastic
material, (2) an improved version of the rotary cone furnace
for 1 ton per hr of domestic and industrial refuse, (3) a
Wiedermann rotating drum furnace which has a capacity ot
up to 5 tons per hr of refuse. For small incinerators, refuse
delivered by trucks is emptied onto a platform from which it
goes directly to the incinerator Small incinerators are mostly
privately owned and have so far been able to compete with
municipal incinerators. The small incinerators, which are
presently in operation, incinerate the refuse of only 5 percent
of the population. Municipalities with a population of 50,000
or less possess no incinerator, and are forced to dump refuse.
(Text in German)
68-0578
Incinerator for wet wastes Staedtehygiene, 23(7)'508. July
1968.
A new incinerator which burns wet vegetable and fish wastes
without developing smoke or odors will be marketed this
summer by the Japanese company Matsushite Electric
Industrial Co., Tokyo. The incinerator is equipped with a 50
liter combustion chamber for normal wastes and with a 3
bier chamber for wet kitchen wastes The incinerator is
automatically ignited by two batteries. (Text in German)
68-0579
Incinerator plant. Wasser, Luft und Betrieb, 12(10):646, Oct.
1968.
An incinerator for moist and highly contaminated refuse was
on display at the Hannover fair. It has a capacity of 250 liter
per hr or 40 kg per hr referred to a bulk weight of about 150
kg per cu m. An additional oil or gas heater can be installed. The
plant was equipped with an afterburning chamber where the
flue gases are further heated up and burnt out completely by
adding fresh air. A multicyclone system cleans them before
they escape into the open air. (Text in German)
680580
Incinerator prevents air pollution. Materials Reclamation
Weekly, 11 2(25)-16, June 22, 1968.
The Brule incinerator, of American origin, is claimed by the
British manufacturers to burn anything wet or dry, without
smoke, and to be within the limits of the Clean Air Act. The
plant consumes anything that is combustible, and reduces it
by 500 to 1. It can be installed inside or outside a building or
placed as an independent unit. The patented three-chamber,
semiparabolic arch design affords maximum reflection and
heat concentration. The self-supported steel stack has a
refractory lining for cool service and easy maintenance. The
draught action that pulls the fire away from the loading door
insures safety for the operator. There is no need for a water
washing disposal works. Air is cleaned in the second
combustion chamber The rotating gases are scrubbed against
the corners of the square chamber, the particulates falling on
the floor. Gases then enter the up-pass virtually free of
smoke, smell, or particles. The third chamber spins out the
fly ash.
680581
Kaupert, \V. Experiences with construction and operation of
incinerators with heat utilization. Staedtehygiene,
19(8) 153-159, Aug. 1968.
Incineration with heat utih/ation can be quite economical
when the steam or the heat can be sold at reasonable prices,
and when the incinerator is efficiently planned and
constructed for this purpose. It is recommended that the
boilers of an incinerator be connected with those ot an
existing remote heal supply plant to compensate for
fluctuations in the heat output of the incinerator. The
collection of waste must be performed with a view to heat
utilization. Bulky wastes must be collected separately and
crushed before they go to the incinerator. Crushing and
homogenizing of domestic wastes must be discarded for
reasons of economy. Scrap is not separated from the rest of
the wastes because it loosens up the waste on the grate and
permits better access of oxygen. Attention must be paid to
the construction of the combustion chamber. The loading ot
the combustion chamber should not exceed 100,000 kcal per
cu m per hr. The temperature should he between 950 and
1000 C, so that the fly ash cannot melt and deposit on wall
and pipes. The flue gas velocity should not exceed 4 to 5 m
per second to avoid erosion. If a waste heat boiler is installed
to cool down the flue gases to 250 or 300 C, it must be
chosen so that it suits the combustion characteristics of the
waste products. The economy of the incinerator is strongly
influenced by the construction costs, the amount of heat, the
price obtainable for heat, and slag. So far, heat utilization
only covers the current operating costs. The specific costs per
ton of waste are lower, the greater the caloric value.
(Text in German)
68-0582
Kaupert, W. Production of gas from waste, experiences with
the refuse gas plant in the Danish city of Koldmg.
Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft, 20(9:433-435, Sept. 1968.
The Danish city of Kolding erected a gas plant which uses
refuse instead of coal m the production of gas. The plant is
illustrated, and its construction briefly described. The waste
is shredded and stored until a monitor indicates that the level
in the retort has become too low. The retorts are vertical
chambers with a volume of about 4 cu m. Ring canals are
provided for the heating gases which are cooled to 170 C m a
heat exchanger. If oil is used for heating, about 0.1 8 tons per
ton of waste are needed. This makes the operation
independent of variations in the composition of the waste.
Above the heat insulation zone, the mixture of gas and the
condensation heat of the steam are used in a remote heat
supply plant. Wastes which can be used for this purpose are
domestic wastes, industrial refuse, plastic material, sewage
sludge and waste oil. Through extensive experiments, data on
the operation of the plant were obtained and are listed in a
table. The heating value of the waste gas was on the average
3,290 kcal per cu m. The specific density of the gas relative
to air is 0.59. It requires 0.18 kg of oil to produce 0.41 cu m of
gas from 1 kg of waste with a heating value of 1,450 kcal.
From this,700 kcal are obtained for the remote heating plant.
A cost estimate for such a plant is given, based on a city of
110,000 inhabitants. (Text in German)
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Incineration-Europe
68-0583
Kaupert, W. A waste composting/incineration plant in
Mittelwallis, Switzerland. Staedtehygiene, 19(6): 1 20-12 1,
June 1968.
A central waste composting and incineration plant, to
provide for alternate burning or composting according to
need, is being planned for Sittcn-Mittelwallis, Switzerland.
The composting/incineration plant will serve all the 51
municipalities (population: 80,000) in the Mittlewalhs valley
between Leuk and Fully. The larger industries and abattoirs,
however, will have to provide their own waste disposal The
plant will treat 70 percent of the domestic wastes and only
30 percent of the industrial wastes. A total of 20,000 tons
per year of wastes will be processed by 1970. Some wastes
will be eliminated by incineration. The accumulated sewage
sludge will be composted, and the compost not sold will be
incinerated. The incinerator has a capacity of 3 tons per hr or
18,700 tons per year, i.e. 79 percent of the waste anticipated
by 1990. The calorific value of the waste is believed to be
between 900 and 2,500 kcal per kg. A combination
composting and incinerating plant was found to be the best
solution with the least cost for this area. Construction costs
are estimated to be 5.6 million Sw Fr. Processing costs will be
28.80 Sw IT per ton. Transportation costs will be 19.15 Sw Fr
per ton. No heat utilization has been planned since it would
not be economical for a plant of this size. (Text in German)
68-0584
Kempa, I1 Processes ot total elimination of sewage sludge.
III. Wet combustion of sewage sludge Gaz, Woda I 'lechnikc
Sanitarna, 42(4)'125-1 28, Apr. 1968.
The Znninermann wet combustion process is described I his
method finds growing application, especiallj in large sew .me
purification plants. An explanation is given botli of the
theory and industrial application of this method. In addition,
variation of the wet combustion process, the Atomic
Suspension Technique (AST), which is based on the
oxidation of organic substances at high temperatures (760 C),
but low pressures (0.14 aim) is also piesented. The outlet
gases from the reactor have a temperature of about 750 ( ,
and they are utilized either as a source of energy 01 as a
means to compact waste deposits. Although this piocess
shows similar advantages to the Zimmermann method, it has
not been utili/.ed very often because of the following reasons
conosion ol the icactor interior, scaling, clogging of the
spray nozzle, and uneven operation. Cost data are lacking for
the AST method, but it is generally stated thai these costs
exceed those of the Zimmermann method. (Text in Polish)
680585
Kuhlmann, A. Cities and municipalities cannot shun the
necessity of incinerating waste. Brennstoff-Waerme-Kratt,
20(9)-405408, Sept. 1968
In the 24 years between 1952 and 1976, the accumulation of
domestic \vaste will most likely increase from 1 15 to 340 kg
per inhabitant, a threefold increase. The heating value, too,
has a tendency to rise. Curves illustrate these data. Apart
from a tew exceptions, waste is mostly dumped outside cities
and municipalities. The number ol dump sites is estimated to
be about 30,000 m the I ederal Republic ot Geimany. It is
often agreed that municipal incinerators cost too much, are
too large, and can easily be replaced by dumping. However,
the municipalities have not yet recognized the importance of
sanitary disposal. Incineration of domestic refuse as well as of
industrial waste poses considerable technical problems, but
they are all solvable now. The problem of corrosion has to be
dealt with, particularly when steam is produced in the plant.
To compensate for fluctuations in the composition and
amount of waste, it is suggested that heat be supplied to a
nearby remote heat supply plant. To avoid incrustation of
grates, the installation ot a modern roller traveling giate, or
ot a rotating drum combustion chamber, is recommended.
F'or small plants, the specific investment amounts to 240 to
250 DM per ton of waste per year. With large plants, the
costs run to 90 to 100 DM per ton per year. This price does
not include the costs for land and the flue gas cleaning
equipment. The dumping of waste into sanitary landfills costs
about 5 DM per ton without transportation costs. (Text in
German)
68-0586
Law, D K. Direct incineration-aesthetic design of plant.
Public Cleansing, 58(1 2):647-655, Dec. 1968.
The various parts of an incinerator installation are considered
from the viewpoint of lighting and cleanliness. It is observed
that the layout ol the necessary equipment may be varied
considerably to give a building which is not only pleasing but
which meets all the luntional requirements of the process In
general, however, incinerators which are required to consume
municipal refuse need special design considerations because
ol the variability of the wastes. In addition, high stacks and
relatively compact facilities are usually requued
68-0587
L e n e1, K. R . Incinerators in F ng I a nd.
Brennstotf-Waerme-Kraft, 20(9):426-427, Sept. 1968.
Although incinerators were constructed in 1'ngland before
the turn of the century, this type ot waste elimination was
rare until recently I he reason for this was the lack ol
technical knowledge on the combustion of refuse. The first
modern incinerator was built in 1966 in Derby, a city with a
population of 130.000. The plant operates in two shifts and
bums about 210 tons per day Animal carcasses and bulky
wastes are burned m a separate combustion chamber winch is
connected to the main combustion chamber. The incinerator
is equipped with two traveling grates. The ash is discharged
via a belt which runs through water. International
Combustion Ltd. which built the plant, guarantees that the
residues will not contain more than 3 percent of combustible
material. A second plant will begin operation at the beginning
ol 1969 It will burn a great part ot the refuse accumulating
in London. It is designed for a capacity of 1,333 tons per
day 'I he waste will be delivered daily by up to 700 waste
collecting trucks. The plant will have five drum boilers for 39
tons per hr ol steam, al 44 atm and 455 C. One of the five
boilers will serve as a stand-by boiler. 1 he steam will be used
to geneiate electricity. Depending on the heating value of the
refuse, between 27 and 50 MW can be produced. 'I he plan
calls tor grates with seven lollers which can be ad|usted
individually between 0.5 and 5 revolutions pel In.
Illustrations of both plants are given. (Text in German)
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0583-0592
68-0588
Luscher, K. H. The incinerator plant in Munich.
Elektnzitaetswirtschaft, 67(18):538-542, Aug. 1968.
The electric company of Munich is erecting incinerators in
the north and south of the city. They plan to use the waste
heat for the generation of electricity and tor the remote
supply of heat. The incinerator plant is north of Munich and
has storage bunkers with a total capacity of 9,000 cu m. The
coal heated boilers are. in this case, separately set up. But the
successful operation ot this first stage of the plant led to the
decision to no longer separate the furnace units at the second
stage. The incinerator plant which is being erected in the
south of Munich consists of the \vaste incinerator and ot a
main furnace which is operated with natural gas. The t\\o
units were separately erected because results in the northern
plant were not yet known. The incinerator serves as a
preheater for the main furnace. Repair work can be
performed at each furnace without interrupting the operation
of the other. After about 3,500 operating hours, the first
corrosion problems were encountered in the plant in Munich
north. There was a leak in the pipe system of the vapon/er of
the incinerator. The cotrosion attacks were tound to be
severest in the center of the pipes, but the corners were not
attacked at all. About 1 00 m of pipes had to be replaced. The
second stage of tins incinerator plant with the combined
waste/coal furnace showed no corrosion whatsoever after
10.000 operating hr. But here erosion was found m the area
of the soot blowers. Also damaged by erosion were the air
preheating pipes. (Text in German)
680589
Maikranz, I . Incineration of refuse and heat recovery
Experience with multi-fuel firings. Mitteilungen der
Veremigung der Grosskessel-Besitzer, 48(2). 111-1 1 8, Apr.
1968.
The three different types of waste incinerator plants in
Munich are compared. The incinerators all possess the same
Martin grate type for \\aste incineration. The two boilers (la
and Ib) of plant I located in the north of Munich can be
heated either with coal alone, or with coal (60 peicent) and
waste (40 percent), or \\ith waste alone at a lower steam
pressure and temperature, without using the steam for the
generation of electrical energy. The boilers have two separate
combustion chambers, one for coal dust and one tor waste.
The waste is incinerated on a Martin grate at a rate of 25 tons
per hr. The steam production of each boiler is 10(1 tons per
hr at 540 C and 186 atm. After 3,500 operating hr (70.700
tons of waste), boiler la had the first leak in its piping due to
cortosion. An investigation showed that the corrosive attack
was severest m the middle of the walls of the combustion
chamber and tapered off towards the end. The corners were
not attacked at all. About 100 m of piping had to be replaced
in each of the boilers. Both boilers showed erosions. The
severest attack was observed in boiler Ib after 5,600
opeiating hr. The causes for the erosion are briefly discussed.
Plant II has one common combustion chambei for coal dust
and waste. It has a depth ot 8.5 m, a width of 114m and a
height of 36.5 m. The plant has now been m operation for
7,290 hr without any evidence of corrosion or erosion. The
installation of soot removers, however, caused some
difficulties. Plants IV and V in the south of Munich are still
under construction. They are pattetned after plant I with two
separate combustion chambers, since the generation oi
energy is of primary importance The waste heat boilei will
serve as economizer for the mam boiler. (Text in German)
68-0590
Manchester. H. Better ways to deal with waste Reader's
Digest, 92(551): 39-40, 42. 46, Mar. 1968
United Stales sanitation expeits are learning trom European
communities about sate and inoffensive lefuse disposal.
Rosenheim, Germany, operates an incinerator which daily
converts 75 tons of refuse into much-needed steam heat and
electric power. Clamshell 'grabbers' load trasli into the plant's
concrete bins, and shaker or magnetic belts icimne metal
scrap after the burning process. The hybrid power plant in
Munich burns both trash and coal, handling 45.000 tons of
refuse a month. Like the Rosenheim mcmeraloi, Munich's
plant opeiatmg costs are covered by sales of steam and
power, garbage collection fees, and sales ot recoveted snap
Plants in Essen, Rotterdam, Milan, and Pans also burn trash
and sewage to make electric powei At Koldmg. Denmaik. 18
tons of refuse per day are heated to make Lommeicul gas foi
domestic use. Schwemfurt, Germany, employs the 'Brikollare
process' to compress sewage and letuse into bricks ot sterile.
inoffensive compost. Wiesbaden has tour. 120-tt high.
concrete towers with power-driven hammers that reduce
waste volume by one-half The tirst modern European-type
incinerator in this country was at a Norfolk, Vnginia. air
base. Plans die being drawn tor a similar but largei plant lor
Chicago New techniques currently being explored with I'.S.
Public Health Service grants include refuse disposal pipelines
and an 'incinerator ship.'
68-0591
The Martin Stoker. Public Cleansing. 58(2) 56-64, Leb
1968.
The Martin stoker was developed in Germany about 40 >e..is
ago. to burn low-grade fuels such as mdustnul wastes and
slurries. This is accomplished on the Martin stoker by the
adoption of the counterflow principle, that is. In causing
materials to flow in opposite directions so that particles
[lowing down the grate come into contact with particles
(lowing up the grate. This is achieved by pushing hot refuse
up the grate with the reciprocating uphill-pushing grate bars.
and letting gravity move cold refuse down the grate. This
reveise action not only levels out the heat output over the
grate regardless of the type of fuel being fed, but as each
grate bar is moving at the same speed, an actual levelling ot
the tuel bed results. The stoker and auxihaty equipment are
illustrated
68-0592
McLean. N. Gas cleaning plant and its application to refuse
disposal. Public Cleansing. 58(3)'106-1 13, Mar. 1968
The regulations in Gieat Britain covering atmospheiiL
pollution are discussed with regard to municipal incineration.
The mam factors influencing the generation of dust in
continuous stoker incinerators are discussed. The design of
the turnace, fire-bed draught, and on-load cleaning gear are
all considered.
1 17
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Incineration-Europe
68-0593
Meeting in Hamburg to discuss the incineration of \vaste.
Staedtehygiene, 19(4)'79-82, Apr. 1968.
The Veremigung der Grosskesselbesitzer (Association of
Boiler Owners) held a meeting on February 2, 1968 in
Hamburg to discuss problems of waste incineration The
present state of waste incineration was described by 1 .
Nowak. Only 8 percent of" waste is properly eliminated; 2
percent by incineration, and 6 percent either by dumping in
sanitary landfills or composting. The remaining 92 percent is
dumped. The waste \\hich is incinerated vanes in
composition. Therefore, storage (not more than a week,
however) before incineration is of advantage because it has an
homogenizing effect. Crushing and mixing is also of
advantage. Waste contains on the average 4 percent scrap, 1.5
percent of this is incinerated with the waste; 2.5 percent is
sorted out and reused. The addition of sludge to the waste
does not have a negative effect on incineration, and up to 40
percent by weight of sludge can be added. Also up to 50
percent of the refuse can be discarded tires. In a second
report, by A. Riedhnger, it was stressed that the type of
incinerator chosen depends on the composition of the waste.
Industrial waste very often is quite different from domestic
waste. The construction of an incinerator plant takes about 3
years. The incineration of waste oil is no problem but
usually, despite this, 80 to 90 percent of all waste oil is still
dumped. Glass splinters in waste have no ill effects on the
sludge because they improve the sinter ability. In two other
reports, the incineration plants of the Oty of Munich and of
the Badische Anilin-& Soda-Fabrik were described. In a report
on the hygiene aspect of waste incineration, it was stressed
how hazardous the work in an incinerator plant is. The
personnel is subjected to great heat, noise, and dust. The dust
from the waste contains numerous bacteria. (Text in German)
68-0594
Meier zu Koecker, H., R. Huening, and K. Wissel. The How
behavior of combustible coal sludges mixed with oil. Chemie
Ingemeur Technik, 40(9/10):478-482. May 1968.
Incineration experiments with mechanically dried coal
sludges mixed with oil brought excellent results. The mixture
of coal, water, and oil can be quite economically eliminated
without leaving any residues. No special difficulties were
encountered. A certain limit is imposed on the composition
of the three-substance mixture due to its flow behavior. The
results of viscosity and stability measurements are briefly
reviewed and plotted in triangular coordinates where the
curves of equal fluidity are also indicated. For a certain type
of coal and grain-size distribution, the fluidity curves are
determined by the characteristics of the fuel oil, its initial
viscosity, and its polarity. The characteristics of the types of
coal and fuel oils used in the experiment are listed in tables.
A rotation viscosimeter was used to conduct the experiments.
The dependence of the viscosity on the water and coal
contents of the mixture was investigated with four different
types of coal and two fuel oils. Graphs are used to illustrate
the results. Generally it can be said that the viscosity
increases with increasing coal content. With increasing water
content, i.e. with decreasing oil content, the viscosity also
increases. Experiments investigating the dependence of the
viscosity of the mixture on the amount and type of fuel oil
showed that the use of coal tar oils is limited because the
mixture swells too much. They can only be used when the
amount of sludge in the mixture does not exceed 50 percent.
The viscosities of mixtures with equal amounts of oil and
water vs. the coal content are plotted. The curves show that
the viscosity of anthracite sludge lies between those of
gas-coal and fat-coal. It was also found that in all cases the
viscosity is independent of time. (Text in German)
68-0595
Milan trims garbage costs with power generating unit
Electrical World, 170(14):32, Sept. 30. 1968^
By i 975 the City of Milan will be incinerating 2.5 million
tons of refuse and creating 300 million kwh of energy. The
city is currently burning 360 to 540 tons of rubbish per day
in its first plant, providing about one-third of the city's
electric power needs. Garbage, which is collected in
disposable polyethylene sacks, is hauled to the plant by
regular garbage trucks. Overhead cranes scoop 4 to 6 cu yd
each from storage bins, and dump it into two furnaces
(Vollund design) where the rubbish is burned at 1,000 C. No
pretreatment or presorting is necessary and everything,
including metals and glass, is reduced to an ash which has
productive uses. Smoke is filtered through twin electrostatic-
filters to a tall chimney, so that less than 0.004 oz of material
gasses escape into the atmosphere for every cu yd of refuse.
According to estimates, the heat value of rubbish is 2,700
Btu per Ib, and 0.6 Ib of rubbish yields 1 kwh electricity. The
new plant cost $4 8 million, and operating costs run about
SI.50 per ton plus 7 percent amortization over 30 years.
68-0596
More scrap used in British designed furnace. Materials
Reclamation Weekly, 11 3(9):22, Aug. 31, 1968.
Fifty percent more scrap can be used in the electric arc
furnaces, made by GWB Furnaces, one of which has been
installed at Clyde Alloy Steel Company. The furnace has cut
the average melting time from 6 hr to 5 hr and can, if needed,
use 100 percent scrap in a melt. With a capacity of 25 long
tons, the furnace has a 1 2-ft 6-m.-diameter shell and a power
rating of 7.5 MVA.
68-0597
New design furnace burns 10 tons per hour. Surveyor and
Municipal Engineer, 1 32(3973):26-29, July 1968.
A new ±,390,000 refuse incineration plant of 10 tons per hr
capacity, incorporating a high efficiency, fully automatic
Heenan-Nichols continuous rocker grate which accepts
unsorted refuse, is being built at Sutton-Coldfield, England.
Incoming collection vehicles discharge refuse into a reception
bunker with 600-cu-yd capacity. Crane and grabs convey the
material directly to the refuse chute of the incinerator. The
grate is of continuous rocking design and operates
automatically. It takes the form of three inclined banks, each
about 11 by 10 ft. Each bank has eight rows of transverse
tilting sections separated by fixed intermediate bars. The
drive is timed to tilt alternate sections in each bank forward,
so that the burning debris is propelled progressively down the
sloping grate in a series of steps. By this movement the refuse
is agitated and broken up to insure maximum combustion.
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0593-0602
Grate riddhngs and clinker are to be discharged to a
water-tilled trough beneath the grate so that they are
automatically quenched. 1-errous metals are extracted by an
electoinagnet ic separator and delivered to a triple
compiession press. An electrostatic precipitator is claimed to
give a grit collecting efficiency of 94 percent. All combustion
is to be monitored and controlled at a central room to give a
eleai picture ol the furnace interior at all times.
68-0598
A nc\\ ilucction toi retuse incineration. Verem Deutscher
Ingenieure Naehrechten, 22(36)'20, Sept. 4, 1968.
A refuse incinerator with a rated capacity of from 25 to 250
kg per hr has been developed. It is composed of three parts,
an incinerator, a heat exchanger and a dust collector. The
heat can be used for heating workshops or rooms, or it can be
used for preparation ot warm water. The flue gases are cooled
in a heat exchanger. Construction of this type of incinerator
corresponds to VD1 recommendation 2301, and it fulfills the
(lean Air Act of the State of North Rhine, Westphalia The
muneiator is either equipped with an oil burner according to
DIN standard 4787 or a gas burner according to DIN
standard 4788. It the composition of the wastes permits, a
mechanically operated, cone-shaped rotary grate can be
installed. The primary air is bkn\n in by a ventilator. At the
height of the grate and in the afterburning chamber.
secondar> air is injected. Combustion is almost smoke free. A
centrifugal separator is used tor dust separation. The
incinerator can be used for paper, cardboard, wood, textiles,
leather, garbage, hospital waste, and soap pads. Small
amounts of plastic material may be mixed with the refuse.
The incinerator is space saving and simple to operate.
(Text in German)
68-0599
Progress in building GLC's I'dmonton incinerator. Surveyor
and Municipal Kngmeer. 13 1 (3946).35-36, Jan. 20. 1968."
Incinerator construction is underway on a site which was
formerly occupied by sludge drying beds for a sewage
treatment vvoiks. Fight London boroughs will deliver 18,000
tons ot refuse to this plant, whose storage bunkers \vill have a
total capacity of 22,875 cu yd. The heat from the
incmeratois will be used to produce steam which \\ill
eventually provide an output of 27 m\v to be fed into the
Hleetricity Board's system. Residual material will provide a
source of income as the ash and ehnkei will be used for
graded fill, and sent to steel mills as material for blast
furnaces. The incinerator gases will flow into a row of five
electrostatic prectpitators which will contiol the stack
emission to a limit of 0.05 grains per cu ft per minute.
68-0600
Refuse incinerator in Hamburg. Verein Deutscher Ingenieure
Nachnchtcn, 22(24)"5, 7. June 12. 1968
Hamburg lacks disposal sites tor its heterogeneous domestic
and industrial waste, oily sludges, and harbor refuse. Thus, a
new incinerator plant has had to be constructed with two
types ot combustion systems, namely grate and burner. Solid
and half-liquid refuse is burned on the grate, and liquid refuse
is combusted by burners. The waste is shipped in special
containers to the plant. A rotary crane is available for
unloading the refuse-carrying vessels. The bulky waste is
brought in by trucks, crushed and mixed with domestic and
other solid waste material. It is then incinerated on a back
stoking grate. The oil comes in special tank trucks, and is
burned by steam from compressed air atomizers. The section
of the plant for incineration of solid and semiliquid waste has
been designed tor a capacity of 12 tons per hr with a gross
heat production of 23 Gcal per hr. The waste-oil fired
furnace is designed to produce 2.5 Gcal per hr. The
two-belted, back stoking grate with 15 stokers and seven
underfed air zones has an effective combustion surface of
31.2 sq in. At the end of the grate, auxiliary burners are
installed. The solid waste is charged by a chute and a ram.
The pasty retuse is mixed with the solid refuse (this initially
caused considerable trouble). The oil burners are designed for
a throughput of 150 kg per hr. The primary air is drawn in
from the boiler house and generally requires no preheating.
Only when the heating value of the refuse is very low is the
combustion air preheated to 150 C. A Martin slagging facility
is adjacent to the lurnace. Despite the different types of
waste, the entire plant has just one combustion chamber. The
oil burners could be installed on the side walls. The entire
plant is controlled from a command console and has the
capacity of burning 100,000 tons of refuse annually.
(Text in German)
68-0601
Reh. L Incineration in the turbulent layer furnace. Chemie
Ingemeui Techmk, 40(11 )'509-5 15, June 1968.
Solid, liquid, and gaseous material can be incinerated in
turbulent layer furnaces. A table indicates which types of
material can be incinerated by this method, e.g. residues from
roasting coffee, sewage sludges, sulfate waste, lyes, carbon
and oil containing refinery sludges, etc. Successful
incineration in the turbulent layer depends on the
temperature, the gas velocity in the turbulent layer, and the
caloric value of the material to be incinerated. The
temperature which is permissible in the combustion chamber
is also limited At too high a temperature, most solid
materials tend to cluster together or to sinter. Moreover, the
grate and other components suffer. The upper limit is thus
1,200 C. The lower limit is determined by the combustion
process, which slows at approximately 600 C. In addition,
the gas velocity in the turbulent layer is limited by the
kinematic viscosity of the gas, the density of the gas, the
diameter of the particles, the density of the particles, and the
grain size distribution of the particles. Examples'for the
incineration process with solid and liquid material are given,
namely the roasting of sulfidic ores and iron chloride
cracking. The incineration of liquid, solid, and gaseous
substances together is demonstrated with refinery sludges.
(Text in German)
680602
Reifert, L. Projections of an incinerator of solid waste.
Ingegneria Sanitaria, 16(2):207-215, Mar.-Apr. 1968.
The thermic value of various types of waste is calculated. The
theoretical caloric value of a pure carbon compound is 8,100
kcal per kg. compared to an average value of waste of 4,700
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Incineration-Europe
kcal per kg. On the basis of these figures, caloric values of
complex waste can be mathematically determined if the
composition of the refuse is known. The thermic value
depends on water and ash content. A triangular diagram is
plotted representing caloric values of refuse having varying
quantities of ash and water. Air requirements for solid waste
of varying composition are also calculated, and a diagram
represents air necessary for satisfactory combustion. All these
calculations are carried out using average combustion data for
cellulosic compounds, which contain carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen. The volume of gas required for
different types of solid waste and the combustion yield are
all treated mathematically, and diagrams are projected to
determine the volume of smoke. Mathematical evaluations of
combustibility of various types of refuse are given. Unless 25
percent of the solid waste material is combustible, auxiliary
agents are required to increase combustion temperature.
(Text in Italian)
68-0603
Repoif on a meeting in Mannheim on remote heating plants.
Elektnzitaetswirtschaft, 67(4):85-104, Feb. 1968.
A special committee of the German Association of Electrical
Power Plants was host to regular meetings of engineers from
the remote heat supply branch. Remote heating systems have
experienced a great increase, so that a number of new
engineers have had to be hired. To discuss their problems,
they meet annually, visit various plants and hear numerous
papers. A detailed report is given on all the papers and on the
excursion program. All papers dealt with pure remote heating
problems, and none were concerned with the supply of heat
produced by the incineration of waste. However, an
illustration of the power plant at Mannheim-Nord which is
connected with a waste incineration plant is given. The power
plant was visited by the participants, and their main interest
was in the waste incineration plant. The two incinerators
have a capacity of 1 8 tons per hr each at a heat development
of 1,500 kcal per kg. The illustration gives a view of the
entire plant with the oil containers, the cooling towers, waste
water purification plant, the waste incinerator, and the waste
storage building. Most of the plant belongs to the Energie
und Wasserwerke Rhein Neckar AG (Energy and Water Power
Company Rhein Neckar AC), and part of it to the
Erodoel-Raffinene Mannheim GmbH. (Text in German)
68-0604.
Riedlmger, R. A. The incinerator rn Dusseldorf-a joint
undertaking. Elektnzitaetswirtschaft, 67(18):535-538, Aug.
1968.
The incinerator in Duesseldorf has been planned and built in
close cooperation with the industrial enterprises in the area,
especially with the electric company. The construction work
for the plant was begun in 1963. The first stage will have four
furnaces (three tor operation, one for standby), each with a
capacity of 20 tons per hr. This first stage will be capable of
incinerating 236,000 tons of waste per year. In Us final stage,
the plant will be equipped with six furnaces. The technical
data for the first stage are listed in a table. The wastes, which
are delivered by trucks, first go to a storage bunker. The
furnaces are equipped with roller grates. The number of
revolutions of each individual roller can be adjusted, as can
be the amount of air blown in. The ash falls from the last
roller into a water bath, is cooled, and then goes to the ash
treatment plant. The flue gases are cleaned with electrofilters.
A total of 62 employees is needed to run the plant. Half of
them are in charge of maintenance, which means that they
are only part-time employees. The rest of the time they work
with the electric company. Since evaporating water is the
most effective means of cooling the flue gases so that they
can be cleaned by the filters, steam becomes available. A
700-m pipeline brings the steam to the nearby electric power
plant. Several agreements have been worked out with other
industrial enterprises in the area in order to have constant
consumers for the ash, slag, and scrap which accumulate in
the plant (Text in German)
68-0605
Rotta, G. The incineration plant of Issy-Les-Moulmeaux.
Ingegnma Sanitaria, 16(5):365-369, Sept.-Oct. 1968.
This plant, which was in full operation in 1965, has reception
and feed mechanisms designed in accordance with its site.
Due to the proximity of the Seine and the presence of
water-bearing strata, the deep ditches had to be avoided. The
incinerating section of the waste disposal plant consists of
four Martin furnaces. The boilers are based on the principle
of natural circulation. Each furnace-boiler group is provided
with auxiliary equipment necessary for startup and other
tasks. To attain the most economic steam utilization, the
following scheme was devised. All steam produced would
pass through a group of turbo-alternators working at
counterpressure. Once discharged, part of the steam would be
used to heat the feed boiler water and another part would be
diverted to heat urban housing. In 1965, in spite of its
startup difficulties, the plant burned 362,000 tons of refuse.
The thermic yield, guaranteed to be 8 percent, exceeded this
figure. The total loss in calories for incombustible materials
in the slag was approximately 2 percent. In 1966, 482,000
tons of waste were incinerated. Electrical energy was
produced from 91 percent of the steam, which has an average
of 76.3 kw.-hr. per ton. Of this, 39 kw.-hr. per ton were used
internally in the plant, and 37.3 kw-hr. per ton were sold
(Text in Italian)
68-0606
Rueb, F. Waste incinerators with heat utilization. Wasser Luft
und Betrieb, 12(6):365-369, June 1968.
Various types of waste incinerators with heat utilization are
described and illustrated. For extremely combustible waste
such as paper, wood, cardboard, etc., which accumulates in
hospitals and department stores and which can be burnt on
the spot, small incinerators with heat utilization devices can
be used. They have a capacity of 50 to 200 kg per hr with a"
heat output of 1 00,000 to 500,000 kcal per hr. An oil heater
boiler with a water-cooled, oblique grate for wood chips,
packing material, plastic material, and garbage has been
developed. The boiler has a heat capacity of 3.25 Gcal per hr,
and produces about 5 8 tons of steam at a pressure of 16 atm
and a saturated steam temperature of 203 C. If the boiler is
heated with waste material only, its capacity drops to 70
percent of the value given above. Industrial wastes in liquid
form or which become liquid at the beginning of incineration
are burned in a rotating tube furnace. Solid wastes can be
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0603-0611
burned along with the liquid waste. The heat of the waste
gases from the furnace is used for the production of steam.
For the incineration of bulky wastes as well as fine-grained
wastes v\\th low calorific value and industrial wastes, an
incinerator with a fully mechanical, counterthrust, cascade
grate is used. Additional oil and gas burners are also used.
The waste incinerator 'System Martin' has a mechanical,
oblique grate which transports the lower layer of the glowing
waste back to the entrance where the fresh waste falls on it,
and is dried and ignited from below. The traveling grate
incinerator is another type which can be used for the
generation of steam. Large waste incinerators are mostly
designed for heat utilization. The incinerator plants of the
City of Bad Godersberg, of Berhn-Ruhleben (the world's
largest incinerator plant with heat utilization) and of the
Stadtwerke Hagen, are briefly described. (Text in German)
68-0607
Ruggeri, G. Incinerating plant for solid waste of the City of
Geneva Ingegneria Sanitaria, 16(6):445-452, Nov.-Dec.
1968.
The incinerator for solid waste in Geneva is one of the most
modern and economical plants for waste disposal. It includes
an adminstratwe unit, a central unit which houses an
automatic loading and unloading facility, and a main
incinerating plant. The plant consists of two furnaces, each
having a daily capacity of 200 tons. A relatively small ditch is
used for waste received from the neighborhood. Domestic
waste from the city is received by the river. The barges are
directed toward a channel from which they are dragged out
of the water for unloading by means of a winch. The key to
the waste disposal system is this shuttle, river transportation.
The fleet consists of one motorboat and four barges. A daily
capacity of 480 tons can be attained, corresponding to a
volume of 2,400 cu m The cost of transporting waste from
the collection centers to the plant amounts to 1 million Swiss
francs per km per year. In comparison, cost for fluvial
transportation amounts to approximately 250,000 Swiss
francs without the necessary fleet and discharge equipment.
A table indicates that from 1975 on, river transportation will
be more economical than road transportation. (Text in Italian)
68-0609
Short, W. Recovery of heat from refuse incineration Public
Cleansing. 58(9):491-502. Sept. 1968.
Every incinerator produces the equivalent heat of large
tonnages of coal or oil. This heat is being thrown away while
searches are increasing for fuels for heating purposes The
design of a heat recovery unit for an incinerator necessitates
changes in the design of the furnace. Close attention must be
paid to the operating temperatures and to the corrosive
nature of the gases produced by the refuse. Design of such a
unit is discussed. Diagrams indicating the probable boiler
efficiencies to be obtained at different loads and calorific
values, and estimated steam production from various loads of
refuse are given. Refractory-wall incinerator plant versus
waterwall generating incinerator plant figures are given. Use
of the heat is sometimes difficult due to costs of distribution.
The best possible use of the steam is through sale to an
industrial plant, but this is often difficult to arrange. A
further possibility is to utilize the steam in a power
generator, which can be a favorable financial proposition.
68-0610
Smith, A. W. Electric overhead travelling cranes. Public
Cleansing, 58(10):513-530, Oct. 1968.
With the introduction of rotary or continuous hearth grates
for incinerators, the use of grabs or cranes for handling refuse
is increasing. The polyp, or tukip, or hydraulically operated
multiblade grab produces excellent compaction figures that
can be maintained under a variety of conditions, and a much
higher payload than with the equivalent-volume clamshell
grabs. This greatly influences crane design. The selection of
the various components on the crane is sometimes made by
the user, and motors, control gear, brakes or brake solenoids
can be obtained from several quality-conscious
manufacturers. Care of the crane, considerations in the
selection of equipment for various job requirements, accident
prevention and safety maintenance, and reliability, are fully
considered. Typical rope-operated grab chamshell
calculations are tabulated.
68-0608
Sheffield burns its sewage. Engineering, 206(5351):678-679,
Nov. 8, 1968.
A multiple-hearth sewage incinerator, designed to burn 400
tons per day of pressed filter cake from an adjacent filter
plant, is described. Burners are fitted to some of the hearths
to initiate combustion, but from that point on the process is
self-sustaining. Hot gases from the burning sludge at the
bottom of the furnace move countercurrent to the feed of
cold sludge filter cake, thus evaporating a large portion of the
moisture in the feed. An empty chamber above the top
burning hearth is used to raise the gas outlet temperature to
prevent odors. An induced draught fan is provided for each
furnace to draw a controllable amount of air through the
furnace and scrubber. The hot gases from the furnace pass
either through an emergency stack which is provided for each
furnace, or normally, through water sprays for cooling to a
cyclone scrubber which removes moisture and entrained dust.
68-0611
Stabenow, G. Performance and design data for large
European refuse incinerators with heat recovery. In
Proceedings, 1968 National Incinerator Conference, New
York, May 5-8, 1968. American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, p.278-286.
Design and performance criteria for the layout of large
municipal incinerators are widely discussed, but a formal
code for design and performance criteria is still in its
preliminary stages. The trend in Europe involves feeding raw
refuse into combustion chambers with a guaranteed high rate
of burnout. The furnace walls are water-cooled to obtain a
longer furnace life. The available heat is recovered and
utilized for power or heat generation. The residue occupies
only about 6 percent of the original volume of refuse fed to
the furnace. A variety of designs from a wide range of
municipal incinerators which have operated successfully in
Europe over long periods are discussed. The heat recovered
through generation of steam permits a thorough evaluation of
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incinerator performance tests. As a result, it should now be
possible to prepare performance specifications, and
guarantees for high grade incinerator equipment. Rigid
enforcement of such specifications will permit municipalities
to select incinerators that will assure a long life and
satisfactory operation. Data on refuse composition, flue gas
analyses, and grate performance are given.
68-0612
Tanner, R. Experiences with the incinerator of the city of
Lausanne. Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft, 20(9):430-432, Sept.
1968.
The incinerator of the City of Lausanne, Switzerland, was
built in the years 1956 to 1958 and began operation in
October of 1958. It has two furnaces, each with a capacity of
100 tons per day, which are combined with a boiler
delivering 10 tons of steam per hr (20 atm, 250 C). The
furnaces and boiler are built according to the Von Roll
system. Each furnace has two grates arranged on top of each
other. The slag is cooled in a water basin. The flue gases are
cleaned with the aid of clectrofilters The greater part of the
heat goes to a nearby remote heating plant, and the rest is
used by the plant itself. Since the incinerator plant is the
only heat supplier for the remote heating plant during the
summer, the operation of the incinerator may not be
interrupted. So far, the plant fulfilled this requirement
entirely, [n 1967 it was possible to keep the two furnaces
operating during more than 90 percent of the theoretically
possible 8,760 operating hours. Since 1959, the amount of
refuse incinerated increased by 103 percent, the population
by 59 percent, and the steam production by 100 percent. In
1967, 240 kg per of waste per inhabitant accumulated. In
1959, the plant operated with 17 employees. This number
increased to 26 in 1962 and 31 in 1967 In 1964, both
furnaces were out of operation tor a period ot 840 hoins
since certain parts had to be replaced (Text in German)
68-0613
Traynor, A. T. Direct incineration. Public Cleansing,
58(1 1):591-605, Nov. 1968.
The direct incineration plant consists ot a refuse reception
pit, and a crane which transfers rubbish to a continuously
operating grate which emits a steady flow of ash, from winch
ferrous metals can be extracted. The design of the reception
area, grab crane for furnace feeding, incinerator feed chute,
the furnace including the construction, the grate designs.
control of burning operation, ash composition and treatment,
procedure for extraction of metals, flue gases and gas
cleaning devices, and the chimney are all considered. Lach ot
these items is examined in the light of current practice and
problems involved in the operation of such an incinerator.
68-0614
Walter, L. Steam distribution system of Pans and the
incineration plant at Issy-les-Moulmeau\. Public Cleansmu.
58(l).25-32, Jan 1968.
The district heat distribution for Pans met a total demand for
1964 of about 745 Gcal per hr. The incineration plant at
Issy-les-Mouhneau\ provides waste incineration with waste
heat recovery. The plant is operated on a 24-hr shift and has
a nominal capacity of 400,000 tons per year of garbage. The
use of waste heat boilers produces steam at 928 psi and 770
F. Electric energy is generated by passing this steam through
a turbine of approximately 290 psi back pressure, and drives
a 9,000 kw generator all year. In winter, back pressure steam
is used for district heating. The plant equipment and
arrangement are detailed and illustrated. Some data for
incineration and boiler units are given, as are the
characteristics of the waste heat boiler Operational
experience is given, and smooth and efficient operation is
found. Use of electrostatic precipitators makes atmospheric
pollution practically nonexistent.
68-0615
Wolf, R. Old tires don't
100(2):68-73, \-eb. 1968.
fade away Rubber Age,
About 1 million tons of tires are removed from vehicles every
year and the majority are not retreadcd. Tire production is
increasing every year while reclaim usage remains steady. The
wide availability of relatively cheap synthetic rubber has
lowered the demand for reclaimed rubber. 1-rom
investigations carried out so far, the Rubber and Plastics
Research Association (England) considers that controlled
burning is the only satisfactory method of disposing of large
quantities of rubber waste A method of burning used tires
which permits satisfactory burning rate, smokeless
incineration, and adequate steam for an associated plant has
been devised in England for the Watts Tire Company. The
unit disposes of approximately 840 Ib per hr of scrap, which
raises about 3,500 Ib of steam. Operating 24 hr per day, the
incinerator will consume over 2,300 long tons of scrap per
year. It was suggested that 133 small incinerator installations
similar to the Watts installation would be necessary to burn
all of England's waste rubber, at an investment of slightly
over 87 million. Criticism of such a plan \\ as made b\ R W.
Tennant. president ol the International 1-cderation of Waste
Rubber and Plastics Merchants, claiming that tires are a
valuable resource. The Palma method of using old tires for
the production of felt and textile-free rubber crumb is
suggested
680616
Wood-waste burnmn plant Materials Reclamation Weekly,
H3(7):25, Aug. 17,'l968.
Automatic wood-waste burning equipment has been installed
for a furniture manufacturer in England in order to icduce
fuel, transportation, and labor costs. The plant is built
around an existing boiler installation which has a capacity of
3 million Btu per hr. It is claimed that the new installation
will provide more heat for space heating Waste heat radiators
will be mounted exteinally to dissipate unwanted heat during
the summer.,
680617
Wotschke, J Results from new considerations of the
combustion process in incinerators
Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft, 20(9):435-442, Sept 1968.
A paper presented by R. H 1-ssenlngh at the National
Incinerator Conference in May of 1968 in New York is
122
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0612-0620
reviewed. Up to now only empirical data, such as those given
by the Building Advisory Board, has been available t'ot the
volume of combustion chambers of incinerators. Refuse is
listed in a table according to its respective characteristics.
Empirical data concerning the grate and combustion surfaces
are also tabulated for each group of refuse. An attempt was
made to find a clear relationship between the empirical data
for the volume and the combustion surface. He offered the
equation: F sub A equals K sub 1 Ig F, where F sub A
indicates the combustion surface, F the amount of refuse
incinerated, and K sub 1 is a constant. It was found that the
larger the ratio between surface and volume, the moie
intensive the reaction, and the less equipment required. Next,
the influence of the moisture content of the waste on the
combustion was investigated. The moisture content is a
parameter which reduces the flame temperature, which in
turn has a dampening effect on the reaction process. The
amount incinerated within a certain period of time is, thus,
also reduced. The best way to avoid this is to increase the
flame temperature. This is best achieved by vigorously mixing
the flame gases directly above the combustion zone. The
combustion air must be preheated to a high temperature.
Auxiliary fuel guarantees a high flame temperature, even with
increasing moisture content. (Text in German)
68-0618
Wulf, H. Elimination of toxic waste water through
incineration. Gas und Wasserfach, Wasser, Abwasser,
109(12):326-328, Mar. 1968.
Industrial waste water is usually chemically decontaminated
and neutralized, and the sludge left is dehydrated. Several
kinds of apparatus and containers are required. Construction
and operating costs are high. In contrast, the incineration of
waste water is quite economical and efficient. Only half of
the the operating costs are required, and no preliminary
preparation is needed. An oil gas burner is used as the
incinerator. It consists of a heat-resistant cast iron casing
attached to a combustion chamber. Oil and superheated
steam are injected into the combustion chamber and are
thinly dispersed. By blowing in air, part of the atomized oil
begins to burn. This heats the remaining oil to a temperature
at which it vaporizes completely. As a result, the temperature
in the combustion chamber becomes extremely high. Waste
water or sludge is pumped through a pipe into this preheated
chamber. If the waste material itself has some calorific value.
the burner can be adjusted. No odor or smoke occurs during
incineration. In May 1967, 10 such burners began operation
in a chemical plant to eliminate, hourly, 8 tons of mostly
toxic, liquid waste material. The burners are arranged
tangentially around the circular combustion chamber. The
heat rising through the incinerator is used to produce steam.
With a very simple modification at the injection pipe, the oil
gas burner can be adjusted so that incineration of sludge
becomes possible. The rod within the pipe is simply
substituted for a tube with a diameter of 4 to 11 mm. The
sludge is pressed through this tube into the flame ot the
burner. Sludges with a high water content as well as a high
solids content can be burned equally efficiently. Two figures
illustrate the oil gas burner. The operating costs of tins large
incinerator plant, including amortization within 3 years and
interests, amount to approximately 50 DM per cu m without
heat utilization and approximately 30 DM per cu m with heat
utilization. Even if a suitable profit is added for the operator
of the plant, the costs of 120 to 140 DM per cu m waste
water or sludge are still far below those of a chemical
treatment plant where the operating cost is 310 DM per cu
m. (Text in German)
68-0619
Ziemcr, G. and W. Drewes. Operation and experience \vilh
the incinerator in Karnap. Elektnzitaetswirtschaft,
67(18)-547-552, Aug. 1968
The incinerator in Karnap serves the cities of Essen.
Gelsenkirchen. Muehlheim, and Gladbeck (West Germany).
which have a total population of 1.3 million. The incinerator
has an annual capacity of 420,000 tons, and is equipped with
10 furnaces The waste is brought on rubber conveyor belts
to the charging zone, from which it is mechamcallv or, by its
own weight, forwarded into the combustion chamber The
combustion takes place mainly at the center grate. The grate
underneath serves for the last stage of combustion and for
sintering the slag. Coal dust burners are used to ignite the
furnaces. Illustrations of the plant and the grate are given.
Waste heat is used to generate power. No traces of corrosion
have so fai been discovered. During 2 to 3 years of opeiation,
incrustation has remained within acceptable limits The waste
collecting trucks are weighed at the entrance to the plant.
before the\ discharge their loads into a storage bunker. The
crane cabins are stationary and have an entrance from
outside. Tables list the amount of wastes delivered within the
period between 1965 and mid-1968. Many experiments have
showed that industrial wastes may not be stored with
domestic wastes, since the difference in the heating value is
too great. Thus, another storage bunker was built for
domestic waste Waste oil is also incinerated at Karnap. Bulky
wastes are first shredded at a rate of 150 cu m per hr. Iron
parts are removed trom the waste. The slag is sold and
sometimes dumped. About 40 percent to 50 percent of the
ash has been sold. (Text in German)
INDUSTRIAL WASTES
68-0620
Albertson, O. E., and R. J. Sherwood. Centrifuge for
dewatering sludge Water and Wastes Engineering, 5(4) 56-58,
Apr. 1968.
The use of solid bowl centrifuges for dewatering raw and
digested sludge has increased, due to the increased efficiency
of the new designs. Also, major improvements in organic
polyelectrolyte conditioning agents have greatly expanded
their use. Improvements include rotational speeds as high as
4,000 g's for a machine that would formerly give onl> 600 to
1,500 g's. Of equal importance is the shallower bowl angle
which permits more solids to be recovered. The operator can
control the dewatering and clarification capacity of the
machine by controlling the depth of the pool. Several tests,
which are detailed, show that the recovery decreases as the
feed rate increases. Correspondingly, the concentration of
solids is affected by recovery. There is little need to use
polyelectrolytes for dewatering digested primary sludges it
the machine is loaded within its clarification capacity Work
conducted on digested primary and Biofilter sludge shows
that the long-bowl unit would dewater three to four times
the equivalent short bowl unit at the equivalent feed rate and
123
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Industrial Wastes
efficiency. Costs are compared to other means of mechanical
dewatennp. Without chemicals, the solid-bowl centrifuge will
classify digested sludge according to specific gravity and
particle size. The result is a concentrate high in grease and
organics
68-0621
Aluminum swarf-drying plant cuts costs and improves yield
Materials Reclamation Weekly, 113(11):30-31, Sept. 14.
1968.
An unconventional yet money-saving aluminium swarf drying
installation is the 'Intal.' Based on a dryer-cooler principle, it
consists of a three-stage horizontal drum fitted with special
internal flights. The dryer-cooler and afterburner operate by
natural draught from the chimney stack, which delivers
smoke and fume-free gases. Magnetic separation equipment
can be fitted to remove tramp iron and steel from the swarf
which is being treated. Heat from the oil content of the swarf
is used for heating the swarf in the first stage. Tests showed
that the dried swarf gives a metal yield between 98 and 99
percent. An all-running cost of -L4 10s per ton of swarf is
given for a 4-ft, 6-in. diameter by 24-ft-long dryer-cooler.
680622^
Aronsson. G. Sludge dewatenng with separatois. Process
Biochemistry, 3(9):49-51, Sept. 1968.
The town of Visby on the Swedish island of Gotland is using
an Alfa-Laval sludge dewatenng plant, employing centrifugal
separators, to treat the effluent from a population of 30,000,
of which 5,000 is equivalent to industrial waste. Sewage
enters the plant and passes through a self-cleaning strainer
and two aeration tanks in series, then to six sedimentation
tanks, whose overflow is discharged into the sea. Sludge
scrapers collect the sludge which is then thickened
mechanically and fed to the dewatenng tank. The dewatered
sludge is collected in portable containers. Effluent is further
treated in a self-cleaning clanner, after removal of low
density floating sludge. The self-cleaning clanfier is a
centrifuge with discharge openings permitting sludge removal
while the centrifuge is in operation. The containers with
sludge are transported to an asphalt covered area with
drainage outlets for compost The liquid phase from the
decanter is fed back to the sedimentation basins. The
two-step process of clarification is described. The clarifier
removes the greater part of the small particles. It is also
possible to use synthetic polyelectrolytes to flocculate and
remove the sludge from the decanter. The amount and type
of polyelectrolyte depends on the type of sewage and the
amount of clarification required. The design specifications
for the plant are given and indicate an overall efficiency of 91
percent total.
68-0623
Bader, A. J. Complete waste treatment system designed tor
new foundry. Plant Engineering, 22(8).118-120, Apr. 1968.
A complete waste treatment system was designed for an iron
castings plant in Illinois. During the planning stages,
information on the quality and quantity of waste anticipated
was gathered and water conservation methods were
considered Wet-type dust collectors are used which are
supplied with spent foundry cooling water, and the sluice
water is pumped to a dust lagoon for settlement The lagoon
is able to provide 10-year storage volume and flood
protection. Solid wastes will amount to 503 tons per day.
and, of this, 500 tons will be waste sand from the core and
mold-making operation. This will be used as fill for future
buildings and to construct future settling ponds. Other solid
wastes are removed by a local landfill operation. Spent water
is emptied into the Illinois River at a maximum temperature
of 105 F. Because of the variety of wastes, a batch treatment
is used. Gravity sedimentation, pH adjustment, and air
flotation are the basic treatments for this waste Each
waste-producing system was studied and isolated where
necessary, and treatment was provided to equal or exceed
existing State requirements. Continuing checks of the waste
treatment system are made
68-0624
Baillod, C. R , and W. D. Boyle. Activated-sludge nitrification
in the presence of linear and branched-chain alkyl benzene
sulfonates Applied Microbiology, 16(1 ):62-68, Jan. 1968
Biodegradable linear and branched chain alkyl benzene
sulfonates, used in nearly all household detergent
formulation, were investigated for their effect on activated
sludge nitrification. A synthetic waste containing up to 23
mg of each detergent per liter was administered to eight
bench-scale, batch, activated sludge units. The most obvious
differences between the oxidized-mtrogen levels of the units
fed the two types of aniomc detergent and the controls were'
fl) almost all (98',?) of the oxidized nitrogen in the effluent
of the detergent-fed units was m the form of nitrate, whereas
only about halt of the oxidized nitrogen of the controls was
nitrate, and (2) the percentage of the oxidized nitrogen as
nitrate varied directly (but not linearly) with (he
concentration of the LAS detergent applied to the units.
Various hypotheses are offered to explain the phenomenon.
68-0625
Bakradze, L. L. Efficacy of the biothermal treatment of
sewage at Georgian Centers for tuberculosis. Hygiene and
Sanitation, 33(7-9).271-274, July-Sept 1968.
Experiments were made with simple composting and with an
improved dump. Test samples were placed in previously
inserted perforated wooden conduits at depths of 20 50 and
100 cm and their temperatures were measured A test sample,
saturated with emulsion containing half a million type H sub
37 RW human tuberculosis bacilli, was left m the compost
until humification occurred, which was mainly established by
temperature observations. Held experiments showed that
owing to climatic and other local conditions, a relatively high
temperature was achieved throughout all the months of
observation. Studies of the survival of tuberculosis bacilli
under such conditions showed that with the temperature and
environmental conditions prevailing at Abastumam, the
bacilli were killed by both simple composting and an
improved dump during the period of May to December, but
retained their viability and virulence in the period from
December to May. This method may also be used at any
season of the year at the tuberculosis resort of Gulnpshi,
situated on the Black Sea coast near Sukumi, owing to
climatic conditions which are suitable for the
decontamination of solid wastes. Supporting data are
charted.
124
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0621-0631
68-0626
Balke, S. The importance ot water in modern mdustnal
society. Staedtehygiene, 19(5) 86-90, May 1968.
In connection with a statement on the importance ot" a
sufficient water supply to industry and on the necessity ot
keeping water unpolluted, a paragraph is included on the
influence of dumped waste on water. According to the
German Association for the Protection ot Water, there arc
now about 30,000 waste disposal sites. Only a few have been
tested for their possible harmful effects on ground water.
Where it has been done, it almost always has turned out that
the waste was not properly dumped, and that the ground
water was polluted by harmful substances penetrating from
the top. Moreover, in the densely populated Federal Republic
of Germany, suitable disposal sites are becoming scarce
However, the dumping of waste cannot be completely
abandoned because about 25,000 municipalities will not be
able to eliminate their wastes in composting or incinerator
plants, simply because of a lack of financial means to erect
such plants. They will have to deposit their wastes in sanitary
landfills. Another acute disposal problem arises from the
enormous amounts of sludge which accumulate in waste
water purification. An industrial state must solve these
problems, and the state must also make it possible to deposit
industrial wastes at special sites which will be designed so
that no pollution of ground water occurs. Because of the
many unsolved problems in waste disposal, there is a desire to
make the ocean a dumping ground for wastes. This would
have dangerous consequences if no international regulations
are worked out, which would on the one hand relieve
industries of their waste disposal problem and on the other
hand protect the oceans from harmful pollution.
(Text in German)
68-0627
Bark digs up a market. Chemical Week, 102(16).92, Apr. 20,
1968.
A New York-based forest products company last year sold
56.7 million Ib of sylviehemicals, two of them made from the
bark of the firm's staple pulp tree, the western hemlock. The
bark is normally burned as fuel after being stripped from logs
at the mill. The company, however, uses hot water to extract
polyflavonoid compounds. These compounds form etiolating
agents for trace minerals which are exploited in a line of
fertilizers. They also form water-impermeable gels that make
effective grouting agents. This line of gels has great potential
if it can be used to firm up tunnels, foundations, atomic test
holes, and deep mines. Unlike cement, the gel can be pumped
through fine sand; its latest application is the stabilization of
Florida sand in which power and light poles arc anchored.
680628
Beerbower, R. C. Maintenance of refuse disposal areas. Coal
Age, 73(2):102-106, Feb 1968.
Efforts to stabilize soil and beautify the area at the U.S.
Steel, Maple Creek mine, New Eagle, Pennsylvania, are
described. Since the coal portal and preparation plant are
within a populated area, refuse disposal presented a problem.
The decision was made to transport coarse fractions
underground by rail, and to transport washer-refuse slurry by
pipeline to the company's Ginger Hill Shaft, approximately
3.3 miles away. There, an automatic hoist is used to lift the
coarse fraction 532 ft to the surface for distribution over a
disposal area. The slurry is channelled to a settling pond on
the same site through a discharge borehole cased with 5-in.
extra-strength pipe for gravity separation. Prior to wasting
the refuse, the disposal area was cleared of all combustible
material, vegetation, and topsoil to eliminate ignition. Coarse
refuse is hoisted to the surface and spread from
scraper-loaders over the wasting area in layers approximately
8 to 10 in. thick, and tightly compacted by scraper-loader
traffic. Slopes of the refuse area are maintained at ratios of 1
to 1 or 1 to 2. A spoil-bank reclamation program was
initiated, and the slopes were covered with clay to a thickness
of about 10 in. and planted with stabilizing vegetation (pine
seedlings).
68-0629
Benson, R. .1. Centrifugal sludge dewatering. Water and
Wastes Engineering, 5(9).56-57, Sept. 1968.
A centrifuge was installed to dewater 10,000 gal ot domestic
sludge weekly in a city of 14,000 on the northern edge of
San Francisco. Centnfuging eliminated the need for sludge
drying beds, and freed that area for other municipal land
needs. The plant facilities include: a bar screen, shredder,
detritus tank for grit removal, pre-aeration, postchlormation,
a centrifuge for dewatering digested sludge, five raw sewage
pumps with a rated capacity of 500 rpm to 4,500 rpm, and a
sewage gas operated standby pump with a rated capacity of
4,500 gpm. Plant data and a flow diagram are included.
68 0630
Biaggi, N. The sugar industry in Puerto Rico and its relation
to the industrial waste problem. Journal of the Water
Pollution Control Federation, 40(8): 1,423-1,433, Aug. 1968.
During the 1966-1967 milling season, 22 sugar factories were
operating in Puerto Rico, where the production of the cane
sugar industry has shown a steady decline in the last 5 years.
The wastes from the cane milling process are. bagasse or the
woody fiber of the cane; the filter cake, cooling and
condenser waters, and concentrated wastes from spillage,
scum leaks, and washings. AH of the bagasse is utilized either
as fuel for the factories or in the manufacture of paper. The
most convenient way to dispose of the filter cake is by
spreading it on a field as fertilizer or soil conditioner. The
high BOD concentration of cooling and condenser waters
indicate that too much sugar is being lost into them by
entramment. The concentrated wastes such as molasses and
sugar spills are small in volume, but have a high BOD
concentration. Since the sugar factories do not have
sufficient cane to mill or to process economically, it seems
advisable for the government to provide incentives conducive
to industrial efficiency in controlling and reducing wastes...
68-0631
Bishop, S. L., and G. P. Fulton. Lagooning and freezing for
disposal of water plant sludge. Public Works, 99(6):94-96,
June 1968.
The methods available for treatment of waste sludges from
water treatment plants are: alum recovery, filtration, disposal
125
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Industrial Wastes
to the sewerage system for treatment, lagooning, and
freezing. Alum recovery is usually not considered economical
because of equipment and maintenance costs. Discharge to
the sewerage system simply transfers the problem to the
sewage treatment facility. If sewage sludge is dewatered on a
vacuum filter for ultimate incineration, the filter backwash
water requires reduction of the peak rate of discharge at the
sewage treatment plant. A properly designed lagoon can serve
both as a settling and thickening facility. The lagoon in use at
the Shoremont Water Treatment Plant of the Monroe County
Water Authority near Rochester, New York, is described. The
aluminum hydroxide, holding the enmeshed particles
removed from the water during the treatment produces a
sludge which contains water of hydration. It is this water that
can be released by freezing in northern climates. To
demonstrate the effect of freezing alum sludge, samples were
obtained from the Monroe County Water Authority
treatment plant and frozen. Freezing increased the total
solids concentration of the sludge from 3.5 to 17.5 percent
and caused a significant decrease in volume. When the sludge
thawed, the hydroxide did not revert to its original gelatinous
state. Design parameters for the disposal of waste sludge by
lagoon freezing are listed.
68-0632
Blackbirds sewage works. Consulting Engineer, 32(6)'44,
June 1968.
One of the purest effluents in Great Britain will be produced
at the Blackbirds sewage works in West Hertfordshire.
Suspended solids and BOD of 7 ppm will be produced at the
works. Effluent from the final activated sludge separating
tanks will be further treated with sand filters. At Blackbird
and the Maple Lodge works, sludge is treated and disposed of
by three separate processes. Part of the sludge, from the
activated sludge process, is dewatered by vacuum filters, and
is dried in furnaces to produce a fertilizer which is sold under
the tradename 'Covanic.' Most of the sludge is treated by a
fermentation process (digestion), and is then distributed in
liquid form as a fertilizer to the land. Some of the dried
sludge from drying beds is lifted by mechanical means, and is
used as a fertilizer or fill.
68-0633
Boettcher, I'. The 1968 meeting of waste water experts in
Berlin. Gas und Wasserfach, Wasser, Abwasser,
109(36):984-988,Sept. 1968.
Between April 4 and 5, 1968, 600 waste water experts
gathered in Berlin to discuss pressing problems in this field.
The paper 'Methods of waste disposal with a view to keeping
our natural water resources unpolluted,' was presented by H.
W. Lconhardt from the central agency for waste disposal at
the Federal Department of Health in Berlin. The paper stated
that the inconsiderate dumping of wastes is no longer
acceptable and must be abandoned completely. Sanitary
landfill is to take its place. By crushing the wastes, and
dumping them in layers which are covered with earth and
then compacted, many health hazards are eliminated To
avoid any spoilage of the groundwater, dump sites must be
made impermeable. The assumption that sterile ash can be
just dumped without any precautionary measures is
erroneous because it can contain water-soluble salts which
pollute the groundwater. Compost is also to be used with
caution, since plants absorb the salts as nutrients. None of
the methods now used to dispose of wastes is without danger
to the ground water. (Text in German)
68-0634
Born, R., and U. Moller. Natural hydroxide sludge
dehydration in drying beds. Wasser Luft und Betneb,
12(5)-300-303,May 1968.
While experience has been gained with the natural
dehydration of organic sludges, little is known about the
natural dehydration of inorganic sludges. However, a number
of plants for the artificial dehydration of hydroxide sludges
exist. These plants have shown that the water-binding ability
of hydroxide sludges varies greatly. The initial concentration,
the type of heavy metal hydroxide, the neutralizing agent,
and the mechanical strain of the flakes formed at
neutralization all affect the dehydration ability of the sludge.
During the natural dehydration of hydroxide sludges, they
form cracks much more rapidly than organic sludges, which
seems to indicate that hydroxide sludges dry faster.
Experiments carried out in almost square drying beds with a
surface of about 4.5 sq m should give information on the
drying process of various hydroxide sludges, and they should
show how much influence weather conditions have, and
under what circumstances the best results can be expected.
The drying beds were filled twice. Each layer was about 40
cm thick and had a solids contents of about 8 kg per sq m.
The experiment lasted 29 days, and the sun's radiation varied
markedly during this period. The precipitations were limited
to a few days. The experiments showed no remarkable
influence of the precipitations on the drying process. A
comparison with roof-covered drying beds made this clear.
Iron hydroxide sludge dried best. The capillary water was
separated during the first 10 days. An experiment, which
lasted 54 days, tested the influence of the thickness of sludge
in the drying beds and the solids content on the dehydration
process. The solids content is decisive for the final water
content, as a graph shows. With this experiment, too, the
capillary water disappeared within the first 10 days. The
results indicate that the sludge thickness in a drying bed
should correspond to a solids content of about 8 kg per sq m.
If a 10-day rhythm of starting and completing the drying
process is maintained, a theoretical drying bed capacity of
288 kg dry substance per sq m per year can be expected. The
results of the experiments have been confirmed by practical
experience. (Text m German)
68-0635
Boubel, R. W. Particulate emissions from sawmill waste
burners. Oregon State University Bulletin No. 42. Corvallis,
Aug. 1968. [21 p.]
In the manufacture of lumber or plywood, considerable
waste material is produced. One method of disposal of wood
residues is incineration in a Wigwam-type burner. Particulate
emission data from the incineration of wood residues in
Wigwam burners was investigated. One hundred individual
samples were taken from nineteen burners located in the
Pacific Northwest. Gravimetric and size analyses were made
on each of the samples. Results indicate the extreme
variability of these burners. Particulate emissions ranged from
a low of 0.004 grains per cu ft to a high of 0.607 grains per
126
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0632-0639
cu ft. Particulatc emission from an average burner was
estimated at 0.168 grains of participate per cu 1't of gas
(corrected to 1 2 percent C02 and STP). This is equivalent to
approximately 10.7 Ib of particulatc per ton of fuel
consumed. The particulate has two distinct size distributions,
one representing the smoke (less than 2 microns) and one
representing the material which would settle from the
atmosphere downwind from the burner (larger than 10
microns). This information enables control officials to
evaluate these burners for participate emission quantities, size
distribution, and transport characteristics of the emissions..
0.168 grains per cu ft of gas corrected to 12 percent CO2 and
standard temperature (60 1') and pressure (3000 in of
mercury). This value is considerably below the value used by
many control agencies of 0 3 grains per cu ft The particle
size distributions showed a significant difference tor that
material collected in the tram ahead of the filter, and for that
material on the filter itself. Two distinct size distributions
were noted upon microscopic examination of the collected
material. One was a larger particulate capable ot settlitv1 to
the ground as dustfall. Another distribution was nuliJ mi
the smaller particles which are seen as smoke, and are
referred to as suspended participates
68-0636
Boubel, R. W. Procedure In Particulate emissions from
sawmill waste burners. Oregon State University Bulletin No.
42. Corvalhs, Aug. 1968. p.2-6
One hundred samples at nineteen waste burners in the Pacific
Northwest were taken using a probe operating from the
ground. The sampling train, used in all tests, was designed to
collect all of the particulate in a form suitable for both
gravimetric and size analysis. The analytical procedure was to
clean and dry the sampling elements before each test. After
the test was completed and the components returned to the
laboratory, the particulate was washed from each collecting
element, except the membrane filter, with distilled water. A
drop of the liquid was then placed on a microscope slide and
the particle size distribution was determined. The remaining
liquid \vas evaporated in a dried, tared evaporating dish. The
weight of the sample was then determined. Sample weights
on the order of 5 mg were collected with the sample tram.
The samples were then ashed by placing them in a muffle
furnace at 750 C for 30 min. After cooling, they were again
weighed to determine the percent ash. Data tabulation and
reduction were done after all samples were analyzed.
Variables of interest were: (1) weight gain by the membrane
filter; (2) weight gain by the train ahead of the membrane
filter; (3) percent ash in the particulate; (4) average
temperature of the gas during the sampling period; (5)
particulate emission per unit volume of exhaust gas; (6) draft
ratio, which indicated the amount of leakage through the
burner shell, (7) size analysis of particulates on the
membrane filter, and (8) size analysis of paiticulates in the
sampling train ahead of the membrane filter.
680637
Boubel, R. W. Results. In Particulate emissions from sawmill
waste burners. Oregon State University Bulletin No. 42.
Corvalhs, Aug. 1968. p.6-10.
Results indicated that each burner is significantly different
from the average, and that they must be considered as
individual sources. The average draft ratio for all 100 tests
was 0.49 which indicates that about one-half the theoretical
draft can be expected from a Wigwam burner. The
particulates emitted from the typical waste burner were about
37 percent ash. This indicates that it would be about
one-third consumed (100 percent would be complete
combustion; the wood has about 1 percent ash originally).
The emission temperature was 485 F, which is considerably
below the 600 to 900 I-' temperature recommended for
smoke-free operation. The loading to the atmosphere was
680638
British sewage plant for City of Geneva Wafer and Waste
Treatment Journal, 11(11) 498-499. .lan.-I-eb 1968
The public works authorities in Geneva have completed the
construction of an entirely new sewerage system with sludge
dewatermg plants concentrated at Aire. Nant D'Avril, and
Villette. At Aire, the sludge is digested before leaching a
Porteous Plant. It was anticipated that the bulk would he
reduced by some 20 percent, and at the same time, methane
gas would be produced. This gas is used primarily to supplj
heat for the digester. After treatment, the press cake is
discharged directly into barges for transportation, along with
the city's refuse, to an mcmeiator plant situated dovvnstieam
on the river Rhone. The Porteous Plant is designed to treat
the sludge from a population of up to 400.000 The
installation is automatic, requiring only two laborers toi filter
press duties and a supervisor.
68-0639
Brooks, R B. Heat treatment for activated sludge Wdlei
Pollution Control, 67(5).592-601, 1968.
Experimental work is reported using 1 percent solids surplus
activated sludge to determine the effect of initial solids
concentration, temperature, heating time, and presence of
oxygen on many of the system's parameters, to examine
various physical and biological methods for treating the
liquor produced; and to evaluate the residual non-biologically
degradable compounds which exert a chemical oxygen
demand. Full details of apparatus, techniques, and lesultsare
given. Temperatures in excess of 130 C must be used with
activated sludge of 1 percent concentration; otherwise the
separation of the liquor will be difficult by filtration or
centrifugmg. Equilibrium by simple solution ot dissolved
solids and soluble organic nitrogenous material was quickh
approached. Longer process times resulted mainh in moie
chemical reactions taking place Heat treatment at 130 <'
destroyed the water-holding ability of the sludge within 1/2
hr. Aerated heat treatment did not easily 01 markedly reduce
the COD. Total soluble phosphate and colloidal nutter \\eie
reduced marginally by aerated heat treatment The
production of ammonia and volatile acids was enhanced by
high temperatures, long process times, and the piesence ol
oxygen during heating- the proportions indicate that after a
small initial release of volatile acids, the ratio ot ammonia to
volatile acids was constant These conclusions were based on
1 percent activated sludge heated to between 100 and 216 C
for 1/2 hr to 24 hr.
127
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Industrial Wastes
68-0640
Brown P., and A. Thomas. Some experiences in the
consolidation of surplus activated sludge. Surveyor and
Municipal Engineer, 131 (3952):33-36, 60. Mar. 1968.
Introduction of a new activated sludge plant had the mam
effect of increasing the proportion of activated sludge solids
in the mixed sludge from 17 to 46 percent on a dry weight
basis In addition it reduced the amount of supernatant
material that could be removed during consolidation of the
digested sludge from 36.4 percent to 7.8 percent of the
original volume. Thinner sludges were obtained from the
sedimentation tanks, and the undigested tanks yielded less
supernatant liquor. Settling on a laboratory scale thickened
activated sludges after 4 to 5 days to 3.1 percent solids.
Laboratory scale digestion with a 30-day retention period
allowed a further 30 percent reduction in volume, yielding a
sludge of 2.8 percent solids. Pressure flotation, using a
pilot-scale unit, yielded sludge of 3 to 5 percent solids with a
comparatively clean supernatant. Centnfuging in an
11-gal-per-minute unit yielded sludges with 9.3 to 9.8 percent
solids. The sludge was in the form of a paste, and the centrate
contained highly disintegrated solids. Heat treatment at 180
F gave consolidated sludges of 7.7 to 12.2 percent solids, the
supernatants having BOD's of between 1,500 and 10,000 mg
per liter depending on the thickness of the feeds. Double
consolidation on a plant scale of up to 20 ft of hydraulic
head, produced sludges of between 5.0 and 8.8 percent solids
with BOD's of up to 7,000 mg per liter for the supernatant.
Polyelectrolytes at up to 0.6 percent of dry weight can
hasten settlement.
68-0641
Buelow, R. W., B. H. Pnngle, and J. L. Verber. Preliminary
investigation of waste disposal in the New York Bight.
Narragansett, R.I., Northeast Marine Health Sciences
Laboratory, Jan. 1968. 33 p.
According to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, there are 17
loading points for sewage sludge to be hauled to sea in the
New York City-New Jersey Metropolitan Area. The total
volume for the year 1964-1965 was 3,965,876 cu yd. The
digested or partially digested sludge is hauled by barge or
tanker to a disposal area designated by. the Corps of
Engineers. The purpose of the study was to acquire data on
bacterial distribution resulting from the discharged sewage
sludge and to provide assistance in planning future studies on
dispersion and the effects of waste discharges at sea. The
bacteriological determinations are tabulated in the appendix.
Results indicate that coliforms can survive for a time when
concentrated on the bottom. The rapid reduction of
coliforms indicated by the results can best be explained by a
combination of dilution with the receiving sea water and
death due to the disinfecting power of the sea water column.
Little evidence indicates that stratification was of any
consequence in the dump area during the study. Long-term,
detailed analyses of sludge drift and bottom currents are
needed in the entire region, as well as environmental
information concerning the bottom organisms.
68-0642
Burd, R. S. A study of sludge handling and disposal. Water
Pollution Control Research Series Publication No. WP-20-4.
Washington, U.S. Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration, 1968. 326 p.
The available literature on the various steps involved in sludge
treatment and disposal is summarized. Different methods for
each step are compared according to economic and
geographic considerations, and conclusions are drawn as to
future trends. The sludge treatment techniques covered are:
clarification, thickening, blending, digestion, elutriation,
dewatenng, and heat drying These disposal methods are also
covered: lagooning, landfilling, ocean disposal, composting,
combustion, and pyrolysis. Sludge piping is considered and
compared with other means of transportation. The
economics of different sludge handling and disposal
techniques are compared, and the problems of odor control
and sludge disinfection are outlined. Lastly, the treatment of
water treatment sludges is covered. A list of 450 references is
included at the end of the book, and many graphs, tables,
and diagrams from these references, needed to illustrate the
techniques covered in the chapters, are reproduced.
Suggestions are made in the conclusion for areas of future
work. The need is stressed for organization of this research
on a national level.
68-0643
Carpenter, W. L., J. G. Vamvakias, and I. Gellman.
Temperature relationships in aerobic treatment and disposal
of pulp and paper wastes. Journal of the Water Pollution
Control Federation, 40(5):733-740, May 1968.
Studies of aerated stabilization basins at temperatures of 2 to
30 C are summarized along with studies of activated sludge
process performance at temperatures of 26 to 52 C. The
aerated stabilization basin process occupies the area between
low-rate, extended aeration activated sludge treatment and
long-term storage, and natural stabilization basin treatment.
Process efficiency can be varied by changes in retention time,
supplemental aeration, nutrient control, and secondary
sedimentation. In studying the temperature relationships in
treatment and disposal of pulp- and paper mill wastes, BOD
removal during aerated stabilization basin treatment was
found to be adversely affected by temperature reduction
below 20 C. A common value of 1.016 for the temperature
coefficient phi, correlating with the deoxygenation rate
constant K sub 1, was found to be uniform for raw and
treated mill effluents, and to equal 0.2 at 20 C. The
temperature coefficient phi, relating 5-day and ultimate BOD
with temperature, was found to equal 1.035 and 1.031,
respectively, for mill effluents. The BOD-removal reaction
rate, constant k sub 1, ranged on the average from 0.20 to
0.50 at temperatures of 2 to 30 C, respectively. The optimum
mesophilic temperature for activated sludge treatment was 37
C, with progressive deterioration in performance resulting as
the operating temperature was raised to as high as 52 C.
68-0644
Carroll, R. G. Hydraulic systems for swarf removal. Plant
Engineering, !2(8):653-658, Aug. 1968.
The removal ot swarf from the cutting zone of the machine
to the velocity trench is a major factor in the success of the
complete operation. The most efficient velocity trench has a
U-shaped section with a semicircular base. The main factors
affecting velocity trench design are: material and nature of
swarf, allowable trench depth at entry to the main settling
tank, amount of flushing required and position of flushing
jets, and the liquid depth and velocity. The size of the
128
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0640-0650
settling tank should generally be sufficient to contain eight to
ten times the volume of coolant passing through the system
per minute. The settling tank is divided by a \veir into a dirty
and a clean section. The actual filtei unit for the removal of
fine particles of swarf depends upon the degree of filtration
required, the type of metal removal operation, and the nature
of the swarf, the coolant velocity and flow rate, and the
temperature of the coolant entering the filter. The most
efficient are the following: vacuum and pressure types which
use either permanent or disposable filter media, and a
pre-coat filter with diatomaceous earth for use when
extremely fine filtration is required.
68-0645
Centralized disposal. Chemical & Engineering News,
46(52):18, Dec. 9, 1968.
A centralized disposal facility that handles the industrial
wastes of nine chemical and refining plants has gone into
operation in Canada, near Sarnia, Ontario. The system
incorporates five different disposal methods and handles 37
types of liquid and bulk waste, including styrene, cthylene
glycol, amines, miscellaneous solvents, carbon black, scrap
polymers, and separator cleanings. A new bulk waste
incinerator, and a burial area for inert residue and bulk
mateiials was added to a traveling grate incinerator
constructed to burn 2 tons per hr of trash and garbage. The
new incinerator burns 20 to 25 tons per day of oil-soaked
paper and rags, scrap plastics, greases, and oil-soaked clays.
With the additions to the ousting capability, the entire plant
is deigned to ops-rate efficiently at an input volume of
30,000 to 75,000 en yd of waste per year
68-0646
Centralized waste disposal: an answer to air pollution. Safety
Maintenance. 1 35(4).43, 44. 52, Apr. 1968
Design of a nuisance-free, centralized industrial waste
disposal facility involved extensive engineering and
equipment studies. After developing the final design, related
capital and operating costs computer .studies were made to
determine the cost directly attributable to specific \\aste
materials and to provide an equitable basis for assigning fees.
A S5 million special, high temperature, high-efficiency,
waterwall furnace installation utilizes available by-product
energy and reduces disposal charges. Other equipment
provides means for handling difficult industrial products The
20-acre facility will process 10,000 tons per month of
industrial wastes. During operation, wastes are selective!)
blended and fed to the proper oxidation unit —rotar) kiln,
multiple hearth, or rotating grate Destructive decomposition
takes place in two states, supplemental natural gas firing of
volatiles and complete combustion at temperatures in excess
ot 1.800 F. Over 100,000 Ib per hr of by-product steam is
recovered. An efficient multiple state electrostatic
precipitator is used, and the gases are exhausted through a
400-ft stack. The facility was designed by a Houston
Corporation, COPE.
68-0647
Centrifugal dewatering of waste sludge. Water and Sewage
Works, U5(l).47-48, Jan 1968.
The waste trom a major papermill in the South is chiefly
from the pulping, bleaching, and papermaking operations. A
vacuum tiller system \vas discontinued in lavor oi three 40-
by 60-in. solid bowl centrifugals for dewatering sludge.
Sludge, drawn from the underflow of thiee separate clarifiers,
is treated by the centifuge system, which has a combined
capacity of 300 gpm. Dewatered sludge, in the lorm ot cake
averaging 29 percent solids, drops through hoppers onto a
conveyor and is hauled by truck to a landfill. Eftluent water
from the centrifugals contains solids and is returned to the
clanfieis tor resettling.
68-0648
Ceresa, M., and L. E. Lancy. Metal finishing waste disposal.
Metal Finishing, 66(4):56-62. Apr. 1968.
Metal finishing wastes which are harmful and toxic to the
bacteria utilized in biological sewage treatment process are.
cyanides, simple metal ions such as copper, chromium,
cadmium, zinc, and iron; and concentrated processing
solutions which may be alkaline or acidic. Legal
considerations concerning water pollution and drinking water
standards are discussed. Metal finishing wastes, their origins,
and recommended treatment are described and listed in
tabular form. Control of contamination includes, properly
designed and racked parts; use of dragm and dragout stations;
countercurrent flow, stagnant, and fog spray rinsing,
regeneration of spent chemical processing solutions;
substitution of processing solutions: mechanical descaling,
and good housekeeping and proper segregation of processing
tanks.
68-0649
Ceresa, M.. and L. E. Lancy Metal finishing waste disposal.
Part 2. Metal Finishing,, 66(5V.60-65, May 1968.
In the treatment of toxic contaminants in effluents or spent
processing solutions, chemicals may be added to precipitate
or destroy the toxic compounds. If a precipitate is formed, it
must be removed from the effluent before it is discharged.
Batch waste treatment systems are suited mainly to small and
medium sized plants for the treatment of cyanide or
chromium containing effluents. Continuous treatment
systems are more practical than batch treatment, for plants
handling very large amounts of lyamde and chromium
wastes. In the Tntegiated Waste Treatment System,' the
waste treatment is integrated into the processing sequence,
and no separate treatment plant is required. Ion exchange is
a method of concentrating the chemical contaminants in
rinse waters so they can be treated more easily, and it makes
possible the recovery of valuable materials.
68-0650
Ceresa, M., and L. E. Lancy. Metal finishing waste disposal.
Part 3. Metal Finishing, 66(6):! 12-118, June 1968.
The best opportunities for ion exchange systems in metal
finishing waste treatment he in the field of valuable metal
recovery or regenetation of process solutions. Recent
developments with 'moving bed ion exchange columns' are
described. The electrodialysis process has potential for
regeneration and purification ot process solutions, because it
uses a small area of active ion-exchange surface which
regenerates itself continually and does not require chemical
means to bring the ion-exchange resin back to its initial form.
129
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Industrial Wastes
Closed and open loop systems are being used in handling
cyanide and chromic acid plating waste operations by
evaporation. Precipitated hydroxides, after being
concentrated in the form of well-compacted sludge, must be
handled by a clanfier. The sludge removed from the clanfier
can then be discharged to a sludge thickener, a sludge bed, or
a pressure or vacuum filtration system.
68-0651
Central vacuum cleaning system saves $18,000 annually Mill
and Factory, 82(2):80-82, Feb. 1968.
By installing a central vacuum cleaning system in the
Metallurgical Products Department and providing sufficient
vacuum outlets, General Electric now uses one man to clean
the entire floor area, as well as all interior and exterior
surfaces of each piece of equipment. Annual savings total
$18,500, of which $12,000 is a result of powder recovery
based on reclamation of product contents, $2,500 in fuel
savings by reduction of exhaust air, and $4,000 in labor
savings. On the basis of these cost reductions, the system will
amortize itself in about 2'/2 years. Another benefit of the
system is the improvement in potential safety and health.
The equipment and operation of the vacuum cleaning system
are described.
68 0652
Chapman, D. D., R. W. Okcy, and K T. Santler.
Polyelectrolyte coagulants for use in the liquid-solid
separation of high-solids activated sludge. Report No.
SAM-TR-68-39 Seattle, Scientia Research Laboratories, Inc ,
1968. (Distributed by National Technical Information
Services, Springfield, Va., as Publication No. AD 672 818.)
The use of the activated sludge process to treat wastes arising
in a remote environment appears to be feasible, if the process
can be successfully miniaturized. A major problem in the
development of equipment has been the continuous
separation of effluent of satisfactory quality A method was
needed for pretreating the mixed liquor to allow continuous
or semicontmuous phase separation of the high-solids
activated sludge. Experimentation indicated that a substantial
degree of filterabihty could be achieved after pretreatment A
method of phase separation for a miniaturized activated
sludge facility has been developed, employing plastic filters
and polyelectrolyte coagulants. It was concluded that.
high-solids activated sludge may be successfully concentrated
by flocculation with Dow C-32 polyelectrolyte, and the
clarified liquor removed by filtration through a variety of
plastic media, a residual quantity of coagulated and
flocculated algae grew on the effluent; polyelectrolyte
coagulants improve the quality of filtrates derived either
from raw waste or from mixed liquor; the effectiveness of the
coagulant was found to be a function of the ratio of the mass
of cells (as COD) to the mass of coagulant; the coagulant
C-32 was found to persist in an activated sludge culture for 3
to 7 days..
68-0653
Chapman, W H Destruction ot organic matter in sludge
digestion. Surveyor and Municipal Engineer, 131 (3966):39,
June 8, 1968
Crude sludge in a sewage works is digested to convert organic
matter to gaseous and liquid products. In heated primary
digesters there is no appreciable reduction in the volume of
the sludge, but the solids are reduced by the destruction of
organic matter. In secondary digestion tanks, the sludge is
allowed to settle, since consolidating the sludge is the
primary purpose Several formulae have been suggested for
use in calculating the percentage destruction of organic
matter in digestion. All these formulae require certain
assumptions but can be useful guides if used correctly The
Meltzer equation is a general equation allowing for changes in
volume. This is useful for cold digestion processes or if
overall destruction of organic matter is required. For normal
practice, the O'Shaughnessy and Van Kleeck formulae, as
applied to primary digestion, are adequate, provided that, in
the derivation, it is assumed that the sludge volume before
and after digestion is constant.
68-0654
Clarke, D G. Resin emulsion wastes no longer a sticky
problem Water and Wastes Engineering, 5(ll):46-48, Nov.
1968
A new technique, for use on waste water from the
production and use of aqueous film-forming emulsions, yields
a solid phase which can be filtered or settled out of the waste
water Addition of a finely divided solid such as clay, fly ash,
or sewage trickling filter sludge, followed by a flocculant
such as Primafloc C-7 or ferric chloride and lime, will
coagulate the emulsions. Experiments using these additives
were carried out, and typical results of pilot plant
experiments and details of the plant operation are given.
When trickling filter sludge is used the emulsion waste can be
handled with the sludge and the disposal problem is halved
68-0655 ,
Clyne, R. W Mechanical retrieval of waste oils and solids
from water. Lubrication Engineering, 24(11) 514-520, Nov.
1968.
New machines designed to control industrial pollutants at
various levels, including free (surface) oils, floating oil/water
emulsions, suspended solids, and solids such as oily water
materials with settlement characteristics, are reviewed.
Rotating cylinders have been used for the recovery of oil
spills from inland waterways and for the retrieval of waste
(free) oils from waste water Recent developments in
compact machinery are presented tor the separation of
settled solids from waste water, cutting coolants, metal
washing solutions, and quenching media. Ejection of the
retrieved solids from the water is accomplished in the vertical
plane In contrast to pumped sludges, the solids content of
ejected railroad sludges is about 40 percent by weight. A
primary, mechanical, nonchemical, oil-water-solids separator
has the capability of reducing the oil content in waste water
from about 85,000 ppm to an average of less than 100 ppm.
68-0656
Coackley, P Sludge dewatenng and disposal Institution of
Civil Engineers Proceedings, 41(1968-1969):623-626, Nov
1968
A general discussion of the problems and processes of sludge
dewatenng, the chemical nature of the sludge particle, and
engineering aspects of a treatment plant which have bearing
upon the sludge produced is given. Some aspects of the
130
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0651-0662
problems ol dual disposal arc covered, and land disposal is
considered the best solution in the widest context. Various
additional topics were examined, including long-term disposal
of sludge, and its effect upon the land.
68-0657
Coal preparation . quality for
73(10) 146-158. Oct. 1968
mistakes. Coal Age,
Model mining companies emphasize efficient operation,
maximum recovery of saleable products, and protection of
the air and water. Dewatering of table refuse and dust
collection techniques are described. Where the terrain
permits, trucking is the accepted means of refuse disposal.
Aerial tramways, belts with trucks, or pumping are
sometimes employed. Impounding is practicalh universal for
tine refuse to prevent discharge ot solids to streams. Crushing
reluse is an increasing practice to provide a more favorable
size, and to facilitate compacting Many strip operators truck
refuse into a pit and cover it with overburden, which
eventually is reclaimed and planted Operations and
equipment are described in detail and illustrated..
68-0658
Colin, M. M. How to clean a sludge digester...without
fanfare . and with a contractor. Water and Sewage Works,
115(8) 350-352, Aug. 1968
The primary digestor ot a sewage treatment plant was not
equipped with grit chamber facilities, and cleaning was
necessary in 4 years The work was undertaken by plant
operating personnel and plant sludge-drawing facilities, and
took a total ot 4 1/2 months Ten years later, it was decided
that both the original tank, and the tank which had handled
the load during the cleaning ot the first tank, should be
cleaned. The previous experience led to the hiring of a
contractor with adequate facilities and manpower to do a
quick job. The price was $3,820 for the second digestor.
w-hich contained approximately 1,960 cu ft ot vertical wall
depth plus the contents of the bottom hopper. The woik was
completed 7 days later. The other tank was cleaned in 3 days,
at a cost of $2,500
68-0659
Conner, W R , and M. J. Perry. Treats liquid waste more
efficiently. 1-ood Engineering, 40(2) 92-94, f-eb 1968.
The liquid waste treatment system in the kitchen of the Sara
Lee plant in Deerfield, Illinois, is described. A desludging
centrifuge was installed in the bakery's preliminary treatment
system to reduce suspended solids and meet the village's
limitation, set at 300 ppm of BOD or 350 ppm of suspended
solids. The pnmaiy treatment facility handles approximately
200,000 gal per day ot plant waste exclusive of sanitary and
stoim waste. Liquid wastes are retained 48 hr in the
treatment plant. This covers the period from the time when
the waste enters the facility, until it is discarded from final
clarification into the municipal sewer system. The clarifier
operates at a capacity of 350 to 400 gpm. It accepts sludge
with an average of 1 to 1 1/2 percent solids content (dry
weight basis) from extended aeration tanks, and concentrates
it to 5.5 to 6.5 percent solids. Occasionally, the solids are
concentrated to 8 percent. The result is that the heavier
concentrated sludge is now trucked to disposal. The effluent
from the clarifier now contains only 60 ppm suspended
solids, far under the required 300 ppm BOD _
68-0660
Consolidation of surplus activated sludge. Water and Waste
Treatment Journal, 1 2( 1 2)'53(). Mar.-Apr 1968.
The biological oxidation of settled sewage by the activated
sludge process 01 percolating filters normally gives rise to
large amounts of relatively thin, secondary sludges which are
usually returned to the inlet of the primary sedimentation
tanks. During co-precipitation with the primary solids from
the sewage, the consolidation of the biological sludge is
enhanced, and the resulting mixed sludge (which contains
from 30'? to over 60',? secondary sludge on a dry basts) is
much thicker than the weighted average of the primary and
secondary sludges when consolidated separately. A survey of
the methods used for reducing sludge volumes includes the
use of pohelectrolyte flocculants, centrifugmg, and pressure
flotation.
68-0661
Contract disposal catches on. Chemical Engineering,
76(25): 138, 140, Nov. 17, 1968.
The concept of centralized facilities for industrial wastes is
becoming more popular in the United States. These units not
only take the problem of sate disposal away from client
firms, but frequently cut disposal costs as well A little over a
year ago, no such plants were operating on the continent, and
even now only one unit is running. But by the end of January
1970, two more facilities should be working. At least 20
other plants are in various stages of design Four companies
head current contract-wastes-disposal activity—about S40
million in potential plant investment is involved A number
of factors favor centrahzed-disposal units. Lirst, although a
large plant may be able to reasonably justify the capital
expenditures tor onsite treatment of wastes to acceptable
pollution standards, medium and small-size plants may find
the economic rationale tor the outlay less sound, if not
lacking. As pollution limits become progressively stricter, the
larger-scale, a centralized unit, is better able to adjust due to
operating economics Acidic wastes from one plant and
alkaline residues from another can be mixed to effect
neutralization, or at least cut down on the amount of
pH-control chemicals required prior to further treatment.
Also, when material is slated for incineration, high-heat value
wastes from one source can be added to low-heat value
wastes that otherwise would be hard and/or uneconomical to
burn Rolhns-Purle has pledged S32 million to construct a
grid of 20 plants across the United States at the rate of about
four a year. Treatment methods, various Canadian
complexes, as well as other companies involved in the venture
are listed
68-0662
Coping W'lth industrial wastes Industrial Water Engineering,
5(1):35, Jan 1968.
A centralized industrial waste disposal facility was announced
by Consolidated Oxidation Process Enterprises (COPE) of
Houston, Texas. The 20-acre facility will process 10,000 tons
of industrial wastes per month, delivered by barge, rail, or
131
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Industrial Wastes
truck. Various wastes are selectively blended in the plant and
fed to the proper oxidation unit. The first stage employs
supplemental natural gas firing to insure destruction of
volatile;,, and in the second stage, complete combustion is
facilitated by operating temperatures in excess of 1,800 F.
Over 100,000 Ib per hr of by-product steam is recovered. A
multiple-stage electrostatic precipitator is used to reduce
paniculate matter.
680663
Corner, J. T Waste tip stabilization in the Ruhr. Colliery
Guardian, 216(5576) 250-253, Mar 1, 1968.
Waste tips from mining areas require stabilization to prevent
washouts so that internal heating and pollution of
groundwater with sulfates and chlorine may be avoided. A
system used in Germany for selecting a site, constructing a
tip and planting the resulting mound is described. A base area
of about 315,000 sq m and a planned final height of 90 m is
envisaged, and at the present rate, the 31 million ton capacity
will be reached in 20 to 25 years. The material, handled
entirely by contractors, is dumped in five terraced levels, and
tip dimensions are guaranteed to give a natural external slope
angle of 35 degrees. Planting is systematically carried out by
up to four men as soon as ground surface becomes available.
At the base, trees are spaced at 10 m intervals. Strict controls
are imposed in regard to heating within the tip and the
pollution of water caused by the absorption of sulfate.
68-0664
Cottlc, B J., H Neubauer, J. Buck, and R. M. Billings
Treatment of combined kraft and newsprint effluents at an
Alabama paper mill. Journal of the Water Pollution Control
Federation, 40(7):1,314-1,331, July 1968.
Waste water from the pulp and papermakmg process at the
Coosa mill must be treated for two reasons, to remove
escaping fibrous material that might settle out in the river,
and to reduce the organic material. The construction of dams
upstream from the mill necessitated a change in the former
waste treatment system. The new effluent treatment plant
was situated across the river from the mill, making it possible
to retain the original settling basins to be used during periods
of clanfier maintenance or other emergencies. The facilities
are described in detail, including a breakdown of
construction and operating costs. The supernatant effluent
from the clarifier now flows to a 370-acre, 1.4-billion-gal
lagoon. The amount of accumulated solids in a year of
operation is extremely high and engineering studies are being
made with a view to installing presses after the centrifuges, to
increase the dryness of the solids. Settleable solids have been
eliminated essentially from the mill effluent going to the river
and the BOD has been reduced by 30 0 to 79.7 percent
overall, depending on the season and retention time The
problem of optimizing the BOD reduction in the lagoon still
remains.
68-0665
Coughlan, I1 P. Treatment of pulp and paper wastes. Water
and Wastes Fngineermg, 5(9) 8-10, Sept. 1968.
The utilization ot less expensive construction materials and
simplified designs is important in the construction of
facilities for treating pulp and paper wastes. Cost for
structures represents 40 to 70 percent of the cost of a
primary or secondary waste treatment plant. In the past,
savings in treatment were achieved by providing differing
levels of treatment for the different plant wastes, but new
Federal and State regulations are jeopardizing this
economical procedure by emphasizing uniform treatment of
all discharges. Mechanical aerators, instead of bubble air, are
seen as better choices. Mechanical dewatering devices are
better than lagoonmg, due to the large amounts of land
required for lagoonmg and the need for continuous sludge
removal. Although sludge dewatering reduces the volume of
sludge substantially, a large amount of material is still
produced, and incineration, separately, or with bark, is
expected to be practiced extensively. Treatment of pulp and
paper wastes in a municipal treatment plant offers
possibilities of Federal and State construction grants.
Disadvantages include a difference in costs between
municipal and industrial treatment plants, and guarantees are
often asked that the operating costs be met, even if the
industry discontinues operation. The most promising trend in
treatment of pulp and paper wastes is reduction in quantities,
sometimes through proper sizing ot process equipment.
680666
Gulp, G. Secondary plant effluent polishing. Water and
Sewage Works, 115(4).145, 147, Apr. 1968.
Mixed-media filtration of activated sludge effluent, without
chemical coagulation, provides effective removal of
suspended solids and related BOD. At a total cost (capital
and operating) of about one cent per 1,000 gal, suspended
solids and BOD of less than 5 mg per liter, and turbidity of
less than 5 Jtu can be achieved when filtering the effluent
from a properly operated activated sludge plant. The
mixed-media concept incorporating coal, fine sand, and very
fine garnet, approximates ideal filter gradations and provides
an effluent filtration system. Although a mixed-media filter
can tolerate higher suspended-solids loadings than can the
other processes discussed, it still has an upper limit of applied
suspended-solids at which economically long runs can be
obtained. With suspended-solids loadings of up to 120 mg per
liter, filter runs of 15 to 25 hr at 5 gpm per sq ft have been
maintained. A reliable system of tertiary filtration will
require an effluent of uniformly good quality, or some
intermediate treatment, to reduce excessive solids
concentrations prior to filtration.
68-0667
Culp, R L. The world's most advanced
wastewater-purification plant. American City, 83(8).77-78,
Aug. 1968.
The discussed project is the culmination of an 8-year program
of the South Tahoe Public Utility District to preserve the
beauty of crystal-clear Lake Tahoe by removing the threat of
eutrophication, which might otherwise be caused by the
drainage of algal-feeding nutrients from the resort and
recreational developments around the lake's south shore. The
laws of both California and Nevada require the export of all
waste water from the Tahoe basin by 1970. The reservoir,
created by the new rock-filled dam, will be receiving water
that is clear, colorless, odorless, and practically free from
132
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0663-0672
trouble-causing phosphates and nitrogen The complete
system is described Disposal of the biological sludge from
the primary and secondary treatment units is accomplished
by burning in a multiple-stage incinerator. It is- tirst thickened
to about 25 percent solids by an air flotation thickener and a
solid bowl centrifuge Most ot the phosphates removed b\
the treatment process are contained in the lime sludge. By
the end of this year, the entire south shore of Lake Tahoe
\vill be served b\ a sewer system, and all effluent will be
exported from the basin as reclaimed \vjter
68-0668.
Cummins, R L., and T. J. Sorg. Industrial solid waste
management studies. In Knpmeenng Foundation Research
Conference; Solid Waste Research and Development, II,
Beaver Dam, Wis , July 22-26, 1968 New York. (Conference
Preprint F-2.)
The Solid Wastes Program is engaged in developing
information on collection, storage, disposal problems, and
the quantity and characteristics of industrial solid wastes.
Studies have been initiated on solid waste management in the
demolition, junked automobile, and tobacco industries
Contracts dealing with polymer, rubber, printing and
publishing, chemical, electrical appliance, automotive, and
drug industry \vastes aie being considered Information and
data on industrial solid wastes will enable the assessment of
pollution regulations and allow government officials to make
responsible judgements in dealing with these wastes.
68-0669
Dahlstrom, D. Sludge dewatermg. Chemical Engineering,
75(22):103-107, Oct. 1968.
Thickening rates of sludge depend not only on the nature of
the waste, but also on its feed concentration, the specific
gravities of the solid and liquid fractions, and the desired
underflow concentration and overflow clarity. Thickening
prior to centrifugmg may give a substantial advantage. A
recent development in thickening is the use of a reaction-type
clanfier before dewatermg. There are three types of
centrifuges, conical, which gives good dewatermg and
classification but has poor clarifying capacity, cylindrical,
which delivers a high-grade clarified liquid, but has poor
dewatermg ability, and combined, which gives good
dewatermg, classification, and clarification. Vacuum
filtration is also used for dewatermg with the bulk of the
solids being retained on the surface of a drum while the
liquid is drawn through the filter and discharged. Various
mechanical means are used to remove the filter cake from the
drum. The problem of blinding or clogging of the filter has
led to continuous belt filters, which are continuously cleaned
by high pressure water sprays. Cakes, as thin as one-sixteenth
of an in. or less, can be discharged The filter feed can
contain as much as 100 percent of minus 200 mesh solids.
The gravity filter consists of two cells which are operated at
atmospheric pressure so that the solids are constantly being
deposited on the filter medium and then the solids are drawn
to another chamber where they are rolled continuously into a
cake A precoat medium is sometimes used on the filter of a
vacuum type consisting of 2 to 6 in. of diatomaceous earth or
perhte to aid the filter medium in separating fine colloidal
particles which will not settle.
68 0670
Dalton, L. K., J I', Stem, and B T. Lynam. Land
reclamation-a complete solution of the sludge and solids
disposal problem. Journal of the Water Pollution Contiol
Federation. 40(5) 789-804, May 1968
Three principal drainage areas and sewerage systems serve
Chicago The present methods do the job reasonably well,
but are still not the final solution, because dump sites tor the
processed sludge and sites for holding lagoons are
disappearing rapidly. This situation is fuithei aggravated by
high costs, air pollution problems, nutrient wastage, and the
buildup ot tines, nitrogen, and phosphorus in the waste water
treatment process Digested sludge, wet air oxidation sludge,
Imhoff sludge, and heat dried sludge processes are practices
that are presently being employed. Digested sludge processes
provide stabilization only, and do not significantly change
the sludge's nitrogen and phosphorus content. Wet air
oxidation stabilizes, but fails to reduce the nitrogen and
phosphoius. The Imhoff digestion apparatus only provides
stabilization. Manufacturing low grade fertilizer from drying
activated sludge is but a massive filtering and drying process.
This costly process causes air pollution. A land reclamation
method apparently solves the problem. The solution is
compatible with urban, environmental standards, and
economically solves the problem into perpetuity while
conserving organic material. Digested sludge would be applied
to the farmlands through irrigation systems tilled into the soil
and then farmed on a rotating basis. Data shows where this
process has been previously employed. Digested sludge
contains the three basic elements necessary for vigorous plant
grow-th. It also increases humus content, soil fertility and
structure, vitamins, water holding capacity, and moisture
supply control. L'mversity of Illinois demonstration plots will
investigate relevant aspects of the process. Also included in
the article is a partial list of areas utilizing sewage wastes
68-0671
Darcy, C B 2800 HP sludge vessel is newest in NYC fleet.
Diesel and Gas Turbine Progress, 34(6):58-59, June 1968.
The City of New York lecently placed in service a 324-ft
sludge vessel to dispose of anaerobically digested sludge from
a sewage treatment plant at sea The vessel is a twin-screw,
semi-automated ship. The sludge system is completely
operated from a central control console located on the mam
deck in the forward section of the deck house The sludge
will be discharged, by gravity, through 20-in. dump valves
located in the bottom of the vessel. Sludge pumps will be
used to wash down all eight sludge tanks during each return
trip The requirements are that the vessel be capable of being
loaded from shore installations within 2 hi, and
gravity-unloaded at sea in less than 1/2 hr, twice a day The
characteristics and operation of the vessel are detailed.
68-0672
Dick, R. I. Thickening characteristics ot activated sludge.
Water Research, 2UV91-94, Jan. 1968.
The 'non-ideal' behavior of activated sludge was interpreted
in terms of the rheological properties of the suspension. It
was hypothesized that the reason activated sludge failed to
behave according to the prevailing theories of thickening, was
that its flocculent nature and high volumetric concentration
133
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Industrial Wastes
permitted formation of a continuous internal structure, even
at ordinary mixed-liquor suspended solids concentrations. A
conceptual model of the hypothesized mechanism of
subsidence of activated sludge was developed, and the
agreement between the general form of the mathematical
models and observed settling behavior is illustrated. It was
found that activated sludges from a variety of waste
treatment plants were found to behave as plastic materials.
They possessed finite yield strengths at normal, mixed-liquor
suspended solids concentrations, and the magnitude of the
yield strength depended upon the conditions under which the
sludge was developed. The relative magnitude of the
interparticle force, as computed from laboratory settling data
by use of the mathematical models, was also shown to be
related to the yield strength of the same sludge, as
determined by use of the viscometer. The work confirms that
the 'ideal' thickening theories are not strictly applicable.
Contrary to these theories, the area of the thickening portion
of a settling basin need not be considered malterably
established by the settling velocity of the rate-limiting
concentration of activated sludge. Activated sludge does not
conform to the prevailing theories because it exists as a
plastic material even at the relatively low concentrations at
which it enters sedimentation basins. Thus the area required
for thickening can be reduced, or the capacity of an existing
basin can be increased, by minimizing the reduction in
settling velocity due to interparticle forces within the sludge.
68-0673
Dickinson, D. Problems of effluents from factories. Food
Manufacture, 43(4):37-42, Apr. 1968.
Several routes followed by an industrial effluent on its \\ay
to the sea are outlined, and physical and biological treatment
locations are mentioned. Specific cases in the food mdustr)
known to follow these various routes are considered.
Particular emphasis is devoted to factory sites, with some
suggestions regarding the location of new factories. Factory
sites with direct access to the sea have advantages over inland
sites. Facilities for effluent disposal should rank with
availability of the waste suppl) when considering the location
of a new factory.
68-0674
Digested sludge disposal on inaccessible farmland Surveyor
and Municipal hngmeer. 132(3992):49, Dec 6, 1968.
A tanker and pipeline were used to spray digested sludge in
liquid form onto farmland. Recent trials were carried out in
mixing grass seed with the sludge, and in using the technique
to convert land into grazing pasture. The vehicle used was a
2,000-gal tank in a Commer chassis, equipped with an
irrigation pump and a 4-in.-diameter flexible aluminum
pipeline. Trials were repeated at various seasons of the year
with both unprepared and prepared ground It was concluded
that where ground is inaccessible to normal farm implements,
poor grazing areas can be substantially improved by this
method This method also has possible applications in the
grassing over of slag tips
68-0675
Disposing of domestic waste biologically Science Journal,
4(2).21-22, Feb 1968
A waste disposal system, based on biological decomposition
and fully independent of the water and sewer networks, has
been developed by Rikard Lmdstroem of Sweden. While
intended for one-family houses in areas with insufficient
provision for disposal of wastes, it can be adapted for
camping or bathing sites, military training stations, and
agricultural establishments. The system consists of a garbage
chute from the kitchen and a toilet which requires no
flushing, both of which are connected via vertical pipes to a
decomposition chamber made of a reinforced impermeable
plastic material situated in the cellar or partially buried
outside. The waste material decomposes biologically at the
top of the chamber, water vapor and carbon dioxide escape
via an exhaust duct, and the final products, which can be
used as fertilizer, accumulate in the form of salts and humus
in the lower part of the container.
68-0676
Dudley, R. H. Grit handling at Kokomo. Water and Sewage
Works, 11 5(3): 127-1 28, Mar. 1968.
Grit at the Kokomo, Indiana, sewage treatment plant is
handled in a totally enclosed tubular grit conveyor which
may be operated out-of-doors without freezing. Simple,
inexpensive heating cables are wrapped around the conveyor
casings. One-inch asbestos insulation, a final outside coat of
mastic, and a finish coat of paint, complete the
weatherproofing. Grit is exposed only at the discharge point,
and regularly scheduled dumping has eliminated odor
problems. Pushers, composed of a specially compounded
neoprene to resist abrasion, after traveling some 500 miles
and carrying nearly 1/2 million Ib of grit, show no significant
loss in size. The chain lift components are all made from
hardened steel, and an 0-nng seal arrangement effectively
seals the pin bearing area from abrasive materials. A patented,
single pin, flexing arrangement results in 50 percent fewer
pins than in conventional chains, and total elongation after a
year ot operation amounts to an in or less. Safety factors
include completely enclosed system, totally enclosed guards
on the V-belt, and roller chain drive assemblies.
680677
Dumbleton, B M. New activated sludge plant to serve three
Warwickshire villages. Surveyor and Municipal Engineer,
132(3972):31-33, July 1968. "
An activated sludge plant to serve three Warwickshire villages,
with an ultimate population of 6,000, is being constructed.
Composite samples of crude sewage were taken over an 8-hr
period, and the results indicated a BOD figure varying from
280 to 900, and a suspended solids figure varying from 214
to 1,380 ppm, with an average pH of 7. Storm tanks, with a
capacity of 120,000 gal, were constructed The sewage is
screened, passes through a measuring flume to a distribution
chamber, and into two circular primary settlement tanks with
a total capacity of 60,000 gal. The tanks are scraped by
mechanical half bridge scrapers. After a period of 9 hr in the
aeration tanks, the activated sludge, mixed with primary
sludge, is discharged into two-stage cold sludge digestion
tanks with a capacity equivalent to 5 cu ft per head of
population served The effluent is passed to secondary
settlement tanks, and the final effluent discharged into a
brook near the plant. The sludge tanks have a total capacity
of 60,000 cu ft and are equipped with compressed air
circulating equipment. Digested sludge is transferred by
gravity to the drying beds having an area equivalent to 5
persons per sq yd, and from there the sludge is carried by
134
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0673-0682
conveyor to a trailer for storage or tipping. Decanted water
from the digestion tanks and drainage from the sludge beds is
recycled.
68-0678
Eales. R. Electrolyzed seawater plays a big role in sewage
disposal method Chemical Engineering, 75(13)'! 72-174,
June 17. 1968.
The use of electrolyzed seawater to treat sewage, a method
originally utilized by CJB Process Ltd. (London, England),
has since undergone changes, resulting in lower costs and
more efficient processing. CJB's first plant at Guernsey still
operates by sterilizing raw sewage with a dose of electrolyzed
seawater. The eight original open cells have been replaced by
four compact closed cells, \\hich have reduced electrolysis
costs 30 percent. Processing time has been halved and
production costs reduced. The Guernsey plant handles an
average of 6,000 gal of raw sewage per hr The ra\v material is
screened, passing through disintegrators that reduce particle
size to less than 0.125 in. A continuous flow of seaw'atcr is
pumped to a storage tank. A 6-v. direct current is supplied to
the plates. Cell products consist of chemicals such as
hypochlorites and hypobromites which react with ammonia.
ammo acid residues, and dissolved nitrogenous substances in
the sewage to produce chlorammes and chloramine-hke
compounds which function as stenlants The
sewage-t o-seawater ratio is normally about 60.1 An
active-chlorine analyzer has been installed to measuie the
strength of the sewage. The sterile effluent, having an E. coh
content of not more than 200 per ml, is discharged into the
ocean. The complete process cycle takes about 30 minutes.
Typical costs are given. The U.K.'s Electricity Council is
exploring the possibility of adapting the electrolytic system
to inland towns.
68-0679
Eckenfelder, W. W., and L. F-. Tischler. Linear substrate
removal in the activated sludge process Water Research,
2(1).54-58, Jan. 1968.
Since it is believed that the transport of substrate into a
microbial cell is an enzymatic phenomenon, the Michachs
model appears to offer a good method of describing the
removal of an organic substrate from solution by a microbial
population. The Michaelis-Menton equation predicts that
when the substrate concentration is high enough, the removal
rate will be at a constant, maximum value, i.e. independent
of the substrate concentration. The objects of this
investigation were' to demonstrate zero order removal of
several simple organic compounds by a mixed population
activated sludge, to observe the removal rates of these
orgamcs in terms of the laboratory and field parameters in
use today, and to show that the summation of the COD
removals ot each ot the compounds alone will give the overall
COD removal of a unit containing a mixture of the organics
in the same initial concentrations. The studies have evaluated
the effect of common laboratory and field parameters on the
removal rates of glucose, aniline, and phenol. The organic
loading to the continuous unit was varied in order to change
the character of the acclimated sludge. At high loadings (1 0
Ib COD per Ib MLVSS per day), filamentous sludge
predominates, and results indicate that the removal rate per
unit mass of sludge is unaffected. At lower loading levels the
sludge formed a good settling floe, typical of thai found in a
well-operated activated sludge process. The effect of
biological solids level on the removal rates of the three
compounds by a given sludge was also studied.
68-0680
Economic sludge dehydration with a traveling screen press.
Wasser Luft und Betrieb, 12(10) 646, Oct 1968
I-or dehydrating sludges, the traveling screen press proved to
be very useful. The sludge from the purification tanks is
mixed with synthetic flocculants and continuously
dehydrated between screen and press. Pressure and speed of
the traveling screen can be adjusted. A coarse screen is used
to avoid clogging. An automatic flusher cleans the screen
The operating costs of the dehydration plant are ' nv, because
almost no personnel is required Apart from transporting the
dry filter cakes, the flocculants must be prepared once a day.
which takes about 1 5 to 60 minutes. During the rest of the
time the plant is monitored by automatic control equipment,
which indicates all problems, and switches oft the plant
automatically. The plant can be switched on and off by a
time clock. All movable parts are made ot plastic material or
steel. The speed of the screen is low so that wear and tear is
no problem. (Text in German)
680681
Edwards, G. E., and W. R. Gadsden. Dewatenng of flotation
tailings by filtration or centrifugmg Australian Mining,
60(10) 4143, Oct 15, 1968.
Flotation cleaning of the fine coal fraction (minus 30 mesh)
has extended rapidly in washenes A major problem of the
flotation operation is disposal of the tailings, which are
almost invariably finely divided and in pulp form. Dumping
beyond the continental shelf 14 miles at sea was considered,
but the possibility of pipeline blockages or of currents
returning some tailings to the shoreline made the proposal
unsuitable. Mixing of thickened tailings with crushed refuse
was examined, but the product was unsuitable as fill. Roll
discharge filtration offers a practical alternative to dams
when the latter can no longer be operated. Solid bowl
centrifugmg at high centrifugal force is another alternative.
Filter pressing would be the most positive solution, but it is
considered the last resort
68-0682
Effluent from three mills and city treated successfully.
Canadian Pulp and Paper Industry, 21 (8).49-51, Aug. 1968
A pilot plant to treat the waste from the City of Pittsburgh,
New York, a groundwood mill manufacturing molded fiber
containers, a tissue mill, and a wallpaper manufacturing plant
demonstrated that the conventional activated sludge process
can be used successfully in this situation. To duplicate actual
operation, waste from these sources was blended in
proportion to the source. Laboratory tests showed that the
effluent was amenable to biological treatment, and that an
effluent low in BOD could be produced within a reasonable
detention time. Primary settling was used throughout the
pilot plant studies and averaged 26 percent BOD removal and
55 percent suspended solids removal. This was deemed
necessary due to the high fiber content of the raw waste.
135
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Industrial Wastes
From here the stream flowed to the aeration tank, at which
point returned activated sludge from the secondary clanfier
joined the waste stream. After 6 hr of biological oxidation,
the flow proceeded to the final settling tank, where activated
sludge was removed through sedimentation and returned to
the aeration tank. A modification of the activated sludge
process, which uses contact of the return activated sludge
with the raw waste for a short period, followed by
sedimentation, permits use of a smaller aeration tank volume
by utilizing the initial removal capacity of stabilized sludge.
Called contact stabilization, the method produced the desired
degree of BOD removal with a contact time of 3 hr with the
combined waste flow. With the contact period this long, the
contact stabilization process provided no significant
economic advantage over activated sludge.
68-0683
ElectroJysis-bred bubbles clarify water. Chemical
Engineering, 75(16).82, July 29, 1968.
Already having overcome a water pollution problem for the
French steel industry, a continuous separation technique
promises to speed the removal of insoluble suspended matter
from other waste water streams at costs lower than present
techniques and in applications where removal was previously
unfeasible. Called Electroflotation, the method works by
electrolyzing water in the stream, and using the resultant gas
bubbles to carry particles to the surface where they are
mechanically removed. The cost is only 0.035 cent per cu ft
compared with about 3 cents per cu ft for previous methods.
A plant in Thionville, F'rance, treats 75 cu m per hr of
effluent in 10 parallel cells. Incoming effluent contains
between 150 and 300 mg per liter of solid material, and 300
to 600 mg per liter oil. Outgoing treated water has less than
30 mg per liter solids, and less than 40 mg per liter oil.
Electroflotation yields bubble diameters generally 0.1 mm or
less. The bubbles' tendency to coalesce after separating from
the electrode is low—so they stay the same size as they travel
through the liquid. Flow around each bubble is laminar,
lessening localized disturbances and mi\mg.
68-0685
Expo 67 sewage treatment plant Water and Sewage Works,
115(1)'49-50, Jan. 1968
A sewage treatment plant constructed at Montreal's Expo 67
removed a minimum of 90 percent of the BOD and
suspended solids from incoming sewage with a maximum
capacity of 3.5 million gal per day A battery of 496
'aeration guns' is the main element in a relatively new process
called 'aerohydraulics.' Anchored beneath the 20-ft-deep
waters of the treatment pond, the guns, 12-m.-diameter
polyethylene stack pipes, were used for aeration, sludge
movement, and separation of the pond into different zones
The only mechanical units in the system are four 7CDL-17
Gardner-Denver cycle blower units, each of which supplied
1,970 cu ft of air at 15 psi to the guns. Sludge return guns
(56 in all) direct organic matter, that has settled out, back
into the aeration zone.
68-0686
Ewing, R. C. Refinery waste products pose pollution
problem. Oil and Gas Journal, 66(50):77-82, Dec. 9, 1968.
The wide variety of pollutants generally present in refinery
waste streams are considered, including chromates, caustic
cleaning agents, phenols and cyanide, oily wastes, hydrogen
sulfide, coke, gums, and catalyst fines. Methods of removing
each of these impurities are specified. Oily waste water
streams, after passing through the oil removal system, always
require further treatment, which is usually biological in
nature; for example, lagoons and activated sludge units.
Systems including activated sludge, fluidized bed
incineration, and ultrasonic incineration are described.
Disposal of oil-coated solids is being handled through
experimental application to land, where it is hoped that some
enrichment of the soil will occur. Time, depth, and spacing of
applications are under study. Deep well disposal of wastes is
being used, but there are limits to this method due to the
nature of the wastes themselves and problems with
subsurface water.
68-0684
Enders, K. E., J. Hammer, and C. L. Weber. Anaerobic lagoon
treatment of slaughterhouse waste. Water and Sewage Works,
115(6):283-288,June 1968.
The waste flow of an abattoir in rural northeastern
Nebraska is pumped to a lagoon treatment system consisting
of first-stage anaerobic lagoons, followed by intermediate and
secondary aerobic lagoons. The results of extensive testing
indicated that anaerobic lagoons are feasible for the first
stage treatment of slaughterhouse wastes in rural locations. If
designed in accordance with accepted practice, the lagoons
have the capacity to handle shock loads and intermittant
loadings without significant loss of treatment efficiency.
Under conditions existing during the studies, BOD removal in
the anaerobic lagoons was greater than 80 percent. The solids
buildup in an anaerobic lagoon system, given preliminary
treatment for removal of paunch manure and recovery of
by-products, seems to be extremely low. The primary
bacterial activity in an anaerobic lagoon is similar to that of
conventional digestion, i.e. the conversion of volatile solids to
gaseous end products.
68-0687
Eye, J. D., and S. P. Graef. Pilot plant studies on the
treatment of beamhouse wastes from a sole leather tannery.
Journal of the American Leather Chemists Association,
63(6):3964()9, June 1968.
The wastes from the beamhouse of a sole leather tannery
were separated into lime-bearing and non-lime-beanng
fractions. The lime-bearing wastes were treated with an
amonic polyelectrolyte and clarified by settling. The clarified
wastes were then blended with the non-lime-beanng waste
fractions and neutralized to a pH of about 8.5. The blended
wastes were treated in a stratified anaerobic-aerobic
biological system for reduction of the organic components.
The COD and suspended solids of the waste were reduced 90
to 95 percent in the pilot plant. The results of the pilot plant
study were used to design a full scale treatment plant capable
of treating 150,000 gal of waste per day. The full scale
system included: changes in the plant sewers; a vibratory
screen: two waste water sumps complete with pumps; a
polyelectrolyte feeding and mixing unit; a 10,000-gal upflow
clarifier; sludge removal piping and pump; two lagoons, 100
136
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0683-0692
It sq and 14 ft deep; and a floating aerator for the primary
lagoon.
68-0688
I'arkas, P. Method for measuring the aerobic activity ol
activated sludge in an open system. Water Research,
2
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Industrial Wastes
680693
Forstner, Von M. J. The influence of waste water,
water-borne manure and composting on the viability of
parasitic growth stages. Zeitschrift Fuer Wasser und Abwasser
Forschung, 3(6): 1 76-184, Nov -Dec. 1968.
For 1'/a to 2 hours during the preliminary clarification of
waste water, helminth ova can be concentrated in the sewage
sludge due to sedimentation. Waste water can thereby be
freed from worm eggs. The annihilation of the very resistant
ova of Ascandes and Taeniae, which survive subsequent
sludge digestion, can only be guaranteed by high-temperature
procedures. Agricultural utilization of digested sludge is
possible if the fertilization is done in autumn on fields used
for the cultivation of potatoes or cereals, because these crops
will only be eaten or fed after cooking or frying. Sludge from
activated sludge plants constantly contains viable ova of
parasitic worms, and therefore its application is only possible
after pasteurizing or composting. In excrement, helminth ova
die after the manure is piled for 2 months, just as they are
destroyed after 2 months in liquid manure. Not all parasitic
stages are killed after 85 days in the gulley hole of
waterborne systems of manuring, due to the presence of
water. Grass fertilized with manure can be satisfactorily fed
after 80 to 90 days in a silo. Material infected with worm
eggs, such as offal, parts of manure, etc., have to be removed
by composting. By the common composting of sewage sludge
and garbage, a hygienic and unobjectionable product can be
obtained. (Text in German)
68-0694
14,000 kw from sewage gas. Diesel and Gas Turbine Progress,
34(l):20-21,Jan. 1968.
The largest treatment center proposed in a master water
pollution control plant for the City of New York, located in
the Greenpoint section of Brooklyn, is the Newtown Creek
water pollution control plant. The plant will treat an average
flow of 310 million gal per day of combined sewage, utilizing
the 'high rate' activated sludge process, which detains the
sewage 1.5 hours at average flow rates. The treatment process
includes grit removal, aeration, settling, and
hypochlonnation. The settled waste sludge is thickened,
anaerobically digested, and disposed of at sea by a fleet of
sludge vessels. The same process results in the production of
sludge gas, a mixture of roughly 40 percent carbon dioxide
and 60 percent methane, which is used as fuel for the dual
fuel engine-generators. The heat value of the sludge gas is
approximately 600 Btu per cu ft. Heat recovered from the
engine cooling water is used for heating the sludge contents
of the digestion tanks, thus maintaining the optimum 95 F
temperature favorable for the sludge digestion process.
68-0695
Gale, R S. Some aspects of the mechanical dewatering of
sewage sludges. Filtration and Separation, 5(2)'133-148,
Mar.-Apr. 1968.
A brief outline of sewage treatment methods, the
concentrations and quantities of solids involved, and
comments on the differences in quantities and properties of
sludges from various sewage works is presented. Performance
data include type of sludge, conditioning, solids content, and
output, these are tabulated for the vacuum filtration, filter
pressing, and sludge concentrators methods of dewatering
sludge. These data show that sludges are not easy to dew-ater,
and that conditioning is a crucial aspect to the operation. The
amount ot conditioner used and the conditions of its
application, including stirring and aging of the sludge, are
discussed. Drawings and tables illustrating effects of stirring,
quantity, and time involved are included.
68-0696,
Gates, C. D., and R. F. McDermott. Characterization and
conditioning water treatment plant sludge. Journal of the
American Water Works Association, 60(3).331-344, Mar.
1968.
Wastes removed at rapid sand filtration plants include
mixtures of soil, microorganisms, organic chemicals, and
hydrous oxides that accumulate at the bottom of settling
basins, as well as finer fractions of the same mixtures
collected at the filtering medium of the basin. These wastes,
which are removed hydraulically, are commonly discharged
without treatment to nearby bodies of water and often
pollute the receiving water. A study of solid contents,
settleability and filterability of the alum sludge in two water
treatment plants was made with the aid of specially designed
in-place samplers (shown on schematic drawings). Bottom
samples, after draining, showed an average concentration of
40,900 mg per liter. Studies of settleability, earned out in
1-liter graduated cylinders, showed a distinct interface
between the supernatant and the settling solids ('zone
settling') In filterability tests, a 9 cm ceramic Buchner
funnel, a 100-ml sample volume, and a negative pressure
of 15 in. of mercury were used with No. 5 Whatman paper
filter medium. Specific lesistance ranged from one billion to
4.4 billion sq seconds per g. Additional investigations
concerned viscosity, volatile solids, and the use of
polyelectrolytes for conditioning of the alum sludge.
Approximately 95 percent of the total solids in the sludge
were found to be settleable solids, while further studies are
suggested on the applicability of the reported alum sludge
characteristics.
68-0697
Gaudy, A. I ., K. C. Goel, and A. J, Frcedman. The treatment
of sugar refinery waste by a new modification of the
activated sludge process. Water Research, 2(1):90, Jan. 1968.
A recently developed modification of the activated sludge
process, reducing the nitrogen supplement for
nitrogen-deficient wastes and preventing a leakage of nitrogen
to the receiving stream, is tested on a continuous flow basis,
employing whole waste. A continuous flow pilot plant was
operated in accordance with the flow diagram already
proposed. Sugar refinery effluent, essentially devoid of
nitrogen, was employed; the average COD of the waste was
approximately 850 mg per liter and its BOD 500 mg per liter.
Approximately 45 percent of the COD registered as
carbohydrate. During the study the COD concentration
varied approximately plus or minus 35 percent, permitting
the opportunity of examining the stability of the system (In
initial experiments, phosphate buffer was added to the
waste.) It has been found that the process yields in excess of
90 percent COD removal, using detention times in the
feeding aerator as low as 5 hr. The detention time used so far
138
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0093-0702
in the endogenous aerator has been 12 hi. although it has
been deteimmed that conversion occurs \vithm 7 hr.
Tliioughotit the study the sludge exhibited excellent settling
characteristics. Research is now continuing to order to
optimi/.e detention times, air flow rates, etc. It \\as
concluded that the new modification of the activated sludge
process, which was proposed on the basis of batch studies
using synthetic waste, can be usefully employed for the
treatment of the whole waste used under continuous flow
conditions
niters with built-in pressure membranes were discussed. With
those, considerably better dehydiation results can be
achieved Another paper discussed special corrosion
problems. By using corrosion-proof coatings, (such as rubber,
galvanic protective coating, etc.) abrasive corrosion can be
stemmed. Another paper dealt with dehydrators and
centrifuges in the potassium plant of Buggingen, Germany.
The development of hydrocyclones in the kaolin industry
was illustrated by slides. The new hydrocyclones ot the
Aniberg kaolin plant weie described. (Text in German)
68-0698
Gavclm, G. Is evaporation the ultimate solution to effluent
problems? Paper Trade Journal, 1 52(24)'102-1 03. June 10,
1968.
In pulp and paper mills, the objective is not to reclaim clean
water, but to concentrate the dissolved solids in the waste
water to a stage where they can be economically thickened
by evaporation. Although effluent evaporation is normally
considered economically unfeasible, a Swedish mill located at
Skinnskattebcrg has obtained satisfactory results. The
effluent water was divided into three separate systems:
cooling water and seal water is piped directly to the sewer;
water collected from the fresh water showers goes to a
lagoon: while excess water, water pressed out at the
defibrator screw presses, and all other contaminated effluents
are collected in tanks and pumped to filters. The filtered
water is drawn to the evaporating plant. Tank overflows are
recirculated. It was possible to bring the total dissolved and
colloidal solids content of the water to 3.8 percent, which is
a comparatively low load on the evaporating plant. Operation
of the evaporating plant is discussed. Steam consumption is
700 Ib at 25 psi per metric ton of water evaporated Cost of
evaporation is calculated to be $0.75 per ton of board. The
process of reverse osmosis is also discussed
68-0699
Gerstenbcrg, H., and H. Sehafer. Mechanical dehydration.
Chemie-Ingenieur-Teclmik. 40(7):359-361, May 1968
The work group, 'mechanical dehydration,' ot the
Association of German Engineers (Verem Deutscher
Ingemeure) held a meeting on October 24 and 25. 1967 in
Freiburg, West Germany. One paper dealt with flow and
movement in decanter centrifuges. In direct current
decanters, solids and liquids flow in the same direction. At a
rotation of less than 3,000 per minute, no satisfactory-
dehydration is achieved. The second paper dealt with a filter
dehydrator. Contrary to the conventional cake filtration, the
polluted water to be filtered flows at high speed past the
filter dehydrator, so that no cake can form. With a dense,
smooth polypropylene tissue, no clogging occurred even at a
low speed of 1 m per see. but a lower amount of solids were
retained. Kaolin-containing water could be thickened from
50 g per liter to 300 g per liter. The workgroup 'disposal of
industrial wastes' of the Dechema Association held three
meetings when members of the work group 'mechanical
dehydration' were present To them, the paper 'Disposal of
municipal and industrial waste water sludge according to the
Passavant sludge/ash method' was of special interest With
this method, part of the ash is directly mixed into the sludge
to improve its dehydration ability; the rest is applied to the
filter tissues (thickness 0.2 to 0.5mm). In another paper.
68-0700
Gibbs, W. R., and H. Benjes. Design and operation of a
combined waste treatment plant. Public Works, 99(2) 66-70,
121, Feb. 1968.
Studies were undertaken in 1962 to determine the best
approach to solve the present and anticipated problems ot
waste treatment in Grand Island, Nebraska. Aerobic lagoons,
anaerobic lagoons, trickling filters, and several variations of
the activated sludge process were investigated. The studies led
to the decision that maximum efficiency and economy would
be realized by combined treatment of domestic and industrial
wastes m a new plant incorporating the complete-mixing
activated sludge process. Lower operation and maintenance
cost would result. Data charts and tables from the operation
of the new combined facilities arc included. A complete
layout of the plant, as well as special and conventional
equipment, total costs, and operation of the facility are
discussed.
68-0701
Gratteau, J. C, and R. I. Dick. Activated sludge suspended
solids determinations. Water and Sewage Works,
115(10)-468-472, Oct. 1968.
Methods tested for determining activated sludge suspended
solids concentrations within the range of values ordinarily
found in waste treatment plants included: Gooch crucible
asbestos mat, Gooch crucible-glass fiber filter, membrane
filter-oven dried, and membrane filter-dessiccator dried. The
methods were compared with respect to accuracy, precision,
convenience, and cost. The methods used for the
determinations are detailed, and the results suggest that the
glass fiber filter-Gooch crucible method is comparable or
superior to the other methods. The glass fiber filter method
was found to be the most accurate, and its precision was
comparable to the membrane filter technique. It was also the
most convenient and economical. The membrane filter
technique is the most precise of the methods examined The
asbestos mat-Gooch crucible technique was found to be the
least accurate and most imprecise method investigated, and
was judged most inconvenient.
68-0702
Greer, W. T. Sea disposal of sludge at Glasgow. Water
Pollution Control, 67(4):431-432, 1968.
Sludge from the mam at Dalmarnock, and tanked-m sludge
from neighboring authorities, is lifted into elevated storage
tanks by centrifugal pumps. Two tanks are used, each divided
into two compartments, each holding about 1,450 tons. The
139
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Industrial Wastes
tanks discharge into a ship making use of an available
hydraulic head which varies according to the state of the tide
and the depth in the elevated storage tanks. The sludge is
divided in the ship's hopper into four equal streams so that
the ship's four cargo tanks are loaded simultaneously. The
dump is in the Firth of Clyde, and is discharged through
manually opened, mushroom-type valves. The sludge is
discharged, without pumping, in approximately 10 minutes.
The total shipped to sea in 1966-1967 was 809,551 tons. The
cost averages 1 8S. 13d. per ton.
68-0703
Greigoneva, L. V., G. I. Korchak, and V. I. Bondarenko.
Sanitary characteristics (virological and bacteriological) of
sewage, sludge, and soil in suburbs of Kiev. Hygiene and
Sanitation, 33(7-9):360-365, July-Sept. 1968.
Virological and bacteriological investigations of sewage,
sludge, and soil in the Bortnichi sewage treatment
installations in the suburbs of Kiev, together with survival
studies of certain microorganisms in the sludge, which was a
mixture of sediments from primary settling tanks and excess
activated sludge, were carried out in 1965-1966. The sewage
was analyzed throughout the year in the different stages of
its mechanical-biological processing. Sludge samples were
similarly taken from methanol tanks, before and after
thermophilic fermentation. The soil irrigated with the sewage
was studied on 11 plots, with various agricultural crops, from
March through October of each year. These plots were
irrigated with a mixture of household sewage and industrial
effluents, after complete biological processing in some cases,
and after only mechanical processing in others. Of the 11
plots investigated, two were used as controls; these were
irrigated with water from a drilled well. The samples of
sewage, sludge, and soil were tested for the presence of
enteroviruses, coliform bacteriophages, pathogenic sertypes
of 1C. coll, sanitary-bacteriological indices, and total rmcrobial
contamination. Supporting data are furnished. Survival
studies of pathogenic microorganisms in the sewage sludge
revealed a fairly prolonged viability, both on storage and
under various fermentation conditions.
68-0704
Greiner, F J. Dairy industry and environmental waste.
Journal of Dairy Science, 51 (7):! ,1 51-1,1 53, July, 1968.
Earlier this year, the Dairy Industry Committee, composed of
the operating executives of the dairy associations at the
national level, established a new Environmental Waste
Subcommittee. The subcommittee is analyzing new air and
water pollution legislation and determining its effect upon
the dairy industry Aluminum, plastic, and glass
nonreturnable containers have great consumer convenience,
but they do represent serious solid waste management
problems. Those which may be incinerated may contribute to
air pollution. Those which must be disposed of on land
remain in our environment for centuries. One of the critical
areas that should be examined by the dairy industry is waste
prevention Valuable materials can be recovered from
industrial effluent Present techniques in the production of
cottage cheese provide waste water with a minimum of 20
percent of whey solids. An improved method of separating
the curd from the whey to obtain a better recovery of the
whey would permit a big reduction in waste from cheese
plants. Effective reuse of waste water, and alternate waste
treatment methods in milk plants and dairy farms must be
considered.
68-0705
Griffiths, J. Control and treatment of trade effluents.
Surveyor and Municipal Engineer, 1 31(3956)'22-25, Mar.
1968.
Control of trade effluents entering public sewers is necessary
so that the sewers will not be blocked, damaged, or rendered
dangerous or a nuisance. The degree to which the effluents
must be controlled is governed by river authorities and local
authorities. The amount of control varies with the situation
existing in the local area, the nature of the effluent, and the
volumes of trade effluent and sewage to be treated. Solids,
grease and oil, high volume discharge, pH, temperature,
petrol, and oil contaminants generally require some
pretreatment or control before discharge into sewers. A
charge to the producers of the waste is in some cases
necessary, especially when the treatment facilities must be
considerably larger or more complex to treat the trade
wastes. A high degree of cooperation is necessary between
industry and local river authorities to handle this problem.
68-0706
Hammer, M. J., and T. Tilsworth. Field evaluation of a high
late activated sludge system. Water and Sewage Works,
115(6):261-266, June 1968.
A high rate activated sludge system was selected for Wahoo,
Nebraska, to treat the sewage from nearly 4,000 inhabitants.
The population is expected to increase to 7,500 by 1980, at
which time the design flow of 1.75 million gal per day,
having 290 mg per liter BOD, is expected to be realized. The
plant was designed on a symmetrical basis consisting of two
complete, independent, aeration units and aerobic digesters.
At the time of the study, one-half of the plant was treating
the entire sewage flow, which averaged 0 46 million gal per
day on weekdays during June and July. Included among the
tabulated data are: BOD characteristics of 24-hour composite
raw sewage samples, BOD and solids data on 24-hr composite
plant influent; effluent samples, maximum and minimum
hourly loading rates, and retention times, characteristics of
mixed liquor in aeration tank, quantity and characteristics of
excess activated sludge pumped from the aeration system to
the aerobic digester, and design parameters versus observed
values. The system performed satisfactorily at design loads,
but cannot absorb significant daily overloads. The design air
capacity, required to meet the peak oxygen demand during
the maximum BOD loading period, was approximately 2,000
cu ft per Ib BOD applied.
68-0707
Hanks, F. J., J. R Lambert, and P. S. Ophger. Hydrologic
and quality effects of disposal of peach cannery waste.
Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural
Engineers, ll(l):90-93 Jan.-Feb. 1968.
Since food processing is often highly seasonal, the disposal of
its wastes by municipal sewage treatment plants can severely
disrupt normal processes unless special arrangements are
made. One of the most feasible methods of treating waste
140
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0703-0712
water from peach canneries is to spread it on the soil surface.
The intermittant application, for a short duration, would
allow ample time between seasons for degradation of the
solids. The infiltration rate and other hydrologic factors must
be known for optimal use of the soil mantle. Also, the
capacity for removal of such materials by the soil should be
known. For this reason, lysimeters were set up on relatively
undisturbed Cecil sandy clay loam. The results indicated that
application of screened peach cannery waste on this type of
soil is a satisfactory method of disposal. Common Bermuda
grass is a suitable cover crop for this purpose, provided that
an excessive hydraulic loading is avoided. The ability of the
soil mantle to reduce BOD, alkalinity, pH, and suspended
solids varied with the application rate. These factors did not
significantly change in time under the conditions and
durations used in the experiment. Evapotranspiration is a
major factor in disposal of waste waters, and it approached
computed potential values when application rates were
around 0.50 to 0.75 times the amount which infiltrated
under ponded conditions.
68-0708
Harrison J., and H R. Bungay. Heat syneresis of sewage
sludges. Part I. Pilot plant tests with various domestic sludges
Water and Sewage Works, 115(5).217-220, May 1968
The use of heat to dewater municipal sewage sludge is a
promising alternative to anaerobic digesters, because all
organisms are killed, and the sludge can be considered for
totally nonpathogenic fertilizer, landfill, or fuel. Pilot tests
with various domestic sludges, which are detailed, showed
that for Waring blended primary sludges, filtration
improvement required both heating and holding. The
filtration rate increased markedly with treatment
temperature up to about 170 C and with holding time up to
20 minutes, with no further improvement noted at higher
temperature or longer time. Data and calculations for sludges
from the primary sedimentation hoppers are given. Sludge
mixtures containing trickling filter humus were uneffected by
heat treatment, and showed considerable resistance to
filtration. A I'l mixture of primary and activated sludge
showed a dramatic improvement in filtration rate with this
treatment The treated sludges gave relatively dry cakes,
which could be discharged from the filter with ease and had
sufficient heating value to be considered as fuel or
supplementary fuel
68-0709
Harrison, J , H. R. Bungay, and A. M. Lord. Heat syneresis of
sewage sludges Part 2. Plant design and costs. Water and
Sewage Works, 1 15(6):268-273, June 1968.
A plant design and costs of operation are considered for a
process of dewatenng sewage sludges by heat treatment and
filtration. Two systems are analyzed, one employing
high-pressure sludge pumping and the other avoiding that
necessity. The costs for each of these two systems are
tabulated including: equipment description and reference,
interest at 4 percent depreciation, operation, and
maintenance Diagrams of the proposed heating systems are
given for both systems, along with detailed descriptions. It
was concluded that the costs of treating sludges by heat
syneresis and filtration are attractive compared with those for
sludge digestion and drying beds. With additional savings in
space, and production of a cake with fuel or fertilizer value,
the sludge heating process is deemed worthy of large-scale
evaluation. The costs, considering 3,830 tons of dry solids
processed per year, would be S23.23 per ton without
high-pressure pumping; utilizing high-pressure pumping, they
would be $19.04.
68-0710
Hartman, L., and G. Laubenbergei. Influence of turbulence
on the activity of activated sludge. Journal of the Water
Pollution Control Federation, 40(4).670-676, Apr. 1968.
To determine how the activity ot tree-floating bacterial
colonies is influenced by turbulence, activated sludge was
grown on a medium consisting ot diluted Liebig's meat
extract. Without washing, the sludge was aerated by
compressed oxygen until supersaturation was reached.
Aeration was continued for about H) to 15 minutes while the
mixed liquor was in circular movement. The results indicated
that at high concentrations of organic material in the mixed
liquor, the transport of oxygen from the environment to the
cell surface is the rate-limiting link in the chain of
biodegradation reactions. An increase of oxygen pressure also
results m an increase of oxygen consumption by the (Iocs.
Turbulence resulted in the breaking apart of the
agglomerated floes m the bacterial colonies, and the exchange
of contact area between the bacteria and the environment.
Both phenomena result m an increase of the oxygen uptake.
Deflocculation starts while the fluid is still in lammai
movement, and it extends to some degree into turbulent
conditions. At Reynolds numbers of around 5,000, no
further influence of water movement on the physical
properties of the floes seems to occur. The influence of
turbulence on the change of contact layer between bacteria
and water occurs mainly between Reynolds numbers of
5,000 and 9,000 In activated sludge plants treating effluents
high in organics, the oxygen tension should be higher than
normal plants. This should result in a higher degradation rate
per time and sludge unit.
68-0711
Hartmann, L., and G. Laubenberger. Toxicity measurements
m activated sludge. Journal of the Sanitary Engineering
Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil
Engineers, 94(SA2).247-256, Apr. 1968.
Toxicity measurements have shown that the
Michaehs-Menton model can be applied to describe the
activity of activated sludge. Some toxic materials tend to
have a largely competitive effect, while others are largely
noncompetitive. Several types of activated sludge were used
to study both the influences of sludge composition and
sludge age. Increasing sludge age finally results in pure
competitive inhibition or noncompetitive inhibition,
depending on the nature of the toxic material (copper
sulphate or bichromate). The effect of pH is a pure
noncompetitive inhibition. The relationship between
mineralization of sludge and its sensitivity to toxic substances
is also shown.
68-0712
Harvey, E. H., and T. M. Devine. Bark fines removal and
recovery system. Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada,
69(19):43, Oct. 4, 1968.
Because of the significant contribution made to the
suspended solids in its mill effluent by bark fines, Abitibi
141
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Industrial Wastes
Paper Company has installed a Centribed system and lagoon.
The Centribed system handles a total water consumption of
3,000 gpm and mechanically recovers a large percentage of
bark fines, while allowing the recirculation and reuse of
partially-treated effluent to the barking drums. The lagoon
(600 by 60 by 8 ft deep) allows settleable material from the
Centribed effluent to concentrate at the bottom, with a
retention time of 50 hr per 24-hr day. The Centribed system
operates at an efficiency of 78 percent, and the lagoon
removes bark fines with an efficiency of 85 to 90 percent,
giving an overall efficiency of about 97 percent
68-0713
Harvey, E. H., and T. M. Devine. Bark fines removal and
recovery system. Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada,
69(23):71-76,Dec. 6, 1968.
A system is described to accomplish the 2-told objective of
mechanically recovering a large percentage of bark fines from
a wet debarking operation, and allowing recirculation and
reuse of partially treated effluent to the barking drums. A
Centribed system designed to process 3,000 gpm of bark
effluent is fully described with complete and detailed
drawings. Tabulations include: recorded data from the
various points in the system including pressure, flow, and
consistencies; and overall woodroom bark recovery Bark is
being removed at an efficiency of 99 percent. Bark fines are
being removed by the Centribed system at an efficiency of 78
percent. The lagoon removes bark fines from the final
effluent at an efficiency of 85 percent. Any further attempts
to reduce the suspended solids content significantly would
probably require the use of chemical coagulants. The
Centribed system consists of a Centnclone, two Centripress
drainers, four Hydraclanfiers, and a settling tank with a
lagoon for removal of solids which escape the Centribed
system.
68-0714
Holding, J. C. Experimental work on digested sludge pressing.
Water Pollution Control, 67(5):528-535, I 968.
At the Cambridge works, experimental testing was conducted
to determine the feasibility of using filter presses and a
digested sludge process for extending the existing plant. This
method was tested because disposal of the product was
accomplished through local farmers, and the cake product
was judged to make a more attractive product. Various
conditioners were evaluated using an experimental small press
loaned by the manufacturer, and the results are given. It was
decided to use lime and copper as conditioning agents, and
six 80-chamber presses, each 51 in. square, producing 0.75 in.
cakes, provided with PVD monofilament cloths, were also
used. Hydrochloric acid was to be used for cleaning the
cloths in situ It was decided to use 0 75 in. cakes, since
better results were consistently obtained with the thinner
cake. The capacity is estimated at 33,000 gal per day of
digested sludge containing 5 percent solids
68-0715.
Hopkins, G. J., and R. L. Jackson. Solids handling and
disposal. Public Works, 99(1):67-70, Jan. 1968.
Sludge disposal from Kansas City's three sewage treatment
plants is centralized at the Big Blue River Sewage Treatment
Plant. This raw sludge filtration and incineration system,
which represents an investment of $4,635,000, will dispose
of the solids generated by an estimated population equivalent
to 845,000 persons. The sludge processing and handling
facilities include: sludge thickening tank, sludge holding
tanks, sludge dewatering equipment, (8 continuous belt-type
vacuum filters), incinerators, laboratory facilities, and
metering equipment. The incineration equipment consists of
three multiple-hearth furnaces. Scrubbers limit the emission
of fly ash to a maximum of 0.5 Ib of particulate matter per
1,000 Ib of flue gases. After an extensive study, it was
decided to use polyelectrolytes to aid in the dewatering of
the sludge. The Missouri Water Pollution Board issued a
conditional permit to discharge residual ash to the Big Blue
River along with the plant effluent. Vacuum filter operating
data and design conditions for sludge incinerators are
tabulated.
68-0716
Horn, W. New waste water process doesn't pollute air. Plant
Engineering, 22(1): 82-83, Jan. 11, 1968.
The stench from three waste treatment lagoons of a
papermaking plant was polluting the air in the neighboring
community. A new waste treatment process, the Purifax
process, partly financed by the Federal government, was tried
for the first time in an industrial plant. By incorporating
some of the older pollution control equipment into the
overall process, the cost of the installation was held to
$500,000. The system consists of pumping waste water from
the mill into two receiving tanks outside the treatment
building. From there it goes to the new treating equipment
which consists of a reactor where chlorine is added with
turbulent mixing. Pumps circulate the sludge in the reactor,
and completely mix it with the chlorine. Cycle time for
complete oxidation is from 1 to 2 minutes. No heat is
required, and pressures generated are less than 50 psi. From
the reactor unit, waste water goes to a defoamer. After foam
has been removed, water is pumped into a floe tank, where
lime is added to cut down the acidity of the water. The final
stage is a settling tank, where sludge settles to the bottom
and is later drawn off and pumped back into the mill for
reuse in the papermaking operation. The daily discharge from
the mill is about 2 million gal. Chemicals used in the new
system cost about $55,000 per year.
68-0717
How Golden Wonder makes effluent treatment pay 1'ood
Manufacture, 43(4).33-36, Apr. 1968.
The effluent treatment plant built by the Wonder Crisp Co.
turns out 20 tons per week of high grade potato starch. The
effluent treatment operation is divided into two lines. One
handles potato wash water and peelings, while the other is
devoted to starch recovery. An electrically-controlled
pneumatic system allows operation in three ways' fully
automatic control; pushbutton automatic control; and
remote manual control. The price received for the starch,
while not entirely covering the cost of running the effluent
plant, nevertheless goes a considerable way toward offsetting
the cost of effluent disposal.
142
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0713-0722
68-0718
How lo cut chipper waste. Pulp and Paper Magazine of
Canada, 69(10) 55-56, May 1968.
It is estimated that a 1,000-ton-per-day mill may improve
yearly operating profits by $200,000 by optimum chipper
performance. In accepting bids for chippers, specifications
should cover log size, species, chip size, the maximum
amount of waste acceptable, bearings, alloys in chipper disc
forging, heat treatment of chipper disc during and after
manufacture, and specifications for critical characteristics
and tolerances. Differences in species require different
machine settings, and all possible effort should be expended
to segregate mill feed by species to increase chipper
efficiency.
680719
Hunteanu, A., K. Cute, and C. Negulescu. Pilot plant tests on
mechanical and biological treatment of waste waters from
kraft-cellulose factories. Water Research, 2(l):63-66, Jan.
1968.
Results are reported of tests for the most suitable treatment
of waste waters from kraft-cellulose factories, carried out in a
semi-industrial pilot station (30 liters per second) over a
period of 250 days. Methods and equipment are described for
mechanical, biological, and sludge treatments. Mechanical
treatment in suspensional or deep settling tanks led to
hydraulic loadings 2-fold greater than in radial settling
tanks with the same treatment efficiency. The effluents were
also better. However, suspensional settling tanks are not
recommended due to their tendency to foam and the
possibility of flotation of suspended matter due to wide
temperature variations characteristic of such waters. The
sludge from mechanical treatment is not biologically
decomposable. Dewatering on drained sand beds was
satisfactory. The drained sludge can be lifted and removed
after 4 to 5 days. The settled waste water is easy to treat by
biological methods, provided it is first neutralized and
supplemented with sufficient microbial mineral requirements.
The activated sludge aeration plant can be fed the waste
waters without the addition of sewage. High treatment
efficiencies can be attained by intensive aeration, and a high
concentration of activated sludge can be maintained with
considerable organic loading of the plant Activated sludge
treatment gives satisfactory results at short aeration times,
for partial treatment of the wastes. Phenol, in the waste
water, is completely removed by this method. The sludge
formed in the aeration tank has satisfactory settling
characteristics, even for short aeration periods, and it is easily
decomposed
sidings and handling equipment are available at both ends.
Belt conveyors may meet some requirements, and pipeline
conveyors are a remote possibility. Hauling requires a capital
investment in storage and loading equipment by the supplier,
in hauling equipment by the transporter, and in unloading or
hauling equipment at the disposal site. Capital investment
costs include interest on investment in land and equipment,
depreciation, and taxes. Costs that vary directly with the
weight and miles hauled are labor, fuel, and maintenance.
Total transportation costs include the costs incurred at the
mill, plus those of the hauler. The mill's total disposal costs
consist of transportation costs, plus charges by the receiver
for disposing the waste. Sample cost estimates are given for
hauling waste by motor truck for various lengths of haul.
These are compared to some current rates for truck and rail
hauling. The most economical costs are achieved when
equipment is used for the maximum number of hours each
day. For two-shift operation on short hauls of 15 miles or
less, hauling costs for waste bark and sawdust will be about
$0.028 per cu yd per mile.
68-0721
Hyde, P. E., and S. E. Corder. A preliminary study of
disposal of wood and bark wastes by landfill. Corvallis,
Oregon State University, School of Forestry Research
Laboratory, Oct. 1968. 5 p.
Wood and bark wastes do not offer an attractive habitat for
vermin. It would not be necessary to daily cover a landfill of
wood and bark wastes with a soil cover, although periodic
cover may be useful as a means of fire control. During a
survey of Oregon sawmills and plywood plants in 1968, some
mills were found to be using wood and bark fills to reclaim
swampy or low-lying areas. To make a realistic estimate of
cost for landfill disposal of sawdust and bark, it would be
necessary to select a particular location and set of conditions.
Site factors such as availability, topography, land cost,
distance from mill or mills, and subsequent use of the land
would need to be evaluated. Based on the reported costs of
sanitary landfills, a figure of $1.25 per ton might be a first
approximation of landfill costs for sawdust and bark. Less
earth cover would be required, but less compaction would be
expected, so that larger volumes would be required per ton of
material. These two factors might tend to balance the cost.
Truck transport of bark and sawdust for a 5-to-10-mile haul
to the landfill would cost $0.50 to $1.00 per ton. The
sawmill would have to install a storage bin, which probably
would cost $10,000 to $20,000. Total cost for a sawmill
producing 100 tons per day of sawdust and bark would be
$200 per day for disposal by landfill. Unknown factors that
should be explored are the possibility of fire and
contamination of ground or surface water.
680720^
Hyde, P. E. Costs of transporting wood mill residues.
Corvallis, Oregon State University, School of Forestry
Research Laboratory, Oct. 1968. 9 p.
Transportation is an essential element of any means of waste
wood disposal. In evaluating the cost of disposal or
utilization other than burning on the site, the cost of hauling
must be considered. Wood waste will usually be hauled by
truck. Rail hauls are economical for more than 80 miles, if
68-0722
Ichikawa, K., C. G. Golueke, and W. J. Oswald. Biotreatment
of Steffen House waste. Journal of the American Society of
Sugar Beet Technology, 15(2):125-150, July 1968.
A biotreatment system for Steffen waste, produced in a beet
sugar factory, incorporates the use of a mixed culture of
yeast, algae, and bacteria grown on Steffen waste in lagoons.
Of eleven strains of yeasts tested for their rate of growth in a
143
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Industrial Wastes
pure culture, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, S. William, and
Mycotorula jaj)onica had the highest growth rate, reaching a
concentration of 199 to 252 mg per liter in 44 hr. In a
determination of the use of yeast as a primary treatment
agent for Steffen waste, it was found that M. japonica,
inoculated into sterile Steffen waste, reduced the COD of the
waste by 23 percent in 48 hr, while increasing the
concentration of the biomass to 700 mg per liter. Results
showed the ratio of the volume of inoculum to waste should
be at least 1 to 9, and that it is essential for most efficient
treatment to use as inoculum, algal-bacterial cultures adapted
to the environmental conditions under which the waste
treatment will take place. Water enhances the rate and extent
of COD and nitrogen removal (the latter as high as 72
percent) and results in a significant increase in the
concentration of the biomass. A basic design was developed
that calls for three steps: pretreatment in which air and
carbon dioxide are bubbled through the waste to lower the
pH and precipitate calcium; primary treatment in which
wastes are passed through a two-pond series with a detention
of 3 days in each; and secondary treatment in which the
discharge from the primary pond series is passed into a large
facultative pond.
68-0723
Industrial waste problem Water and Waste Treatment
Journal, 12(.3):89, Sept.-Oct. 1968.
A decision was made by the British Minister of Housing and
Local Government that farm effluents should be allowed into
the sewer for treatment at sewage works subject to the
payment of trade effluent charges permitted by legislation. It
is expected that many authorities will see this decision in the
context of industry in general and not farming in particular.
The farming community will need to give some thought to
the problem as it exists at the source, for if local authorities
adopt the principle that farm wastes are twice as difficult to
treat as normal domestic sewage, then the farmer will be
faced with a sizeable financial problem, should the local
authority expect to get the full cost of treatment.
68-0724
Bartels, R. The influence of differently treated communal
sewage sludges on the quality and output of sandy solids
(quantity and quality of the harvest). V. D. I. Zeitschrift,
110(2):64, Jan. 1968.
Whether sludge is applied to fields in the liquid state or is
dried before use, costs are high, making this way of using
sludge very questionable. To determine how a sandy soil of
diluvial origin reacts to a single application of dried sludge, a
field growing grass and one growing a root crop were
fertilized with two differently treated sludges; both sludges
were dried at 65 C for different periods of time, but one was
mixed with a precipitating agent. The artificially dried sludge
caused damage by excess fertilization. The field with the root
crop showed an improvement in vegetation, especially with
the sludge potassium fertilizer. The growth of grass improved
by an average of 60 percent even in the post-fertilization
year, and the thermally dried sludge produced an increase in
output-after a second sowing--of 90 percent. Almost the
same success was achieved with raw protein output. Since an
increase in the pH value of the soil was found aftei two years,
along with a rise in the humus content and a 14 percent jump
in absorbing capacity, the sludges can be considered suitabk
fertilizers. (Text in German)
68-0725
Isaac, P. C. G. Aerobic biological treatment of sewage.
Journal of the Institute of Municipal Engineers, 95(2):58-65,
Feb. 1968.
During the biological treatment of sewage about one-third of
the BOD is destroyed by biochemical action and the
remaining cell material and suspended solids are removed by
settling. The biochemistry of aerobic sludge handling is
considered, and two common methods utilizing this process
are considered in detail. Percolating filter design and
mediums are considered. Activated sludge design and the
mechanism occurring in its use are described. Tapered- and
step-aeration were developed to try to equalize the oxygen
demand throughout the aeration unit. Contact stabilization is
particularly suitable where most of the BOD is suspended or
colloidal and can be adsorbed onto the surface of the
microorganisms. It utilizes a short contact time and produces
large volumes of sludge. Extended aeration is designed to
operate at or near to the point of maximum microbial
activity. It is generally utilized for small tributary
populations and one of its purposes has been to reduce sludge
handling problems. The Pasveer ditch provides for extended
aeration and, in its simplest form, consists of an aeration
ditch which can be ol simple, earthen, construction. The
sludge settles rapidly and provides a sparkling supernatant. It
is useful for populations of approximately 1,000. In the
future, it may be possible to utilize combined chemical and
mechanical processes which will directly condition the
surplus activated sludge for feeding to a (liter. A great deal of
attention should be paid to the possibility of doing away
with primary settlement If this could be accompanied by
substantially increased BOD loading on the biological stage,
the total vveight of sludge for final disposal could be reduced.
68-0726
Isabell, R. D. Water and effluents in the paper industry.
Surveyor and Municipal Engineer, 132(3,995):6-8, Dec 28
1968.
The process water intake, on the average, amounts to 20,000
gal per ton of paper or board produced. Reducing water
intake at a mill to a practical minimum can result in benefits
including lower water costs and a reduced volume of effluent
for final disposal. If waste water is to be recycled, it must be
reused for such ancillary processes as foam control, wire and
felt cleaning, or suction box sealing water. Clarification to
reduce the suspended solids content will generally be
necessary. Savealls use sedimentation, flotation, 01 filtration
processes to remove suspended solids. Removal of suspended
matter and BOD reduction are the main requirements for
effluent treatment, but other considerations such as pH,
turbidity, COD, and the presence of toxic substances may
arise. Sedimentation facilities vary from excavated lagoons to
modern circular clanfiers. Chemical coagulation by
flocculation can be used to obtain improved settling.
Dewatering of sludge from settling tanks is carried out by the
use of lagoons, drying beds, vacuum filters, filter presses, and
continuous centrifuges. Attempts to find by-product uses for
papermill sludges have been unseccessful, and the economics
of sludge incineration are unattractive.
144
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0723-0731
68-0727
James, K. O. L. Brewery trade effluent dominates at Burton.
Surveyor and Mumeipal Engineering, 132(397):42-44, July
1968.
A new -fc.3.5 million Clay Mills sewage disposal works in
England is now semi-operational and treating sewage with an
unusual BOD of 600 to 80(1 ppm at a rate of 7 million gal per
day. By careful planning and an additional expenditure of 6
1/2 percent over the costs of conventional plants, the life
of expendable equipment has been increased from 2 to 5
>ears to several times this figure. Pilot-scale experiments have
given data for the design of the works, and special emphasis
has been given to construction materials which are resistant
to hydrogen sulfide. The basic design is a two-stage biological
treatment plant which adopts an alternating double filtration
system with a rate of treatment of 75 gal cu yd per day. The
works are designed to deal with a dry weather flow of 7.5
million gal per day and can be easily extended to handle 10
million gal per day.
68-0728
Jenkins, D., and W. E. Garrison. Control of activated sludge
by mean cell residence time. Journal of the Water Pollution
Control Federation. 40(11) 1.905-1,91 9, Nov 1968.
A rational description of the activated sludge process is
presented, and the way in which the effect of process
variables can be predicted and process design and control can
be improved by a knowledge of these principles, is
demonstrated. The mean cell residence time is the most
logical parameter on which to base the operation of an
activated sludge plant. To use mean cell residence time for
control, several measurements are required which necessitate
reliable sampling of influent, mixed liquor, effluent, and
return sludge. Preliminary results from experiments in
progress since January 1967 are tabulated. The measurement
of soluble COD in the effluent is an accurate indication of
the efficiency of an activated sludge system. The
measurement of suspended solids in the effluent reflects the
efficiency of the gravity separation device (final
sedimentation basins). A yield of 0.33 Ib VSS per Ib COD
removed, and a decay coefficient of 0.04 per day were found
from plant and pilot scale experiments for activated sludge
treating domestic waste water.
68-0729
loyce, F Winter problem of waste disposal for Canadian
cannery. Effluent and Water Treatment Journal,
8(6) 293-294, June 1968
Green Giant, a vegetable processing plant in Ontario, Canada,
can operate only 9 or 10 months a year due to its inability to
dispose of wastes during the winter. The plant needs a large
quantity of water, some of which must be clean and
uncontaminated for washing produce. The contaminated
water is passed through a twig-and-leaf removal unit and
through a hydiocyclone. Liquid is then passed through a pair
of pressure filters linked to a pressure vessel which functions
both as surge tank and backwash reservoir. Stenh/ation of all
water used in the plant is bv chlormation. with a minimum of
4 ppm residual Thus, the planl i< able to recirculate part of
its water wheie it is required either as a conveyor or as a
coolane, vvhi.-h reduces the cost of the municipal water
required. Waste streams from the separator, hydrocyclone,
and filters are fed to a battery of six vibratory screens housed
in a separate building. Solid wastes are separated and
discharged in a semidry state to a hopper truck for disposal
to fields. Clarified wastes from the vibratory screens are
piped to a 300,000-gal holding pond. The liquids are sprayed
over a 200-acre field. Recirculation saves the company 45
percent of the total water requirement and the waste load is
reduced about 28 percent. During the winter the ground
freezes and all spray irrigation has to stop. Plans are being
made for a sewage collection and treatment system (an
aerated lagoon) with further development of inplant
recirculation.
68-0730
Judell, T. L. Methods of effluent treatment. Food
Manufacturing, 43(4):27-29, Apr. 1968.
Principal methods of processing effluents from feed factories
are outlined. These methods are physical separation,
biological treatment processes, land disposal and injection,
and combined treatment with domestic sewage. The volume
and characteristics of the wastes vary enormously among
manufacturers of the same product, and also vary from day
to day in the same plant. It is essential to study each
individual case, rather than rely on published data, when
designing a treatment plant.
68-0731
Juebermann, O., and G. Krause. The purification plant of the
Erdoel Chemie GmbH and Farbenfabriken Bayer AG
companies in Dormagen. Chemie-lngenieur-Technik,
40(6):288-291,Mar. 1968.
The waste water purified in the plant at Dormagen, Germany,
comes from the production of insecticides, plastic materials,
synthetic fibers, etc. It has a varied pH value and a high salt
content. A table lists all the substances contained in the
waste water. The method and the equipment of the
purification plant have been changed several times during the
4 years the plant has been in operation. Before the waste
water is pumped to the prepurification tanks, it is
neutralized. The prepurification process lasts about 3 hr, and
the biological purification process lasts about 7.2 hr. The
purification plant differs from most other plants of this size
by the type of aeration used in the biological stage and by
the method of dehydrating the sludge. The oxygen necessary
for biological purification is brought in by ejectors which are
quite similar in construction to water jet pumps. The nozzle
of the ejector has a diameter of 8 mm at the narrowest point.
Four ejectors are connected to a common water and air
supply line, and are arranged in rows at the bottom of the
purification tank. One tank has 20H ejectors or one ejector
per cu m. Sieves protect the ejectors from clogging. The
ejector heads are made of bronze, the nozzles of steel 4541,
and they are corrosion resistant. The coating of the pipes
made of ordinary steel has been heavily corroded. All have
now been replaced by plastic pipes. The ejectors worked
satisfactorily and the amount of oxygen was adequate. The
sludge, which accumulates during the prepurification process,
and the excess biological sludge are treated separately. The
former is dehydrated in rotating vacuum filters by adding
flocculants, the latter is dehydrated in centrifuges. The water
145
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Industrial Wastes
separated by the centrifuge lias a solid content of only 20 mg
per liter. It is returned to the purification tanks. Capital costs
are kept down with this method of sludge treatment and the
results are satisfactory. (Text in German)
680732
Kamber, D. M., and J. E. Kdinger. Conversion from primary
treatment to extended aeration Public Works,
99(4). 110-112, Apr. 1968.
The original plant was designed on the basis of 54,000 gai per
day. An extended aeration system was added to provide
flexibility and to effectively tieat wide variations in sewage
flow and characteristics. The existing digester was used as a
mixed-liquor aeration basin. This involved constructing a new
secondary settling tank and converting the existing primary
settling tank to a sludge storage tank. The individual
components of the system are described in terms of the
loadings and aims of the systems. At average daily design
conditions of 75,000 gal per day, 360 mg per liter BOD, and
143 mg per liter total solids, the final effluent quality will be
43 mg per litei BOD and 21 mg per liter suspended solids.
This is a BOD removal efficiency of 88 percent and a total
solids reduction of 86 percent. Tabulations of the computed
plant performance are given.
68-0733
Kambhu, K , and J F. Andrews. An aerobic thermophilic
process for the biological treatment of wastes-simulation
studies. Presented at 41st Annual Water Pollution Control
Federation Conference, Chicago, Sept. 23, 1968. Clemson, S.
0., Clemson University. 37 p.
Simulation studies are presented to show that sufficient heat
can be generated in the aerobic digestion of organic solids to
make the process self-sustaining in the thermophilic range
(45-65 (') The simulations arc for a mixture of primary and
activated sludge troin a city of 10,000 The per capita
contribution of total solids is assumed to be 0.2 Ib per day,
of which 70 percent is assumed to be volatile, and of the
volatile solids, 70 percent is assumed to be biodegradable.
Both dynamic and steady state models were prepared.
Results show that the process should be self-sustaining, with
respect to temperature, for the treatment of sewage sludge,
either alone or mixed with garbage. Higher temperatures and
increased volatile solids destruction may be obtained by
increasing oxygen transfer efficiency; using thickeners to
increase the concentration of solids in the influent sludge;
addition of ground garbage to the reactor; and insulation of
the reactor. In operating the process, it is desirable to avoid
the pumping of dilute sludges to the reactor, or the use of
excessive aeration Both of these practices can result in
.substantial decreases in reactor temperature and decreased
destination ot volatile solids The model should serve as a
valuable framework for future modifications
68-0734
Kaschke, \V. Treatment of waste water m the metal working
industry. Wasser Luft und Betneb, 1 2(10)'622-625, Oct.
1968.
The purification of the many different waste waters from
metalworkmg plants is discussed The last section is devoted
l,i the dehydration, incineration, and dumping of high water
content (96 to 99%) sludges which remain after waste water
purification. These sludges are usually separated from the
waste water in large settling tanks. For better purification
and faster settling, flocculants are often used. Because the
high water content of the sludge makes transportation
difficult and expensive, sludge dehydrators are employed to
reduce the volume to half of the original amount. Drying in
beds 01 filtering reduces the water content to between 60 and
80 percent. Vacuum filters and filter presses achieve a solids
content of 20 to 45 percent, but they are quite expensive.
Traveling screen presses save space and achieve better results
than drying the sludge in beds. The costs involved in the
dumping of sludge are between 8 and 15 DM per cu m.
About 55 percent of the costs can be saved by dehydrating
sludge. Metal hydroxide sludges can cause considerable
difficulties when dumped, so the geological conditions of the
dumping site should be investigated If no possibility for
dumping exists, the sludge must be incinerated either by
itself, or with refuse or sewage sludge. (Text in German)
68-0735
Kemmer, F. N The treatment of strong industrial wastes.
Industrial Water Engineering, 5(5). 17-21, May 1968.
Strong industrial wastes are roughly classified as ion exchange
regeneiants, pickling or processing liquors, by-product
streams, and cleaning solutions. The methods which are used
by various industries for handling these strong wastes may be
generally categorized as. fractionation, precipitation or
crystallization, concentration, combustion, and direct
disposal on or under the ground. The fractionation process is
illustrated from examples taken from the textile and
metallurgical industries. The food industries have used
evaporation and drying processes, to produce concentrated
products from strong wastes which would otherwise be high
BOD nuisances These reclaimed products are used as animal
feed supplements or protein solids. The acceptance of
incineration systems for industrial waste disposal is still in its
infancy, and underground disposal is still a controversial
subject. In direct land disposal, crops must be planted and
irrigated in a fashion that avoids concentrating salts at the
roots and on the foliage.
68-0736
Kempa, E. Processes of total elimination of sewage sludge.
Gaz, Woda I Technika Samtarna, 42(2):52-55, Feb 1968.
The elimination of sewage sludge is one of the most
important tasks in the technology of sewage purification. The
sanitary aspects require treatment si) that it is of no abuse to
the surrounding environment. The paper surveys various
natural and artifical methods of sewage sludge removal and
indicates the structure of removal costs. It lists the
advantages of thermal treatment as compared to biochemical
methods, and gives special attention to the gasification of
wastes Before the actual thermal treatment takes place, the
sludge is condensed, dewatered and dried. The final process
of drying raises special economic considerations since it may
consume the greatest amount of energy involved in the
treatment of sludge. Essentially, gasification is the oldest
method of thermal elimination Technical aspects of this
irocedure were solved at the beginning of this century. The
laper surveys the development of the gasification procedure
and mentions the best known applications of its specific
eatures. For some time, however, the gasification of sewage
146
-------
0732-0741
ludge was dropped because of the rather complicated
>reliminary preparation of the sludge (dewatermg, drying,
>riquettmg, etc.), and because of the high amount of ash
svolved (exceeding mostly the level of 3076). The latest
echnical developments indicate that this problem has been
wercome. To illustrate this, a description is given of a
arge-scale application in Essen, Germany. Of considerable
nterest is a plant which purifies water from the river
Emscher at a rate of 1 3 cu m per second. (Text in Polish)
68-0737
Kempa, E. Processes of total elimination of sewage sludge.
(II. Combustion of sewage sludge.) Gaz, Woda I Technika
Sanitarna, 42(3): 89-91, Mar. 1968.
The paper is a continuation of a survey of sewage sludge
removal methods. It describes and evaluates several methods
of incineration. Attention is given to the story furnaces of
Herreshoff which have been in use in the chemical industry
since 1885, and have been used for drying and incinerating
sewage sludge since 1934. With these devices the moisture
content of the introduced sludge may not exceed 60 percent
The Herreshoff furnaces have a number of advantages and
they serve as a basis for the Ebingen method of municipal
sewage and rubbish elimination. Although the moisture
content of the treated sludge may not exceed 88.5 percent,
this elastic method shows good energy balance and
represents a big step forward. In the Raymond furnace,
sludge is first dewatered on filters and then mixed with dried
sludge in the ratio of 1.2; the moisture content of the
remaining mixture is under 45 percent. The largest Raymond
in Chicago handles sewage from 4,800,000 inhabitants. In the
United States several plants of this type are capable of
treating 1.35 to 500 tons of dry sludge daily. (Text in Polish)
of domestic sewage, is discussed. The large projected
population increases for the areas of East and West Dorset
made the trunk sewage scheme attractive, since the effluent
from a conventional system must meet increasingly high
standards. The present population in the suggested drainage
area is 82,000; it is estimated to be 141,000 by 1981, and by
2001 the total population was estimated to be 264.650.
Estimation of the total cost of the trunk scheme, including
the submarine pipeline, pumping stations, main links, and
interconnecting sewers would be -L3,400,000 for the
projected 1981 population and t4,800,000 for the 2001
population. The savings for the 2001 population, of trunk
over conventional sewerage, would be on the order of
•fc82,650. The full impact of the cost would have to be borne
over a period of three years as this is the estimated time for
building the trunk sewerage scheme. During the 1990's, the
'break-even' point would be reached.
68-0740
Kleinau, J. H. Prospects for sludge disposal by incineration.
Paper Trade Journal, 152(45):79, Nov. 4, 1968.
The most promising approaches to the reuse of papermill and
deinkmg mill sludges have revolved around recovery of the
clay, which necessitates prior incineration. The high cost
associated with the burning of sludges relates to the high
water content of many sludges and their frequently low
heating values. The use of organic filter aids is expected to
eliminate some of these problems. The efficiency of a fluid
bed reactor results in favorable conditions for the burning of
sludges. A patented process is available to recover a fine
white calcined kaolin clay from papermill sludges. Spray
irrigation offers an effective solution to secondary treatment
of deinking sludges.
68-0738
Kincannon, D. F., and A. F. Gaudy. Response of biological
waste treatment systems to changes in salt concentrations.
Biotechnology and Bioengineenng, 10(4):483-496, July
1968.
The effect of sodium chloride on the yield of biological solids
and on the ability of continuously cultured heterogeneous
microbial populations to remove substrate was assessed. This
was done by changing the salt concentration in a synthetic
waste. When the salt concentration was increased to 30,000
mg per liter, the system could not maintain a high substrate
removal efficiency. However, after an acclimation period, the
system regained its former efficiency. After returning the
feed to fresh water medium, it was indicated that the ability
of the cells to withstand the salt concentration of 30,000 mg
per liter was not passed on to progeny. Upon diluting the salt
a significant rise in cell yield was noted as the salt level passed
through the range 8,000 to 10,000 mg per liter. It was found
that steady operation at a salt level of 8,000 mg per liter
sustained the cell yield at a high level. Response to various
salt loadings is shown in charts.
68-0739
King, F. M. W. Trunk sewer or local sewage works. Surveyor
and Municipal Engineer, 131 (3,950):34-36, Feb. 17, 1968.
The possibility of using a trunk sewerage plan for West
Dorset, England, utilizing a long sea outfall for the disposal
68-0741
Koehler, F., and F. Moeller. Elimination of solid and liquid
wastes which accumulate in new production processes.
Zeitschrift fuer die Gesamte Hygiene und Ihre Grenzgebiete,
14(4):271-276, Apr. 1968.
To eliminate all accumulating industrial wastes properly, the
amount and volume should be registered, the type of the
waste and the best way to eliminate it should be determined,
and the changes in the composition of the waste due to new
production processes should be taken into account. Industrial
wastes can be deposited in sanitary landfills, incinerated, or
dumped into the ocean. All methods are briefly reviewed.
The classification of the wastes by Kumpf, Maas, and Straub
into combustible and compostable, only combustible, and
neither combustible nor compostable is given. The distinction
by Braun of industrial wastes which can be composted or
incinerated like domestic wastes, and wastes which require
special elimination methods is also given. Water insoluble,
inorganic industrial wastes can be deposited. Water soluble
wastes can also be dumped if the soil of the disposal site is
impenetrable, if the ground water is not used, or if the
disposal site is near a river so that the polluted ground water
flows off into the surface water. In the German Democratic
Republic, about 12 million tons per year of ash and slag
accumulate, and this must be dumped. Incineration reduces
the volume of wastes considerably, but it also leaves residues
which must be dumped. The use of slag and fly ash in
highway construction is still in the experimental stage. The
147
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Industrial Wastes
composting of industrial wastes can be used only when the
wastes do not contain excessive amounts of salt or substances
which are toxic to microorganisms. The idea of dumping
industrial wastes and sludges into the ocean has been
discarded once again, because packing and transporting
wastes into containers is too expensive. Acid sludges, sludges
from waste water purification plants, and waste oils are best
suited for incineration. Plastic material and synthetic fibers
are incinerated in special furnaces Wastes from the chemical
and metallurgical industry are also mostly incinerated
(Text in German)
68-0742
Koehler, R. Waste water rich in organic substances from the
food industry and its biological purification. Wasser, Luft
und Betrieb, 12(6) 343-348, June 1968.
The decomposition and elimination of organic substances in
waste water depends on the growth of bacteria. Only a small
portion is used to produce energy and the solved or colloidal
organic substances are coagulated and adsorbed by activated
sludge. Before diffusion through cell membranes, organic
substances are liquefied by enzymes. Microorganisms require
certain nutrients such as carbon, several minerals such as
sulphur, potassium, etc., trace elements, and most important
of all, nitrogen and phosphorus. No generally valid and
precise amounts for the required nutrients can be given. Only
values obtained by experience are known. A table lists the
nutrient required for an effective decomposition of waste
water from brevvenes. the potato, sugar, and dairy industries,
from abattoirs, tanneries, and distilleries. Apart from certain
nutrients, temperature is essential for good decomposition.
The optimum temperature for aerobic waste water
purification is around 20 C Aerobic organisms thrive only at
a pH value between 6 and 8.5. Biologic decomposition
consists of five phases which are illustrated in diagrams In
the first phase, the bacteria absorb organic impurities, in the
second phase, the bacteria multiply and simultaneously the
BOD is greatly reduced; in the third phase, growth decreases
due to the lack ot nutrients, and in the fourth and fifth
phases, the activated sludge flakes succumb to autolysis, thus
becoming impurities. (Text in German)
68-0743
Koenitzer, G. H. Paper mill sludge dewatering. TAPPI,
51(1 2):53A-56A, Dec. 1968.
The vacuum filter, centrifuge, and press are generally
considered. The vacuum filter has greater solids recovery than
the other methods, but also has economic disadvantages. The
centrifuge is the most versatile and requires a minimum of
auxiliary equipment. A wide range of inlet consistencies can
be handled by the centrifuge, and it pioduces diier cakes
than a vacuum filter. The centrifuge additionally has the
disadvantage of wear. The press produces the driest cake, and
because of the slow operating speeds, 2 to 1 2 rpm, is more
resistant to wear. It is a simple piece of equipment with tew
mechanical variables, but has the disadvantage of being
applicable to only a limited number of sludge problems.
Diagrams and photographs of the equipment, and the cakes
obtained are given along with an analysis of a typical
problem.
68-0744
Koehler, R Small rotting plants for the treatment of
municipal and industrial waste water sludges. Wasser, Luft
und Betrieb, 1 2(1 ):21-24, Jan. !968.
Studies made of municipalities with populations of 2,000 to
20,000 show that about 54.5 percent of all the annually
accumulating waste water is not subjected to any cleaning at
all, 29 percent undergoes a mechanical purification, and only
16.5 percent is mechanically and biologically treated in
purification plants. These percentages indicate the great
potential demand for the construction of purification plants
by smaller and medium sized municipalities. This demand led
to the development ot prefabricated and even standardized
sludge rotting plants, just as it led to the development of
prefabricated punficant plants. Prefabricated rotting plants
with rotting tanks of 175, 240, 320, and 420 cu m volume,
and with either one or two stages, are available for
communities with a population of 3,000 to 20,000. Graphs
are given which should help in the selection of the right type
of equipment. The prefabricated rotting plant consists of a
rotting tower, a service tower with pump, and heating, tank,
gas and personnel rooms. The service tower required a surface
of 2.5 by 2,5 m, and together with the rotting tower, needs a
flat concrete trough. This small prefabricated sludge rotting
plant fulfills all the requirements which are expected from
large plants. Thus it is possible to mix cold fresh sludge with
warm decaying sludge so that activation and preheating is
already achieved in the charging process. By preheating the
fresh sludge, the condition of the methane bacteria is
improved and the rotting process is intensified. After
completing the rotting process, the sludge and the extracted
water flow off separately. The gas arising in the rotting tower
is collected at the top and reaches (he gas room by its own
pressure. The rotting tower, the service tower, the transport
of the pretabncated parts, and the erection of the service
tower are illustrated. (Text in German)
68-0745
Koppernoek, !• Purification of highly varying waste water
from the Merck pharmaceutical plant.
Chemie-Ingemeur-Teehmk, 40(6):263-268. Mar. 1968.
The sewage plant of Merck, Inc., which is two years old,
includes mechanical and biological purification stages, as well
as a sludge incinerator. About 22,000 cu m of waste water
are treated daily. The waste water varies greatly in its
composition and quantity, since the company produces
everything from Pharmaceuticals to insecticides, reagents,
and chemicals. In mechanical puntication the waste water
passes through a sand trap, a trash rack, and then into a
venturi canal. The pH value is determined and adjusted if
necessary by adding lime. The desired pH value (6, 5, 4, and
3) can be manually adjusted. Next, there is an aerated sand
trap where fine particulates are retained and volatile
components escape In the following round tank with a
volume of 1,600 cu m, the suspended particles settle to the
bottom and are pumped to the dehydrator of the biological
stage. ITOID the mechanical stage the waste water goes into
three sireat mixing tanks (total volume 42,000 cu m). Behind
the third tank, the water is pumped to an elevated tank from
which part ot the water (alls back down into the third mixing
tank, picking up oxygen on its way. After the BOD is
148
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0742-0750
legulatcd, the water is purified in three aero-accelerators.
Each has a capacity of 1,100 cu m per hr. Then 930 cu m per
hr of waste water are treated at the biological stage. Six
compressors bring m the required air (all six together have a
capacity of 390 cu m air per minute). The BOD averages 850
mg per liter. After 2 years of experience with the plant, it can
be said that 95 percent of the impurities in the water are
removed. The purification capacity of the biological stage is
about 20 tons BOD per day. The excess activated sludge and
the sludge from the settling tank are dehydrated, mixed with
a flocculant and with ash, and again dehydrated. The dried
filtei goes to a 10-story furnace. One-third of the
accumulated ash is reused in the process; the rest, about 10
tons per day, is dumped. The daily operating costs are 3,000
DM without amortization; the investment costs about 16
million DM and the purification costs per cu m waste water
with amortization are 0.36 DM. (Text in German)
68-0746
Korejs, J., and I. Spicka The operation of an activated sludge
tank with extremely high activated sludge concentration. Gas
und Wasserfach, Wasser und Abwasser, 109(34):930-936,
Aug. 1968.
The behavior of activated sludge with an extremely high
concentration of dry substance is discussed. So far it has been
assumed that such a sludge does not settle down very well,
and that it is difficult to separate the air bubbles from this
sludge. Experiments were conducted on a mixture of
domestic waste water with waste water from synthetic rubber
production in four periods covering almost 3 years. Twice a
week the concentration of the activated sludge and of the
volatile suspended substances was determined. In the third
and fourth period, the content of oxydizable material was
determined. Moreover, the characteristic features of the
domestic waste water during the first and second period were
determined and are listed in a table, the same determination
was performed with the waste water from the synthetic
rubber production. The relationships between o.xydizability
and BOD are shown, and the decrease in fluctuations of the
pollutants is illustrated. Results show that an activated sludge
concentration of 20 to 25 g per liter can be achieved easily
and with a high purification effect. The above-mentioned
mixture of waste water was cleaned within an average
aeration time (approximately 11 hr), with the BOD being less
than 0.04 kg per day per kg volatile substances and activated
sludge particles. The obtained sludge can be easily dried in
drying beds without developing any odors. It was also found
that the purification was only slightly reduced when the
oxygen concentration in the activated sludge mixture was
below 2 0 mg per liter. (Text in German)
68-0747
Kotze, J. P., P. G. Thiel, D. F. Toerien, W. H. .1. Hattmgh,
and M. L. Siebert. A biological and chemical study of several
anaerobic digesters. Water Research, 2(3) 195-213, Mar.
1968.
Biological and chemical analyses were carried out on several
digesters operated on laboratory-, pilot-, and full-scale. These
digesters received a variety of substrates which included raw
sewage sludge, industrial effluents (winery, glucose-starch.
and yeast wastes) and a synthetic substrate. Hexose
monophosphate shunt enzymes could only be demonstrated
in very active digesters receiving substrates high in
carbohydrate material. The glycolytic pathway, glyoxjlic
acid, and citric acid cycles were found in all the anaeiobic
digesters. Enzyme activity tests revealed different stages of
adaptation of a raw sewage digester adapted to a synthetic
substrate. Digesters receiving different substrates showed
characteristic enzyme activity patterns, but chemical analysis
such as pH, alkalinity, and volatile fatty acid content did not
demonstrate any obvious differences between these diecs'cis.
68-0748
Krakauer, S., and G. R. Feeley. Clanfier forms and removes
sludge hydrauhcally. Water and Wastes Engineering,
5(12):39-41,Dec. 1968.
Experimental investigations into the operation and efficiency
of the Aquapulse dynamic clanfier, which forms and removes
sludge hydraulically through pulsing jets of water lather than
mechanically, arc described. The efficiency of the pulsing
hydraulic system, designed to clean the bottom of the
clanfier, was tested using pulses of differing periods and
intensities. It was found that pulses did not disturb the
stability of the previously formed sludge blankets, and had a
beneficial effect in priming and accelerating blanket
formation. The system's advantages were judged to be. the
ability to compensate for inflow variation without affecting
effluent quality; reduction of maintenance by the elimination
of mechanical sludge-collection systems; and superior
chemical feeding and mixing. Commercial units up to
100,000 gal per day are presently offered.
680749
Krikau, E G. Neutralization is key to acid-liquor waste
disposal. Chemical Engineering. 75(25): 124-126, N(>v- 18,
1968
The disposal of waste pickle liquor, which consists of ferrous
chloride, water, and some residual hydrochloric acid, is
accomplished by neutralization with calcium chloride to
produce ferrous hydroxide and brine-water calcium chloride.
The next step is recovery of iron oxide from the ferrous
hydroxide sludge by oxidation. Tests have shown that this
can be returned to the blast furnace. The calcium chloride
solution is evaporated and reacted with sulfuric acid, which
produces gypsum and hydrochloric acid to be recycled to the
pickling operation. Use of neutralization was indicated
because a deep well or regeneration process were too
expensive or unfeasible. The capital costs of the
neutralization process are lower than the other processes, and
the utilization of the iron oxide and the recovery of
hydrochloric acid provide reductions in the high operating
costs.
68-0750
Kulakowski, A., and J Kielmski. The method of sludge
activation applied to postcellulose sewage purification.
PrzegladPapiermczy, 24(1): 16-19, Jan. 1968.
Aerobic sludge stabilization proves to be an effective means
of improving the technology and economy of biological
149
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Industrial Wastes
sewage purification. The principles and modifications of the
contact stabilization method are discussed. The relationship
between the stabilization time and the BOD reduction, for
various contact periods, is of importance. In the case of
extended chambers, the process of sewage purification by
aerobic treatment is practically concluded at 1/3 to 1/2 of
the chamber length. The stabilization of the activated sludge
should therefore be undertaken separately. Bolotina's
investigations have shown that the sludge index decreases by
20 to 30 percent, depending on the duration of the activation
process and the amount of air provided. Weston and Rice
state that by contact stabilization, a higher degree of removal
of the impurity load is obtained in terms of BOD than when
applying the conventional methods of sludge activation.
Contact stabilization has been utilized in all purification
plants in Moscow and in the United States. Consideration was
also given to the application of sludge purification in
cellulose and paper mills, especially in the United States. In
Mobile, Alabama, the purification plant comprises chambers
which process daily 94,700 cu m of sewage. The plant in
Spring Grove, Pennsylvania, has a daily capacity of 75,600 cu
m. In the U.S.S.R., a purification plant in Sviatigorsk has a
daily capacity of 50 to 180 cu m in terms of the BOD.
Another plant began operation in 1964 in Zydacov. The
largest purification plant in the world with the capacity of
280,000 cu m per day began operation in 1965 in Kotlas
Even in the initial period of the plant exploitation, the
reduction of BOD amounted to 91 percent. (Text in Polish)
68-0751
Kumke, G. W., J. !•'. Hall, and R. W. Oeben Conversion to
activated sludge at Union Carbide's Institute Plant. Journal of
the Water Pollution Control Federation, 40(8): 1,408-1,422,
Aug. 1968.
Through conversion of its aerated-stabilization process to a
completely mixed activated-sludge system, Union Carbide's
synthetic organic chemicals plant at Institute, West Virginia,
has reduced the quantity of organic matter discharged about
70 percent. The conversion was carried out by installing
additional surface entramment aerators, by modifying the
blades of the existing aerators, by adding two
peripherally-fed secondary clanfiers, and by adding sludge
recycle facilities. Basic studies of oxygen transfer, basin
mixing, and clarification were conducted to optimize the
system performance. Factors of most significance were
aerator mixing capacity, clarifier flow patterns, and residual
materials inhibiting the settleabihty of the sludge. A direct
route involving land reclamation was selected tor disposal of
waste sludge. Future plans include modification of process
equipment to improve oxygenation and contact within the
aeration basins, and to remove those materials interfering
with solids separation and mass transfer.
68-0752
Kuester-Sange, K., and H. Perlitz. The purification plant of
Schering Ag, Bergkamen Chemie-Ingenieur-Technik,
40(6) 280-283, Mar. 1968.
When Ihe chemical plant, Bergkamen AG, was taken over by
the Schering Company, the production of synthetic gasoline
ceased and the production of Pharmaceuticals and industrial
chemicals began. Since the old purification plant was no
longer suitable, a new one had to be built. The construction
of the plant presented difficulties because the site was on a
coal mine. Some details are given about the construction of
the plant, the purification process and the necessary
equipment. Before the waste water reaches the purification
plant it is pre-cleaned. The accumulating waste water is then
collected in a pipe and flows to a pump which raises it to a
level of 7.5 m. Coarse solids are retained by a rake. A mixing
tank of 1,250 cu m (40 m long, 12m wide), that receives the
waste water, is equipped with a sludge dredger and stirring
mechanisms. Depending on the pH, either lime or sulfunc
acid is automatically added at the first neutralization stage.
This coarse neutralization is followed by a fine
neutralization. The sludge which accumulates settles. The
biological stage is still in an experimental stage, but will
operate according to the activated sludge method. The sludge
which accumulates in the entire purification process is
pumped into a tank with a volume of 525 cu m. A sludge
dehydration plant is under construction. To dehydrate the
sludge, lime milk will be added as a flocculant In a vacuum
filter, the water content of the sludge will then be reduced to
75 percent. An incinerator plant will be built later where the
sludge, together with other waste material, will be burnt.
About 9 million DM have already been invested in the
construction of the plant. Nothing is yet known about
operating costs. (Text in German)
68-0753
Kutera, J. Communication on activity of the Institute of
Agricultural Utilization of Sewage Waters m Wroclaw
GospodarkaWodna, 15(3):119-120, Mar 1968
Utilization of waste waters in agriculture is important in two
respects for the national economy. First, sewage is an
important irrigation and fertilization source, and second, its
biological purification is accomplished without building
expensive industrial purification stations. In recent years, the
Institute has carried out research on the fertilizing and
irrigating effects of municipal town waters. The mam
research tasks in 1967 and 1968 concerned agricultural
utilization of sewage sediment, utilization of sewage from
malt houses and breweries, determination of allowed degree
of salinity of irrigation waters, and the effect of sewage
irrigation on ground water pollution. It is necessary to
investigate the possibility of purification of waste waters of
other industries, mainly those producing nitrogen-containing
compounds, and to determine the chemical and
microbiological parameters of the quality of irrigation waters.
(Text in Polish)
68-0754
Lamb, J. C. Digest of sanitary engineering research reports.
Public Works, 99(5): 140, May 1968.
The use of filter presses for dewatering raw sludges is being
investigated by the Water Pollution Research Laboratory at
Stevenage. Using raw primary sludge from a single treatment
plant, and limiting chemical conditioning to the use of
aluminum chlorohydrate, the factors studied were: dosage of
chemical conditioner; intensity and period of mixing during
conditioning; length of storage of the raw sludge and the
aluminum chlorohydrate solution; hydraulic resistance of the
filter cloth; and hydraulic resistance of the drainage surface
of the press plate. It was found necessary to add increasing
dosages of conditioner to compensate for long periods of
storage. Stirring at a relatively high rate almost completely
destroyed the conditioning effect produced with
150
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chlorohydiate 1'ield studies indicate that 4 hr ot mixing
provided in the full-scale plant was excessive and intermittent
stirring v\as employed II was concluded that mixing chemical
conditioner with the sludge and the degree ot subsequent
mixing aie crucial
680755
Laredo, D , and K \. Bryant Silt removal from combined
sewers. Water and Sewage Works, 115(12)561-564, Dec.
1968
Arrangements were made at the l-'all River Sewage Treatment
Plant in Massachusetts to disinfect and desilt combined storm
sewage al all loadings up to the hydraulic limits of the plant
The desiltmg facilities, costing $80,000 to $90,000, consist
of a storm desiltmg basin, which is illustrated. Dimensions and
configurations are tabulated. Chlonnation facilities include
new feeding facilities designed to act in proportion to the
rate of flow-. The component loading and detention time of
the plant is tabulated as is the particle size distribution of
inorganic material. Grain size distribution is graphed. Now
that pumping and separation facilities have been developed
for removing the inorganic material from the organic sludge,
the desiltmg facilities can replace the grit chamber in many
plants where the high portions of inorganic solids entering
the plant are smaller than the sue which conventional silt
chambers can remove
0751-0760
tried in Woburn, Kngland, using farmyard manure, sewage
sludge, and composts of these with straw and farm wastes
Analysis of the soils and of plants raised on the soils are given
and show large quantities of trace metals in the soil. In
addition, abnormally large quantities were taken up by the
plants, but crop yields were not affected. Evidently, foreign
metals can be retained in the soil for several years. The
danger of their accumulating, when manures containing
metal-contaminated organic materials are applied repeatedly,
is emphasi/ed. Data from the analyses are given.
68-0758
Levin, P. Sludge handling and disposal Industrial Water
Engineering, 5(4): 16-25, Apr. 1968.
This assessment of sludge handling and disposal covers the
unit processes currently used to stabilize, concentrate,
dewater, and incinerate sludges. The alternative approaches
lor ultimate sludge disposal are evaluated both trom technical
and economic standpoints. The major problem is the
dewatering process which precedes ultimate disposal.
Filtering and centnfuging are often utilized because space
for sludge drying 01 lagoons is not available. Data indicate
that in the future, the most economical method of sludge
disposal will involve concentration, stabilization, or digestion,
and then transportation of the residue to an ocean or land
disposal site.
68-0756
Lcdbetter, J 0 The complete waste treatment facility Water
and Sewage Works. 115(R1968) Rl 32-R1 38, Nov. 29. 1968
Solid, liquid, and gaseous wastes from municipalities, small
industries, and individuals should all be treated at one
location-the complete waste treatment facility Difficult to
treat gaseous and liquid waste streams should not be mixed
with other wastes before arriving at the treatment plant;
however, a common sewer for gas and waste water streams
might be economical. Industries discharging the waste
streams should be charged on volume of waste and difficulty
ot treatment Solid wastes should be routinely incinerated
Ashe^ resulting from combustion, together with mineral
particulates from waste gas streams, could be stabilized and
incorporated into products such as building and road paving
materials Water treatment plant sludge rnay be mixed with
other solids and hardened for use by the addition of cement
or by internal plasticizmg. A complete waste treatment plant
would combine the municipal power plant and incinerator.
Domestic refuse has a heating value of some 4,500 Btu per Ib,
and the 7 million Btu per capita per year available from this
alone is about 10 percent of the electrical generating
requirements of the United States The excess activated
sludge can be burned. In the complete treatment facility,
some wastes can be reclaimed and some will neutralize
others.
68-0757
LeRiche, H. H Metal contamination of soil in the Woburn
Market-Gardon experiment resulting from the application of
sewage sludge. Journal of Agricultural Science,
7K2V205-207, Oct. 1968
Regular use of organic manures to produce market-garden
type soil from ordinary agricultural soil on light land was
68-0759
Levme, S Open hearth slag produces new aggregate blends.
Rock Products, 71(5) 122, 124-126, 128, Mar. 1968.
A 20-milhon-ton waste slag pile from open-hearth steel
making provides feedstock for new aggregate types at Vulcan
Materials Company's new blending facilities in the
Birmingham, Alabama, area. The steel furnace slag is
combined with blast furnace slag to utilize the density
characteristics of each. The blending is done on a 50 percent
open-hearth and 50 percent blast furnace basis, and is
accomplished by dumping alternately one car of each type.
The blended slag is loaded into railroad cars for shipment to
the stocking area. The washing system has two 3,000 gal per
minute pumps. Water reclaiming is accomplished via a series
of settling ponds. Clean water is returned to the lake where
the pumps are installed. Operating procedures are outlined
for four different plants, and some of the equipment used,
such as dewatering classifier, cone crusher, sizing screens, and
dust arrester and dust scrubbers are discussed.
680760
Lewin, V. H. Sewage sludge disposal-back to the land''
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal. 8(l):21-24, Jan.
1968.
Sea disposal of sludge is possible only for communities living
reasonably close to the coast, and presents almost
unanswerable problems concerning possible eventual
pollution. Disposal of sewage on land in a well-designed
operation offers the most promising, and cheapest, solution
to this problem. The history of sludge disposal on land is
considered, and techniques used for pretreatment of the
sludge are outlined. The full experience of the City of Oxford
in utilizing mechanical surface aeration, sludge digestion,
vacuum filtration and the disposal of the sludge to farmers is
151
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Industrial Wastes
described. Further research into methods which can
maximize the beneficial aspects of sludge used as fertilizer is
necessary.
68-0761
Lloyd, D. O. The treatment of trade and domestic wastes.
Institution of Public Health Engineers Journal,
57(3):112-l45, July 1968.
Methods used for the treatment of trade effluents combined
with domestic sewage, with reference to experimental and
full-scale sewage treatment works, are illustrated. Specific
reference is made to biological and sludge treatment
methods. The cases considered are: the treatment of waste
from carpet manufacturing, general industry and sugar beel
production, mixed with domestic sewage; the treatment of
strong textile effluents in admixture with sewage, and the
treatment of tannery and gelatine wastes in admixture with
domestic sewage. When trade wastes are connected with
domestic sewage treatment plants, the need to obtain
detailed information about the nature, quantity, and
fluctuation ot the discharge is emphasized
68-0762
Loehr, R. C. Anaerobic lagoons' considerations in design
and application. Transactions of the American Society
of Agricultural Engineers, 11 (3):320-322, 330, May-June
1968.
The anaerobic lagoon is discussed as a biological system
different from aerobic lagoons. Anaerobic lagoons can
function as liquid- or solids-holding units when surge capacity
is needed, and they can be useful for holding animal wastes
prior to field spreading. Factors such as sunlight, large surface
areas, and shallow depths to promote dissolved oxygen are
detrimental to maintaining an anaerobic environment Under
optimum conditions, such as warm temperatures, anaerobic
lagoons can be loaded at high rates and adequate solids
decomposition will occui. However, the higher the solids
loading, the greater the accumulation of nonbiodegradable
solids, and the greater the frequency of solids removal.
Conversion of the wastes into gas, discharge of the contents
to subsequent treatment units, and seepage into the ground
are the only ways by which waste material is removed from
an anaerobic lagoon At least one-fourth to one-third of the
active solids should remain so that an optimum anaerobic
environment can be maintained. The advantages of anaerobic
lagoons lie with wastes that are highly concentrated.
Disadvantages of anaerobic lagoons are. the effluent can
pollute streams, the ground water is contaminated unless the
lagoons are sealed, and odor problems result with high sulfur
wastes or when the lagoon is out of balance
68-0763
Long, S K. Citric acid from citrus waste by fermentation. In
Engineering Foundation Research Conference; Solid Waste
Research and Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26,
1968. New York. (Conference Preprint No. E-6)
A project was designed tor utilizing both citrus canning
plant waste waters and citrus molasses, providing a partial
solution to the pioblem of waste disposal while increasing the
studies showed that mass transfer is a rate controlling factor
in a laminar tilrr flow reactor On the other hand, high rates
of mass transfer are obtained in a well-mixed reaction vessel
consumption of molasses. A major feature of the process is to
use selected canning plant waste waters of high BOD content
(500-50,000 ppm) sugar concentration needed for the
fermentation of citric acid. Reducing the BOD in the waste
water-molasses medium, and producing citric acid in
sufficient quantities would make this process economically
attractive as a method of waste disposal The evidence
accumulated thus far indicates that citrus molasses is a
suitable substrate for citric acid fermentation, provided
certain modifications of the molasses are made.
68-0764
Lowder, L. R Modifications improve treatment of plating
room wastes. Water and Sewage Works, 115(12):581-586,
Dec 1968
The present configuration and operation of Western Electric's
industrial waste treatment plant at Omaha, Nebraska, is
described and major changes that were made during the
9-year period of operation are pointed out. Four treatment
processes take place in the plant, neutralization, cyanide
destruction, chrome reduction, and solids removal. The
sludge remaining from the treatment processes is
concentrated to 11 percent solid.s and is pumped to a
portable tank for transport to a landfill area. An alternate to
this last step is available if the sludge is centnfuged before
being hauled away. Other features of the plant include: a
lime-handling and slurry-mixing system; a chlorine system; a
sulfur dioxide system, water wells; a flocculant aid mixing
and metering system; complete instrumentation and alarm
devices; and four pressure filters which serve as a standby for
the solids removal phase.
68-0765
MacNeal, J. A. Sludge thickening and disposal at
Downingtown. Paper Trade Journal, 152(45):77, Nov. 4,
1968
The effluent treatment system at Pennsylvania's
Downmgton Paper Company's three multicylinder board
machine mill is described. Sludge from the 115-ft-diameter
primary clarifier is pumped at about 3 percent consistency to
a Rice Barton water extractor. The fine fraction of the sludge
and most of the water are discharged from the bottom of the
unit, where they are combined with the excess activated
sludge from the secondary clarifier and pumped to the
thickening tank. Underflow from the thickener, equipped
with a Dorr-Oliver scraper mechanism, is discharged by
gravity at 3 percent solids to a chest from which it is pumped
to lagoons. Thickener overflow is returned by gravity to the
primary clarifier. Chlormation has reduced odors and aided in
sludge thickening.
68-0766
Maier, W. J. Model study of colloid removal. Journal of the
Water Pollution Control Federation, 40(3):478-491, Mar.
1968.
Two model reaction systems were used to simulate the
overall process of removing dissolved organic mailer from
waste matter by biological activity, a well-mixed balch
reactor, and a film-flow reactor Results from piocess variable
152
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0761-0772
(simulating activated sludge conditions) due to eddy current
transport. As a result, mass transfer is generally not a limiting
factor. Hydrolytic degradation of colloidal starch into small
soluble carbohydrates proceeds rapidly, and does not appear
to be rate-limiting in either type of reactor. Based on the
colloidal starch results, film-flow reaction systems are mass
transfer limited. Therefore, it should be possible to improve
the efficiency of such reactors, e.g., trickling filters, by
increasing mass transfer. This could be accomplished by
improved design and/or agitation to provide mixing in the
liquid film.
68-0767
Marshall, P. G.. W. L. Dunkley, and E. Lowe. Fractionation
and concentration of whey by reverse osmosis. Food
Technology, 22(8): 37-38, Aug. 1968.
Whey contains about half of the milk solids, most of the
lactose, about one-fifth of the protein, and most of the
vitamins and minerals of milk. About one-half of the 22
billion pounds of whey produced in the United States each
year goes to waste. Of 590 cheese factories in Wisconsin, over
50 percent disposed of whey as waste or sewage, over 25
percent paid processors about 2 cents per cwt, 15 percent
gave whey to farmers, 4 percent sold whey to farmers, and 4
percent processed their own whey. Reverse osmosis has been
suggested as an economical process that would concentrate
whey and remove at least part of the lactic acid and salts. A
Wurstack assembly, essentially a plate-and-frame filter that
provides for passage of a permeate through a cellulose-acetate
membrane, was used for the concentration of cottage cheese
whey. Representative data from five runs are summarized.
Data indicated the feasibility of using the
membrane-separation technique to concentrate whey and to
remove most of the monovalent salts.
68-0768
McGhee, T. J. A method for approximation of the volatile
acid concentrations in anaerobic digesters. Water and Sewage
Works, 115(4): 162-166, Apr. 1968.
The relationship between acid concentration and apparent
alkalinity was examined to provide a method sufficiently
accurate and rapid to insure use by treatment plant
operators. One such successful method was to titrate the
clarified sludge with an acid to determine the slope of the
titration curve at pH values between 4 and 5. The slope of
the curve was found to correlate well with the concentration
of volatile acids, so that any decrease in the slope could be
understood as an increase in the concentration of the volatile
acids. The experimental apparatus and procedure are
detailed. The method is suggested as a supplement to the
chromatographic technique.
68-0769
McKinney, R. E., and W. J. O'Brien. Activated sludge-basic
design concepts. Journal of the Water Pollution Control
Federation, 40(11): 1,843, Nov. 1968.
The history of the development of the activated sludge
process is examined to provide a foundation for the
discussion of basic design concepts of modern systems.
Progress has occurred largely as a result of empirical testing.
Complete-mixing activated sludge has definite advantages
over other modifications of the process. Many design
concepts hold true for both conventional and complete
mixing activated sludge processes. Screening, grit removal,
and primary sedimentation are normal treatments for most
wastes, although some specific wastes may not require all
three, and economic parameters also enter into consideration
of primary sedimentation. The primary variables considered
in aeration tank design are: feed pattern, retention time.
microbe concentration, type of aeration equipment, quantity
of air, and tank configuration. Secondary sedimentation
tanks remove the microbial solids from the liquid and permit
rapid return ot the sludge to the aeration tank. Since sludge
increases continuously, it is necessary to remove it
continuously. It is important that a positive method be used
for measuring the volume removed, and this volume must be
removed at a uniform rate. Excess activated sludge may be
dewatered and disposed on land, incinerated, or vacuum
filtered. At times, tertiary treatment of the effluent is
required when other nutrients create pollution.
68-0770
McLean, N. Applications of the principles of gas cleaning
equipment. Public Cleansing, 58(6):261-264, June 1968.
Reduction of dust at its source should be attempted by
methods including dedusting from the screens, pulverizers,
conveyors, etc. which are normally at ambient temperatures.
Cleaning of the incinerator flue gases, which can be highly
acidic and can reach temperatures in the range of 900 C to
1,000 C involves cooling the gas before industrial gas cleaning
equipment can be used. Waste heat boilers, heat recovery,
cooling by air infiltration, evaporative cooling by water
sprays, and saturation by gas washers are commonly used.
Various principles, such as efficiency, economics, and
capacity limitations, should be considered before selection of
the equipment. Final gas cleansing is said to be best
accomplished by electro-precipitators which, while one of the
most expensive methods in terms of initial capital cost, are
the most effective and economical in terms of total operating
costs for large plants.
68-0771
McLean, N. Gas cleaning equipment. Public Cleansing,
58(4):167-178, Apr. 1968.
The principles of mertial separators, impingement separators,
electro-precipitators, and other general types of gas cleaning
equipment installed in refuse disposal plants, are described \
description of the efficiencies to be expected from each type
of separator and its operation are included. Settling
chambers, mechanical collectors, cyclone collectors, high
efficiency cellular collectors, scroll collectors, gas scrubbers,
town scrubbers, Venturi scrubbers, fabric filters, gravel bed
filters, and electro-precipitators are described and illustrated.
68-0772
McMahon, J. F. Solid wastes in the ceramic industry, in
Proceedings; First Mineral Waste Utilization Symposium,
Chicago, Mar. 27-28, 1968. U.S. Bureau of Mines, and Illinois
Institute of Technology Research Institute, p.108-112.
The literature pertaining to the advantageous use of ceramics
wastes is reviewed. Questionnaires sent to 22 knowledgeable
153
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Industrial Wastes
and dependable persons in the industry furnished relevant
information pertaining to solid ceramic wastes. A summary
of the nature of the wastes and the manner in which these
wastes were handled are given in tabular form. Most of the
industries' waste is landfilled. Those companies that have
mining operations reported that: timber is salvaged; brush is
burned or hauled to landfill; earthy materials are placed in a
spoil bank; slurry is drained and/or pumped into streams;
dust is collected and deposited in a spoil bank; and screenings
are collected and salvaged. The industry now utilizes most of
its wastes in: grinding and polishing media, refractory
products, agricultural purposes, filters, aggregates, and
extenders, and as additions to its normal products. Various
branches of the industry have found outlets tor ware which
would be classified as seconds.
68-0773
Meier, E. B., and W. E. Korbitz. Central pretreatment of
Omaha packinghouse wastewaters. Journal of the Water
Pollution Control Federation, 49(4):627-635, Apr. 1968.
Wastewaters from the Omaha livestock and meat-packing
industry flow directly to the Missouri River through city
sewers with essentially no treatment. The city and the
industry joined in an effort to find an economically feasible
solution which would permit efficient operation of the city's
new wastewater treatment plant, and yet preserve the
advantages of the traditional wastewater disposal methods
used by the meat industry. Wastewater will be discharged
into a new and separate system of collector sewers which will
deliver the waste water to four gravity recovery basins. The
effluent from the gravity separation basins will receive
further treatment in four air-flotation recovery basins
Effluent from the air-flotation systems will be released into
the existing city sewer system. Settled solids and skimmings
from these units will be conveyed mechanically to storage
facilities, and then on to the Carver-Greenfield processing
plant where the raw solids and fats will be converted into
saleable, water-free fats, and dry, sterile, protein-containing
solids suitable for use in animal-feed formulations. Operating
costs, financing, and estimated income from the sale of grease
and solids are included.
68-0774
Method to dehydrate sludges which are difficult to
dehydrate. Das Papier, 22(5):280, May 1968.
The Passavant-Werke in Michelbacher Huette, Germany, has
applied for a patent of a method to dehydrate sludges which
are difficult to dehydrate. The inventors are Oswald Busse
and Hugo Klesper. (Text in German)
68-0775
Metro' Toronto installs novel sludge conditioning system.
Water & Pollution Control, 106(1):25, Jan. 1968.
Metropolitan Toronto has recently installed a sludge
conditioning system of novel design. In this system, the
polyelectrolyte used for flocculation is Dow Chemical's SA
1188.1. Under the original system, approximately 25,000 Ib
of ferric chloride solution and 30,000 Ib of lime were used
daily. The new system uses an average of 4,000 Ib of the
polyelectrolyte per day. Capital cost was kept to a minimum
by utilizing equipment already present, except for a rotary
gear to feed the polyelectrolyte to a centrifugal pump which
is used as a mixer.
68-0776
Middlebrooks, E. J., E. D. Breland, 1-. J. Coogan, B. J. Shell,
and J. H. Stovall. Combined wood storage and waste
treatment for the paper industry. TAPPI, 51 (7):93A-97A,
July 1968.
A sprinkling system has been successfully used to overcome
the disadvantages of the underwater storage of pulpwood. In
addition to preserving the wood, the process acts as a large
trickling filter that has reduced the BOD of waste water by
more than 50 percent. When the effluent from the woodyard
was settled for 1 hr, the total BOD removals ranged from
45.9 to 82.5 percent with an average of 70.1 percent.
Effluent from the primary sedimentation basin is distributed
over the wood by oscillating sprinkler heads. Pulpwood is
stacked directly on the ground. The wood is continuously
rotated, with 1/12 of the stored wood being removed from
the storage area each month. At an estimated volume of 2
million cu ft for the woodpile, the average organic loading
applied to the filter was 2.71 Ib BOD per 100 cu ft a day.
Tables show the BOD, COD, and suspended solids
concentrations of the clarifier and woodyard effluents. Some
increase in cost, due to a more elaborate spraying and
collecting system, is necessary, but the savings are substantial
when compared to the cost of a typical waste treatment
installation. If a system could be developed to apply the raw
waste directly to the woodpile, a much greater advantage
would exist.
68-0777
Miksch, J., and K. Roennefahrt. Purification of the waste
water from citric acid production in the factory Ladenburg
of the company Joh. A. Benckiser GmbH.
Chemie-Ingemeur-Technik, 40(6):268-271, Mar. 1968.
The chemical company, Joh A. Benckiser, which pioduces
citric acid from molasses, also produces solid waste in the
form of myceha of iungi, gypsum, fermentation waste water,
and waste water from the cleaning process. The gypsum is
dumped into sanitary landfills, the mycelia arc carefully dried
and used as fertilizer because of their high nitrogen content.
The fermentation waste water is dehydrated and burned in an
incinerator. The cleaning water, which has a relatively low
solids content, is biologically purified. The impurities in the
waste water include molasses residues, sugar, citric acid, salt,
and disinfectant. Before the biological purification plant was
built extensive experiments were conducted with a model
aero-accelerator. All conditions necessary for an effective
biological purification of waste water, using the activated
sludge method were investigated, and data that was necessary
for planning and estimating cost was collected. The
experiments were made with four different types of waste
water: cleaning water (A); the waste water from another
production branch in which insulation material (polystyrol)
is processed (B); a mixture of A and B (C); and a mixture of
waste waters A and B with communal waste water (D). The
results are listed in detail in a table. Waste water A, with a
BOD of 2,400 mg per liter, left the aeroaccelerator with a
BOD of 40 mg per liter, (decomposition 98.5%); waste water
B, with a BOD of 49 mg per liter, left it with a BOD of 10 mg
154
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0773-0782
per liter (decomposition 80%); waste waters C and D attained
a reduction rate of 99 percent and 93 percent. Based on these
experiments, an aeroaccelerator plant was built with a total
capacity of 1,560 cu m per day at an organic impurity rate of
760 kg BOD per day. The waste water is collected in a 140 cu
m tank where pressurized air mixes the water vigorously.
From here, the water falls into the aeration room, is mixed
with activated sludge, and the biological decomposition,
which began in the collecting tank, is continued. The
activated sludge is separated again, and the purified water
flows off. The excess sludge is dehydrated. (Text in German)
68-0778
Millward, R, S., and P. B. Booth. Incorporating sludge
combustion into sewage treatment plant. Water and Sewage
Works, 115(RN1968):R169-R174),Nov. 29, 1968.
Sludge combustion, the reduction of waste sewage solids to
sterile ash, is proving to be an economical answer to scarce
land and costly solids handling problems. Dorr-Oliver's FS
system is described in detail. Fluidized-bed combustion can
reduce sludge as much as 99 percent, while virtually
eliminating odor and other air pollutants. In a typical
process, sludge is fed into a DorrClone degritting system
where 95 percent of the 200 plus mesh inorganics are
removed. Degntted sludge is then concentrated in a
Den-sludge thickener, after which a Sulzer disintegrator
grinds the sludge to 3/8-in. particle size. The thickened sludge
is further dewatered by a MercoBowl centrifuge, and the
dewatered sludge is screw fed or pumped into a fluidized
sand bed reactor. The fluidized bed (the combustion zone at
1,400 F) has a heat capacity of 16,000 Btu per cu ft, which,
in combination with extreme mixing, produces complete
drying and combustion in a matter of seconds. One
application of a separate heat recovery system uses waste gas
heat to preheat incoming air for combustion to as much as
1,000 F. This particular application is feasible on FS systems
which accomplish drying and burning in a single
compartment.
68-0779.
Mobile sludge dewatering plant. Water and Waste Treatment
Journal, 11(12):546, Mar.-Apr. 1968.
The Lynx Disc Filter, a compact mobile dewatering plant, is
capable of treating the sludge from a population of 6,000 in
an 8-hr day on the basis of 0.15 Ib solids per person per day.
The key feature of the machine is the new method of
filtration. The sludge is pumped via the coagulant mixer unit,
into the semi-circular sludge bath, through which the disc
rotates. As the disc rotates through the conditioned sludge, a
vacuum is applied to the filter cloth so that sludge adheres to
the cloth while the filtrate passes through the cloth for
discharge. The filter cloth on the disc needs to be replaced
only after 1,000 hr of continuous use.
68-0780
Moore, M. E., and J. J. Todd. Sludge production in the
contact stabilization process. Effluent and Water Treatment
Journal, 8(11):551- 560, Nov. 1968.
The contact stabilization process is examined to provide
information on the quantity of sludge produced by the
process. The plant and equipment used are described and
illustrated. Tabulations include: capacity of zones of the
contact stabilization plant; design loadings; and actual plant
loadings. Graphs of results are included and show feed
conditions relative to design capacity during test period:
sludge production and factors affecting production; sludge
density and loading; and effluent quality. It was shown that
the process can handle short-term high daily BOD loads
greater than allowed for with little effect on BOD reduction.
The gross sludge production, including all solids lost with the
effluent, was 0.39 Ib dry solids per Ib BOD applied at
temperatures from 6 to 10 C. Sludge production was shown
to be directly proportional to plant loading. The temperature
fluctuations during the survey seemed to have Little effect on
the gross sludge production. The average BOD load in this
survey was 47 percent higher than the design load, but this
had no effect on the efficiency at high MLSS levels. Measured
peak BOD loadings on occasion reached five times design
load, again with no apparent effect on BOD reduction. This
process, with separate contact and stabilization zones and
operated at correct MLSS levels, is adaptable to considerable
changes in BOD strength and gives consistently good filtered
BOD.
68-0781
Moyer, H. E. The south Lake Tahoe water reclamation
project. Public Works, 99(12):87-94, Dec. 1968.
Development of a project to collect, treat, and remove
sewage from the shore area of Lake Tahoe involved
construction and development of an advanced waste
treatment plant which would be capable of producing an
effluent of high quality. The plant consists of a 2 1/2 mgd
activated sludge treatment plant, tertiary treatment utilizing
multimedia filters, and adsorption on activated carbon beds.
A six-hearth furnace which burns both the biological sludge
and the high phosphate sludge, and facilities for reclaiming
the lime that was used for phosphate removal, were added. A
stripping tower was installed for removing ammonia nitrogen.
Illustrations include: a diagram of the plant itself, a map
showing the pipeline used to transport the effluent fromthe
basin, and the pumps used in the pipeline. The system is
unique in that it transports water sufficiently pure to be
directly reused. The collection system is designed and
maintained to prevent infiltration of ground water, due to the
expensive treatment and disposal system.
68-0782
Muers, M. M. Wastes from the processing of milk and milk
products. Water Pollution Control, 67(6):644-651, 1968.
The value of the dairy industry to the national economy, and
the type of operation it performs,are described in order to
explain the sources and nature of the discharges produced,
and their contribution to the total effluent. Suggestions,
based on the experience of waste-saving campaigns, are made
about how the milk and water losses may be tracked down,
measured, and reduced. Dairy effluents, although differing
from sewage in having a higher BOD and higher ratio of
carbon to nitrogen, are amenable to the normal methods of
sewage treatment such as high-rate filtration, use of plastic
filter media and modified activated-sludge processes. F"or
direct discharge, the ocean disposal and spray irrigation
methods are the cheapest, but most urban dairies discharge to
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Industrial Wastes
a town sewer, with frequent problems resulting. The high
cost of either treatment or discharge to the sewer is the most
serious aspect of a dairy's effluent problem.
68-0783
Mueller, W. J. Water economy m the years 1966 and 1967. V.
D. I. Zeitschrift, 110(14):603-605, May 1968.
Measures taken to keep the water in rivers and lakes clean are
reviewed, and 44 references are given. Through experiments
it was found that toxic substances from dumped wastes or
from waste watei were still toxic after they had remained in
the ground for 50 days, despite the purifying effect of the
top layeis. Such substances are chromic acid, cyanide, picric
acid, insecticide, mineral oils and mineral oil products, and
tar and tar products. The increased use of insecticides leads
not only to destruction of living organisms in the water, it
carries a latent danger to man himself. As far as the
purification of the waste water is concerned, the BOD of the
purified waste waler must be reduced still further to below
10 mg per liter. The biological purification of industrial waste
water is highly important. A common treatment of
industrial waste water and municipal waste water is
economical. The most important sludge treatment method is
still the rotting method. Before the treated sludge is used in
agriculture, all worm eggs must be destroyed by heat or by
storing it long enough. In the purification plant in Nordhorn,
Germany, (the organic amount in the sludge here is only
about 40'-f) the aerobic sludge stabilization method has been
sucessfully introduced. (Text in German)
68-0784
Municipal abattoir opened at Slough. Surveyor and Municipal
Engineer, 1 32(3985):31-32, Oct. 19,1968.
A new abattoir, designed to meet the stringent demands of
hygiene and animal welfare, was opened at Cippenham Lane,
Slough Finishes throughout the building and its equipment
have been designed specifically to resist corrosion, to
facilitate cleaning, and to maintain hygienic conditions.
Steam and high pressure hoses are situated at convenient
points within the building for cleaning purposes. A steam line
is provided to force the blood from the underground pressure
tank to a high-level storage tank for disposal, by gravity, to
motori/ed tankers. If necessary, it can be discharged to the
normal seweiage system. Other facilities include a vehicle
washing area and a manure bay with provision for trailers.
68-0785
Myatt, A. A. Assessment and selection ot methods of sludge
treatment and disposal, Effluent and Water Treatment
Journal, 8(10): 504-511, Oct. 1968.
The assessment of any sewage treatment proposal must
consider the final disposal of the sludge produced in the
plant. This must be consideted when choosing equipment
since the types of sludge will differ. As individual
circumstances vary too widely to recommend a specific
process or treatment, each project must be considered
individually, and then each pro]ect examined in terms of
capital, operational and maintenance costs, and overhead.
Certain processes are examined in light of capital costs and
the results are graphed. Other more common methods for
treatment are listed, as are the processes necessary for final
treatment and disposal.
68-0786
Neubauer, W. K. Waste alum sludge treatment. American
Water Works Association Journal, 60(7):819-826, July 1968.
A study was conducted in 1966 to investigate the
characteristics of the clanfier sludge from selected water
treatment plants, and to evaluate several methods of
treatment. The study included the examination of two water
treatment plants which utilize alum as a chemical coagulant,
use upflow units for clarification, and treat Lake Ontario
water. Four methods of treatment were considered1 vacuum
filters, centrifuges, lagoons, and drying beds. The two water
treatment plants selected were' Shoremont Plant, Monroe
County Water Authority, Rochester, New York, with a
nominal capacity of 32 million gal per day, and Wolcott Plant,
Wolcott, New York,with a nominal capacity of 1 million gal
per day. The total solids content of the sludge discharged
from both plants averaged approximately 4,300 mg per liter.
Although the wastes had a relatively low total solids content,
there was a high ratio of suspended solids. The wastes were
also relatively light in unit weight, had low BOD and high
COD, and were not readily settleable to concentrations
suitable for handling. Based upon the ultimate disposal of
these wastes by landfill, it was determined that at least 20
percent of the material should be solid. Of the four treatment
methods studied, lagooning and centrifuging did not provide
acceptable solids concentration. Bench scale, sand drying-bed
studies produced a total solids content greater than 20
percent in about 100 hr, with a loading rate of 0.8 Ib per sq
ft. A precoated vacuum filter could also produce 20 percent
total solids concentration. The filtrates from these processes
could be recirculated to the water treatment plant influent, if
the discharge of these wastes to surface waters was
objectionable.
680787
New high in pulp waste cleanup. Chemical Week,
103(8).77-78, Aug. 24, 1968.
A Georgia paper company has won a development and
demonstration grant from the Department of the Interior to
make sure delayed-action tannic and lignin compounds are
removed from effluents, and that these effluents meet new
color-removal standards. A treatment plant was designed for
a waste flow of 10 million gal per day and a BOD loading of
14,000 Ib per day. Calcined lime is slaked with condensate
from an evaporator to form a calcium hydroxide slurry with
about 15 percent solids. The slurry is mixed with process
waste water, flows into the floe mix tank, and then to a
clanfier. The calcium hydroxide combines with color bodies
of the waste and settles out together with fiber and other
solids discharged by the mill. Sludge is discharged to two
20-acre sludge-holding ponds. Decolorized and clarified waste
flows to stabilization ponds.
68-0788
New prescription asked for industry's pollution ills. Chemical
Engineering 75(5):100, Feb. 26, 1968.
New approaches to obtain solutions to combat pollution
involving liquid-gas absorption, scrubbing, and solids recovery
156
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0783-0793
are discussed For solid particle recovery, a commercial
system is described consisting of a quench-saturation unit and
a cross-flow Tellerette-packed scrubber Overall dust recovery
was 98 percent, but 32 percent of the dust was less than 2
microns in diameter. A much simpler device collects solid
particles in municipal incinerator effluents. This new
experimental system consists of sets of ribbons moving
around two drive cylinders which are located in the duct
through which the effluent travels. Solids are captured by
inelastic collision on the ribbons, and transported to a brush
that removes them.
68-0789
Pflanz, P. The sedimentation of activated sludge in final
settling tanks. Water Research, 2(1).80-86, Jan 1968
Large-scale tests were carried out with the ob|ect of
ascertaining how long it takes to remove a given amount of
suspended solids by secondary sedimentation Various plants
were tested along with the corresponding secondary basins.
The sedimentation process was examined by making a profile
of the solids in rectangular basins. In addition, some tests
were carried out while the sludge was subject to agitation and
dilution. It was shown that a direct relationship exists
between the hydraulic load of the basin and the total amount
of suspended solids in the mixed liquor. This relationship was
investigated, and it was noted that the quality of the effluent
deteriorates with an increase in the surface feed rate.
Statistically, the results indicate that satisfactory surface feed
rates (2.5-3.5 kg dissolved solids per sq m) can be obtained at
normal temperatures (13-15 C) with a sludge volume index of
100. In addition, it is shown that the solids surface feed rate
is defined to a considerable extent by the settling qualities of
the activated sludge.
68-0790
New Shell plant disposes of BOD Modern Manufacturing,
1(6).233, Nov. 1968.
Shell Chemical Company is building a $4-milhon secondary
treatment plant in Houston. It has a capacity of 6,500,000
gal per day of waste water and will cost $800,000 to operate
annually. The treatment uses a highly concentrated colony of
bacteria to consume the BOD materials (hydrocarbons,
alcohols, aromatic compounds, organic acids, starches, and
sugars). A flocculating agent is also used. Wastes are
discharged into a primary clanfier and then into a flotation
chamber to remove suspended and settling solids, which are
then used as landfill. The waste stream is channeled into a
secondary clarifier, and into a thickener where water is
removed. The resulting sludge is also used as landfill. A small
portion of sludge is returned to an aeration basin to continue
the cycle.
68-0791
A new sludge removal bridge to empty drying beds in a
purification plant in Saarbruecken, West Germany Gas und
Wasserfach, Wasser, Abwasser, 109(46). 1,31 2, Nov. 15, 1968.
The purification plant in Saarbruecken not only purifies
waste water, but also treats the sludge which accumulates in
the purification process. To remove the dry layers of sludge
from drying beds, the plant uses a new bridge with a blade
attached to a center wheel which runs on rails over the beds,
and scrapes off the dried sludge. The rails are 20.5 m apart.
The bridge operates on the concrete sides of the drying beds.
There is no need for the installation of expensive new rails.
The sludge, loosened by the blade, is thrown into a bucket
which in turn empties into a waiting truck to carry off the
dried sludge. Two bucket loads fill one truck. The bridge,
which is operated from a remote control stand, has been
patented in several European countries (Text in German)
68-0792
Nienutz, W. Characteristic sludge data. Gas und Wasserfach,
Wasser, Abwasser, 109(1 2):299-305, Mar. 1968.
The gram size of sewage sludges, their dehydration in
centrifuges, their specific filter resistances, and their
improvement by adding flocculants to the sludge were
investigated. Samples of four types of sludges were strained
in sieves with various pore sizes. To simplify the evaluation,
the various grain sizes were narrowed down to four groups:
less than 0.3 mm, less than 0.032 mm, 1 to about 30
microns, and filtrate. A table lists the mean values of the
grain sizes found in the four sludge samples. Maximum and
minimum values arc also given. The values indicate that there
is a clear difference in grain size between fresh sludge and
rotting sludge. Fresh sludge has a higher amount of large and
very fine grain sizes, while rotting sludges range between 1
and 30 microns. Experiments in the centrifuge were
conducted twice' once under very favorable conditions; and
once with the duration shortened and the revolution per
minute decreased. Surprisingly the results of these centrifuge
experiments showed no dependence on the rotting stage of
the sludge groups. The two different centrifugmg methods,
however, did produce results which differed from each other
depending on the original solids contents. Correlation
calculations showed that the best correlation exists between
the original solids contents, and the longer centrifugmg
process at a high number of revolutions per minute. To
determine the improvement in specific filter resistances by
addition of flocculants (vn this case ferric chloride), the
optimum dose, using the Centner formula, was determined
for all sludge samples. Each was then treated with the
calculated amount of ferric chloride, and the specific filter
resistance was determined. For 80 percent of the tested
sludge samples, the minimum filter resistance was achieved.
The various types of sludges showed a vastly different
dehydration behavior. No clear-cut theoretical interpretation
of the results is possible, nor are they of any practical help
(Text in German)
68-0793
Nishikawa, S., and M. Kunyama Nucleic acid as a
component of mucilage in activated sludge. Water Research,
11-812, Nov. f968.
Activated sludge consists of floes which are composed of a
gelatinous mucilage containing large numbers of microbial
cells. High amounts of polymerized DNA and RNA have been
found in the mucilage. These have been folded in the sludge
floe and protected with metal ions. The procedure of the
investigation is described. Some other findings are: mucilage
containing polymerized nucleic acid is obtained without
157
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Industrial Wastes
breaking down the living cells by an extracting EDTA
solution; the nucleoprotein released by autolysis from the
microbial cells accumulates and is prevented from enzymatic
de polymerization.
68-0794
Non-volatile matter in waste waters. Svensk-Papperstidning,
71(20):753-754, Oct. 31,1968.
A technique for determining the non-volatile matter in waste
waters is detailed. It is intended for use on unfiltered samples
of waste water having a dry matter content of less than 50 g
per liter. SCAN testing methods have been issued and
recommended by the Central Laboratories of the Pulp, Paper
and Board Industries n Denmark, Finland, Norway, and
Sweden.
68-0795.
Noxious sewer lagoon odors required vinyl cover up job that
had some bubble problems. Engineering News-Record,
181(15):43, Oct. 10,1968.
When a Kalamazoo, Michigan paper company abandoned a
process that had dumped waste with a high clay content into
two sewage sludge lagoons, the organic content of the sewage
grew past all expected levels and released noxious odors. The
city installed vinyl covers at both lagoons for $24,000 plus
installation. Styrofoam vents with a suction pump in each
vent pulled gases out and prevented bubbles from forming
under the covers. The daily output of gas was about 20
percent methane and 80 percent carbon dioxide. Methods of
eliminating the odors permanently are being considered such
as the Zimmerman process, aerobic digestion, centrifuging,
and vacuum filtration.
68-0796
Painter, H A., R. S. Denton, and C. Quarmby. Removal of
sugars by activated sludge. Water Research, 2(6):427-447,
Aug. 1968.
The diurnal variation of the concentrations of sugars and
volatile fatty acids in fresh and settled sewage at three sites
was determined. Little loss of sugar occurred on settlement at
two cities, where settlement was carried out aerobically. The
sugars normally present in sewage were removed from
solution by activated sludge at much the same rate as was
added glucose. No simple relation was found between BOD
loading and the ability of a sludge to remove sugars, but in
general, the higher the sugar loading the greater the activity
of the sludge. Activated sludge acquired very high, though
variable, activity towards glucose on addition of this sugar to
the sewage treated, but unlike pure cultures of two species of
bacteria tested, the sludge lost this activity when fed with
further amounts of the sugar alone in quick succession At
the point of complete, or near complete, removal of sugar
from solution, variable proportions of the theoretical
amounts of oxygen were taken up, namely 10 to 30 percent
for glucose and 8 to 26 percent for sucrose. Biochemical
removal of soluble substrates does not seem to be a limiting
factor in the activated-sludge process, so that any limitation
on the load applied would appear to involve flocculation or
separation of sludge particles. Supporting data and references
are furnished.
68-0797
Parker, C. D. Food cannery wastes treatment. Food
Technology in Australia, 20(3) 74-75, 77, 79, Feb. 1968.
A full-scale treatment method for assorted waste, comprising
not only sewage, but also the wastes from a bacon factory,
two milk processing plants, a butter factory, abattoirs, textile
mill, and laundry, includes primary sedimentation, separate,
heated sludge digestion, and filtration. Treatment of cannery
wastes including that from apricot, peaches, and pear
canning, and citrus fruits and tomato canning, require further
facilities. Anaerobic and aerobic lagoons and oxidation
ditches were chosen in which the cannery wastes are piped
separately, and then mixed with the purified sewage effluent
flow to supply deficient nutrients. The lagoon units are built
with 4~to-5-ft water depth, they are rectangular in shape with
concrete inlet and outlet channels, and have pipe connections
through the banks to interconnect the series of lagoons. The
oxidation ditch installation is a modification of the Pasveer
ditch. The characteristics of the sewage and of the various
cannery wastes are tabulated.
68-0798.
Parker, C. D. Food cannery wastes treatment Food
Technology in Australia, 20(3): 114-118, Mar 1968.
Treatment facilities are described, incorporating the use of an
oxidation ditch in the treatment of cannery wastes, the
treatment of partially purified lagoon effluents by the
oxidation ditch process, and the use of anaerobic lagoons to
treat fruit cannery wastes at heavy BOD loadings without
odor. A pre-existing sewage plant provided effluent to supply
nitrogen, phosphate and a digested sludge seed, which was
found necessary for wastes in small tanks simulating
anaerobic lagoons. The full development of these facilities for
the treatment of both citrus and tomato waste is described
Tabulations include treatment of waste from a plant in an
anaerobic lagoon; treatment after anaerobic lagoon;
Campbell Soup Co. waste treatment lagoon performance,
Campbell Soup Co. waste treatment lagoon performance on
citrus wastes; performance of anaerobic lagoons on
Campbell's tomato wastes; and costs of the treatment
facilities. These are described as efficient methods of treating
these wastes to a degree of complete purification, at costs
acceptable to the industry.
68-0799
Pearl, I. A. Waste product use helps paper industry control
pollution. Environmental Science & Technology,
2(9):676-681,Sept. 1968.
Disposal of the spent sulfite liquor from the acid sulfite
wood-pulping process is accomplished through chemical
utilization. The spent liquor contains approximately 50
percent of the solids of the original wood, and is about 10
percent solids. The lignosulfonates found in the liquor are
used for preparing oil-well drilling muds Roadbindmg
operations utilize the crude spent liquor. The crude liquor is
used also as a binder for animal feed pellets. The
lignosulfonates are used as concrete additives, for water
treatment, and for various uses based on the physical and
chemical properties of these liquor-derived products. The
liquor is treated to produce vanillin and ethanol, as well as
the lignosulfonates. The production of Torula yeast by
158
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0794-0805
fermentation with the spent liquor is an important use. Tall
oil skimmings from the concentrated black liquors of the
kraft mills became a source of oils to replace vegetable oils in
non-food markets. Dimethyl sulfide and methyl mercaptan
are also produced. Individual plants are cited which utilize
the liquors and the processes used are outlined.
68-0800
Peschiera, L., and F. H. Freiherr. Disposal of titanium
pigment process wastes. Journal of the Water Pollution
Control Federation, 40(1): 127-131, Jan. 1968.
Wastes generated during the production of titanium dioxide
pigment consist of dilute sulfuric acid, soluble salts, and
insoluble materials, principally silica and unrecovered
titanium dioxide. One disposal method consists of
rubber-lined shore storage facilities for collection, and a barge
for the disposal of acidic liquids and slurries at sea. Waste
treatment facilities are used for the neutralization of waste
liquids by dolomitic lime to a 4.0 pH, and subsequently
disposed at the Middlesex County Sewerage Authority's
treatment plant.
68-0801
Petru, I. A. Combined treatment of cotton mill and dairy
wastes with sewage. Water and Waste Treatment Journal,
11(12).532-533. Mar.-Apr. 1968.
A combination of municipal waste waters with the effluents
from a cotton mill and dairy was given a two-stage activated
sludge treatment which offers considerable possibilities of
adequate purification efficiency. The waste had the following
approximate proportions' municipal 1.078 mgd, and 4,540 Ib
per day BOD, cotton mills 0.565 mgd, and 2,770 Ib per day
BOD; dairy 0.529 mgd, and 1.040 Ib per day BOD. Synthetic
sewage was used in the operational experiments, and the
phosphorus and nitrogen as well as detergent, sulfides,
copper, and chromium content were determined. The
experimental model was in operation for almost three
months as a two-stage activated-sludge process with an 8 kg
per cu m per day BOD primary stage, and an 0.8 kg per cu
m per day BOD secondary stage. The mixture of waste
waters had the following values before treatment: pll 8.8 to
9.6, COD (dichromate) 606 mg per liter, and COD
(permanganate) 178 mg per liter. In the primary and
secondary stages, respectively, the total reduction of these
values was: BOD, 70 percent, COD (dichromate), 60 percent.
and COD (permanganate), 75 percent.
primary digester An equation is developed tor the
parameters affecting the rate of recycling necessary to obtain
the desired solids retention time, and examples are used to
illustrate the principles involved.
680803
Phillips, W. Crewe sewage disposal works. Consulting
Fngineei, 32(1 1):80, 82. Nov. 1968
A new disposal works is being completed near the Borough of
Crewe, on 34 acres of farm land. The layout is based on an
ultimate population of 80,000 persons-the corresponding dry
weather flow, after including an appropriate allowance foi
trade wastes, being approximately 5.7 million gal pci d.w It
has been calculated that the suspended solids within the Hade
wastes might equal the domestic sewage of some 30,750
persons. Primary sludge and surplus activated sludge are
discharged into any of three primary sludge digestion tanks,
which are equipped with floating roofs, sludge heating, and
circulating equipment. Gas from these tanks will be collected
into a 1 2,000-cu-ft holder and utilized foi iinng the boilers in
the sludge heater house. Sludge is then passed to the cold
secondary digestion tanks, before being discharged to the
longitudinal distribution channel ol the sludge drying beds
Dried sludge is delivered cither to wagons or to a poition ol
the sludge storage area. Part of the surplus excavated material
lias been utilized to form a flood bank alongsidt the Rivei
Weaver or deposited on a farm.
680804
Pine bark for purifying the water Wasscr. Luft und Betneb,
12(IO):644, Oct. 1968.
Ordinary bark from pine trees proved to be an excellent and
inexpensive material for absorbing water-polluting oil refuse,
according to experiments conducted in Sweden, 'the bark
was pulverized or sluedded and put into a nylon hose. The
waste oil was rapidly absorbed. The oil-saturated bark
provides an excellent fuel After about 4 years spent on
relming this absorption method, pulverized bark and nylon
hose are now industrially produced in large amounts. A new
factory which specializes in this will begin operation shortly.
It will produce about 100 sacks of pulverized bark each
weighing 60 kg and about 1,000 m of nylon hose daily. The
bark absorbs various types of oil and similai pmducts, not
only heavy oil but also gasoline, etc. Two liters of pulverized
bark absorb 1 liter liquid. The bark is then incinerated.
(Text m German)
68-0802
Pfeffer, J. T. Increased loadings on digesters with recycle of
digested solids. Journal of the Water Pollution Control
Federation, 40(1 1): 1920-1933, Nov. 1968.
Recycling of digested solids from the secondary digester back
to the primary digester offers a means of increasing the
loading rates, while maintaining the solids retention time
necessary for adequate solids stabilization. The increase in
retention time associated with recycling increases gas
production and decreases the production of volatile solids.
The prime factors controlling recycling are the concentration
of the solids in the recycled sludge, and the ratio of desired
solids retention time to the liquid rentention time in the
68-0805
Plastic pipe used for sludge disposal at Huber foundry An
Engineering, 10(4).28, 30, Apr. 1968.
More than 4,000 ft of plastic pipe ranging from 6 in to 1 6 in
in diameter convey nearly 8 tons per hr of sludge away from
collectors in the foundry. Sludge flows by giavit>, as a less
than 1 percent slurry can be kept moving by booster water
jets at all sharp bends and junctions. Centrtfugally-cast,
fiberglass, reinforced, plastic pipe, having a high resistance to
abrasive wear and chemical action, was chosen rather than
sluice trenches to carry out the complete environmental
control concept used at the plant. Thirty-three wet-type dust
159
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Industrial Wastes
collectors, rated at 30,000 cfm, located throughout the
foundry, collect dust to be carried through the pipeline to
the central disposal unit. Water, reclaimed from the sludges is
recirculated, after filtering, through the pipeline network at
4,000 gpm.
68-0806
Ploos van Amstel, J. J. A. Wet oxidation of sewage sludge.
Chemie-Inginieur-Technik, 40(l/2):83, Jan. 1968.
Wet oxidation is a new method to eliminate sewage sludge in
which organic substances are oxidized in the liquid state in
the presence of air. The process takes place at 35 to 125 atm
and at a temperature of 200 to 300 C. The Technical
University of Eindhoven, Germany, has made a study to
determine whether the conversion of wet oxidation is
determined by the rate of diffusion or by the chemical
reaction speed. In a bubble column, the oxidation of sludge
(4% glucose solution) was observed at 220 C and 50 atm by
means of oxygen partial pressure; the state of the mixture in
the reactor, the size of the gas bubbles, and the duration of
the gas and liquid phase in the reactor remained constant.
The conversion speed is determined only by the diffusion of
the oxygen in the solution, not by the oxygen partial
pressure. The conversion thus is contact surface dependent,
and it takes place quite rapidly. The phenomena can be
described by a model of non-stationary physical adsorption
of oxygen, succeeded by an infinitely rapid oxidation of
non-diffusing material. Because of this finding, wet oxidation
reactors can be designed three to four times smaller than
before. The degree of oxidation of the dissolved organic
substance in the experiment was said to be 90 percent. The
importance of this method lies not in the complete
elimination of organic substances in sludges, but in the fact
that the incineration of dissolved or colloidal substances
changes characteristics important to the further treatment of
sludges, e.g. dehydration ability. (Text in German)
68-0807
Pohl, F. Purification plant for waste water. Das Papier,
22(2):L20, Feb. 1968.
A. Kraft and H. Sonthheimer of Metallgesellschaft AG,
Germany, obtained German Patent No. 1,200,219 on Mar. 9,
1967 (applied for on Feb. 6, 1962) for a purification plant
for waste water which contains easily deposited solids. The
plant consists of at least one reaction zone, one purification
stage, and one circulation device. The high-pressure
component of the circulation device acts as a shovel. It is
adjustable in height and is attached to an opening of a
vertical, cylindrical suction pipe which reaches close to the
bottom. The suction pipe is rigidly connected with the
circulation device, and rotates. (Text in German)
68-0808
Pollution control project for metal plating plants. Water and
Waste Treatment Journal, 12(3):91, Sept.-Oct. 1968.
The Federal Water Pollution Control Administration of the
Department of the Interior has made a grant to Beaton &
Corbin Manufacturing Company of 70 percent of the total
cost of a research project designed to treat wastes from metal
plating plants. The pilot program, assisted by the National
Pollution Control Foundation, will serve as a model toi 3,000
metal plating factories in the United States. Waste products
which are to undergo treatment are nickel, chromium. Clipper
plus cyanide solutions, and other spent acids and alkalis. The
plant's rinse waters will be treated in a new 2-step system of
sludge beds, and by several new reservoirs and recirculatmg
systems within the plant. For treating the wastes. 1 1,300 gal
of neutralizing chemicals costing $3,000 per year will be
required.
68-0809
Pomeroy, R. D. Design of sludge digestion tanks. Journal of
the Sanitary Engineering Division, Proceedings of the
American Society of Civil Engineers, 94(SA5):769-777. Oct.
1968.
New ideas in the design of sludge digestion tanks are
presented. These new methods and improvements include
flat-bottom digesters with multiple sludge withdrawal pipes;
open-ended pipes at the bottom of the digester for injection
of compressed gas for digester mixing; 3 ft sq openings flush
with the bottom of the tank to facilitate cleaning operations;
sampling pipes of at least 3-m. diameter with discharges
designed to avoid splashing; a membrane cover used in a
windy location; large sized gas piping; and gas disposal in a
small trickling filter plant by blowing it through a filter.
68-0810
Popel, F. Water quality and waste disposal problems in West
Bengal, the Orient and Malta. Gas und Wassefach, Wasser,
Abwasser, 109(26):695-703, June 1968.
Problems of the preparation of drinking water, the
purification of waste water as well as sludge and sludge and
waste disposal in West Bengal, the Orient, and Malta are
discussed. The sludge which accumulates in waste water
purification plants can be stabilized either by aerobic or
anaerobic decomposition. In warm climates, the anaerobic
decomposition can be performed almost without any heating
of the sludge, so that less costs are involved lhan with the
aerobic decomposition which requires much energy for the
aeration of the sludge. The stabilized sludge can be dried in
beds. The sludge dries so fast that the flies don't have time to
develop their larvae. In areas low in precipitation, the sludge
is distributed in thin layers. After 4 to 6 days another thin
layer of sludge is applied on top of the pre-dried first layer.
This is repeated as frequently as possible. The sludge can then
be used as fertilizer. In Malta, investigations approved by the
United Nations are presently being conducted to fin.! the
most economic method of disposal of the accumulating
wastes The waste collection method in these developing
countries is rather primitive. Pictures taken in Calcutta and
Jordan illustrate this. The value of the wastes fur the
promotion of plant growth is demonstrated by the tasty lush
cauliflower which flourishes on a waste disposal site in
C'alcutta These waste fertilizers are needed for the
re-cultivation of the desert in Egypt, Jordan, and India
(Text in German)
68-0811
Porteous Process unit readied for startup Environmental
Science & Technology, 211 2). 1 068, Dec. 1 968.
The completion of construction of facilities tor the steam
treatment of sewage sludge at llu- C'olorado Springs,
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0806-0817
Colorado, municipal treatment plant, will mark the U S.
debut of the Porteous process. The process is a means for
treating primary or secondary sewage sludge with steam to
stabilize it and facilitate dewatenng. The advantages of the
process are that it is a compact, continuous operation,
requires no sludge conditioning chemicals, has low operating
costs, is adaptable to new or existing plants, and can be
expanded easily to handle increases in capacity of the basic
treatment plant. Operating costs for the facility, which has a
capacity for handling 4,500 gal per hr at 5.6 percent dry
solids equivalent, are expected to be about $1.80 per ton of
dry solids, an annual saving of $130,000 to $190,000 over the
costs of previously used methods. The process can also treat
wastes from food processing, pulp and papermills, textile
plants, and agricultural and industrial chemical plants. Based
on past studies of the Porteous process, vacuum filter cakes
with as little as 55 percent moisture can be obtained, and 35
percent moisture can be achieved with filter presses.
68-0812
Precipitator cleans furnace metal smoke with 99 2 percent
efficiency. Waste Trade Journal, 64(38):6. Sept. 28, 1968.
Quantities of flue dust removed by an electrostatic
precipitator at the Charles P. Hull Company plant, North
Arlington, New Jersey, are sold at an excellent price to
smelters. Two A-size Precipitair modules, with three fans
capable of moving 5,000 cu ft per minute, remove tin, zinc,
and lead oxides from the smoke with an efficiency of 99.2
percent.
68-0813
Priestley, J. L. Treatment of effluents from food processes.
Food Manufacture, 43(4):30-32, Apr. 1968.
Ways of dealing with effluents from particular sections of the
food industry are described for. dairies, slaughterhouses,
poultry processing plants, bakeries, fruit canneries, vegetable
processing units, potato products plants, and yeast
manufacturers. Fortunately, most food processing effluents
are easily purified by well established processes. These
generally involve the removal of solid matter by screening,
settlement, filtration or centrifuging of the effluent, followed
by destruction of dissolved and colloidal organic matter by
biological oxidation Chemical methods of treatment, apart
from neutralization of acidity and addition of biological
nutrient salts, have little application.
68-0814
A problem-solver for water pollution control. Modern
Castings, 54(5): 176, Nov. 1968.
A new foundry was constructed in Creston, Iowa, including
treatment facilities for the chromate waste from the metal
treating systems and flourescent penetrant oils from
inspection procedures. Waste enters a clarifier tank where
caustic soda and ferric sulfate are added to precipitate
flourescent penetrant oil out of the water. Precipitated sludge
settles to the bottom of the tank and is periodically removed
for disposal in a sludge field, where it is used as landfill.
Wastes from chromic acid operations are pumped first to a
holding tank for later release to the waste treatment system.
Basic conversion from hexavalent to trivalent chrome is
accomplished by feeding sodium bisulfite to the solution in a
reaction tank. The treated solution overflows into the second
side of the tank where caustic soda is added to raise the pH
level, and the waste is then ready for discharge to the sewer.
68-0815
Proceedings; American Chemical Society 156th National
Meeting, Organic Residue Removal from Waste Water,
Atlantic City, Sept 8-13, 1968. Washington, American
Chemical Society, Division of Water, Air and Waste
Chemistry. 92 p.
Preprints of papers presented at the meeting of the Division
of Water, Air, and Waste Chemistry of the American
Chemical Society were divided into the following groups: a
symposium on organic residue removal from waste water;
general papers on air; general papers on water; and a
symposium on biochemical target systems of air pollutants.
The topics covered in the symposium on organic residue
removal included: suspended solids removal from waste
water, adsorption of waste water organics of activated carbon
and the reactivation of the carbon; organic removal by
osmosis; and organic residue removal by oxidation with
ozone and chlorine.
68-0816
Processing waste meat products Food Processing and
Marketing, 37(444):345-346, Sept. 1968.
A full scale plant has been designed to treat slaughterhouse
waste and condemned meat for the production of both
purified fat and high grade meal for animal feed. The process,
known as Centrimeal, is divided into three stages; heating and
sterilization, separation, and drying. A super-dry melter with
heated shell and agitator sterilizes the raw material and
evaporates part of the water contained. The slurry is passed
through a strainer, and oversize material is diverted through a
mincer after which the total slurry is fed to a decanter and
two products (raw meal and a liquid containing fat, water,
and fines) are discharged. Finally the fines and the raw meal
are reduced in a continuous drum type dryer to about 10
percent moisture. Advantages claimed for the plant include.
lighter colored fat, enriched protein content of the meal of
which 90 percent is digestible, low labor cost only requiring
two men for supervision, and low processing time.
68-0817
Proudfit, D. P. Selection of disposal methods for water
treatment plant wastes. Journal of the American Water Works
Association, 60(6)'674-680, June 1968.
Several case histories relating to wastewater disposal
problems together with their proposed solutions are
discussed. A plan was devised for St. Paul and Minneapolis to
alleviate the problems of waste disposal, air pollution, and
waste of water, and to provide a new source of carbon
dioxide. Basically, the plan includes a lime-recalcining plant
and washwater recovery facilities to be constructed as an
integrated unit. The lime-iecalcming plant will accept the wet
lime sludge from the sedimentation basins, and by means of a
high-temperature (1,600 F) reactor, convert the calcium
carbonate in the sludge to calcium oxide, which will be
reused in the water-softening process. For each unit of
calcium oxide introduced for softening, it is expected that
161
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Industrial Wastes
1.1 to 1.2 units will be reclaimed in the closed-loop process
In pretreatment of the wet lime sludge before it is burned in
the reactor, at least 60 percent of the magnesium hydroxide
will be removed by recarbonation and centrifugal
classification. The present production of 2,700 Ib of dry
solids per million gal of water treated will be reduced by at
least 83 percent, or to 460 Ib per million gal. The solids will
be pumped to sludge lagoons, but the existing storage space
will last six times longer. The plan also contemplates eventual
disposal of part 01 all of the reduced solids volume by hauling
it to a waste disposal area after natural drying has reduced
the water content to a level suitable for handling. The hauling
of solids is economically feasible when considered as a part of
the overall waste disposal program.
68-0818^
Pulp and paper industry finds pollution control costly. Water
& Pollution Control, 106(3).43, Mar. 1968.
A survey by the Canadian Pulp and Paper Association
indicates that from 1960 to 1966, $64 million was spent to
control water pollution. In Ontario, 42 mills have spent a
total of $39.9 million in the last 8 years to cut solids
discharge, with a resulting 63.9 percent reduction. The 62
mills surveyed in Quebec spent $19 million in the 1960-1967
period for a total 15.5 percent reduction. In Quebec,
suspended solids, the most immediate problem, were reduced
by 37.7 percent. For the whole of eastern Canada, total
solids discharge has been reduced by 906,627 tons, or 38.8
percent. A great proportion of pollution control spending has
gone toward building control equipment into new plants.
This costs on the average one-quarter to one-third as much as
establishing control in existing mills. Most companies have
concentrated on reducing discharge of suspended solids,
chemical discharge is a much less serious problem. It is
estimated that it costs on the average $418,300 per year over
7 years to reduce suspended solids by 42 percent or, roughly
6 percent per year.
68-0819.
Research program 'Foam Slag Made Of Melting Slag'.
Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft, 20(5).210-211, May 1968.
The Battelle Institute, F'rankfurt am Main, West Germany,
discussed with representatives of power plants and of
construction material plants the production of foam slag or
slag pumice from molten slag. The slag which remains from
power plants had the disadvantage that its composition,
viscosity, temperature, and amount change constantly. Thus
any treatment for further use becomes very difficult. In
many cases, however, corrections can be made so that the
amount of molten slag as well as the composition remain
somewhat stationary. When this is achieved, gas forming
additives are mixed into the molten slag and, in pressure
stages, it is brought to effervesce. To use coal for the
production of effervescent slag, it is expedient to melt it
under reducing conditions and then oxidize it. At the same
time, the gas forming material is added. Water vapor is used
in this case. The reaction must take place under increased
pressure. The matetial start1, to eitcivcsce when the pressure
is released. It is important that the viscosity of the slag is
influenced (by changing the oxidation stage of the iron) in
such a way that the slag foam does not collaspe
(Text in German)
68-0820.
Reverse osmosis may be the answer to whey disposal.
Environmental Science & Technology, 2(7):490, July 1968.
Whey, a byproduct of the manufacture of cheese, has no
great commencal value and creates a large BOD load when
dumped into water systems. However, whey may be disposed
of by the process of reverse osmosis. Fourteen billion pounds
of whey (two-thirds of the annual production) are discarded
annually. Many states prohibit its being dumped into
waterways. The reverse osmosis process is especially suited to
small volume cheese plants producing about 15,000 Ibs per
yr. The process removes from 75 to 80 percent of the water
from whey, but the clogging of membranes with precipitated
solids remains a problem. The process could be economically
feasible in 1 to 3 years. At present, whey is recovered in some
cheese plants by a costly concentration procedure using
vacuum evaporators.
680821
Roberson, J. E. Bark burning methods and operating
experiences. Combustion, 39(7): 17-19, Jan. 1968.
Some guides and considerations that might assist prospective
bark-boiler purchasers in the selection of equipment are
discussed. The most important points are. bark burning
capacity of boiler should be adequate; bark should be
properly sized; a controlled flow rate of bark to the boiler
should be provided; careful selection of burning equipment;
careful selection of furnace size and proportion; careful
selection of dust collection, overfire air, and remjection
equipment; provision of complete and full information to the
equipment supplier regarding (a) steam flow fluctuation, (b)
bark flow fluctuation, (c) bark moisture variation, and (d)
character of the mill that would affect the equipment; and
proper operation and maintenance.
68-0822
Robinson, H. Refinery hires dredger to remove sludge. Water
and Wastes Engineering, 5(10):64-65, Oct. 1968.
A plant which consumes over 100 million gal of water per
day produces waste water amounting to nearly 30 million gal
dally. This must be treated at the refinery waste treatment
complex. One phase of the treatment consists of a 6-acre
basin containing a presetting compartment and four 1
1/4-acre bio-oxidation basins. Over a period of time, heavy
matter forms sludge in the bottom of each bio-oxidation
basin. A portable hydraulic dredge, 22-ft long by 8-ft wide,
was selected to clean the tanks and it proved to be both fast
and efficient. The sludge is discharged into thickening pits
and later removed to a final disposal area.
68-0823
Rock sludge may purify mercury-polluted lakes. Engineer,
225(5858):688, May 3, 1968.
"'••v.^
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0818-0828
a thin, harmless 'film' on the bottoms ot lakes which
gradually becomes embedded in the sediment layers.
Subsequent comparative analyses of the mercury content of
fish caught near outlets from ore concentration plants, and
fish from control waters, showed that the former contained
only 0.01 mg per kg, whereas the latter held 1 ing per kg.
Biologically, the sludge is said to be innocuous and could be
used for fighting mercury pollution in a number of exposed
lakes and water courses of minor size.
in (lie waste water treatment process, and requned a dump
capacity ot 600,000 cu yd per year. The proposed solution to
the problem is land reclamation Digested sludge would be
piped through high-pressure pipelines to reclaim 50,000 acres
of poor farmland It would be applied to the land through
irrigation systems, tilled into the soil, and farmed on a
rotating basis. Studies indicate that it will cost about S22 per
diy ton to dispose of sludge in this manner Hxperiments are
underway to determine optimum use of this method
68-0824
Roennefahrt, K W , and U Paul The biological purification
of waste water from animal carcass utilization plants. Wasser
Luft und Betneb, 12(1) 34-37, Jan. 1968.
The waste water from animal carcass utilization plants
contains large amounts of organic impurities which can be
eliminated only by biological purification. Purification in
percolators, or natural purification in sludge pools is not
possible because of the odors which would be produced An
exception is percolators which contain a plastic material (for
instance, flocor). Such percolators can serve as a first
biological stage. Cyclones and grease extractors, as well as
pre-punfication tanks, should precede an activated sludge
plant. The pre-punfication tank must be covered to avoid
annoying odors in the neighborhood. The size of the aeration
tank depends on the daily BOD of the mean organic-
pollution of the waste water, and the desired decomposition
rate. In an animal carcass utilization plant in the Saar area, an
aero-accelerator in activated sludge stage has produced
satisfactory results. In the last few years, surface aerators
have been installed in biological purification plants Waste
water purification in animal carcass utilization plants using
the biofloc method is illustrated in a schematic drawing.
Another means of purifying the waste water from such plants
is the gyrofloc method. It is also illustrated in a schematic
drawing The sludge which accumulates during biological
purification should be dehydrated and sub]ected to a
fermenting process before it is spread out in drying beds,
again because of odors. The amount of sludge which
accumulates daily depends on the BOD reduction and on the
degree of pollution Sludge stabilization might also be
possible, but no experience has yet been gained for these
types of sludges. In the United States and in the German
Democratic Republic, animal food is made of the activated
sludge. The costs for such purification plants are between DM
500 and 1,000 per kg BOD Operating costs are low because
they involve only the costs for the electric current required
to operate the aerators. Generally they are approximately 0 5
to 1.0 kwh per kg BOD. (Text in German)
68-0825
Rose, B A. Sanitary district puts sludge to work in land
reclamation Water and Sewage Works, 115(9):393-399, Sept
1968.
The Chicago Sanitary District has an experimental soil
improvement and reclamation program which puts digested
sludge to work forming top soil,and fertilizing and irrigating
crops. This is to provide disposal for more than 900 tons (dry
basis) per day of sludge. The present methods-heat drying,
wet air oxidation, heated digestion, Imhoff tanks-were
considered too expensive, created too much air pollution,
failed to make use of nutrients, caused significant problems
680826
Ross, R D. Industrial waste disposal. New York, Remhold
Book Corporation, 1 968. 340 p
This volume presents a 'systems' approach to industrial waste
disposal. It is concerned with the evaluation of any waste
disposal and the proper selection of a process and associated
equipment to solve the problem. It is designed to provide the
engineer with general information about the lesser known
processes and operations used for waste disposal. loach
section presents some brief theory, a discussion of the
practical aspects of the particular waste problem, and a
description of the equipment and its economics. The
equipment and systems discussed are those which would not
ordinarily be included in an engineering text. The areas
discussed are those in which the empirical information
gathered over the past decade are ot prime importance Areas
covered include, waste gas treatment, waste liquid treatment:
incineration; final disposal, radioactive waste management;
and a general compilation ot air and water pollution
regulations.
68-0827
Ross, R. D. Waste gas treatment _ln^Industrial waste disposal.
New York, Remhold Book Corporation, 1968. p.l 1-98
The gaseous waste stream may contain paniculate matter.
ranging from submicron size to almost any size that would be
carried in a gas stream at the velocity in the exit duct The
waste gas may also contain liquids either entrained as
droplets or vapors, or it may be a pure gas that contains
neither liquid nor particulate matter A primary treatment
process will produce two products, one a gas and the other a
liquid or a solid The liquid or solid may require further
treatment, or may be valuable tor direct re-use or for sale as a
by-product. All of the primary treatment processes are
covered, including mechanical collectors, electiostatic
precipitators, fabric filters, wet scrubbers, condensers, and
activated carbon adsorption vapor phase systems. Application
areas, operating principles, design parameters, mechanical
design, sample calculations, diagrams, and data arc included
for each of these processes. Capital investment and operating
costs are considered as air pollution control requirements. A
list of references by each author is provided
68-0828
Ross, R. D . R. A. Conway, D. L Warner, et al. Final
disposal. In Industrial waste disposal New York, Reinhold
Book Corporation, 1968. p.240-273.
Final disposal means that the ultimate effluent from a
processing plant will be returned to the earth, the sea, or the
atmosphere in such a way that it will not adversely affect
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Industrial Wastes
them now or in the future. Waste gases, which are not toxic
or dangerous in any way to health or property, may be
released into the atmosphere. Many liquid wastes may be
safely dispersed into large bodies of water by providing
proper methods which insure very dilute concentrations
within a short distance of the effluent pipe. Deep well
disposal of more difficult wastes, such as radioactive wastes,
is possible providing there is no danger to watersheds. Solid
materials which are sanitary in nature and suitable for
compaction into sanitary landfill may be disposed of in this
manner with proper regard to topography. Dispersion
methods, deep well disposal, burial and landfill, and odor
control of wastes are all considered in depth with diagrams,
maps, and lists of pertinent data. References are provided for
each of these topics.
68 0831 ,
Schink, C A. Plating wastes: a simplified approach to
treatment. Plating, 55(1 2): 1,302-1,305, Dec. 1968.
The chemical treatment of the effluent from a metal etching,
plating, and anodizing operation is described. Sulfur dioxide
and chlorine are added directly into the hexavelent
chromium destruction and cyanide oxidation tanks without
the use of sulfonators, chlonnators, metering pumps, or
valves. The effect of gravity is used as much as possible. The
plant is essentially automatic in operation. The insoluble
residues are removed by settling in a three-compartment
lagoon. It is necessary to remove the solids from the lagoon
into drying beds two or three times per year. The dried solids
are a clay-like material which is ultimately used for landfill.
68-0829
Ryan, M. J., and R L. Miller. Batch-feeding studies on
high-solids activated sludge for treating concentrated human
waste. Report No. SAM TR-68-108. Texas, Brooks Air Force
Base, USAF School of Aerospace Medicine, Sept 1968. 15 p.
(Distributed by National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, Va., as Publication No. AD 681 127.)
Batch-fed or intermittently-fed activated sludge cultures can
be acclimated to handle human excreta with little dilution.
During a 40-day continuous run, a prototype sludge reactor
was fed batchwise (daily) with an increasing quantity of
mixed human waste. Removal of chemical oxygen demand,
and the quality of the clarified process effluent were
monitored as functions of time and the feeding rate. Results
showed that at a loading rate of 5.0 g COD per liter culture,
approximately 80 percent of the feed COD was removed
after 23 hr of processing. Both the capacity for COD removal
and the quality of the process effluent were found to be
strong functions of air supply rate. Recommendations were
made regarding the use of a continuous feed system for
better optimization of the uptake rate
68-0830
Sanzm, W. D. Biochemical reaction mechanisms in anaerobic
sludge reduction. Zeitschnft fuer Wasser und Abwasser
Forschung, (6):246-250, Nov.-Dec. 1968.
As anaerobic sludge reductions under natural conditions
showed (at the bottom of a river or a lake, for instance),
methane bacteria are the main decomposing elements in the
process. The biochemical reactions needed to decompose
organic substances were observed in laboratory reduction
chambers (partly with the aid of the C-14 tracer method).
The reduction takes place in two steps. First, the main
components of the sludge, i.e. albumins, carbohydrates, and
fats, are reduced to alcohols, lower fatty acids (especially
acetic acid and propionic acid), carbon dioxide, and
hydrogen. The organisms responsible for the reduction
process at this stage are yeast, lactic acid, bacteria, propionic
acid bacteria, butyric acid bacteria, butyl and aerobacter
bacteria, as well as proteolytic and hpolytic microorganisms.
Second, the methane bacteria complete the reduction of
the mam sludge components to methane, ammonia, and
carbon dioxide. It was found that the temperature has a
profound influence on the duration of the reduction process.
It took 50 days (o decompose (he sludge at a (emperature of
10 C. but only five days at 30 C (Text in German)
68-0832
Scientific Chemical Treatment Co.: improving the industrial
environment. Delaware Valley Industry, 41(3):20-22, Mar.
1968.
Scientific Chemical Treatment Company, Elizabeth, New
Jersey, buys, processes, and disposes of off-specification or
contaminated chemical and industrial by-products. It has
the experience to make the most economical
recommendations, and it designs, engineers, and constructs
specialized facilities to process the material either on the
client's property or at Scientific's facilities at Carlstadt, New
Jersey. A subsidiary, North Jersey Refining, has sophisticated
distillation facilities with a better than 200,000 gal capacity.
Its equipment includes a new phosphoric acid methanol
recovery unit. An advanced high and low temperature
thin-film solvent recovery system, along with
corrosion-resistant vacuum distillation columns, is currently
being installed. A new recovery unit for copper has just gone
into operation. N.J. Refining buys from industry,
reprocesses, and sells the products to users throughout the
country. A greater portion of its work is for customers who
re-use the material themselves and pay a fee for distillation
services. Kin Buc, another subsidiary, operates a huge facility
in Edison, New Jersey, which handles refuse from 13 central
New Jersey communities. Eastern Industrial Corporation, a
Philadelphia-based subsidiary, specializes in industrial waste
removal and handles the direct collection and disposal
aspects. Containerization and specialized trucks are part of
the equipment. For the future, the company will concentrate
on the recovery of chemicals as a method reducing air and
water pollution. Chemical solvents and hydrocarbons, which
are responsible for much of the industrial smog problem, will
be recovered and re-used.
68-0833
Scroggins, T. L. Use of wood residues in Oregon for pulp and
composition board. Corvallis, Oregon State University,
School of Forestry Research Laboratory, Oct. 1968 16 p.
Data was gathered concerning Ihe usage of chips, sawdust,
and shavings in the pulping and composition-board industry
during 1967. Estimates of the amounts of these residues that
will be used in 1968 and 1969 were also made. A large
increase in residue utilization occurred in Oregon during the
last 14 years. In 1967, (he pulp mills dominated Ihe chip
market, but most of the shavings were used by the composition
164
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0829-0838
board plants. Use of shavings for pulp may increase as more
mills obtain sawdust digesters that can also use shavings.
Sawdust is an incidental part of the raw material for
composition board. Approximately 32.6 percent of the wood
residues produced in 1967 in Oregon were exported beyond
the State's borders. The greatest effect upon supply and price
of wood residues has been the exportation of chips to Japan.
During 1968, the demand for sawdust by all Oregon
industries increased 142 percent and the demand for shavings
by 28 percent. During 1969, the chip requirements might
exceed the capability of the primary forest industries. To fill
the demand for the 1970's, the board and paper industries
will have to develop new sources of fibers such as: species of
trees not utilized or only partially utilized; thinnings from
tree farms; or harvesting of cull logs and slash.
68-0834
Seidel, M. Some problems in the elimination of refinery
residues. Wasserwirtschaft-Wassertechnik, 18(5):151-155,
May 1968.
About 200,000 to 300,000 tons of refinery residues
accumulate annually in the German Democratic Republic.
The most favorable, and also the most economical use or
elimination of some of the refinery residues are discussed.
Liquid or viscous acid sludges from the refining of lubricants,
motor oils, petroleum jelly, etc., are best eliminated by
incineration. Among the various methods which have been
developed, the incineration of acid sludge mixed with soft
coal dust has proved the most efficient. The mixture can be
used either to heat boilers or as fuel in the gypsum sulfuric
acid process. The lye which is used to desulfunze
gases must be replaced once a year by fresh lye
Regeneration of the spent lye is too expensive, and dumping
is too dangerous. Thus only incineration can be considered.
However, the potassium sulphate formed by the incineration
process has been a problem until 'cold incineration'
developed by Boie was introduced. The principle used in this
system is schematically illustrated. A radiation tank is
attached to the combustion chamber, whose convection
heating panel is set into vibration to avoid a sulfate
deposition at this point. The potassium sulfate is precipitated
only after the waste gas has been cooled. Residues from the
Varga hydro cracking method, which have a solids content of
about 30 percent by mass, are sprayed into a turbulent layer
of heat resistant ceramic material. A light heating oil, free of
solids, is gained by this process, and iron oxide dusts remain
which can be dumped. Residues from styrol synthesis are
mixed with heating oil in a ratio 1:1, and are then used as
fuel for steam generation, or for some other purpose. The
incineration of residues such as bitumen and tar is briefly
discussed. All elimination methods are illustrated in diagrams.
(Text in German)
68-0835
Septic tank dumping Water and Waste Engineering, 5(3):22,
Mar. 1968.
A roundtable discussion answered the questions: do
companies that perform septic tank or cesspool cleaning
dispose of their wastes into municipal sewer systems; must
permission be obtained before dumping; is dumping allowed
in the treatment plant; is dumping supervised by municipal
personnel; is a fee charged; does dumping cause any problems
in the municipal system or treatment plant? No dumping was
permitted by 19 municipalities reporting. Other answers
indicate that permission must be obtained before dumps are
made; there is usually supervision of municipal personnel;
fees were charged in most cases; and the dumping of
industrial wastes did not cause problems in most cases.
68-0836
Sewage disposal by Pasveer ditch at Tamworth. Suiveyor and
Municipal Engineer, 132(3973):19-20, July 1968.
A temporary disposal plant using the Pasveer principle was
designed as an interim measure to handle 300,000 gpd until a
new sewage works comes into operation. The inlet bay of the
Pasveer plan comprises a gauging flume, a commmuter, and a
by-pass screen. The oxidation ditch has a capacity of 600,000
gal with a rentention period of 48 hr at design dry weather
flow. Concrete fencing units were used to line the ditch,
which was composed largely of fill. A vertical concrete fence
was constructed up the center of the ditch to provide a
continuous path around the ditch. Two lines, each consisting
of three cage rotors were provided. An overflow weir is
provided at the end of the ditch where liquor is overflowed
to a single circular final effluent tank having a capacity of
some 54,000 gal or 4.3 hr retention time. A helical scraper is
installed in the tank and is operated continuously Effluent is
then fed to an irrigation area some 2 acres in extent,
collected in a gravel drain and then discharged into a brook.
Sludge is drawn off continuously from the base of the
settlement tank, and flows by gravity to the inlet bay of a
sludge wheel which returns sludge to the main oxidation
ditch. Five drying beds, having a total area of 1,380 sq yd are
provided. The sludge content of the ditch has built up
progressively over 4 months to 3,000 ppm suspended solids,
as compared with an optimum 4,000 ppm.
68-0837
Shah, I. S. New evaporator-scrubber systems improve kraft
recovery process. Paper Trade Journal, 152(12):58-64, Mar.
18, 1968.
In the two-stage evaporator-scrubber system, the two
functions are performed separately in two stages; the first
stage is a low pressure drop evaporator, and the second stage
is a scrubber. Pilot plant experimental work has proved that
the S-F venturi is an efficient evaporator and scrubber from
the viewpoint of efficiency and ease of operation. Dust
collection efficiencies of 99 percent can be attained at low
pressure drops. Other advantages of the S-F type venturi are
the absence of wet-dry conditions, nozzles are not required,
and this type venturi has a self-cleaning feature due to its
swirling liquor action. Tables summarizing the operating
performance data for the two-stage evaporator-scrubber
system, and for a single-stage scrubber system, are included.
68-0838
Shah, I. S. Recovery of heat and chemicals from kraft
furnace flue gases. Paper Trade Journal, 152(11):65-67, Mar.
11, 1968.
The operation, advantages, and disadvantages of the
cascade-precipitator system, cyclone-precipitator system, and
venturi evaporator scrubber system for the recovery of heat
165
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Industrial Wastes
and chemicals in the kraft pulping industry are discussed. The
release of sodium compounds and sulfur-bearing malodorous
gases is also discussed. In spite of its comparatively low dust
collection efficiency and high operating cost, the venturi
evaporator-scrubber system has been accepted by the pulping
and paper industry because of its low capital investment, low
maintenance, and high heat recovery.
68-0839.
Shannon, E. S. Underground disposal of activated sludge.
Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation,
40(12):2,050-2,061,Dec. 1968.
The disposal of excess activated sludge from an activated
sludge section of a 60-million-gal-per-day (227,100 cu m per
day) liquid wastewater installation in Midland, Michigan, is
accomplished by deep-well disposal. The disposal well system
consists of a 100-ft-diameter thickener tank, two sludge
holding tanks, one sludge forwarding station, four
high-pressure pumps, and two disposal wells. Only one pump
and one well are operated at a time. The Dow well, which is
illustrated, has an extra casing to control corrosion of the
pipe through the glacial drift, and the inner annulus, between
the casing and injection tubing, is filled with a corrosion
resistant aqueous solution. The pressure is monitored to
detect leaks which may occur in the injection tubing.
68-0840
Sheffield overcomes sewage disposal problem. Engineer,
226(5886):740-741,Nov. 15, 1968.
An incineration plant of Nichols design has been installed to
overcome disposal problems and reduce (he costs of
transporting about 75,000 tons per year of sewage sludge in
the form of pressed filter cake. The new Sheffield plant,
designed to tieat 400 tons per day of pressed sewage sludge
filter cake, has two 22-ft 3-in. diameter furnaces. A drawing
showing the design of the multi-hearth incinerator is
reproduced. Once the furnace is heated by oil burners, the
sewage sludge contains enough fuel to enable it to continue
burning. Above the top burning hearth there is an empty
chamber containing afterburners to raise the outlet gas
temperature and thus eliminate odors. Discharged ash is
stored m a bunker and then loaded up to 15 tons per hr into
lorries, after it has passed through a wetting drum.
68-0841
Shell adds to waste treatment at Houston, Water and Sewage
Works, 15(4)-183, Apr. 1968.
Shell Chemical Company has reported to the Texas Water
Quality Board in Austin that construction is underway on a
secondary waste water facility at its Houston plant. The
primary processes include acid-base neutralization, oil
separation, flocculant-aided settling, and air flotation of
suspended materials. The new secondary facility utilizes the
activated sludge process. In two large aeration basins, primary
treated water will be mixed with activated sludge which
consumes the organic materials dissolved m the waste water.
Seven aerators will agitate the water in each basin,providing
the oxygen needed to carry out the biological treatment
process. After a retention period of about 20 hr in the
aeration basins, the waste water flows to clanfiers for further
flocculation and settling. Sludge will be concentrated, dried,
and disposed of at the plant as landfill at an average rate of
15,000 Ib per day, in addition to 40,000 Ib per day from the
primary treatment basin. The system will be able to treat 6.0
million gal per day.
68-0842
Singer, P. C, W. O. Pipes, and E. R. Herman. Flocculation of
bulked activated sludge with polyelectrolytes. Journal of the
Water Pollution Control Federation, Research Supplement,
40(Part 2):R1-R9, Feb. 1968.
Bulking was induced in normal, healthy activated sludge by
feeding it a synthetic waste containing peptone and glucose.
Evaluations were based on the reduction in the Sludge
Volume Index of the bulked sludge, the settling rate of the
flocculated bulked sludge, the chemical oxygen demand, and
the ability of the returned sludge to rebulk and again perform
effectively in stabilizing the influent waste. Two cationic
polymers (Dow Chemical Co.'s Purifloc 601 and Purifloc
602), and an aniomc polymer (Puntloc 501), and alum were
used. The optimum concentrations for both cationic
polymers were found to depend on the initial sludge volume
index and the suspended solids content. The greater the SS
concentration, the greater was the polymer requirement and
the greater the final settled volume due to trapped water
below the solid-liquid interface. The use of cationic polymers
will result in the discharge of a clear stable effluent to the
receiving stream, as shown by the low SS and COD of the
supernatant. The aniomc polymer had no effect on the
bulked sludge under the conditions studied. Alum was
successful in settling the bulked sludge, but at higher
concentrations than the organic polyelectrolytes. The
respective optimum concentrations for the cationic polymers
A and B and alum were 2.0, 3.0, and 50 mg per liter for a
bulked sludge, with an SS of about 1,200 mg per liter. Costs
of the respective coagulants (A, B, alum) were $6.50, $20.00
and $9.40 in dollars per million gal. Although these cationic
polymers can be used to cure an acute case of sludge bulking,
their use as a flocculant in continuous flow activated sludge
processes has not been established.
68-0843
Sludge digestion problems. Water Pollution Research
Laboratory national survey. Surveyor and Municipal
Engineer, 1 31 (3964): 18, May 25, 1968.
Increasing difficulties in anaerobic sewage sludge digestion
prompted the Water Pollution Research Laboratory to
circulate a detailed questionnaire to all local and main
drainage authorities. Of 142 works employing heated
digesters, serving 18,750,000 people, only 3.6 percent
reported persistent difficulties in digestion, although a
further 52 percent admitted to temporary troubles. The
difficulties were due, in order of magnitude, to inadequacy of
design operation, trade wastes, and anionic detergents. It was
concluded that the situation is less serious than has been
claimed by critics of the digestion process. Most difficulties
appear susceptible to correction. Simple small-scale batch
digestion tests, carried out on representative samples of crude
sludge produced each day, can provide early warning of toxic
discharges. Overloading was a predominant cause of
stratification and loss of solids from digestion tanks. The
166
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0839-0849
advantage of the digestion process is that it reduces the bulk
of liquid and solids for ultimate disposal and makes them
acceptable for widespread disposal on land.
68-0844
The sludge dilemma. American City, 83(12):73-74, Dec
1968
The most common method of handling sludge at wastewater
plants consists of anaerobic digestion followed by dry'.ig on a
sand bed. The most common method for sludge disposal used
by industry is lagoomng. For coastal cities, anaerobic
digestion, followed by pipeline transportation to the ocean or
land reclamation, provides by far the cheapest method for
sludge disposal. For many near-coastal cities with
navigational access to the ocean, digestion followed by
barging offers the most economical method of disposal.
Marketing dried wastes sludge has generally been a failure.
Sludge treatment presents many operational problems
involving odors, inefficient solids capture, constant
supervision, and general lack of scientific controls. Almost all
methods of sludge handling and disposal now used were
known in 1930. Although few large cities use sand beds for
sludge drying because of space requirements, it is still the
most common method in use today
68 0845,
Sludge disposal from water treatment plants. Surveyor and
Municipal Engineer, 131(3969):31-32, June 29, 1968.
The type of waste from water treatment plants which is
considered here, is the settled sludge from the sedimentation
of water treated with coagulants such as alum, copperas etc.
There are three methods of dealing with this, designing of the
plant to avoid or to reduce the production of waste, means to
reduce the amount of sludge to manageable proportions;
methods of treating the remaining quantities of sludge. A
sludge disposal process is divided into three parts: a method
of primary reduction ot volume through stirring, settling,
etc.; changing the state of the sludge to one in which a simple
disposal process is sufficient; the final disposal of the moist
solids or cake. The main methods of treatment of sludge
today are vacuum filtration, filter pressing, freezing and
thawing, lagooning, and disposal into sewers and rivers The
most likely outlet for disposal in the future will be the water
industry itself for the recovery of chemicals from the sludge.
Also polyelectrolyte coagulants will produce an entirely
different type of sludge with different properties, and as
research is on-going in this field, it will become increasingly
important to find suitable methods of disposing of the new
by-products they will produce.
68-0846
Sludge disposal problems can be solved Modern Power and
Engineering, 62(6):72, June 1968.
Advice is given on the selection of sludge disposal processes.
It is commonly known that the less water released as waste,
the easier the control of this pollution. Untreated sludge may
be dumped in abandoned quarries or even on farmland.
Sludge treatment can be profitable when reusable or saleable
byproducts are found. A few of the recognized methods of
sludge drying and disposal are listed. However, as these
problems are under investigation, it is recommended that the
engineer keep abreast of new methods. Weather permitting,
sludge drying in open air lagoons or drying beds can be
successful. Mechanical dryers, using the vacuum or gravity
filtration principle, remove a percentage of free water, thus
allowing for easier sludge handling. The cost of heat drying
restricts its use to sludge yielding high resaleable material or
expensive ingredients to be reused for inplant processes.
Incinerators can also be used to eliminate sludge. Digestion is
an anaerobic biological treatment for wastes having a high
proportion of organic material. The sludge is pumped into
airtight drums, and when treated at an appropriate pH, the
sludge rapidly decomposes into methane and carbon dioxide
which can then be utilized as fuel to heat the digestion tanks.
The pumping of water waste from industry into deep
underground deposits of salt water-bearing limestone is
mentioned.
68-0847
Sludge freezing plant. Journal of Refrigeration, 11(5):114,
May 1968.
The refrigeration engineers of the Hall-Thermotank Group
Company, J & E Hall Ltd., will install a sludge freezing plant
for the Daer Water Board in the extensions to the treatment
works at the Daer Valley Reservior. The new plant, designed
to handle 6,000 gal of sludge per 24 hr, will operate on the
principle that slow freezing of the sludge causes breaking
down of its colloidal structure, greatly accelerating the
precipitation of the insoluble matter in the solution. The
stainless steel tanks will be defrosted by hot gas, one tank
defrosting while two others are freezing, the fourth being
held as standby. The Daer Water Board plant is believed to be
the first in the British Isles with provision for recovering and
reusing the alum from the supernatant liquid after settling in
the sump.
680848
Sludge treatment and disposal Water and Waste Treatment
Journal, 1 2(4): 123-124, Nov.-Dec. 1968.
The method used by the Sheffield sewage treatment plant at
Blackburn Meadows up to a few years ago, was to dewater
raw sludge from the primary settling tanks in large lagoons
and then to convey the thickened sludge by rail to a tip some
miles away. In order to cut down the volume of sludge so
that the tipping site could be extended in its useful life, a
sludge pressing plant was installed. An odor problem was met
by the installation of a multi-hearth incineration plant
designed to deal with the pressed sludge cake. The cost of the
dual system is not yet known. Concern is being expressed by
local authorities with respect to the concentrations of
synthetic detergents in sewage and sewage sludge, and the
effects of these materials on the sludge digestion process. As
far as the sludge digestion process is concerned, it is essential
that manufacturers of synthetic detergents make every effort
to produce materials that are biodegradable. Improvements in
sludge digestion are compared.
68-0849
Small capacity mobile sludge drying plant. Surveyor and
Municipal Engineer, 131(3962).36-37, May 10, 1968.
The Wickham disc filter was tested on a raw primary sludge
from domestic sewage with no trade wastes. The method of
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Industrial Wastes
operation of the disc filter is described, and factors affecting
running costs, output or dryness of cake produced are listed.
It is estimated that the production model will have an output
of 55.75 Ib per hr of dry solids. The machine provides a
novel, economical, and satisfactory method of treating sludge
at small works, according to these field tests.
68-0850
Small purification plants Chemie-Ingemeur-Technik,
40(6):A267, Mar. 1968.
Small purification plants of the Metoxy type are offered by
the Meto-Bau-AG, Wuerenlingen, Switzerland. They come in
steel, plastic, or concrete. The plant operates according to the
principle of total oxidation with large bubble aeration. They
can purify communal waste water from smaller municipalities
(up to a population of about 2,000) or from vacation resorts
not connected to a sewer system. A crusher cuts the solids
into particles of about 3 mm. From the activating stage,
where the aerobic decomposition takes place, the activated
sludge and the water go to a post-purification stage. Here the
activated sludge settles and the purified water, freed of all
putrescible substance, flows into the river. The operating
costs involve only the energy costs. A weekly maintenance
service in the form of a check-up is necessary. The stabilized
sludge has to be removed only once or twice a year.
(Text in German)
68-0851
Snook, W. G. G. Marine disposal of trade wastes. Chemistry
and Industry, (46):1,593-1,598, Nov. 16, 1968.
The improved construction techniques which have been
developed and the research, development, and experience in
the design and operation of submarine outfalls has led to
increased use of the technique. The elements considered in
the design of such a system are given in detail, through
illustrations and graphs from reports of various experimental
work. A hydrographic survey and investigation is necessary
following acquisition of pertinent data. The type and analysis
of effluent, the quantity involved, and details of existing
collection and treatment systems should be known. Several
examples of construction of appropriate pipelines are given,
the majority of the pipes used are welded mild steel, usually
with some type of lining. Economic considerations and time
required for construction are considered.
68-0852
Somers, J. A. The relation between sludge volume index and
sludge content in the activated sludge process. Water
Research, 2(8):563-573, Sept. 1968
At the Research Institute for Public Health TNO, Delft,
Netherlands, settling tests for activated sludge were carried
out in 1-liter measuring cylinders with a diameter of about
5.8 cm, and later in cylinders with a diameter of about 7.8
cm. The sludge volume index (SVI) of the mixed liquor from
four activated sludge plants (oxidation ditch-type) was
determined for several sludge contents. The values proved to
be influenced by the sludge content. With an increasing
sludge content, there first appears to be an increase of the
SVI due to impeded settling, followed by a decrease of the
ACI due to limitation of the settling volume. Furthermore,
the determination of the SVI is influenced by the diameter of
the settling cylinder.
68-0853
Span, A. E. Sludge handling. Journal of the Water Pollution
Control Federation, 40(8): 1,434-1,442, Aug. 1968.
Sludge handling processes are considered from the viewpoint
of the wastewater treatment plant operator. Problems
involving sedimentation tanks, sludge digestion, and sludge
drying beds are reviewed. Sea disposal is frequently the most
economical and simple method available for ultimate sludge
disposal for wastewater plants located close to the ocean. A
promising new method of chemical treatment of sludge
utilizes the application of a heavy chlorine dose to liquid
sludge, which renders the sludge inoffensive, stable, and
readily dewaterable. Mechanical dewatering can be
accomplished through the use of vacuum filters, filter presses,
centrifuges, and gravity devices. The two broad fields of
incinerators in use are the pressure cooker type and the open
flame units. Multiple hearth, cyclone, and fluidized bed
incinerators are described and illustrated.
68-0854
Spicka, 1. Fluctuation of effluent quality from activated
sludge plant. Water Research, 2(l):52-53, Jan. 1968.
The effect of BOD and COD loadings, and detention periods
on the diurnal and hourly fluctuation of effluent BOD,
filtrate BOD, COD, filtrate COD, and VSS was investigated.
Experimental data has been obtained for five years of
full-scale research in two activated sludge plants.
Experimental series were carried out with activated sludge
stabilization, the conventional activated sludge process, and
the high-rate activated sludge process; sufficient attention
was given to analytical and operational control to justify
detailed statistical analysis of the results. Relationships are
proposed for a variety index and a resistance index. Some
typical results obtained from the variations of^these indices
are presented. The cyclic variation of effluent VSS from
extended aeration was noted. The results indicate new
possibilities for appropriate estimation of various
modifications of the activated sludge process.
68-0855
Spohn, E. Where to put the sewage sludge? Staedtehygiene,
19(8):166-168, Aug. 1968.
Sewage sludge may be used for agricultural purposes, may be
incinerated together with solid wastes, or may be pumped to
the North Sea. Sewage sludge without any treatment is quite
unusable in agriculture. There is, however, one method which
is ideal-the composting of sludge together with solid wastes.
They complement each other quite effectively^ solid waste
has carbon containing substances and sewage sludge has
nitrogen compounds. Three units of waste are combined with
one unit of sludge. The mixture is then compacted and
formed into briquettes. They are stapled and left to the
biologic decomposition process which sets in and dries them
completely. After this process, they can be stored in the open
air. In due time they are taken from the storage place,
shredded, freed from glass splinters, and used as fertilizer.
The non-compostable residues (10 to 20% in domestic
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0850-0861
wastes) are either dumped, or if no dumping site is available,
must be incinerated. The ash is added to the compost. Before
subjecting the sewage sludge to the composting process, its
water contents must be reduced from 95 percent to 60 or 70
percent. This is done in the city of Schwemt'urt, Germany, by
using organic flocculants and a filter. After it has been
compacted together with the solid wastes, the sludge has lost
its annoying odor. In Schweinfurt, the composting plant is
located next to the water purification plant. In the city of
Blaubeuren, West Germany, the sludge comes from drying
beds and must be stored which causes unbearable annoyance
through odors. To avoid this, organic flocculants were added
to the sludge in the drying beds. (Text in German)
68-0856
Stabilized chlorine dioxide for odor control. Public Works,
99(4): 166, Apr. 1968.
When a blower failed at the carefully operated activated
sludge plant in Philhpsburg, New Jersey, the remaining
blower was unable to maintain aerobic conditions in the
aeration and final settling tanks, and odors developed.
Anthium dioxide, a stabilized aqueous form of chlorine
dioxide, was added to the aeration tank effluent by a simple
pet cock arrangement on the drum and a drip feed. The
product was fed at the rate of 1.3 mg per liter for the next 41
days. As a result, odors diminished.
68-0857
Swanwick, J. D., A. M. Bruce, and K. G. Vandyke. Inhibition
of sludge digestion by synthetic detergents. Water Pollution
Control, 67(1 V.91-99, 1968.
Investigations into the failure of sludge digesters, which
appears to be associated with synthetic detergents, are
examined. The inhibitory effect is examined and experiments
dealing with various concentrations of detergents detail the
effect of the detergents. The effects of 'hard' and 'soft'
detergents were compared, and similar results were obtained.
The effects on sludge solids relationships and secondary
sludges were also examined. The use of long-chain aliphatic
amines for the removal of anionic detergents was examined
and tested, and the results are graphed. When difficulties
resulting from detergents occur, they can be quickly rectified
by the addition of amme.
68-0858
Swarf handling made easier by new conveyors Australian
Engineer, 1968(2):39, Feb. 1968.
Machine shops would benefit from the installation of this
swarf-handling conveyor that could keep machines and
surrounding areas clean throughout operation without
interruptions to machinery or special costly manual cleaning.
Sandvik steel band conveyors incorporate a unique, but
simple, arrangement of load control, utilizing a new design
trough profile and rubber retaining strips bonded to each side
of the band. This means that the steel band is actually wider
than the bottom of the trough, and the swarf is deposited
more centrally on the conveying surface, away from the
edges.
680859
Tauber, F Exhibit 'Water 1968' in Berlin Staedtehygiene,
19(7).149-151, July 1968.
The exhibit 'Water 1968' in Berlin, Germany, was not only of
interest to waste water experts, but also to all of those
concerned with the elimination of solid wastes. The Badische
Anilin & Soda Fabrik displayed an organic flocculant
'Sedipur' which shortens the drying period of sludge from 3
months to 7 days. Percolators containing plastic material
have been developed by Deutsche Babcock und Wilcox AG.
An important item was the Seiler-Koppers plant which
dehydrates sewage sludge, with a water content of 70 to 97
percent thermally, in one step. At the end of the process the
water content has been reduced to 5 to 15 percent. The dried
material can be used as fertilizer The Passavant Werke
exhibited new sludge drying and incinerating plants.
(Text in German)
680860
Tench, H. B. Sludge activity and the activated-sludge process.
Water Pollution Control, 67(4)'408-420, 1968
The sludge activity theory given here states, in the form of an
equation, the relation between the active and total masses of
activated sludge. The basic concepts of the equation are that
the rate of purification of sludge is proportional to the active
mass of the microorganisms present, that this active mass
grows at a rate which is dependent on the rate of oxidation
of the impurities, and that it is destroyed by endogenous
respiration at a rate proportional to the quantity present.
Therefore, there is a maximum active mass that can be held
in a plant, and this is attained when the rate of growth is
equalled by the rate of destruction The assumptions made,
the derivation of the equation, the practical implications of
the theory, and experimental evidence in support of the
theory are given. The results are discussed al length in
relation to other work in the field. Data used in the
experiments are given and some results are plotted.
68-0861
Thomas, R. E., W. A. Schwartz, and T. W. Bendixen. Pore gas
composition under sewage spreading. Soil Science Society of
America Proceedings, 32(3):419-423, May-June 1968.
Septic tank effluent was applied to sand in laboratory
lysimeters. Dosing frequencies of 2-per -day and 6-per-day
were used to observe relationships between changes in the
composition of the pore gas and clogging of the sand. The
rate of clogging in the 2-per-day unit was less than that in the
6-per-day unit. This reduced rate of clogging was related to
pore-gas and moisture content changes which occurred in the
sewage dosing and drainage cycles. The longer cycle of the 1-
per-day frequency provided more oxygen over a greater
percentage of the total elapsed time. In the 6-per--day
lysimeter, the rapid soil clogging, which is characteristic for
anaerobic conditions, started while the oxygen concentration
in the pore gas was greater than 13 percent. Water-filled pores
or water films, occurring as the result of an increase in the
moisture content, may have provided anaerobic sites in the
presence of the high pore-gas oxygen. Carbon dioxide
inhibition of micrubial growth did not cause the rapid phase
169
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Industrial Wastes
of clogging. Moisture or oxygen determinations may be
suitable guides for the prevention of the rapid phase of soil
clogging.
68-0862
Thomas, W. R. P., and J. B. Goodson. Expanded municipal
wastewater plant provides citrus waste treatment. Public
Works, 99(5).91-92, May 1968.
The new wastewater plant of the City of Leesburg, Florida,
was designed to provide a high degree of treatment for
combined domestic and citrus processing wastes. Since
domestic sewage contains excess amounts of nutrients that
are lacking in citrus wastes, an extended aeration
modification of the activated sludge process was selected for
treatment of the combined wastes. A flow sheet for the
completed plant is shown. Excess sludge is transferred to the
clanfier of the old primary plant for thickening and ultimate
disposal. Digesters and drying beds of the old plant are also
used for waste sludge disposal. Treatment facilities were
designed for 2.5 mgd of domestic sewage with a five-day
BOD loading of 3,000 Ib per day and 0.85 million gal per day
of citrus waste with a BOD loading of 5,000 Ib per day.
68-0863
Trash handling and disposal. Modern Materials Handling,
23(8):62-75, Aug. 1968.
The methodology of trash handling and disposal is in a state
of transition. Indicators for the future say that the volume of
trash will continue to grow, labor costs will continue to rise,
anti-pollution laws will become more encompassing, and land
for dumping will become scarcer. Compaction of trash has
provided a temporary solution, but government and industry
are looking for more efficient ways to get rid of the nation's
trash, Chrysler's new assembly plant in Belvidere, Illinois,
produces 200,000 cars a year, with one ton of total waste for
disposal or salvage yielded for each car. Chrysler's revenue
from the sale of scrap amounted to $40 million last year. Its
success is due to a central organization for planning optimum
disposal, mechanization of waste disposal by stationary
compactors, hoggers and balers, no costly incinerators,
flexible arrangements with contractors, and a program to
reduce trash-generating packaging by suppliers. Pontiac
Motor Division of General Motors, illustrates the problems of
trash handling by an existing plant in a built-up area. Its
answer was twofold: compaction of trash to reduce the
number of trips to the dump; and turning over the hauling
disposal operation to a private contractor. Integrated
equipment systems are given for handling various volumes of
trash at short and long haul distances. A review of collection
and processing equipment is given with suggestions for
selection.
68-0864
Treatment of effluent and trade wastes. Chemical Processing,
14(10). 88, Oct. 1968.
The settled sludge from a plating shop effluent treatment
plant in Birmingham, Great Britain, has, in the past, been
collected in tankers and dumped. There are now 16,000 gal
per day of weak sludge to be disposed of, with consequent
high tanker costs and organization problems. An effluent
handling plant was designed to include two 78-sq ft rotary
vacuum precoat filters. The filters are arranged to take a feed
of sludge containing 1 1/4 percent solids from the
neutralizing plant, and produce from this a clarified filtrate
for discharge to a sewer and a handleable cake suitable for
disposing by dumping. Now 28 tons per week of filter cake
are collected and dumped by lorry. Further treatment of the
cake for metal recovery may be considered.
680865
Vater, W. Meeting 1967 of the Waste Water Technical
Association in Duisburg, Germany. Wasser und Abwasser,
109(8):205-207, Feb. 1968.
The Waste Water Technical Association (ATV-
Abwassertechnische Vereimgung) held its biennial meeting in
Duisburg. Among the numerous reports was one about the
disposal of solid wastes. It described the purification of
industrial waste water by E. Merck AG. The company, with
approximately 6,000 employees, produces chemicals and
Pharmaceuticals. The waste water is brought to a pH value of
6.2 to 6.5 by the addition of lime milk before proceeding to
the mechanical purification stage, where it is stored for 36 hr
in three tanks. Then it enters the biological stage which
consists of three aero-accelerators (aeration lasts 4.5 hours).
The sludge that accumulates in this purification process has
been quite a problem. The sludge from the mechanical stage
is not putrescible and the excess sludge from the biological
stage has a high water content. Both types must be burned in
a rotating tube furnace after they have been thickened and
mechanically dehydrated. Prior to mechanical dehydration,
the sludge is mixed with chromium-containing waste water,
iron sultate, lime, and ash from sludge incineration. The 10
tons of ash which remain dally from the incineration are
carried off to a dumping site. The cost for the entire plant
was about 16 million DM; the operating costs are 0.36 DM
per cu m purified waste water. (Text in German)
68-0866
Vogel, H. E. Association of Swiss waste water experts. Gas
und Wasserfach, Wasser, Abwasser, 109(22):606, May 1968
The Association of Swiss Waste Water Experts held a meeting
on April 5, 1968, at which the history of the construction of
waste water plants in St. Gall, Switzerland, was traced. In
1905, plans were made to collect the waste waters from the
central part of the city and take them to the Sitter River.
Topography made the project impossible. New sections were
added to the city, and in 1939, a new project was worked
out, but it was never realized. Today the city of St. Gall has
two waste water purification plants and a third one in the
planning stage. The waste water plant at Hofen was built
between 1913 and 1917 and has been continuously expanded
so that it served a population of 68,000 in 1960. The plant
operates according to mechanical biological pnnicples. Since
1967, experimental operations with a thermal sludge drying
plant have been under way. The plant has a capacity of 1 cu
m per hr and the total cost was 1,992,000 Sw Fr. Between
1962 and 1965, a waste water plant, at Hatterwald, was built.
It also operates by mechanical biological principle. The
sludge accumulated is subjected to a rotting process. The
total cost of this plant was 2,266,000 Sw Fr. The waste water
170
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0862-0871
plant, at Au, will serve the western part of the city. In its final
stage, it will serve a population of 160,000 and operate
mechanically and biologically with an activated sludge tank.
The sludge remaining after the process will be decomposed.
An estimated 26,148,000 Sw Fr will be invested. (Text in
German)
68-0867
Walters, C. F., R. S. Engelbrecht, and R. E. Speece. Microbial
substrate storage in activated sludge. Journal of the Sanitary
Engineering Division, Proceedings of the American Society of
Civil Engineers, 94(SA2):257-269, Apr. 1968.
Laboratory systems were used to investigate the biochemical
composition of activated sludge, particularly the bacterial
carbon-energy storage ^roducts. The food-to-microorganism
ratio (F/M) exerts an influence on the amount of storage
material synthesized. At an F/M ratio of 4.30 g COD per g
MLSS per day, the microorganisms contain the highest
percentage of two storage products: carbohydrates, and
poly-beta-hydroxybutyrate (PHB). Cells j^rown in systems
with greater or lesser F/M ratios do not have as high a
percentage of storage material. The COD to nitrogen ratio has
little effect on the percentage of storage compounds in the
cell, within accepted operational COD to nitrogen ratio
limits. The nature of the substrate has a noticeable effect on
the nature of the stored material. A source of preformed
amino acids, such as yeast extract, along with a carbohydrate,
is required to maintain a biological population obtained
orgmally from a treatment plant seed that will synthesize
PHB. The ability of an actively stabilizing sludge to remove
substrate is influenced by the amount of material stored by
the microorganisms. As the cellular storage products decrease
during stabilization, the ability of the organisms to remove
substrate is greatly increased.
68-0868
Waste disposal for a Ford motor plant. Public Works,
99(5)-68, May 1968.
Manufacturing wastes from the Ford assembly operations at
San Jose, California are to be converted through a new
process into usable by-products. A waste converter, to be
operated on the Ford property, is designed to reduce to
elemental charcoal and usable gases the combustible materials
which constitute the bulk of the plant's daily output of 40
tons of refuse. Only non-combustibles will continue to be
hauled to the dump, which now absorbs all refuse from the
plant. The converter will reduce wood, cardboard, paint
sludge and other wastes to commercial charcoal through the
application of heat and pressure in a closed atmosphere
which is free of oxygen so that combustion can not occur.
The process is self-generating since a portion of the gases
produced in the process will provide the necessary heat.
Unused gases will be dissipated through burning.
68-0869
Waste handling at Hilo Water and Sewage Works,
115(10):451452, Oct. 1968.
A water pollution control plant in Hilo, Hawaii, was built to
protect the marine and recreational facilities of Hilo Bay. The
plant will include screening grit removal, primary settling,
sludge digestion, and sludge drying. The first construction
phase will have the capacity to treat an average flow of 7
mgd, a maximum of 10.3 mgd and a peak of 16 mgd; the
second phase will have the capacity to treat an average flow
of 14 mgd, a maximum of 20.5 mgd and a peak of 31 mgd.
Screening is accomplished by a Thru-Clean mechanical bar
screen discharging into a trough. The screenings are then fed
into a shredder and returned to the flow in front of the
screen. The flow proceeds to a Link-Belt aerated grit
chamber, equipped with a Straightline aerated grit collector.
The sludge is digested in one primary and one secondary
digester, and then drawn off to two centrifuges, each with
the capacity to dewater digested sewage sludge with dry
weight solids at 6,160 Ib per operation day. The centrifuged
sludge is discharged onto a sludge belt conveyor, and then
into a disposal truck.
68-0870,
Waste treatment and incineration of the Dow Chemical Co.
Waste Trade Journal, 64(29)-4, 10, July 27, 1968.
The Midland Division of Dow Chemical Co has spent more
than $20,000,000 to improve and expand its waste control
facilities, and about $3,500,000 per year to operate them.
The Tittabawassee River supplies Dow with more than 60
million gal per day of water, which must be treated to
remove process wastes before it is returned. The wastes from
the phenolic process are collected in a 12-acre equalization
pond. The effluent from this pond is blended with cooling
water from the phenolic production areas to maintain
approximately 125 ppm phenol in the feed to the biological
treatment units. After clarification, the wastes flow to four
trickling filters which remove approximately 75 percent of
the phenol and 60 percent of the chemical oxygen demand.
The waste then flows to an activated sludge aeration basin
where the organic materials are oxidized by microorganisms,
producing carbon dioxide and water. During 3 hr of aeration,
the activated sludge process removes more than 95 percent of
the remaining phenol. The General Treatment Plant removes
95 percent of the BOD and suspended solids. A 53 million gal
'shot' pond has been installed to hold high BOD or toxic
wastes. Inoiganic wastes from the General Treatment Plant
are dewatered. An incineration complex includes burning
facilities for both liquid and solid waste materials.
68-0871 ,
Waste treatment by aeration. Australian Chemical Processing
and Engineering, 21(5):27-29, May 1968.
Some of the main points of a lecture, delivered by R. D.
Boutros to an audience of engineers in Sydney, Australia, are
reviewed. Aeration is described as a mixing operation
involving gas-liquid and liquid solid phases. By use of the
Lightnin Aeration Calculator, a design for an activated sludge
waste treatment plant can be approximated. Given the waste
flow rate, BOD level, sludge loading factor, mixed liquor
concentration and return sludge concentration, the
calculation of detention time, size of tanks, and total BOD
rate can be made. The various methods of control of
mechanical aerators are based on change of degree of
submergence of the impeller, on or off control of the aerator,
and the two-speed motor governed by the oxygen analyzer.
The present maximum practicable size of a surface aerator
unit is 100 hp.
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Industrial Wastes
68-0872
Waste water purification. Chemie-Ingenieur-Technik,
40(6):A267, Mar. 1968.
The Degussa Company, Frankfurt am Mam, Germany, has
developed a new separating agent B 20, which is less
expensive than the separating agent B 18 developed in 1967,
and has a wider application because it can bind all organic,
water insoluble substances (e.g. oil dyes and solvents). B 20 is
stirred into waste water at room temperature. After about 5
to 10 minutes, dirt and impurities combined with the
separating agent can be easily filtered off. The remaining
impurities and the separating agent left in the waste water
can be removed in a filter press, a centrifuge, or a drum filter.
After that the purified waste water can flow into the drain
system. The method is not only for small-and medium sized
enterprises, but also for large plants which already have a
water purification plant. Small amounts of the agent can be
added to precleaned waste water, and the last amounts of oil
will be removed. (Text in German)
68-0873
Water Resources Engineers, Inc. In-plant treatment of
cannery wastes; a guide for cannery waste treatment,
utilization and disposal. California State Water Resources
Control Board Publication No. 38. Sacramento, 1968. 78 p.
Food processing in California, especially of fruits and
vegetables, is one of the State's major industrial activities.
The fact that the canning industry is becoming increasingly
cognizant of the need to address itself vigorously to waste
control problems is amply documented by its increased
expenditures for waste treatment, disposal, and utilization.
The canning industries have been faced with the realization
that both water supply and waste disposal influence growth,
operation, and production costs. Water reuse is now widely
practiced in the canning industry. The Cannery Reserach
Advisory Committee undertook a 3-year investigation of
tomato and peach processing comprised of the following
phases: physical, chemical, and biochemical characterization
of in-plant waste streams; evaluation of the technical and
economic feasibility of in-plant separation and/or treatment
of cannery waste flows; and development of techniques for
the economic evaluation of potential systems for cannery
waste treatment and/or disposal. The 'guide' was prepared
from all information developed in the research program.
Specifically, the guide seeks to define in general terms, with
appropriate examples from actual experience, procedures and
techniques for: waste characterization, waste treatment
potential, economics of alternatives, and preliminary system
design.
68-0874
Werner, A. E. Gases from sediments in polluted coastal
waters. Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada, 69(5):61-70,
Mar. 1, 1968.
Gas volume and composition at 13 stations in Alberni
Harbour, British Columbia, were monitored monthly for 2
years. Analogous measurements were made at all other
currently active tidewater pulpmill sites in the province.
Seawater and marine mud were incubated, and one of the
active microorganisms was isolated and identified.
Fermentation gases were removed for chemical analysis.
Pulpwood of differing botanical origin was analyzed and the
results were used to construct a stoichiometric model of
marine pulpwood degradation. The relation between gas
retained in a waste bed, and that released was studied, as well
as the relationship between depth and gas retention. It was
concluded that the fermentation which wood undergoes in
seawater under anaerobic conditions yields an abundance of
such gases as methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and
hydrogen sulfide. Mapping the submerged waste beds
revealed that discharge of wood waste into swiftly moving
waters, results in only small sediment beds. Bays, however,
are usually unfavorable for waste release. Improved sewage
disposal involves maximum retention of wood on land and
discharge into well-aerated, swiftly moving waters.
68-0875
Wetmore, C. A. Bark fines removal from wood room effluent.
Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada, 69(7). 136-14 1, Apr. 5.
1968.
A pulp and paper mill in Cornwall, Ontario, has installed
equipment which is currently removing up to 4.5 tons of
bark fines per 8-hr shift from its wood-room effluent. The
total cost of the stream improvement program was $50,000.
The screening system uses Centri-Cleaners to concentrate a
2,000-gal-per-minute flow from 0 2 to 2.0 percent o.d.
consistency. The resulting slurry is dewatered on a single
Kason vibrating screen to 15.0 percent o.d. consistency,
before the solids are trucked away as waste. Measurements of
sewer loadings, before and after the equipment was installed,
show a 41 percent improvement over the untreated wood
room effluent. Although the overall efficiency of the
screening system may appear relatively low, the majority of
the material requiring oxygen during decay is removed. Thus,
BOD loading of wood from effluent has been reduced far
more than suspended solids loading. Data collected from
evaluation trials, as well as from current operations are
presented with illustrated descriptions to provide a detailed
view of the process.
68-0876
Whey concentration by reverse osmosis. Food Engineering,
40(3):124-127,Mar. 1968.
Disposal of cheese whey has become a critical problem.
Cheddar cheese whey has been concentrated experimentally
by a number of organizations using the reverse osmosis
principle. This process is particularly advantageous for small
plants, since they cannot afford conventional equipment. The
whey can be concentrated with cheap reverse osmosis units,
and then shipped to central plants for drying. In practice,
reverse osmosis is accomplished by a semipermeable cellulose
membrane, about one-third of a micron in thickness, backed
by a porous support material which allows passage of the
product water. Several types of support structure are now in
use, and three units are briefly described. At present,
cellulose acetate is the standard membrane material.
68-0877
Williams, R. H. They haul sludge on contract. Compost
Science, 8(2). 12, Autumn 1967-Wmter 1968.
A Pennsylvania farm manager was contracted to haul and
dispose of digested sewage liquid sludge from the
172
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0872-0882
Chambersburg sewage disposal system. An oil tank was fitted
to a truck for a total cost of $800 for equipment. Very little
odor and no handling is involved, as the truck driver heads
into a field and pulls a cord at the cab that lifts the steel door
covering the discharge hole. The liquid runs between 2 and 8
percent solids. Land to be used for radishes or tuber crops are
avoided but corn ground, alfalta fields, and sorghum-sudan
plots are spread heavily. Although the liquid sludge cannot be
spread evenly, the fertility effect is expected to build up over
a number of years. The sewage hauling is also a means of
fully employing farm labor.
680878
Willoughby, E. and V. D. Patton. Design of a modern
meat-packing waste treatment plant. Journal of the Water
Pollution Control Federation, 40(1):132-1 37, Jan. 1968.
A Florida meat processing concern has constructed a plant to
treat the wastewater from the dispatching and processing of
up to 350 head per day of cattle. The first attack on the
problem consisted of reclaiming grease and cracklings from
cooked viscera. The extended aeration modification of the
activated sludge process was considered to have many
advantages over other processes. The only lagoon permitted
by State regulations and the geology of the area was a final
stabilization or effluent-polishing pond. Total cost of the
system was about $250,000 or about $20 per capita, based
on the BOD population equivalent. Testing of composite
samples over a 1 month period indicated that BOD averaged
95 percent, suspended solids removal averaged 84 percent,
settleable solids removal averaged 98 percent, and grease
removal averaged 98 percent.
68-0879
Woernle, R. Disposal of industrial wastes.
Chemie-Ingenieur-Technik, 40(7):357-358, May 1968.
At the fourth meeting of the VTG/Dechema Association,
held December 15, 1967, five papers were presented. The
daily accumulation of waste in Wiesbaden, Germany,
increased in the last few years from 1.15 liters to 3.37 liters
per capita. The waste disposal site for the city could take the
wastes of only 1 1/2 more years. The city decided in favor of
crushing the wastes and dumping it into a sanitary landfill.
By crushing, the volume could be reduced by 50 percent.
Through the subsequent deposition, the volume is further
reduced by 20 percent over the year. A brief description of
the waste crusher, a hammermill, is given. The incinerator in
Frankfurt am Main, West Germany, has four furnaces, each
capable of burning 300 tons of waste daily and of producing
25 tons of steam (500 C, 59 atm). The slag is utilized. The
causes for interruptions of the operation were leaky pipes
near the grate, due to overheating of the material (now
avoided by blowing in secondary air), and occasional clogging
of the air preheater by ash deposits. The industrial waste
incinerator of Fargenfabnken Bayer AG was built at a cost of
18 million DM. It has been designed to burn daily about 100
tons of solid, liquid, and viscous wastes. The three types are
burnt separately. An incinerator for oil sludge and industrial
waste in Munich is described. (Text in German)
68-0880
Work group 'Sludge Activating Methods' of the Waste Water
Technological Association (ATV). Gas und Wasserfach,
Wasser, Abwasser, 109(28):761, July 1968.
Meetings of the ATV work group concerned with sludge
activating methods were held on April 27 and 28, 1967, in
Prien, as well as on November 20 and 21, 1967, in Berlin,
West Germany. In the 1965 report by the work group,
general guide lines for the designing of sludge activating
plants for various methods were given. Results of
experimental and actual operations of the purification plants
in the city of Stuttgart and in the Wupper Valley show the
limits of such guide lines. In Stuttgart the BOD was reduced
from an average of 200 mg per liter to 25 mg per liter within
an aeration time of 1.5 hours (BOD per unit volume 3.0 kg
per cu m and day, total sludge concentration I kg BOD per
kg dry substance per day). To obtain the same result, the
Wuppertal plant, which purifies municipal waste water
together with waste water from a large chemical plant
(mixing ratio 4 to 1), needs 9 hours of aeration in a two-stage
biological plant (average BOD at the beginning of process 350
mg per liter BOD per unit volume 0.9 kg per cu m per day,
total sludge concentration 0.3 kg per kg and day). The guide
lines for primarily domestic waste water worked out by the
ATV work group for a BOD of 25 mg per liter at the end of
the process, called for a BOD per unit volume of 1.8 kg per
cu m and day, and a total sludge concentration of 0.5 kg
BOD per kg dry substance and day. This shows that guide
lines are pertinent for domestic waste water, but when large
amounts of industrial waste water are added, experiments are
indispensable. At the meetings, moreover, such problems as
sludge stabilization, the question of nitrification and
dentrification with the aid of the sludge activating method,
and the dimensioning of post-purification tanks were
discussed. (Text in German)
68-0881
Work group ATV 'Sludge dehydration and disposal'. Wasser
und Abwasser, 109(28):760, July 1968.
The work group 'Sludge dehydration and disposal' of the
Waste Water Technological Association (ATV) held a meeting
between April 20 and 22, 1967. New sludge activating
methods were discussed, and new plants were visited in
Switzerland. In the purification plant m Hamburg, tests were
made to determine whether satisfactory drying of sewage
sludge can be achieved with the flue gases from an
incinerator, and to what water content the sludge must have
been previously dehydrated. In a discussion on vacuum
filtering, the importance of conditioning the sludge with the
aid of chemicals was stressed. A report on improvements in
the Lurgi sludge incineration plant in Stuttgart-Muehlhausen
was given. In conclusion, an incinerator plant using the
Passavant method was described. A thorough report on the
present state of the art of sludge treatment will soon appear
in the 'Handbook of Waste Water Technique', which will be
published by W. Ernst and Son, Berlin. The 'Handbook on
Waste Disposal', published by Erich Schmidt-Verlag, Berlin,
also contains a summarizing paragraph on the 'Treatment and
disposal of waste sludges.' (Text in German)
68-0882
Wright, C. D. Practice and control of activated sludge process
treating combined industrial and domestic wastes. Water and
Sewage Works, 115(1968):R139-R152, Nov. 29, 1968.
Revisions in methods of practice and control are necessary to
permit continued use of the activated sludge process where
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Hazardous Wastes
industrial waste is treated at a municipal sewage plant.
Industrial wastes can be constant or seasonal. They may
contain some form of nutrient deficiency which is
detrimental to the sludge process such as low nitrogen,
instability as related to a high rate of synthesis in the process,
and low phosphorus. Requirements of the plant itself for
operation of the activated sludge process include: varying air
application rate in accordance with loading; assuring
adequate oxygen transfer at high loading demand; and
compensating for nutritional deficiency. The plant volume
adjustment for seasonal loadings is best accomplished
through use of plant units rather than a slack operation of
the plant. The oxygenation rate as opposed to air application
rate must be adjusted to comply with the loading. Volume
indexes and loadings are considered, and the solution is
application of measures to ensure compensation for
nutritional deficiencies and unstable solids conditions.
Operational practice and effective control require attention
to such factors as control of return and waste activated
sludge, solids handling and disposal, and analyses and records
within the plant.
68-0883.
Wulfinghoff, M., Translator. Disposal of process wastes;
liquids, solids, gases. A Symposium presented at the
ACHEMA Meeting, 1964. Frankfurt/Main, Germany, 1968.
240 p.
Along with chemical processes for detoxication and
flocculation, biological treatments for decomposing organic
impurities in effluents have proved most effective in dealing
with the waste water problems of paper, cellulose, tannery,
glue, and textile industries. A survey is presented of the
ion-exchange processes and the use of an Infrared
Spectrophotometer. Effluents containing radioactive
contaminants, which can be treated by various
decontamination processes, are discussed. Biological
treatment of solid waste from communities and industry,
composting of organic waste material, the advantages and
disadvantages of various types of apparatus used for the
recovery of proteins from sewage effluents, ionized solutions,
waste water from the preparation of potato flour, and the
requirements for practical economic encapsulation systems
for the long term permanent storage of high level nuclear
wastes are discussed. The purpose of afterburning involved
in combustion of industrial processes, the Bayer
'double-contact' process, and the development work aimed at
the removal of sulfur dioxide from exit gases are considered
in detail. A bibliography, glossary, and index are included.
68-0884
Young, E. F. Water treatment plant sludge disposal practices
in the United Kingdom. Journal of the American Water
Works Association, 60(6):71 7-732, June 1968.
The most widely practiced stage in water treatment in the
United Kingdom is the chemical coagulation of surface
waters with either aluminum or iron salts, resulting in
hydroxide precipitates. This gelatinous hydroxide sludge
presents a problem in controlling the rate at which water is
drawn from the sludge. Chemical treatment of hydroxide
sludges is becoming more widely practiced, the sludge being
dosed with lime or polyelectrolyte. Cold hme-softenmg is
frequently practiced, which involves the addition of lime, and
sometimes soda ash, to produce a precipitate containing a
considerable volume of solid particles. Sludge processing
involves successive stages of water separation from the sludge,
and an alternative process in each stage is shown. Thickening
tanks are the self-cleaning type, and the type relying upon
mechanical scraping of the sludge to a convenient point.
Filter presses have been used with varying results. The
centrifuging of lime-softening sludges is likely to become
more popular. The Water Research Association concluded
that the dewatering characteristics of lime-softening sludges
can be controlled by the method of softening, but that there
is less control over the properties of hydroxide sludges. The
Fylde Water Board concludes that the variations in a
particular sludge are not insignificant, that temperature
variations change sludge characteristics profoundly, and that
thickened sludge should not be pumped too quickly or for
too long. The operations of various treatment plants are
discussed.
68-0885
Zievers, J. F., R. W. Grain, and F. G. Barclay. Waste
treatment in metal finishing: U.S. and European practices.
Plating, 55(11):!,171-1,179, Nov. 1968.
Waste laws, acceptable discharge tolerance levels to
watercourses, and metal finishing waste treatment methods
are summarized for the United States and selected European
countries. The cost involved in meeting various waste
treatment requirements is shown graphically. The results of a
survey are included for 15 cooperating plants located
throughout the country with different degrees of metal
finishing waste treatment, varying flow rate, and raw water
costs. The trend found in the survey definitely is toward
more stringent enforcement in the area of suspended solids to
streams. Because of the low tolerable limits for suspended
solids acceptable to government authorities, pressure
filtration seems to be the best or only answer. Conventional
and 'package' plants are compared and illustrated. The trend
seems to be toward effluent treatment plants in which 60 to
80 percent of the water taken into a metal finishing
operation can be reused.
HAZARDOUS WASTES
68-0886
Active rubbish dump. Nature, 219(5159): 1,098, Sept. 14,
1968.
Although the bulk of radioactive waste from nuclear reactors
is small, it is dangerous. The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission
and the National Academy of Sciences have announced a
joint committee to investigate procedures for waste disposal.
Last year, the European Nuclear Energy Agency organized a
joint operation in which radioactive waste from Belgium,
France, West Germany, the Netherlands, and Great Britain
was dumped in the North Atlantic. The waste was put in
containers and delivered to convenient ports, where a
chartered ship picked it up and carried it into the northeast
Atlantic and dumped it overboard. Disposal of this waste on
the bed of the Atlantic at the rate of 1,000 curies per year
results in intakes ot radioactivity which are many orders of
magnitude below those recommended by the International
Commission on Radiological Protection. Most of the wastes
were beta/gamma wastes, which have fairly short half-lives.
174
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0883-0891
68-0887
Armstrong, D. H Airborne pathogens associated with solid
wastes handling. In Engineering Foundation Research
Conference; Solid Waste Research and Development, II,
Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26, 1968. New York. (Conference
Preprint C-10.)
Municipal refuse handling operations constitute a health
hazard, since the dust generated carries a large number of
microorganisms, including pathogens of intestinal and
respiratory tract origin. The degree of hazard depends on the
concentrations of the dust and the types of organisms
associated with the dust. A qualtative and quantitative study
was made by the Solid Wastes Program of the microbiological
flora of the dust associated with four municipal refuse
incinerators and a composting plant. Air samples were taken
with an Anderson volumetric sampler used in conjunction
with TSA blood agar and eosin methylene blue agar plates.
The results, as reflected by the isolation of pathogens,
indicate that the potential health hazard from the dust is
significant.
68-0888
Bernard, H. Radioactive waste management. In Industrial
waste disposal. New York, Reinhold Book Corporation,
1968 p.274-312.
Since the nuclear industry must meet standards of ultrahigh
quality in its effluent streams, various processes and
components are used as intensively as possible. The generally
approved effluent standards are considered. The types of
waste, whether from mining and milling, feed materials and
fuel fabrication, production, power reactor wastes,
laboratories, or chemical separation processes are examined.
Treatment of radioactive wastes can be considered in three
parts: low activity wastes, intermediate activity wastes, and
high activity wastes. Disposal of high activity wastes is always
by containment as liquids or by immobilization and storage
as solids. Perpetual containment is the only method deemed
possible for these wastes due to the hazards involved.
Research to reduce all of these wastes to solid form, thus
reducing the hazards of trying to store liquids which may
leak, is described. Various disposal methods for other types
of wastes are considered. Diagrams, data, and illustrations as
well as an extensive list of references are included. The waste
stream diagrams for the various AEC sites are given.
68-0889
Disposables are dangerous. Pennsylvania Medicine, 71(3).49,
Mar. 1968.
Used syringes, needles, and drug samples present disposal
p-ru'''n->. 'iiiUlren can get them and use them as toys and
otii'.'rs can injure themselves. The problem of drug
dependence and addiction should not be compounded by
improper disposal of medical supplies. Dangerous substances
should be kept out of the trash can. A machine is available
from surgical supply houses which will destroy a disposable
needle. Another machine will crush a syringe. There are many
other methods tor proper disposal. If the institution is large
enough to maintain an incinerator, all these items can be
burned. A jar of commercial acetone can be kept on hand,
and the syringe (or half of it) disposed of by dropping it in
the jar. Needles can be 'defused' with an inexpensive wire
cutter.
68-0890
Floyd, E P., and A. W. Breidenbach. Preliminary estimate ol
the significance of pesticide residues in solid wastes and
problems of reduction or elimination ot these residues.
Presented at 156th National Meeting, American Chemical
Society, Atlantic City, Sept. 8-13, 1968. 6 p.
Chief contributors to pesticide wastes are industrial and
agricultural operations, commercial pest control operations,
and individual homemakers and gardeners. In municipal
refuse, a major part of chemical pesticide wastes are found in
the discarded pesticide containers, including the spent aerosol
cans. Primary reasons for the concern of the Solid Wastes
Program with pesticide residues are as follows possible
occupational hazards; threats to the normal biota of the
environment; adverse effects on microbiological processes
occurring within composting material or sanitary landfills;
adverse effect on the utilization of solid wastes such as food
processing wastes; contamination of the environment through
leaching by groundwater or surface water or through stack
emissions of incinerators. One of the combustion products of
chlorinated hydrocarbons is hydrogen chloride, which is
toxic and corrosive. Current research efforts in determining
the sources, uses and fate of pesticides are discussed. Disposal
techniques for solid pesticide residues fall into 2 basic
processes: to detoxify the waste pesticide by degradation or
decomposition, to concentrate and contain the toxic material
in a safe location. Current techniques considered practical for
pesticide disposal are: rapid decomposition by use of heat as
in incinerators, fluidized beds, and by chemicals; natural
decomposition by soil microorganisms, air, and sunlight;
burial using steel drums; pumping into deep wells. The ideal
method for disposal is by conversion into useful products.
68-0891
Gray, K. R Toxic element hazards in municipal compost.
Public Cleansing, 58(7)'331-334, July 1968.
The aim of the Haughley research project is to investigate the
toxic elements which are frequently present in municipal
compost to determine if these are absorbed in sufficient
enough quantity by crops to cause danger to humans.
Municipal authorities must face the problem of disposing of
about 10 million tons of municipal refuse and sewage sludge
each year, and the use of composting as an acceptable
method is hindered if toxic elements are present in the
finished product Although much metal is removed by
magnetic separators or screens during composting, small
metal objects and metal salts which form chelates remain.
Although vital to life in small quantities, trace metals can be
toxic in large amounts. The author was asked by the Soil
Association to form a committee and institute field trials to
investigate the toxicity of compost. Six fields will be treated,
five of which will be given a light application of nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potasium. Each of the six will be divided
into four plots, and each year 96 vegetable samples will be
analyzed for about 12 elements, and in addition the
composts and the soils will be examined. The elements
currently being investigated are. As, B, Be, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu,
Hg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Se, V, and Zn. When the results become
available, additional assistance will be obtained through the
British Industrial Biological Research Association. The Small
Animal Feeding Project will also determine toxicity.
175
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Packaging Wastes
68-0892
Johnson, H. Selenium in solid waste. In Engineering
Foundation Research Conference; Solid Waste Research and
Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26, 1968. New
York. (Conference Preprint C-l 1.)
Since approximately 70 percent of the 800 million Ib of
solid waste produced per day in the United States is paper,
and since selenium is known to be present in almost all
conceivable types of paper, environmental exposure of
selenium is increasins through solid waste handling and
disposal. The fact that selenium and its compounds are quite
toxic prompted an investigation by the Solid Wastes Program
of selenium concentrations in solid waste. A fluorometnc
method for the detection and quantification of selenium was
used. Newspaper, cardboard, and compost materials were
analyzed to establish dormant or potential levels of selenium,
and finished compost, incinerator residues, quench water,
stack samples, and air samples, both near to and distant from
incinerator sites, were analyzed to show the effects of the
particular disposal method.
68-0893
Sax, N. 1. Dangerous properties of industrial material. 3d ed.
New York, Van Nostrand Remhold Company, 1968. 1251 p.
The purpose of this work is to provide a single source for
quick, up-to-date, concise, information about more than
12.000 common industrial and laboratory materials. In
recognition of the great level of public interest now focused
upon exploitation of the environment to the detriment of
public health, a section on air and water pollution problems,
and the burgeoning problem of solid waste disposal has been
included.
68-0894
State task force develops plan for safe disposal of chemical
wastes. Public Health News, 49(7)- 132, 134, July 1968.
A special advisory task force, appointed by State Health
Commissioner Roscoe P. Kandle, (N.J.), is expected to
produce a set of regulations that should prevent serious
accidents from occurring in the disposal of chemical wastes.
Some rules have already been agreed upon and are currently
in effect for a nine-month trial period. The task force plan
calls for a uniform system for classification or coding of
waste chemicals which will identify type and degree of
hazard (health, flammability, reactivity, and noxious odor),
and identify those that are non-hazardous. Also incorporated
in the plan is a system of classification of receiver facilities to
give specialized services, including the handling and treatment
of various hazardous waste products. Because of the legal
responsibility chemical shippers will provide, under the plan,
minimum labels in accordance with the current ICC
regulations for 'Explosives and Other Dangerous Articles.'
The plan also calls for the shipper to provide a bill of lading
to accompany each shipment of waste chemicals. The State
Department of Health is expected to promote the new
labeling and handling system, and to establish an information
center for disposal ot chemical wastes.
PACKAGING WASTES
68-0895
Abrahams, J. H., Jr., and R. L. Cheney. The role of glass
containers in solid waste disposal. New York, Glass Container
Manufacturers Institute. Inc., Oct. 8, 1968. 8 p.
Glass can be considered a universal packaging material, since
it is made from the most abundant raw materials and, during
proper disposal, can be readily reduced to small particles and
returned to the soil in its original state. Glass can also be
melted for use in the manufacture of new containers or as
raw material for other industries. Since it is inert, glass will
not leach, rush, rot, mold, putrefy, decompose, or cause
disease or noxious gases. Glass has been shown to be of little
or no problem in disposal. In a landfill, glass fragments will
not contribute to settling problems; in incineration, glass
fragments aid in aeration, do not produce gases, and can be
reclaimed. In composting, ground glass acts as a soil
conditioner if not reclaimed. The glass industry is actively
researching improvement in its products, and in ways and
means of facilitating the recycling of waste glass into
productive uses.
68-0896
Darnay, A., and W. E. Franklin. The role of packaging in
solid waste management, 1966 to 1976. Statement before the
U.S. House of Representatives Subcommittee on Science,
Research, and Development, 90th Cong., 2d Sess., Feb 2,
1968
The conclusions of a study initiated at the Midwest Research
Institute, under contract to the Public Health Service, Solid
Wastes Program, to develop definitions of the role packaging
plays in solid waste, were stated before the Subcommittee on
Science, Research, and Development of the Committee on
Science and Astronautics of the U.S. House of
Representatives. The aims of packaging and of solid waste
disposal are mutually exclusive, on the whole. The large
quantity of packaging wastes imposes a general load on the
disposal facilities of the nation. The consumption of
packaging materials for 1966 and 1967 is tabulated.
Collection of packaging materials is costly if containers are
thrown away carelessly, easy if they are discarded in waste
cans. Processing of packaging wastes may be easy or difficult
depending upon whether they are dumped, incineratored, or
used in landfills. In landfill operations, the greatest single
difficulty presented by packaging materials is the resistance
to degradation in the soil of certain materials such as
aluminum, glass, and plastic. In incinerators, metals and glass
show up as inert residue which must be hauled away. Ideally,
packaging materials should not be discarded but reprocessed
by industry and made into new packages or other products.
Each ton of recycled wastepaper saves 17 pulp trees. Future
research needs include1 automation of waste collection;
separation of refuse into Us components; refinement of
heterogeneous waste masses; developmenl ot secondary uses
for wastes; and improvement of salvage operations.
176
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0892-0901
68-0897
Fulmer, M. E.. and R. F. Testm. Report on the role of
plastics in solid waste. New York, Society of the Plastics
Industry, [1968]. 31 p.
The Society of the Plastics Industry requested the Battelle
Memorial Institute to investigate the effects of plastics on
refuse disposal systems. The percentage of plastics in refuse is
1.5 percent, but it is expected to more than double during
the next decade. In sanitary landfillmg and composting,
plastics are not considered a significant problem. In open
dumping, if accompanied by uncontrolled burning, plastics
can contribute to problems of smoke and odor. The major,
future-problem area associated with increased use of plastics
is expected to be connected with disposal by incineration.
Plastics contribute 0.322 percent of the total
noncombustibles or 2 Ib per ton of refuse. Estimates based
on the total quantity of polyvinyl chloride plastics believed
to enter municipal refuse suggest that incinerator stack
concentration of HC1 from this source may approach
toxicological limits. There is a need for more detailed
reporting systems for all categories of materials, and for a
relatively detailed economic analysis of the future growth of
plastics in solid wastes. Attention should be focused on
potential problems connected with incineration of refuse,
with particular emphasis on the generation of hydrogen
halides, the release of smoke, economic separation of plastics,
and grinding and shredding of combustibles. Appended data
cover: present consumption and future usage of plastic
bottles, government activity in solid waste, and fire hazards
peculiar to the use of plastics.
68-0898
Fulmer, M. E., and R. F. Testin. Introduction Summary.
Problems caused by plastics in solid waste. In Report on the
role of plastics in solid waste. New York, Society of the
Plastics Industry [1968]. p. 1-3.
A study ot available records on solid-waste disposal in the
United States uncovered no quantitative evidence of
problems uniquely assignable to the presence of plastics. The
percentage of plastics in municipal refuse is 1.5 percent, but
is expected to more than double during the next decade.
Problems caused by plastics in solid wastes include: clogging
of incinerators due to melting; production of black smoke
when burned at low temperatures; corrosion of equipment by
gaseous products of combustion; production of
physiologically undesirable combustion products; and
generation of offensive odors when burned at low
temperatures. In sanitary landfills, plastics may produce a
slight decrease in density, but are not considered a source of
pollution. In composting, plastics may affect the appearance
of the end product, but are not expected to affect its
properties in any other way.
made at three levels to represent 'low,' 'high,' and 'best'
estimates. A large spread between the 'high' and 'best' (or
most realistic) estimates reflects the degree of uncertainty
concerning the future use of plastics-particularly plastic
bottles. The probable major constituents of plastic are.
polyethylene (38%), polyvinyl chloride (327r), and
polystyrene (21%). The total amount of plastic waste
disposed ot in refuse currently is 3V4 billion Ib per year or
about 1.5 percent of the total amount of refuse generated. It
has been predicted that the total volume of packaging will
increase by 50 percent in the next 10 years, and that the
plastics portion will double from 1 to 2 percent in that
period. The best estimate of plastic-milk-bottle penetration
by 1976 is 50 percent of the gallon and half-gallon
containers. This represents a total potential volume increase
of 0.37 billion cu ft per year. This potential volume increase
does not appear to be significant since some compaction of
plastic bottles will occur. A recent FDA regulation regarding
use of a PVC-PE copolymer for food-contact applications
indicates that the fraction of PVC in packaging will probably
increase.
68-0900
Fulmer, M. E., and R. F. Testm. Current and future disposal
practices. In Report on the role of plastics in solid waste.
New York, Society of the Plastics Industry, [1968]. p.7-12.
Two methods of reducing refuse quantities are through
improved household incinerators, or shredding and grinding
all combustibles such as paper and plastics, to a size suitable
for disposal in the sewage system. Whatever is done to impart
fire resistance to plastic materials will also make the material
more difficult to incinerate. If a comparatively large stratified
mass of plastics enters an incinerator, the mass softens and
then melts and flows, causing difficulties in grate-type
incinerators. Smoke and soot from plastics which escape the
primary combustion zone are also problems. The presence of
halogens in plastics inhibits combustion, causes corrosion of
the metals of the incinerator, and contributes to air
pollution. Plastics in landfills are not considered to
contribute to air and water pollution, although some
difficulty is experienced in compressing rigid containers.
Plastics have been known to pass through composting
systems without being thoroughly disintegrated. The
pollution caused by burning plastics in open dumps is
indistinguishable from the pollution produced by many other
components of refuse. The concentration of HC1 produced at
street level from emissions of burning refuse containing 0.15
percent chlorine would be about 0.005 ppm. If gases such as
HC1, HF, sulfur dioxide, and oxides of nitrogen are not
removed from household incinerators or are handled in units
which are not well vented, the burning of PVC (polyvinyl
chloride) may constitute a toxic hazard.
68-0899
Fulmer, M E , and R F. Testin. Current and future role of
plastics in solid waste. In Report of the role of plastics in
solid waste New York, Society of the Plastics Industry,
[1968], p.3-7.
As an aid to evaluating the present and future roles of plastics
in solid waste, forecasts of plastics-packaging usage were
68-0901
Fulmei, M. E., and R. F. Testin. The relative importance of
plastics in planning for refuse disposal. In Report on the role
of plastics in solid waste. New York, Society of the Plastics
Industry, [1968]. p.12-15.
Three of the most important characteristics of refuse to be
considered in planning a disposal system are: percent
177
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Packaging Wastes
noncombustibles and heating value, polluting effects on air,
water, and land, and smoke properties. Plastics contribute
0.322 percent of the total noncombustibles or 2 Ib per ton of
refuse. The total heating value of refuse on a dry basis
averages 6200 Btu per Ib, of which 2.3 percent is contributed
by plastics. Plastics do not appear to have any potential as
land or water pollutants. Gaseous emissions and smoke from
burning plastics will contaminate the atmosphere if not
controlled. HC1 is either not present in detectable amounts or
not measured in the emissions from refuse disposal processes.
The total pounds of chlorinated plastics produced in 1965
(1 837 billion), multiplied by the average weight percent
evolved as HC1 (35%), gives the total amount of HC1
pollution from this source (0 63 billion Ib). The
concentration of HC1 in the air of various cities has been
found to vary between 0.10 and 0.58 ppm. There are some
standards limiting discharges of HC1 and chlorine in Great
Britain and Germany, but at present there is no indication
when HC1 criteria might be considered in the United States.
The smoke from polymethyl methacryiate is less dense than
from burning red oak wood. Polyvinyl chloride and
polystyrene plastics produce dense black smoke as do many
plastics which contain additives to make them
self-extinguishing. The obvious method of removing smoke
discharges is to completely oxidize all the materials in the
smoke.
68-0902
Fulmer, M. E., and R. F. Testin. Utilization of plastic
materials in municipal refuse. In Role of plastics in solid
waste. New York. Society of the Plastics Industry, [May
1968]. p.15-16.
The only use that is made of plastic materials in refuse at the
present time is for recovery of their heating value, but there
is a reuse for thermoplastics in plastic manufacturing
processes. The principal difficulty facing reuse of plastics in
municipal refuse is the problem of separating the
thermoplastics from the other constituents of refuse. The
cost of hand sorting is prohibitive in the United States, and
no methods of machine separation are described in the
literature. At present, the only remotely feasible system
appears to be sorting at the source, i.e. by the householder.
Thermosets, even if isolated from the rest of the refuse,
cannot generally be reused in plastics manufacture. The
proportion of thermosets in waste plastics in refuse is
extremely small—on the order of 5 percent—and even this
proportion appears to be decreasing.
68-0903
GCMI aide proposes plan for salvage, reuse of waste glass.
American Glass Review, 89(3). 28, Sept. 1968
The Glass Containei Manufacturers institute is proposing a
plan to develop markets for discarded bottles and jars. The
firs, objective is to salvage waste glass for reuse as cullet in
the production of new glass. Next is the development of
secondary uses for waste glass, as in the manufacture of
decorations, specialty paints, insulation and building
materials The third goal is to facilitate the inclusion of glass
in normal waste disposal processes. A system of regional
'transfer stations' to which household garbage and refuse
wi'ld be cart"d fof -salvage and reuse, was also proposed. The
refuse would initially be transported in ordinary garbage
trucks to automated transfer stations, which would be
equipped to separate the material into its various salvageable
components.
68-0904
Growth trends in containers and packaging, 1954-66
Containers and Packaging, 21(l):6-9, Apr. 1968.
Packaging volumes soared 94 percent to $16.8 billion in
1966,and dollar volume was 94.4 percent above the 1954
total. Textile and wood containers' growth is partly
attributable to the Vietnam conflict. Glass containers
dropped from 7.8 to 7 percent of total packaging sales. Metal
containers also dropped in number, while paper containers
gained relatively. Plastic containers rose from a 7 4 percent
share in 1958 to a 10.2 percent one in 1966. Data is given on
the value of shipments of containers and packaging materials,
annual wholesale price indices, conversion of aluminum foil,
and shipments of plastic products.
68-0905
Jany, V. Experience with disposable blankets and sheets in
the Auguste-Viktoria Hospital in Bad Lippspringe.
Staedtehygiene, 19(8). 173-174, Aug. 1968.
The Auguste Viktona Hospital treats patients with respiratory
diseases (tuberculosis). It has a capacity for about 300 male
and female patients who remain in the hospital for 6 months
and more. The disposable blankets, which were introduced a
short while ago, proved to be an enormous success. They
have a life expectancy of about 12 weeks. They come in
sealed plastic bags. The used blankets go to the hospital
incinerator. No dry cleaning of woolen blankets and no
disinfection is required. The blankets are made of a soft
plastic fiber which warms just like a feather bed. Disposable
towels have long been in use, but a switch to single-use towels
is recommended. Disposable sheets and pillows are on the
market, but their use remains limited to special cases.
However, a breakthrough in this is imminent. (Text in
German)
68-0906
Klatt, M. When will the PVC beer bottle come9
Verpackungs-Rundschau, 19(6) 681-628, June 1968
A plastic beer bottle must satisfy numerous requirements
including good impact strength and high fatigue limit. These
and others can be met at present only by a PVC (polyvinyl
chloride) type plastic of special formulation, such as
SOLVIC-PREMIX PKB 911/570S (Deutsche Solvay-Wcrke
GmbH, Duesseldorf, Germany). A plastic beer bottle of the
latest design weighs only 29 g. 30 percent less than a
non-returnable glass beer bottle. The material for the plastic
bottle costs 5.5 Pfennig. The handling of returned glass beer
bottles costs 2.6 to 7.0 Pfennig per bottle. As to the problem
of solid waste posed by non-returnable plastic beer bottles,
the share of all plastics in the total quantity of refuse
amounts to only 0.9 percent. If it is assumed, optimistically,
that the share of beer packaged IP PVC bottles will increase
to 5 percent within the next few years, a rough calculation
shows that the quantity of PVC bottles in the total refuse
would amount to only about 0.1 percent. This amount would
178
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0902-0912
not pose any danger to refuse incineration equipment, nor
wall it entail an air pollution problem. (Text in German)
68-0907
Last word on disposable bottles. New Scientist, 39(614) 532,
Sept. 12, 1968.
In the United States, it has been estimated that 48 billion
aluminum cans, 28 billion jars and bottles, and myriads of
plastic containers are discarded each year. Non-returnable
bottles and cans are swelling the output of solid waste. Dr.
Samuel Hulbert of Clemson University, South Carolina, has
been given a grant by the U.S. government to develop his
invention of a bottle that disposes of itself after discard, by
turning into water. It is constructed of material which will
react with water in the atmosphere to dissolve in a few days
into a pool of water.
68-0908
Mukhopadhyay, B., and D. G. Wilson. Appendix H. Glass
systems. In Summer study on the management of solid
wastes; final report, v.l. Cambridge, Urban Systems
Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sept.
1968. p.46-54.
The apparent economic and social costs of the older method
of handling returnable glass containers to the retailers for a
refundable deposit are compared to the system in which
bottles are thrown away. There are many difficulties in the
way of finding the true costs. It is usually cheaper to buy
beverages in returnable bottles even if they are not returned,
than to purchase 'one way' bottled drinks. A proposed
machine to be placed at supermarkets will accept all sorts of
glass containers, refund a sum depending on the usefulness of
the bottle, sort some bottles for return to local bottlers, grind
the remaining bottles into cullet sorted by color, and sell
back to the glass producers. A hypothetical case with
supporting cost data on the development of the machine, the
number of bottles handled per year, and average net profit
for the use of the machine less costs of collection and
disposal by the municipalities without such a machine is
presented. A revised assumption and calculations section
supplement is included in the appendix
68-0909
Onasch, H. Is the introduction of no-return plastic bottles
advisable? An evaluation from the viewpoint of a municipal
city cleansing department. Staedtehygiene, 19(10).228-231,
Oct. 1968.
No-return plastic bottles are being used increasingly as, for
instance, in the brewery industry. A total switch of this
industry to these bottles would mean that a city like
Hamburg must reckon with 300 million bottles to be
disposed of. For this purpose the city would need 58,000
new waste containers, 23 additional waste collecting trucks,
and 140 more employees. The investment costs would
amount to about 5.4 million DM, the annual operating costs
to 2.8 million DM The necessary investment costs are about
2.5 times higher than the annually available fiscal means set
aside for new purchases. Each no-return bottle would cost
the city cleansing department 0.93 Pfenning annual operating
costs and 1.80 Pfennig investment cos-ts. A second problem
of this sort is with plastic milk bottles. In case of a switch to
these bottles, the municipal city cleansing department of
Hamburg would need 43,000 additional waste containers, 16
new waste collecting trucks, and 98 more employees. The
additional operation costs arising through these innovations
would have to be carried by the citizens. To the average
family with two children, the introduction of both the plastic
beer bottle and the plastic milk container would mean an
annual additional charge of about 11 DM; in some cities it
might even be higher. But the much greater problem lies with
the individual city cleansing departments which lack the
means for the additional investment costs. (Text in German)
68-0910
Plastic milk containers. Public Cleansing, 58(2).50-51, Feb.
1968.
The North Staffordshire Co-operative Dairy is now supplying
a limited number of about 1,000 plastic milk bottles a day to
schools in Stoke-on-Trent. The dairy is collecting the
discarded receptacles and returning them to the depot, where
they are passed through an amacerator which shreds the
plastic into strips a quarter of an inch wide, the resultant
material being stored in a 12 cu yd container ready for
collection by the local authority. The use of plastic
receptacles for larger containers has distinct advantages over
glass, both in terms of weight and volume. It is estimated that
16 quart containers would occupy approximately 1 cu ft or
more in the dustbin.
68-0911
Plastics pose a solid waste disposal problem. Environmental
Science & Technology, 2(2):80, Feb. 1968.
The disposal of plastics by incineration does not seriously
affect the overall solid waste disposal operation at present,
since only 3.25 billion Ib, or 1.5 percent of the solid waste
material is plastics, according to estimates of the Battelle
Memorial Institute study for the Society of Plastics Industry,
Inc. This percentage may, however, double in the next
decade and, should existing incineration practices continue in
place of composting and sanitary landfill operations, the
disposal of plastics could create air pollution problems,
particularly from hydrogen chloride and other hydrogen
halides. Polyvinyl chloride, which constitutes one third of all
plastics, is the worst offending pollutant. The Public Health
Service has no plans to develop air quality criteria for
hydrogen chloride, although its concentrations in incinerator
stacks may approach lexicological limits under certain
conditions.
68-0912
Role of packaging in waste disposal explained. Clean Air
News, 2(5):6-8, Feb. 20, 1968.
A study was made by the Midwest Research Institute for the
Solid Wastes Program of the Public Health Service to analyze
the kinds and amounts of packaging materials being used
today, and to determine possible packaging trends. Of the 46
million tons of packaging materials sold in 1966, nearly all
was discarded as rubbish accounting for 12 percent of the
350 tons of solid waste generated in the United States. Major
179
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Packaging Wastes
findings of the study were: the aims of packaging and solid
waste disposal are mutually exclusive, paper accounts for
more than half of all packaging materials; although plastics
will double in tonnage, they will amount to only 1/14 of the
paper used in 1976; of the 45 million tons of packaging
materials produced in 1966, only about 4.5 million tons were
recovered; in 1976 only three out of 100 beverage containers
will be returnable. Equipment that separates materials
automatically and new techniques of pelletizing, shearing,
baling, compressing and sorting scrap are needed.
Manufacturers can ease the load on waste disposal operations
by modifying the composition of packaging materials so that
they become suitable for recycling.
68-0913
The self-destroying beer bottle. New Scientist, 39(605):63,
July 11, 1968.
An answer to the unsightly non-returnable beer bottles which
mar tourist beauty spots is the disappearing or self-destroying
bottle. Rigello Pak AB, a branch of a Swedish paper carton
company, has produced a cylindrical container with a
cone-shaped top. The container is made of rigid PVC, Saran,
and a paper sleeve lined with thin aluminum foil, and plastic-
glue. It weights 20 g compared with 200 g for its glass
counterpart. The manufacturers claim it can withstand the
pressures of storage and transport. When it is thrown away,
the paper disintegrates and rots. The plastic is decomposed
by sunlight and acids in the soil, and can also be burned
Another 'self-destroying' bottle was produced in Germany
two months ago.
68-0914
Seymour, W. N. 80,000,000 bottles a day. Compost Science,
9(2): 18-21, Summer 1968.
The problem of disposing of the ever increasing amounts of
waste, including an estimated 28,200,000 gross soft drink
bottles of the 'no deposit, no return' type, becomes more
difficult each year. The prospect of an almost unbreakable
glass bottle in the near future will further aggravate this
problem, From the standpoint of citizens concerned about
the preservation of natural beauty, the principal focus is on
cans, bottles, 'pop tops,' and new plastic devices. It is
estimated by Michigan highway officials that it costs $2,500
per mi to pick up litter during the course of a year, or 32
cents for each piece of litter. Public relations campaign have
no more than put a dent into the overall problem of litter.
Establishment of a 'disposal tee,' to be applied at the
manufacturer's level for each container produced, and which
would be reimbursed to him tor each container returned to
him for salvage, is proposed. A 'conservation patrol'
composed of unemployed youths as seasonal personnel for
the cleaning of parks, beaches, historic sites, etc., to be paid
tor in part by the proposed disposal ice and the
establishment of a 'Technology and Reclamation Council' to
handle the ultimate disposition of solid waste, are also
suggested. The rapidly deteriorating salvage industry would
seem to require government aid to facilitate the disposal of
junked autos. and to operate any serious salvage operation
for refuse.
68-0915,
Stapler, J. T., W. J. Barnes, and W. E. C. Yelland. Thermal
degradation of polyvmylidene fluoride and polyvinyl fluoride
by oven pyrolysis. Technical Report 69-7-CM. Natick, Mass.,
U.S. Army Natick Laboratories, July 1968. 37 p.
(Distributed by National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, Va., as Publication No. AD 672 509.)
During pyrolysis, both PVF sub 2 and PVF yielded hydrogen
fluoride, complex mixtures of other volatile products, and
residual char. The mam ditfercnces were in the nature of the
volatile products and the amounts of char formed. The
volatile products from PVF sub 2 consisted largely of highly
fluonnated, nonflammable materials; those from PVF
contained much less fluorine and were flammable. The
amount of char formed from PVF sub 2 was approximately
twice as great as that formed from PVF. Although the
amounts of hydrogen fluoride yielded by each polymer were
large, differences between them were small, and not
considered significant. It is inferred that the greater ability of
PVF' sub 2 to attenuate energy from high-intensity thermal
sources, as compared to that of PVF, may be attributed in
part to its ability to produce nonflammable smoke. This
would tend to scatter the radiant thermal energy and keep it
from reaching the polymer surface, whereas the smoke from
PVF would ignite and thus create an additional heat source.
68-0916
Taeuber, F. The no-return bottle and its disposal.
Staedtehygiene, 19(10);231-232, Oct. 1968.
Back in 1959, Sweden introduced the no-return bottle and
since then its use has been increasing everywhere. It is
estimated that about 2 billion no-return bottles, mostly
plastic, will be thrown away in 1970. The glass bottles are also
being thrown away in increasing amount. In the city of West
Berlin, the per capita accumulation of plastic waste material,
such as bottles and containers, was 0.58 kg (1956), i.e. about
0.2 percent of the waste accumulation. With the plastic
no-return bottles, waste incineration and dumping become
more difficult. More trouble with corrosion will be
encountered. The plastic bottles are voluminous and cannot
be crushed as easily as glass bottles. The no-return beer bottle
made of PVC forms hydrochloric acid when it is incinerated.
Moreover, these bottles do not rot easily. To ameliorate the
problem somewhat, Farbwerke Hochst introduced a crusher
for these bottles. The machine is capable of crushing 750
bottles down to a volume which fills a 110 liter container.
The container could be transported off with the rest of the
wastes. Dumping is made simpler that way. The crushed
plastic pieces can be also mixed among the tar used for
paving streets. (Text in German)
68-0917
Vaughan, R. D. Packaging and solid waste management.
Presented at 30th Annual National Packaging F'orum of the
Packaging Institute, New York, Oct. 7-9, 1 968. 11 p.
About 90 percent of the approximately 51.7 million tons of
packaging materials produced and sold in the United States in
1966 entered the solid waste streams, accounting for about
180
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0913-0922
1 3 percent of the 350 million tons of residential, commercial,
and industrial rubbish that were generated that year. By 1976.
it is estimated that consumption of packaging materials will
have increased to 73.5 million tons. Several surveys have
tended to confirm the strong packaging/litter relationship.
The reasons for the increase in packaging wastes include: the
rise in self-service merchandising; the convenience and
customer acceptance of nonreturnable containers; and the
much greater choices in materials now given the packaging
designer with the availability of plastics and other new
materials. The Solid Wastes Program has sponsored a number
of projects relating to the problems caused by packaging
wastes- an evaluation of a fermentation method for
converting waste paper to a protein supplement for livestock
feed; a survey and literature search of such areas as plastic
reclamation and disposal and properties of plastics and resins;
development of a one-way container made basically of a
water-soluble glass that, when emptied, may be dissolved; and
a comprehensive study of the role of packaging in solid
waste. More research should be undertaken to develop
disposability properties of packaging materials and enhance
their value as salvage Particular emphasis should be placed on
htter control campaigns. Governmental action may reduce
the packaging disposal problems through the use of incentives
and taxes. The packaging industry itself can devote more
research effort toward finding more efficient and economic
ways of disposing of packaging materials.
68-0918
The waste-high crisis. Modern Packaging, 41(11 ):102-107,
Nov. 1968.
Traditional methods of refuse handling are being bogged
down in the morass of empty containers, which are becoming
increasingly difficult to dispose of. Public officials are
looking for packages which are degradable or easier to
dispose of. The major goal, however, remains packages which
can be recycled to preserve natural resources. Packages are
getting more durable, and per-capita consumption of
packages is growing much faster than population.
Self-destructing packages are definitely in the future,
including plastic bottles and metal cans. Water soluble
packaging material is also a real possibility. Recycling of
wastes is viewed as the ultimate answer to the problem, either
through use of the heat value of solid waste or through reuse
of the packaging material itself. Government regulation is
envisaged it packagers and suppliers do not work to help
alleviate the litter and solid wastes problem.
RECYCLING
68-0919
Aluminum recovery system will pay dividends. Materials
Reclamation Weekly, 113(10):27, Sept. 7, 1968.
General Dynamics Convair division could recover as much as
1.5 million dollars over the next 5 years by having the
aluminum scrap metal from their milling operations
converted into ingots for resale. The metal will be picked up
in loose condition, transported to a Los Angeles smelting
company, and converted to assayed 20 to 50 Ib ingots. Over
22 million Ib of aluminum scrap metal are expected to result
in the next 5 years.
68-0920
Anderson. J. W., and G. H. Atherton. Economics ot
producing wax from Douglas fir bark from the study disposal
of wood and bark wastes by incineration or alternative
means. Corvallis, Oregon State University, School of Forestry
Research Laboratory, Oct. 1968. 25 p.
Economic and technical analysis was found to favor
extracting wax from Douglas fir bark. Based on a total wax
production of 9,200,000 Ib per year, which is about 2.8
percent of estimated total competitive US. wax
consumption, and a capital investment of about $2 million.
the return on investment was nearly 19 percent, with a
payout time of 3Vz years. Increase in raw material (bark) cost
by 75 percent, increase in capital investment by 25 percent.
or decrease in balsam wax price by 50 percent, did not affect
profitability seriously. Operation of the plant at 60 percent
capacity, or reduction of plant size by 50 percent, reduced
profitability the most, emphasizing the importance of full
operation and optimum plant size. On the basis of the above
factors, return on investment varied from a low of about 7
percent to a high of about 26 peicent with payout times of
about 6 and 3 years, respectively It is recommended that a
technical and economic analysis should be made of a
complete chemicals-from-bark operation, where the extiacted
bark also is utilized as fuel, building board, charcoal, or
mulch. Included in the appendices are economic summary
calculation sheets, and the bases for the economic summary,
manufacturing cost estimate, and capital investment. (Work
performed under contract to the Public Health Service)
68-0921
Animals take to oil waste food. New Scientist. 40(626):544
Dec. 5, 1968.
At a conference in Amsterdam organized by the Dutch
Society for Nutrition and Food Technology, Dr. C.
Shacklady from the Research and Technical Development
Department of British Petroleum Ltd. described preliminary
results of a trial with gas-oil grown yeast. Results show that
in food value, safety, and palatabihty, this type of yeast
presents an efficient alternative to high-protein fish meal and
soy bean meal in pig and poultry feeds, provided that extra
methionine is added. Brief experiments were also run to
discover whether animals actually like eating yeast food
supplements, and whether meat from animals fed on yeast
tastes good to humans.
68-0922
Ankudmov, N. V. Technology and economy in the use of
scrap and industrial residues of iron metallurgy works and the
metal working industry in the Soviet Union. Neue Hutte, 13
(5): 260-264, May 1968.
The Soviet Union had to cope with 63.3 million tons of scrap
and metal residues that went into the metallurgy industry,
181
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Recycling
into special scrap working plants and into the machine
industry. Presently the light scrap is packaged, the bulky
scrap is cut. A table lists the technical data for cutting and
packaging equipment. A second table compares the
characteristic data of scrap presses and packaging machines of
different capacities. More than 10 types of presses are
presently used. Comparative efficiency calculations showed
that the operating costs for packaging a certain amount of
scrap are reduced with increasing capacity of the machine. To
determine the range of highest efficiency of a packaging
machine, the specific capital investment costs, the operating
costs, and the capital spending costs, were calculated for a
varying amount of scrap. The results showed that for an
amount of scrap which keeps a press operating 70 percent of
the time, a press with lower capacity should be used full
time. The costs for cutting steel scrap with hydraulic cutters
N-302 and N-630, alligator cutters N-316 and N-315, and
with flame cutters, were calculated and listed. Hydraulic
cutters have the advantage over the other two types in that
the scrap need not be sorted; they have a higher capacity and
lower capital investment and opera ting costs. (Text in German)
vines, tomato vines plus grass hay, tomato fruits (green and
ripe), and tomato fruits plus grass hay. Crude protein
contents of the silage dry matter ranged from 10.51 percent
to 12.35 percent for the materials ensiled 30 days, and up to
28.11 percent for those ensiled 60 days. Palatability trials
showed that most of the preparations were accepted except
for the tomato fruit silages. Wilted tomato vine silage was the
most palatable, and had the highest content of crude protein.
In a feedlot performance trial, it was found that all silages
were consumed in quantities of 2.3 to 2.6 kg per lamb per
day. The cannery waste plus corn cob silage produced the
highest average daily gains (138.47 g) and the direct-cut
tomato silage resulted in the lowest (49.94 g). Weight gains
were generally related to dry matter intakes. Except when
diluted by corn cobs, the experimental silages were all
relatively high in crude protein (as high as 14 percent). Total
daily dry matter intake from the tomato product silages was
highest in the group fed the direct cut vines plus corn cobs and
the lowest for the direct-cut tomato vine group. Digestibility
of the direct-cut tomato vine silage dry matter was 56
percent in digestion trials conducted with four lambs.
68-0923
Association for research in the re-use of slag from the iron
and steel industry. Tonindustrie Zeitung und Keramische
Rundschau, 92(5):185, May 1968.
A number of German iron and steel industries began to
promote research in the field of blast furnace slag more than
10 years ago. A group was formed, and a research institute
was established in Rheinhausen, Germany. Another work
group was formed to deal with Thomas slag. Since it turned
out to be more expedient to combine all research on the
various types of slag, the two work groups merged on March
19, 1968 to form the Forschungsgemeinschaf t
Eisenhuettenschlacken (Association for Research on the
re-use of slag from the iron and steel industry). The main
purpose of this new association is to find new possibilities for
the re-use of not only blast furnace slag but also Thomas and
steel slag which is rich in phosphorus, and Siemens-Martin
and steel slag which is poor in phospho"rus. The demands of
consumers concerning the quality of the slag increase
constantly. Morever, with the new oxygen-lancing process, a
type of slag remains which can no longer be used in the
furnaces of the integrated iron and steel industry. As far as
the Thomas phosphate is concerned, it must be improved so
that it can be better dispersed, but-and this is the
difficulty-the price should remain as low as that of ground
basic slag. The association will concentrate its work mainly
on the use of slag in the manufacture of building material, as
an additive to cement and concrete, as filler in highway
construction, and as a fertilizer. The characteristics of all
types of slag as well as of slag products will be investigated,
and a constant survey of the quality of slag products will be
conducted (Text in German)
68-0924
Auten, D. K. The acceptability of wastes formed in tomato
production as feedstuffs for sheep. M.S. Thesis, University of
Maryland, College Park, 1968. 58 p.
Tomato vines and tomato fruits were chopped, mixed with
dry forages, and then ensiled in plastic bags. A preliminary
ensiling I rial was conducted for 30 and 60 days with tomato
68-0925,
Auten, D K Review of literature. In The acceptability of
wastes formed in tomato production as feedstuffs for sheep.
M.S. Thesis, University of Maryland, College Park, 1968.
p.4-25.
During the ensiling of high moisture forages, nutrient losses
occur due to seepage and fermentation. The moisture content
of the crop, the preservatives used, the size of the silo, and
the fineness of chop all affect the amount of juice in the silo.
The quality of silages is greatly influenced by the nature of
fermentation. Silage is very palatable when correctly
prepared and free of spoilage. Silage is also a relatively low
cost feed, and there is little waste in harvesting and feeding.
The waste portions of the U.S. vegetable crop is mainly leaves
which can contain as high as 44 percent crude protein.
Several experiments involving the feeding of tomato wastes
to various animals are described. By treating oat straw with a
cold diluted NaOH solution, the feeding value is increased.
Pea vine silage was reported worth 91 percent, as much as
good corn silage for dairy cows Satisfactory feed lot
performance was observed in animals receiving equal parts of
shelled corn and cull beans with a small amount of linseed
meal. Potato silage was fed to beef steers which was prepared
by taking dry, chopped hay and grains and adding them to
crushed potatoes and ensiling in trench silos. Beet tops and a
portion of the root contain protein and sugar. A good quality
beet top silage was made with tops wilted down to a moisture
content of 60 percent or less.
68-0926
Auten, D. K. Experimental procedures. Results and
discussion. In The acceptability of wastes formed in tomato
production as feedstuffs for sheep. M.S. Thesis, University of
Maryland, College Park, 1968. p.26-48.
All plant materials ensiled for the studies were sealed in
polyethylene bags. While tomato plants were divided into
ripe fruit, green fruit, and stems and leaves. These fractions
were chopped and ensiled as such or mixed with ground grass
hay to raise the dry matter content. The silage was sampled
after 30 to 60 days of ensiling to note condition (appearance,
182
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0923-0932
odor, state of preservation) and for analysis for dry matter,
nitrogen, and volatile fatty acids. Silage was fed to sheep to
determine acceptability. The lambs were divided into 6
groups and were assigned to silage treatments as follows: corn
silage (control); wilted tomato vines; tomato vines and corn
cobs; tomato vines (direct-cut): tomato cannery waste and
corn cobs; and pelleted, dehydrated alfalfa (control). All
silages with the exception of tomato vine silage at 60 days
exhibited satisfactory ensiling results. The tomato fruit
displayed little evidence of fermentation. In the palatabihty
trials, the ripe fruit and green t'ruit silages were not well
accepted. The wilted tomato vine silages were as high as
21.53 percent in dry matter crude protein while the
direct-cut silages reached a maximum of 19.25 percent crude
protein. The ash content was as high as 36.06 percent in a
direct-cut silage preparation, and only as high as 19.64
percent for a wilted tomato vine silage. After an eight week
feeding trial, the cannery waste plus corn cob silage yielded
the highest average daily gains.
680927
Automatic baler with ingenious qualities. Waste Trade World,
112(10) 14-15. Mar. 9, 1968.
A pushbutton-controlled, manual, semi-automatic, or fully
automatic machine, with electrical systems that arc matched
to the requirements of the machine, is designed to produce
dense bales from automobile scrap, new clips, trim scrap, or
No. 2 steel. The Sheppard/Harns Model TGI 202 automatic-
baler is claimed to be able to produce bales up to 24 in. by
24 in. by 36 m. A 24 in. by 24 in. by 24 in. bale of light
gauge new steel chippmgs would weigh 1,200 Ib. It has an
operating cycle of 37 loads per hr on full automatic repeat
control. The loading hopper is 252 in. long by 92 in. wide,
and the press box is 252 in. long by 60 in. wide by 70 in.
deep. The machine has an operating pressure of 2,400 psi.
The press produces bales with smooth surfaces, smooth
corners and edges, and with no objectionable fins.
copper base metals, 570,000 tons of lead, 665,000 tons of
aluminum, and 230,000 tons of zinc, plus smaller quantities
of nickel alloy scrap, stainless steel, precious metals, and
other rare metals. Domestic secondary recovery supplies the
United States with 20 percent of its aluminum needs, 35
percent of its copper, 45 percent of its lead, and 20 percent
of the zinc. In the case of lead, much more metal is produced
from scrap than is mined from domestic mines. The
secondary copper, aluminum, lead, zinc, and nickel industries
are examined.
68-0930
Bayler, H Unscrambling your scrap waste problems.
Mechanical Handling, 55(8). 1,227-1,235, Aug. 1968.
Scrap and waste management must be the interest of any
producer who wishes both to eliminate the liability of
accumulating waste and to derive the maximum return on
that portion of the scrap which is reclaimable. Eight positive
steps for waste handling are suggested: reducing the amount
of waste by determining at what point in the manufacturing
process the greatest losses are occurring to see if they might
be reduced, using waste on the premises by reprocessing if it
proves economical; and selling scrap, keeping in mind that
clear-cut loads and homogenous grouping of scrap may
command a higher price. Letting or giving away waste
material may be a solution, although storage and handling
problems may still be costly. Incineration, which overcomes
the need to transport bulky, low density material can be a
solution if air pollution problems can be solved. Compressing
scrap and waste reduces storage space and permits fewer
pick-ups and higher payloads in less time. Hauling waste to a
controlled tipping area depends on the availability of tipping
space and the economies of getting it there. Paying for waste
removal is the answer, if specialized handling and disposal
facilities are not justified, and it offers the advantage of not
tying up capital and labor on waste disposal.
68-0928
Barnes, G. E. The economics of electroplating wastes
disposal. Plating, 55(7):727-731, July 1968.
In order to reduce the concentration of objectionable
contaminants in electroplating wastes, it is possible to
provide sufficient dilution, to convert some of the toxic
components to relatively non-toxic form, to precipitate the
substances out of solution, and to dispose of the resulting
sludge; and to recover some of the more valuable constituents
for re-use. Examples are given of economic analysis as a
major factor in considering a number of alternative disposal
methods. Chemical equations to be used in determining cost
of chemicals applied for partial and total destruction of
toxicity are presented. Mechanics of controlled rinsing as a
prerequisite for waste recovery and examples from practice
are given.
68-0929
Baumann, G. M Non-ferrous scrap re-cycling. In Proceedings;
First Mineral Waste Utilization Symposium, Chicago, Mar.
27-28 1968. U.S. Bureau of Mines, and Illinois Institute of
Technology Research Institute, p.117-122.
Approximately 3 million tons of non-ferrous scrap are
handled each year, including 1,310,000 tons of copper and
680931
Bender, D. F., and T. C. Purcell. Reclamation of valuable
compounds from agricultural refuse and municipal waste. In^
Engineering Foundation Research Conference, Solid Waste
Research and Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26,
1968. New York. (Conference Preprint E-3.)
The chemical approach is being used to search for organic
chemical compounds of potential value in waste material
resulting from the harvesting and processing of various plants
and incinerator effluents, especially fly ash. The waste may
contain a small amount of an extremely valuable compound,
or the recovery of marketable compounds may defray the
overall expense of a solid waste collection and disposal
system. Preliminary work in the laboratory of the Solid
Wastes Program of the Public Health Service indicates that
the total extractable organics are present m very minute
quantities m incinerator fly ash.
68-0932
Bergstrom, D W. Economics of secondary fiber usage Tappi.
51(4).76A-77A, Apr. 1968.
The economics of secondary fiber usage is initially based on a
cost comparison between virgin fibers, pulp substitutes, and
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Recycling
deinking grades of paper stock. The relative economic
advantage of secondary fibers is determined through use of
overdry fiber cost analysis, comparing only like fibers, e.g.
hardwood vs. hardwood. As well as economic advantages,
secondary fibers offer hydration and forming advantages, and
they tend to produce a more dimensionally stable finished
product. As compared with market pulp, secondary fiber
should be produced at a cost advantage of $20 to $40 per ton
to justify the capital expenditure and operating and
maintenance costs of a deinking plant. Paper stock consumed
in 1966 produced enough secondary fiber to replace the
wood pulp from 50,000 sq miles of well managed forests.
68-0933
Block, P. D. Bright prospect for scrap in basic oxygen
process. (Part II). Materials Reclamation Weekly,
113(8):24-25, Aug. 24, 1968.
A brief explanation of the heat balance in a furnace is given
rn order to clarify whether more scrap can be used in the
basic oxygen furnace. If the scrap charge exceeded 30
percent, an inordinate amount of time would be needed to
melt and reach tap temperature if, indeed, the scrap could
ever be melted. There are two known methods of increasing
the scrap percentage in the charge. One is to preheat the
scrap with the attendant disadvantages of fuel cost and time
required for the preheating. Fifty percent scrap charges have
been achieved by adding chemicals such as calcium carbide or
silicon carbide. The disadvantages of this include the cost of
the additives, and the trend toward poorer lining life. A
volume movement of scrap for consumption in basic oxygen,
electric, and open hearth furnaces is forseen for a long time
to come. However, the scrap material must be cleaner and
better prepared than ever before. This is forcing the dealer to
install more sophisticated and more expensive equipment in
order to maintain a competitive position The dealer will also
be faced with more closely controlled shipping schedules.
68-0934
Block, P. D. Challenges ahead-outlook good Materials
Reclamation Weekly, 113(7):26-27, Aug. 17, 1968.
A machine called a Calderon charger is used to introduce
scrap into the furnace. Three-sided steel boxes, holding 85
tons (one charge of scrap), are loading in the scrapyard
adjacent to the furnace building. Scrap used in basic oxygen
furnaces falls into three general categories. Cushion scrap is
used to protect the brick at the bottom of the furnace from
the heavy scrap as it is charged. Materials such as slitter scrap,
bushelling, flashings, and short clips are ideal for this use.
Shredded scrap has not been used for this purpose because of
the zinc content. The second type of scrap used consists of
the normal grades which make up the remainder of the initial
charge. Included in the mix are No. 1 bundles, detmned
bundles, bloom butts, No. 1 heavy melting, and rail scrap.
The restrictions placed on this type of scrap are that it must
be free to galvanize, must be under 5 ft in length, and that
heavy butts be used in limited quantities. The third type of
scrap, coolant scrap, may be added in small quantities to
reduce the temperature. Small electric furnace bundles, cold
finished bar crops, rail crops, and miscellaneous railway scrap
have proved satisfactory. The basic oxygen furnace has and
will continue to cause changes in the scrap industry, but will
by no means relegate it to a position of unimportance.
68-0935
Bludnen, G., S. B. Challen, and D. L. Woods. Seaweed
extracts as fertilizers. Journal of the Science of Food and
Agriculture, 19(6): 289-293, June 1968.
The use of seaweed as a manure is general in coastal areas
throughout the world. Extracts derived completely or partly
from seaweeds are used commercially in agriculture and
horticulture. Brown seaweeds are similar to farm-yard
manure in organic matter, nitrogen, and potash contents but
contain more trace elements. Tests were carried out to
determine the effects of different seaweed extracts on
growth, and an attempt was made to relate these effects to
the constituents of the extracts. Multipots, full of
Vermicuhte,were treated with 50 ml test solution or control
liquid, and then sown with 30 mustard seeds. Records were
made of the number of plants per pot, total wet weight per
pot, and total dry weight per pot after the plants had been
dried at 105 C overnight. The growth-promoting effect of
extracts of _Laminaria saccharina, Fucus vejiiculosus, and
Ascophyllum modosum was due largely to the cations
present, but this effect was modified by organic substances in
the extracts. The concentrations of amino acids and manmtol
in seaweed extracts had little effect on plant growth. The
compounds extracted with organic solvents appear to be
responsible in part only for the modification of the growth
promoting effect. Alginic acid and its salts were indicated as
being the main organic compounds responsible for reducing
the effect of the metals with mustard plants. It is suggested
that alginic acid competes with the plants by ion-exchange
for the metals in the extract.
68-0936
B. O. C. idea speeds metal cutting task. Waste Trade World,
11 2(13): 17, Mar. 30, 1968.
British Oxygen Company Ltd. has developed a metal cutting
system using an oxygen-propane gas mix which, it is claimed,
if large quantities are used, is cheaper than the more usual
oxyacetylene. For thinner metals and long cuts, oxypropane
is quicker than oxyacetylene, but the latter is better for
thick metals and short cuts. The propane system has been
installed in a scrapyard where the work of cutting up five
steam locomotives is being carried out.
68-0937
Bodman, S. W. Appendix F. The compost-salvage operation.
In Summer study on the management of solid wastes, final
report, v.l. Cambridge, Urban Systems Laboratory,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sept. 1968. p.42.
The ultimate solution of the waste disposal problem lies in
the combination of a compost-salvage operation plus sanitary
landfill. With automated equipment, this process could be
profitably operated by either a private company or a
controlled agency. The most attractive landfill operation will
combine rail haul with an efficient compaction process. The
compacted material would preferably be wrapped in
polyethylene films. Incinerators will gradually be displaced,
since they cannot be operated efficiently, either technically
or financially. The difficulty of control causes inlractable
air pollution problems.
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0933-0942
68-0938
Bottle manufacturers start wide attack on solid-waste
problems. Waste Trade Journal, 64(6):7, Feb. 17, 1968.
The Glass Container Manufacturing Institute is starting a long
range program to solve the waste disposal problem of the
industry's products, glass containers, and other packaging
materials. Attention will be paid to such potential secondary
uses for glass as a component of compost, manufacture of
fiber glass, and the recycling of used bottles back into the
glassmakmg process.
68-0939
Bouwer, H Returning wastes to the land, a new role for
agriculture Journal of Soil and Water Conservation,
23(5): 164-168, Sept.-Oct. 1968.
Several projects are described which utilize agriculture's
potential to purify sewage and other liquid wastes to add
nutrients to the soil. The purpose of these projects may be
either waste water renovation, in which case the applications
may reach several feet per day or for irrigation purposes, several
inches per day, or for both purposes. Renovation of sewage
effluent or other low quality water by ground water recharge
is less expensive than other forms of advanced water
treatment for waste water re-use. Some figures given indicate
treatment plants cost on the order of $37 per acre ft to $56
per acre ft, whereas recharge through surface spreading,
depending on variables such as cost of land and topographical
conditions, may run on the order of $8 to $15 per acre ft.
Where irrigation benefits are obtained, the renovation scheme
becomes even more attractive. The Flushing Meadows Project
near Phoenix, Arizona, for groundwater discharge, is
described. Some soil variables and pollution problems are
considered, and nutrient benefits to be obtained from the
sludge applications are given.
68-0940
Buchbinder, R I. Revolutionary new system for
pollution—free waste disposal. Paper No. 161 Presented at
the 61st Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control Association,
St. Paul, Minnesota, June 26, 1968. 6 p.
Based on the age old process of producing charcoal, called
pyrolysis, a system has been developed to economically
convert municipal trash and waste materials into usable
products. Municipal trash consists of 82 percent combustible
material which can be carbonized producing two major end
products, elemental carbon and combustible gas. The
carbonization process requires that the combustible material
be heated to temperatures above 750 F in an atmosphere
which does not contain sufficient oxygen to support
combustion. The system consists of a grinder that reduces the
trash to a free-flowing material which is then ingested into a
continuous-flow rotating retort, sealed to preclude the entry
of oxygen. A converter processes combustible rubbish,
garbage, cellulose material, plastics, neoprenes, synthetics
solvent, woods, or any organic matter. Processing time is
from 12 to 22 minutes. Approximately 20 percent of the
original material is converted to carbon, and approximately
40 percent of the gases produced will be recycled to maintain
the process on a self-sustaining basis. The balance is available
for other uses. Operating temperatures are in the range of
1,400 to 1,500 F. Two basic approaches to air pollution
control are considered. Tests are being conducted to evaluate
the system on a commercial basis. The system costs range
from approximately $5,500 per daily ton of capacity for a
system capable of handling 200 tons per day, to $3,650 per
daily ton of capacity for a system of 800 tons per day.
68-0941
Garden, C. A., and J. F. Malina. Literature review. In Effects
of waste paper additions on sludge filtration characteristics.
Technical Report EHE 01-6801; CRWR-24. Austin, Center
for Research in Water Resources, University of Texas, Jan. 5,
1968. p.3-17.
Vacuum filtration has found wide applications in the
dewatenng of sewage sludges in place of the use of drying
beds. The advantages include economy, not being subject to
weather conditions, routine performance and reduced
digester requirements if the sludge is to be biologically
stabilized. The development of current approaches to the
design of sludge filtration systesm is attributed to the work of
Carman and Coackley who applied Poiseuille's and Darcy's
laws regarding laminar flow through porous media. Carman's
basic equation for a rigid cake is examined. The Buchner
funnel test was used for experimental determination of values
for specific resistance and compressibility coefficients of
sludges under various prefiltration treatments. The new
method of estimating specific resistance by correlation with
capillary suction time as reported by Gale and Baskerville is
discussed. Sludge characteristics which effect the filtration as
listed by Trubnick are defined, and conditioners such as
polymers and the elutnation process as defined by Center are
considered. Chemical conditioning of sludges and the
physiochemical influence of lime as observed by Sontheimer
are outlined. Advances in sludge dewatering, with the aid of
fiber and waste materials as found by Carpenter and Caron, is
mentioned. The proposed use of wastepapers, such as
newspapers and magazines in a sludge dewatering process,
requires that some attention be given to the quantities that
are available. The geographic and economic feasibility in
acquiring these materials should be studied.
68-0942
Garden, C. A., and J. F. Malina. Results. In Effects of waste
paper additions on sludge filtration characteristics. Technical
Report EHE 01-6801; CRWR-24. Austin, Center for
Research in Water Resources, University of Texas, Jan. 5,
1968. p.31-47.
All tests with activated sludge indicated about the same
results with the various conditioners at the optimum specific
resistance. The effects of both newsprint and magazine paper
on the specific resistance of digested sludge were improved
with increases in the concentration of the solids. Conditioner
demand was exerted by the liquid phase of raw sludge, but
on a smaller scale than that of the digested sludge. Wide
variations in compressibility coefficients were found in the
sludges conditioned with newsprint. Over a range of solids
concentrations from 20 to 80 mg per liter, the specific
resistance of the pulped newsprint was about 1.0 times 10 to
the seventh sq sec per g. The pulped magazine paper had
resistances of about 3.5 times 10 to the seventh sq sec per g.
At the 80 mg per liter solids concentration, the
185
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Recycling
compressibility coefficients observed were about 0.3 and 0.6
for newsprint and magazine paper, respectively. The capillary
suction filtration tests were found to be more replicable
when the sludge was conditioned with liquids (polymers or
ferric chloride) than when the pulped paper was used. Test
results are plotted in graphs and presented.
68-0943
Chaliha, B. P., S. B. Lodh, and M. S. lyengar. Utilization of
waste paper for newsprint production. Research and
Industry, 13(2):72, 76, Apr.-June 1968.
The development of a process for the production of
newsprint from waste paper is described. A flow diagram of
the process is charted. The deinking process consists of two
steps: (1) disintegration of the paper and simultaneous
detachment of the ink particles from the fibers; and (2)
separation of ink particles from the pulp suspension. The
conditions for disintegration or pulping vary widely. Removal
of the ink particles is done by washing or flotation. The
washing process is used mostly in the United States and the
flotation process is used in Europe, where it has been
introduced very recently. Characteristics of original and
reclaimed papers of different grades are tabulated and
compared, and production cost data are tabulated. The
deinked waste paper stock from the flotation process is
superior to mechanical pulp, due to the presence of chemical
pulp fibers. Also, with increasing percentages of chemical
pulp fibers in the stock, the strength of the paper increases.
Wet strength papers, asphalt coated papers, polythene coated
paper, waxed paper, and resin coated paper cannot be treated
in this process. It is, therefore, necessary to sort the raw
material before subjecting it to the deinking process.
68-0944
demons, C. A., and T. C. Purcell. Chemical and physical
transformation of waste rubber into useful materials. In
Engineering Foundation Research Conference; Solid Waste
Research and Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26,
1968. New York. (Conference Preprint E-7.)
Since waste rubber represents a potentially valuable resource
and its disposal causes major problems, a study was
undertaken by the Solid Wastes Program of the Public Health
Service to determine the present and future possibilities of
utilizatmg discarded rubber. Reclaimed rubber brings $200 to
$240 per ton compared to about $400 per ton for synthetic-
butyl rubber grade 1. Rubber manufacturers need an
incentive to become interested in scrap rubber. The use of
reclaimed rubber in such products as tire carcasses, passenger
tire sidewalls, and undertread, molded goods, extruded and
calendered goods, and automotive mats shows promise.
Additional uses for whole used tires appear limited. New
concepts in incineration of scrap tires and new uses for
ground or crumb rubber may eliminate some problems.
68-0945
Conference of the association A.P. wrapping paper on the
utilization of waste paper difficult to dissolve. Das Papier,
22(3):141-145, Mar. 1968.
A meeting was held in Ravensburg, Germany, by the
Association A.P. [alte papier=waste paper] Wrapping Paper
on January 11 and 12, 1968. Detailed reports are given of the
papers presented. G. Mickley discussed the 'Treatment of
Waste Paper to Reclaim it as a Raw Material for Paper
Production'. The demand for waste paper increased by about
10 percent during the period from 1953 to 1966. This is due
to the fact that waste paper is used as raw material not only
in the cardboard and carton industry, but also in the
production of graphic paper. Various methods of converting
waste paper into usable raw material are discussed briefly. In
the last few years, the amount of bituminous waste paper has
increased. The Jayme method used alkali to separate the
bitumen from the fiber. J. Michael discussed 'Sorting
Problems—their Possibilities and Limits'. The impurities
suspended in an aqueous solution which contains fibrous
material are retained on a sieve. They must be removed so
that the holes do not become clogged. The removal creates
great problems, and much attention has been paid to it. As a
result, numerous systems and machines have been developed
and these are briefly discussed. Any new method of
separating impurities find new but narrowly limited
possibilities for its application, some of which are cited. A
paper, read by H. Ortner, discussed the separation of
impurities from the waste paper. There are two types of
impurities: heavy dirt such as iron and sheet steel parts,
screws, sand, glass splinters, etc., and floating impruities such
as string, plastic foil, bristles, etc. Separation in one stage, in
this case, is not possible. The heavy dirt settles in the solvent,
which serves not only to dissolve the waste paper but also as
a preseparator. (Text-German)
68-0946
Conference of the association A.P. wrapping paper on the
utilization of waste paper difficult to dissolve. Das Papier,
22(4).216-218, Apr 1968
The report of the meeting of the Association A.P. (alte
papier-waste paper] Wrapping Paper in Ravensburp,
Germany, is continued. A paper on the 'Technique of
Dispersing Bitumen in Waste Paper' was read by H. Weib. For
more than twenty years methods have been developed to
remove bitumen from waste paper or at least to make it
ineffective. All the methods are listed in a table; the
principles of the various methods are indicated by key words.
'The Treatment of Bituminous Waste Paper by the
Escher-Wyss Method' was discussed by W. Siewart. The
bitumen is so thinly dispersed, that it no longer disturbs the
smooth flow of the process or impairs the quality of the end
product. A plant using this method includes a dehydrator
which dehydrates the pulp from 3 to 6 percent to 20 to 30
percent solids contents, a device which tears up the
continuous flow of fiber and produces small flakes, a heating
spiral which heats the material to 95 C, and a disperser to
disperse the bitumen. Experiments have shown that thermal
treatment influenced the dispersing process favorably.
Experiments to determine whether the Escher-Wyss process
also influences the characteristics of bitumen produced
positive results. White writing paper was pressed against a
sheet of bituminous material at 143 C. It was found that the
dispersion of bitumen reduces not only the size of the
bitumen particles, but also their penetrating ability. The
disperser has no adjusting device since the degree of
dispersion is determined by the selection of operating
conditions. Practical experience with the Escher-Wyss process
has verified the findings of the developmental work in every
respect. (Text in German)
186
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0943-0951
68-0947
Conference of the association A.P wrapping paper on the
utilization of waste paper difficult to dissolve Das Papier,
22(5):285-289, May 1968.
The report of the meeting in Ravensburg, Germany, is
continued and concluded. G. Ryrberg discussed the Asplund
difibrator method of converting waste paper into usable raw
material. A table lists the amount of waste paper re-used in
West Europe. The processing of waste paper for re-use is
increasing. A diagram illustrates the upward trend since 1953.
After treatment in a pulper, and after washing and
dehydration, waste paper pulp is heated to a temperature of
150 C so that the bitumen melts. In the defibrator, which
operates at high pressure and high temperatures, the bitumen
is dispersed. W. Musselmann reported a new method for
processing bituminous waste paper. By this method, a fiber
material free of any bitumen is obtained. Waste paper is
dissolved at temperatures between 65 and 80 C (melting
point of bitumen) in an alkaline solution. The bitumen forms
small balls which lose their stickiness as soon as the solution
is diluted with cold water. They can then be separated easily.
This method removes more than 95 percent of the bitumen.
Various experiments with waste paper were carried out at
temperatures below and above 100 C. It was found that pulp
of a satisfactory quality could only be made at temperatures
above 100 C, and only then was the pulp visibly clean.
Unfortunately, high temperature reduces the stength of the
paper. Experiments are now being conducted to find the
causes of this. In another paper, a machine to process waste
paper with a great wet strength was described. The last paper
dealt with the finding of bitumen spots. The best method to
discover the spots is the one described in TAPPI standard T
437 ts-63. (Text in German)
68-0948
Copper reclaimed without burning or stripping. Waste Trade
World, 112(4):11-12, Jan. 27, 1968.
An invention which will separate copper from a wide variety
of cables without resorting to burning or stripping utilizes a
dry fluidized bed separator. Chopped cable materials are
passed through a dry fluidized bed composed of titanium
oxide through which air is passed, causing it to behave like a
liquid. Materials, of a heavier specific gravity than the
'liquid', sink, and the lighter specific gravities float. A plant
designed to process 3,000 Ib of scrap cables per hr has been
in operation for 15 months.
68-0949
Dalton, F. E. Reclaiming land with Chicago sewage sludge.
Compost Science, 8(2):5-8, Autumn 1967-Winter 1968.
The Public Health Service announced a grant to the
Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago for a
project to determine whether processed liquid sewage sludge
can be pumped through high pressure pipelines from Chicago
to make marginal Illinois land productive for agriculture. A
10-acre, small-scale farm irrigation system for crop utilization
of digested sludge will be constructed. Digested sludge, is
analyzed at 2.89 percent solids and 97.11 percent water, and
is rich in nitrogen, phosphordhs, and potassium. The proposal
has the dual attraction of utilizing both the water and the
solids. The Metropolitan Sanitary District now disposes of
sludge by four costly processes-heat drying, air drying, wet
air oxidation, and treating in a heated digester. Disposal of as
much as 75 tons per acre per year is expected to cost about
$15 per ton in comparison with the average of $50 per ton
now being spent. The University of Illinois's Department of
Agronomy will investigate factors relevant to the
contamination of surface and ground waters, the pollution
ability of solids, and the method, frequency rate, and time
for safely applying digested sludge on land.
68-0950
Decossas, K. M., L. J. Molaison, A. de B. Kelppinger, V. L.
Laporte, E. A. Gastrock, and H. L. E. Vix. New USDA
process makes high-protein flour from cottonseed. Food
Engineering, 40 (10):88-92, Oct. 1968.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Southern Utilization
Research and Development Division has developed a
mixed-solvent extraction process for producing high-quality
edible cottonseed flour which would have an economic
advantage in human nutrition in developing countries.
Processing costs would range from 6.6 cents per Ib of flour
produced, when operating 270 days per year, and would be
competitive with other commercial protein concentrates.
Plant and processing costs are itemized. The extraction
process includes: flake preparation and conditioning by
moistening and heating; extraction with a solvent composed
of 60 percent hexane to 39 percent acetone to 1 percent
water at 110 to 115 F for 1 1 /3 hr to reduce residual lipids in
the meal to less than 1 percent; oil recovery and misceila
refining; meal recovery; grinding and classification; and
solvent storage and recovery. A flowsheet illustrates the
acetone-hexane-water extraction of cottonseed.
68-0951
de Koe, W. J. Protein recovery from potato starch mill
effluent. Water and Waste Treatment Journal, 12(2):55-57,
July-Aug. 1968.
During the production of potato starch, a large number of
by-products dissolved in the potato juice are released. These
are difficult to remove, although they could usefully be
applied. The Dutch Avebe factory developed two processes
which can be applied to convert this waste material into a
saleable by-product, and to reduce the BOD of the water, and
thus make it a less offensive water pollutant. The end
products of the potato starch mills are potato starch, potato
pulp, which is used as cattle feed, and the diluted potato
juice. There are two ways of producing potato starch: with
rotosieves and with solid bowl centrifuges. When the latter
method is used there is less dilution of the potato juices. The
product, when it arrives at the protein producing plant, is
first acidified to coagulate the globulines present in the
potato juice. Via a heat exchanger, the product is fed into a
coagulator where the protein flaked albumins are formed.
From the concentrator, the protein concentrate is passed
through a cooling unit to the filters. The filter cake is milled
dried and packed in powder form. The same process is also
described, as is used in Avebe, however here a spray dryer is
used. Potato protein is high grade protein and is in much
demand. The produce of either method results in 70 to 80
percent crude protein. It has been shown that, if the potato
187
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Recycling
starch plant is efficiently managed, protein recovery is
economical. Also the BOD of 180,000 mg for diluted potato
juice supplied to the plant is reduced to approximately 6,000
mg per liter. If the coagulation protein has been removed, it
is possible to continue the purification by manuring,
fermentation in lagoons and with Torula utilis, and active
sludge treatment.
68-0952
dePadilla, F. H., and F. H. Hoskins. Hydrolytic conversion of
sawdust into metabolizable sugars. Journal of Agricultural
and Food Chemistry, 16(5):735-737, Sept.-Oct. 1968.
The hydrolytic conversion of sawdust and pure cellulose
powder was studied by sulfuric acid-enzymatic and sodium
hydroxide-enzymatic treatments. Cellulose powder yielded
dextrose in concentrations ranging from 2.2 to 2.9 g per 100
g, while sawdust yielded dextrose and xylose in
concentrations ranging from 3.0 to 4.2 and 1.0 to 6.7 g per
100, respectively. Under optimum conditions, the total
concentration of sugars was 10.8 g per 100 g. Since sawdust
is inexpensive, and both sugars are available to the human
digestive tract, further work can commercialize the process.
68-0953
Designed by reclaimers for reclaimers. Materials Reclamation
Weekly, 112(21):! 1, May 25, 1968.
The Hydracut 40 hydraulic alligator shear, produced by Hill
and Gilbert Ltd. of Great Britain, was designed to meet all
the demands of metal processors. Provided with push-button
automatic or manual control, the machine is of heavy cast
steel construction and can be powered by electricity or a
diesel engine. The cutting blade is 24 in. long, and the
maximum opening width between the blades is 1 IVi in.
68-0954
Device for regenerating newsprint. Das Papier, 22(5):280,
May 1968.
Guillaume Duchange of Neuilly/sur/Seme, France has
obtained a German patent for a device to regenerate
newsprint. He also holds the patent. He applied for the
patent in Germany on June 27, 1961, and the patent was
granted on August 3, 1967. He also applied for a French
patent on June 30, 1960 which was granted on June 15,
1961. The number of the French patent is 831,591, of the
German patent 864,991. (Text in German)
680955
Diehl, H. Power plant in the wood industry fired exclusively
by chaft. Energie, 20(11): 331-337, Nov. 1968.
Since much chaff and sawdust accumulates in the wood
industry, it was decided to use this material as fuel for a
nearby powei plant. The boiler furnace, fired by such wood
residues, consists of three flues and a chain grate stoker. The
furnace walls are water jacketed, and a shell of sheet steel
surrounds the entire furnace. It has been designed for a
capacity of 8 to 10 tons per hr of steam. At the outlet of the
superheater, the steam has a pressure of 30 atm gauge and a
temperature ot 400 C. The storage room consists of two
parts-one for the wet chaff, the other for dry sawdust etc.
Each half of the storage bunker holds 135 cu m. A screw
conveyor brings the fuel to a transport blower, which passes
it on to the hopper. It proved to be advantageous to mix the
dry sawdust with the wet chaff for better combustion. Bulky
wood parts can be charged by hand. To obtain the required
purity of steam, it is decarbonized and desilicomzed at
temperatures between 60 and 70 C. The turbine has a
maximum capacity of 800 kw. In the 3 to 4 years the plant
has been in operation, it has operated satisfactorily. An
average of 7.5 tons of steam were produced per hr at a fuel
consumption of 1.64 tons per hr. The heating value of the
mixed chaff and sawdust was on the average 3385 kcal per
kg. The average power output was 815 kw, of which 94 kw
were consumed by the power plant itself, and 721 kw were
sold. (Text in German)
68-0956
Digesting the news. News Time (Scholastic Teacher's
Edition), 31(14):2, Jan. 18, 1968.
For 56 days, cows ate a newspaper-molasses mixture costing
less than gram. Wood pulp is nutritious and molasses makes
paper digestible. Waste-paper food can reduce problems of
too much rubbish and insufficient grain.
68-0957
The disposal of solid wastes. In The secondary material
industries and environmental problems. Studies of
Dislocation F'actors No. 2. New York, National Association
of Secondary Material Industries, 1968. p.8-9.
The role that the secondary material industry plays in
recovering and reprocessing high tonnages of material, which
normally might end up as solid waste, is assessed By
expanding the utilization of secondary materials,
uneconomical material can be transformed into a potentially
valuable raw material. Metals recovery is one project directly
related to various industrial and liquid waste disposal
problems. The displacement ot the secondary industry
because of urban renewal and highway construction means
that small dealers have been put out of business, and when
small collectors are out of business, potentially utilizable raw
material lies abandoned and uncollected.
68-0958
Does advanced plant waste non-ferrous scrap? Waste Trade
World, 112(8):11, Feb 24, 1968.
The National Research and Development Corporation
sponsored the production of fertilizer from household waste.
In this process, ferrous metals, reclaimed from the refuse, are
automatically baled in 10-lb packs. Non-ferrous metals are
scraped off and thrown away, together with fragmented
rubber and other perishable items. It is believed that
modifications could be made in the system to recover
non-ferrous metals, if the presence of such metals was great
enough to make it a profitable undertaking.
68-0959
Economics of overhead cranes. Materials Reclamation
Weekly, 113(6):30, Aug. 10, 1968
The problem of moving metal into lorries was solved by
James Thomas & Son Ltd , of Birmingham, by the purchase
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0952-0966
of an overhead crane produced by Herbert Morns Ltd. The
5-ton Centralift overhead travelling crane is fitted with a
magnet, and it gives full coverage of the 90-ft long scrapyard.
The speed of servicing trucks allowed one vehicle to be cut
out of the fleet. The electric crane is cheaper to run than the
old diesel mobile crane. Reduced repair and maintenance
time is anticipated.
68-0960
Evans, J. O. Using sewage sludge on farmland. Compost
Science, 9(2): 16-1 7, Summer 1968.
Pennsylvania farmers, who have been receiving digested
sludge from municipal waste treatment plants on their fields,
report no objectionable odors and greater field production
for corn, hay, oats, and clover. According to a recent survey,
about 30 Pennsylvania municipalities are disposing of liquid
digested sludge to land surfaces in once-a-year to quarterly
dosings. In addition to plant nutrients, sewage sludge supplies
water and humus to soils. It acts as a soil conditioner and
promotes increased porosity for better air and water
movement. Sludge applications are made by various methods
including gravity flow from discharge hoses, spreading under
pressure from specially designed applicators, and by the use
of various types of spray equipment. Spreading or spraying is
discontinued during rainy weather, kept away from
drainageways, and it is not practiced on vegetable crops. At
present, sewage plant operators are supplying sludge without
charge.
68-0961
Feeding livestock with newspaper? Das Papier, 22(2)'99-l()0,
Feb. 1968.
A mixture of molasses and ground newspaper was fed to
young cows for a period of 6 months by scientists of the
Pennsylvania State University. The cows were reported to
have gained an enormous amount of weight. A control group
fed regular food did not gain more weight. Molasses, a
by-product of sugar production, cannot be fed in larger
amounts to livestock, since it would deprive the body of too
much water and the molasses would accumulate in the
stomach as a tough cake. Scientists, therefore, mixed
molasses with ground newspaper. Albumin was added in the
form of soy bean flour The control group was kept on a
regular diet of cracked corn and soy bean flour. They gained
some weight during the test period of 56 days, but their
general condition did not improve. The molasses-newspaper
mixture may be a great help in feeding livestock;especially
where there is a shortage of regular food (Text in German)
68-0962
Fagan, R. D. Kinetics of the porteous hydrolysis process;
hydrolysis of paper; progress report no. 1. Hanover, N. H.,
Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, Nov. 6,
1968. 23 p.
Recognizing that approximately 60 percent of refuse is
paper, Porteous suggested that the cellulose be hydrolyzed to
sugars with subsequent fermentation to produce ethyl
alcohol. He based his economic analysis on the assumption
that the kinetics of wood chip hydrolysis, as reported by
Saeman, would apply. Furthermore, he assumed that they
could be extrapolated to slightly higher temperatures where
the yield is greater, and the amount of sulf uric acid required
is less. Porteous based his economic analysis on a yield of 55
percent at 230 C with 0.4 percent sulfunc acid. Experiments
presented in this report were limited to temperatures below
217 C. These kinetic data indicate that a yield of 45 percent
is obtainable at 230 C with 0.5 percent sulfuric acid.
Economic analysis indicates that this yield corresponds to a
profit of SI.04 per ton, rather than the $4.21 predicted by
Porteous. The yields were found to be much less when
carried out in a 316 stainless steel container. This indication
of iron inhibition indicates that the process might be sensitive
to the separation of metals from the refuse. Experiments in
the future will be directed toward: (1) comparison of
enzymatic and acid hydrolysis; (2) effects of metals on acid
hydrolysis; (3) effects of other components on hydrolysis;
and (4) the effect of using a higher temperature and shorter
residence time.
68-0963
Ferrous metal reclaimed by new refuse plant. Materials
Reclamation Weekly, 113(5):21, 23, Aug. 3, 1968.
Twelve to 1 5 tons of scrap ferrous metal, mostly old tin cans,
are being recovered by Barrow-upon-Soar Rural District
Council since work started with a £250,000 refuse
incineration plant in June 1968. The metal is put through a
two-phase operation; first, extracting tins magnetically as the
refuse is sorted, and then running the week's clinker through
the magnet to reclaim any which have been missed. The
plant, consisting of a handling plant, two incinerator units, a
pick-up conveyor and a scrap metal baler, handles 70 tons per
8 hr day of refuse. Gases from the incinerators pass through a
water trap grit arrestor on the way to the chimney.
680964
Florida garbage plant offending St. Petersburg residents.
Clean Air News, 2(5)'22-23, Feb. 20, 1968.
A refuse reclamation plant, located in a prosperous
residential section, and built less than 2 years ago for $2
million as a pilot project, has been ordered closed down
because of bad odors. The facility took 600 tons per week of
garbage and produced 'cura' soil conditioner, and with the
addition of a $60,000 blender, made 'cura-soil' fertilizer. The
owner is the International Disposal Corporation which is
owned one third by Westinghouse Electric, one third by
Allstate Insurance, and most of the remaining third by
Salvage & Conversion System.
68-0965
Flotation processing of waste paper. Das Papier,
22(4).205-206, Apr 1968.
Austrian patent No. 258,696, obtained by Farbwerke
Hoechst AG, on Dec. 11, 1967, was applied for on Aug. 14,
1963. Priority was obtained in Germany on Aug. 16, 1962.
The patent was granted for a flotation process to remove the
carbon black from newspnng. (Text in German)
68-0966
From scrap., to iron powder. Precision Metal Molding,
26(10):64-67,Oct 1968.
A pilot plant of Peace River Mining & Smelting, now under
construction in Alberta, Canada, will produce a low cost,
189
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Recycling
high-quality iron powder from low-grade steel scrap. The
process dissolves the scrap in hydrochloric acid, producing a
ferrous chloride solution that is filtered, concentrated, and
evaporated. This material is then reduced to iron by reacting
it with hydrogen. Hydrochloric acid is formed as a byproduct
of the reduction step, and it is recycled back to the dissolver.
68-0967
George, H. D. The handling, processing and marketing of
steel-making slag. In Proceedings; First Mineral Waste
Utilization Symposium, Chicago, Mar. 27-28, 1968. U.S.
Bureau of Mines, and Illinois Institute of Technology
Research Institute, p.80-83.
The slag contains limestone or dolomite. After introduction
into a steel-making furnace, it is melted at a temperature of
2,900 F to separate and remove the impurities from the
nascent steel. Disposal of this slag from open hearth, basic
oxygen, or electric furnaces has become a problem, since the
cost of disposal is high, and dumping areas are scarce, and
maintenance requirements are great. Therefore, methods for
reclamation have been developed. The slag is cooled and the
metallic portions are removed by magnetic separation The
metal-free slag is discharged onto vibrating screens and is then
fed into crushers. The pulverized slag may then be used for
blast furnace flux (after adjustment of the pH), anti-skid for
highways, railroad ballast, road sub-base and shoulder
construction, temporary roads in muddy or swampy terrain,
river bank protection, bituminous concrete, and golf course
greens.
68-0968
Gouwens, P. R., and E. Aleshin. Utilization of foundry waste
by-products. In Proceedings; First Mineral Waste Utilization
Symposium, Chicago, Mar. 27-28,1968. U.S. Bureau of
Mines, and Illinois Institute of Technology Research
Institute, p.84-98.
Foundry waste material was analyzed in order to provide
enough information to determine as many marketable uses as
possible. Attempts were made to pelletize each material, and
the pellets produced were characterized as to burning
properties, bulk density, phases present, and strength. Arc
furnace and sand reclaimer dusts were found to be
composed essentially of small particles which could be easily
pelletized and burned in a rotary kiln. Crushing strength
measurements showed that the furnace dusts form rather
dense, strong pellets which show promise as aggregate in
masonry products and grog in structural clay products. The
high iron content of furnace dust pellets indicate that they
may be more amenable to recycling in a melting furnace. The
low surface areas for these materials preclude utilization as
fertilizer and insecticide carriers. Pore volume and density
measurements show that the furnace dusts may possibly be
used as insulation in chemical processing, and they can be
foamed easily, indicating possible use as structural insulation.
Both furnace effluents and sand reclaimer dust show promise
as pigments. It may be possible to utilize the property of
sand reclaimer dust to gel when added to water, for fill
stabilization. All of the powders tested form dark glasses with
short working ranges. Cupola wastes may possibly be used as
soil conditioners and as a source of micronutnents. Free steel
from shot blast dusts can be separated and reprocessed.
68-0969
Grinding material for the cement industry. Sihkattechnik,
19(8):262,Aug. 1968.
A new slag utilizing plant began to operate in Germany in
May of 1968. In this plant, blast furnace slag is prepared to
be used in the cement industry. The personnel of the plant
intends to handle about 220,000 tons of slag for the cement
industry until the end of this year. The plant has been built
to satisfy the increasing demands of the cement industry for
blast furnace slag. All the slag which is dumped at present can
be utilized now so that imports are no longer needed. The
prepared slag is delivered by trucks or trains to the cement
plants. (Text in German)
68-0970
Harding, C. I. Recycling and utilization. Compost Science,
9(l):4-9, Spring 1968.
Most recycling and utilization schemes involve some type of
salvage and composting. All composting operations can be
broken into three basic steps: refuse preparation including
receiving, sorting and salvaging operations, grinding, and the
addition of moisture and nitrogen; stabilization or aerobic
digestion either in windrows or mechanical plants; and
produce upgrading which includes curing, screening,
pelletizing, drying, and bagging. The new TVA-PHS
Demonstration Compost Plant at Johnson City, Tennessee, is
of the windrow type. The three mechanical systems which
have proved successful in composting in the U.S. are- the
Fairfield system; the International Disposal Corporation
(IDC) system, formerly known as the Naturizer system; and
the Metrowaste system. Capital costs, energy, and labor
requirements for the three systems are compared By
separating the financing of composting into two
phases-disposal phase, underwritten by dumping fees, and
by-product phase, paid for by compost sales-a realistic
approach to financing composting plants can be taken. The
best potential bulk market for compost is as a building
material in the fertilizer industry.
68-0971
Hawk, C. O., S. Friedman, K. B. McCullough, and R. W.
Hiteshue. Refuse mulch boosts tomato yield. Coal Age,
73(6):92-94, June 1968.
In a small field experiment involving 100 tomato plants, half
of which were mulched with coal-working refuse, the
mulched plants grew faster and bore more and larger fruit
than unmulched plants. The increase in yield was greatest up
to about midseason. The yield ratio (yield of mulched plants
divided by yield from unmulched plants) for ripe fruit during
this period was 1:2 to 1:3. This ratio for the entire season
was 1:13. The increased yield is believed to result in large
measure from the dark-colored mulch capturing more solar
radiation, consequently producing a warming effect in the
soil. There was no evidence either of poisoning the plants by
the mulch or a beneficial effect attributable to a nutrient
property of the mulch. The results suggest the need for
studying the problem on a much larger scale, and probably
with a variety of crops.
190
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0967-0976
68 0^~ ?
Hell, K W., and D. Schlucnsen. A new unit for spraying
sewage sludge, manure, and waste water over the fields.
Landtechmk, 23(21): 726-727, Nov. 1968.
The disposal of sewage sludge has always posed special
problems. The sewage sludge is very often dried and then
used as fertilizer by farmers. The Schlebusch Company
refined its system of spraying sewage sludge, manure, and
waste water over the fields. The unit consists of an axle with
a frame upon which a winch is mounted. The winch winds up
a polyethylene hose with varying speed depending on the
amount of manure or sludge to be spread over the field. The
hose has an adjustable spray nozzle attached on one end
which rests on a support. This support is dragged along across
the field. Tests were made on the length of the hose. Too
long a hose would sag too much between the support and the
winch and could damage the crop. It was found that not only
the length, but also the amount of liquid pressed through the
hose and the height of the crop, must be considered.
Generally, a hose length of 300 m for high crops (such as
rapeseed, lupine, etc.) and 400 m for low-rising crops can be
considered as safe. The winch has an inner diameter of 1,400
mm and an outer diameter of 2,100 mm. It is 1,000 mm wide
and is operated by a driving shaft. The price of the entire unit
including a hose of 200 m length is DM 7,000.
(Text in German)
68-0973
Hesch, R. Pressboards made of bagasse for the building and
furniture industries. Zucherindustne, 1 8(3): 114-1 20, May
1968.
B<'tve'?n 1965 iind 1966, a new pressboard manufacturing
plant, using bagasse as raw material, began operation on the
Reunion Island, east of Madagascar. The plant produces 42
tons of product per 24 hr. The pressborards are 8 to 35 mm
thick, and have a specific weight of 300 to 750 kg per cu m.
At present, the plant operates only during July to December
when the sugar cane harvest is under way. The plant has no
storage place for the bagasse, but preparations are going on in
this respect so that the plant will operate throughout the year
beginning in 1 968. Since the plant has been operating for 2
years, the bagasse pressboards appear to be a success. They
are comparable to wooden pressboards as far as the quality is
concerned. The bagasse boards have the advantage of greater
homogeneity, but less impressive are their drab colors which
vary from a light green-grey to brown-grey. The demand for
the boards is higher than the plant is presently able to
produce. The chemical composition of bagasse is very similar
to that of wood. Fresh bagasse leaves the sugar factory with
high moisture contents and must be dried first (which is not
necessary if stored and compacted bagasse is used). The pith
is removed in two steps. After another drying process, the
material is ready to go to the press. The type of press used in
the plant on Reunion is illustrated and described in detail A
qualitative comparison of the bagasse pressboards with
pressboards made of wood, hemp, and jute, etc., is given. The
bagasse boards are mainly used for heat insulation in the
construction of houses. (Text in German)
68-0974
Hillyard, H. E. Recovery of waste oil using floating-type
skimmers. Iron and Steel Engineer, 45(8):77-80, Aug. 1968.
Construction of a lagoon for trapping waste oil trom a steel
plant was accompanied by the use of skimmers, to remove
the oil from the surface of the pond. The oil was a mixture of
most of the different types of oils used in rolling and pipe
mills, including: lubricating oils, threading oil, cutting oil, fire
resistant fluids, and compounds and grease mixed with the
oils. An estimate of the amount oi oil was in excess oi 500
gpd. A belt type skimmer was used to recover the oil which
collected in front of the discharge weir. The skimmci consists
of a neoprene continuous belt, and it can have rated pickup
capacities of 30, 40, 50, and 70 gph, depending on belt
width. Two floating skimmers were purchased for the
removal from the rest of the 1 3 acre lagoon. They consist of
self-contained units, approximately 6 ft sq by 3 ft high. Two
fiberglass reinforced epoxy plastic rollers dip into the oil him
which adheres to them, and is then scraped oft. A minimum
of maintenance has been required. The waste oil is used as
boiler fuel at the plant and has caused only minor problems.
68-0975
Hmesly, T D., O. C. Braids, R. 1 Dick, ct al Dispovi >f
digested sludge on farm land. In Engineering Foundation
Research Conference; Solid Waste Research and
Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26. 1968
(Conference Preprint D-7.)
Rest'in ch is being carried out to make a quan'1 "r:'v
evaluation of: the most practical amounts, h^quc'iii, '^td
economical method of applying anaerobically digested sludge
on crop land throughout the year, the probability of
contaminating surface runoff and drainage water with
pathogens and soluble or suspended organic and inorganic
substances; the changes in soil characteristics t" br expec' '
from frequent applications of digested sluugL, an<"! ine
supplemental fertilization of crops that will maximize the
benefit of nutrients supplied by digested sludge. Research
facilities consist of 44 plots of three different soil types,
isolated from the surroundings by a continuous sheet of
nylon reinforced plastic which is buried to a depth of 6 ft as
a plot border. Equipment for measuring and recording total
runoff and drainage water is provided for each plot.
68-0976
How to save sulfate: convert it to cash. Chemical Week,
102(3):64-65, Jan. 20, 1968
Gypsum (calcium sulfate), which is often a waste product of
phosphate rock digestion in a typical phosphoric acid plant.
is ammomated in the Baroda, (Gujarat state) India, plant.
The plant, built with the help of Hitachi Shipbuilding and
Engineering firm (Japan), uses the Nissau-Monsanto process
for sulfuric acid to produce 155,100 metric tons per year of
ammonium sulfate (AS). It may be blended with the
conventional product, diammomum phosphate (DAP), to
give up to 267,300 metric tons per year of AS/DAP mixed
fertilizers. Co-produced are more than 100,000 metric (ons
of fertilizer-grade urea, as shown on a flowsheet diagram.
Included in the process is also Chemico's one-step digestion
of phosphate rock for making phosphoric acid, concentrated
to 40 percent, yielding 54,450 metric tons per year. The
Gujarat plant seems to have the largest capacity of such
plants. In the United States, ammonium sulfate is recovered
from slot-type coke ovens or as a by-product of caprolactam
191
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Recycling
manufacture. Some U.S. chemical companies are planning to
use waste gypsum, but these plants are still on the drawing
board, stymied by the high costs of gypsum reclamation.
However, at least one installation is planned at Yazoo City by
the Mississippi Chemical Company.
68-0977
Induction furnace duplexing improved quality of malleable
iron castings and reduces scrap losses. Industrial Heating,
35(4):666, 668, Apr. 1968.
Significant reduction of casting rejects has been achieved by
using a 20-ton, 1,100 kw channel-type induction drum
furnace to duplex malleable iron from an arc melting furnace
at the Erie Foundry of General Electric Company. The
duplexing furnace holds the exact temperature required for
good pouring and gating practice. The metal is thoroughly
mixed, ensuring a controlled uniform chemistry. Base metal
consisting of pig iron, foundry returns, and scrap is
batch-melted in an electric arc furnace, tapped at 2,900 F
into an 8-ton ladle, and transferred into the induction
furnace. The induction furnace is usually tapped at 2,900 F
into an 800-lb pouring ladle.
68-0978
Industrial waste can be an asset. Water and Waste Treatment
Journal, 12(1):17-18, May-June 1968.
Spent liquor from pickling vats at steel mills and fabrication
plants contains up to 15 percent free sulfuric acid, and up to
20 percent iron sulfate dissolved m water. Other impurities,
such as metal sulfales, metal sulfides, lubricants, inhibitors,
and hydrocarbons may also be present. The only practical
method of disposal has been to neutralize the liquor with
lime and then settle the resultant slimy, grey-green sludge in
lagoons. Recently, du Pont has patented a process for waste
pickle liquor. This process yields two marketable
by-products: magnetic iron oxide; and gypsum, the principal
ingredient of cement and wallboard. In operation, spent
liquor that has been discharged from a pickling line into a
holding tank is pumped into a reactor vessel, along with a
specified volume of lime and water. With the lime serving as a
neutrahzer, the resultant slurry is subjected to agitation Live
steam is fed into the reactor to maintain a temperature of
190 F , while air is sparged or blown into the mixture. Air
oxidizes the iron present in the waste pickle liquor, causing
precipitated iron hydroxide to grow gradually into particles
of black magnetic iron oxide. Calcium from the lime joins
with sulfur and oxygen to form crystalline hydrous calcium
sulfate or gypsum. At this point, the two compounds are
easily separated. By passing the reactor slurry through
magnetic drums, as in the processing of taconite ore,
marketable iron can be extracted The treated output of a
plant using 100,000 gallons of pickling liquor a day contains
about 33 tons of iron oxide and 148 tons of gypsum. The
chief economic value of the residue probably lies in Us
convenient disposabihty as clean landfill. Experiments have
shown that the residual solids are essentially insoluble, and
they will not leak back into and contaminate the soil.
68-0979
Industrial wastes. In Proceedings; First Mineral Waste
Utilization Symposium, Chicago, Mar. 27-28, 1968. U.S.
Bureau of Mines, and Illinois Institute of Technology
Research Institute, p.79-122.
This symposium marks the first time that a meeting of
national stature has been held to identity mineral waste
materials, as well as to describe what is being done about
their utilization. The third session concentrated on industrial
wastes, emphasizing such topics as the handling of
steel-making slag; fly ash utilization; solid wastes in the
ceramic industry; ferrous and nonferrous scrap recycling; and
slurry pipelines.
68-0980
Introducing the 'Superlift'. Materials Reclamation Weekly,
112(19):19-20, May 11, 1968.
A truck mounted hoist, the 'Superlift', whose capacity is 3Vz
tons, is being marketed by Powell Duffryn Engineering. It
extends 21 ft. The swing mechanism is totally enclosed and
gives a slewing arc of 360 degrees from left to right. The hoist
lifts up to 7,700 Ib at a 58-m. jib length. A feature of the
'Superlift' is that it can be fitted to any chassis or truck
model, being driven by an integral pump fitted on the
gearbox. One interesting application from a scrap merchant's
point of view, is its ability to hoist abandoned vehicles from
difficult positions.
68-0981
Iron and steel scrap in 1967. Waste Trade Journal, 64(2)'2,
Jan 13, 1968.
Reflecting lower steel production, the generation and
consumption of iron and steel scrap in 1967 fell below the
high levels of the previous 2 years, according to the Bureau of
Mines. Home scrap production declined 5 percent, receipts of
purchased scrap 12 percent, and total ferrous scrap
consumption 6 percent from 1966. Consumption of scrap by
the steel industry decreased more than consumption by
foundries, due to the continually increasing use of the basic
oxygen furnace in steelmakmg. Prices declined 12 percent
along with the reduced demand for the scrap. There was a
sharp rise in exports, 8 million tons, with Japan taking over
70 percent of the total U.S. exports in 1967 Three
additional super-shredders for converting junked automobiles
to useable scrap went into operation at Cleveland, Detroit,
and Everett, Massachusetts. Research to increase use of scrap
iron and steel continued in private and industrial laboratories.
68-0982
ISA-a case history in diversification. Waste Trade Journal,
64(34):3, Aug. 31, 1968.
A Louisville firm, realizing that scrap metal processors who
devoted their entire business to scrap would be in a position
of insecurity due to fluctuating prices, expanded its services
to include collection of industrial waste. A spin-off
corporation, Industrial Services of America (ISA), takes the
industrial waste wood and paper, shreds and compacts the
materials into bales, and sells the bales to manufacturers of
cardboard, paper pulp, or fiberboard. For every shipment of
incoming waste material received, only one truckload of
unsalvageable residue is channeled to the company-operated
sanitary landfill.
192
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0977-0989
68-0983
Japanese companies convert leather scraps into a material
that can compete with synthetics. Waste Trade Journal,
64(7):7, Feb. 24, 1968.
Three Japanese companies are converting leather scraps into a
hybrid material that is expected to compete with real leather
as well as synthetics such as Corfam and Aztran. The scrap,
called chppins, are reduced chemically to a pulp which is
sorted for fibers of a certain length. The fibers, 1.2 in. to 2.7
in-, long, then are pressed into continuous sheet which can be
cut, dyed, and shaped. A U.S. plant hopes to begin
commercial production of a similiarly modified leather which
will cost probably between $.50 and $.60 per sq ft.
68-0984
Jernstrom, K. E. Finns operate the world's first sawdust
market pulp mill. Paper Trade Journal, 152(52):34-35, Dec.
23, 1968.
In June 1968, Oy Kaukas AB began operating a 100 ton per
day plant producing unbleached kraft pulp from sawdust.
The digestor is a Bauer M & D type, equipped with a Bauer
feeding valve as well as with an 8 cu m retention digester.
Pulp for export is dried to a dry content of 90 percent, while
pulp for the domestic market is lapped at a dry content of 50
percent, and strapped into large bales. In paper-making
properties, this pulp resembles birch kraft pulp.
68-0985
Jochens, P. R., C. W. Wolhuter, ;>nd D. D. Howat. Utilisation
of slags for the manufacture of cement. A rapid technique for
the assessment of the characteristics of raw materials. Journal
of the South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
69(5): 217-228, Dec. 1968.
The use of milled, granulated, blast-furnace slag for cement is
well-established in South African building and civil
engineering, but little information is available regarding the
suitability for this purpose of slags from electric arc furnace
smelting in the ferro-chromium industry. A rapid method,
based upon the use of a micro differential thermal analyzer,
for the investigation of the composition modifications
required to make such slags acceptable as construction
cements was investigated. An index, combining composition
modulus and glass content was found to provide a possible,
reasonable basis for the rapid assessment of the effect of
modification of composition on the strength of cement made
from a new slag.
68-0986
Junk yard goldmine? Industrial Research, 10 (7):20, July
1968.
The Department of Interior's Bureau of Mines regards trash
heaps as valuable sources of uranium, yttrium, aluminum,
iron, zinc, copper, lead, and tin. Copper can be 'sweated' out
of scrapped electrical equipment, salvaging millions of
pounds of discarded copper annually. Scrap material is
immersed in a 1,250 C molten salt bath and agitated for a few
minutes. Copper melts quickly, 'sweating' off the scrap, and
collecting in the bottom of the vessel. Iron and steel are not
affected at this temperature. The salt bath is reusable, and
the process prevents oxidation and alloying. The nation's 165
million tons of trash per year can be a source of valuable raw
materials. One billion dollars worth of ferrous and nonferrous
metal can be separated from previously worthless trash piles.
68-0987
Kayama, N., and H. Nakae. Study on the position of steel
scrap in a layer of charged metal in cupola operation. Journal
of the Japan Foundrymen's Society, 40(8):654-662, Aug.
1968.
Considerable amounts of steel scrap are often charged into
the cupola, together with pig iron and return scrap. Since
steel has a higher melting point than the other materials, the
charging manner of steel scrap, that is, the relative position of
steel scrap and the other materials in a charged metal layer,
would affect the cupola melting process. Experiments were
performed to clarify this process, and results indicate that
when steel is put into the lower part of the charge, cast iron
at the upper part would not be able to melt rapidly and both
materials would melt down simultaneously at a lower level.
(Text in Japanese)
68-0988
Kenahan, C. B., P. M. Sullivan, J. A. Ruppert, and E. F.
Spano. Composition and characteristics of municipal
incinerator residues. U.S. Bureau of Mines Report of
Investigations No. 7204. [Washington], U.S. Department of
the Interior, Dec. 1968. 20 p.
The Bureau of Mines is developing methods for reclaiming
the metal and mineral values contained in municipal
incinerator residues. This report describes the first phase of
the research in which reliable methods for sampling and
analyzing municipal residues were established, and the
composition and characteristics of the residues were
determined. Samples were obtained from a variety of
grate-type furnaces and from a rotary kiln furnace. They
were processed on a batch basis and separated into categories
by a variety of methods including screening, magnetic
separation, air separation techniques, and handpicking. The
main components of the residues were determined to be
metal and metal oxides, glass, and ash.
68-0989
Kilpper, W. Annual meeting of the Swedish Association of
Engineers of the Paper and Cellulose Industry (SPCI)
between March 25 and 27, 1968. Das Papier, 22(7):406-411,
July 1968.
The 60th annual meeting of the Swedish Association of
Engineers of the Paper and Cellulose Industry was held. Only
one paper presented was pertinent to the field of solid waste
disposal. It dealt with experiences gained in sawdust digestion
in Kotka, Sweden. Since the spring of 1964, sulphate
cellulose has been made of sawduse in the Kotka plant of the
company, Enso Gutzeit Oy. The digestion is performed with
a Bauer M & D digester whose capacity of 1967 had to be
doubled to 100 tons. This was possible by installing a larger
193
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Industrial Wastes
intake pipe and by reducing the digesting period from 30 to
15 minutes. The pressure had to be increased from 8 to 10 kg
per sq cm, for the digestion must be free of any sand and
dust. About 1.5 to 2 percent of the production is rejected.
The steam consumption decreased after the modification of
the digester by 30 percent to 1.2 Gcal per ton. The digested
sawdust goes to the neighboring cellulose plant. It is used as
an additive in the production of sack and bituminous paper.
Up to 10 percent sawdust can be mixed with ordinary sack
paper without impairing the quality. (Text in German)
68-0990
Klein. Method of treating waste paper. Das Papier,
22(8):L80, Aug. 1968.
R. W. McKinley (Packaging Corporation of America)
obtained U.S. patent No. 3,361,618 for a special method of
reusing waste paper. The patented method is mainly
concerned with the elimination of odors developing in the
treatment of waste paper. An untreated waste paper pulp is
brought to a certain pH value by mixing it with a buffer
substance and subsequently subjected to a heat, and pressure
treatment. After a rapid reduction of the pressure, the
annoying waste gases above the pulp are sucked off.
(Text in German)
68-0991
Kobrin, C L Preheating scrap for the BOF. Iron Age,
201(3):57-59, Jan. 18, 1968.
The steel industry is exploring several ways to increase the
scrap to hot metal ratio in the BOF (basic oxygen furnace).
Among methods tried are: superheating of the hot metal,
addition of solid fuels such as calcium carbide and silicon
carbide; and pre-heatmg of scrap. This last method is at
present attracting the most attention. At Wisconsin Steel,
scrap preheat facilities were incorporated in the original BOF
plant design, and scrap usage has been increased by about 6
percent. At Pittsburgh Steel, which has been using scrap
preheating since December, most heats have been made with
40 percent scrap when making mild steel-an increase of 8
percent over standard practice. Medium carbon heats have
been made up with 36 percent scrap (an increase of 7-8%),
and high carbon heats with 32 percent scrap (an increase of
1ft). Of particular significance were those few low carbon
heats in which 50 percent scrap was added. On the other
hand, the decrease in hot metal needed per heat means
stretching out hot metal capacity, and providing an extra
fraction of blast furnace capacity—an attractive feature to
stee! makers. Scrap preheating practices, for example, already
enabled Pittsburgh Steel to get by with only two of Us three
blast furnaces operating. Descriptions of the preheating
process, operational data, and photographs of the steel
making equipment are included.
68-0992
Krause, G. Improved method to rcuam lye from waste he
remaining from the treatment of cellulose containing
materials. Das Papier, 22(4):L38-L39, Apr 1968.
The Stora Koppabergs Berglags AB. Falun, Sweden, obtained
British patent 1,077,324 on July 26, 1967 The patent was
applied for on Jan. 29, 1965 The Swedish patent was
granted Feb. 7, 1964. The patent describes an improved
method to recover lye from the waste lye remaining after
treatment of cellulose-containing materials. The waste lye
used for the regeneration process contains sodium sulfite
and/or sodium bisulfite, as well as sodium carbonate and/or
sodium bicarbonate. The method includes: evaporating the
waste lye; ashing the sulfide or carbon containing solution;
regaining the sulphur from the hydrogen sulphide ejected by
means of carbon dioxide; oxidation of hydrogen sulphide to
sulphur dioxide; and re-use of the sulphur dioxide to prepare
fresh lye. The patented improvements concern the ashing and
the technology of a carbon dioxide cycle in which carbon
dioxide is resued efficiently. (Text in German)
68-0993
Krisnabamrung, W., and N. Takamura. Suitabilities of some
Thai hardwoods and coconut fibre for manufacturing
hardboards by wet-and-dry processes. Journal of the Japanese
Technical Association of Pulp and Paper Industry,
22(3):38-48, Mar. 1968.
The results of investigations into the suitabilities of seven
Thai hardwoods and coconut fiber as raw materials for
hardboards are presented. The fibers were prepared by the
Asplund Defibrator process. A phenolic resin (0.5%) and
paraffin emulsion were added to fibers in the wet process,
and 4 percent of these agents were added in the dry process.
Neither heat treatment nor oil tempering were performed in
this investigation. Coconut fiber gave outstandingly high
board flexibilities, comparable to wood fiber from the wet
process. A board from coconut fiber gave rather low strength
in static loading, however.
68-0994
Kutera, J. Prospects of development of agricultural
utilization of sewage. Gospodarka Wodna, 1 5(1 ):20-23, Jan.
1968.
The extent of utilization of sewage for irrigation and
fertilization in several foreign countries was surveyed. The
situation in Poland, where presently about 17.000 ha of land
are treated by sewage,is discussed. Utilization of sewage in
agriculture guarantees a higher degree of purification than
any industrial purification station, and at the same time,
increases agricultural yields. The quality of the soil was found
suitable for irrigation by sewage. The program and tasks for
future agricultural exploitation of waste waters are outlined.
(Text in Polish)
680995
Lake Balers at J. C. Penney Co. Plant. Waste Trade Journal
64(21): 18, May 31, 1968.
Over 30 tons per day of scrap corrugated cartons and paper
can be baled by two 72-m. automatically cycled Lake Balers
in the J C. Penney Company catalog center. Scrap is fed into
shredders which tear the scrap into small pieces and throw it
•"to air streams. From here it is blown into overhead cyclone
separators directly over the balers. The separators allow the
air to escape, and the scrap falls down through the feed
chutes into the baling chambers where it is compressed into
72-m:-long bales by means of horizontal, high pressure rams.
194
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0990-1001
68-0996
Lane. G. H. The case against burning used tires. Rubber
Journal, 150(2):44, 59, Feb. 1968.
A proposal for burning used tires through the construction of
150 specially designed incinerators, at a cost of t3 million is
discussed. The effects on the economy of making it cheaper
for garages to burn the tires than to supply retread tire
manufacturers, who would not in turn be able to supply
rubber reclaim manufacturers, is considered potentially
disasterous. A method of processing used tires to produce
rubber crumb and rayon and cotton flock, which was
developed in Hungary, is described. Called the Palma method,
it produces extremely pure rubber crumb (0.5 percent textile
content) and uniform samples. Uses for the crumb include
mixing the rubber with bitumin to produce improved road
and playground surfaces. Uses of the rayon and cotton flock
include the manufacture of cheap felt and rug underlays.
Considering the products produced by the Palma Machine,
(patented worldwide, developed in Hungary) and the after
effects of the incineration scheme, the author strongly
suggests investigations into the possibilities of the Palma
process. Official Hungarian calculations indicate that at an
initial cost of -£90,000, the machine would pay for itself in
two years.
68-0997
Leffel. E. C. A. Kramer, I. Ben Gera, et al. Utilization of
waste from tomato and cheese production. In Engineering
Foundation Research Conference; Solid Waste Research and
Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26, 1968. New
York. (Conference Preprint E-8.)
Wastes from tomato harvesting, processing, and canning are
being evaluated by chemical, biological, and nutritional
techniques. Chemical analyses of tomato wastes indicate a
relatively rich potential source of proteins, pectins, and
tomatme. Suitable fermentation (ensiling) can be induced if
air is excluded from chopped, compressed tomato waste,
especially if moisture is reduced by wiJting or by adding dry
fibrous materials. Weight gains in tomato-waste-fed lambs
were less than on those on the alfalfa control, but the wilted
vine silage, the vines and corn cobs, and the cannery waste
compared well with corn silage. Preliminary studies were
designed to investigate possible usage of both sweet and acid
wheys in the production of sherbert, filled and imitation
milks, and fermented products. A common protein instability
problem has been encountered in all products in which whey
solids were used. Protein appeared to increase as the heating
temperatures increased.
68-0998
Levme, S. Regenerated lime-the quiet boom. Rock Products,
71(7)-54-60, July 1968.
A large amount of the lime produced in the United States is
derived from individual by-products or wastes. About 23
percent of the 17.2 million tons of quicklime sold or used by
producers in 1966 came from regeneration of lime from
calcium carbonate and hydroxide sludges and slurries. Lime is
reclaimed by calcination of calcium carbonate sludges in pulp
and paper mills, beet sugar plants, and municipal water
treatment facilities. Sewage treatment processes,
incorporating a lime regeneration step, have been developed.
Increasing emphasis is being placed on spent lime reclamation
for anti-pollution as well as economic reasons. Phosphate
removal from sewage is being required by an increasing
number of State regulatory agencies. Rotary kilns,
fliudized-bed kilns, regeneration kilns, and multiple hearth
kilns are discussed.
68-0999
Lonergan, R P, and E. M. Herson. Solid waste-a natural
resource'' In E. Flack, and M. C. Shipley, eds. 9th Western
Resources Conference Book 1967: Man and the Quality of
His Environment, Boulder, University of Colorado Press,
1968. p.107-120.
The terms pollutants, resources, and wastes are defined. If
unwanted goods can be returned economically to the
economic cycle, costs of industrial goods and waste
treatment operations can be lowered, and at the same time,
natural resources can be conserved. The discarded automobile
could be recycled if feasible and economical methods were
developed to salvage its major components. If organic wastes
could be utilized, they could possibly supply much of man's
needs, including food, medicine, organic chemicals, heat,
fertilizer, soil conditioning materials, and reclaimed land. The
salvage of rags, glass, paper, and tin cans from household
refuse has steadily decreased in the United States. There has
also been a decrease in the use of scrap because of the steel
industry's demand for a product with higher purity. Three
solid waste disposal methods are reviewed: sanitary landfill,
incineration with final disposal in a sanitary landfill, and
composting. Funds were appropriated under the Solid Waste
Disposal Act of 1965 in the form of grants of four types:
research, planning, training, and demonstrations
Demonstration and research grant projects, already funded
by the program, are described
68-1000
Lund, R E , G. E. Welch. J. Fernghetto, and B. E. Hoffacker.
St. Joe reclaims zinc with heavy media separation. Mining
Engineering, 20(12) 81-84, Dec. 1968.
The Josephtown Smelter of St. Joseph Lead Company
applies the Heavy Media Separation process to reclaim zinc
and reject gangue from electrothermic zinc furnace residues.
The semi-dry residue consists of partially-smelted sinter, coke
particles, fused slag, and globules of ferrosihcon Research
investigations, plant design, and operating experiences are
described. About 7,500 tons ot zinc from 125,000 tons of
previously discarded slag was recovered. About 93 tons per
month of zinc are recovered fiom residue. There are also
savings in sintering and furnace costs gained from decreasing
the quantity of gangue reported in the recirculated residue.
68-1001
Magnetic separation for 'mining' scrap heaps. Materials
Reclamation Weekly, 11 3(7).23, Aug 17, 1968.
Magnets are now being used for the separation and recovery
of valuable ferrous scrap metals. In the United Kingdom,!!
has been estimated that 14 million tons per year of refuse is
dumped, with a potential value of t 22 per million. Hove
195
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Recycling
Corporation, employing electrical magnets to lift out all cans
and other ferrous metals from its scrap heaps, reclaims all but
5 tons of the 450 tons per week handled by its salvage
department. Non-magnetic, non-ferrous metals are picked out
by hand, and the value of the reclaimed scrap largely offsets
the cost of its refuse collection service. Enez Magnetics has
installed special equipment in its Central Test Laboratory to
conduct complete tests of the separation and recovery of
ferrous scrap from non-ferrous materials, such as pulverized
car bodies and other forms of shredded scrap. The tests,
carried out on a fee basis, determine the most efficient means
of separation and which type and size of equipment will do
the best job.
68-1002
Majumdar, K. K. Utilization of waste mica for the production
of building materials. Research and Industry, 13(2):77-78,
Apr.-June 1968.
The possibility of replacing asbestos-based building and
insulating materials by materials prepared from ground
mica-cement mixes is examined, with the object of finding
economic means of utilizing the vast quantities of waste mica
available at various mica mines in India. Slabs, prepared from
mixtures of ground mica (preferable particle size 60 Tyler
mesh) with Portland cement in different proportions, after
suitable curing treatment, have been found to possess bulk
density, tensile strength, and conductivity characteristics
comparable to those of asbestos-cement slabs Results are
tabulated and presented.
68-1003
Making mine dumps bloom. Coal, Gold, and Base Minerals of
Southern Africa, 16(7):28-34, Sept. 1968.
High acidity and lack of nutrients are the main problems
associated with planting on mine dumps to prevent dust. The
acidity of the area is reduced by liming. A seed mixture of
grasses, trees, and other vegetation is sown, and then
supplemented by the introduction of plants not readily raised
from seeds. The annual grasses, which grow quickly, protect,
and provide humus for slower growing plants which form the
basis of a permanent cover. The commercial varieties of
plants selected were two varieties of acacia, weeping love
grass, Kentucky blue, redtop, and Rhodes grass. Clover,
lucerne, and other legumes were also included. The cover is
intended to eliminate dust and to prevent the pollution of
water courses by mine sand and slime washed down during
rain storms.
68-1004
Mantle, E. C., and N. H. Jackson. The reclamation of scrap.
Copper, 2(l):6-8, Jan. 1968.
The importance of segregating scrap at the source and
accurate sorting by scrap merchants is emphasized, since the
refining operation involves loss of the metal in slag and
fumes. Most scrap copper and copper-base metals in Great
Britain are reused and a simple, relatively cheap method of
accurately identifying scrap components is needed. The
avoidance of air pollution in the reclamation of certain kinds
of copper-base scrap often requires sophisticated cleaning
devices. Development of a computer system for determining
the best charge for a particular furnace from the various
scraps available promised reduction in costs ranging from 1 to
10 percent.
68-1005
Marenkin, F. Sewage must bring good, not ill. Journal of
Environmental Health, 31(1): 53-54, July-Aug. 1968.
In the Soviet Union, industrial and domestic sewage is being
utilized in all-year-round agricultural sewage farms. Large
tracts are used employing modern agricultural irrigation
techniques. There is no odor of decomposing organic matter.
Sewage is transported by means of closed pipes, buried in the
earth to a depth of 70 to 80 cm. Raised outflow hydrants are
installed at key points along the pipelines from which sewage
is obtained for irrigation. In the fall-winter period, sewage is
used for irrigation of fruiting berries, aboreal plantings,
permanent haying and pasture; in the growing season, for
irrigation of vegetables, cereals, and potatoes. The Noginski
State Farm, just below Moscow, uses domestic wastes and
wastes from two textile enterprises. Harmful ingredients are
in concentrations which do not have detrimental effects.
Utilization of sewage in agriculture has effected a rise in crop
yields, and provided an inexpensive method of purifying
sewage.
68-1006
McDonald, P. This land is your land—this land is my land.
Scrap Age, 25(11):73, 83, 85, Nov. 1968.
The problems of air, water, and land pollution, and the
technical services offered by the Solid Wastes Program of the
Public Health Service, are discussed. Associations
representing metal finishing, paint, and forest products
industries have joined in research projects to combat
pollution. Project Green/Screen, sponsored by the Institute
of Scrap Iron and Steel, proved that planning and
imagination can turn industrial plants into aesthetically
acceptable operations. The iron and steel reclamation
industry, which as a part of its normal daily business works
against polluting the land, is examined in detail. The use of 1
ton of processed scrap replaces, and consequently preserves
l'/2 tons of iron ore, 1 ton of coke, and Vi ton of limestone in
the steelmaking process. The ferrous metals reclamation
industry produced in excess of 35 million tons of valuable
metals in 1967 for reuse. Two reforms needed to extend the
use and reuse of valuable materials are to design
mineral-containing products to last longer before they go out
of style or wear out, and to design products to make it easier
to collect and separate their mineral content for recycling
after they are discarded. It is estimated that industries such as
the scrap processing industry contributed to the total air
pollution problem of less than 2 percent
68-1007
Method to improve the regaining of fiber from waste water of
the paper, cardboard and cellulose industry. Das Papier,
22(4):208, Apr. 1968.
Farbwerke Hoechst AG , Frankfurt, Germany, applied for a
German patent for a method to improve the reclamation of
196
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1002-1014
fiber from the waste water of the paper, cardboard, and
cellulose industry. The inventors, Hans Somrner, Herbert
Bestian, and Dieter Bergmann, applied for the patent on Mar.
14, 1964. (Text in German)
681008
Method to re-use waste paper. Das Papier, 22 (4)-208, Apr.
1968.
A German patent was granted to the Battelle Institute,
Frankfurt, Germany, for a method to re-use waste paper. The
inventor Dieter Wenzel, 5160 Dueren, Germany, applied for
the patent on Mar. 31, 1961. and obtained it on Aug. 3,
1967. (Text in German)
68-1009
Milwaukee briquetter shows new ways to up-grade scrap
turnings-borings-chips. Waste Trade Journal, 64(16)'44, Apr.
27, !968.
Scrap processing firms are turning to briquettmg as a way of
bulk reduction to produce and ship a product uniform in
density and size. If briquettes of cast iron borings or crushed
steel turnings are formed with a density of 60 to 70 percent,
there would be a weight gain per cu ft of 100 to 200 percent.
Briquettes are easier to handle, store, and charge into melting
equipment. Commonly briquetted materials are crushed steel
turnings, cast iron borings, aluminum, bronze, brass and
copper chips, and properly prepared stainless stee! and other
alloys.
68-1010,
Model!, M. Appendix D. Research possibilities in the
hy drogena tion of paper. In Summer study on the
management of solid wastes; final report, v.l. Cambridge,
Urban Systems Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Sept. 1968. p.38-39.
The long-range problem of recovering economic value from
the cellulosic component of solid waste is discussed. The
problem is to convert paper into a product which is durable,
or is consumed and converted to non-solid waste products.
The burning of paper followed by recovery of the waste heat
is a process which is efficient only on a very large scale, but
the operation is relatively expensive. Two basic approaches
are introduced: separate the paper and briquette it for use as
a coal substitute in coal-fired plants; or liquify it for use as a
heating oil for power plant or home use. The first approach is
straightforward; the second is a relatively new idea. The
economics of complete hydrogenation of cellulose is
presented. Complete hydrogenation does not appear to be
economically attractive because hydrogen is an expensive
chemical. What happens to cellulose under conditions of
partial hydrogenation could be important, however.
68-1011
Modern scrap iron handling methods used by Japan steel
mills. Waste Trade Journal, 64 (9) 34, Feb. 29, 1968
Japanese steel makers produced over 62 million tons of steel
in 1967, and they predict an 80 million ton per year output
by the end of the decade. Coastal plants remove one phase of
transportation costs by bringing the ore beds and coal
stockpiles plus the blast furnace and coke ovens right to the
unloading dock. Tremendous strides have been made in
unloading facilities and belt conveyor systems. The cost of
scrap is $45 to $50 per ton, and this explains Japan's position
as leader in the field of blast furnace technology. The advent
of the oxygen converter and the large number of graduate
engineers working m steel mills are prime factors in Japan's
rise as a steel giant.
68-1012
Multi-purpose shredder. Waste Trade World, 112(3). 12-13,
Jan. 20, 1968.
A shredder in a waste paper plant is being used to convert
materials, ranging from 12-m.-diameter reel centers to kraft
sacks, into shreddings. The effectiveness of a horizontal
baling press is enhanced as a result of shredding; the bales are
more dense and will withstand re-handling to a far greater
extent than non-shredded bales. This factor becomes highly
significant when applied to economic and profitable
exporting of waste paper.
68-1013
New machine solves detinning problem. Materials
Reclamation Weekly, 113(2).33, July 13, 1968.
A high-speed disintegrator which shreds steel strip has two
primary uses: to prepare coated metals, such as tinplate, for
reclamation, and to reduce scrap or reject metal to a more
easily handled form. The problem of preparing tinplate for
detinning requires a way for the detinning fluid to
circulate over the surface. The metal cannot be remelted as
scrap without removing the tin, and the tin cannot be
economically salvaged while the metal is in roll form.
Tinplate rolls are fed into the machine where they are torn
into pieces 2'/z in. wide by 5 in to 10 in. long, and deformed,
making the metal surface ideal for detinning. The tin is then
reclaimed, and the metal is baled and sold as top grade scrap
metal. The machine can handle metal ranging from 0.004 in.
to 0 032 in. in thickness, and 300 ft. per minute of the
lighter metal in sheets or strips up to 48 in. wide. It may be
roll or sheet fed. The plant will disintegrate approximately 21
tons per hr of the 0.032 in. metal when operating at 150 ft.
per minute, and slightly less of the lighter metal at 300 ft. per
minute.
68 1014
New paper press for Birkenhead. Public Cleansing,
58(1):12-13, Jan. 1968.
A 'Hindel' Horizontal Baling Press was installed to replace the
existing press dealing with mixed waste paper. The bales
produced from the press measure 36 in. by 26 in. by 54 in.
long, weighing between 5'/z and 6V4 cwts. Since the press was
commissioned, the total mixed waste paper output has
increased by 50 percent. It is felt that the press has resulted
in considerable labour savings in the baling section, and the
machine is producing heavier, denser bales, solving many
problems in storage, loading, and transportation. The heavier
bales attract a higher price at the board mills, and the whole
operation of baling is virtually dust free.
197
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Recycling
68-1015,
New refuse-to-fertihzer process. Chemical Processing,
14(3).20-21, Mar. 1968.
A process for making household garbage into a clean, cheap,
effective fertilizer to be called Sweetsoil, has been developed.
All material including bulky objects such as bicycle frames,
rolls of old carpet, old furniture, as well as all forms of
domestic, shop, office, and other refuse including that with a
paper content of as high as 80 percent is accepted A plant
with a rated throughput of 100 tons per day will accept
refuse at the rate of 50 tons per hr directly into the primary
shredder, which reduces the lot to pieces 6 to 8 in. long.
These are conveyed to a digester, where water and air are
metered automatically under precisely controlled conditions.
The refuse is digested for about 5 days. Each digester has an
input rating of 25 tons per day. In the digester, heat
produced by natural bacterial action raises the temperature
of the mass to 160 !•' which destroys all harmful
micro-organisms. The digested refuse is then passed through a
separation process which removes ferrous materials and large
inert fragments such as pieces of tire. A powerful high speed
grinder then reduces all glass to a harmless powder and
removes lumps. The separated material may be used for
sanitary landfill and may amount to 20 percent by weight, or
10 percent by volume of the total plant input. The fertilizer
may be of three types: Orgin, without added chemicals, as a
soil conditioner; a chemically supplemented fertilizer for
lawns, etc.; and a heavily chemically supplemented product
for commercial use. To serve a population of 100,000, a
plant would cost approximately-L350,000 including building
and foundation. Such a plant would produce 300 tons per
week of fertilizer. At an ex-plant cost of-£10 per ton this
would yield -L15Q.OOO per year. Four of these plants have
been ordered for St. Louis, Missouri.
_68 1016
New wastepaper depot at Hyde. Public Cleansing,
58(7):321-322, July 1968.
A new sanitary landfill site for Hyde Borough, England, and a
depot for receiving and handling wastepaper, is described. A
building 75 ft long and 45 ft wide, with a maximum height of
21 ft, has been erected. The three-level depot consists of. a
wastepaper receiving floor, a baling floor and bale storage
below the receiving floor, and external loading bay for bales
dispatch, employee facilities, and garage space. Salvage
trailers and vehicles use a road located around the depot, and
discharge wastepaper on the receiving floor at the higher
level. The paper is raked onto a conveyor, sorted, and
discharged into the filling box of the swivel-box type press
which is 9 ft below the receiving floor level. A dust
extraction fan, and two intake ducts will be fitted at the head
of the conveyor. Bale handling has been facilitated by rollers
in the floor of the swivel-box, and a roller platform on a
four-wheel truck, which is used for conveying the bale onto 1
ft high settling blocks on the storage floor. Bale loading onto
the dispatch vehicle is by a manually operated 1-ton hoisting
and traveling pulley on the cantilever of the steel gantry, over
the external loading bay.
681017
Nierychlewski, T., and A. Winczakiewicz. On the utilization
of old paper in fabricating corrugated cardboard. La
Papeterie, 90(1): 24-33, Jan. 1968.
Recently much attention has been given to the utilization of
old paper as raw material for corrugated cardboard. Research
included the problems of material choice and specific weight
in the case of multilayer cardboards, and the problems of
fabrication technologies. Tests were performed both with
industrially fabricated and laboratory samples of cardboard
consisting mostly of old paper used in the corrugated and
covering layers. Such cardboard has shown inferior resistance
properties in comparison to those which were manufactured
from first-class raw materials (e.g. sulfite or semi-chemical
pulps); nevertheless, they have justified their production in
terms of the fabrication of light and cheap packages fully
satisfying the local transport requirements of light
merchandise (e.g. shoes, textiles, small electrical appliances,
etc.). The price of corrugated cardboard from old paper is 50
to 60 percent lower than that of cardboard from first-rate
materials. (Text in French)
68-1018
Paper from bagasse. World's Paper Trade Review,
170(10):528-538, Sept. 1968.
Basically, the process of making paper from bagasse
(developed for use in Paramonga, Peru) consists of removing
the pith from the fibers by milling, screening, and then
pulping according to standard methods in rotary or
continuous digesters, blow tanks, vacuum washers, screens,
and thickeners. The fibers are digested by means of a
modified soda process, the quantity of caustic soda varying
according to the quality of the depithed bagasse and the type
of pulp to be processed. For fine quality papers the pulp is
bleached by a three-step process using liquid chlorine, caustic
soda, and hypochlorite. Using the patented PEADCO
continuous cooking process, which produces pulps suitable
for use in all grades of paper and paperboards, the depithed
fiber is the same in all cases with the pulp grade dependent
upon time, temperature, and chemical relationships. Cooking
caustic ranges from 8 to 26 percent on finished pulp, while
steam usage varies from 1 to 1.5 Ib per Ib of bone dry pulp.
The cooking cycle varies from 10 to 20 minutes, and the
liquors per BD fiber ratio is below 2 to 1. Under properly
controlled conditions, pulp yields are high and of uniform
quality. Normally, the bagasse pulp is passed through a
high-density refiner to brush out and disperse the fiber mass
prior to washing on a multi-stage countercurrent washer.
After washing, the pulp is screened, with the rejects being
recycled to the digesters to minimize fiber losses.
68 1019
Pashelensky, B. Upgrading nickel scrap for alloy users. Waste
Trade Journal, 64(16): 23-24, Apr. 27, 1968.
Secondary nickel and nickel alloy scrap, its relation to the
consumer market, and its place in the metallurgical
revolution which has taken place in the last 10 years is
considered. Many super alloys, exotic alloys, and high
temperature alloys, which are required for space age use, are
available, and the resulting scrap must be handled and
identified. Secondary alloys are an important source for alloy
mills for their raw material requirements. Their major interest
is for the production of 1 8/8 stainless steel and under normal
conditions they are willing to pay only $40 or $50 per ton
below the cost of the primary metal. Investment casting
foundries, and/or high temperature exotic alloy mills, have
198
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1015-1024
extremely rigid requirements. The special metal processing
firms, whose function is to identify and physically process
scrap to meet the foundries' needs and specifications, can
handle the small lot alloys at a relatively modest return
considering the problems involved. The secondary nickel
alloy smelters consume those alloys of high nickel and/or
cobalt content, whose condition makes them undesirable tor
the alloy mills.
68 1020
Pilny, F. The question of harrnfulness of glass parts m
sintered slag from waste incineration used as additive m
concrete production Glastechnische Benchte, 41(3).97, Mar.
1968.
An investigafion was conducted to determine it glass in Waste
whose slag is used in concrete production is harmful to the
strength of the concrete. Concrete bars (weight 12 kg)
containing 500 g ot glass splinters were used. The first
expansion was observed after 20 months,which increased to
5 3 percent by (he end of the test. The measurements were
performed at plugs inserted into the bars on one side only, so
that a distortion might be included in the obtained data.
After 120 months the rigidity fell from 56.5 kp per sq cm to
22 kp per sq cm, and the resistance to pressure from 512 to
310 kp per sq cm. The question now arose as to how the
results of tests performed on samples with relatively large
glass splinters relate to a concrete made with sintered slag
from waste where the glass parts were smelted with the rest
of the waste. The waste department of Berlin examined the
total waste for the amount of glass. It amounted to 9.8
percent of the waste in the year 1963-6.8 percent in the
form of bottles and 3 percent in the form of glass splinters.
This rather low percentage of glass in the waste is considered
bearable, especially when the high temperatures during
incineration (1,000 C) and sintering (1,200 to 1,300 C) are
considered. In sintered slag grains, only white ceramic
intrusions were found, and the glass parts were no longer
visible. After a brief experience with waste slag concrete, no
harmful effects of the glass in the slag have been observed.
(Text in German)
68 1021
Pohle, R. Incineration of raw tar as additional fuel in a steam
generator. Gas und Wasserfach, Wasser, Abwasser,
109(l9):517-519, May 1968.
The demand for raw tar which accumulates in coking plants
shows a downward trend. Prices are so low that its use as an
additional fuel can be considered. It has been used in a
vertical tube boiler of a remote heat supply plant. The raw
tar has a viscosity of about 4.6 degrees E at 50 C, and of 1.8
degrees E at 75 C. The lower heating value is 8,900 kcal per
kg at a water content of 2.5 percent. The specific weight is
1.05 to 1.1 ton per cu m. The vertical tube boiler has a
capacity of 64 tons of steam per hr at 500 C and 80 atm. An
illustration of the boiler is given. At each side of the vertical
tube boiler is a burner fed with a mixture of tar and steam. In
order to incinerate the raw tar, it is atomized to fine droplets
with steam. The amount of raw tar and the pressure with
which it is injected can be regulated. The droplets flow
through an inner tube to the nozzle where they are again
mixed with atomized steam. A vane in the nozzle gives the
raw tar steam mist a rotary impulse towards the flame
chamber. The mist burns with a short hot flame to avoid
corrosion. The burners have so far operated satisfactorily. In
the years 1964 to 1966, 16,280 tons of raw tar were burned.
The costs saved by the use of this waste material, instead of
another fuel, have been calculated at 0.0096 DM per M cal,
which is more profitable than selling it, since the market
price is 0.0079 DM. (Text in German)
68-1022
Prandi, M. E. New aspects of utilizing blast-furnace granular
slag in road construction. Annales de I'Institut Technique du
Bailment et des Travaux Publics, 21(242):211-232, Feb.
1968.
Gravel-slags and sand-slags are defined as mixtures made in
the plant with a high proportion of freshly made granular slag
activated by a basal catalyzer. Gravel-slags are compared to
untreated gravels and gravel-cements. The properties of
gravel-slags for roadbeds which are stressed are: homogeneity
due to a high proportion of binder, a good grain size and,
angularity of the basic granulates, a high msensitivity to
excess water or to frost, a very slow setting in the early
stages, and a progressive hardening which avoids any disparity
between the rigidity of the old and new pavement. A review
is given of the various parameters that influence the
compressive and tensile strengths of the gravel-slags and
sand-slags, e.g. batching and quality of the granular slag,
mineralogical nature and granularity of the granulates,
batching and quality of the base catalyzer, time and
temperature of curing of test pieces, density and intensity of
compacting. Particular emphasis is given to two essential
qualities of the roadbeds homogeneity and compactness.
The conditions required in order to guarantee that the
gravel-slags will have good qualities are described in detail.
(Text m French)
68-1023,
Proceedings; First Mineral Waste Utilization Symposium,
Chicago, Mar. 27-28, 1968. U.S. Bureau of Mines, and Illinois
Institute of Technology Research Institute. 154 p
This symposium concentrated on the utilization of industrial
wastes, particularly industrial wastes from mining. The
keynote address dealt with man-made ores— that is, recycled
or reclaimed solid waste materials in general. Specific topics
included, the handling, processing, and marketing of
steel-making slag; utilization of foundry waste by-products,
fly ash and incinerator residue utilization; waste occurring in
the ceramic industry, ferrous scrap recycling; and non-ferrous
scrap recycling, the non-ferrous materials including gold,
copper, aluminum, lead, zinc, and nickel wastes plus
phosphate and eoal wastes. Supplementary papers dealt with
mineral waste utilization in Europe, utilization of slurry pipes
in industry, and reclamation of calcium silicate to create
building materials.
68-1024
Process recovers byproducts from refinery waste-streams.
Chemical Engineering, 75(1 1): 88, May 20, 1968.
A process has been developed for the recovery of ammonia
and hydrogen sulfide from refinery waste streams. The
process recovers ammonia as either a high-purity anhydrous
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liquid, or as an aqueous solution. The hydrogen sulfide is
99.9 percent pure and can be fed directly to a sulfuric acid
plant. Effluent from the refinery units normally contain 3 to
5 percent contaminants, and a unit processing 135 gal per
minute of waste water containing 4 percent ammonium
sulfide would cost about $600,000. The higher the
concentration of contaminants, the more economical the
process. The 'clean' water remaining after the recovery is
reused. Previously, the waste stream had to be burned. The
process has been so successful at one refinery that it has paid
for itself in a year, and it is now earning a profit from the
by-products.
68-1025
Radio controlled scrap baler speeds operation at Continental
Steel. Iron and Steel Engineer, 45(4):136, Apr. 1968.
A large, radio controlled, scrap baling press has been
performing satisfactorily for the past year at a Kokomo,
Indiana,steel plant. The system, has been designed to direct
operation of a huge Harris TG-1202 hydraulic baler. With a
compression factor of 2,700 psi, the baler has little difficulty
reducing a variety of home scrap, as well as entire auto
bodies, into bates sized for charging into electric steelmaking
furnaces.
68-1026
Reclamation industry 'more important than ever'. Waste
Trade World, 112(13):4-5, Mar. 30, 1968.
At a symposium on solid wastes sponsored by the Gulf South
Research Institute, M. J. Mighdoll, of the National
Association of Secondary Material Industries, said that the
problem of air pollution has become critical. The NASMI is
helping its members by conducting studies in air pollution
control. A joint research project with the Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare is being sought on the
particular problem of zinc chloride emission
68-1027
Remirez, R. Gypsum finds new role in easing sulfur shortage.
Chemical Engineering, 75 (24): 112-114, Nov. 4, 1968.
A process, developed by Osterreichische Stickstoffwerke
Aktiengesellschaft (OSW) at Linz, Austria, uses either waste
gypsum, natural gypsum, or anhydrite to make sulfuric acid
and cement. The technology is based on the Muller-Kuhne
reactions: gypsum (plus clinker materials) is converted to
sulfur dioxide and cement by roasting. The roaster gas is then
fed into a conventional contact unit for conversion to
sulfuric acid of 98 percent strength. At Linz, the raw
materials-anhydrite, fly ash, sand, and coke-are ground
separately to the proper fineness, stored, and then fed to a
blender for thorough mixing before being fed into the kiln.
Clinker is cooled and stored for subsequent mixing with
gypsum and then grinding into cement for sale. The technical
performance of the kiln hinges on: keeping the specific
atmospheres of the various zones of the kiln within narrow
limits to ensure reduction of calcium sulfate by the coke;
and keeping the feed composition within a narrow range so
that the right proportions of carbon-calcium sulfate and
lime are available for the formation of clinker material.
68-1028
Report on Taiwan Sugar Congress by ASPA delegate.
Australian Sugar Journal, 60(4):217, 219-220, July 1968.
The extent to which the utilization of by-products of the
Taiwan sugar industry has been developed is stated in a
report on the 13th I.S.S.C.T. Congress held in Taiwan, March
1968. By-product development has been stimulated by the
large population, the short distances of transport, and a
shortage of foreign exchange, whieh has made it necessary to
curtail imports and promote exports. Sugar mill by-products,
such as molasses and yeast, are fed to pigs, and the barn
manure from the pigs is composted with bagasse to fertilize
the sugar cane in the field. For the preparation of compost,
bagasse is mixed with the manure in the proportion of 1 to 3
by weight. Bagasse is also used in the manufacture of pulp
and paper, hardboard, insulation board, and particle board.
68-1029
Re-use of shavings and drillings from iron and steel
processing. Chemie-Ingenieur-Technik, 40(8):A489, Apr.
1968.
Metal shavings, etc., from machinery usually sold as scrap can
be re-used if processed into briquettes by a method invented
in the United States. They are heated to 980 C and at that
temperature become viscous and adhesive, so that no binding
material is required for briquetting. The oil which covers the
shavings serves as fuel to heat the drillings. To preheat them,
the shavings are mixed with finished hot briquettes, then
separated and loaded into an oven where temperatures are
between 815 and 1,093 C. The essential part of the plant
(developed by the Komerak-Greaves & Co., Rosemont,
Illinois), is the briquetting machine, whose rollers are made
of a high quality steel alloy to withstand the extreme
operating conditions (982 C, 70 kg per sq mm). The steel
alloy has a Rockwell hardness between 57 and 65. The main
advantage gained through briquetting is a reduction of
volume to one fortieth of the loose material. The cost saved
by the fact that no binder is required is more than the cost
involved in the heating up process. This briquetting process,
which was originally developed for the treatment of fly ash
and coal dust, was first tried on iron and steel drillings in an
iron foundry in the Chevrolet plant in Tonawanda, New
York. Further applications of this method, e.g. with bauxite,
fertilizer, plastic material, are planned. A diagram illustrating
the briquetting process is given. (Text in German)
68-1030
Reynolds, D. P. Recycling of aluminum: one answer to litter
and conservation challenges. Reynolds Review, p.8-9,
Nov.-Dec. 1968.
It is economically feasible to recycle aluminum at present
prices (a ton of aluminum will bring $200 from dealers
compared with $20 for steel and $16 for waste paper).
Reynolds Metal Co. has been studying various approaches to
recycling aluminum to eliminate waste and litter.
Can-reclamation programs are in effect in Miami, Los
Angeles, and other cities. Aluminum reclamation programs
and a recycling system may be built into the industrial and
economic structure, thus greatly reducing the solid waste
disposal problem.
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68-1031
Reynolds, W. F. The Bureau of Mines looks at refuse disposal
and recovery possibilities. Public Works, 99(12):85-86, Dec.
1968.
Scientists of the Department of the Interior's Bureau of
Mines Solid Waste Research Program are centering their
attention on three areas: residues from municipal
incinerators; tailings from mining processing plants; junk
automobiles and other scrap metals. It is estimated that there
is about $1 billion in ferrous and non-ferrous metals
reclaimable from dumps and landfills, and about $7 million
in gold and silver recoverable from the fly ash produced by
refuse incinerators. A new process has been developed which
will reclaim ferrous and non-ferrous metals from municipal
incinerators. The waste material is screened, magnetically
separated, shredded, crushed and ground; fractions rich in
metals are then melted and analyzed. By leaching, copper and
tin are separated from the iron fractions, producing iron of
high quality. Preliminary findings show that municipal refuse
contains about 550 Ib of metals per ton of residue. About
500 Ib of this is iron; the remainder is aluminum, copper, tin
and zinc. Examination of the fly ash situation indicates that
only about 12 percent is recovered as compared to as much
as 65 percent in some countries. Tests show that alumina can
be recovered from copper mine waste water for about $55
per ton. There has been great progress in the development of
new types of metal shredders, crushers, and shearers capable
of reducing the high cost of processing the handling of scrap
autos and other metal scrap. A profitable use of auto scrap
metal is the development of scrap-cored lightweight standard
size concrete building blocks, which have proved nearly as
strong as solid masonry blocks. They are made by molding 2
in. of concrete around compressed auto scrap metal.
68-1032
Rohan, T. M. New maturity eases scrap slump. Iron Age,
202(19):63,Nov. 7, 1968.
At the monthly auction of stamping plant scrap by
automakers last week, a long standing downtrend on prices
finally reversed itself. The guidance of the AISI, of which
about 1,150 scrap dealers are members, has helped dealers in
this recent slump. New technical research indicates the
possibility of using high speed water jets to cut scrap instead
of flame cutting. The industry's main efforts are directed
toward cost control, freight rates, and cooperation with the
national beautification program. Imports of new steel have
affected the scrap market and the employment situation is
still a problem.
68-1033
Rohrer, E. Fodder produced from waste compost and sewage
sludge. Wasser,Luft und Betrieb, 12(4).234-235, Apr. 1968.
The incineration of all wastes is not as ideal a solution as one
may think, since it leaves ash and slag, which pollute ground
water when dumped. If the waste is homogenized and
subjected to rotting, however, a product is obtained which
can be dumped anywhere without being hazardous to water
and air. The composting of waste is even better, because a
valuable product is obtained which can be sold. The
non-putrescible material in the waste (plastic, metals, textiles
etc.) must be separated before composting. A low-priced
thermal insulating material for the construction industry can
be made from this material. Waste compost is not a very
valuable fertilizer as the mean values of 12 monthly samples
(without sludge) from the plant in Buchs, Switzerland show:
52.2 percent inert material; 1.08 percent nitrogen; 1.33
percent magnesia; 1.20 percent phosphate; and 0.31 percent
potash. The various amino acids found in compost samples
are listed. A number of trace elements were found, as well as
auxines which stimulate plant growth. In spite of a certain
value as a fertilizer, the compost mainly improves the
physical characteristics of the soil. The quality of waste
compost can be improved by adding sewage sludge. The
composition of sludge samples taken in Berlin and Buchs,
Switzerland, is listed in tables. A comparison of the amino
acid contents of pure waste compost with those of dried
activated sludge shows the higher quality of sludge. But as
good as waste-sludge compost may be, it very often is
difficult to sell. Therefore, experiments have been carried out
to use waste-sludge compost as fodder. Various animals were
fed it with good results. Dutch feedings of waste compost to
young pigs showed that this material contains iron which can
be especially well absorbed. This method of using waste
compost and sludge leaves no by-products and covers
production costs. (Text in German)
68-1034
Rosenbaum, J. B., and K. C. Dean. Utilization and
stabilization of solid mineral wastes. In Engineering
Foundation Research Conference; Solid Waste Research and
Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26, 1968. New
York. (Conference Preprint No. C-l 3.)
Some of the Bureau of Mines research is concerned with both
the utilization and the stabilization of metallic and
nonmetallic mine, mill, and smelter wastes obtained from 40
different mineral waste accumulations. Utilization studies
cover flue dust generated in foundries using automotive iron
scrap, copper cementation using shredded automobile scrap,
flotation mill tailings from porphyry copper ore
concentrators, and dismantling of scrapped automobiles.
Methods of stabilization include: massive coverings of coarse
slag, concrete, and soil to bond particles of fine-size waste;
chemical stabilization by reacting the waste pile surface with
a reagent to form a water and wind resistant crust; and
vegetative stabilization by seeding in waste materials which
have been adequately prepared. A combination
chemical-vegetative stabilization method has several
advantages. A planting of vegetation stabilized by coating
with Cohorex, a resinous emulsion, will soon be evaluated.
68-1035
Rosenson, R. Silver the critical metal. Waste Trade Journal,
64(9):40-41, Feb. 29, 1968.
In view of the critical shortage of silver, industries and
institutions which generate precious metals are examined:
electronic components, platers, aircraft, chemical,
communications, and hospitals. Plastic, ceramic, and iron
materials may have precious metal value. The presence of
iron, nickel, stainless steel, molybdenum, and tungsten does
not interfere as much with precious metal recovery as does
aluminum. More silver clad products such as contact points,
circuitry, and relays are expected in the future.
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Recycling
68-1036
Scherfig, J., C. F. Reid, and E. A. Pearson. Determination of
low levels of extractable organic acids in sludge digesters.
Water and Sewage Works, 115(7):316-319, July 1968.
A proposed modification of the extraction method for
determining volatile fatty acids, as outlined in Standard
Methods, is described. The modification extends the lower
limit of the procedure from 200 mg per liter to 30 mg per
liter as acetic acid. It is shown that neither the standard
method, nor this modification, is specific for volatile fatty
acids. The extraction method is satisfactory only for samples
containing about 3 milliequivalent per liter of extractable
acids. Since concentrations below 3 milliequivalent per liter
are common in municipal digesters, this has necessitated the
continued use of the time-consuming distillation method.
Increased accuracy of the titration method in the low
concentration range is possible by using a microburette, a
small suction flask, and by titrating under fluorescent light.
The needed apparatus and reagents, and the procedure are
given. The results, as tested on samples to which a mixture of
acetate and propionate were added, are tabulated. Several
observations and possible sources of error are identified. It is
concluded that: the coefficient of variation is about 2
percent for digester samples containing between 0.5
milhequivalents per liter and 1.0 milhequivalents per liter; the
recovery of formic, acetic, and propionic acid in solution is
between 92 percent and 103 percent; acids other than the
lower fatty acids are also extracted when present; and lactic
acid recoveries were approximately 60 percent which
increased to 80 percent if 100 ml of butanol-chloroform were
used for extraction.
68-1039
Soentgen, E. J. The changing world of metals. Waste Trade
Journal, 64(16)'13-15, Apr. 27, 1968.
The nature of scrap has changed considerably, and
segregation of scrap by type and alloy is an increasingly
important function of scrap handling. The life cycle of
aluminum is about 22 years, and of the total aluminum
consumed today, approximately 65 percent may eventually
reach the secondary market. Old scrap, including remelted
scrap ingots, accounts for about 25 percent of the total
amount of domestic scrap consumed in the United States.
New scrap, generated in the production, fabrication, and use
of aluminum in manuiacturing is of two types: that which is
recycled, and that which is sold in the secondary market
place instead of being recycled. Secondary smelters consume
something over 70 percent of the marketed scrap. For the
remaining 30 percent of the market scrap, foundries and
nonintegrated aluminum fabricators consume about 18
percent. Primary producers consume the balance. In general,
aluminum shipments tend to grow about twice as fast as the
U.S. economy. If this is applied to the G.N P. through 1975,
a growth rate of 6 to 8 percent annually can be expected.
Aluminum serves in seven broad market categories' building
products, transportation, electrical, aerospace and defense,
consumer durables, packaging, machinery and equipment.
An increasing percentage of the scrap aluminum will be
contaminated by coatings and laminations. These changes in
aluminum supply and demand will create changes in the
secondary aluminum scrap market; and, with less and less
wastage occurring in the primary producers, less new scrap
will be around.
68-1037
Scrap shear and shaker/stacker conveyor. Metallurgia,
78(467): 103-104, Sept. 1968.
The Sheppard-Harns model BSH-553-3 hydraulic scrap
shearing machine is designed to process scrap by compressing
both horizontally to a maximum width of 32 in and
vertically to a minimum depth of 2 in. In operation, scrap is
charged into the open compression box, which is manually
operated, to compress and confine the scrap The feed ram
positions the charge for the first cut, and the shear is put in
the automatic mode. The clamp/crosshead compresses the
scrap; the crosshead makes the shearing stroke; the crosshead
and clamp retract; and the feed ram moves forward to feed a
preadjusted length of scrap. A shaker conveyor, normally
fitted in front of the shear throat, efficiently separates dirt
from the sheared material.
68-1040
Stone, R. Efficiency in yard layouts: the shredder presents a
problem. Waste Trade Journal, 64(9) 29, Feb. 29, I 968.
Where hand processing of scrap is necessary prior to machine
processing, an adequate area should be provided so that these
operations are performed under suitable shelter. The major
pieces of scrap processing equipment should be located so
that their output may be directly loaded into shipment
vehicles. Each crane should have maximum flexibility in the
number of areas it can serve and functions it can accomplish
There is a trend favoring the use of a shredder, particularly
for yards located within reasonable transporting distance of a
steelmaker utilizing electric furnaces. Reduced labor costs
and improved personnel safety are also important benefits of
shredders.
68-1038
Secondary fiber users hold first annual conference. Paper
Trade Journal, 152(45):76, Nov. 4, 1968.
Technical sessions at the Secondary Fiber Pulping
Conference, held in Dayton, Ohio, on October 23 to 25, were
devoted to: sludge treatment, recovery and re-use of effluent
in the mill, and utilization of sludge. Successful cases of
combined treatment of municipal sewage and industrial waste
included the Battle Creek (Michigan) Wastewater Treatment
Rant, the City of Kalamazoo (Michigan) plant, and the
proposed plan of the Miami (Ohio) Conservancy District.
68-1041
Story, W S. Ferrous scrap re-cycling. In Proceedings, 1'irst
Mineral Waste Utilization Symposium, Chicago, Mar. 27-28
1968. U.S. Bureau of Mines, and Illinois Institute of
Technology Research Institute, p. 11 3-116.
The major uses of iron and steel scrap are the making of pig
iron, the production of molten steel, and the output of
foundry products. Ferrous scrap is categorized as revert,
purchased, or industrial scrap. Most automotive plants have
their own scrap processing equipment. In other industries,
the material moves to the broker or to the scrap processor
yard for baling, shearing, or torching. Ma|or factors in the
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1036-1047
scrap cycle are peddlers, autowreckers, junk yards,
shipwreckers, and building demohshers. Government
installations also provide a large tonnage of scrap each year.
The year 1 966 saw the highest revert and purchased scrap
consumption in the history of the scrap industries-91.5
million tons. However, only 36 million tons were purchased
scrap, which is being consumed less and less by the integrated
steel mills due to the advent of the basic oxygen furnace in
steelmaking. The hydraulic guillotine shear and the shredder
or fragmentizer are bringing the industry closer to providing
setup from a heterogeneous source like an automobile.
68-1042
Suchowski, K. Scrap recovery in asbestos cement products
plants. Asbestos, 49(9)'4, 6, 8, Mar. 1968.
Scrap resulting from improper processing and breakage of
finished products may reach significant amounts in a large
operation, making the reduction of the scrap to granular
form, and its re-introduction into the processing operation
economical. A two-stage reduction process is generally used
because the size of feed varies widely, and heavy duty
machines are required. A conveyor introduces the material
into the primary crusher which produces particles not more
than 30 mm, which are then fed by conveyor to a secondary
crushei. Magnetic separation of iron bearing particles is
necessary. The fully crushed material is precipitated in a
cyclone, and the final product treated according to plant
procedure. The entire operation is dust free due to pneumatic
transportation of the second milling stage product, and by
aspiration of all other equipment.
68-1043
Szwarcsztajn, E., K. Modrzejewski, and W. Olszewski.
Investigations on obtaining NSSC pulps from the mixture of
pine sawdust and birch wood chips by a continuous process
(II). Przeglad Papierniczy, XXIV(l):l-5, Jan. 1968.
Investigations concerned with the determination of pulping
conditions for mixtures of pine sawdust and birch wood
chips in an experimental Pandia digester were carried out.
The percentage of sawdust in a mixture of fibrous raw
material amounted to 10 and 20 percent. The results were
based on the properties of semi-chemical pulps, and on their
yields. The investigations have confirmed the suitability of
sawmill sawdust for the production of semi-chemical pulps
from a mixture of pine sawdust and birch wood chips. It was
found that a mixture consisting of birch wood chips, and 10
percent pine sawmill sawdust can be pulped under optimal
conditions for chips from birch wood; however, when 20
percent pine sawdust is added, some changes in the pulping
conditions are necessary. The economic effects, resulting
from the use of sawdust as raw material for fibrous pulps
production, were stressed. (Text in Polish)
68-1044
Tao, H. C. Taiwan's Changhwa bagasse board factory. Sugar y
Azucar, 63(9):52-53, Sept. 1968.
The Taiwan bagasse board factory produces many kinds of
bagasse board of a superior grade, including two-sided
hardboard. The fibrous bagasse is passed through a series of
depithing machines which result in bagasse particles of about
4 mm in diameter and 25 to 30 mm in length which are then
packed into bales of only 5 percent pith content. A cooking
operation is used to soften the bagasse before refining. The
quantity of water, temperature, and cooking duration have
an influence on the quality. A sizing is added to the pulp (1
percent rosin and alum or ferrous sulphate). After passing
through the forming machine, the boards are conducted
through a wet roller press to reduce the moisture below 65
percent and to cut the boards in predetermined sizes. From
there the boards pass to a dryer with automatically
controlled temperature and humidity. An automatic unloader
delivers the dried boards (moisture content 1-3%) to the
cutters which accurately cut the finished board into
predetermined sizes. To produce the hardboard, specially
made soft boards are delivered to a multi-platen hardboard
press. The pressing operation is conducted at high pressure
(approximately 1,410 Ib per sq m.) and high temperature
(238 C). From here, the boards go to a stabilizing chamber
which adds the required moisture for normal atmospheric
conditions.
68-1045
Testm, R. !•'., and N. L. Drobny. Study of equipment that
can be used in a reclamation system. In Engineering
Foundation Research Conference; Solid Waste Research and
Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26, 1968. New
York (Conference Preprint H-7.)
A study conducted at Battelle Memorial Institute compiled a
handbook of all available cost and performance
characteristics of processes employed in solid waste recovery
and utilization systems. Available cost and performance data
was collected for 9 types of size reduction equipment:
crushers, shredders, shears, hammermills, cage disintegrators,
disc mills, drum-type pulverizers, rasps, and wet pulpers.
Since the most widely employed means for separating solid
waste is hand picking and sorting from conveyors, the entire
field of industrial separation technology was surveyed in
relation to magnetic separation, flotation, screening, vibrating
tables, and optical sorting. Data was collected on four types
of recovery processes: composting, waste heat recovery,
chemical conversion, and pyrolysis.
68-1046
There's money in those fallen leaves. Public Cleansing,
58(9)-458, Sept. 1968.
The Henry Doubleday Research Association's book 'Fertility
Without Fertilisers' by Lawrence D. Hills, suggests that local
authorities follow Toronto's lead in utilizing dead leaves from
street trees. Suggested methods of making leaf mold are:
collecting the leaves in pens for a year if space is available;
and using a motor shredder to reduce leaves to a coarse
powder. The material is low in nitrogen, and high in potash
and phosphates. However, its greatest value is as humus.
68-1047
Three Taurus shredders from Fletcher and Stewart. Materials
Reclamation Weekly, 113(4): 31-32, July 27, 1968.
The Taurus paper shredders are designed for the fast
continuous reduction of bulky material to a predetermined
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Recycling
size of approximately 6 in. in width. One field in which there
is a great demand for the shredders is in the processing of
waste paper, cardboard, box board, and fiberboard, where it
is required to reduce bulky material to dimensions that will
permit existing baling machines to work at maximum
capacity, or allow manufacturers to install larger capacity
baling machines. In automated systems, these shredders are
essential to ensure that material with nearly constant density
is delivered to baling machines.
68-1048
Tietz, I. Modern scrap utilization methods-steel scrap
utilization. Neue Huette, 43(8):449-453, Aug. 1968.
Scrap, such as the bodies of discarded vehicles, causes
problems in its reuse. Impurities such as rubber parts, paint,
or lacquer stains, and non-ferrous metals are frequently
found in this sort of scrap, which means that processing
leaves a large amount of residue. A table shows the
percentage of residues for various types of scrap. Moreover,
the end product may be defective as is the case when steel
has a copper content of more than 20 percent or a tin
content of more than 0.025 percent. Difficulties are also
posed by the constant increase of the chromium and nickel
content in non-alloyed steel scrap. The influence of a high
chromium content in scrap on steel is illustrated. All non-iron
metals and all non-metallic impurities must be removed from
the scrap, so that the melting process is not impaired. Some
methods of preparing light scrap are discussed. How
automobile wrecks are mechanically shredded, then
thermally cleaned to remove all non-iron metals is described
in detail. (Text in German)
68-1049
Ultrasonics free fibres from waste paper. New Scientist,
38(6)-522, June 6, 1968.
Ultrasonic vibration is the basis of a highly effective way of
recovering useful fibers from waste paper. The ultrasonic
'hydrofibrator' has been designed to remove printing ink,
fillers, and other non-homogenous material such as plastics
and lumps of metal from useful fibers without seriously
degrading them. A thin aqueous suspension of waste paper,
after a first rough screening to remove large pieces of metal,
is expanded, through a nozzle, into a pipe with a vibrating
plunger set axially in it. The bonds between the fibers are
loosened, freeing minerals and filler from the floe and
restoring the plasticity of the fibers.
68-1050
United Container Co. doubles capacity at new plant. Paper
Trade Journal, 152(6)'27, Feb. 5, 1968.
New equipment, efficient layout, and three computer
programs have helped to double the company's production
capacity of corrugated products per month in its new
Philadelphia plant. In the old plant, five men were employed
over three shifts to handle waste recovery; additional help
was also employed simply to keep work areas clean and to
push filled waste baskets to the baling room. Through its new
system of semi-automatic and automatic pick-ups from 12
plant areas, the company hopes to reduce labor requirements
substantially. The system separates and stores kraft, mixed,
and chip scrap from waste. Workers can activate the waste
system at any one of the 12 area pick-up stations. Once a
worker starts the system and selects the grade of scrap he
wants to dispose of, an automatic lock-out prevents the other
stations from being used. This prevents two different grades
of scrap from being intermixed. It also prevents jam-ups from
overloading. Trimmings from the corrugator and folder-gluer
are picked up, and sheets too large to be fed to floor pick-ups
are shredded and fed into the automatic baler. Five roof fans
provide the suction for waste pickup. Four 25-ft-high
cyclones for waste separation are also on the roof.
68-1051
US improved detinmng process. Materials Reclamation
Weekly, 112(14): 18, Apr. 6, 1968.
A scrap tinplate shredding unit, linked to a magnetic handling
and conveying system m a detinmng operation, was
developed. The tinplate on the steel is chemically removed
and pumped to special settling tanks for recovery and further
use. The shredded, detinned steel scrap is used by copper
producers to recover copper via a chemical precipitation
process.
68-1052
Used tires reused. Science News, 94(14):598, Dec. 1968.
The uses of discarded tires, which now number 100 million,
are being studied at the Coal Research Center of the U.S.
Bureau of Mines in Pittsburgh. Valuable chemicals can be
distilled from tires, as can gas for heat and power. Shredded
tires are fed into a reactor where they break down to produce
large quantities of chemicals, oil liquids, gas, and tar. A series
of tests at 500 C produced 140 gal of liquid oils, and 1,500
cu ft of gas per ton of tires. The chemicals obtained from the
tires are similar to those produced from coal carbonization.
68-1053
Utilization of red mud wastes for lightweight structural
building products. Chicago, Illinois Institute of Technology
Research Institute, Aug. 1968. 41 p.
A research program was conducted to demonstrate the
feasibility of producing a lightweight building material
suitable for both structural and insulating applications from
red mud wastes. These wastes are residue materials resulting
from the extraction of alumina from bauxite ores by the
Bayer Process. The materials were studied in two forms, a
slurry containing about 20 to 25 percent solids and a dry
residue resulting from evaporation of the water. The research
program was conducted in three parts: (a) studying the
problem area by visits to alumina producing facilities; (b)
characterizing a typical red mud by composition, particle size
distribution, pyrometric cone equivalent, and specific gravity;
and (c) investigating the feasibility of developing
compositions and processes to form lightweight structural
materials of controlled density. Foaming techniques
employed to produce a series of material having densities
ranging from 30 to 70 Ib per cu ft with satisfactory strength
were demonstrated. The program was performed for the U.S.
Department of the interior, Bureau of Mines, Solid Waste
Research Program, Contract 14-09-0070-386.
204
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1048-1060
68-1054
Experimental work. In Utilization of red mud wastes for
lightweight struetural building products. Chicago, Illinois
Institute of Technology Research Institute. Aug. 1968.
p.14-36.
The laboratory program was directed toward demonstrating
the feasibility of developing a lightweight building product
using the red mud. A flow diagram showing the phases of the
program is furnished. Several methods of producing a solid
foam were considered, the most economical and efficient
process being mechanical foaming. In the formation ot solid
foams, the dispersion medium consists of the slurry, foaming
agents, stabilizers, and binders. In producing foam structures
by the mechanical whipping technique, a foaming agent is
required which will produce sufficient uniform bubbles. The
presence ot cations in a highly alkaline solution is an
environment in which foaming agents are susceptible to
chemical attack, which is the situation in the red mud
system. Once loamability of the red mud was established, a
base composition was developed by the addition of a clay
binder and a filler material (perlite). This composition
contained 65 percent solids which consisted of 82 percent
red mud, 15 percent ball clay, and 3 percent perlite. Two
other additives investigated, which improved foam structures,
were citric and oleic acids. The mixing, drying, and firing
procedures are briefly discussed, as well as the development
of lower density foams. Controlled shrinkage permitted
production of structurally sound foams of controlled density
with the highest strengths. The compositions that maintained
integrity for densities from 70 Ib per cu ft to 30 Ib per cu ft
are plotted.
68-1055
Viekery, J. R. The recovery and utilization ot edible proteins
from blood and trash fish Food Technology in Australia,
20(7). 315, 317,319, July 1968
I-ish flour or fish protein concentrate (FPC), a food additive
for humans, is derived mainly from whole fish normally
caught for the production of fish meal for animal feeding.
Steps in the production of tish protein concentrate are
described. Blood from meatworks is now processed into
various animal feeds or fertilizers, but, since it contains high
quality proteins, it is potentially a useful addition to the
world's protein supplies. The solids content of blood is about
20 percent, comprising mainly proteins. Proposed methods
for the preparation of edible blood powder are outlined.
68-1056
Wadie, K. A. O. Soil improvement practices in Ghana.
Compost Science, 8(2): 17, Autumn 1967-Winter 1968.
The several soil groups in Ghana covering the forest zone,
coastal savanna zone, and interior savanna zone are briefly
described. In the northern regions of Ghana, on the granitic
soils, the farmers practice a settled system of farming in
which the land around the compound is cropped
continuously. The Extension Service of the Ministry of
Agriculture has encouraged farmers to bed their cattle on
sttaw and accumulate as much of the nutrients from the
excreta as possible during the night. The compound land
receives all the farm yard manure and household refuse. A
mixture of grass bedding and animal droppings are
periodically applied to cereal crops grown around the
compound
68 1057
Waste paper use in Russia. Waste Trade Journal, 64(21): 10,
May 31, 1968.
The Soviet economy is suffering such a severe shortage of
paper that the State Committee for Materials and Technical
Supplies has announced plans to set up a waste paper
collecting campaign. At present, about 18 percent of the
paper usage is repulped. Most of the waste paper collected in
Russia is put into the production of low grade packaging
boards Some organized efforts of schoolchildren who have
been urged to make house collections of wastepaper are
evident, but the most regular contributions are made by
professional scavengers.
68 1058
Waste-profit, not loss. Textile Industries, 132(7):63-65, July
1968.
A system for handling reworkable waste in textile spinning
plants consists of blowing the waste through a wool wheel
fan, which mixes it while tearing up sliver and hard lap ends.
All forms of reworkable waste are mixed in this manner and
blown into a collector (an enlargement of the Lummus
filter), where it forms a sandwich. The air is completely
filtered and blown out into the room. This system, together
with a tandem 38'/2-in. feeder, has resulted in a 10 to 15
percent reduction in spinning ends and better than 50
percent reduction in rejected laps. The equipment paid for
itself within a year.
68 1059
Wastes converted to acids and vitamins. Chemistry in Canada,
20(12):ll,Dec. 1968.
As part of a pollution control program to upgrade industrial
wastes from chemical industries, K.L. Finder and R. Branion,
University of British Columbia, are investigating the
biological upgrading of spent liquor from the calcium
bisulphite pulping process. Using the bacteria
Propiombacterium J'reudenreichii, the sugars in the waste
liquor have been converted to propionic acid, acetic acid, and
vitamin B sub 12. The vitamin B sub 12 is separated from the
mixture by centnfugation, and propionic and acetic acids are
then recovered by standard chemical engineering techniques.
68-1060
Weathersbee, C. Convert newsprint to steak. Science News,
94/31(9):218-219, Aug. 1968.
As an answer to the world's protein shortage, intensive
cultivation of ruminants, (cattle, sheep, deer, giraffe, goats,
antelopes, okapi, etc.) which can synthesize protein from the
non-proteins in grass (primarily cellulose and water) is
proposed. Due to the construction of their stomachs,
ruminants could theoretically exist on pure cellulose,
vitamins and minerals, and some source of nitrogen. If the
processes of the animal digestion were more completely
understood, it might be possible to raise large numbers of
205
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Recycling
cattle and other ruminants on paper or wood cellulose, which
is very abundant, and yet useless as food to man. Another
proposal involves utilizing the already existing animals in an
area, which live off the existing flora, and farming them to
give the largest possible yield. The eland, which at 2,000 to
3,000 Ib, is also a very efficient grazer, might be an important
future source of protein.
68 1061
Why is Mcrcer-Stalco the talk of the alloy industry? Waste
Trade Journal, 64(25): 6. June 29, 1968.
Recapturing value from scrap alloy steels is the basis for the
rapid growth of Mercer Alloys Corporation, Greenville,
Pennsylvania, a subsidiary of Whittaker Corporation. The
company produces alloys for steel mills, foundries,
investment castors, vacuum melters, specialty mills, and
fabricators from either secondary or primary materials, using
advanced metallurgical equipment and techniques. After
sorting, scrap materials are prepared to mill specifications.
Long rods are sheared, large castings burned down to size,
and 'fluffy' materials are crushed and baled. The material is
then assigned to a storage area, and made ready for shipment
or consumption in the plant furnaces. Large lots of alloy
turnings residues, and contaminated materials go through a
different procedure. Pneumatic tubes convey samples and
analysis results between laboratories and ships for constant
quality control.
68-1062
Wide variations in secondary tin usage. Materials Reclamation
Weekly, 11 3(8).29, Aug. 24, 1968.
A recent statistical survey of secondary tin consumption in a
number of countries indicates widely different levels and
applications. In the United States, which is responsible for
3,380 long tons or nearly 40 percent of the world secondary
tin metal consumption in 1967 of 8,800 long tons bronze
and brass accounts for about one-half of the total secondary
tin usage and solder a further quarter. In West Germany and
Japan, tinplate and terneplate were major end uses tor
secondary tin. Austria is the world's fourth largest secondary
tin consumer, using each year roughly the same quantity of
secondary metal as primary tin. Tinning, bronze, and brass
were the two major end uses.
68 1063
Williams, L. R. Unique use of wastewater on leisure world
golf course. Western City, 44 (2):34, Feb. 1968.
A Laguna, California, golf course has been irrigated since its
inception with renovated wastewater. Sludge, from drying
beds of a water restoration plant nearby, has been used as a
soil conditioner. The water is automatically applied to the
golf course at the direction of a time clock. The plant is a 1.5
million gal per day activated sludge facility using the contact
stabilization method. The effluent is pumped to a pond
formed by an earthfill dam, where it is held for later
irrigation use. Irrigation water is drawn from the storage
pond as needed, chlorinated for a minimum ot 20 minutes,
and then pumped into the irrigation system. Water sludge is
concentrated in a 'picket fence' thickener, aerobically
digested, and spread on drying beds. Sludge from the drying
beds is expected to be used as a soil conditioner on areas
other than the golf course.
681064
Wood chips as basic material for bituminous pavings of sport
fields. Foerdern und Heben, 18(5):327, Apr. 1968.
A report on a doctoral thesis by Olh-Pekka Hartikamen,
Helsmki,is given. In laboratory experiments,the suitability of
some types of wood chips was tested. Chip size is of primary
importance, and chip form is of secondary importance. The
behavior of the wood chip-bituminous paving can be
influenced by the type of bitumen selected and by additives
such as rubber or cork. Ground bark from birch trees has all
the advantages of wood chips, and, in addition, gives a high
weather resistance to the paving. As a typical waste product
which is presently used only as fuel, it is favorably priced.
Certain difficulties and costs are involved in the conversion of
bark into a suitable chip size. Although this poses no
technical problem, it interrupts the normal production flow
so that companies are not inclined to use the bark.
Particularly for pavings applied in the cold state and in the
open air, ground birch bark is an excellent material. The
sports arena in Otaniemi (surface 3,096 sq m) was paved with
a mass of wood chips and bitumen. It has now been in use for
3 years, and no problems or complaints have been reported.
The same results were achieved with this wood chip paving in
an open air installation which is also 3 years old. The paving
is quite economical because it requires no maintenance. An
illustration of the interior of the Otaniemi sports arena,
which is the largest in Scandinavia Nordic countries, is given.
(Text in German)
68-1065
Wood waste disposal provides heating. Steam and Heating
Engineer, 38(444):34, Nov. 1968
At the Millwall, London, plywood box factory of Luralda
Ltd., the monthly costs of waste disposal and central heating
have been reduced respectively from -LI40 to -L60 and from
-L200 to -t-70 through the installation of wood waste burning
equipment from Stewart Automatic Boilers Ltd. Throughput
of waste is approximately 5 to 6 tons per week, giving a gross
calorific value of over 50,000,000 Btu. The waste is fed into
a storage silo, where compacted materials are broken up, and
then falls into a conveyor which stokes the fuel into the base
of the furnace hearth. Complete combustion is achieved by
means of dual air supply. Dust is subsequently removed by a
soot and grit arrestor before the exhaust gases are liberated.
68-1066
Wool waste economics in carding, rag-grinding and blending,
etc. Textile Manufacturer, 94(1119) 107, Mar. 1968.
A new system of re-processing waste, which could save a
medium sized woolcombing firm t 10,000 per year, has been
developed. During carding, approximately \Vz percent of the
raw material is lost and is later sold as card waste. With the
new system, the card waste is removed by suction through an
overhead system and taken to a shaker which is used to clean
and open the matted and solid fibers and extract impurities.
The cleaned fibers are either fed back into the card through
the hopper or fed directly into sacks.
206
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1061-1072
FLY ASH UTILIZATION
68-1067
Ash handling. Air Conditioning, Heating and Ventilating,
65(8):49-51,Aug. 1968.
Modern ash-handling equipment is required to effectively
handle the 10 percent coal residue from industrial steam
plants. Ash is usually removed from boiler ash pits and
transferred to a storage bin every 8 hr. Discretion is necessary
in sizing the ash-handling equipment to achieve lowest annual
fixed charges and operating costs. The three types of ash
handling systems are: pneumatic, hydraulic, and mechanical.
The mechanical system consists mainly of portable devices,
and it is used in plants producing less than 50,000 Ib per hr.
In pneumatic systems, an air stream produced by a
mechanical steam or water exhauster transports ash from
boiler ash hoppers and fly ash from dust collectors and traps
to bins or silos. Used in small and large plants, these systems
are low in initial cost and can move ash long distances. The
components of the pneumatic ash-handling system are: fly
ash intakes, which receive the ash from ash pits and hoppers;
conveyor piping; an exhauster-cyclone separator, including
primary and secondary cyclone separators; a steam exhauster
unit and an air washer; a steam exhauster; a mechanical
exhauster, to be used when high pressure steam is not
available to power a steam exhauster; and ash storage silos
and bunkers, the tile silo being recommended. The silo is the
most expensive component. Ash is removed by gravity
through segmental discharge gates and a chute to a truck
below. Hydraulic ash-handling systems use water to transport
ash to a dewatering or decantation bin that is periodically
emptied. Fly ash must be conveyed separately by steam or
mechanical exhauster to the silo. The system is much more
expensive than the pneumatic type.
prepared on both laboratory and commercial scales conform
to the specifications laid down by the Indian Standards
Institution for load-bearing and non-load-bearmg lightweight
concrete blocks with respect to properties such as dry
density, compressive strength, modulus of rupture, drying
shrinkage, and water adsorption capacity. The production
cost for the blocks is considerably less than that for the
conventional cement-based cellular concrete blocks. The
material is ideally suited for the construction of prefabricated
structures. It can also be used as a thermal insulation material
in buildings, cold storages, etc. The use of this material leads
to more buildings, reduction in transportation cost to the
construction site, and reduction in foundation loads.
Consequently, it is being used increasingly in the developing
countries. Supporting data and a (low chart of the process are
furnished.
68-1070
Coal fly ash to bricks. Congressional Record,
114(41):S2,749-S2,750, Mar, 13, 1968.
The article 'University Project Could Mean New Industry for
Appalaclua' from the Mar. 10, 1968, edition of the Beckley,
West Virginia, Post Herald and Register stated that producing
brick from fly ash can save industries money which would
otherwise be used in hauling away the 20 million tons of ash
residue which is produced each year. Production of bricks at
the Morgantown Ordinance Works is in the experimental
stage. The total cost of equipment, which includes a
hydraulic press capable of turning out 3,000 bricks per hr, a
mixer, and a kiln for firing bricks, is about $180,000.
Research is funded with a $466.500 contract from the U.S.
Office of Coal Research. The cost per ton of clay used for
bricks vanes, but fly ash has a relatively stable price. Fly asli
brick is less dense, and its utilization requires fewer laborers.
Fly ash can be produced in either metropolitan or rural areas.
68-1068
Cannon, R. W. Proportioning fly ash concrete mixes for
strength and economy. American Concrete Institute Journal,
65(H):969-979, Nov. 1968.
A method is presented for adding fly ash to cement to
produce concrete of equal strength to concrete without fly
ash. Effects of differing proportions of fly ash on water
requirements, strength, and economy are given, along with a
discussion of the effects of the fineness and carbon content
of the fly ash and variations in strength of cements on
cement requirements. A procedure is detailed for
proportioning mixes, and sample problems are worked out.
Comparisons are made between the cement requirements as
determined by this method and cement which had actually
been tested. The method was developed by the TVA, which
has used fly ash in all classes of concrete for the past 12
years.
68-1069
Chopra, S. K., C. A. Taneja, and S. P. Tehri. Development of
cellular concrete based on lime and fly ash. Research
Industry, 1 3(4): 1 89-191, Oct.-Dec. 1968.
Investigations on the development of lime fly ash based
cellular concrete are presented. The cellular concrete blocks
68-1071
Coxon, P. Profit by sintering your flyash. Power Engineering,
72(4):52-54, Apr. 1968.
Sintered fly ash is used for structural concrete, building
blocks, and floor screeds. Its properties also make it suitable
for drainage and horticulture. The increased use of electricity
has led to a large production of fly ash Creation of a
successful fly ash sintering plant has to take into account the
handling of the dry, fine fly ash and the variations in fineness
and carbon content of the fly ash. Several plants are
discussed, including one in Germany and several in Great
Britain. The fly ash is mixed with water, then fired, with the
carbon content being sufficient to sustain combustion. Fine
coal is used to make up any carbon deficiency in the ash.
Capital cost for a medium-size plant is about $5.50 per cu yd
per year, although the cost will depend on the variability of
quality and quantity of fly ash, ground conditions, and
demand for the finished aggregate.
68-1072
Fighting a mine fire with fly ash Coal Age, 73(5):114-118,
May 1968.
The injection of dry fly ash looks very encouraging as a
method for controlling abandoned mine fires, stabilizing
207
-------
Fly Ash Utilization
areas against subsidence, and remote sealing of passageways
in active workings. The use of fly ash as a borehole sealer has
been tried successfully at the Bruceton mine, and it is now
being applied in fighting an abandoned mine fire in
Lloydsville, near Latrobe, Pa. Boreholes of 6-in. diameter are
drilled in single and double rows on 25-ft centers from the
earth's surface into the mine's entries. These holes are then
filled with dry fly ash, pneumatically injected from
20-ton-capacity trucks at 10 to 15 psi pressure and at a rate
of 1 ton per minute. To date, over 40 boreholes have been
flushed with a total of approximately 3,200 tons of dry fly
ash which was furnished at no cost by the West Perm Power
Company. When completed, the fly ash barrier in the mine
will be 1,200 ft long from outcrop to outcrop and will be
able to completely cut off the fire. For this application, fly
ash proved superior to sand, crushed limestone, and
granulated slag in that it showed better penetration into
crevices and rubble, better water absorption properties, and
better handling in cold weather. Since no water is required in
the process, a major cost factor is also eliminated.
68-1073
Fly ash captures new market. Power, 112(9):78, Sept. 1968.
In the next 2 years, the New York Port Authority will utilize
over a quarter of a million tons of fly ash, which will be
obtained free of charge from nearby coal-fired plants, for
various paving jobs at Newark and Kennedy airports. It was
determined that variations in fly ash properties were of minor
importance in the production of paving cement. The use of
12 to 14 percent fly ash in the LCI' (lime, cement, fly ash)
results in a product with a strength of from 800 to 1,400 psi.
The fly ash is transported to the site by barges and trucks at a
cost of $2 to $3 per ton.
68-1074
Fly ash problem solved on Carling brewery furnace. Air
Engineering, 10(l):6-7, Jan. 1968.
A 27-year-old bituminous coal furnace was judged to be
equipped with inadequate fly ash-collecting facilities and to
be emitting quantities of fly ash particles larger than 5 mm. A
separate ash-collecting unit for the furnace, due to
installation problems, would have cost $26,000. An
alternative method was devised by routing the air to an ash
collector on another furnace which could handle the ash
output of both furnaces. The ducting and a barometric
damper were installed by sheet metal workers at a cost of
$3,000.
core sand and masonry mortar; blasting compound; soil
amender; filler for several products such as roofing, fertilizer,
soap, paper, rubber, asphalt, and tile; sanitary landfill cover;
and mine fire control. A $2-per-ton deficit for disposal of fly
ash can be turned into a $2-per-ton profit by proper
utilization of this byproduct.
68-1076
Fly ash waste gains value from new process. Water Pollution
and Control, 106(11):40, Nov. 1968.
Enceron Ltd. of Hamilton, Ontario,has developed a process
to convert waste fly ash from coal-fired power-generating
stations into valuable materials for the concrete industry.
These materials include structural, lightweight aggregates to
replace sand and stone and pozzolanic fly ash, used as an
addition to portlant cement. A prototype plant will have the
capacity to process 200,000 tons per year of ash. The fly ash
will be transported by pipeline from the silos of the
generating plant to the process plant in a closed circuit
operation to avoid air pollution.
68-1077
Faurie, J. C. The disposal of fly ash in coal mine workings
(Part 1). Coal and Base Minerals of Southern Africa,
15(ll):27-39, Jan. 1968.
Transvaal coal contains slightly over 25 percent ash, which
remains as waste at power plants in the process of
combustion. Since no suitable land was found near the
Komati Power Plant for dumping, the Electricity Supply
Commission (Escom) decided to put this waste back into the
worked-out areas of the Koornfontein coal mine. Kscom and
the mine already have been transporting coal hydraulically
through a pipeline over a distance of 1 Vi miles; consequently,
it was only necessary to transport ash to the mine, and the
return water could be usefully employed for the coal
pumping. The success of the operation greatly depended
upon the properties of the ash, which either was extracted
from below the boiler in the form of clinker or came from
the stack as a precipitate or deposit. After being transported,
the ash settled at a relatively rapid rate, leaving clear water
that could be decanted. Residual moisture was of the order
of 7 percent, and it was a contributing factor to ash
stabilization. After decantation, men could walk on the
settled ash after a few hours. Alummates and silicates present
in the ash were responsible for the cementitious property and
for the consolidation of the ash, which on drying became a
hardjSolid mass with a shear strength ot 2,000 Ib per sq ft.
68-1075
Faber, J. H. Fly ash utilization-problems and prospects. In
Proceedings; First Mineral Waste Utilization Symposium,
Chicago, Mar. 27-28, 1968. U.S. Bureau of Mines and Illinois
Institute of Technology Research Institute, p.99-107.
The properties, qualities, and availability of fly ash are
reviewed. At present, the major uses of fly ash in the United
States are: mass concrete, ready-mix concrete, soil stabilizer,
asphalt paving filler, lightweight aggregate, concrete blocks,
pozzolan cement manufacture, portland cement raw mix, and
oil well grouting. New or small-scale uses for fly ash which
were tried and found successful include: additive for foundry
68-1078
Fourie, J. C. The disposal of fly-ash in coal mine workings
(Part 2). Coal and Base Minerals of Southern Africa,
15(12):27-31, Feb. 1968.
The rock mechanics aspect of ash disposal at the
Koornfontein coal mine (Transvaal) and the success attained
with ash filling at the mine are discussed. The daily output of
the Komati Power Plant amounts to 2,000 tons of ash during
a 6- to 8-hr flushing period. In order to convey this material
with 2 million gal of water to the underground workings at
Koornfontein, a 250-ft-deep, 10-in. hole was drilled, a size
208
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1073-1084
suitable for taking a 9-in. casing pipe to the depth of the
20-ft soft measures. A similar casing is inserted from the
bottom and firmly grouted in. Only one hole is required,
since by suitable arrangement of valves, the return water can
be pumped back during the off period. Ash filling in an
upgrade and downgrade panel is discussed at length. Success
of the operation is largely ascribed to the good roofing
condition prevailing at the Koornfontem mine. Between 1
and 2 ft of coal were left on the roof. Since it was proven
that ash filling adds to the strength of the pillars,
consideration was given to a greater percentage of coal
extraction. The use of ash as a floor for mining high-grade
coal appears very promising. After consolidating the ash and
using it as a floor for the next operation, a subsequent lift of
the coal seam can be taken out. Using an existing pumping
system, the cost of the borehole, pump, pipelines, and other
preparatory work was kept to approximately R 7,000.
68-1082
Murphy, E. M., M. O. Magnuson, P. Suder, Jr., and J. Nagy.
Use of fly ash for remote filling of underground cavities and
passageways. U.S. Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations
No. 7214. [Washington], U.S. Department of the Interior,
Dec. 1968 27 p
Experiments, detailed with drawings and data, show that dry-
materials which can be transported pneumatically will tightly
fill underground passageways and cavities when injected
remotely through a borehole. The parameters studied
include: horizontal and inclined passageways, obstructions in
the entry, water leakage into the borehole, dry material, and
grout and slurry mixes. The materials studied were: fly ash,
crushed and pulverized limestone, and sand. Fly ash, because
of its low angle of repose and its good flow characteristics,
produced tight, stable seals in inaccessible mine workings.
68-1079
Jarco, P., S. Majercak, V. Maly, and A. Majercakova.
Pelletization of converter dust in the East Slovakian Iron and
Steel Plant. Hutmcke Listy, 23(10).679-684, Oct. 1968.
Converter dust amounting to 10 to 12 kg per ton is the waste
of the oxygen converter steel shop in the VSZ plant. Methods
for recovery such as returning dust into the converter in sacks
or blowing into the melt through a special nozzle were not
applied in practice. Other utilization techniques
recommended involved the production of green pellets.
Research on the material properties and pelletizmg
conditions indicated variable properties of the material
(chemical and grain size composition) and also variable
strength, which is sufficient, however, for the green pellets to
be charged into the convertet. (Text in Czechoslovakian)
68-1080
Lightweight aggregate-rosy but challenging future. Rock
Products, 71(12):65-66, Dec. 1968.
Lightweight aggregates are being considered for skid-resistant
surfaces for highways and airports, treatment of soils, and
lightweight concrete blocks. Sintered fly ash plants are
entering this field, and an association has been formed to
promote and develop fly ash products. In 1967, the
production of lightweight aggregate totalled 12,822,000 tons.
The totals for the various products were: expanded clay and
shale, 8,799,000 tons; expanded slag, 2,456,000 tons; pumice
(natural), 833,000 tons; expanded slate, 649,000 tons;
expanded perlite and exfoliated vermiculite, 105,000 tons.
68-1081
Lightweight aggregate development. Materials Reclamation
Weekly, 112(25): 16-17, June 22, 1968.
Aglite Engineering, Ltd., is manufacturing a lightweight
aggregate for the building industry from waste materials. This
has created great interest among foreign technical experts,
and the plant was recently visited by 36 delegates fiom the
U.S.S R., Bulgaria, Japan, Germany, Poland, Spam,
Venezuela, Italy, and Yugoslavia. The aggregate is
manufactured from a mixture of coal waste and fly ash, but
it can use other waste materials such as rice husks and desert
quartz. Plans are being made to operate a plant in Kuwait.
68-1083
Nishimuia, H., and I. Osoegawa Recent utilization of fly ash
in Japan. Journal of the Fuel Society of Japan,
47(490):98-106,Feb. 1968.
The coal ash produced at power stations in Japan is generally
divided into three categories based on the place of collection
in the stations and is utilized m the following manner: fly
ash, collected by electrical precipifators, is characterized by
qualities that improve the strength, watertightness at a later
age, and workability of concrete material and decrease its
temperature rise when mixed in concrete. It is, therefore,
mainly utilized in fly ash cement and pozzolanic materials.
'Green ash,' which is collected by the multi-cyclone and is a
little coarser than fly ash, can be used as a special fertilizer
for farms, because it contains more than ten nutrients
necessary to the growth of plants and can improve the
quality of soils. The crushed clinker, or 'coal sand,' collected
at the bottom of boilers, economizers, and air heaters is often
utilized as a road base stabilizer. Ashes could be used as base
materials, provided that one layer is used directly and the
others are well graded by other aggregates. All types of ash
are good subbase materials. Vanadium, withdrawn from
heavy oil ash produced by power stations, has been recovered
to supply a part of the demand for fly ash in special steel
making. (Text in Japanese)
68-1084
Noguchi, T. Utilization of coal ashes discharged from thermal
power plant. F,nergy and Pollution Control, 20(7)'5-12, July
1968.
Current principal applications and an outline of mvestigat'ons
for the development of new utilization of coal ash discharged
from power stations are included. The ash is separated into
three categories according to the positions of collection in
power stations: (1) chnker ash collected at the bottom of a
boiler with an estimated output of 700,000 tons per year; (2)
clinker ash collected under an economizer, air heater, and
cyclone, with an output of about 3 million tons per year; (3)
fly ash from an electric precipitator which produced about
1.3 million tons per year. After referring to the properties of
each ash, current utilizations are mentioned. Up to 650,000
tons of fly ash arc utilized in concrete materials such as fly
ash cement and pozzolanic material, grouting materials, raw
209
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Fly Ash Utilization
materials for lightweight aggregates, admixture with clay for
bricks and tiles, admixture with asphalt, and road base
stabilizer. About 70,000 tons of cinder ash are used in
fertilizers and soil conditioners due to the nutrients involved.
Almost all cinder ash is wasted as landfill. Investigations on
new uses of ash being carried out at the Technical Institute in
Tokyo Electric Power are as follows: cinder and clinker ash
as admixture for concrete block, low-strength concrete
material, road base material, and lightweight air-entramed-ash
concrete material; cinder ash as material for artificial
lightweight aggregates, fine aggregates, and admixture with
concrete; and clinker ash as road subgrade material and drain
sand. (Text in Japanese)
68 1085
Peters, E. Non-clogging pump solves fly-ash removal problem.
American City, 83(5): 135-137, May 1968.
The original system for removing fly ash from the quenching
water at the Skokie, Illinois, incinerator experienced
considerable trouble due to the fly ash accumulation clogging
the sump pumps. The solution was the purchase of a
Mid-Whirl cloglcss pump and the erection of a steel tank with
a capacity of 1 8 cu yd mounted 15 ft above ground. The
pump, mounted directly over the quench-water tank, pumps
the fly-ash-laden water into the overhead tank. The fly ash
settles to the bottom, and the water flows over a vertical
baffle at one end ot the tank and returns to the quench water
by gravity. When the overhead tank is full of sludge, one
crewman backs the residue truck under the tank, shuts off
the pump, and opens the hopper gates. The pump operates
alternately on and off for 1 hr. It pumps 150 gal per minute
against a suction head of 3 to 5 ft and a distance of 25 ft.
The temperature of the quenching water averages about 160
h'. Initial costs for the conversion versus costs of an alternate
plan are discussed.
build up of fly ash on the surface of other particles-can be
used to remove fly ash. The apparatus, procedures, materials,
and bed media are described, the results are discussed, and a
literature review is presented.
68-1087
Pilney, J. P., and E. E. Enckson. Results. In Removal of fly
ash by fluidized bed techniques; final report. Minneapolis,
North Star Research and Development Institute, Mar. 1968.
p.22-44.
The results are discussed in terms of removal efficiency by
weight. The removal efficiencies by weight, determined in
this way, are always greater, and usually much greater, than
the removal efficiencies by number. The results of the
self-agglomeration studies are presented in a table. The
relative humidity of the fluidizing air was greater than 90
percent. The superficial gas velocity in the bed was always
1.6 ft per second, and the static bed depth was normally 1.5
in. The pressure drop across the bed was usually 1.4 in. of
water. The ash loading of air passed through the bed was
between 0.5 to 1.0 gram per cu ft, except for one run. The
removal efficiencies of the fluidized beds were between 82.5
to 88.9 percent for the loadings below one gram per cu ft,
and 91.5 percent for the 4.03 grain per cu ft loading.
Variation in the time of the run from 5 to 30 minutes did not
cause the removal efficiency to vary greatly or to change
according to any obvious pattern. At a superficial velocity of
1.6 ft per second, it is theoretically possible for 80 micron
particles of density 2.5 per cu cm to be entrained in the
fluidizing gas and carried out of the system. It appears from
the data that self-agglomeration of fly ash in a fluidized bed
does occur, and removal efficiency as high as 90 percent can
be realized for the fine ash in a silica sand bed at a pressure
drop through the bed of 1.4 to 2.0 in. of water and at a
superficial velocity of 1.6 ft per second.
68-1086
Pilney, J. P., and E. E. Erickson. Removal of fly ash by
fluidized bed techniques; final report- Minneapolis, North
Star Research and Development Institute, Mar. 1968. 55 p.
A literature search confirmed the potential for use of
fluidized beds for removal of particles; removal efficiencies as
high as 99 percent by weight have been reported for
0.5-micron aerosols by a fluidized bed of negatively charged
polystyrene beads. Little work has been directed toward
deliberate use of a fluidized bed as a filter. The program has
indicated that fly ash can be removed effectively by passing
an ash-contaming gas stream through a shallow bed of
fluidized particles. Mass efficiencies, greater than 99 percent,
have been obtained in a 4 in. diameter glass column with fly
ash loadings as high as 10 grains per cu ft of entering air. If
inertial impaction were the controlling removal mechanism, a
99 percent mass efficiency could correspond to a number
efficiency of removal of about 40 percent of the particles.
Other forces, such as electrostatic, appear to be important in
the fluidized bed, and the difference in mass and number
efficiencies may not be that great. Superficial gas velocities as
high as 2 ft per second, and pressure drops as low as 0.5 in. of
water gave good results. The ash used had a mass median
diameter of 8 microns, and a number median diameter of 0.7
micron. All three mechanisms studied-self-agglomeration in
humidified air, coating the surfaces of sticky particles, and
68-1088
Pilney, J. P., and E. E. Erickson. Literature review for fly ash
removal study. In Removal of fly ash by fluidized bed
techniques; final report. Minneapolis, North Star Research
and Development Institute, Mar. 1968. p.45-51.
A literature review is presented on' the use of fluidized beds
for gas filtration; the physical and chemical characteristics of
fly ash; power plant data; methods for removing paniculate
matter from gas streams; and fluidization-state-of-the-art. The
more pertinent papers found on gas filtration in fluidized
beds are briefly discussed, and the others surveyed are
annotated. The bed materials tested for sulfuric acid mist
removal were: microspheres (aluminum silicate), silica gel,
activated alumina, silica sand, and glass beads. Removal
efficiency was found to be substantially constant during the
life of the beds and independent of the entering
concentrations that were studied. Nonporous bed materials,
like silica and glass beads, showed a life too short to be
practical, but porous materials like commercial microspheres,
silica gel, and alumina picked up over 5 percent by weight of
acid before sticking destroyed fluidization. Evidence
presented indicates that fluidized beds may give higher
removal efficiencies than fixed beds of the same material. In
a self-agglomeration process, the freshly reduced metallic iron
on the surface of the bed particles softens and becomes
sticky above 1,400 I-'. Small particles of iron oxide in the
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1085-1093
feed, stick to the bed particles, causing them to grow in size.
In a reducing atmosphere, the captured oxide is reduced to
metallic iron, creating a self-renewing sticky surface. An
optimum size of the bed particles is required to prevent the
bed from fusing together. A comprehensive background on
fluidization is contained in three general papers. Other
references contain useful information on pressure drop, bed
expansion, and minimum fluidization velocity in fluidized
beds.
68-1089
Refinery makes money from fluid coke fly ash Modern
Power and Engineering, 62(4):84, Apr. 1968.
Canadian Petrofina refinery is extracting valuable vanadium
from the fly ash produced in the fluid coke boiler-at rates up
to 25 ppm, and selling the vanadium at about $1.25 per Ib.
The refinery processes Venezuelan crude oil which contains
about 130 ppm of vanadium. The fly ash is recovered in an
electrostatic precipitator and the vanadium is leached out
with sulphuric acid in an agitated, fiberglass-reinforced,
polyester tank, maintained at a minimum of 122 F by steam
injection. The vanadium slurry is then put through a process
that eventually produces 99 percent pure vanadium
pentoxide in flake form, ready for shipment.
68-1090
Roman, G. H. You can save money with fly ash. Coal Age,
73(8):60-64,Aug. 1968.
Fly ash, a liability to most companies, can be turned into an
asset in the form of high quality building products. Using fly
ash in construction materials can also save money for utility
companies to the amount of 1 to 2 cents per million Btu.
This is because using pulverized fuel ash in cement produces a
stronger, smoother, and more durable concrete which sells,
usually, for about $1 per cu yd less than regular concrete.
Tests have been conducted which show that fly ash concrete,
after 24 hr, has a higher compressive strength than regular
Portland concrete, and it continues to grow in strength over
the years due to oxides of iron, aluminum, and silica in the
ash which combine with the free lime, which is liberated as
the concrete ages to give a stronger cement. Also, fly ash
concrete blocks have only a portion of the air leakage of
regular blocks (1/5), and the fly ash blocks are twice as
strong. Under a pressure differential of 6 in w.g., the air
leakage, through regular concrete blocks, is about 10 cu ft
per min per sq ft of block surface whereas, with the addition
of only 17 percent fly ash, the leakage is reduced to only 1.2
cu ft per minute. With a 30 percent mixture of fly ash, the
leakage is nearly immeasurable. A structural fill made of fly
ash and 25 to 30 percent water, produces a structurally
sound base which actually improves with age. These uses
provide an economical outlet for fly ash which turns a
liability into an asset by producing a better, cheaper product.
68-1091
Romanek, W., M. R. Jackson, and A. Lieberman.
Development of an automatic fly ash monitor; final report.
Chicago, Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute,
Oct. 1968. [97 p.]
A prototype monitor for particulate emissions from
municipal incinerators was designed, built, and field tested.
The instrument is installed on the stack some distance above
the base, to ensure the monitor's presence in a region of
laminar flow. The monitor samples a predetermined quantity
of stack gas either isokinetically or at a known velocity,
separates the particulate from the gas by means of a cyclone,
and measures the amount of particulate collected using a beta
gauge. For each sample, the time of sampling and beta
attenuation is printed out on a paper tape at some ground
level. This design concept is suitable for unattended
monitoring operations, and automatic isokinetic sampling,
while feasible, was not an essential requirement for
adequately following stack loading. Results from the field
test sites at Chicago, Milwaukee, and Brooklyn are given.
Operational procedures are outlined, and the monitor design
is illustrated. Recommendations are given and conclusions are
drawn. Numerous appendices follow.
68-1092
Sherwood, P. W. Utilization of fly ash. Gas und Wasserfach,
109(7): 178, Feb. 1968.
At a recently held symposium, sponsored by USBM, the
National Coal Association, and the Edison Electric Institute,
it was agreed that fly ash is a waste material of considerable
importance. While it is known that fly ash from coal has
cement-forming abilities so that it can be sintered or
collected and added to clay and portland cement products,
there has been resistance to using it, because of its varying
grain size, its irregular amount of unburnt carbon, and its
changing structure. Considerable progress has been made in
eliminating these. The University of West Virginia has
reported promising developments in the use of fly ash as
material for bricks. Lightweight products of sintered fly ash,
manufactured by Consolidated Edison, could be used to take
the place of the Portland cement used in the construction of
dams. This will not only prevent frost damage, but it will also
increase the strength of the concrete. (Text-German)
68-1093
Suzuki, T., N. Kawai, S. Ino, S. Toyama, K. Kodama, and T.
Otake. Process development of artificial light weight
aggregate from fly ash with pulp waste liquor. Reports of the
Government Chemical Industrial Research Institute, Tokyo,
63(1):1-50, Jan. 1968.
In order to develop a light weight aggregate from the mixture
of fly ash and pulp waste liquor, the properties of raw
materials were measured and process engineering studies were
carried out as follows: (1) Granulation: After confirming the
possibility of application of a pan-type pelletizer for the
granulation of these raw materials from the experiment on
compression strength and wetability of powder, appropriate
conditions for the granulation by this pelletizer were
obtained, and the two stage granulation method and the
usage of a three stepped pan were examined to make larger
pellets. Further, the weakness found with the heating
temperature range of 600 to 800 C was overcome by the
addition of clay or water glass and quick firing. (2) Drying:
Since it was found that the dried pellet is ten times stronger
than the undried one, a band drier was installed between the
pelletizer and the kiln. A drying test established the time and
conditions for drying, as a design criteria for this process. (3)
Firing test in the laboratory: All ashes tested here had
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Sanitary Landfill
bloating characteristics. The bloating temperature tended to
rise with increasing basic components. Furthermore, higher
concentrations of pulp waste liquor and larger size pellets
increased the bloating characteristics. Also, it was verified
that quick firing was preferred to slow firing. (4) Firing test
by a small rotary kiln: To prevent pellets from melting in the
kiln, a coating powder was adopted. For protection against
abrasion of pellets in the kiln, the mixing of bentonite into
flyash was effective. The method in which pellets were
calcined before firing was not advantageous. Quick firing in
the kiln produced moderately bloated pellets and reduced
losses by abrasion. (Text-Japanese)
68-1094
Tenney, M. W., and T. G. Cole. The use of fly ash in
conditioning biological sludges for vacuum filtration. Journal
of the Water Pollution Control Federation,
40(8):R281-R302, Aug. 1968.
One method of sludge disposal is that of dewatenng sludge
by vacuum filtration, followed by incineration of the
dewatered cake. The resultant ashes can be used as landfill or
soil conditioners. The major restriction to this process is that
biological sludge, because of its inherent compressibility,
requires appreciable pre-conditioning by chemical additives
to the sludge mass, a costly process. The use of fly ash as a
sludge conditioner greatly enhances the dewatering of both
activated and digested sludges. The ideal fly ash to
accomplish this is one with a high carbon content and a
particle size of from 10 to 30 microns. The use of fly ash has
many advantages', low cost; elimination of the use of
chemicals; adequate supply; ease with which sludge can be
dewatered, contribution to the fuel value of the filter cake:
use ot a pollutant to remove a waste; and no liquid demand.
The unique properties of fly ash suggest that further
applications in the field of water and waste water treatment,
or in the area of reuse of wastewater should be investigated.
Tables, charts, and a list of references are included.
68 1095
Using fuel ash as a soil improver. New Scientist, 38(593): 130,
Apr. 18, 1968.
Agricultural research is finding further uses for the pulverized
fuel ash piling up outside coal-fired power stations. These
include using it as a means to improve the water-holding
capacity of coarse sandy loam. The largest dose of ash,
equivalent to 200 tons per acre in the top 12-in. of soil,
significantly increased the soil's available water capacity. The
results of tests suggest that one important advantage is
improved crop establishment. If problems of toxicity, arising
from the boron content of some types of pulverized fuel ash,
can be overcome, then the ash may find an important use as a
soil improver.
68-1096
Vivier, M. Utilization of fly-ash for road work in France.
Mitteilungen der Vereimgung der Grosskessel-Besitzer,
48(3):2l9-224,June 1968.
The use of fly ash as filler in road construction is a novelty,
and is still in the experimental stage. Promising results have
so far been achieved by experiments in laboratories and by
road construction projects in northern France. The first
section of road constructed with fly ash showed a water
accumulation of 45 percent in the layer below the fly ash,
and water drainage pipes had to be installed. Moreover a layer
of slag now separates the fly ash from a layer of slate. Sand is
used on the road banks. Since the drainage pipes are rather
expensive, extensive measurements are now being taken at a
road section constructed in the above manner but without
pipes. Four cu m of fly ash, which had not been compacted very
well, settled less than 10 cm per year, and that no settling
occurred after that period of time. Not much is known yet
about the properties of fly ash to resist frost. By experience,
we know that the upper crust of several cm freezes and
defrosts without creating any bumps in the road. Laboratory
experiments with four different types of ash from four
different power plants confirmed this. Ash mixed with
construction material, which is difficult to use with cement,
changes the grain size distribution of that material. It also
saves cement due to the pozzolamc properties of ash. An
example for this would be fine, sludgy sand which cannot be
compacted in this state, but by mixing with ash and cement,
it can be used. By adding granulated blast furnace slag to the
ash its strength can be increased since it can be better
compacted. At first equal parts of slag and ash were used.
Later, mainly for economic reasons, a mixture of 50 to 70
percent ash, 20 to 40 peicent slag, and 6 percent cement was
used. This mixture could be well compacted (to 95 percent
of the maximum density). At present, experiments with
mixtures where lime is substituted for cement are being
conducted. One million tons of fly ash have been used so far
in France for road construction, and valuable information has
been gathered but much more research is necessary.
(Text-German)
SANITARY LANDFILL
68-1097
An abandoned strip mine is to till. Environmental Science
& Technology, 2(6).402-405, June I 968.
With the help of a $126,000 Public Health Service grant, the
Maryland Health Department is now operating a model
landfill in an abandoned mine near Frostburg, AHegany
County. After winning public acceptance and securing
matching funds from municipal and county authorities, a
21-acre site was selected and leased. Work in the strip mine,
which is 1,900 ft long, 50 ft wide at the bottom and 110 at
the top, and 35 to 50 ft deep, was started in spring 1967 with
the construction of a system of ditches to drain the mine and
divert run-off from surrounding areas. The landfill is
presently receiving about 250 tons per week of refuse from
16,000 to 18,000 inhabitants ot Frostburg and Allegany
County, and is estimated to last 10 to 15 years. Junk cars are
not accepted, for lack of compacting equipment. Fly ash is
accepted only m winter, when it is used as cover instead of
the frozen overburden. Trash is covered usually within l'/2 hr
and always at the end of the day. The mine overburden
provides ample cover material, which is now used excessively
in relation to the amount of solid waste, i.e. 9.3 acre ft per
year per 10,000 persons served, as against the 6 acre ft
amount deemed sufficient Costs come to about $1.40 per
person per year, and could be reduced to SI.00 if the landfill
served more people. Collected data on dump vehicle type and
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1094-1 102
number, type and area of refuse, and weather conditions will
aid in establishing a comprehensive State plan.
68-1098
Boyle, E. Role of sanitary landfill in waste disposal. Air
Engineering, 10(10).23, 34, Oct. 1968
A sanitary landfill is a construction project for reclaiming
land as well as a refuse disposal operation. It does not give
rise to air pollution or to pollution of the ground and surface
waters in a properly engineered landfill. The variables to be
considered in estimating the cost of a sanitary landfill
operation are the distance the refuse must be transported, the
type of soil, the equipment required, the availability of soil
for cover material, the location and depth of ground water,
and the quantity of refuse received. A sanitary landfill is
often used in conjunction with an incinerator for disposal of
bulky items which the incinerator cannot handle. Hi-density
compaction is being used to reduce the volume of the refuse
handled at a sanitary landfill, and to reduce transportation
costs. Composting has not proved to be practical in the
United States, either because of unfavorable economics, or
due to nuisance conditions which arise from the operation.
68-1099
Buell, D. Haverhill sanitary landfill clean-solid waste
disposal-Ill. Congressional Record, 114(42)'S2844-S2845,
Mar. 14, 1968.
While 200 Ib of solid waste fill a cubic yard in a conventional
dump, 700 Ib per cu yd can be compacted by a bulldozer in a
landfill. The Japanese are experimenting with an even greater
compaction of 1,800 to 2,000 Ib per cu yd. At Haverhill,
Massachusetts, some garbage is still sent to piggeries, but the
rest goes to the sanitary landfill, which contains 16 ft of
rubbish, accumulated over 2 years of continuous dumping,
compacting, and daily covering with fill in two 8-ft layers.
Since the operation lies 200 ft from the Mernmack River,
pollution is avoided. A 16-ft-deep hole has been dug in one
corner to receive rubbish during winter as a precaution
against fierce winds. A local rat exterminator visits monthly,
although no rats have been found to date. Only one
bulldozer, one man running it, and one supervisor are
required. When the landfill is completed and covered with 2
ft of fill, it can be used as a manna, recreation area, or
factory site.
68-1100
Coppa, R. B. How to start a sanitary landfill. American City,
83(3) 85, 87, Mar 1968.
Armed with a list of provisions set up by the town
administrators and the State Health Department, including
the requirement of buffer zones, shrub planting for screening,
maintaining a 150-ft distance from a stream and a 4-ft barrier
of earth between refuse and ground water, fencing, no
burning, no scavenging, and the appointment of a 'watch dog'
committee, the Town of Glastonbury, Connecticut, opened a
new landfill site. It consisted of a total of 55 acres, of which
25 are to be used for the sanitary landfill. The town, with a
population of 19,500, contributes 40 to 50 tons of refuse
daily to the fill area. The operators use one Caterpillar
crawler tractor to compact and cover the refuse. A chipper
operates m the brush and demolition area and will accept logs
up to 6 in. in diameter. Chips from the machine are used in
conjunction with sand and gravel to provide cover material.
Heavy metals and appliances are loaded onto an open trailer
which is hauled to a city scrap dealer weekly. Tires are
removed periodically by a private contractor. A letter
commending the Town of Glastonbury for its landfill
operation was received from Archie B. Freeman, regional
program chief, Solid Wastes Program, Public Health Service,
in which he said that, 'This solid waste disposal facility is a
model operation and is one of the best maintained and
operated sanitary landfills in the North, if not in the United
States.' A breakdown of cost expenditures is also given.
68-1101
County ot Los Angeles, Department of County Engineers,
and Engineering-Science, Inc. Development of construction
and use criteria for sanitary landfills an interim report.
Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, 1969. [267 p.]
The County of Los Angeles, California, is conducting a 3-year
program of research and investigation for the development of
construction and use criteria for sanitary landfills. The
program was developed in cooperation with the U.S. Public
Health Service through a grant Objectives of the fust year
program include. (Da study of the existing state-ol-the-art in
construction and operation; (2) an evaluation of gas
movement in certain existing sites; (3) review of hteiaturc
regarding possible effects of sanitary landfills and ground
water quality; (4) laboratory experiments for testing flow
rate of gas through various soils, (5) development ot solutions
for controlling gas generated m sanitary landfills, (6) field
operations of gas sampling and analysis and settlement
surveying. The first annual report covers 10 chapters m
addition to a list of tables, appendices, and figures. The
chapters covered include: introduction; sanitary landfill
practice; selection of landfill sites and scope and results of
studies, gas movement through porous media, design and
implementation of field gas barriers and control devices, the
effect of sanitary landfills on ground watei quality,
completed sanitary landfill land uses, code considerations toi
construction and use of sanitary landfills, and summarv.
conclusions, and recommendations
68 1102
Cummins, R. L. Effects of land disposal of solid wastes on
water quality. Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, 1968. 29 p.
Water pollution caused by improper solid waste disposal is a
serious problem. The possibility of pollution will exist as long
as solid waste is disposed of in or on the land. Every attempt
should be made to minimize the possibility of contamination.
Each site should be selected and considered individually. The
purpose of the report is to provide information relative to
water pollution that may be caused by solid waste disposal.
Definitions, site descriptions, water quality criteria, potential
hazards, case histories, recommendations, and tentative
guides are included. The information is designed to give some
insight into the problems that may occur and the methods
for solving them. Infiltration and percolation of rainfall
runoff can produce leachates that may cause ground water
contamination. Three conditions must exist in order to have
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Sanitary Landfill
contamination by the process of leaching and groundwater
travel. The site must be over, adjacent to, or in an aquifer,
there must be saturation within the fill; leached fluids must
be produced, and the leachate must be capable of entering an
aquifer. When leaching does occur, the groundwater m the
immediate vicinity of the fill, approximately 1,000 ft
downstream, can become polluted and unfit for human and
animal consumption, or for industrial and irrigational uses.
Evidence that physical characteristics, biological quality, and
chemical compostion of surrounding water are affected by
quality and quantity of solid wastes conditions is well
known. Bacteria normally do not persist in underground
water in the direction of flow for more than 50 yd, and
seemingly important bacteria are seldom found below 4 ft,
and never below 7 ft. Various case studies, some conclusions,
and a bibliography are included.
68-1103
Davis, K. Planned landfills cut costs and complaints.
American City, 83(12):102-104, Dec. 1968.
As a result of an overhaul of the entire refuse disposal system
in Forth Worth, Texas, there were significant changes
throughout the system. Fly ash and soot no longer blanket
the houses near the two incinerators; incinerators were shut
down, the open dumps and landfills were converted to
sanitary landfills; and less money is spent for refuse disposal
(only 51 cents a ton) than before. The previous projected
cost of waste disposal by sanitary landfill was $1.13 per ton,
as opposed to an incineration cost of $5.25 per ton. Land
reclamation could also bring big dividends to the city. Due to
the efficient usage of machinery and equipment and an
automated records system to keep tabs on tonnages, landfill
availability, and machinery costs, the actual cost of landfill is
much below that of the previous estimates. As the population
expands, the 14-year plan calls for the regular addition of
new landfill machines and new landfill areas. Selection of the
sites will depend upon: costs; proximity to refuse sources;
topographic, soil and water table conditions; convenient
access to major thoroughfare-freeway systems, and land
reclamation effects.
68-1104
Solid waste disposal report for counties of Manatee and
Sarasota, Florida. Philadelphia, Day and Zimmerman, Inc.
1968. 73 p.
Only one of the current landfill operations in both counties
can be classified as a sanitary landfill based on public health
standards. This is the North Sarasota County landfill located
southeast of the City of Sarasota, Florida. The South
Sarasota County landfill located east of Venice should be
improved to meet the specifications of a good sanitary
landfill. Enough sanitary landfill space appears to be available
in Manatee and Sarasota Counties, within relatively
economical travel distance for packer trucks, to accomodate
all of the two counties' refuse through 1980. It is
recommended that each county establish a department
responsible for all solid waste disposal, and that all burning
practices at landfills be discontinued. Each county should
also contract with private dealers to haul abandoned
automobile bodies and large home appliances to the Tampa
shredding plant for disposal. If Manatee County purchases
the entire 320-acre Lena Road site for sanitary landfill of
solid waste and obtains an option on an additional 275 acre
site, and if Sarasota County purchases an available 400-acre
site, these, with the existing landfills, would provide the
counties with sufficient landfill space through 1980.
68-1105
Historical background. In Solid waste disposal report for
counties of Manatee and Sarasota, Florida. Philadelphia, Day
and Zimmermann, Inc., 1968. p.4-6.
Virtually only one method of solid waste disposal is practiced
in both counties, and that is classified as landfilling. The
landfill operations now in existence range in character from
open dumps with uncontrolled burning to sanitary
landfilling. Currently in Manatee County, backyard burning
of household refuse is permitted on a regulated basis. In
Sarasota County, no backyard burning of household refuse is
permitted. On-site open burning of demolition, construction,
and land clearing debris is permitted on a regulated basis
throughout the county, including the City of Sarasota. The
Cities of Bradenton and Palmetto in Manatee County have a
combined garbage and rubbish collection service twice a
week. In Sarasota County and the City of Sarasota, garbage
and rubbish are segregated and collected separately twice a
week. Although a small amount of solid refuse, such as
demolition and land-clearing debris, is disposed of by on-site
burning in each county, the bulk of all solid refuse generated
in each county is disposed of in landfills. This includes
garbage, rubbish, and bulky items such as large appliances,
which are collected and delivered to the site by a municipally
owned collection service or a franchised collection service.
68-1106
Current disposal methods. In Solid waste disposal report for
counties of Manatee and Sarasota, Florida. Philadelphia, Day
and Zimmerman, Inc., 1968. p.7-1 8.
Currently, two methods of sanitary landfilling are being used
in each county: the daily cut and fill method, and the trench
fill method, the curand fill method is the daily excavation of
small areas, or cells, and the dumping and compacting of
refuse in these cells. The trench fill method involves the
excavation of a large trench, or cell, that will have the
capacity of several days, weeks, or months for solid waste
disposal. A combined total of seven landfill sites are located
in Manatee and Sarasota Counties. Each landfill was
evaluated in accordance with the recommendations of the
U.S. Department of Health for sites located in residential
areas. Oneco landfill, Palmetto landfill, City of Bradenton
landfill, North Sarasota County landfill, South Sarasota
County landfill, Town of North Port Charlotte landfill, and
City of Sarasota landfill were evaluated. The primary reasons
for classifying the landfills as poor are their small size,
inadequate supervision, and the lack of sufficient cover
material and proper equipment.
68-1107
Potential landfills. In Solid waste disposal report for counties
of Manatee and Sarasota, Florida. Philadelphia, Day and
Zimmerman, Inc., 1968. p.21-22.
Lena Road Site (Site 1) was approved by the County
Commissioners and the State Board of Health in November
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1103-1113
1967. However, delays in the purchase of this site have been
encountered by the county. The tract has a total area of 320
acres, of which the county has been interested in purchasing
80 acres for a county landfill operation. Hauling distance to
this landfill from this population center of the county is
approximately 8 miles. The 80-acre tract of land will have
388,000 cu yd of space available for landfilhng. Two
potential sanitary landfill sites were visited in Sarasota
County. Each site is approximately 400 acres in size, and
both are located in thinly populated, relatively level,
underdeveloped agricultural areas. Each will have 1,940,000
cu yd of space available for landfilling, if the entire 400-acre
tract is used.
68-1108
The deposition of non-putrescible industrial wastes near
Bonfol. Schweizensche Bauzeitung, 86(27):480481, July
1968.
Amidst the woods of a mountain range which forms the
watershed between the North Sea and the Mediterranean is a
large waste disposal site. Here nonputrescible residues from
the chemical industry located in the area of Base),
Switzerland, are dumped. Trailer trucks transport daily about
30 tons of solid wastes, as well as sludges and filter cakes
from 16 chemical plants (about 10,000 tons per year) to this
dumping site. A layer of clay 5mm thickness protects the
groundw'ater. The imperviousness of the clay layer is checked
regularly. The dumping site is well drained. The water
running oft from the dump site is collected and transported
to Basel. The dumped wastes thus remain dry. When the
dump site is filled to capacity, it is covered with a clay layer
of 2 m thickness. On top of that half a meter of humus is
heaped and trees are planted. In the last 6 years, 50,000 tons
of chemical wastes were disposed of this way. The dump site
is a source of considerable income for the municipality of
Bonfol. Some regulations were worked out between the
participating industries and the municipal government. (Text
in German)
68-1109
District of Columbia dump will no longer pollute. Clean Air
News, 1(1):13-15, Jan 24, 1968.
The fires of Kenilworth Dump, which have been polluting the
air of Washington, D.C. tor 25 years, will be extinguished and
the 125-acre dump will become a park. The project is partly
financed by the Solid Wastes Program of the Public Health
Service's National Center for Urban and Industrial Health. A
$1,100,000 sanitary landfill demonstration project will
replace the dump Under sanitary landfill procedures, each
day's trash will be crushed and buried beneath layers of clean
earth to contain odors, keep out rats and other vermin, and
prevent combustion. When the terrain is suitably graded for
recreational purposes, the completed landfill will be covered
with 3 ft of earth, including a layer of topsoil, and then it
will be seeded to establish turf.
68-1110
Dunn, W. L. Refuse filling of a swamp in a fresh water lake.
Civil Engineering, 38(l):60-62, Jan. 1968.
At a site near the University of Washington campus, 166
acres of swampland were converted to usable acreage. When
the work of recovery began in 1933, the swamp, much of it
over 60 ft deep, generally had the consistency of thick
sludge. The original fill included household waste, rubbish,
ashes, stumps, lumber, and rubble. During the years of filling
there were two separate disposal operations: (1) domestic
garbage or household waste was collected and placed; (2)
earth cover was temporarily dumped on top of the cell placed
the previous day, and then pushed over the top face of the
new cell at the end of the day. Settlement of peat, drainage
and burning of waste gas, and the effect of fill on water
quality are considered. Swampland that has been reclaimed
by filling with refuse placed over peat will never become
entirely stable. However, it is quite suitable for automobile
parking, open storage, athletic fields, open playing fields, and
certain kinds of structures.
68-1111
Elevating scraper speeds work on landfill. Public Works,
99(6).152, June 1968.
A self-supporting sanitary landfill in Lucas County, Ohio,
serves four communities and part of Toledo. About 2,000 cu
yd of refuse are handled each day with residents paying from
$0.50 per cu yd for refuse and $0.50 for an auto truckload
to $1.00 for a pickup truckload. An elevating scraper
excavates a trench 70 to 80 ft wide, 120 ft long, and about 8
ft deep, moving about 300 cu yd per day of earth. Refuse is
compacted with a tractor equipped with a special U-shaped
bulldozer blade. Next, each layer is covered with a 6-in.
compacted layer of clean earth, and when the trench is filled,
a 2 ft cover is placed and compacted. The scraper is able to
spread cover material evenly and is effective in adding to the
compaction. The landfill is a three-man operation.
68-1112
Experts to set guidelines on landfill operations. Public Health
News,49(l-2):23, Jan.-Feb. 1968.
Eleven experts have been called together by the National
Center for Urban and Industrial Health to develop standards
for the planning, design, and operation of sanitary landfills. A
landfill is a process of burying solid waste, a technique
gaining increased acceptance in the United States. 'Solid
waste' is the 800 million Ib of waste that is thrown away
every day, ranging from junked cars to garbage. Publication
of the guidelines will aid public officials, consultants, and
private operators to develop and improve the operation of
sanitary landfills. The guidelines will not be regulations,
standards, or criteria, but rather factors and elements, the
application of which will improve the operation of landfills
and minimize potentially adverse effects on the environment.
68-1113
Friedman, W. M. Demonstration of solid waste disposal
machine in consolidation of several separate disposal
operations into one county operated project. In Engineering
Foundation Research Conference; Solid Waste Research and
Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26, 1968. New
York. (Conference Preprint B-2.)
The Niagara County Solid Waste Agency, which was
established m 1966, investigated the feasibility of a sanitary
landfill operation in the county. It was concluded that a
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Sanitary Landfill
small eastern site would be operated as a conventional
sanitary landfill operation, and a large western county site
would utilize a D & J Refuse Machine designed to
economically dispose of solid waste by controlled burial.
Under a health department ruling that all subdivision plans
would be reviewed for solid waste disposal facilities, a
suitable vacant, industrial-zoned property was located for the
western site. The advantages of operating the refuse machine
are estimated to be lower operating costs per ton of waste
and lower land requirements per ton of waste.
68-1114
From Landfill to heliport. American Cny, 83(10):42, Oct.
1968.
The new downtown heliport in Richmond Virginia grew out
of a deep gulley The first step consisted of a sanitary landfill
to raise the level nearly to grade. A bulldozer and a
rubber-tired loader compacted and covered the refuse. Then
fallowed a cap of 4 ft uf compacted earth fill, excavated
from the bite of the city hall under construction nearby. As
well as elevating this site to the proper grade, the final fill
also accelerated the rate of compression of the refuse
underneath and strengthened it enough to accommodate the
helicopters. The $31,000 heliport on the landfill may be only
the first of several located throughout the city. It is noted
that the only other community to create a helicopter landing
area by building a sanitary fill is Wmnetka, Illinois.
68-1115
Fungaroli, A. A., R. L. Steiner, G. H. Emrich, and I. Remson.
Design of a sanitary landfill field experiment installation. Ser.
1. No. 10, Philadelphia, Drexel Institute of Technology, Nov.
1968. 32 p.
The field facility which has been developed as part of a
comprehensive study of the hydrologic functioning of a
sanitary landfill is described. This field facility is a
companion to the laboratory lysimeter described in another
report. The test area is a portion of the Southeastern Chester
County Sanitary Landfill located in Kennett Township,
Chester County, Pennsylvania. The following topics are
discussed: climatic conditions, geology, site plan,
instrumentation, instrumentation schedule, sample analysis,
and refuse placement. The detailed design, installation, and
activation of the field test site being used to study the
behavior of sanitary landfills located over metamorphic
bedrock and in the soils derived from it are discussed. Charts,
tables, and illustrations are furnished.
68-1116
Gerhart, J. O. City gives 5-year franchises to contractors in
new areas. Solid Wastes Management/Refuse Removal
Journal, 11 (3): 11, 28, Mar. 1968.
Longview, Washington, a city with a population of 28,000 in
1968, was founded in 1922 by a private businessman, and is
one of the few cities in the state to be thoroughly planned
before being built. The city has continued on the same basis,
and as part of its planning it provides 5-year franchises on
any new annexed areas to private wastes hauling contractors,
who operate outside the city limits. The city's Sanitation
Department has employees who direct sanitary landfill
operations and proper deposition of refuse hauled to the
landfill by the general public, and perform other related
duties. A sanitary landfill, which can be used by the general
public, is located about 2 miles from the city limits near the
Cowlitz River, which provides cover material for the landfill.
The city owns two contraction units, along with 15 1-yd
containers and a hoist. Sidewalk litter containers are being
placed in the streets. Proper sanitation and wastes disposal
methods are brought to public attention through
advertisements. Offenders against regulations are warned, and
help is given to citizens in meeting regulations.
68-1117
Gershowitz, H. Model landfill contract recommends very
stringent performance bond. Solid Wastes
Management/Refuse Removal Journal, 11(7):16-18, 20, 24,
July 1968.
The model sanitary landfill contract and model instructions
to bidders, which was prepared by the National Solid Wastes
Management Association for discussion by the industry, by
cities, and by the Solid Wastes Program, is presented. The
model contract recommends a stringent and uniform
performance bond provision which states that the contractor
shall furnish such a bond, executed by a responsible surety
company. In the case of failure of the contractor to perform,
a penal sum equal to one-half of the estimated annual price
payable to the contractor, based on the preceding year's
payments (current year, during the first year of the contract)
up to a maximum of $100,000 per year, is payable to the
city. Penalties are also provided in case of failure on the part
of the contractor to satisfactorily dispose of putrescible
wastes. Compensation is to be given to the contractor for
such changes in landfill operations, transfers, or additions, as
give rise to increased costs; and an adjustment to the face
value of the contract based on changes in the U.S.
Department of Labor consumer price index is suggested as
part of the contract.
68-1118
Gillham, R. W., and L. R. Webber. Groundwater
contamination. Water and Pollution Control, 106(3):54-57,
May 1968.
A network of piezometers was used to characterize
quantitatively and qualitatively a zone of contaminated water
beneath a barnyard. The piezometers provided access tubes
to obtain hydraulic potential measurements, hydraulic
conductivity values, and water samples for chemical analysis.
These data were used to construct quantitative flow nets.
Analysis of water samples indicated that the concentration of
nitrogen in the groundwater increased significantly as the
water passed beneath the barnyard. The quantitative
contribution of nitrogen made to the groundwater by the
barnyard was calculated to be 1.89 times 10 to the minus
three Ib per hr under the conditions of July 5, 1967. The
reliability of this would depend primarily upon the
confidence in the measurements of hydraulic conductivity
and the distribution of the hydraulic potential. It was
concluded that the barnyard contributed to the nutrient
enrichment of the groundwater.
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68-1119
Hudson River park will be built on disposal ground. Solid
Wastes Management/Refuse Removal Journal, 11(10).72, Oct.
1968.
A riverfront park on a Vi-mile long, V'/z-aere site along the
banks of the Hudson River will be constructed on a former
landfill for incinerator residue which was operated by the
City of Yonkers. The project is expected to cost more than
$1.5 million. Half the funds will be involved in converting the
landfill, and the other half, in park improvement.
68-1120
Johnson, D. E. Road commission operates county refuse
disposal sites. Public Works, 99(6): 126-127, June 1968.
The St. Clair, Michigan County Road Commission selected a
sanitary landfill site, half of which consisted of an open pit
mine approximately 30 ft deep from which clay had been
removed. About 12 miles west of the populated Port Huron,
the site is centrally located and on a good highway. An
International TD15 tractor with a refuse handling blade was
purchased to move and compact the refuse and spread the
cover material which was obtained from the bottom of the
excavation for the first lift. Some industrial wastes are
accepted, such as rubber by-products, papermaking wastes,
and a limited amount of sludge from municipal waste
treatment plants. Written contracts with all cities wishing to
use the main sanitary landfill and satellite areas are required.
The consideration is 20 cents per $1,000 of State
equalized value of the jurisdiction. A transfer station is being
considered to serve the southern part of the county.
68-1121
Kansas site handles 1,000 tons weekly. Solid Wastes
Management/Refuse Removal Journal, 11(5):46, 89, May
1968.
In January 1965, a private company was awarded a 5-year
contract by Kansas City, Kansas, for the collection of both
residential and commercial wastes. This company operates
with refuse-collection and landfill vehicles that are leased
from local dealers, thus avoiding the necessity of operating a
vehicle-maintenance shop. A 42-acre site near the Kavv River
serves as the operations base for a sanitary landfill. Trash and
organic waste are collected on separate routes. All loads
entering the premises, including those brought by the public,
must be covered by the winds. Fees are charged by the load,
from $.50 for a private automobile to $4.00 for a packer
load. Composition of solid wastes is similar to that handled
elsewhere. Material is deposited in an assigned area for
spreading evenly by on-site tractors. Clean earth fill, stored
during the day in a spoil area adjacent to the dumping point,
is used for cover material. The site is open 6 days a week, 8
hr per day. Communications with the working crews, which
are scattered through a 56-sq mile area in and about Kansas
City, is maintained by means of a two-way radio.
lying site which was subjected to flooding each year. Sanitary
landfill was used to raise the height of the area approximately
25 ft. The landfill had been placed only 2 years previously,
and it varied in depth from 20 to 30 ft. Construction of a
reinforced concrete beam on piles was chosen. Holes were
dug by a well driller, sinking a pipe to underlying gravel
strata. Reinforcing was placed in the casing, and the casing
was filled with concrete. A total of 1 7 piles were constructed
by this method at a cost of $350 for drilling only. A steel
building, measuring 60 by 120 ft, was placed on the piles.
The building will allow storage for 20 vehicles. Ventilation
was accomplished by installation of four 10 ft ridge
ventilators with 12-in. throat and damper, and the floor will
be finished with asphalt hotmix. Future plans include
construction of a similar building to house the Street, Water,
and Sewer Departments.
68-1123
Landfill replaces controversial town dump. Public Works,
99(10):112-113,0ct. 1968.
An injunction from the Massachusetts State Attorney
General ordered the controversial town dump of Clinton
closed. Without preparing specifications, the town engaged a
local contractor unfamiliar with landfill methods, who
merely buried the collected refuse under loads of sandy
gravel. The responsibility for the landfill was then turned
over to the Department of Public Works which decided on a
modified progressive trench method. Cover material is spread
on the compacted refuse during the day as the fill progresses
down the trench. As the fill advances, refuse is covered with a
6 in. layer of burned-out material from the face of the old
dump. Since much of the industrial and commercial waste is
plastic, which is highly flammable and burns with great
amounts of smoke and heat, this material is buried quickly.
The cost of this operation is $.85 per ton including machine
rental, maintenance, and operator's wages.
68-1124
Lobb, E. Changing a city dump into a sanitary landfill.
League of North Dakota Municipalities, July 1968. 6 p.
A sanitary landfill costs more than a dump in direct operating
costs, but is less expensive when side benefits and intangibles
are considered. Land value is usually improved, and rats, flies,
and smoke are eliminated. Prior to converting a dump to a
landfill, the city should eliminate burning of refuse, paper,
and tires within its limits. Tractor operators can flatten car
bodies easily. A trench was made in a lagoon outside
Esmond, North Dakota, for burial of 200 abandoned cars
which were flattened by a dozer and then covered. Refuse
disposed in a sanitary landfill should be compacted to
conserve space and provide a firm fill. A layer of dirt should
cover each day's deposit to seal it. The area should also be
fenced.
68-1122
Klein, S. New building constructed on sanitary landfill.
Public Works, 99(10):125-126, Oct. 1968.
The most suitable site for the location of the public works
building of the City of Wenatchee, Washington, was a low
68-1125
Lucker, B. Communities jointly solve refuse problem. Public
Works, 99(10) 156, Oct. 1968.
Benton and St. Joseph, along with three smaller
municipalities in Michigan, formed the Northwest Bernen
217
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Sanitary Landfill
Sanitary Authority. A $392,000 bond issue was passed to
purchase land for a sanitary landfill and equipment to handle
the 700 cu yd per day of refuse. A steel wheel compactor
compresses the waste as soon as it arrives, which means that
the trench excavation will hold the maximum amount of
refuse. A scraper cuts, hauls, and spreads 100 yd per day of
cover dirt over the compacted refuse.
68-1126
Merz, R. C., and R. Stone. Special studies of a sanitary
landfill; final summary report January 1, 1964 to December
31, 1968 and third progress report January 1, 1964 to
December 31, 1968. Los Angeles, Department of Civil
Engineering, University of Southern California, Dec. 1968.
[214 p.]
The special three-part study, covering the years from Jan.
1964 to Dec. 1968, describes the construction of model
landfills and their treatment under selected environmental
conditions. The purposes of the investigation were: to study
the percolation through the landfill as a result of application
of sufficient water to maintain a golf course type turf; study
the percolation through the landfill as a result of application
of sufficient water to simulate the rainfall pattern of a
temperate climate (Seattle); study the effects of aerating a
landfill, measure settlement of both aerobic and anaerobic
landfills; study the quality of gas produced in the landfills
receiving the various treatments, and determine the volume
of gas produced by a known quantity of refuse decomposing
under anaerobic conditions. Progress reports, plus a final
summary report covering the entire period are presented.
Extensive data, tables, illustrations, and conclusions are
included. This investigation was supported in whole by Public
Health Service research grants with the construction of test
cells by the County Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles
County.
68-1127
Murdock, R. F. Selection and placement of soil cover
material in a sanitary landfill. In Engineering Foundation
Research Conference; Solid Waste Research and
Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26, 1968. New
York. (Conference Preprint B-3.)
A research project was initiated to define those soil
properties which are significant in the determination of the
applicability of a cover material in sanitary landfill
operations. Both laboratory and field studies are being
employed to characterize soils from existing and proposed
landfill sites, and from numerous areas in the United States.
The determinations being performed include natural water
content, specific gravity, combined mechanical analyses,
Atterberg limits, and standard and kneading compaction
tests. As soon as laboratory test results become available, a
general evaluation of cover material placement procedures
will be undertaken.
68-1128
Muzzi, A., A. Borgioli, and N. Vescia. Pollution of a water
table by the dumping of urban solid wastes. Nuovi Annali d'
Igiene Microbiologia, 19(6):451467, Nov.-Dec. 1968.
Beginning in April 1967, about 10,000 cu m of solid waste
from Rome, Italy, were dumped for about 2 months on land
otherwise not used for this purpose. Pollution of well water
now exists in this area, about 20 m below the ground. A
systematic study was made from May 1967 to August 1968 to
determine possible alterations of the physical, chemical, and
biological characteristics of the water table caused by the
dumping of refuse. Samples were taken from six farmhouse
wells, 15 to 20 m in depth, and at distances varying from 2 to
180 m. Between the surface and the water table, there were 1
m of humus, 5 to 6 m of medium-coarse gravel mixed with
yellow sand, and about 15 m of almost pure gravel. Water
samples were tested for temperature, pH, electrical
conductivity, ammonia, nitrites, nitrates, organic substances,
chlorides, free carbon dioxide, total alkalinity, hardness, solid
residue, iron, manganese, phosphates, anionic detergents,
total microbe agar culture count at 37 C, and coli count. Well
number 6, due to its location, could be used as a control for
the other five. The effects of pollution were first noted 5
months after the dumping of the refuse, and took place most
rapidly during the month of November, which corresponds to
the rainy season in that area. Test results indicated that this
water table was poorly protected. Little value could thus be
given to much of the chemical and bacteriological data
obtained, with the exception of the mineralization factors:
alkalinity, hardness, solid residue, amons, and cations.
(Text in Italian)
68-1129
Noring, F., G. Farkasdi, A. Golwer, K.-H. Knoll, G. Matthes,
and W. Schneider. Decomposition of impurities in
groundwater penetrating from dumping sites. Gas und
Wasserfach, Wasser, Abwasser, 109(6):137-142, Feb. 9, 1968.
Two dumping sites were selected which are in an area where
groundwater seeps through porous soil. Site A has been used
for dumping industrial and domestic wastes since 1945 Site
B is located in an abandoned gravel pit. The wastes dumped
here contain oily and sulfurous material, and they are
extremely rich in organic substances. This dumping site is
below the groundwater level, so that leaching of the waste
material is constant. Thus, the decomposition process in
groundwater can be particularly well observed. The geology
of the areas around the two dumping sites is illustrated. Test
results of site B are given. The residues remaining after
evaporation of groundwater samples increased from 327 to
675 mg per liter before the groundwater flow reached dump
site B, and changed to 949 to 4,538 mg per liter after it
passed it. A conception of the amount of organic substances
dissolved in the groundwater can be obtained by observing
potassium permanganate consumption, which decreases with
increasing distance from the source of pollution. An
oxidation reaction first consumes the oxygen dissolved in the
groundwater, and then reduces the nitrates and partially the
sulfates. Thus a so-called 'reduction zone' is formed directly
underneath the dumping site. This zone is characterized by
the absence of dissolved oxygen, sometimes by a complete
lack of nitrate and a reduction of the sult'ate, by the
formation of ammonium and iron (11), and by an increased
groundwater temperature. A transitional zone follows where
oxygen is found again, which leads to the precipitation of Fe
(II) ions in form of Fe (III) hydroxide. The groundwater at
site A shows little change in its chemical composition. The
residues remaining after evaporation of groundwater samples
increased from 601 mg per liter, before the disposal site, to
1070 mg per liter immediately after the disposal site. No
'reduction zone' was found here. (Text in German)
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1126-1135
68-1130
North Eastern Centre discussion on controlled tipping. Public
Cleansing, 58(3):139-145, Mar. 1968.
The disposal of refuse by controlled tipping was discussed at
a joint meeting of Corporate Members of the North Eastern
Centres of both the Institute and the Association of Public
Health Inspectors in Kingston upon Hull, November 1968.
The reasons for the depreciation of controlled tipping
methods were given as follows: the changing character of
refuse which does not lend itself to consolidation; mechanical
methods used at tips which do not appear to consolidate tips
as well as manual workers; lack of adequate sealing materials
to prevent flies from emerging from the tips, and lack of
adeouate screening to prevent windblown refuse from
littering the countryside. It was suggested that pulverization
begin in the refuse vehicle. Other problems discussed
included birds attracted to tips, bulky wastes, tip fires, and
dangerous industrial wastes.
68-1131
Ohio county landfill project provides site for a ball park and
picnic area. Solid Wastes Management/Refuse Removal
Journal, 11(6):22, June 1968.
A 27-acre site, formerly part of a burning dump which served
as the main refuse disposal area for 150,000 persons in
Sylvania and neighboring communities, has been redeveloped
by a private company. This firm covered the burning dump,
landscaped the site, built roads, and returned the land to the
county for recreation. The remainder of the area is now a
sanitary landfill facility covering 104 acres of land that had
been classified as non-productive. The landfill operation is
unusual in that it employs an elevating scraper to dig trenches
for refuse, and to provide clean earth cover for the
compacted waste. The trenches are filled with refuse, the
material is spread and compacted by a crawler tractor,
covered with a 6-in. cover from another trench section, and
eventually sealed with a 2-ft thick layer of clean earth. The
speed of the scraper, which is said to excavate 300 cu yd per
day, allows the company to keep the open dumping face to a
minimum. Approximately 2,000 cu yd of residential,
commercial, and industrial waste are delivered daily to the
site, and are handled by a crew of three men.
68-1132
Pennsylvania studying landfills. Clean Air News, 2(9). 1-2,
Mar. 19, 1968.
Work at Pennsylvania's Drexel Institute of Technology on
sanitary landfills includes construction of a lysimeter in
which the dissolution or decomposition of wastes can be
observed under controlled conditions. The lysimeter is a
specially-built vessel consisting of a double walled steel tank,
with fiber glass insulation between the walls. It is 14 ft high,
6 ft wide, and 6 ft deep. It is loaded with typical solid waste
from Southeastern Pennsylvania, including garbage, metals
and plastics. Instruments, including thermometers, are
imbedded at various levels. It has been found that the refuse
in the test heated up to 150 F in 10 days and that a leachate,
a liquid decomposition product, began to appear in less than
a week's time. Determinations of how quickly refuse
decomposes, the type and amount of leachate which exudes
from the buried refuse, and how much gas is produced are
planned.
68-1133
Phelps envisions Everglades for future landfill site. Solid
Wastes Management/Refuse Removal Journal, 11(10):24, 38,
46, Oct. 1968.
In an interview, J. Grady Phelps, vice chairman of the Florida
chapter of the South Florida branch of APWA, stated that in
the long run, the Everglades would be an ideal landfill site,
but would be expensive, because railroads would have to lay-
many miles of track; however, the network would enable the
southeastern and southwestern parts of Florida to haul to the
Everglades. He also notes that pulverization is a useful
adjunct to an incinerator operation. Composting is
unworkable at present, largely on economic grounds.
Disposal of abandoned automobiles has become possible
through use of hammermills. Also, junked cars have been
successfully hauled into Biscayne Bay to make a reef.
Eventually, all cities will have to use incineration, and while
landfill cannot be completely dispensed with, the need for it
can be greatly reduced through high-temperature
incinerators, which will operate at as much as 3,000 F.
68-1134
Portable wind fence controls litter at landfills. Public Works,
99(11);108, Nov. 1968.
Two wind fences have been designed by National Disposal
Contractors, Barrington, Illinois for the effective control of
blowing paper at sanitary landfills. One fence is made of five
sections, each 9 ft 9 in. high, 10 ft wide, and 20 ft long.
These are joined by four 5 ft sections of wire which holds all
sections together and produces a fence with an overall length
of 120 ft. It is designed to stand up under a 25 mph wind
with the face of the fence covered with paper. Each section
of the fence is mounted on a skid and is pulled as a train to
the desired location. Another fence, also all metal, is made of
three sections, each 21 ft long and 14 ft high with a top
overhang. Metal skids permit easy placement when refuse is
being deposited.
68-1135
Ralph Stone and Company, Inc. The sanitary landfill site.
In Land reclamation by accelerated stabilization, first annual
progress report. Los Angeles, Aug. 1968. p.3-5.
A demonstration project is underway at Santa Clara's 73.2
acre sanitary landfill. It is centrally located, and is accessible
by paved toads. The soil is easily excavated, and a public
water supply and electrical power are provided. Fencing
allows adequate protection from public intrusion, even
though the site is in an isolated area with limited residential
habitation. The geology of the land indicates that it was once
an arm of the San Francisco Bay, and the soil consists of fine
to medium grain permeable soils. Land subsidence is
occurring and is expected to continue to occur while over
pumping of the ground water continues. The groundwater at
the site is of minimal quality. The climate is mild and
temperate and the average annual rainfall is 20 in. The
requirements of the California State Water Quality Control
Board for landfill sites is given in an appendix.
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Sanitarv Landfill
68-1136
Ralph Stone and Company, Inc. Refuse and soil. In Land
reclamation by accelerated stabilization; first annual progress
report. Los Angeles, Aug. 1968. p.6.
Refuse used to fill the cells originates in the residential areas
of the City of Santa Clara and other materials are excluded
from the test site. Refuse characteristics are being obtained as
the cells are filled, and general records of the seasonal
variation in refuse composition, moisture content, volatile
matter, and other pertinent characteristics are being
developed. On a dry weight basis, about 35 percent of the
refuse is garden trimmings, 55 percent paper, 3 percent
plastics, and 7 percent metals, glass, ceramics, and other
inerts. Moisture varies seasonally from 71 percent in the
spring to 15 percent in the fall. Volatile content averages 84
percent on a dry weight basis. The soil is fine sandy clay
overlaying a clay silt subsoil. The latter is being used as cover
material, and, as available, asbestos cement and certain other
inert industrial waste and demolition products are used to
supplement this to provide a surface for winter access and to
exclude surface drainage.
68-1137
Ralph Stone and Company, Inc. Cell construction In Land
reclamation by accelerated stabilization; first annual progress
report. Los Angeles. Aug. 1968. p.7-12.
An existing anaerobic cell was excavated and then
recompacted into a new cell; a result, a 25 percent expansion
in volume was experienced. A preload test cell was
constructed to determine the foundation and settlement
characteristics of a normal anaerobic landfill when supporting
one kip per sq ft load. Aerobic test cells were divided into
two areas: the aeration cell area which distributes air into the
refuse, and the residue cell area which is used to dispose of
the oxidized residue. The excavation plan and the aeration
system, which consists of two underdrain systems, a blower,
valving, and appurtenances are described. Preparations were
made so that the internal composition of the cell remains
unchanged during the sampling procedure. The refuse used to
fill the cells is weighed, and the cells are surveyed periodically
to determine volume. Definitive compaction densities will be
calculated, settlement plates and benchmarks will be
installed, and subsequent volume reduction and settlement
will be recorded. Access holes will be bored and test
equipment will be installed to measure internal and external
temperatures, humidity, moisture, differential and total cell
settlement. Climatological data is compiled to relate internal
cell activity to external climatic conditions.
68-1138
Ralph Stone and Company, Inc. Supplemental studies. In
Land reclamation by accelerated stabilization; first annual
progress report. Los Angeles, Aug. 1968. p.24-25.
A study of pertinent literature was carried out; a
bibliography of the more important writings on the subject
of sanitary landfills and their operation is included. Operating
landfills in San Joaquin, San Mateo, and Alameda Counties,
and various County and City of Los Angeles sites were
visited. A record is maintained of the characteristics of each
load carried to the demonstration site to provide a tabulation
of the computed truck density. Time and motion studies will
be carried out to determine how long it takes to weigh and
unload various stake trucks and compactor vehicles. A master
plan for utilization of the landfill site has been proposed
utilizing clean fill for areas designated for building sites, but
this has not been approved by the City Council.
68-1139
Reinhardt, J. J., and G. Rohlich. Solid waste
reduction/salvage plant; an interim report; City of Madison
pilot plant demonstration project, June 14 to December 31,
1967. Cincinnati, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, 1968. 25 p.
U.S. Public Health Service Demonstration Grant No.
DO 1-U1-00004 is designed to analyze the economic
feasibility of milling solid wastes and landfilling the product.
The project includes analyses of settling, gas and temperature
production, and leachate within the fill. The initial 6 months'
experiences encountered in milling rubbish, combined refuse,
and garbage with a Gondard mill are described. Handling and
disposal methods are included. The extensive conveyor
system for charging and product transportation resulted in
several problems that were partially alleviated by
modifications. Both automatic and manually controlled feed
techniques were employed; however, optimum production
was obtained by the latter method. Production rates were
lower than predicted, but all three grate sizes tested were
satisfactory. No optimum size grate has been determined.
Combined domestic refuse, domestic garbage only, and
rubbish were the three types of milled material tested. Only
milled garbage cells appeared unacceptable for landfilling
without cover, as compared to control sanitary landfill cells
of unmilled solid wastes. Initial conclusions include greater
fill densities for landfill space conservation without odor or
vector problems. No suitable market was available for
rejected metal and salvaged paper. Special collection and
handling procedures were instigated for coordination with
the milling operation Accounting figures and mill diagrams
are included.
68-1140
Remson, L, A. A. Fungaroli, and A. W. Lawrence. Water
movement in an unsaturated sanitary landfill. Journal of the
Sanitary Engineering Division, Proceedings of the American
Society of Civil Engineers, 94(SA2):307-317, Apr. 1968.
Knowledge of the occurrence and movement of moisture in
sanitary landfill is basic to a knowledge of the generation and
movement of water-borne contaminants. Moisture routing
methods based upon the equation of continuity are extended
to provide an approximate method for predicting vertical
moisture movement through and out of a sanitary landfill.
Using the routing method, predictions were made of the
effect of emplacement season and initial conditions on the
moisture regimen of a hypothetical sanitary landfill in
Chester County, Pennsylvania. Results show that the time
that elapses before the appearance of the first leachate
depends upon the season of emplacement and the initial
moisture content. The infiltration capacity and permeability
of the soil cover can be adjusted by the choice of cover soil
or the use of artificial impermeable materials. The storage
capacity of the soil and fill might be adjusted by the design
of thickness, choice of materials, use of additives, and
treatment.
^20
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1136-1145
68 1141
Sanitary landfill for the entire region of the Ruhr Valley Gas
und Wasserfach, 109(20).555-556, May 1968.
The most important single project of the Siedlungsverband
Ruhrkohlenbezirk (SVR = Housing Community of the Ruhr
Coal Area), the erection and operation of a central waste
disposal site, is now being realized. The association bought a
257-hectare plot for 18.7 million DM. The larger part of this
plot will eventually become a recreation area, but in its
present state, it is swampy and barren. The most economical
way to turn this area into a recreation site is to use it as
sanitary landfill for a period. This would give the region a
badly needed dumping place and, at the same time, would fill
in the swamp. The location of the site is very favorable. It
can be expanded, is easily accessible but quite remote from
housing, and is large enough to provide a dumping site for 25
to 30 years. There is no danger of polluting the ground water
because of the closeness of the Ernscher River. The entire
plot will not be turned into an extensive sanitary landfill.
Only a small section at a time will be designated as a dumping
area. The deposited waste will be immediately covered with
earth and other noncombustible material and then
compacted. Once a section is filled in, it will be sown with
grass, and a new section will be designated for dumping
waste. It is assumed that the residues from the waste and
sludge incineration plant in Karnap will go to this sanitary
landfill along with noncombustible wastes from Essen,
Gladbeck, and Gelsenkirchen, as well as the domestic waste
of the City of Recklmghausen. An estimated 550,000 tons
per year will be dumped at this new site. In a few years the
smaller cities in the region will also need to use the disposal
site. (Text in German)
68-1142
Sites scarce as California area triples population in 20 years.
Solid Wastes Management/Refuse Removal Journal,
11 (2).46, Feb. 1968.
Santa Clara County population tripled between 1950 and
1966, rising from 291,000 to 920,000 in these years. The
massive increase in the number of residents required sweeping
changes in numerous areas of governmental activity,
particularly in public health practices. Disposal of refuse in
open dumps was stopped in 1965. The transition was made
relatively smooth through a highly cooperative program in
which the Health Department, the County Counsels' Office,
and the contractors joined forces to develop a practical refuse
disposal ordinance, with provisions for fly and rodent
control. New equipment proposed for collection and
transportation of refuse is studied by the Health Department
before being put into service. Liaison between the public and
the refuse collection industry is maintained through the
Santa Clara County Refuse Disposal Agency. In 1964, the
county Health Department, with grants provided by the
Federal government, studied residential area fly problems.
Currently it is also conducting a similarly funded study aimed
at refining the results obtained from the first one.
68-1143
Smith, C. D. A sanitary fill inside the city. American City,
83(4):90-92, Apr. 1968.
A landfill in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, is operated by using two
umts-a bulldozer equipped with U-shaped blade, and a
self-loading scraper. As the refuse trucks dump in an assigned
spot, the bulldozer spreads the refuse evenly. While this is
being done, the John Deere scraper is picking up clean
earthfill in an adjacent spoil area. The scraper brings
approximately 8 yd of fill and spreads a 6-in. layer over the
compacted refuse. When an area is completed, a 2-ft cap of
fill material is spread by the scraper. In this quarry landfill,
the fill stockpile is the old berm from the overburden taken
from the quarry. Nearly 100 ft of overburden were originally
removed from this quarry. As the fill operation continues,
the permeable quarry walls are lined with a layer of
approximately 3 ft of clay. This prevents liquids and gases
from the waste fill from contaminating surrounding ground
water. A sump area is always left somewhere in the pit. The
sump collects the rain runoff and seepage. This keeps the rest
of the fill area completely dry. The sump, when filled, can be
pumped into the nearby river. It is almost impossible to
eliminate voids created by material that cannot be
completely collapsed during initial compaction. Pulverized
fill material could provide a finished site that could be used
almost immediately for new construction.
68-1144
Solid Wastes Technical Advisory Committee. Solid wastes: a
regional approach. Denver Regional Council of Governments,
[1968]. [12p.]
In the five-county Denver metropolitan area, 90 percent of
the landfills are substandard. Of the 31 sites studied, only 45
percent had a rodent control program, and only 13 percent
covered their refuse daily. A cooperative, regional approach
to solid waste management is the most effective solution.
Solid waste pollution, like air and water pollution, is no
longer a respecter of political boundaries. There are also
economies of scale in using the regional approach; larger and
fewer disposal facilities improve control of pollution and
health hazards. From the planning standpoint, regional
administration has the advantage of overview. Disposal sites
can be engineered and spaced to match the population
distribution within the area. Small communities and agencies
would receive the benefit of professionally educated and
knowledgeable administrators, something they cannot now
afford. Three things need to be done before establishing a
regional program. Enabling legislation is required to authorize
establishment of such a regional body. An authorization is
required to proceed with a study to examine and evaluate the
details of such a system, and a comprehensive public
information program informing citizens of the problem and
solutions must be initiated.
68-1145
Sorg, T. J., and H. L. Hickman. Sanitary landfill facts. Public
Health Service Publication No. 1792. Cincinnati, U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1968. 26 p.
An efficient method of solid waste disposal is the sanitary
landfill. Preliminary planning for a sanitary landfill involves
the application of sound engineering principles in site
selection, design, and operation. Advanced planning should
include the selection of a competent designer and/or
consultants. An active public information program is vital in
order to acquaint citizens with the working and benefits of a
landfill. The crucial task of selecting a site requires an
estimate of volume or land area needed. Other considerations
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Sanitary Landfill
to review are zoning restrictions, accessibility, hauling
distance to the site, and availability of cover material.
Geological and climate conditions, as well as fire control
facilities, should also influence site evaluation. Essentially,
design plans and specifications determine how effectively the
landfill will be operated. After a custom plan is developed,
economic and sanitary operation depends on competent
administration. Problems from rain and winter weather are
handled individually. High public health standards and
careful nuisance control are factors which distinguish an
exemplary sanitary landfill. Air and water pollution control
requires close attention. Limiting nuisances such as odor and
wildlife make the site much more acceptable and adaptable
for reclamation purposes. Equipment and on-site facilities are
dependent on site size, as are initial investment and operating
costs. Other advantages and disadvantages of sanitary landfills
are explored.
68-1146
Sowers, G. F. Foundation problems in sanitary land fills.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, Proceedings of
the American Society of Civil Engineers, 94(SA 1):103-116,
Feb. 1968.
The growing scarcity of building sites close to cities,
combined with the increasing volume of wastes, will make it
imperative to use sanitary landfills for future building sites.
The sanitary landfill, however, is a poor supporting medium
because it is weak, settles substantially, produces hazardous
or obnoxious gases, and is extremely difficult to work in.
These difficulties can be minimized or eliminated by utilizing
present engineering techniques for construction and
foundations. Sanitary landfills can be improved and future
development made possible at minimum costs by the
segregation of materials such as cars, debris, stumps, and
tires. Compacting the fill materials can minimize future
settlement. Wet and dry materials can be mixed, and heavier,
more effective compaction equipment can be used. The
structures to be built must be designed to absorb settlement
and to resist the corrosion and gases inherent in the fills.
68-1147
Steiner, R. L., and A. A. Fungaroli, eds. Analytical
procedures for chemical pollutants. Research project on
pollution of subsurface water by sanitary landfill. Ser. 1. No.
8. Philadelphia, Drexel Institute of Technology, June 1968.
26 p.
A research project on pollution of subsurface water by
sanitary landfill and analytical procedures for chemical
pollutants are compiled and presented. The procedures
described apply to both the laboratory lysimeter and field
installation samples taken from the Chester County landfill
site described in another report. Liquid samples, gas samples,
solid samples, and a list of appendices are presented.
68-1148
Steiner, R. L., and R. Kantz. Sanitary landfill, a bibliography.
Public Health Service Publication No. 1819. Washington, U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1968. 37 p.
A comprehensive bibliography of articles related to sanitary
landfills was selected from a wide variety of American and
British periodicals. Entries are arranged chronologically,
ranging from 1925 through 1968. The search to obtain this
information was supported by a Public Health Service
research grant from the Solid Wastes Program to the Drexel
Institute of Technology. The publication represents a revised
edition of a 1967 bibliography published by Drexel Institute
(Series 1, Number 2). An extensive list of references used in
the search is also included. Articles reflect a wide range of
topics related to sanitary landfills: numerous city or State
landfill reports, economic feasibility studies; disease and
pollution aspects, manpower and equipment factors, and
potential and restrictions for the sanitary landfill.
68-1149
Stephenson, M. E. Thermophilic metabolism in solid
substrates; progress report no. 1. East Lansing, Michigan
State University Division of Engineering Research, Sept.
1969.21 p.
The principal variables affecting the decomposition of
biodegradable solid wastes by thermophilic, aerobic
microorganisms are under study. Specific analytical methods
and laboratory procedures are being developed which will
culminate in a valid experimental model of the sanitary
landfill system. The equipment consists basically of a
replicate series of 14 liter fermentation cells with provisions
for internal mixing to insure uniform aerobic conditions and
recirculation of liquid through the test sample. The
temperature and pH of the contents are measured on a
semicontmuous basis. Studies of assay of mixed solid refuse
samples obtained from the Meridian Township sanitary
landfill indicated that a measure of total organic carbon
provided a satisfactory estimate of reactive carbon. The
adopted method is presented in the appendix. Data show that
carbon which is lost from the solid phase appears
quantitatively in the gas phase as carbon dioxide, and that
nitrogen generally remains fixed as organic nitrogen, with
only a fractional loss appearing as ammonia or nitrate in
solution. The carbon to nitrogen ratio decreased from 27 to
approximately 15. A respiratory quotient of approximately
1.0 has, in general, been observed continuously during the
entire decomposition process, indicating the existence of
only aerobic oxidation processes.
68-1150
Stone, R., E. T. Conrad, and C. Melville. Land conservation
by aerobic landfill stabilization. Public Works, 99(12):95-97,
138, 140, Dec. 1968.
An attempt was made to accelerate landfill stabilization by
aerobically decomposing compacted refuse before its final
disposal. Aerobic decomposition generally results in a
reaction in which water is formed instead of methane. The
refuse was compacted into a cell which had been underlaid
with a series of gravel-covered perforated pipes through
which air may be forced. After aeration, the residue was
transferred to a final residue cell where it was recompacted
and received a soil cover. It was expected to thus reduce the
settlement and methane production typical of an anaerobic
landfill and permit earlier use of the land. The test cell
measured 50 ft wide, 200 ft long, and 17 ft deep, and was
underlaid with a gridwork of gravel and enclosed perforated
clay pipes which were connected to a large blower. The
blower could deliver 1,200 cu ft per minute under a total
pressure of 10 in. of water. The cell contained a total of
2,940 tons of refuse with an overall density of 1,253 Ib per
cu yd by wet weight. Temperatures rose rapidly to 190 F and
remained at or near this level until aeration was terminated.
222
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1146-1156
As much as a 40-percent reduction of the refuse was realized
using these processes. Costs were estimated on a weight basis
and were calculated (preliminary) at about $50 to $95 per
ton delivered.
the disposal site are prohibited. Although the agreement may
be terminated by any of the parties upon 6 months notice, it
has continued without interruption in operation throughout
the entire period.
68-1151
Stone, R., and M. Israel. Determining effects of recompaction
on a landfill. Public Works, 99(l):72-73, Jan. 1968.
Recompaction of a landfill, a project sponsored by the Public
Health Service in conjunction with the City of Santa Clara,
was conducted to demonstrate the possibilities of land
reclamation through accelerated stabilization. Approximately
one-half of the solid waste disposed of at the landfill is
demolition debris and other trash delivered by individuals
and private haulers, and the rest is city-collected rubbish
excluding garbage. Seasonal variation in waste composition,
moisture content, and volatile matter was determined. Sandy
clay was used to provide 24 in. of final cover. A 1-year-old
anaerobic cell was excavated, and the excavated solid waste
was recompacted into a new cell Settlement markers have
been placed on a recompacted cell and other cells to
determine relative settling rates.
68-1152
Stundl, K. Decomposition processes in the ground and their
influence on the quality of the groundwater.
Gas-Wasser-Waerme. 22(7): 142-147, July 1968.
The decomposition processes in various layers of soil above a
groundwater current are reviewed. The humus layer holds the
largest amount of microorganisms and is thus responsible for
an intensive biochemical decomposition. However, plant
growth and especially the fertilizer used have an important
influence on the decomposition process. Experiments were
conducted to observe the decomposition process of water
penetrating into the soil through a layer of manure on the
surface. The results show that a thick humus layer and a
subsequent layer of fine sand and gravel purify the water so
that no negative influences on the groundwater are to
be tearcd. Any destruction of the humus layer has
unfavorable effects on the groundwater, so that it is
especially dangerous to use abandoned gravel pits as waste
disposal sites. Unfortunately, this is done frequently because
many municipalities in Austria lack composting or
incineration plants. Very often ash from power or remote
heating plants is dumped at such sites. No agreement has yet
been worked out on the necessary precautionary measures.
One possible way to protect the groundwater would be the
sealing of gravel pits with clay. Another suggestion is the use
of fiber material remaining from paper and cellulose
production. The British method of the sanitary landfill
should be made known and adopted. (Text in German)
68-1153
Two Tennessee cities, one town, operate disposal. Solid
Wastes Management/Refuse Removal Journal, 11(10):68,
Oct. 1968.
The City of Maryville, Blount County, and the City of Alcoa
embarked in 1962 on a cooperative arrangement under
Tennessee's Interlocal Cooperation Act to operate a joint
sanitary disposal area. The landfill is covered daily (except
for Sundays and holidays) to a depth sufficient to eliminate
nuisance odors. Salvaging, scavenging, and burning waste at
68-1154
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Analysis
of Well Water. I 968. 2 p.
In connection with a sanitary landfill used for research
purposes in Ohio, it was noticed by the Field Development
Projects personnel that there was a slight rise in the sulfate
and chloride content of the water obtained from a well
located approximately 500 ft from the landfill. The chloride
and sulfate contents of some of the wells in this area were
determined at intervals as an indicator of possible seepage
from the landfill. The analyses were performed in duplicate
according to Standard Methods for the Examination of Water
and Wastewater, and the averages are reported. The results
for both chloride and sulfate concentrations arc within the
expected normal ranges for groundwater in the area.
Although slight changes were noted, no trend could be
specifically established by the small number of
determinations.
68-1155
Wuhrmann, K. Controlled unloading of waste. Ingegneria
Sanitaria, 16(6):439-444, Nov.-Dec. 1968.
Discharge of wastes under controlled conditions avoid
inconveniences such as smoke, bad odors, subsoil water
pollution, and insect development. Various types of waste
such as urban refuse, industrial residues, and slag should be
disposed of under controlled conditions. The location of the
landfill should be designed to keep to a minimum water
contamination, air pollution, and breeding and feeding of rats
and birds. Waste collection centers and their access roads
should be kept clean in order not to devalue the
surroundings. Several systems exist for the proper landfill of
wastes. In some cases, the refuse has to be covered with
material derived from the ground itself; in other cases, the
waste itself can be used as the covering material. Some of the
most important variables to consider in filling in ground with
various types of waste are the slope of the ground and its soil
composition. During the operation, part of the refuse is
immediately compacted and covered up either by means of
tractors or pneumatic equipment in order to avoid
contamination of the surroundings. Physical or chemical
changes occurring during landfill operations are under study,
but few difficulties seem to arise when the landfill is properly
managed. The cost of sanitary landfill at given collection
centers for 8,000 tons is given as 14.3 Sw Fr per ton. In
the United States, similar cost figures for 20,000 to 200,000
tons vary from 10 to 15 Sw Fr per ton. (Text in
Italian)
STREET CLEANING
68-1156
Brown, L. More about litterbugs. Missouri Conservationist,
29(4): 15, Apr. 1968.
The ugliness of a scenic Ozarks spot after visitors discarded
trash and painted on rocks is graphically described. Annual
223
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Street Cleaning
damage in national forests is $5 million. Cleaning up streets,
highways, and beaches costs nearly $1 billion per year.
Industry could help by paying for research and the
development of beer cans that would melt away after a while
out in the open and cigarette packages that would dissolve in
the rain. States could institute large fines for littering. It is
suggested that the Yellowstone, Yosemite, Grand Canyon,
and Ozarks National Parks be closed and guarded by an army
patrol in order to perserve some part of the country not yet
buried in garbage.
68-1157
Costs $25,000,000 yearly to remove highway litter. Public
Health News, 49(3):47, Mar. 1968.
The National Litter Index, published annually by Keep
America Beautiful, Inc., now stands at 109.6 for 1967 which
is up about 3.3 points over 1966. The Index is compiled from
vehicle miles traveled on primary State highways and the
annual cost of cleaning up litter from these same
thoroughfares. Rising costs for highway cleanup have also
increased about 3.3 percent and vehicle miles traveled were
up more than 5 percent. This means that litter fighters are
holding their own, and there is a growing public awareness of
the problems.
68-1158
Fleming, R. R. How to improve sweeping productivity.
American City, 83(6):102-104, June 1968.
In quest of more economical street cleaning, city officials are
purchasing sweepers with larger hoppers, speeding up debris
disposal, and switching to long-lasting steel or plastic broom
fiber. Hopper sizes of sweepers in use average about 3 1/2 cu
yd, according to a survey. Some officials wish to sweep the
freeways at speeds approaching those of traffic, while some
insist that sweeping quality disappears at any speed over 15
mph. Several firms now manufacture the faster four-wheel,
truck-type sweepers. Some municipalities have reduced the
equipment and manpower required by adding an over-the-cab
loader to their dump trucks. Others are converting to trucks
equipped with LoDal loaders to pick up the refuse dumped
on the street by the sweeper. This costs only a fraction of the
price of an elaborate removable-hopper system with 'lugger'
and 'mother' trucks. A sophisticated loading method of this
type employs a vacuum truck. The cost of picking up
sweepings, using this method, dropped from $7 per cu yd to
about $2. Newest of the loading devices is a sweeper which
projects its loaded hopper upward and outward to dump its
contents directly into a truck box. Street officials report 180
to 280 miles of sweeping with brooms of natural fibers, while
plastic brooms deliver 1,100 to 1,900 miles. Recording devices,
created especially for mechanical sweepers, have aided in
record keeping and efficiency of sweeping crews.
experimentation was expanded to discover the most efficient
routing of the machines so that shopping centers would be
cleaned daily, and main roads cleaned at regular intervals.
The experiments and conditions are detailed. The scheme has
been working long enough to show an improved standard of
cleansing, and a saving of money.
68-1160
Gannon, T. H. Central control and E.D.P.. American City,
83(2):94-96,Feb. 1968.
Through the application of logistics and electronic data
processing, Nassau County, New York, achieved the optimum
in street sanitation, maintenance, and repair. The Highway
Department is responsible for the cleaning, maintenance, and
repair of approximately 500 miles of roads and streets,
serving an area of 274 sq miles and a population of 1,500,000
persons. There is a work force of between 450 to 500 men
and more than 700 major pieces of equipment from trucks,
cranes, street sweepers, and tractors to pumps and
compressors. To correlate the activities of the various areas,
an operations control center was established at the garage
housing the department offices. In addition to work
assignments, each area reports data on the various jobs such
as man-hours, personnel cost, vehicle cost, and materials and
supplies. At present, the system can provide: a cost
accounting and budgeting control system; a personnel data
system; payroll preparation; and work accomplishment
reports. Savings, through increased efficiency of work crews,
will be analyzed on a seasonal basis.
68-1161
Mazowiecki, A. W. A big truck and a little sweeper. American
City, 83(3): 104-106,.Mar. 1968.
The City of Clifton, New Jersey, population 93,000, which
has a 12-sq mile area, has leaf-disposal problems in fall. Until
1966, the leaves were hauled to dumping sites located 10 to
14 miles away, causing tie-ups of equipment and large
expenditures. In the fall of 1966, a temporary site was found
within the city, but it also meant that the leaves had to be
transferred to a final disposal site later in the year at a cost of
about $18,336. In the fall of 1967, the leaves were hauled to
the final disposal site as they were being collected, using a
Garwood T-100 and one of the Nelson loaders to load from a
ramp at the city garage. The T-100 can take all the leaves the
eight collection trucks bring to the transfer site in one trip.
Using this system, the savings per year is estimated to be
$13,560. At this rate, the T-100 will pay for itself in less than
3 years on leaf collection alone. During the 'clean up week' in
each spring, the T-100 is used to crush such materials as
washing machines, refrigerators, mattresses, springs, old
lumber, and bulky furniture through the use of the crushing
action of the packer plate.
68-1159
Fox, N. A. Street sweeping-methods and incentive. Public
Cleansing, 58(2):87-88, Feb. 1968.
Suction sweepers were needed for cleaning public roads, to
replace the mechanical sweepers which had many
disadvantages. The work load applicable to the sweepers was
decided upon after testing. Extensive work-study
68-1162
A new method of removing dirt. Staedtehygiene, 19(6):7,
June 1968.
A new unit closes the gap between the broom and the motor
driven sweeping machines. It is called HAKO-FL1PPER. Wide
use for this new unit is in workshops and storage rooms, in
224
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1157-1168
courtyards, and on ramps, paths, and squares. It is useful
everywhere a simple solution to the dirt problem is sought,
but where it is neither feasible nor economical to keep a
motor-driven sweeping machine,The new unit is a small, flat,
and maneuverable manual brushing machine which is pushed
in front of you. No force need be applied. It is small enough
to be used for sweeping underneath furniture. The stable
steel sheet casing contains a roller brush with plastic bristles
and a 40 liter container to receive the dirt. A brush at the
side makes it possible to remove dirt along edges and walls.
With this side brush a strip 65 cm wide is cleaned. Without
the side brush, the strip swept is 48 cm wide. Under normal
conditions about 1,500 to 2,000 sq m can be swept per hour
without any strain. To brush the same area with a broom
would take about 5 hrs. Since no dust is stirred up and no
waste gas arises, the new brushing machine is especially suited
for rooms where food is stored or goods sensitive to odors.
The machine is noiseless, so no one is disturbed. The machine
picks up not only dust and sand but also scraps of paper,
broken pieces of glass, and cigarette butts. It sweeps when
pushed forward or backward;however, the rotating direction
of the brush does not change. The pressure of the center as
well as of the side brush on the floor can be adjusted. The
container can be easily removed and inserted again. A sturdy
steel frame protects the casing on all sides. (Text in German)
sand, leaves, and debris were removed from the paved surface
of 59 miles of curbed public streets. Village forces removed
152 loads of leaves, equal to 2,124 cu yd pulverized or 6,373
yd of whole leaves, using Tarco and Egan leaf loaders. Also
four loads of leaves (18 cu yd) were removed from highways
by mechanical sweepers.
68-1165
A street cleansing experiment. Public Cleansing, 5 8(5): 241,
May 1968.
Sunderland's Cleansing Committee authorized experiments to
be carried out in an effort to provide five villages, which
came into the borough, with a standard of service similar to
that enjoyed in Sunderland itself. Main road cleansing is still
carried out by a full-size vacuum sweeper, but the use of a
New Era Sweeper was decided upon for other areas, not
suitable for mechanical sweeping by large machines. The
design of the smaller sweeper allows the operator to carry out
normal footpath cleansing operations in village shopping
areas and near bus stops. The small sweeper has a hopper
capacity of approximately 14 cu ft, with an additional
hopper positioned to give easy access for the contents of
litter bins which may be picked up manually.
68-1163
Public Opinion Surveys, Inc. Who litters-and why; summary
of survey findings concerning public awareness and concern
about the problem of litter. New York, Keep America
Beautiful, Inc., Nov. 1968. 14 p.
The main object of this study was to shed further light on
three basic questions: who litters; why people litter; and the
most effective way to deal with this problem. The survey
reported was based upon two nationwide samples of adults,
drawn in accord with proven samplimg principles. The
interviewing was done during the months of July and August,
1968. A behaviorist approach was deemed best in searching
out those persons in the general adult population who are
most inclined to litter. Littering practices of adults between
the ages of 21 to 35 are more than three times greater than
those of persons over 50, and nearly twice those in the age
bracket of 35 to 49. Men are more guilty of littering than
women. Households with only one or two persons litter
significantly less than those made up of five or more persons.
Farmers and residents of the smallest communities are more
likely to litter than residents of the biggest cities-a finding
that may reflect time out of doors, and lack of law
enforcement. Reasons for littering given during the survey
fall into two categories: carelessness, laziness, and
indifference; and no trash receptacle available. The findings
point to the fact that most littering practices are not regarded
as very important-something a person ought not to do, but
not too serious if he does it. Fifty-six percent of those
interviewed said that there were public litter containers in
their communities, but only 21 percent said there were
enough.
68-1164
Street cleaning Scarsdale. Public Works. 99(3):116, Mar.
1968.
Mechanical sweepers are used in street cleaning operations in
Scarsdale, N. Y. In the past fiscal year, 5,560 cu yd of silt,
68-1166
Weisflog, W. E. Small sweeper-collectors. Public Cleansing,
58(ll):561-571,Nov. 1968.
Small sweepers-cleaners for cleaning footpaths and pedestrian
malls and parks are considered. Eleven models from various
manufacturers are tabulated. Such information as payload,
sweeping width, engine, speed, water tank, wheels, price, size,
and weight is included. Five of these models are pictured and
their design benefits discussed.
TRAINING, EDUCATION, AND
PUBLIC RELATIONS
68-1167
Bogue, D., and R. J. Boston. Solid waste disposal-a new area
of pollution. Georgia Municipal Journal, 18(2):14-15, Feb.
1968.
Georgia's problems in solid waste disposal are being studied
by the Georgia Department of Public Health's General
Engineering-Sanitation Service. A Solid Waste Planning Grant
was obtained to study 36 counties and 107 communities.
Industrial and commercial wastes are disposed of by various
means; some pose hazards with little control or regulation by
authorities. Opportunities and challenges offered by
Georgia's solid waste problems include: (1) development of
regional systems; and (2) the field testing and demonstration
of new solid waste disposal techniques. Grant support
available to States under the Solid Waste Disposal Act of
1965 is discussed.
68-1168
British composting firm gets research group backing.
Compost Science, 9(1):29-30, Spring 1968.
Much publicity was given early in 1968 to a composting
system developed by the Wolverhampton firm, Lawden
225
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Training, Education, and Public Relations
Manufacturing Co. of England. The Lawden Co. reports that
its methods require no human labor to sort out metal, plastic,
and glass refuse before the composting process begins. The
high speed shredder is said to accept anything that might turn
up in a refuse truck, even a refrigerator, a mattress, a sofa, or
an armchair, and shreds it to pieces as small as 6 to 8 in.
After digesting in special digesters, the composted material is
fed to a separation process in which metallic pieces like tin
cans are removed, and other larger pieces of material, which
are not acceptable in the final process, are sorted out by a
coarse screen. The resulting material is fed into a 300
horsepower grinding machine. Three new products are
created as a result of this operation and these are described.
Questions have been raised as to the validity of the claims,
since no pilot plant has actually been built and no compost
or fertilizer has been produced as yet. Its inventors say that
any small scale test is not feasible, but that all components
have been amply tested. Other writers in British journals
point out that no market research has been done on the
acceptibility of the product or the price-a consideration on
which the entire operation may succeed or fail.
8-1169
Clemons, C. A., and R. J. Black. Summaries of solid wastes
program contracts, July 1, 1965-June 30, 1968. Public
Health Service Publication No. 1897. Washington, U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1969. 46 p.
Coupled with its supplement, this publication summarizes the
53 contracts funded and conducted under the auspices of the
Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965. These investigative
activities cover the time period July 1, 1965 through June
30, 1969. Research contracts are conducted as a separate
operation within the Bureau of Solid Waste Management to
implement the directed research efforts of the Solid Waste
Disposal Act; the rapidly developing field of solid waste
management offers to both governmental and business
personnel a wide variety of subjects to be studied, ranging
from appraisals of current solid waste practices in Western
Europe to the development of a model solid waste
management ordinance and a digest of existing ordinances.
The contract summaries are arranged alphabetically by
contractor and present the objectives, the approach used, a
summary of progress, and publications resulting from each
project. Additional information given includes the cost of the
contract, commencement and termination dates, and the
project director.
68-1170
Ford Foundation grants in resources and environment. New
York, Ford Foundation, June 1968. 22 p.
The Ford Foundation has been engaged in an enlarged
program of natural resource preservation and management
since 1964. In its broadest terms, the focus of this enlarged
Foundation program is the perception of, the concern over,
and the effort to do something about problems that arise out
of conflict between man's need and capacity to engineer his
environment for economic use, and the need and capacity of
natural systems to adjust to the consequences. The
Foundation has been especially responsive to the scientific
need for natural areas to study and it has helped a few other
institutions acquire some. On two occasions the Foundation
made grants simply for land preservation without direct ties
to scientific use. To encourage basic science and spotlight its
importance, grants totalling $1,408,000 were made to
Princeton and Chicago in support of expanded graduate
programs in ecology and population biology. Other grants in
this area aim at encouraging ecological training for those
more directly concerned with problems of managing
resources. The Foundation's major programmatic interests
now are: selective support on a reduced scale for training and
research in environmental sciences; sharpening of legal tools
for conservation; and continued exploration of the
possibilities of effective environmental education at the
primary-secondary level. A comprehensive list of grants is
given.
68-1171
Furman, T. deS. University of Florida graduate program in
solid wastes. In Engineering Foundation Research
Conference; Solid Waste Research and Development, II,
Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26, 1968. New York. (Conference
Preprint G-5.)
The master's degree program in Environmental Engineering at
the University of Florida is divided into seven areas: air
pollution; aquatic biology; radiological health, solid wastes;
water quality management; water treatment and distribution;
and wastewater treatment and disposal. All students are
required to take courses in environmental biology, chemistry,
and statistics. Three courses in solid wastes cover quantities
and characteristics of municipal refuse, analysis of solid
wastes, and design of disposal facilities. The recently
completed Gainesville compost facility is also available for
instruction and research.
68-1172
Glysson, E. A. University of Michigan, solid wastes
engineering training program. In Engineering Foundation
Research Conference; Solid Waste Research and
Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., Jrly 22-26, 1968. New
York. (Conference Preprint G-3.)
Courses offered by the Civil Engineering Department of the
University of Michigan for a M.S. degree include: two courses
in Solid Wastes Engineering; Microbiology; Applied
Chemistry of Water and Waste Water; Land Utilization and
Planning; Air Pollution; Environmental Systems Analysis,
Management; and Statistics. In addition, there are other
elective courses in Political Sciences, Business
Administration, and Industrial Engineering. Some limited
research studies that have been undertaken are:
characteristics of refuse incinerator residue and incinerator
quenching waters; time and motion studies of refuse
collection; and evaluation of energy expended by refuse
collectors.
68-1173
Golueke, C. G., and P. H. McGauhey. Comprehensive studies
of solid wastes management. In Engineering Foundation
Research Conference; Solid Waste Research and
Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26, 1968. New
York (Conference Preprint F-7.)
The objectives of the study are to develop solutions to solid
waste problems through research, to develop an
understanding of management problems on the part of
226
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1169-1179
engineers, administrators, and other specialists, and to relate
research to real problems. A survey in the Public Health field
is being made of those components in the waste stream which
pose potential health hazards, such as asbestos, beryllium,
cadmium, heavy metals, and biological vectors. Work was
begun on a mathematical model for waste generation, and a
study of the variation in solid waste generation will use the
San Francisco Bay area as the test area. Active research is in
progress in the study of: pyrolysis; anaerobic digestion of
green garbage, paper, wood chips, and chicken manure, wet
oxidation; biofractionation studies concerned with
converting cellulose to useful material by microbial action;
and composting studies in relation to storage and fertilization
of land.
68-1174
Mahna, J. F. Solid wastes training at the University of Texas
at Austin. In Engineering Foundation Research Conference;
Solid Waste Research and Development, II, Beaver Dam,
Wis., July 22-26, 1968. New York. (Conference Preprint
G-4.)
The solid wastes training program at the University of Texas
Environmental Health Engineering in the Civii Engineering
Department. A new multidisciplinary course has been
developed to include the qualitative and quantitative
characterization of solid wastes form various sources, and
currently applied and new processes of solid waste disposal.
Core courses provide the student with a fundamental
background. A thesis dealing with some aspect of solid wastes
production, collection, and disposal is required for the
degree.
68-1175
Metz, G. L. E. Investment grants and the scrap processor.
Materials Reclamation Weekly, 113 (22):15-18, Nov. 30,
1968.
Investment grants operated by the Board of Trade under Part
I of the Industrial Development Act, 1966, are among a series
of incentives provided by government to encourage
modernization, productivity, efficiency, and investment in
manufacturing industries. The British Secondary Metals
Association and the Federation of Reclamation Industries are
trying to persuade the Board of Trade that scrap processing
qualifies for these grants, because it is concerned with the
making of an article. Some scrap processors have applied for
these grants for expenditure on new plants and have gotten
them. Others have entered into commitments for the
purchase of a new plant, only to find that the Board of Trade
does not now regard this as eligible for a grant, since it does
not now regard the making of prepared scrap as the making
of an article. The Board of Trade takes the view that the
efforts involved in scrap processing, such as in the conversion
of an old car into scrap, are not sufficiently great to justify
payment of investment grants on the machinery needed. It is
hoped that this question will be re-examined, and steps taken
to remove the feeling that the industry has received less than
justice.
68-1176
Pohland, F. G., and J. D. Westfield. A graduate solid waste
training program. _In Engineering Foundation Research
Conference; Solid Waste Research and Development, II,
Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26, 1968. New York. (Conference
Preprint G-2.)
Georgia Institute of Technology's program for a M.S. degree
in Solid Waste Technology consists of a core curriculum
administered by the schools of: Civil, Industrial, and
Mechanical Engineering; Architecture and City Planning; and
Applied Biology and the Department of Social Sciences. With
the exception of two new graduate courses in Solid Waste
Technology, the core curriculum consists of courses which
were available at the inception of the program. These courses
include: statistics, systems analysis, operations research,
community planning, sanitary engineering, and
environmental health. Formal instruction is complemented
by laboratory experiments and demonstrations, occasional
field problems, visits to existing facilities, and seminars.
68-1177
Purdom, P W. Drexel Institute of Technology graduate
program in solid wastes technology. jn_Engineering Research
Conference; Solid Waste Research and Development, II,
Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26, 1968. New York. (Conference
Preprint G-l.)
Supported in part by a training grant for the Public Health
Service, a graduate environmental program at Drexel Institute
of Technology leads to either an M.S. or Ph.D. degree. The
graduate work emphasizes urban problems and includes such
courses as. environmental health, environmental chemistry,
sanitary microbiology; hydrology, solid wastes technology,
systems and analysis, combustion theory; and administration
and statistics. Research on which students are currently
working include: incinerator residue quality, leaching from
incinerator residue, and groundwater pollution from sanitary
landfills.
68-1178
Schaub, J. H., and R. Zaltzman. A graduate program in solid
wastes at the West Virginia University 1967-1968. _Ln
Engineering Foundation Research Conference; Solid Waste
Research and Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26,
1968, New York. (Conference Preprint G-6.)
A solid wastes training program, offering both master's and
doctoral degrees, was established within the Department of
Civil Engineering at West Virginia University as part of the
overall emphasis on environmental engineering. A laboratory
with specialized instrumentation is being built and equipped
for the solid wastes program. Specific courses in solid wastes
cover, traditional patterns and problems, municipal and
industrial design of disposal operations; design of dynamic
material systems, and advanced work in analysis and design.
Related courses cover public health engineering, air pollution
control, sanitary chemistry and biology, radiological health,
engineering statistics, municipal government, and ecology.
68-1179
Shuster, W. W. Solid wastes engineering. In Engineering
Foundation Research Conference, Solid Waste Research and
Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26, 1968. New
York. (Conference Preprint G-7.)
The program leading to the master's degree at Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute provides the opportunity for study in
Environmental Engineering, with particular emphasis in the
area of Solid Wastes Disposal. Courses which emphasize solid
wastes include: the unit processes in environmental
227
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Training, Education, and Public Relations
engineering; atmospheric pollution, management and
planning for pollution abatement; public health,
environmental engineering solid wastes laboratory; and thesis
projects. Other courses cover microbiology, water resources,
ground water geology, industrial waste treatment and
disposal, and mathematical models of operation research.
68-1180
Steigman, H. Solid waste disposal. Pennsylvania's Health,
29(2):8-12, Summer 1968.
Under the Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965, Pennsylvania
received a $315,441 Federal grant to launch a 3-year study
which will result in a plant for a sound solid waste
management program. A Solid Wastes Unit was set up under
the Sanitation Division's Environmental Development
section. Pennsylvania adopted the data inventory forms for
solid waste studies which were developed by the National
Task Force Committee, and it was the first State to use the
U.S. Public Health Service's data processing facilities to
compile information from these forms. The State's 2,559
municipalities have provided information on a 'Community
Description Report' which covers all phases of
administration, enforcement, and costs relating to solid waste
programs. The 'Facility Investigation Report' is designed to
gather material about permanent disposal installations, and
the 'Land Disposal Site Investigation Report' seeks to provide
detailed information on landfills and dumps. Also, a random
sampling of 13 percent of the Commonwealth's industries
covering wastes, volumes, special handling, salvage ability,
and disposal techniques is underway, and a similar sampling
of the State's farms is planned. Several universities are
cooperating in studies including: laboratory determination of
the processes which occur in the interior of a sanitary
landfill; utilization of incinerator residue as a cover for
landfills; and transporting solid wastes through pipelines.
Legislation is proposed to set up joint responsibility by State
and local municipal government for planning and enforcing a
solid waste program.
68-1181
Twenty-three solid waste demonstration projects underway.
APWA Reporter, 35(0:8-9, Jan. 1968.
A total of 23 solid wastes disposal demonstration projects are
now underway, according to a recent report from the
National Center for Urban and Industrial Health. The Center
has awarded grants totaling $2,492,399 for the experiments
with new disposal techniques or more adequate disposal
programs. Summaries of the projects are given in this article,
with the names of the project directors. Complete
information is available from Mr. Richard D. Vaughan, Chief
of the Solid Wastes Program, N.C.U.I.H. Some of the projects
include: developing better methods of auto salvage, designing
and constructing pollution-free incinerators; and studying the
effectiveness of regional solid waste management.
68-1182
Vaughan, R. D., and R. J. Black. The federal solid wastes
program. In Proceedings, 1968 National Incinerator
Conference,"New York, May 5-8, 1968. American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, p.318-321.
Significant developments in the field of solid waste disposal
since 1966 are reviewed. The subject of solid wastes has been
examined in detail for the first time by four top level
scientific and advisory groups: the Committee on Pollution
of the National Academy of Sciences-National Research
Council; the Environmental Pollution Panel of the President's
Science Advisory Committee; the National Commission on
Technology, Automation, and Economic Progress; and the
Task Force on Environmental Health and Related Problems.
Thirty-six States have received grants for making Statewide
surveys of solid waste needs and comprehensive plans for
meeting them. Total funds awarded by the Public Health
Service for state planning grants during Fiscal Years 1966 and
1967 amounted to almost $1.4 million. Fifty-three public
agencies or nonprofit institutions have received
demonstration grants covering up to two-thirds of the cost
for studies and investigations of more systematic approaches
to solid waste disposal. Total funds awarded for
demonstration grants during Fiscal Years 1966 and 1967
amounted to almost $7 million. Eight institutions of higher
learning have received grants totaling $490,000 to support
the training of graduate students in engineering, the physical
sciences, economics, and other disciplines. About 300 design,
operating, and administrative personnel from government and
industry subscribed to four solid waste training courses. New
research facilities have been completed at Johnson City,
Tennessee, and Cincinnati, Ohio. The Solid Wastes Program
has used the contract mechanism to augment staff
capabilities.
68-1183
Weber, C. E. Experience in conducting an incinerator
technology course._In_ Proceedings; 1968 National Incinerator
Conference, New York, May 5-8, 1968. American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, p.322-326.
The Incinerator Committee of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers organized and sponsored a course in
1966 and 1967 for public officials, incinerator operators, and
managers. The course is outlined, and enrollment and other
factors which contributed to its success are discussed. The
basic philosophy of the course was to teach the underlying
principles and basics that are not acquired by experience
alone, and to provide understanding of plant phenomena to
guide in decision making. The course consisted of a series of
fifteen lectures entitled: Incinerator Terminology; Refuse,
Residue, and Air; Combustion and Heat; Pressure, Draft, and
Flow of Gases; Maintenance and Inspection; Air Pollution
Control; Instrumentation; Refractories and Metals;
Hydraulics; Mechanical and Electrical Systems; Disposal of
Flyash and Residue; Stokers and Grate Operation;
Incineration of Bulky Refuse; Public Relations and
Personnel; and Modern Concepts Here and Abroad. Lectures
on the subject of uses of recovered heat, public relations,
record keeping, and safety, presented during the first course,
were combined with other lectures for a second course.
Recommendations are offered to assist others in the planning
of future courses.
68-1184
World Health Organization (Official Records) No. 172.
Environmental health, chap.7. Geneva, 1968. p.57-63.
In many developing countries, the rate of urbanization is so
great that waste-water collection, treatment, and disposal lag
far behind community needs, and the construction of the
urgently required sewage systems and treatment plants for
228
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180-1188
major cities are constantly deferred because of the high
capital costs. WHO is therefore assisting an increasing number
of developing countries in the preparation of requests to the
United Nations Development Program for financing, from the
Special Fund component, of the necessary premvestment and
engineering feasibility studies for economic long term waste
disposal programs, particularly for capital cities and other
large communities. Studies carried out by consulting
engineering firms under WHO supervision serve as a basis for
securing from international sources the loans essential for the
implementation of the long term waste management plans.
Progress in the preparation of a master plan for a sewage and
solid waste collection and disposal system for these
metropolitan areas are briefly discussed: Manila, Taipei,
Ibadan, Teheran, Central African Republic, Greater Kuala
Lumpur, Ipoh, Bangkok, Government of Iran, Government
of Fiji, Manila, Israel, India, and the United States. The WHO
International Reference Centre on Wastes Disposal was set up
in September 1968 at the Federal Institute for Water Supply,
Sewage Purification and Water Pollution Control, Zurich,
Switzerland, to establish an international program for the
collection, storage, and distubution of information.
MANAGEMENT
68-1185
Anderson, L. E. Comprehensive studies of solid wastes
management; a mathematical model for the optimization of a
waste management system. Berkeley, University of
California, Feb. 1968. 63 p.
The complexity and magnitude of the flow systems needed in
wastes management are such that the 'systems analysis'
approach is indicated. Moreover, the type of complex
interrelationships involved in flow systems are well suited to
such an approach, especially since it leads to the development
of mathematical models, the tools with which such systems
can be most readily optimized. The aim of the research is to
develop a general procedure for shipping, at minimum cost,
within the limits of arc and activity capacities, all wastes
from their source to sink by way of intermediate points as
required. The specific problem of transporting solid wastes
from communal transfer stations via transfer vehicles was
examined. An algorithm was developed which makes use of
the combinatorial structure of this transportation problem,
and an optimal shipping schedule subject to aggregate flow
restrictions and arc and sink capacity restraints was obtained.
A simulation was made of the general problem of
transporting and treating all wastes generated in a typical
community. The system was optimized by applying a
parametric, out-of-kilter, linear programming procedure.
While the system thus developed was in general a
multicommodity network flow problem, the consequent
limitations were avoided by incorporating fixed ratio flow
dividers to segregate commodities, and to allow optimization
by conventional methods. Numerous equations, flow charts,
and illustrations of the system are given.
68-1186
Armstrong, D. H. Airborne pathogens associated with solid
wastes handling. In Engineering Foundation Research
Conference; Solid Waste Research and Development, II,
Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26, 1968. New York. (Conference
Preprint C-10.)
Municipal refuse handling operations constitute a health
hazard, since the dust generated carries a large number of
microorganisms, including pathogens of intestinal and
respiratory tract origin. The degree of hazard depends on the
concentrations of the dust and the types of organisms
associated with the dust. A qualitative and quantitative study
was made by the Solid Wastes Program of the microbiological
flora of the dust associated with four municipal refuse
incinerators and a composting plant. Air samples were taken
with an Anderson volumetric sampler used in con|unction
with TSA blood agar and eosm methylene blue agar plates.
The results, as reflected by the isolation of pathogens,
indicate that the potential health hazard from the dust is
significan t
68-1187
Bower, B. T., G. P. Larson, A. Michaels, et al. Waste
management, generation and disposal of solid, liquid and
gaseous wastes in the New York region; a report of the
second regional plan. New York. Regional Plan Association,
Inc., Mar. 1968. 107 p.
The waste situation in the New York area is reviewed. The
present sources of waste, their interrelationships, and the
types of waste are considered. The environment's assimilative
capacity and the effects of waste discharged to it are
examined. The present sources and amounts of wastes are
reviewed, and these figures are used to predict the wastes to
the year 2000, considering various alternatives of
management and regulation. Suggestions are made for
regional planning and the costs attendant on the management
choices. The appendix lists the present management costs,
the assumptions used in developing the predictions to the
year 2000, and the background data used in preparing the
estimation of the present situation. Tabulated data cover:
paper consumption, vehicle-miles per business day present
and projected, particulate emission level v. incinerator costs,
and the relationship between sulfur dioxide concentration
and damages. Maps of the study area and the filled wetlands
over the past half century are included. All the data used in
formulating the data coefficients are listed in tables in the
appendix. These include various population predictions based
on living patterns, and different categories of waste
generation by industry.
68-1188
Bower, B. T., G. P. Larson, and A. Michaels, et al.
Introduction. In Waste management; generation and disposal
of solid, liquid and gaseous wastes in the New York region; a
report of the second regional plan. New York, Regional Plan
Association, Inc., Mar. 1968. p.13-22.
This study is concerned with a 31-county region around New
York City. It specifies procedures by which the problems of
wastes generation and management can be incorporated in
regional planning. It also examines the impact of settlement
patterns on generation of wastes, and indicates the impact of
different waste management policies on waste generation,
environmental quality, and costs. Lists on the types of data
needed for the analysis of waste management in the region
are included. The assimilative capacity of the environment is
considered. Programs might be initiated whereby incentives
are offered to industries to reduce wastes whether by taxing
their effluents, or by paying part of the money saved in
229
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Management
treatment costs back to the manufacturer reusing the waste.
The percentage of waste paper utilized in new paper
production has fallen to 20 percent, but if it were increased
to 80 percent, it would save the New York area 100 million
dollars per year in waste treatment costs.
68-1189
Bower, B. T., G. P. Larson, A. Michaels, et al. underlying
concepts and principles. In Waste management, generation
and disposal of solid, liquid and gaseous wastes in the New
York region, a report of the second regional plan. New York,
Regional Plan Association, Inc., Mar. 1968. p.23-35.
A waste management system consists of: (1) facilities for
handling, treating, and disposing of waste; (2) facilities for
modifying the assimilative capacity of the environment; (3)
regulations for modifying the generation and discharge of
wastes; and (4) facilities and procedures for collection and
analysis of data necessary in monitoring environmental
quality and the performance of individual waste generators
and waste reduction facilities. The basic problems in handling
various types of wastes involve determining the impact of
waste discharges on the quality of the environment, and
determining the effects of the temporal variations in the
concentrations of the wastes. Waste management involves the
regulation of discharges from points of waste generation and
from collective waste-handling facilities. Three types of
standards can be applied: raw material standards, discharge
standards, and ambient standards. The quality of air, water,
and land, when affected by the discharge of wastes, can be
modified or improved in three ways: (1) by reducing the
generation of wastes; (2) by reducing, in on-site and/or
collective facilities, the quantity of wastes discharged after
generation, and (3) by modifying the assimilative capacity of
the environment or making better use of the existing
assimilative capacity.
68-1190
Bower, B. T., G. P. Larson, A. Michaels, et al. Waste
generation: present and future. In Waste management,
generation and disposal of solid, liquid and gaseous wastes in
the New York region; a report of the second regional plan.
New York, Regional Plan Association, Inc., Mar. 1968.
p.3744.
The economic data for this study consisted of the Regional
Plan Association's population and employment projections to
the year 2000. These projections were made for sub-areas of
the region according to Standard Industrial Classification
categories, Two kinds of wastes are given special attention,
the abandoned or junked vehicle, and radioactive wastes. In
developing the analysis four major factors were considered:
(1) the technology of production processes; (2) product mix,
(3) the type of raw material inputs; and (4) the controls on
waste discharge. The costs of waste management include such
items as annual charges on the investment in on-site and
collective waste reduction facilities, operation and
maintenance costs for these facilities, cost of land for landfill,
effluent charges, paid capital, and O&M costs of quality
monitoring networks, and costs of performance checking.
The impact of waste discharges must be assessed. This
requires the development of mathematical models which
interrelate the variables. The effluent control policies
adopted by the relevant governmental agencies are part of the
waste management system.
68-1191
Bower, B. T., G. P. Larson, A. Michaels, et al. Waste
generation; present and future. In Waste management;
generation and disposal of solid, liquid and gaseous wastes in
the New York region; a report of the second regional plan.
New York, Regional Plan Association, Inc., Mar. 1968.
p.45-51.
Based on population, employment, the number of
vehicle-miles that were traveled and fossil fuel consumption
estimates can be made on the present levels of solid waste.
Estimating future waste generation levels is much more
complicated. Changes in packaging modes and household
heating practices have caused large variations in the amount
and types of wastes in recent years, and these changes can be
expected to continue. The gross amounts of solid household
wastes have been increasing at a rate of over 2 percent per
year due to the increasing use of disposable containers. Two
different projections are made to the year 2000. The first
assumes that the present trends continue in waste generation
and disposal, but the second assumes that policies,
regulations, and/or incentives will be established so that the
per capita generation of solid wastes will level off at present
amounts. Incentives on the industrial level can be provided
by charging for quantities of BOD discharged and/or for
water intakes. These charges might make it economically
favorable to construct water treatment and recirculation
systems. The total amounts of solid wastes, as opposed to
gaseous and liquid wastes, that will have to be disposed of by
landfill are also estimated. These considerations show the
need to form incineration and salvage operations.
68-1192
Bower, R. T., G. P. Larson, A. Michaels, et a!. Waste
management methods and residual waste discharged: present
and future. In Waste management; generation and disposal of
solid, liquid, and gaseous wastes in the New York region; a
report of the second regional plan. New York, Regional Plan
Association, Inc., Mar. 1968. p.53-66.
Present and alternative future waste management methods
and related estimates of residual wastes discharged to the
environment are discussed. Five types of wastes are
considered. BOD wastes are largely removed at municipal and
industrial sources. Hydrocarbons are partially removed at the
refineries, but the absence of emission control is responsible
for increases due to rising automobile use. Sulfur dioxide is
discharged into the atmosphere by fossil fuel heating plants.
Particulates come from industries, power plants, automobiles,
and incinerators. Solid wastes are principally disposed of by
sanitary landfill, although hog feeding is still used for
restaurant wastes. Many possible alternatives are available for
handling wastes which incorporate different combinations of
on-site and collective methods, and different combinations of
'sinks' for final disposal. The various management conditions
also involve policy decisions. An example of this is the
control of exhaust emissions. Tables list the management
conditions projected for the year 2000, some of the other
possible management conditions, the amounts of each type
of waste discharged in 2000 given various management
variations, and the hydrocarbon emission projection based on
various cases.
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68-1193
Bower, B. T., G. P Larson, A. Michaels, et at. Implications
for governmental organization In Waste management;
generation and disposal of solid, liquid and gaseous wastes in
the New York region; a report of the second regional plan.
New York, Regional Plan Association, Inc., Mar. 1968.
p.67-71.
This report shows that a thorough study of the present
procedures of governmental organization in waste
management is necessary. Only in recent years has the
concept of comprehensive waste management systems
evolved, and it has not yet been applied anywhere in the
United States. An outline covering the waste management
functions in relation to governmental organization in the
New York area is presented. Two major questions to be
investigated in the study are: (1) the extent to which the
various relevant activities should be performed by a single
overall regional agency; and (2) the extent to which activities
relating to all three forms of wastes should be organiza-
tionally combined. In some cases, regional and subregional
organization has advantages. Excessive centralization of
administrative functions might make for more problems than
it would solve.
68-1194
Bower, B. T., G. P. Larson, A. Michaels, et al. Summary and
suggestions. In Waste management; generation and disposal of
solid, liquid and gaseous wastes in the New York region; a
report of the second regional plan. New York, Regional Plan
Association, Inc., Mar. 1968. p.73-79.
Various suggestions relevant to the continuous appraisal of
environment quality and waste management in the region are
given. These are divided up into short run and long run
suggestions. The former include: refine the analyses of waste
management costs and disposal methods; inventory the areas
and spaces available for land disposal of solid wastes within
the region; and show how studies by other agencies can be
incorporated into the waste management program. The long
run suggestions include: the collection of detailed data on the
waste discharges on air, water, and land quality, studies to see
if areas are available where advantageous changes in
topography could be made by landfilling. Various other
studies are suggested to determine the efficiency of
incineration methods, new waste collection systems, and the
use of effluent charges. The ultimate disposal means would
be an on-site system that would maximize recycling and
minimize residue.
68-1195
Burgess, R. APWA Research Project 66-1: comparative public
works statistics. In American Public Works Association
Yearbook 1968. Chicago, American Public Works
Association, p.190-207.
The Research Foundation of the American Public Works
Association initiated a two-year research program on
comparative public works statistics, under the financial
sponsorship of some 32 cities and counties across the United
States and Canada. The purpose of the project is to develop a
system for collecting, analyzing, and reporting valid
comparative public works statistics that will be useful to the
several levels of supervisory, administrative, professional,
executive, and policy-making officials in carrying out their
planning, programming, budgeting, controlling, and other
decision making responsibilities. As used in the study, the
term 'public works' includes all operation and maintenance
activities associated with street, parks, water and sewage
utilities, airfields, docks and harbors, public buildings,
equipment, and refuse collection and disposal. The
operations profile chart for residential refuse collection is
illustrated. This kind of information will make it possible to
determine optimum ways of performing pubhc works
operation and maintenance activities under a variety of
conditions. Another chart shows the prevalency of various
refuse collection methods such as curb pickup, rear yard
pickup, and other collection methods. Other tables can show
service levels, and other policies and practices.
68-1196
California State development plan program; phase II report.
Sacramento, California State Office of Planning, 1968. 363 p.
The California State Office of Planning, plus other California
agencies, departments, and divisions undertook to transmit
the most significant development issues facing this rapidly
growing State. The results are over one hundred
recommendations for legislative and administrative action.
The emphasis was upon furnishing the executive and
legislative decision-makers at the State level with a reliable,
consistent, and comprehensive body of information about
statewide and regional development trends, issues, and
potentials which can be utilized in setting development goals
and in focusing policies and programs on their achievement.
68-1197
Clarkeson, J. Appendix I, Multi-use of land facilities. Jn
Summer study on the management of solid wastes; final
report, v.i. Cambridge, Urban Systems Laboratory,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sept. 1968. p.55-58.
One of the most pressing problems in solid waste disposal is
to find available sites. Multiuse of land for many types of
public purposes is feasible. Because of the width and location
of large expressways, a study was made to determine to what
extent such facilities may be used to serve the waste disposal
problem. A study was made of the expressway land-takings in
the Boston area of Massachusetts. Multiuse of elongated
stretches of land such as are required for highways and power
distribution facilities could serve other purposes. In the
Boston area, 4,500 acres of land adjacent to the 104 miles of
expressway are not being used for transport purposes and are,
therefore, available. The existing system of expressways in
this area will provide space, if properly handled, for more
than 5 years of solid waste disposal used as sanitary landfill.
68-1198
Collins, L. Regional refuse disposal in the north east. Public
Cleansing. 58(8):418-429 Aug. 1968.
Evidence was produced showing that a coordinated program
of land reclamation was essential in the northeast area of
England. Various proposals, including incineration, were
considered, and regional cooperation in any program of
refuse disposal was encouraged. After a thorough study of
the needs and projections for the area to be served, a
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computer program was written to determine sites for
incinerators. The recovery of derelict land was extended as an
important feature, and problems in relation to refuse disposal
in the area had to be organized in such manner that crude,
pulverized, composted, or incinerated refuse could be utilized
properly.
68-1199
Improving community solid waste practices through
planning. Solid waste Publication 2. Harrisburg,
Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Department of Health, Dec.
1968. 28 p.
The topics of solid waste planning discussed are: What is
Solid Waste; How Much Solid Waste; Why Is Solid Waste a
Problem; Contemporary Solid Waste Disposal Methods;
Number and Type of Disposal Sites in Pennsylvania; Need for
Municipal Control of Solid Waste Practices, Uniform
Standards-A must; A Sound Management System is Vital;
Areas of Responsibility for Solid Waste Management; Solid
Waste Planning; Major Operational Phases in Solid Waste
Management; Land Requirements; Transportation
Requirement; Disposal; Assistance; and a Regional Concept.
The Appendix includes: Pennsylvania Statutes pertaining to
solid waste, rules and regulations pertaining to solid waste,
fact sheet on the Pennsylvania Solid Waste Management Act,
summary of Act 421, solid waste materials--a list of
examples, map of human service regions, listing of State
health centers, and a listing of full-time local health
departments.
68-1200
Proceedings; Governor's Conference on Solid Waste
Management, Hershey, Pa., Oct. 8-9, 1968. Harrisburg,
Pennsylvania Department of Health, Bureau of Housing and
Environmental Control. 212 p.
The Governor's Conference on Solid Waste Management was
the initial step in the implementation of the Pennsylvania
Solid Waste Management Act. Through this Act, Pennsylvania
became the first State in the U.S. to form a partnership with
local government to plan and execute a good solid waste
management program. The conference represents a
cooperative attempt to present, discuss, and provide a basis
for resolution of some of the difficult aspects of solid waste
management. Representatives of government, industry, and
consulting firms cover such topics as: Pennsylvania's
program; government authority and responsibility; solid
waste management; regional planning; industrial, institutional
and agricultural wastes; engineering aspects of solid wastes
handling; and approaches taken by various Pennsylvania
communiites to the solid waste problem. Reports to the
Governor are included for each panel discussion held at the
conference along with the questions and answers that
accompanied each discussion. A list of program participants
is appended.
68-1201
Culver, B. D., and T. E. Walsh. Some aspects of systems
engineering for waste management in California. Archives of
Environmental Health, 17(3):377-382, Sept. 1968.
The development of a method for providing a system
designer with a rational basis for selecting the best
performance conditions with which to store, transport,
process, or dispose of the wastes found in any subregion
(municipal, interface, agricultural, or industrial) is described.
Four tables were developed, giving a numerical coefficient for
such bad effects as: flies rodents, crop damage, water
pollution, odor safety hazards, human disease, etc., one for
each subregion. The coefficient was arrived at through
multiplication of a 'relative importance scale' developed for a
region, and the 'relative contribution to these effects by solid
wastes' scale. This was then normalized to give an 'influence
coefficient.' The influence coefficients were used to relatively
weigh the raw, bad effect scores on a regional basis
through a straight multiplication process. The raw bad effect
scores for a region are developed by scoring an effect from
consensus data as compiled on 13 separate tables, one of
which is illustrated. Tabulations include 'Bad Effects
Contribution of a Waste under Various Conditions,'
rSubregional Categories,'''Relative Importance of Bad Effects
by Subregions,' 'Estimated Percent Contribution of Solid
Wastes to Bad Effects by Subregion,' and 'Development of
the Influence Coefficient of Bad Effects.'
68-1202
Dasmann, R. F. Solid wastes. _In An environment fit for
people. New York, The Public Affairs Committee, 1968.
p. 10-12.
The disposal of solid wastes has always presented a problem
for mankind. No longer is the simple solution ot burning
garbage possible in most urban areas because of the air
pollution danger that it involves. Some cities seek to fill in
deep and unwanted canyons with their junk; others build
artificial hills and cover then with soil; but the pile of rubbish
grows ever higher, and the more advanced the technology,
the greater the amount of garbage and solid waste. As with
air and water pollution, one must look beyond the immediate
measures-to the long term solution. This means reclamation
and recirculation of the materials now tossed wastefully
aside.
68-1203
El-Shaieb, A. Optimal activity locations. Operations Research
Center Report 68-3. Berkeley, University of California, Feb.
1968. 96 p.
A branch and bound method is given for solving a given
problem. The method is compared with other methods, and a
practical application is given. A review of previous work, the
single source problem, and multiple source problem are
discussed. The problem can be summarized as follows: for a
number of sources,given their locations, requirements, and
associated shipping costs, the number of destinations/ their
locations and capacities must be found. The main objective
of the problem is to optimize the routing of shipments in
multisource, multidestination systems. The formulated
problem is mainly a nonlinear programming problem. Three
algorithms are developed for the given problem. An
enumeration algorithm and a branch and bound algorithm,
each yields an optimal set of source locations. A heuristic
algorithm which yields an optimal or near-optimal set of
source locations, is discussed. A search procedure that
converges to an optimal source location is presented. The
search procedure is based on both the quadratic
approximation and Fibbonacci approximation, for which, an
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outline is presented. Minimizing the total cost of
transportation is considered. The cost of transporting one
unit is proportional to the square of the distance traveled. It
is concluded that the branch and bound method is superior
to the exact method in terms of the number of nodes
required. A ratio of one-half is found in the case of small-size
problems; the ratio decreases to about one-third in the case
of larger-size problems.
68-1204
Fisher, R. E. We put progress above politics... and solved a
refuse-disposal problem for five adjoining municipalities.
American City, 83(7):113-115, July 1968.
One of the first steps toward regional cooperation in the
State College, Pennsylvania, area consisted of establishing the
Centre Regional Planning Commission. Its membership
includes representatives from the Borough of State College
and from four townships covering an area in excess of 130 sq
miles with a population of more than 40,000. Agreements
were made covering the use of the borough's sanitary landfill,
between the five licensed private collectors and the five
municipalities, establishing collection and disposal
requirements. The uniform ordinance enacted by each
participant included the following regulations: that property
owners must patronize the licensed collectors; that a license
covering a period of 1 year and costing $1 is needed to
handle solid wastes; that a license can be revoked upon
failure of the contractor to comply with existing ordinances;
the hauler must secure a performance bond and provide the
townships with certificates of public liability insurance; and
the hauler must dispose of the refuse only at approved sites.
Materials potentially detrimental to health and safety are
restricted from the landfill. Criteria were established for
sharing costs. Through the first 8 months of operation, the
cost of the landfill operation was approximately $25,400.
Wastes from the region averaged about 2,430 tons per month.
Projected ov* a 12-month period, and with an estimated
annual budget of $40,000, the cost of disposal comes to
about $1.33 per ton.
68-1205
Forsberg, F. J. Inventory of the solid waste situation in
Minnesota. Presented at Animal Waste Symposium,
Minneapolis, Nov. 21, 1968. 10 p.
To cover the majority of Minnesota's population in regard to
the solid waste situation, surveys were conducted of
communities with populations of 5,000 and over. Based on
17 county surveys, which includes the Seven County
Metropolitan Area, an average of 18.3 sites per county would
mean that 1,590 dumpsites now exist in the State of
Minnesota, of which 90 percent are open-burning dumps. To
aid in correlating surveys nationally, the Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare has developed three survey
forms to identify the problem. First is a community
description report to obtain information about size,
organization for handling solid waste, refuse storage,
collection and disposal along with amounts and costs. A
landfill disposal site investigation report consists of disposal
capabilities, costs and methods of operation. The facility
investigation report provides information about operating
characteristics and capabilities of all solid waste reduction or
disposal facilities other than land disposal sites. The data
received are being computerized on punched cards to enable
a development of a Statewide analysis. Of the preliminary
findings, sanitary landfills numbered 182, 175 of which were
substandard. Twelve percent of the sites were spreading and
composting refuse in 2-ft layers or less. Estimates received
from the 182 sites indicated that 443,050 tons or 10,006,330
cu yd were disposed of annually. Outside of the Seven
County Metropolitan Area, 73 percent of the population
practiced backyard burning. Other preliminary data were
given.
68-1206
Hample, C. R. The national survey of community solid waste
practices information systems. In Engineering Foundation
Research Conference; Solid Waste Research and
Development, II, Beaver Dam,Wis., July 22-26, 1968. New
York.p.F-3.
Under the Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965, which provides
for grants to State and interstate agencies for conducting
surveys of solid waste disposal practices and for developing
solid waste plans, data on disposal have been acquired on
three different forms. The Systems and Operations Planning
Activity of the Solid Waste Program acts as the central locale
for the collection of the completed survey forms and for the
processing of the information. A computer storage and
retrieval system, which has six magnetic tape units available
as auxiliary storage, was chosen. Each survey form is treated
as one record and stored on magnetic tape. The retrieval
activities of the system are restricted to retrieval of entire
records. Additional retrieval capabilities are being developed
to retrieve by population groupings and by response criteria
for each question of the survey.
68-1207
Hickman, H. L. Planning comprehensive solid wastes
management systems. American Society of Civil Engineering,
Journal of Sanitary Engineering Division,
94(SA6):1,147-1,152, Dec. 1968.
Solid wastes have not received proper recognition as a
national problem, and therefore, have not received
throughtful planning, design, careful operation, and strong
public support. Planning must be approached by effective
problem-solving teams. The areas which must be examined
include: determination of population and economic growth
in the study area; an evaluation of existing solid waste
disposal systems; investigation of quantities of wastes
generated by the system; and formation of a comprehensive
public information plan. Finally, a well thought out
implementation of the plan must be formulated. Tabulations
include: a cost curve plotted by population of study area and
costs per capita to conduct the study; and estimated time
necessary to conduct the study as related to study area
population.
68-1208
International Reference Centre on Waste Disposal. WHO
Chronicle. 22(10):456,Oct. 1968.
An International Reference Centre on Wastes Disposal was
established in September 1968 at the Federal Institute for
Water Supply, Sewage Purification, and Water Pollution
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Control in Zurich, Switzerland. The activities of the center
will comprise: the collection of basic data from different
parts of the world on wastes produced; the development of
rapid sampling and analytical methods for measuring
pollutants; the evaluation of new methods for the collection,
processing, reuse, and disposal of liquid and solid wastes;
research on the construction and management of disposal
plants; investigation of the health aspects of waste reuse, and
disposal of liquid and solid wastes; and studies on the
financial and economic implications of disposal and
reclamation. One of the first functions envisaged for the
Centre is the investigation and development of simplified
methods for the solution of problems related to solid wastes
68-1209
Japan. Ministry of Health and Welfare. A brief report on
public health administration in Japan. Asian Medical Journal,
ll(10):719-728, Oct. 1968.
The environmental sanitation report covers waterworks,
sewage treatment, night soil disposal, garbage and trash
disposal, insect and rodent control, and sanitary inspection
and supervision. According to a survey made in 1962, only
36 percent of all night soil-was disposed of by digestion plants
and sewage systems. Fourteen percent was used for fertilizer
in rural farms, and 22 percent was dumped into the ocean. At
the end of March 1966, there were 792 communities
operating night soil disposal plants. Incineration is the most
common method for disposal of garbage and trash. A survey
in 1963 showed that 42 percent of garbage and trash was
incinerated. As of March 1967, the population benefiting
from incineration and composting was 45,322,991. The
environmental pollution control report covers air and water
pollution and noise problems.
68-1210
Johnson, H. Selenium in solid waste. In Engineering
Foundation Research Conference; Solid Waste Research and
Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26, 1968. New
York. p.C-11.
Since approximately 70 percent of the 800 million Ib of
solid waste produced per day in the United States is paper,
and since selenium is known to be present in almost all
conceivable types of paper, environmental exposure to
selenium is increasing through solid waste handling and
disposal. The fact that selenium and its compounds are quite
toxic, prompted an investigation by the Solid Wastes Program
of selenium concentrations in solid waste. A fluorometnc
method for the detection and quantification of selenium was
used. Newspaper, cardboard, and compost materials were
analyzed to establish dormant or potential levels of selenium,
and finished compost, incinerator residues, quench water,
stack samples, and air samples, both near to and distant from
incinerator sites, were analyzed to show the effects of the
particular disposal method.
68-1211
Kershaw, M. A. The World Health Organization, with
particular reference to the Division of Environment Health
and to waste management and control. Water and Pollution
Control. 67(5):561-567, 1968.
The constitution, organization, activities, and financing of
the World Health Organization are considered. The division
of environmental health deals with the problems of
community water supply, environmental biology,
environmental pollution, sanitation services housing, and
waste disposal. The disposal of waste liquids and solids has
been given great emphasis, as has the need for legislation to
provide effective control of surface and ground water
pollution in many countries. Education and persuasion are
indicated as important factors in pollution abatement and
control. It is proposed that an international reference center
be created to promote uniform methods of analysis of waste
water plant effluents, and as a testing center to evaluate the
usefulness of new methods for collection, processing, and
disposal of liquid and solid wastes. The various advisory
services offered by the organization are also described.
68-1212
Klei, A. J. DARE-a decision maker's tool in the evaluation
of solid wastes alternatives. Jri Engineering Foundation
Research Conference; Solid Waste Research and
Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26, 1968. New
York. p.F-6.
In solid waste studies it is often necessary to evaluate
competing alternatives which are proposed to solve a specific
problem. It is not always clear which factors are used to
evaluate these alternatives. The 'DARE' (Decision Alternative
Ratio Evaluation ) technique is simple to use, cardinal in
nature, and, although based upon the pairwise comparison
rating concept, it drastically restricts the total number of
comparisons required. DARE permits the incorporation of
both qualitative and quantitative factors. Even though the
presence of the former increases the subjectivity of the final
scores, the fact that relative weights serve as inputs to the
model insures that the decisionmaker's view of the system is
clearly stated. Should quantitative data be available, they are
easily incorporated.
68-1213
Klee, A. J., and G. A. Garland. Decision trees in solid wastes
planning. Public Works. 99(7):74-77, July 1968.
One technique useful in resolving today's many alternatives
in planning for solid waste disposal systems is decision tree
analysis. These alternatives and their consequences can be
reduced to the convenient graphic structure known as a
'decision tree.' The tree is comprised of nodes and branches,
each node being of two basic types: squares, denoting
decisions; and circles, denoting chance events. Probabilities
are associated with chance events and must be considered
along with other information such as financial data. It is
unnecessary to consider returns that are not optimal with
respect to output from nodes. An optimum solution to a
decision tree is obtained via the rollback technique, starting
from the right (farthest in time), by calculating values at each
node as follows, if the node is a decision point, the values of
the nodes leading from it are examined, and the optimum is
selected; if the node is a chance event point, an expected
value is calculated, using all of the nodal values at the ends of
the branches emanating from it, and their probabilities.
Since this approach ignores the question of risk, a risk
analysis must be included along with the decision tree
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analysis. This is accomplished by a modified form of a
rollback technique, calculating nodal points from right to
left. A hypothetical example is provided.
68-1214
O'Hara, A. S. Public health and the solid waste disposal
problem. Canadian Journal of Public Health. 59(2):82,Feb.
1968.
Due to the greater volume of waste and decreasing
availability of land for solid waste disposal, a crisis is
developing in Canada. The collection, removal, and disposal
of waste is essentially an engineering problem, and the
aesthetics of disposal sites involve the public health officiers.
It is necessary that public health officials cooperate with
municipal officials to ensure that basic sanitary criteria are
satisfied. The provision of sanitary refuse containers, regular
collection in proper vehicles, and final disposal in a manner
which minimizes air or water pollution are basic criteria. The
public health official must continue to direct and coordinate
available technology to these ends.
68-1215
Porter, R. C., and F. W. Dressier. Tocks Island
regional-interstate solid waste management study. In
Engineering Foundation Research Conference; Solid Waste
Research and Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26,
1968. New York. (Conference Preprint F-5.)
The specific objectives of the Tocks Island study are to
determine: the magnitude of the solid waste disposal problem;
the present pattern of solid waste services; legislative
requirements and standards; and the need for alternate solid
waste disposal plans. Since the Tocks Island region will soon
have a national park of some 72,000 acres, TIRAC (Tocks
Island Regional Advisory Council) is providing local agencies
with technical support and encouraging regional cooperation.
During the first year of study, Solid Waste Inventory forms
which provide basic data on population, generation and
operational procedures for the study have been completed.
The Steering Committee is composed of representatives of
the Public Health Service, three State Departments of Health,
the Corps of Engineers, and the National Park Service.
68-1216
Proceedings; A Montana Strategy for a Livable Environment,
Helena, May 21-23, 1968. Montana State Department of
Health, May, 1968. 112 p.
The goals of this conference are to attempt to set forth
environmental problems and to establish a guide for the
environment in Montana. Topics covered are: Recreation and
Environment; Life's Prerequisite: Air; Focus on Consumer
Protection; Water in the Environment; Disease in the
Environment; Recreation vs. Industry for Montana; and
Industry, Reaction, and Pollution. Montana cannot escape
the environmental health hazards of the times. Like the great
cities of this country, it must deal with the problems of
substandard housing, air and water pollution occupational
disease, and the beginning stages of urban blight. It is
concluded that a partnership in the quality control of the
environment among Federal, State, and local health agencies
is a necessity.
68-1217
Quality of the environment; residual management. In, Annual
report for the year ending September 30, 1968. Washington,
Resources for Future, Inc., Dec. 1968. p.4245.
A major undertaking of the year has been to formulate ways
in which the production and disposal of wastes can be
studied: the factors that affect the generation of wastes; the
extent to which the environment can assimilate waste
discharges; and the transformations that are possible among
liquid, gaseous, and solid forms during their handling and
disposal. The year's research on problems of residuals was a
first step in a more comprehensive approach to
environmental quality management. Mr. Bower, Walter O.
Spofford, and Clifford S. Russell, visiting scholars, are
engaged in this work. Basic to their approach is the concept
that environmental pollution and its control involves
materials and energy balance problems for the entire
economy. One measure of the residuals problem is the
difference in weight between the inputs to production and
consumption activities, and the outputs from those activities.
Mr. Kneese, Mr. Bower, Robert U. Ayres, and Richard J.
Frankel have each worked on economic and engineering
aspects of the residuals problem. Another contribution to the
growing body of knowledge about wastes management was
the report of the Regional Plan Association on the second
regional plan for the New York region: Waste Management.
As a consultant to the Association and co-author of the
report, Mr. Bower was able to draw on the analytical
application in an area conspicous for its waste problems.
68-1218
Salvato, J. A., Jr. Environmental health and community
planning. American Society of Civil Engineers, Journal of the
Urban Planning and Development Division. 94(UP 1):23-30,
Aug. 1968.
More environmental engineering in community planning is
needed, with emphasis on area-wide, metropolitan, and
regional approaches. Comprehensive planning, which takes
into account all of the social, economic, and physical features
of an area, followed by phased detail planning and capital
budgeting, is significant for the immediate and long term
economy and benefit of the people. Factors to be considered
in a zoning plan for residential land use and major highway
planning are cited. Frequently, Federal and State financial
aid requires that single-purpose plans be made on a regional
or area-wide basis. The planning process includes: (1)
statement of goals and objectives; (2) basic studies, mapping
and analysis; (3) plan preparation; (4) plan implementation;
(5) public information and community action; and (6)
reevaluation and continual planning. Environmental factors
and needed improvements are identified. Responsibilities of
State and local health departments include: water pollution
abatement, waste water treatment and disposal, safe and
adequate water supply, air pollution control, solid wastes
disposal, x-ray and nuclear facility operations, and housing
development. All environmental factors which may have a
deleterious effect on man's physical, mental, or social
well-being must be considered.
235
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Management
68-1219
Thatcher, R. M. Optimal single channel service policies for
stochastic arrivals. Operations Research Center Report 68-16.
Berkeley, University of California, June 1 968 89 p.
The problem of finding an optimal choice between two given
constant processing rates that have given operating costs is
studied. Fluid material arrives in batches. Batch amounts
have a general (known) distribution, and arrivals of batches
follow a Poisson distribution. The holding cost is linear in
current inventory level. If the same processor is always
selected whenever a positive amount of material is in
inventory, then the process is essentially an M/G/1 queues,
and the stationary cost rate of the two processing rate
problem is derived assuming a single inventory level, y, as a
switch over criterion from rate 1 to rate 2 (y policy). The
optimal y policy is found in terms of a simple implicit
formula for y. It is proven that y is optimal for all stationary
policies. The single rate service system, the dual rate service
system, the class of y policies, and the optimal policy are
discussed in detail. The model studied takes into account the
fact that random arrivals will continue indefinitely in the
future. This applies to the case of the sanitation district,
where truck-loads of refuse are deposited at the city dump
continuously, almost every day throughout the year.
Optimality of a policy is defined, and properties of an
optimal policy are developed.
68-1220
University of California, Davis. Food Protection &
Toxicology Center. Can we conquer the solid waste
mountain? Compost Science, 9(l):25-27, Spring 1968.
A major deterrent to the activation of properly conceived
environmental control systems and programs, is the
preponderance of agencies and governmental bodies with
overlapping powers and structures, many of which are not
cooperating toward an integrated approach to solving
problems. Land, filled with solid wastes, is not suitable for
construction of heavy buildings and homes without highly
expensive foundations. Packaging technology must eventually
produce materials which rapidly degrade when discarded, or
materials which could have a secondary use that would be
self-consuming. While no incineration plant in the United
States is now meeting California air pollution standards,
certain incineration systems in Europe meet all clean air
requirements. It is believed that the raw garbage from the San
Francisco area dumped in the Nevada desert will not act as
fertilizer but will upset the ecological balance of the desert.
An aggressive national sales program directed toward
homeowners, parks, and similar outlets could result in a
profitable market for compost. The ultimate goal of all
disposal methods should be complete recycling.
68 1221
U.S. President's Council on Recreation and Natural Beauty.
From sea to shining sea; a report on the American
environment--our natural heritage. Washington, U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1968. 304 p.
The President's Council on Recreation and Natural Beauty
and the Citizens' Advisory Committee on Recreation and
Natural Beauty were established by Executive Order of
President Lyndon B. Johnson, May 4, 1966. The progress in
environmental improvement programs since the 1965 White
House Conference on Natural Beauty is outlined. Present
proposals and recommendations of the Council which will
stimulate Federal, State, local, and private action to further
enhance the quality of the environment and the beauty of
the nation are given. Responsibility for action is considered
in relation to government action, private action, education,
and research. Included in the report are lists of books,
pamphlets, and periodicals; films; local, State, and Federal
agencies; and private organizations which can solve
environmental problems. An index and many illustrations
complete the text.
68-1222
U.S. President's Council on Recreation and Natural Beauty.
The environment; the urban areas. In From sea to shining sea;
a report on the American environment-our natural heritage.
Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968.
p.29-123.
The quality of the urban environment is examined from the
appearance of neighborhoods to the management of the
metropolitan region. Many forms of neighborhood
improvement are being made possible through Federal
assistance. Resident involvement in these programs is an
important factor, especially in clean-up of vacant lots and
dumps and small park development. Redevelopment of
downtown areas and waterfronts, and preservation of historic
sites are being conducted in some cities. Littering, a common
sign of urban blight, is an expensive habit, costing the
nation's taxpayers nearly one-half billion dollars each year. A
combination of litter elimination measures that has proven
effective in various communities includes; provision of
attractive and frequently emptied litter baskets;
establishment of maintenance standards and adoption and
enforcement of local ordinances and State laws carrying
reasonable, enforceable penalties against littering. The
nation's solid waste includes 48 billion cans, 26 billion
bottles and jars, and 65 billion metal and plastic caps per
year. Today's conservation principles call for recycling waste
for reuse wherever possible. Solid waste collection
technology and management need to be improved. The
Council recommends that the Federal Government be
authorized to provide grant-in-aid assistance to establish
regional solid waste managements which are integrated with
regional liquid waste managements and air quality control
systems and land-use planning. The Council also proposes
that as soon as criteria are developed, pollution abatement
efforts be operated as integral parts of regional waste
management plans.
68-1223
U.S. President's Council on Recreation and Natural Beauty.
The environment; the rural areas. In_From sea to shining sea;
a report on the American environment-our natural heritage.
Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968.
p.125-197.
A quality environment in the countryside derives from wise
and careful husbandry that is in fundamental harmony with
the land's ecology. Soil conservation efforts are reviewed.
Insecticides, herbicides, fertilizers, and animal wastes have
contaminated some components of the environment and
should be fully recognized. The Council proposes that
236
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1219-1228
Federal agencies cooperate with State and local agencies in
encouraging the creation of privately developed commercial,
recreational areas for public use in surroundings of natural
beauty, and that consideration be given to enhancement of
private lands for public enjoyment through cost-sharing of
projects which improve rural scenic values. The Council also
recommends that Federal agencies expand their programs of
technical assistance to help States, local governments, and
landowners preserve working farmlands, promote
preservation of the scenic quality of private forest lands,
repair past damage to landscape caused by surface mining,
provide for regulation of the routing of high voltage
transmission lines and other public utilities, assist rural
community development planning, continue flood control
and water resource development programs, expand fund
sources for scenic and recreation lands, conserve wildlife, and
designate natural areas.
68-1224
U.S. President's Council on Recreation and Natural Beauty.
The environment; transportation. In From sea to shining sea;
a report on the American environment-our natural heritage.
Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968.
p.l 99-299.
Transportation by its extent and its rigid physical
requirement has a strong effect on most environments.
Routing and design of highways, roadside development,
billboards, junkyards, and roadside litter are reviewed. The
environmental implications of three distinct forms of
transportation are covered: pleasure driving, public transit,
and air transportation. By 1966, about seven million vehicles
a year were retired; this rate is expected to double or triple in
the next 30 years. The most effective solution to the junk
automobile problem lies in improving the disposal process. It
costs American taxpayers an estimated $100 million a year to
pay for picking up highway litter. The Council recommends
that the States make a vigorous effort with the tools and
programs now available, particularly the Highway
Beautification Act, to inventory, protect, and enhance the
scenic and recreational values of existing and proposed roads.
68-1225
U.S. Senate. Subcommittee on Air and Water Pollution.
Waste management research and environmental quality
management. Hearings before the Subcommittee on Air and
Water Pollution, U.S. Senate, May-July 1968. Washington,
U.S. Government Printing Office,451 p.
Hearings were'held on May 22, June 3, July 9 and 10, 1968
before the Subcommittee on Air and Water Pollution of the
Committee on Pubhe Works, United States Senate, Ninetieth
Congress, second session. The topics under discussion were
the need to establish an important national environmental
quality policy, with particular emphasis on waste
management practices which minimize environmental
pollution, and Federal research activities and strategies in air
and water pollution control and solid waste disposal.
Following the statements of various experts are reprints of
selected reports and a name and subject index. Included in
the selected reports are. Demonstration Projects
Abstracts-Solid Waste Programs, State-Interstate Planning
Grant Listing, and Summaries of Research and Training
Grants in Solid Waste Disposal.
68-1226
Van Beek, G, Employee safety in the solid wastes industry.
Public Wastes, 99(12).74, Dec. 1968.
A cooperative study performed by the American Public
Works Association and the National Safety Council
established that: the number of work injuries among
employees of the solid waste industry is nearly 900 percent
greater than the average of all industry in the U.S.; the
seventy rate is 300 percent greater than that of all industrial
employees; and private contractors are spending a greater
percentage of their gross income on accident costs than they
are receiving in profits. Drivers and helpers on sanitation
trucks should be appraised as to their mental, emotional, and
physical capabilities, and should be trained to handle the
equipment. Supervisors also require training in the basics of
human relations and leadership principles. Direct benefits of
employee training are reduction of accidents, lowered
insurance costs, and increase in profits due to a decrease in
downtime, overtime, supervisory time, and disrupted
schedules.
68-1227
Vaughan, R. D. Statement. In U.S. Senate. Subcommittee on
Air and Water Pollution. Waste management research and
environmental quality management. Hearings before the
Subcommittee of Air and Water Pollution, U.S. Senate,
May-July 1968. Washington, U.S. Government Printing
Office, p.184-198.
Public awareness of solid waste problems, waste management
concepts anci regional cooperation was stressed. Particular
emphasis was placed on the development of new packaging
materials and disposable containers. It was stated that all
government agencies have been lax in inspiring and
demanding preservation of the environment. Approximately
33 percent of the Solid Wastes Program appropriations for the
fiscal year 1968 are for basic and applied research programs,
and 50 percent of the research budget is provided for the
nondirected research programs of educational and nonprofit
agencies. Contract and grant programs are described in some
detail. Recycling of resources was named as the ultimate in
solid waste research and development.
68-1228
Wastes disposal. World Health Organization Chronicle,
22(7):309-310, July 1968.
Much of the work of WHO in wastes disposal takes
the form of surveys and the preparation of requests to the
United Nations Development Program for the financing of
preinvestment and engineering feasibility studies. WHO is
studying such subjects as sewerage, water supply,
management and disposal of waste water solids and their
integration with community and industrial wastes, the
recovery and recycling of solid wastes, and new and improved
treatment processes which use activated carbon filters,
distillation, and electrodialysis. In 1967, a study was begun
of simplified, low-cost designs for waterborne sewage disposal
systems suitable for small communities in developing
countries.
237
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68 1229
Wilson, D. G. Summer study on the management of solid
wastes, final report, v.l. Cambridge, Urban Systems
Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sept.
1968. 58 p.
The report covers three areas: immediate recommendations
to cities and towns; future organization and procedures for
managing wastes; and promising areas of research. The
appendices contain individual views and recommendations
not necessarily endorsed by the study group as a whole. A
map of the Boston area showing expressway regions, cut and
fill sections, cash and volume flow for Boston's solid waste,
and a flow diagram of possibilities for solid waste manage-
ment are included. The study group found that the solid
waste field presented a picture which was confused for a
number of reasons. There appeared to be emerging some
waste treatment systems which may be better than the
traditional methods of landfill and incineration, which
themselves are capable of great improvement. Much work
remains to be done in improving collection. The study
group's strongest recommendation was that large, private
firms or utilities should be developed to provide
municipalites with large • scale comprehensive solid waste
disposal services.
68-1230
Wilson, D. G. Recommendations to cities. In Summer study
on the management of solid wastes; final report, v.l.
Cambridge, Urban Systems Laboratory, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, Sept. 1968. p.5-13.
Any city producing less than 1,000 tons per day of refuse is
urged to join with other cities in setting up some sort of
intercity authority to reduce the cost of disposal. Large-area
service organizations are also recommended. Sanitary
landfills, and short-and long-distance hauling are discussed
along with current incineration techniques. Incinerators
could provide acceptable solutions to waste disposal at costs
similar to those of other methods, there has been a varying
amount of concern over the effects of chloride-containing
plastics on incinerators.
68 1231
The WHO Solid Wastes Program (El programs de la QMS en
materia do desechos solidos). Boletin de la Oficina Sanitaria
Panamericana. 65(6):562-566,Dec. 1968.
The World Health Organization (WHO) has been operating in
the field of health for more than 20 years. As part of its
program in the field of solid waste, it offers
consulting-engineering services, demonstration projects, and
training programs. It has collaborated with a series of
countries, either by itself or with groups like the Special
Fund of the United Nations Development Program, in such
countries as Malta, Nigeria, Brazil, Argentina, Chile. It has
also held seminars and courses in the field of solid wastes
disposal and treatment. A meeting of the Scientific Group,
held at Geneva in December 1966, dealt with the treatment
and disposal of waste in both industrial and underdeveloped
countries. The Group recommended the formation of an
international, continuous, and systematic information
program to facilitate international exchange of information
on best practices. In addition to its collaboration with
governmental and intergovernmental organizations, it has also
participated in conferences on public health organized by fhe
International Union of Local Authorities, in the Third
International Congress of the International Group for
Investigations on the Elimination of Wastes, and others. A
brief list of WHO publications on solid wastes is given.
(Text in Spanish)
68-1232
Wilson, D. G. Recommendations regarding future research,
development, and design work. In. Summer study on the
management of solid wastes; final report, v.l. Cambridge,
Urban Systems Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Sept. 1968. p.14-21.
Some of the present research and development efforts in
waste disposal are discussed along with recommendations. A
multipurpose transportation system to handle all the
transfers of goods, and possibly people in high density
environments, is suggested. Substantial gains can be achieved
from the combination of trash collection vehicles and
road-cleaning machines. More design and development work
is advocated for current pulverizing machines. Very large
gains can be had in the proper development of a new material
separation machine. There is a strong need for an
investigation to produce good information for an ideal
compactor. Much information is needed on the influence of
the air supply quantity, velocity, distribution, temperature,
and pressure on the composting rate in composts.
Incineration is dealt with in detail. Quantitive data on
pyrolysis and hydrogenation are lacking. The presence of
huge amounts of steel scrap from automobiles and old
refrigerators is due to the change brought about in
steelmaking by the introduction of the basic oxygen furnace.
This furnace cannot accept as high a proportion of scrap as
the open hearth furnace. Much design and development work
is needed in this area.
238
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ADDRLSSLS OF PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS CIThD
ASCE (American Society of Civil Enginers) Newsletter, Sanitary Engineering
Division, 345 E. 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017.
Agricultural Engineering, American Society of Agricultural Engineers,
Box 229, St. Joseph, Michigan 49085.
Agricultural Research, Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.
Agriculture, Her Majesty's Stationary Office, 49 High Holborn,
London, W.C.I, England.
Agronomy Journal, American Society of Agronomy, 677 S. Segoe Rd.,
Madison, Wis. 53711.
Air Conditioning, Heating, and Ventilating, Industrial Press Inc. ,
200 Madison Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016.
Air Engineering, ceased publication.
American City, Buttenheim Publishing Corporation, 757 Third Ave.,
New York, N.Y. 10017
American Concrete Institute Journal, Box 4754, Redford Station,
Detroit, Mich. 48219.
American Glass Review, Ebel-Doctorow Publications, Inc.,
1115 Clifton Ave., Clifton, N.J. 07013
American Home, Downe Publishing, Inc., 641 Lexington Ave.,
New York, N.Y. 10022.
American Journal of Public Health, [and the Nation's Health] American
Public Health Association, 1740 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10017
American Society of Civil Engineers, Journal of the Urban Planning
and Development Division, 345 E. 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017.
American Water Works Association Journal, 2 Park Ave., New York,
N.Y. 10016.
Annales de 1'Institut Technique du Batiment et des Travaux Publics,
Societe de Diffusion des Techniques du Batiment et des Travaux
Publics, 9 rue la Perouse, Paris 16e, France.
Appita, Technical Association of the Australian and New Zealand
Pulp and Paper Industry, Clunies Ross House, 191 Royal Pde.,
Parkville, Victoria, 3052, Australia.
Applied Microbiology, Williams and Wilkins Company, 428 E. Preston
St., Baltimore, Md. 21202.
AsDiStos, Stover Publishing Company, Box 471, 131 N. York Rd,,
Willow Grove, Pa. 19090.
Asian Medical Journal, Japan Medical Publishers, Inc., 2-1 Chome,
Nishikicho, Kanda, Chuoku, Tokyo, Japan. U.S. Address: Maruzen
Company, 303 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10016.
Australasian Engineer, F.K. Thomas ed. 122-126 Cleveland St.,
Chippendale, N.S.W. 2008 Australia,
Australian Mining, Thompson Publications Australia Pty. Ltd.
47 Chippen St., N.S.W. 2008 Australia.
239
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Addresses of Periodical Publications Cited
Battelle Technical Review, ceased publication.
Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Interscience Publishers,
605 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016.
Blast Furnace and Steel Plant, Steel Publications, Inc.,
624 Grant Building, Pittsburgh, Pa. 15230.
Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft, VEI-Verlag GmbH, Bongardstrasse 3,
7 Dusseldorf 10, Germany.
Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Mechanical Engineers, Maruzen
Co., Ltd., Export Dept. Central P.O. Box 605, Tokyo 100-91, Japan.
California Vector Views, State Department of Public Health,
Bureau of Vector Control, 2151 Berkeley Way, Berkeley, Calif. 94704.
Canadian Journal of Public Health, Canadian Public Health Assoc.,
1255 Yonge St., Toronto 7, Canada.
The Chemical Engineer, Institution of Chemical Engineers,
Belgrave Sq., London, SW1, England.
Chemical and Engineering News, American Chemical Society,
1155 Sixteenth St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20046.
Chemical Engineering, McGraw-Hill Inc., 330 W. 42nd St.
New York, N.Y. 10036.
Chemical Engineering Progress, American Institute of Chemical
Engineers, 345 E. 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017.
Chemical Processing, Putman Publishing Company, 111 E, Delaware
Place, Chicago, 111. 60611.
Chemical Processing and Engineering, Colour Publication Private
Ltd., 126-A, Dhuruwadi, off Dr. Nariman Road, Bombay 25DD, India.
Chemical Week, McGraw-Hill Publications, 330 W. 42nd St.
New York, N.Y. 10036.
Chemie-Ingenieur-Technik, Verlag Chemie, Papellale 3, GmbH,
6940 Weinheim-Bergstr., Germany.
Chemistry in Canada, Chemical Institute of Canada, 151 Slater
St., Ottawa 4, Canada.
Civil Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers,
345 E. 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017.
Clean Air News, [Clean Air and Water News] Commerce Clearing
House Inc., 4025 W. Peterson Ave., Chicago, 111. 60646.
Coal Age, P.O. Box 430, Hightstown, N.J. 08520.
Coal and Base Minerals of Southern Africa, [South African Mining
and Engineering Journal] S.A. Mining Journal Syndicate Ltd.,
66 Commissioner St., Johannesburg, South Africa.
Colliery Guardian, Fuels and Metallurgical Journals, Ltd., John
Adams House, 17-19 John Adams St., London, W.C.2N 6dH, England.
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Addresses of Periodical Publications Cited
Combustion, Combustion Publishing Co., Inc., 277 Park Ave.,
New York, N.Y. 10017.
Compost Science, Rodale Press, 33 E. Minor St., Emmaus, Pa.
18049.
Congressional Record, U.S. Government Printing Office, Public
Documents Department, Washington, B.C. 20402.
Construction Methods & Equipment, McGraw-Hill Inc., 330 W. 42nd St.,
New York, N.Y. 10036.
Consulting Engineer, 217 Wayne St., St. Joseph, Mich. 49085.
Copper, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of Domestic Commerce,
Washington, D.C. 20230.
Crops and Soils, American Soceity of Agronomy, Inc., 677 S.
Segoe Rd., Madison, Wisconsin 53711.
Das Papier, Berliner Allee 56, 6100 Darmstadt, W. Germany.
Delaware Valley Industry, Laurel Publishing Inc., 803 W.
Atlantic Ave., Laurel Springs, N.J. 08021.
Diesel and Gas Turbine Progress, Bruce W. Wadman, 11225 W.
Bluemound Rd., P.O. Box 7406, Milwaukee, Wis. 53213.
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal, Thunderbird Enterprises
Ltd., 3 Clement's Inn, London, England.
Electrical World, McGraw-Hill Publications, 330 W. 42nd St.,
New York, N.Y. 10036.
Elektrizitaetswirtschaft, Verlags-und Wirtschaftsgesellschaft
der Elekrizitatswerke mbH, Stresemannallee 23, Frankfurt am
Main 70, W. Germany.
Energie, (Munich) Technischer Verlag Resch KG, Postfach 60,
8032 Graefelfing/Munich, W. Germany.
Energy & Pollution Control, (Central Assn. for Heat Management),
8 Ichigaya Kawada-Cho, Sinjuku-ku, Tokyo, Japan.
Engineer, Morgan Brothers Ltd., 28 Essex St., Strand,
London, England.
Engineering, Engineering, Chemical & Marine Press Ltd., IPC
Business Press Ltd., 33-39 Bowling Green Lane, London ECIP IAH.
Engineering News-Record, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 330 W. 42nd St.,
New York, N.Y. 10036.
Environmental Science & Technology, American Chemical Society,
1155 16th St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036.
Factory (name changes to Modern Manufacturing), McGraw-Hill Inc.,
330 W. 42nd St., New York, N.Y. 10036.
Farming in South Africa, (Dept. of Agricultural Technical Service)
1926 M.R.2.40 Division of Information, Private Bag 144, Pretoric,
South Africa.
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Addresses of Periodical Publications Cited
Filtration and Separation, Uplands Press Ltd., 1 Katharine St.,
Croydon, England.
Flexography, North American Publishing Co., 134 N. 13th St.,
Philadelphia, Pa. 19107.
Foerdern Heben, Krausskopf Verlag fuer Wirtschaft GmbH. ,
Lessingstrasse 12-14, Mainz, W. Germany.
Food Engineering, Chilton Co., 6th and Chestnut Sts.,
Philadelphia, Pa. 19139.
Food Manufacture, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, W.C.2, England.
Food Technology, Institute of Food Technologists, 221 N. LaSalle
St., Chicago, 111. 60601.
Food Technology in Australia, (Council of Australian Food
Technology Associations and Australian Institute of Science
and Technology) 12 O'Connell St., Sydney, N.S.W., Australia.
Gas Age, (Harbrace Publications, Inc.) (Duluth, Minn.) Discontinued.
Gas, Wasser, Waerme, Oesterreichische Vereinigung fuer das Gas u.
Wasserfach, Gusshausstr. 30, Vienna, Austria.
Gas und Wasserfach (G.W.F.), R. Oldenbourg Verlag, Rosenheimer
Str. 145, 8000 Munich 80, Germany.
Gaz, Woda I Technika Sanitarna, Ruch, Ul Wronia 23, Warsaw 1,
Poland.
Georgia Municipal Journal, (Urban Georgia) Georgia Municipal
Association, Fulton Federal Bldg., Rm. 506, Atlanta, Ga. 30303.
Glastechnische Berichte, Deutsche Glastechnische Gesellschaft,
Bockenheimer Landstr. 126, Frankfurt am Main 1, Germany.
Gospodarka Wodna, Export and Import Enterprise "Ruch", ul
Wilcza 46, Warsaw, Poland.
Heating, Piping, and Air Conditioning, Reinhold Publishing Corp.,
10 S. LaSalle St., Chicago, 111. 60603.
Hutnicke Listy, SNTL, Publishers of Technical Literature, Spalena
51, Prague 1, Czechoslovakia.
Hygiene and Sanitation, National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, Va. 22151.
Hygiene, Uniunea Societatilor de Stiinte Medicale, Republica
Socialista Romania, Str. Progresului, No. 8, Bucharest, Romania.
Industrial Heating, Nation Industrial Publishing Co., Union Trust
Bldg., Pittsburg, Pa. 15219.
Industrial Research, Industrial Research, Inc., Beverly Shores,
Ind. 46301.
Industrial Water Engineering, Target Communications Inc., 373
Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016.
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Addresses of Periodical Publications Cited
Ingegneria Sanitaria, Istituto Propaganda Internazionale, Via
Friuli 32, 20135 Milan, Italy.
Institution of Civil Engineers, Proceedings, 1-7 Great George St.,
Westminister, London S.W.I, England.
International Journal of Farm Building Research, North Marston,
Bletchly, England.
Iron Age, Chilton Company, Chestnut and 56th Streets, Philadelphia,
Pa. 19139.
Iron and Steel, Iliffe Industrial Publications Ltd., Dorset House,
Stamford Street, London SE1, England.
Iron and Steel Engineer, Association of Iron & Steel Engineers,
Empire Bldg., Pittsburg, Pa. 15222.
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, American Chemical
Society, 1155 16th St., N.W. Washington, B.C. 20036.
Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge University Press,
32 E. 57th St., New York, N.Y. 10022.
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, 440 Fifth Ave.,
Pittsburgh, Pa. 14213.
Journal of the American Leather Chemists Association, American
Leather Chemists Assn., Tanners' Council Research Laboratory,
University of Cincinnati, Ohio 45221.
Journal of the American Society of Sugar Beet Technologists,
Box 538, Fort Collins, Colo. 80521.
Journal of Dairy Science, American Dairy Science Association,
113 N. Neil St., Champaign, 111. 61820.
Journal of Economic Entomology, 4603 Calvert Rd., College Park,
Md. 20740.
Journal of Environmental Health, National Association of Sanitarians,
Lincoln Bldg., 1550 Lincoln St., Denver, Colo. 80203.
Journal of the Fuel Society of Japan, Nenryo Kyokai, 405, Ginza
Nishi, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, Japan.
Journal of Gas Chromatography [journal of Chromatographic Science]
Preston Technical Abstracts Co., 2101 Dempster St., Box 791,
Evanston, 111. 60204.
Journal of the Institution of Engineers, 8 Gokhale Rd., Calcutta
20, India.
Journal of the Institution of Public Health Engineers, Municipal
Publishing Co., Ltd., 3-4 Clement's Inn, London, England.
Journal of the Japan Foundrymen's Society, Japan Publications Trading
Co. Ltd., Box 5030, Tokyo International, Tokyo, Japan.
Journal of the Japanese Technical Association of Pulp and Paper
Industry, Tokyo, Japan.
243
-------
Addresses of Periodical Publications Cited
Journal of Refrigeration, Journal of Refrigeration Ltd., 19 Harcourt
St., London W.I, England.
Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, 6 John Adams St.,
Adelphi, London W.C.2, England.
Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, Society of
Chemical Industry, 14 Belgrave Sq., London SW1, England.
Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, Soil Conservation
Society of America, 7515 Northeast Ankeny Rd., Ankeny,
Iowa 50021.
Journal of the South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
Box 61019, Marshalltown, Transvaal, South Africa.
Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation, 3900 Wisconsin Ave.
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016.
Kagaku Kogaku, Society of Chemical Engineers, Kyoritu Bldg. 6-9,
4-chomit, Kohinta, Bunkyo-Ku, Tokyo, Japan.
La Papeterie, 9 rue Lagrange, Paris (5e) , France.
Laboratory Animal Care, (Laboratory Animal Science) American
Association for Laboratory Animal Science, Box 10, Joliet, 111.
60434.
Landtechnik, Hellmut Neureuter Verlag, Postfach 1349, 819
Wolfratshausen, Germany.
Lubrication Engineering, American Society of Lubrication Engineers,
838 Busse Highw., Park Ridge, 111. 60068.
Machinery Market, Machinery Market Ltd., 146a Queen Victoria St.,
London E.C.4, England.
Materials Reclamation Weekly, Maclaren & Sons Ltd., Box 109,
Davis House, 69-77 High St., Croydon, CR9-1QH, England.
Mechanical Engineering, Jr. American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
345 E. 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017.
Mechanical Handling, Engineering, Chemical and Marine Press Ltd.,
Box 42, 33-39, Bowling Green Lane, London ECIP, IAH, England.
Metal Finishing, Metals and Plastics Publications, Inc., 99
Kinderkamack Rd., Westwood, N.J. 07675.
Metallurgia, Kennedy Press Ltd., 31 King Street West,
Manchester 3, England.
Mill and Factory (changed to Plant Operating Management) ,
Conover-Mast Publications Inc., 205 E. 42nd St., New York,
N.Y. 10017.
Mining Congress Journal, American Mining Congress, Ring Bldg.,
Washington, D.C. 20036.
Mining Engineering, American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical
and Petroleum Engineers, 345 E. 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017.
-------
Addresses of Periodical Publications Cited
Missouri Conservationist, Missouri Conservation Dept., Jefferson
City, Mo. 65101.
Mitteilungen der Vereinigung der Grosskessel-Besitzer,
VGB-Dampftechnik GmbH, Klinkestr. 29131, 43 Essen, W. Germany,
Modern Casting, American Foundrymen's Society, Inc.,
Golf & Wolf Rds., Des Plaines, 111. 60016.
Modern Hospital, Jr. 1050 Merchandise Mart, Chicago, 111.
60554.
Modern Manufacturing, McGraw-Hill Inc., 330 W. 42nd St.,
New York, N.Y. 10036.
Modern Materials Handling, Cahners Publishing Co., Inc., 221
Columbus Ave., Boston, Mass. 02116.
Modern Power and Engineering, Maclean-Hunter Publishing Co.,
Ltd., 481 University Ave., Toronto 101, Canada.
National Engineer, National Association of Power Engineers Inc.,
176 W. Adams St., Chicago, 111, 60603.
Nature, Macmillan (Journals), Ltd., Little Essex St., London
W.C.2, England.
Neue Hutte, VEB Deutscher Verlag fuer GrundstaffIndustrie,
Karl-Heine-Str. 27,7031 Leipzig, E. Germany.
New Scientist, New Science Publications Ltd., Cromwell House,
Fulwood Place, High Holborn, London, England.
New Zealand Journal of Agriculture, Wilson and Horton Ltd.,
Box 32, Auckland, New Zealand.
News Time, Scholastic Magazines, 50 W. 44th St., New York,
N.Y. 10036.
Oil and Gas Journal, Petroleum Publishing Co., Fulfillment
Manager, P.O. Box 1260, Tulsa, Okla..
Paper Trade Journal, Lockwood Trade Journal Co., 551 Fifth Ave.,
New York, N.Y. 10017.
Pennsylvania Gazette, 133 S. 36th St., Philadelphia, Pa. 19104.
Pennsylvania Medicine, Pennsylvania Medical Society, Taylor
Bypass & Erford Rd., Lemoyne, Pa. 17043.
Plant Engineering, Technical Publishing Co., 308 E. James St.,
Harrington, 111. 60010.
Plating, American Electroplaters' Society, Inc., 56 Melmore
Gardens, East Orage, N.J. 07017.
Popular Science, 355 Lexington Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017.
Power, McGraw-Hill Inc., 330 W. 42nd St., New York, N.Y. 10036.
Power Engineering, Technical Publishing Co., 1301 S. Grove Ave.,
Barrington, 111. 60010.
-------
Addresses of Periodical Publications Cited
Precision Metal Molding, (Precision Metal) Industrial Publishing
Co., 614 Superior Ave. W., Cleveland, Ohio 44113.
Proceedings, American Petroleum Institute, Division of Refining,
American Petroleum Institute, 1101 17th St., N.W., Washington, D.C.
20036.
Process Biochemistry, 28 Essex St., London W.C.2, England.
Przeglad Papierniczy, Plac Komuny Paryskiej 5, Lodz, Poland.
Public Cleansing, The Institute of Public Cleansing, 28 Portland
Place, London, England.
Public Health News, New Jersey State Department of Public Health,
Trenton, N.J. 08625.
Public Works, Public Works Journal Corporation, 200 S. Broad St.,
Ridgewood, N.J. 07451.
Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada, National Business Publications
Ltd., Gardenvale, Quebec, Canada.
Readers' Digest, Readers' Digest Association, Inc., Pleasantville,
N.Y. 10570.
Research and Industry, Publications & Information Directorate,
Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, Hillside Rd. , Delhi
12, India.
Rock Products, MacLean-Hunter Publishing Corp., 300 W. Adams St.,
Chicago, 111. 60606.
Rohr-Armatur-Sanitaer-Heizung, A. Krammer & Co., Hermannstr. 3,
Duesseldorf, W. Germany.
Rubber Age, Palmerton Publishing Co., Inc., 101 W. 31st St.,
New York, N.Y. 10001
Rubber Journal, MacLaren & Sons Ltd., Davis House, 69-77 High St.,
Box 109, Croydon, Surrey, England.
Safety Maintenance, (Environmental Control and Safety Management)
A.M. Best Co., Park Ave., Morristown, N.J. 07960.
San Francisco Business, Greater San Francisco Chamber of Commerce,
420 Montgomery St., San Francisco, Calif. 94104.
Sanitar and Heizungstechnik, Verlag A. Krammer and Co.,
Hermannstr. 3, Duesseldorf, W. Germany.
Schweizerische Bauzeitung, Zurich-Giesshuebel, Staffelstr 12,
8021 Zurich, Switzerland.
Science News, Science Service, Inc., 1719 N. St., N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20036.
Scrap Age, Three Sons Publishing Co., 6311 Gross Point Road,
Niles, 111. 60648.
Silikattechnik, V.E.B. Verlag fuer Bauwesen, Franzoisische Str. 13-14,
108 Berlin, E. Germany.
246
-------
Addresses of Periodical Publications Cited
Smokeless Air, National Society for Clean Air, Field House,
Breams Building, London, E.G.4, England.
Soil Science Society of America Proceedings,-677 S. Segoe Rd.,
Madison, Wis. 53711.
Solid Waste Management/Refuse Removal Journal, R.R.J. Publishing
Co., 150 E. 52nd St., New York, N.Y. 10022.
South African Sugar Journal, S.A. Sugar Journal (Pty) Ltd.,
Norwich Union House, Durban Club Place, Box 1209, Durban,
South Africa.
Staedtehygiene, Nuer Hygiene-Verlag in Medizinisch-Literaris Chen
Verlag, Dr. Blume and Co. Ringstr 4, 3110 Uelzen, Germany.
Staub Reinhaltung der Luft, VDI-Verlag GmbH Postfach 1139,
4 Duesseldorf 1, W. Germany.
Steam and Heating Engineer, Troup Publications Ltd.,
35 Red Lion Sq., London, W.C.I., England.
Sugar y Azucar, 25 W. 45th St., New York, N.Y. 10036.
Sugarland, Sugarland Publications, Box 13, Bacolod City,
Philippines.
Surveyor and Municipal and County Engineer, (New Title—
Surveyor and Municipal Engineer) 40 Bowling Green Lane,
London E.C.I, England.
Svensk-Papperstidning, Swedish Pulp & Paper Mills Association
& Swedish Association of pulp and Paper Engineers, Villagatan 1,
S-11432, Stockholm, Sweden.
Tappi, Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry,
360 Lexington Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017.
Textile Industries, W.R.C. Smith Publishing Co., 1760 Peachtree
Rd., W.W., Atlanta, Ga. 30309.
Textile Manufacturer, Emmott and Co. Ltd., 31 King St. W.,
Manchester M3 2PL, England.
Tonindustrie-Zeitung and Keramische Rundschau, Herman Huebener
Verlag KG, Postfach 68, 3380 Goslar, Germany.
Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers,
420 Main St., St. Joseph, Michigan 49085.
Verein Deutscher Ingenieure Nachrichten, V.D.I. Verlag GmbH,
Postfach 1139, Graf-Reeke-Str. 84, 4 Duesseldorf 1, W. Germany.
Verein Deutscher Ingenieure Zeitschrift, (VDI-2; Zeitschrift
fuer die gesamte Technik) V.D.I. Verlag GmbH, Postfach 1139,
4 Duesseldorf 1, W. Germany.
Verpackings-Rundschau, P. Keppler Verlag KG, Industriestr. 2,
D-6056 Heusenstamm, W. Germany.
Virginia Health Bulletin, Bureau of Health Education, State
Department of Health, Richmond, Va. 23219.
247
-------
Addresses of Periodical Publications Cited
The Wall Street Journal, Dow Jones & Co., Inc., 30 Broad St.,
New York, N.Y. 10004.
Wasser, Luft, und Betrieb, Iliffe-NTP Inc., 300 E. 42nd St.,
New York, N.Y. 10017.
Wasserwlrtschaft-Wassertechnik, Kammer der Technik, VEB Verlag
fuer Bauwesen, Franzosische Strasse 13-14, 108 Berlin, E. Germany.
Waste Trade Journal, Atlas Publishing Co., 130 W. 42nd St.,
New York, N.Y. 10036.
Waste Trade World and Iron and Steel Review, McLaren and Sons,
Ltd., Davis House, 69/77 High St., Croydon, Surrey, England.
Water and Pollution Control, Southam Business Publication, 1450
Don Mills Rd., Don Mills, Ont., Canada.
Water Pollution Control, Institute of Water Pollution Control,
48-55 Victoria St., London, S.W.I, England.
Water Research, Pergamon Press Inc., Journals Dept., Maxwell
House, Fairview Park, Elmsford, N.Y. 10523.
Water and Sewage Works, Scranton Publishing Co., 35 E. Wacher
Dr., Chicago, 111. 60601.
Water and Waste Treatment, Dale Reynolds & Co., Ltd.,
Craven House, 121 Kingsway, London, England.
Water and Wastes Engineering, 466 Lexington Ave., New York,
N.Y. 10017.
Water Works and Wastes Engineering, 466 Lexington Ave.,
New York, N.Y. 10017.
Western City, League of California Cities, 702 Statler Center,
Los Angeles, Calif. 90017.
World Health Organization Chronicle, World Health Organization,
Distribution and Sales Service, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland.
World's Paper Trade Review, Stonehill & Gillis Ltd., Lyon Tower,
High St., Colliers Wood, London S.W.19, England.
Zeitschrift fuer die Gesamte Hygiene und Ihre Grenzgebiete,
VEB Verlag Buk und Gesundheit, Neue Gruester 18, Berlin C-2,
Germany.
Zeitschrift fuer Wasser und Abwasser Forshung, Wasser und
Abwasserforschung Verlagsgesellschaft GmbH & Co., Ainmillerstr.
34, 8 Munich 13, W. Germany.
Zucherindustrie, Verlag Dr. Albert Bartens, Luckhoffstr. 16,
1 Berlin, Germany.
248
-------
AUTHOR INDEX
ABRAHAMS r J.H.* Jt<.
66-089^
AuAM. R.
08-0179
ADAMSE* A.D.
68-0267* 68-0268*
68-0269
AGUILA. N.
08-0270
ALBERTSON* O.E.
68-0620
ALDL* M.O.
68-0067
ALESnIN. E.
68-0968
ALPISER* P.M.
oS-0330
ANDLRSON* J.R.
08-0180
ANDERSON* J.fc.
68-0920
ANDERSON* L.E-
68-1185
ANDRES* O.K.
68-0082
ANDREWS* J.8.
68-0331
ANDREWS* J.F.
68-0733
ANKUDINOV* N.V.
68-0922
ARMANTROUT* C.E.
68-0339
ARMSTRONG' O.H.
68-0887. 68-1186
AKNUT* K.H.
68-0547
ARNST» F.
08-0181
ARONbSON. 6.
68-0622
ASBURY. A.D.
68-0031? 68-0032*
68-0033* 68-003«t
ASUKATA. R.
68-0496
ATHERTON* G.H.
68-0920
AUTEN» O.K.
68-0924* 68-0925*
68-0926
AXTELL* R.C.
68-0272
BABCOCK* H.A.
68-0111
BABICH* V.
68-017b
BACHLR* J.H.
68-0431
UACHL* H.
68-0549
BAUER* A.J.
68-0623
BAEURICH* 6.
68-0551
BAILIE* R.C.
68-0432
BAILLOD* C.R.
68-0624
BAKRADZE* L.L.
68-0625
BALKE* S.
68-0626
BARBEITO* M.S.
68-0433
BARBOUR' J.F.
68-0206
BARCLAY* F.G.
68-0885
BARNES* G.E.
68-0928
BARNES* W.J.
68-0915
BARTELS* R.
68-0724
BAUER, H.
68-0550
BAUMANN* G.M.
68-0929
BAXTER* S.H.
68-0303* 68-0309
BAYLER* H.
68-0930
BELKO. J.
68-0212
HELLENDORF* F.
68-0552
BENDER* D.F.
68-0931
BENDIXEN* T.W.
68-0861
BEN GERA* I.
68-0997
BENJES* H.
68-0700
BENSON* R.J.
68-0629
BERGLING* S.
68-0182
BERGSTROM* D.M.
68-0932
249
-------
Author Index
BERNARD* H.
68-0888
BERRY* L.H.
68-0112
SEVAN. R.E.
68-0017. 68-0113
BIAGGI. N.
68-0630
BILLINGS. R.M.
68-0661
BIRD. A.P.
68-03.53
BISHOP. E.J.B.
68-0271
BISHOP. S.L.
68-0631
UJOERKMAN. A.V.
68-0037
BLACK. R.
66-0003
BLACK. R.J.
68-0065. 68-0183.
68-1169. fa8-1182
BLOCK. F.E.
68-0331
BLOCK. P.O.
68-0933. 68-0931
RLUUNEN. G.
68-0935
BODMAN. S.W.
ba-0937
BOESE. R.
68-0553
BOETTCHER. F.
68-0633
BOGUE. D.
68-1167
BONUARENKO. V.I.
68-0703
BOOTH. P.B.
68-0778
bORGlOLI. A.
faS-1128
BORN. R.
68-0631
BOSTON. R.J.
68-1167
BOUBEL. R.W.
68-0635. 68-0636.
68-0637
BOUWER. H.
b6-0939
BOwtN. I.G.
68-0431
BOWER. B.T.
68-1187. 68-1188.
68-1189. 68-1190.
68-1191. 68-1192.
68-1193. 68-1191
BOYD. J.S.
68-0281
BOYLE. E.
68-1098
BOYLE. W.D.
68-0621
BRAIDS. O.C.
68-0975
BRANDT. H.
68-0551
BRAUN. R.
68-0555
BREALEY. L.
68-0131
BREIDENBACH. A.W.
68-0001. 68-0181.
68-0890
BRELAND. E.D.
68-0776
BRITTON. P.W.
68-0230
BROOKS. R.B.
68-0639
BROWN. G.E.
68-0111
BROWN. L.
68-1156
BROWU. P.
68-0610
BROWN. R.L.
68-0135
BROWN. R.R.
68-0331
BRUCE. A.M.
68-0857
BRYANT. E.A.
68-0755
BUCHBINDER. R.I.
68-0940
BUCK. J.
68-0661
BUELL. D.
68-0008. 68-0185.
68-0436. 68-0437.
68-1099
BUELOW. R.W.
68-0186. 68-0641
BU6HER. R.D.
68-0115
BUMP. R.L.
250
-------
Author Index
68-0438* 68-0439
BUNGAY* H.R.
68-0708* 68-0709
BURCHINAL* J.C.
68-0187
BURCKLE* J.O.
68-0440
BURUr R.S.
68-0642
BURGESS* R.
68-1195
CALDWELL* H.S.. Jrt.
68-0342
CALHOUN. P.P.
68-0189
CAMPBELL* H.J.. JR.
68-0441. 68-0442.
68-0443
CANNON* R.W.
68-1068
GARDEN* C.A.
68-0941* bfi-0942
CARDINAL* P.J.
68-0247* 68-0444
CAROTTI* A.A.
68-0533
CARPENTER. E.W.
68-0370
CARPENTER* L.R.
b8-0478
CARPENTER. W.L.
b8-0643
CARROLL* R.6.
b8-0644
CASIMIR* U.J.
btt-0445
CASSELL* E.A.
bti-0273
CERESA* M.
68-0648* bS-0649*
e>6-06bO
CERNIGLIA. V.J.
faa-0446
CHALIHA. B.P.
68-0943
CHALLEN. S.6.
68-0935
CHAMBERLAIN* G.M.
68-0009* 68-UOIO*
68-0011
CHAPMAN. D.O.
68-0652
CHAPMAN* R.A.
66-0190
CHAPMAN* W.H.
68-0653
CHARNES* A.
68-0134
CHEEK* L.F.
68-0448
CHEEMA* A.S.
68-0361
CHENEY. R.L.
68-0895
CHOPRA* S.K.
68-1069
CLARKE* D.G.
68-0654
CLARKESON* J.
68-1197
CLEMONS* C.A.
68-0944. 68-1169
CLYNE. R.W.
68-0655
COACKLEY, P.
68-0656
COHAN* L.J.
68-0447
COHN* M.M.
68-0658
COLE* T.G.
68-1094
COLEMAN* L.W.
68-0448
COLLINS. L.
68-1198
COMPAAN* J.P.
68-0274
CONNER. W.R.
68-0659
CONNOLLY. j.A.
68-0038
CONRAD* E.T.
68-1150
CONVERSE* J.C.
68-0279
CONWAY* R.A.
68-0828
COOGAN* F.J.
68-0776
COPENHAGEN. D.H.
68-0067
COPPA. R.B.
68-1100
CORDER* S.E.
68-0721
CORNELIUS* J.
68-0039. 68-0040*
68-0041
CORNER* J.T.
251
-------
Author Index
68-0663
COTTLE. B.J.
68-0661
COUGHLANr F.P.
68-0665
COXON. P.
68-1071
GRAIN* R.W.
68-0885
CRAWFORD* G.
68-0495
CKEEK. L.
68-0402
CRELLIN. A.D.
68-0118
CRISS* G.H.
68-0449. 68-0150
CROSS* F.L.
68-0451
CULP. G.
68-0666
CULP. R.L.
68-0667
CULVER* B.D.
68-1201
CUMMINS* R.L.
68-0251* 68-0668*
68-1102
CUTE. E.
68-0719
DAHLSTROM* 0.
68-0669
DALE* A.C.
68-0276
OALTON* F.E.
68-0044. 68-0670*
68-0949
OALZELL* W.H.
66-0452
DARCY* C.O.
68-0671
DARNAY. A.J.
68-0896
DAS GUPTA. P.C.
oti-0277
DASMANN* R.F.
68-1202
DAVIS* K.
&8-1103
DAVIS* R.W.
68-0042
DAY. D.L.
66-0279
DEAN* K.C.
68-0336. 68-1034
OECOSSAS, K.M.
68-0950
OE KOE* W.J.
68-0951
DE MARCO, j.
68-0184* 68-0454
DENTON. R.S.
68-0796
DE PADILLA. F.H.
68-0952
DEVINE* T.M.
68-0712. 68-0713
DIAMANT. R.M.E.
68-0558. 68-0559*
68-0560* 68-0561
DICK* R.I.
68-0672* 68-0701*
68-0975
DICKINSON. D.
68-0673
DIEHL. H.
68-0955
DI FILIPPO* J.D.
68-0408. 68-0409.
68-0410. 68-0411,
68-0412
DONNER* D.M.
68-0432
DORE. E.W.
66-0416
UORSEY. J.A.
68-0440
DRESSLER. F«W.
68-1215
DREWES* W.
68-0619
DROBNY. N.L.
68-1045
DUDLEY* R.H.
68-0676
DUGAN. G.L.
68-0280
DUMBLETON* B.M.
68-0677
DUNKLEY. W.L.
68-0767
DUNN. W.L.
68-1110
DUNNING. B.W.. JR.
68-0342
UVIRKA. M.
68-0536
EALES. R.
68-0678
EBERHARDT. H.
252
-------
Author Index
68-0562
EbERT* F.H.
68-Obfa3
ECKENFELDER, W.W.
68-0679
EDINGER* J.E.
68-0732
EDWARDS, G.E.
68-0681
ELGER* G.W.
68-0339
ELLIOT* A.M.
68-0198
EL-SHAIEB* A.M.
68-1203
EMRICH* G.H.
68-1115
ENOERS* K.£.
68-0684
ENGDAHL, R.B.
68-0456
ENGELBRECHT* R.S.
68-0867
ERICKSON* E.E.
68-0515* 68-1086*
68-1087* 68-1088
EKTOLA* J.A.
b8-0200
ESMAY* M.L.
68-0281
ESSENHIGH* R.H.
68-0457, 68-0458*
68-0459, 68-0521
EVANS* H.
68-0121
EVANS* J.O.
68-0960
EWING* R.C.
68-0686
EYE* J.D.
68-0687
FABER* J.H.
68-1075
FAESSLER* K.
68-0566
FAGAN* R.D.
68-0962
FALES. E.D., JR
66-0202
FARKAS* P.
68-0688
FARKASDI* G.
68-1129
FARRANT* R.R.
68-0416
FEELEY. G.R.
68-0748
FEUDMAN* M.M.
68-0414
FERNANDES. J.H.
68-0447* 68-0460
FERRIGHETTOr J.
68-1000
FICHTNER* W.
68-0461
FIFE* J.A.
68-0462
FINK, F.
68-0567
FISHER* R.E.
68-1204
FITZ, R.A.
68-0213* 68-0469
FITZPATRICK J.V.
68-0044
FLEMING* R.R.
68-0463* 68-1158
FLINTOFF, F.L.D.
68-0045
FLOWER* F.B.
68-0464
FLOYD* E.P.
68-0203* 68-0204*
68-0890
FOMIN, S.P.
68-0691
FORSBERG, F.J.
68-1205
FORSTER* C.F.
68-0692
FOURIE* J.C.
68-1077* 68-1078
FOWLER, J.A.
68-0123, 68-0124
FOX* N.A.
68-1159
FRANCIA* P.P.
68-0055* 68-OOb6»
68-0057, 68-OOb8*
68-0059* 68-0060*
68-0061* 68-0062*
68-0215
FRANKEL* R.J.
68-0012
FRANKLIN* W.(£«
68-0896
FRANZKE* H.H.
68-0568
FREANEY* J.A.
68-0125* 68-0173
253
-------
Author Index
FREED* V.H.
68-0206
FREEQMAN* A.J,
68-0697
FREESTONE* A.
68-0207
FREIHERR* F.H.
68-0800
FRIEOLANO* A.L.
68-01+1+3
FRIEDMAN* S.
bB-0971
FRIEDMANi 5.8.
66-0<+8
-------
Author Index
68-0467
GREEK* W.T.
68-0702
GREIGORIEVA. L.V.
b8-0703
GREINER* F.J.
68-0704
GRIFFITHS* J.
68-0705
GRONtR* R.R.
68-0206
GROVES r R.D.
68-0336
GUNARY, D«
68-0285
HAINES. M.
68-0286
HALL* J.K.
68-0751
HAMBURG r F.C.
68-0212
HAMMER* J.
68-0684
HAMMER* M.J.
68-0706
HAMPL* A.
68-0366
HAMPLE* C.R.
68-1206
HAMPTON* R.K.
HANKS* F.J.
68-0707
HARDING* C.I.
68-0970
HARMSEN* H.
b8-0372
HARRISON. J.
68-0708* 68-0709
HART* S.A.
68-001+8. 68-U287*
68-0373
HARTMAN. L.
68-0710* 68-0711
HARVEY. E.H.
68-0712. 68-U713
HATTINGH. W.H-J.
68-0747
HAWK* C.O.
68-0971
HAYUhN* J.A.
68-0178
HAYES* C.T.
68-0503
HEANL'Y* F.L.
68-0468
HEER. H.
68-0554
HEGDAHL* T.A.
68-0541
HEINY* B.
68-0572
HELL. K.W.
68-0972
HERMAN. E.R.
68-0842
HERRMANN* L.
68-0573
HERSON* E.M.
68-0999
HESCH. R.
68-0973
HICKMAN* H.L.
68-0183. 68-0184*
68-1145* 68-1207
HILLE. F.
68-0574
HILLYARD* H.£.
68-0974
HINESLY* T.D.
68-0975
HIRAYAMA* N.
68-0575
HIRSCH* M.
68-0576
HISHIDA. K.
68-0575
HITESHUE. K.W. ,
68-0971
HOFFACKER* B.E.
68-1000
HOFFMAN* D.A.
68-0213. 68-04'b9
HOLBROOK. J.A.
68-0054
HOLDING* J.C.
68-0714
HOPKINS. G.J.
68-0715
HORN. W.
68-0716
HORNYAK. J.
68-0533
HORTENSTINE* C.C.
68-0374
HOSKINS* F.H.
68-0952
HOWAT. D.D.
68-0985
HUENTING* R.
255
-------
Author Index
HUMMELL* J.D.
68-0456
HUNDERTMARK* G.
68-0021
HUNT* P.G.
68-0288
HUNTEANU* A.
68-0719
HUNTER' W.L.
68-0339
HYDE* P.E.
68-01711 68-0,720*
68-0721
ICHIKAWA* K.
68-0722
IGLEHAKT* C.C.
68-0214
INGRAM* W.T.
68-OOb5» 68-0056*
68-0057. 68-0058*
68-0059* 68-0060*
68-0061* 68-0062*
68-0215
INO* 5.
66-1093
ISAAC* P.C.G.
68-0725
ISAACMAN. T.
68-0063
ISABELL. R.D.
68-0726
ISMIDA* M.
68-0289
ISHII* K.
68-0<+74. 68-0475
ISRAEL* M.
68-1151
IYENGAR* M.S.
68-0943
JACKSON. M.R.
68-1091
JACKSON* N.H.
68-1004
JACKSON* R.L.
68-071b
JACOBSON* A.R.
68-0476
JAMES* K.O.L.
68-0727
JANY. V.
68-0905
JARCO* P.
68-1079
JENKINS* D.
68-0728
JERIS* J.S.
68-0375* 68-0376*
68-0398
JERMAN. R.I.
68-0178
JERNSTROM* K.E.
68-0984
JOCHENS* P.R.
68-0985
JOHNSON* O.E.
68-1120
JOHNSON* H.
68-0892* 68-1210
JOHNSON* R.D.
68-0290
JONES* D.D.
68-0279
JONES* K.D.C.
68-0291
JOYCE* F.
68-0729
JUOELL* T.L.
68-0730
JUEBERMANN* 0.
68-0731
KAISER* E.R.
68-0479* 68-0480*
68-0481* 68-0482*
68-0483* 68-0484*
68-0485* 68-0486
KALIKA. P.W.
68-0487
KALINSKE. A.A.
68-0377
KAMBERr D.M.
68-0732
KAMBHUr K.
68-0733
KANE. B.E.. JR.
68-0378
KANTZ, R.
68-1148
KASCHKE. W.
68-0734
KAUFMANN. J.
68-0402
KAUPERT. W.
68-0581. 68-0582.
68-0583
KAWAI. N.
68-1093
KAWASHIMA. T.
68-0496
KAYAMA* N.
266
-------
Author Index
68-0987
KELPPINGER* A.Dt .i.
68-0960
KEMMLR. F.N.
fafl-0735
KEMPA. E.
68-0584. 68-U7J6.
68-07,57
KENAhAN. C.B.
68-0488, 68-0988
KENNEDY, J.C.
68-0218
KERR. D.M.
68-OOfa7
KERSHAW, M.A.
b8-0379, 68-1211
KEUNE. H.
68-0219
KHAIT. K.B.
68-0691
KIELINSKI, J.
68-0750
KILPPER, Vi.
b8-0989
KINCANNON* O.F.
68-0738
KING* F.M.W.
68-0739
KLATT* M.
68-0906
KLEE» A.J.
68-0183> 68-0230*
68-0380. 68-1212.
68-1213
KLEIN
68-0990
KLEIN* S,
68-1122
KLEIN. S.A.
68-0211
KLEINAU. J.H.
KNOLL. K.H.
68-1129
KNUTH. U.T.
68-0381
KOBRIN. C.L.
68-0991
KODAMA* K.
&8-1093
KOEHLER* F.
68-0741
KOEHLER* R.
68-0742, 68-0744
KOEIJ* M.
68-0021
KOENIT2ER. 6.H.
68-0743
KOLB, L.P.
68-0382
KONNO. S.
68-0575
KOPPERNOCK, F.
68-0745
KORB1T2* W.E.
68-0773
KORCHAK. G.I.
68-0703
KOREJS* J.
68-0746
KOTZE. J.P.
68-0747
KRAKAUER* S.
68-0748
KRAMER* A.
68-0997
KRANE* D.
68-0292
KRAUSE* G.
68-0731* 68-0992
KRIKAU* F.G.
68-0749
KRISHNA. R.
68-0397
KRISNABAMRUNG* W.
68-0993
KRONBACH* A.J.
68-0489
KRUSE* C.W.
68-0163* 68-0164.
68-0165* 68-0166*
68-0167* 68-0166*
68-0169, 68-0170
KUESTER-SANGE* K.
68-0752
KUHLMANN* A.
68-0585
KULAKOWSKI* A.
68-0750
KUMKE, G.W.
68-0751
KURIYAMA, M.
68-0793
KUTERA* J.
68-0753* 68-0994
LA CHAPELLE* D.G.
68-0490» 68-0491*
68-0492, 68-0493
LAFFEY* W.T.
68-0494
257
-------
Author Index
LAMB* J.C.
68-0751
LAMBERT. J.R.
b8-0707
LANCYt L.L.
68-0648* 68-0649.
b8-06bO
LANDY. S.
68-0067
LANE* G.H.
68-0996
LANGER* H.F.
68-0021
L'ANNUNZIATA. M.F.
68-0370
LAPORTE* V.L.
68-09bO
LAREDO* D.
08-0755
LARSON* G.P.
68-0545* 68-1187.
b8-1188* 68-1189*
68-1190* 68-1191*
68-1192. 68-1193*
bS-1194
LAUBENBERGER* G.
68-0710* 68-0711
LAUSCH* J.
68-0130
LA*. O.K.
68-0586
LAWRENCE* A.W*
68-1140
LECKMAN. J.W.
68-0454
LEDbETTER* d.O.
68-0756
LEFFU-. E.G.
68-0997
LEIB. H.
68-0566
LE.NEL* K.K.
68-Ob87
LE KICHE* H.H.
08-0757
LEVIN* P.
68-0758
LEVINE* S.
68-0759* 68-U998
LEWINf V.H.
68-0760
LIEBERMAN* A.
68-1091
LIEUMAN* J.C.
68-0163. 68-016«t*
68-0165* 68-01b6*
68-0167. 68-0168.
68-0169. 68-0170
LIPPMAN* A.J.
68-0013
LLOYD* D.O.
68-0761
LOBB* E«
68-1124
LODH. S.B.
68-0943
LOEHR. R.C.
68-0293. 68-0294.
68-0295. 68-0296*
68-0297* 68-0298*
68-0299. 68-0300.
68-0301. 68-0762
LONERGAN, R.p.
68-0999
LONG. S.K.
68-0763
LORD* A.M.
68-0709
LOWDER. L.K.
68-0764
LOWE. E.
68-0767
LUCKER* B.
68-1125
LUDWIG* H.F.
68-0065
LUESCHER* K.H.
68-0588
LUND* R.E.
68-1000
LYNAM* B.T.
68-0670
MACKINTOSH* G.R.
68-0220
MAC NEAL. J.A.
68-0765
MAGNUSON. M.O.
68-1082
MAIER. W.J.
68-0766
MAIKRANZ. F.
68-0589
MAJERCAK. S.
68-1079
MAJERCAKOVA. A.
68-1079
MAJUMDAR. K.K.
68-1002
MAKAR, H.V.
68-0342
258
-------
Author Index
MALINA. J.F.
68-0108. 68-0109.
68-0110. 68-0411'
68-0112. 68-0911.
68-0912. 68-1174
MALONEY. J.C.
68-0190» 68-0191*
68-0192. 68-0193
MANCHESTER. H.
68-0590
MANTLE. E.C.
68-1001
MARENKIN. F.
68-1005
MARSOEN. C.
68-0116
MARSHALL. P.G«
68-0767
MARSHALLA. A.
68-0195
MARTIN. F.
68-0161
MATSUMOTO. K.
68-0196
MATTHES. G.
68-1129
MATUSKY. F.£.
68-0197
MAY. S.L.
68-0336
MAYER. W.
68-0562
MAZOwIECKI- A.W.
68-1161
MAZUMDAR. A.K.
68-0277
MC ATEER. O.J.
63-0198
MC bEAN. D.
68-0115
MC CAFFERY. J.B.
68-0186
MC COY. E.
68-0328
MC CULLOUGH. E.d.
b8-0971
MC UERMOTT. R.F.
68-0696
MC DONALD. P.
e>8-1006
MC ELWEE. W.C.
68-0022
MC 6AUHEY. P.M.
68-1173
MC GHEE. T.J.
68-0768
MC GUCHAN. R.
68-0166
MC KINNEY. R.E.
68-0769
MC LEAN. N.
68-0592. 68-0770.
68-0771
MC LOUTH. b.F.
68-0199
MC MAHON, J.F.
68-0772
MEIER. E.B.
68-0773
MEIER ZU KOCKER. H.
68-0591
MELVILLE., c.
68-1150
MENDOZA. E.
68-0131
MERCER. W.A.
68-0383. 68-0381.
68-0385. 68-0386
MERZ. R.C.
68-0222. 68-1126
METZ. G.L.E.
68-1175
MICHAELS. A.
68-0229. 68-0500.
68-0501. 68-1187.
68-1188. 68-1189.
68-1190. 68-1191.
68-1192. 68-1193,
68-1191
MICHNA, L.
68-0550
MIDDLEBROOKS. E.J.
68-0776
MIKSCH. J.
68-0777
MILLER. R.L.
68-0829
MILLIKEN. S.O.
68-0003
MILLWARD. R.S.
68-0778
MODELL. M.
68-1010
MODR2EJEWSKI. K.
68-1013
MOELLER' F.
68-0711
MOLAISON. L.J.
68-0950
MONROE' E.S.
269
-------
Author Index
68-0503
MONROE. E«S.» JR.
08-0502
MOORE. E.J.
68-0067
MOORE. M.E.
68-0780
MORGAN* J.E.
66-0505
MOVER. H.E.
68-0781
MUELLER. W.J.
68-0631. 68-0783
MUERS. M.M.
68-0782
MUHICH. A.J.
66-0183. 68-0230
MUKHOPADHYAY. B.
68-0908
MULLER. H.J.
b6-0023
MURDOCK. R.F.
b8-1127
MURPHY. E-M.
68-1082
MUZZI. A.
6B-H28
MYATT. A.A.
68-078b
NAGY. J.
68-1082
NAKAE. H.
68-0987
NEGULESCU' C.
68-0719
NOJBAULR. H.
68-0664
NEUBAUER. W.K.
b8-0786
NIEMITZ. W.
68-0792
NIERYCHLE^SKI. T.
68-1017
N1ESSEN. W.R.
68-05^6
NISHIKAWA. S.
68-0793
NIbHIMURA. H.
68-1083
N06UCHI. T.
66-1084
NOLAN. M.
68-049'j
NORIN6. F-
68-1129
NOWAK, F.
68-0509
O'BRIEN. W.J.
68-0769
OEBEN. R.w.
68-0751
OGDEN. M.
68-0345
O'HARA. A.S.
68-1214
OHIRA. T.
68-0575
OKEY. R.W.
68-0652
OLDS. J.
68-0390. 68-0391
OLSEN. A.R.
68-0449. 68-0450
OLSZEWSKI, W.
68-1043
O'MALLEY. w.R.
68-0511
ONASCH. H.
68-0909
OPLI6ER. P.S.
68-0707
OREN. O.H.
68-0347
ORTH. H.
68-0068
OSOEGAWA. I.
68-1083
OSWALD, w.j.
68-0280. 68-0722
OTAKE. T.
68-1093
OVIATT. C.A.
68-0512
PAGAN. A.R.
68-0513
PAINTER. H.A.
68-0796
PARKER. C.U.
68-0797. b8-0798
PASHELENSKY. D.
68-1019
PATTON. V.D.
68-0878
PAUL. U.
68-0824
PAULUS. H.J.
68-0499
PEARL. D.R.
68-0514
PEARL. I.A.
-------
Author Index
68-0799
PEARSON. L.A.
PEELE. T.C.
68-0288
PERL. K.
68-0133
PERLITZ. H.
68-0752
PERRY* C.A.
£>8-031<+
PERRY. M.J.
68-0659
PESCHIERA. L.
68-0600
PETERS. E.
66-1085
PETKU. I. A.
08-0801
PFEFFER. J.T.
68-0802
PFLANZ. P.
faQ-0789
PHILLIPS. W.
bS-0803
PILNEY. J.P.
68-0515. 68-1066.
68-1087. 68-1088
PILNY. F.
bb-1020
PIPES. W.O.
68-0842
PLOOS VAN AMSTEL. J.J.A.
68-0806
POHL
68-0807
POHLAND. F.G.
68-117b
POHLL. R.
68-1021
POLKOWSKI. L.H.
bB-0328
POMEROY. R.D.
68-0809
PONTIN. R.A.
68-0303
POPEL. F.
68-0810
PORTER. R.C.
68-1215
PRANUl. M.E.
68-1022
PRATOLONGO. G.
68-0395
PRIESTLEY. J.L.
68-0813
PRINGLE. B.H.
68-06<+l
PROCHAL. P.
68-0396
PROUUFIT, D.P.
68-0817
PURCELL. T.C.
68-0931. 68-0941*
PUROOM. P.W.
68-0526. 68-0527.
68-0528. 68-1177
QUARMBY. C.
68-0796
QUON. J.E.
68-013"+
RAMPACEK* C.
68-0520
RANARD. E.D.
68-0<+31
RAO. T.
68-0397
RAO. T.R.S.
68-0521
RASCH. R.
68-0236
REES. D.F.
68-0239
REEVES. E.G.
68-0«+2'+» 68-Ot25,
68-0<+26
RLGAN. R.W.
68-0375. 68-037&.
68-0398
REH. L.
68-0601
REICHMAYR, J.
68-0350
REID. C.F.
68-1036
REID. L.C.
68-0351
REIFERT. L.
68-0602
REIMER. H.
68-0569
REINHARDT. J.J.
68-1139
REMIREZ. R.
68-1027
RLMSON. I.
68-1115. 68-llf+O
REWICKI. Z.
68-0401
REYNOLDS. U-P.
261
-------
Author Index
68-1030
REYNOLDS, W.F.
68-1031
RIEOLINGER, R.A.
68-0604
RILEYi B.T.
68-0440
RILEY» C.T.
68-0305, 68-0306
ROBERSON, J.E«
68-0523, 66-0831
ROBERTS, A.J.
68-0499
ROBINSON, H.
to8-0822
ROBINSON, W.D.
68-0244
ROENNEFAHRT, K.ri.
68-0777, 68-0824
ROGERS, C.J.
6Q-0190
ROGERS, P.A.
68-0082
ROHAN, T.M.
68-1032
ROHDE, G.
68-0399
ROHLICH, G.
68-1139
ROHR, F.W.
68-0524
ROHRER' £•
68-1033
ROLFE, D.G.
68-0144
ROMAN, G.H.
68-1090
ROMANEK, ft.
68-1091
ROSE, B.A.
68-0825
ROSE, W.W.
68-0383, 68-0384,
68-0385, 68-0386
ROSENBAUM, J.B.
68-1034
ROSENSON, R.
68-1035
ROSS, R.D.
68-0826, 68-0827,
68-0828
ROSS, R.W.
68-0451
ROTHWELL, O.f .
68-0374
ROTTA, G.
68-0605
ROUSSEAU, H.
68-052b
RUEBr F.
68-0606
RUGGE.RI, G.
68-0607
RUPPERT» J.A.
68-0485, 68-0988
RYAN, M.J.
68-0829
SALVATO, J.A., JR.
68-1218
SANTLER* F.T.
68-0652
SANZIN, W.U.
68-0830
SAROFIM, A.F.
68-0245, 68-04ba
SAUL, C.M.
68-0505
SAX, N.I.
68-0893
SCHAFER* H.
68-0699
SCHAUB, J.H.
68-1178
SCHERFIG, J.
68-1036
SCHINK, C.A.
68-0831
SCHlNZEL, A.
68-0246
SCHLEUTERr to.
68-0258
SCHLUENSEN, D.
68-0972
SCHMIDT, G.P.
68-0307
SCHNEIDER, W.
66-1129
SCHOENBERGER, R.J.
68-0526, 68-0527,
68-0528
SCHOENOWITY, A.
68-0396
SCHULT2, G.P.
68-0146, 68-0147,
68-0148, 68-0149,
68-0150, 68-0151,
68-0152, 68-0153*
68-0154, 68-Olb5»
68-0156, 68-0157
SCHULZ, O.F.
262
-------
Author Index
68-0529
SCHWARTZ* W.A.
68-0861
SCROGGINS. T.L.
68-0833
SEBASTIAN* F.P.
68-0247
SEIDEL. M.
68-0834
SEIUERS. R.W.
68-0433
SETTEDUCATOr N.M.
68-0530
SEYMOUR. VI.N.
68-0914
SHAH. I.S.
68-0837* 68-0838
SHANNON* E.S.
68-0839
SHEAFFER. J.R.
68-0084
SHELL. B.J.
68-0776
SHELL. G.L.
68-0377
SHERWOOD. P.W.
68-1092
SHERWOOD. R.J.
68-0620
SHIPTON. J.
68-0445
SHIRAI. T.
68-0289
SHORT. W.
68-0609
SHULTS. F.J.A.
68-0333
SHUSTEH. W.W.
68-0531. 68-1179
SIBIGA. J.
68-0401
SIEBERT. M.L.
68-0747
SILVA. A.
68-0532
SINGER. P.C.
b8-0842
SKORNYAKOVA. R.K.
&8-0159
SLATIN. A.
68-0028
SMITH. A.W.
68-0610
SMITH. B.
68-0249
SMITH* C.D.
68-1143
SMITH. R.A.
68-0533
SMITH. R.D.
68-0534
SNOOK* W.G.G.
68-0851
SOENTGEN* E.J.
68-1039
SOMERS* J.A.
68-0852
SORG. T.J.
68-0251* 68-0668.
68-1145
SOSNOVSKY. C.H.
68-0100. 68-0101.
68-0102* 68-0103*
68-0104* 68-0105*
68-0106* 68-0107.
68-0108. 68-0109.
68-0175
SOUTAR. D.S.
68-0309
SOWERS. G.F.
68-1146
SPAEHN* H.
68-0566
SPANO. E.F.
68-0<*85. 68-0988
SPARR. A.E.
6B-OR53
SPEECE. R.E»
68-0867
SPEIGHT. B.W.
68-0402
SPICKA. I.
68-0746. 68-08^4
SPOHN. E.
68-0403. 68-0855
STABENOW. G.
68-0611
STAPLER. J.T.
68-0915
STEIGMAN* H.
68-1180
STEIN. J.E.
68-0670
STElNER* R.L.
68-1115* 68-1147.
68-1148
STEPHENSON. J.W.
68-0535
STEPHENSON. M.E.
68-1149
-------
Author Index
STERNITZKE, R.F.
68-0536
STICKLEY, J.D.
68-0537
STONE» R.
68-0222 , 68-1040,
68-1126, 68-1150*
68-1151
STORY, W.S.
68-1041
STOVALL, O.H.
68-0776
STRAUSS, M.D.
68-0003
STUMPF, H.
68-0258
STUNDL, K.
68-1152
SUCHOWSKI, K.
68-1042
SUDER, P.» JR.
68-1082
SULLIVAN, P.M.
68-0485, 68-0988
SURIAWIRIA, U.
68-01+04
SUZUKI, T.
68-1093
SWANWICK, J.D.
68-0857
S2WARCSZTAJN, E.
68-1043
TAEUBER, F.
68-0916
TAIGANIOES, E.P.
68-0310, 68-0311
TAKAMURA, N.
bS-0993
TALBOT, J.S.
68-0259
TANAKA, M.
68-013**
TANEJA, C.A.
68-1069
TANNER, R.
68-0612
TAN2ER* E.K.
68-0539
TAO, H.C.
TARBOX, F.L.
68-0490, 68-0191,
68-0492, fafl-0493
TAUBER, F.
6B-0859
TAYLOR, A.
68-0161
TAYLOR, L.A.
68-0433
TEHR1, S.P.
68-1069
TENCH, H.8.
68-0860
TENNEY, M.W.
68-1094
TESTIN, R.F.
68-0897, 68-0898,
68-0899, 66-0900,
68-0901, 68-0902,
68-1045
THATCHER* R.M.
68-1219
THIEL, P.O.
68-0747
THOMAS' A.
68-0640
THOMAS, R.E.
68-0861
THOMAS, W.R.P.
68-0862
THOMPSON, M.
68-0260
THOMPSON, P.O.
68-0312
TIETZ, I.
68-1048
T1LSWORTH, T.
68-0706
TISCHLERf L.F.
68-0679
TODD, J.J.
68-0780
TOERIEN* D.F.
68-0747
TOPE, 0.
68-0162
TOTH, S.J.
68-0405
TOYAMA, S.
68-1093
TRAINOR' J.W.
68-0540
TRAUTWEIN, W.B.
68-0485
TRAYNOR' A.T.
68-0613
TRIEFF, N.M.
68-0528
TRUITT, M.M.
68-0163, 68-0164,
264
-------
Author Index
68-0165* 68-0166*
68-0167* 68-0168.
68-0169* 68-0170
TUCKER* M.6.
68-05'*!
ULMER* N.S.
68-0203* 68-0204
US5AR* M.B.
68-0567
VAMVAKIAS* J.6.
68-0643
VAN BEEK* G.
68-1226
VAN DAM* J.
68-0311
VANDYKE* K.G.
68-0857
VATEH* W.
68-0865
VAUGHAN* R.D.
68-0183* 68-0917*
68-1182* 68-1227
VERBER* J.L.
68-0641
VESCIA* N.
68-1128
VICKERY* J.R.
68-1055
VIVIER* M.
68-1096
V1X* H.L.E.
68-0950
V06EL* H.E.
68-0866
VONDRAK* G.H.
68-0171
VON FORSTNER* M.J.
68-0693
WADIE. K.A.O.
68-1056
WADUEIGH*, C.H.
08-0315
WAKABAYASHI. T.
68-0513
WALSH* I.E.
68-1201
WALTER* L«
68-061**
WALTERS* C.F.
68-0867
WARNER* D.L.
68-0828
WASSERMAN. L.P.
68-0262
WATKINS* A.M.
68-0544
WATSCHKE* J.
68-0617
WATSON* J.L.A.
68-0264
WEATHERSBEE* C.
68-1060
WEBB* A.W.K.
68-0356
WEBBER* L.R.
68-1118
WEBER* C.E.
68-1183
WEBER* C.L.
68-0681*
WEISFL06* W.E.
68-1166
WELCH* G.E.
68-1000
WERNER* A.E.
68-0871
WESTFIELD* J.D.
68-1176
WETMORE* C.A.
68-0875
WHITE* J.E.
68-0329
WHITE* R.K.
68-0311* 68-0317
WILCOMB* M.J.
68-0022
WILLIAMS* L.R.
68-1063
WILLIAMS* R.H.
68-0877
WILLOUGHBY. £•
68-0878
WILSON* D.G.
68-0173. 68-0908*
68-1229* 68-1230*
68-1232
WINCZAKIEWICZ* A.
68-1017
WISSEL* K.
68-0594
WITZEL. S.A.
68-0318* 68-0319.
68-0320. 68-0321.
68-0322. 68-0323.
68-0324. 68-0325.
68-0326. 68-0327.
68-0328
WOERNLE. R.
68-0879
WOLF. K.
265
-------
Author Index
68-0115
WOLF. K.W.
68-0100. 68-0101.
68-0102. 68-0103.
68-0101. 68-0105.
68-0106. 68-0107.
68-0108. 68-0109.
6fi-017<*» 68-0175
WOLF. R.
68-0615
WOLHUTER. C.W.
68-0985
WOODRUFF. P.M.
68-0545
WOODS. D.L.
68-0935
WRIGHT. C.D.
68-0882
WUHRMANN. K.
68-1155
toULF. H.
68-0618
WULFINGHOFF. M.
68-0883
WYMOKE. A.M.
68-0329
YELLAND. W.E.C.
68-0915
YOUNG. E..F.
68-088t
YOUNo. R.
68-0266
ZALTZMAN. R.
68-1178
ZANDI. I.
68-0176. 68-U177.
68-0178
ZEIT. C.D.
68-Ot86
ZEPEUA. F.
68-0099
ZIEMER. G.
68-0619
ZIEVERS. J.F.
68-0885
ZINN. R.E.
66-05^6
266
-------
CORPORATE AUTHOR INDEX
AMtRICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY. WASHINGTON* D.C.
68-0815. 68-0890
AML.RICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE. NEW YORK. N.Y.
b8-0281
AMt-RICAN PUBLIC WORKS ASSOCIATION. CHICAGO. ILL.
66-0235. 68-1195
AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. CHATTANOOGA. TENN.
68-0293
AMtRICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS. NEW YORK
68-0241. 68-0431. 68-0132.
68-0134. 68-0438' 68-0440.
68-0441. 68-0446. 68-0449.
68-0450. 68-0451. b8-04b7.
68-0458. 68-0460. 68-0461.
68-0479. 68-0485. 68-0486.
68-0487. 68-0495' t>8-0496.
68-0497. 68-0499. 68-0502.
68-0511. 68-0518' 68-0521.
68-0524. 68-0525' 68-0526.
68-0528. 68-0529. 68-0532.
68-0535. 68-0536' 68-0537,
68-0539, 68-0545. 68-0546.
68-0562. 68-1162. 68-1183
BUREAU OF MINES. WASHINGTON. D.C.
68-0334, 68-0336, bS-0339,
68-0342. 68-0488' 68-0772,
68-0929, 68-0967' 68-0968.
68-0979. 68-0988' 68-1023.
68-1041. 68-1075' 68-1082
CALIFORNIA STATE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC HEALTH. SACRAMENTO, CALIF.
68-0039. 68-0040. 68-0041.
68-0042. 68-0252. O8-0253,
68-0254. 68-0255. 68-0256,
68-0257
CALIFORNIA STATE OFFICE OF PLANNING, SACRAMENTO, CALIF.
68-1196
CALIFORNIA STATE WATER RESOURCES CONTROL BOARD. SACRAMENTO. CALIF.
68-0873
CHLMICAL PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC., NEW YORK, N.Y.
68-0883
CLLMSON UNIVERSITY, ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT.
CLEMSON. b.C.
68-0733
COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, HARRISBURG. PA.
68-1199, 68-1200
CONNECTICUT STATE DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. HARTFORD. CONN.
b8-0086
COUNTY OF LOS ANGELES, DEPARTMENT OF COUNTY ENGINEERS, CALIFORNIA
68-1101
DAKTMOUTH COLLEGE, THAYER SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, HANOVER' N.H.
68-0962
DAY AND ZIMMERMANN, INC., PHILADELPHIA, PA.
68-0192. 68-0193, O8-0194,
68-0453, 68-1104, 68-1105,
68-1106, 68-1107
DENVER REGIONAL COUNCIL OF GOVERNMENTS, DENVER' COLORADO
68-1144
OREXEL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, PHILADELPHIA, PA.
68-1115, 68-1177
ENGINEERING FOUNDATION RESEARCH CONFERENCE. BEAVER DAM. WIS.
68-0043, 68-0175. 68-0177,
68-0190, 68-0203, u8-0204»
-------
Corporate Author Index
68-0206. 68-0213. b8-0251,
68-0276r 68-0279* 68-0280,
68-0310, 68-0328' 68-0340,
68-0371, 68-0377, 68-0380*
68-0398. 68-0402. 68-0414,
68-0454. 68-0480. 68-0481.
68-0482. 68-0489. 68-0520.
68-0531. 68-0533. 68-0534.
68-0541. 68-0668' 68-0763.
68-0931. 68-0944. 68-0975.
68-0997. 68-1034. b8-1045.
68-1113. 68-1127* 68-1171,
68-1172, 68-1173, 68-1174,
68-1176, 68-1177. 68-1178.
68-1179. 68-1186
FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION. WASHINGTON. D.C.
68-0243. 68-0294* 68-0295,
68-0296, 68-0297, 68-0298,
68-0299, 68-0300, 68-0301,
68-0642, 68-0892. 68-1206.
68-1212. 68-1215
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS. ROME, ITALY
08-0347
FOKD FOUNDATION, NEW YORK, N.Y.
08-1170
GLASS CONTAINER MANUFACTURERS INSTITUTE, INC., NEW YORK, N.Y.
68-0895
HENNINGSON, DURHAM AND RICHARDSON, INC.
68-0049, 68-OObO. 68-OObl»
68-0052, 68-0053
ILLINOIS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH INSTITUTE, CHICAGO, ILL.
68-0772, 68-0929. 68-09b7.
68-0968. 68-0979. &8-1G23,
68-1041, 68-1053. 68-1054,
68-1075, 68-1091
INTERNATIONAL BOILER WORKS COMPANY, EAST STROUDSBUR6, PA.
68-0611
JAPAN MINISTRY OF HEALTH AND wELFAHE
68-1209
JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, GEPT. OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. BALTIMORE.MQ.
fa8-0163» 68-0164, 68-0165,
68-0166, 68-0167. 68-0168,
68-0169, 68-0170
KELP AMERICA BEAUTIFUL. INC.. NEW YORK. N.Y.
oS-1163
MANHATTAN COLLEGE, DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, BRONX, N.Y.
68-0376
MEAD AND HUNT, INC., MADISON, WISCONSIN
08-0066
MEFCALF AND EDDY, ENGINEERS-PLANNERS, BOSTON, MASS.
68-0070. 68-0071. oS-0072.
68-0073. 68-0074. oS-0075,
68-0223, 68-0224. o8-0225,
08-0226, 68-0227, 68-0228
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY, DIVISION OF ENGINEERING RESEARCH,
EAST LANSING, MICH.
68-1149
MONTANA STATE DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, HELENA, MONTANA
o8-1216
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SECONDARY MATERIAL INDUSTRIES, NEW YORK, N.Y.
08-0957
NAIIONAL CANNERS ASSOCIATION, WESTERN RESEARCH LABORATORY, BERKELEY.
CALIF.
268
-------
Corporate Author Index
08-0383' 60-0384' o8-0385
NE,, YORK STATE DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH* ALBANY. N.Y.
NOuTh STAR RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE. MINNEAPOLIS. MINN.
b8-108b. 68-1087' o8~1068
OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION CONTROL RESEARCH
LAbORATORY. COLUMBUS. OHIO
08-0311. 68-0317
ORLGOr-i STATL UNIVERSITY. CGRVALLIS. OREGON
68-Oo3S, 68-0630. o8~0o37»
66-0720, 60-0721. 66-0833.
08-0920
HUuLIc HEALTH SERVICE. WaSulNGTON. D.C.
o8-0001. 68-OU38. o8-0087»
b8-0088» 68-0089. uB-0090.
68-0091, 68-0092' fa8-0093>
58-0094. 68-0095' 68-0096'
68-0097. 68-010U. 68-0101.
68-0102. 68-0103' o8~0104.
68-010b. 68-0106. c.8-0107.
68-0108. 68-0109. o8~0l83.
08-0184. 68-0215. o8-0232.
68-0275. 68-0330. o8~0351.
08-0359. 68-0360' t>8-0373,
68-0^53. 68-05^2. 68-0999,
68-1101. 68-1102. 03-1154.
68-1169
PUBLIC OPINION SURVEYS' INC.' PRINCETON. NLW JERSLY
68-1163
RAILWAY SYSTEMS AND MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION' CHICAGO' ILL.
68-0030' 68-0084. b8~0174
REuIOt^AL PLAN ASSOCIATION. INC.. NEW YORK. N.Y.
08-1187' 68-1188' 68-1189'
68-1190. 68-1191' 08-1192'
68-1193' 68-1194
REINHOLD BOOK CORPORATION' NLw YORK' N.Y.
o8-082b» 68-0827' o8-0d28>
oS-0888
RESOURCES FOR THE FUTURE' INC.. WASHINGTON' D.C.
o8-1217
REYNOLDS. SMITH AND HILLS. TAMPA
bS-0077. 68-0078» o8-0079»
0&-0080. 68-0081
RHoDE ISLAND STATEWIDE COMPREHENSI VE TRANSPORTATION AND LAND USE
PLANNING PROGRAM, PROVIDENCE. R.I.
68-0242
ROBERT AND COMPANY ASSOCIATES' ATLANTA
68-0077. 68-0078. &8-0079.
68-0080. 68-0081
SOCIETY OF THE PLASTICS INDUSTRY' INC.* NCrf YORK' N.Y.
u8-0fa97. 68-0898' o8-0899»
68-0900. 68-0901. 68-0902
SOLID AASTtS TECHNICAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE
o8-1144
SOUTHEASTERN CONNECTICUT REGIONAL PLANNING AGENCY, NORWICH, CONN.
68-0223, 68-0224. b8-0225»
68-022b. 68-0227. 68-0228
STATE PARK AND RECREATION COMMISSION. AUGUSTA' MAINE
68-0341
STONE. RALPH. AND COMPANY. INC.' ENGINEERS' LOS ANGELES' CALIF.
68-0015. 68-0135. 68-0136.
68-0137. 68-0138' o6~0139'
68-0348' 68-0349' 68-0519'
-------
Corporate Author Index
68-1135* 68-1136, oS-1137,
b8-1138
TEXAS A AND M UNIVERSITY, COLLEGE STATION, TEXAS
68-0304
UNITED STATES AIR FORCE SCHOOL OF AEROSPACE MEDICINE*
bROOKS AIR FORCE BASE, TEXAS
bB-0829
UNITED STATES ARMY NATICK LABORATORIES* NATlCK* MASS.
b8-091b
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE* WASHINGTON* D.C.
68-0308* 66-0315
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH* EDUCATION* AND WELFARE.
WASHINGTON, D.C.
b8-1154
UNITED STATES HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES SUBCOMMITTEE ON SCIENCE*
RESEARCH* DEVELOPMENT* WASHINGTON* D.C.
b8-0896
UNITED STATES PRESIDENT'S COUNCIL ON RECREATION AND NATURAL BEAUTY*
WASHINGTON* D.C.
68-1221* 68-1222* 68-1223,
68-1224
UNITED STATES SENATE COMMITTEE ON PUdLlC WORKS, WASHINGTON, D.C.
68-0006
UNITED STATES SENATE SUBCOMMITTEE ON AIR AND WATER POLLUTION,
WASHINGTON* D.C.
68-1225* 68-1227
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY* CALIF.
68-1185* 68-1203* 68-1219
UNIVEHSITY OF CALIFORNIA, DAVIS* CALIF.
68-0362* 68-1220
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA* GAINESVILLE* FLA.
b8-0378
UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND* COLLEGE PARK* MD.
68-0924, 68-0925* oft-0926
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA, DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,
LOS ANGELES. CALIF.
t-8-1126
UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS CENTER FOR RESEARCH IN WATER RESOURCES,
AUSTIN, TEXAS
68-0408* 68-0409, 68-0410,
68-0411* 68-0412, t>8-0941,
68-0942
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN WATER RESOURCES CENTER, MADISON, wis.
68-0318* 68-0319* o8-0320.
b8-0321. 68-0322* 68-0323,
68-0324, 68-0325* oS-0326,
68-0327
URttAN SYSTEMS LABORATORY, MASS. INSTITUTE OF TECH., CAMBRIDGE* MASS.
68-0125* 68-0173* 68-0245,
68-0452* 68-0908. oa-0937*
68-1010, 68-1197* 68-1229,
68-1230, 68-1232
UTAH STATE DIVISION OF HtALTH, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH
68-0542
VAN NOSTRAND REINHOLD CO., NEW YORK
68-0260, 68-0893
VIRGINIA STATE DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, RICHMOND, VA.
68-0085
WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY, MORGANTOwN, W.VA.
68-0187
WOKLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, GENEVA* SWITZERLAND
68-1184
270
-------
GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION INDEX
Al-RICA
SWAZILAND* 68-0231
AUSTRALIA
SYDNEY. 68-0871
AUSTRIA. 68-1062
RANSHOFEN. 68-0216
BKlTISH COLUMBIA
ALBERNI HARBOUR. 68-0674
CANADA. 68-0028. 68-0271. 68-0818.
68-1195. 68-1214
ALBERTA, 68-0966
MONTREAL. 68-0504. 68-0685
ONTARIO. 68-0729
CORNWALL. 68-0875
SARNIA. 68-0645
SASKATCHEWAN. 68-0207
TORONTO. 68-0775. 68-1046
CHECHOSLOVAKIA. 68-0366. 68-0401
DLNMAKK
KOLDING. 68-0582. 68-0590
EUROPE. 68-0139. 68-03b4.
68-0373. 68-0456. 68-U611.
6U-U885
FINLAND. 68-1064
Fl
-------
Geographical Location Index
TEL AVIV. 63-0264
ITALY. 68-0395
FLORENCE* 68-0025
MILAN, 68-0595
ROME* 68-0347' 68-1128
JAPAN. 68-0332. 68-0415. 68-0496.
68-1011. 68-1062. 68-1209
TOKYO. 68-0575. 68-0578
MADAGASCAR
ISLAND REUNION. 68-0973
MALTA. 68-0810
NETHERLANDS. 68-0282. 66-0364.
68-0951
NEW ZEALAND. 68-0220, 68-0249.
68-0364
NORTH SEA. 68-0219
PHILIPPINES. 68-0270
POLAND. 68-0994
CKACOW. 68-0396
KIELCE, b8-0396
WARSA*. b8-0396
WROCLAW, 68-0753
PUERTO RICO, 68-0630
SOUTH AFRICA, 68-0394
EAST LONDON, 68-0274
PORT ELIZABETH, 68-0274
TKANSVAAL, 68-1077. 66-1078
SOUTH AMERICA, 68-0099
S«EUEN» 68-0358
LULEA. 68-0182
SKINNSKATTEBERG. 68-0&98
STOCKHOLM, 68-0118
V1SBY, 68-0622
SWITZERLAND
bASEL. 68-1108
otNEVA. 68-0607, 68-0638
LAUSANNE, 68-0612
ST. GALL, 68-0866
SITTEN-MITTELWALLIS, b8-Ub83
TAIWAN, 68-1028. 68-1044
THAILAND
BANGKOK. 68-0241
UNITED STATES, 68-0006, b8-0028,
66-0099, 68-0229, b8-0230,
68-0308. 68-0364. &8-U885.
68-1062, 68-llb9, 68-llttl.
66-1195, 68-1206, 68-1221,
68-1222. 68-1223. 68-1224,
68-1225, 68-1227
ALABAMA
MOUILE, 68-0382, b8-u387
ALASKA
FAIRBANKS. 66-0351
ARIZONA
PHOLNIX. 68-038*1, 66-0939
ARKANSAS. 68-0069
CALIFORNIA. 68-OU30, 68-0135.
68-0136. 68-0137. 68-0873.
68-1196. 68-1201
KERN COUNTY. 68-0039.
68-0040. 68-0041
LAGUNA. 68-1063
LAKE TAHOE. 68-0667.
68-0781
LASSEN COUNTY. b8-0126
LOS ANGELES. 68-0314.
68-1101. 68-1126
MERCED. 68-0120
SACRAMENTO. 68-0252
SAN DIEGO. 68-0131.
68-0213. 68-0469
SAN FRANCISCO. oS-0126.
68-0200. 68-0252.
68-0253, 68-0254.
68-0255. 66-0256.
68-02'j7» 68-0629
SAN FRANCISCO BAY. 68-0076
SANTA CLARA. 68-0015.
68-1135. 68-1136,
68-1137. 68-1138.
68-1151
SANTA CLARA COUNTY, 6a-ii42
SAN JOSE. 68-0868
COLORADO
BOULDER, 68-0400
DENVER, 68-0119, 68-1144
CONNECTICUT, 68-0086, 68-0223,
68-0224, 68-0225. 68-0226.
68-0227. 68-0226. 68-0341
GLASTONBURY. 68-1100
STAMFORD, 68-0530
WATERUURY. 68-0070,
68-0071. 68-0072.
68-0073. 68-0074,
68-0075
DELAWARE 68-0186
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA
WASHINGTON, 68-1109
FLORIDA, 68-0197, 68-0364
EVERGLAUES, ofl-1133
GAINESVILLE' t>8-03b9,
68-U378
LEESBURG, 68~08o2
MANATEE COUNTY, 66-01y2,
68-0193, 68-0194,
68-1104, 68-11U5,
68-1106, 68-1107
MIAMI REACH. 68-0035
PLANT CITY, ba-0077.
68-0078, 68-0079,
272
-------
Geographical Location Index
68-0080' 68-0081.
68-0082
ST. PETERSBURG* oti-0,369»
68-0392' 68-0964
SARASOTA COUNTY. o8-0192.
68-0193, 68-0194,
68-1104. 68-110o»
68-1106, 68-1107
TAMPAr 68-0077, 6ti-0078»
68-0079. 68-0080.
66-0081 > t>8-OOB2
GEORGIA. 68-0787. 6S-1167
HAWAII' 68-0517
ILLINOIS. 68-0030. 68-0.3HO.
68-0623
BELVIDERE. 68-086-i
CHICAGO. 68-0044. 68-0110.
68-0111. 68-0134.
68-0232. 68-0247.
68-0332. 68-0670.
68-0949
COOK COUNTY. 68-0084
SKOKIE. b8-1085
INDIANA
KOKOMO. 68-0676
IOWA
CEDAR RAPIDS. 68-1143
DES MOINES. 68-0049.
68-0050. 66-0051.
68-0052. 68-0053
KANSAS. 68-0300
KANSAS CITY. 68-1121
KENTUCKY. 68-0214
BULL1TT COUNTY. bci-0087,
68-0088. 68-0089.
68-0090. 68-0091.
68-0092. 68-0093.
68-0094. 68-0095.
66-0096
LOUISIANA. 08-0233
MAINE
PORTLAND. 68-0331. 68-0341
MARYLAND
BALTIMOKEi 68-0170
FROSTBURG' 68-1097
MASSACHUSETTS' 68-0246.
68-0436' 68-0468' 68-1229
BOSTON' 68-1197
CLINTON. 66-1123
EVERETT' 68-0341
FALL RIVER' 68-07S5
HAVERHILL' 68-1099
MELROSE' 68-0008
SAUGUS. 68-0185
SOMMERVILLE' 68-0437
MICHIGAN. 63-1120
BENTON. 68-1125
DEARBORN. 66-0171
KALAMAZOO. 68-0795.
68-1038
MIDLAND. 68-0259. 68-0870
PONTIAC. 68-0232
ROYAL OAK' 68-0489
ST. JOSEPH' faS-1125
SALIlML' 68-0117
MINNESOTA' 68-1205
MINNEAPOLIS* b8-OBl7
ST. PAUL' 68-0817
MISSOURI
KANSAS CITY' 68-0715
ST. LOUIS' 66-1015
MONTANA' 68-1216
NEBRASKA
GRAND ISLAND' 66-0700
OMAHA. 68-0353' 68-07b4'
68-0773
WAHOO* b8-070o
NEW JERSEY' 68-0513' 68-0894.
68-1073
CLIFTON. 68-0055. 68-0056'
68-0057. 68-0058..
68-0059. 68-0060.
68-0061' 68-OOfa2>
68-0215. 68-1161
MIDDLESEX COUNTY' 68-0800
PASSAIC. 68-005'j. 68-005o»
68-0057' 6a-0058»
68-0059' 68-0060.
68-OOc.l. 68-OOfo2.
68-0215
PATTERSON. 68-0055. 68-0056.
68-0057. 68-0058.
68-0059. 68-0060.
68-OObl. 68-0062.
68-0215
PHILLIPS8URG. 68-0856
WAYNE. 68-0055. 68-0056.
68-0057. 68-0058.
68-0059. 68-0060.
68-0061. 68-0062.
68-U215
NEW MEXICO. 68-0246
NEW YORK. 68-0002. 68-0004.
68-1073
ALBANY. 68-0047
BUFFALO. 68-0463
LONG ISLAND. 68-048i>
MONROE COUNTY, oS-0631
NASSAU COUNTY, 68-1160
NEW YORK CITY, o
273
-------
Geographical Location Index
68-0186. 68-0209.
68-0414. 68-0507.
66-0511* 6d-0o41»
68-0671. 68~0o94.
68-1187. 68-1188.
68-1189. 68-1190.
68-1191. 68-1192.
68-1193. 68-1194
NORTH HErtPSTEAD, u8-0463
PLATTSBURGH. 68-Ob82
ROCHESTER. 68-078b
SCARSDALE. 68-OU9d.
68-1164
WOLCoTT. b8-078o
YONRERS. 68-1119
NORTH DAKOTA
ESMOND. 68-1121
OHIO. 68-0007. 68-0510
CINCINNATI. faB-0003.
68-0251
CLEVELAND' 68-Oilb
GARFIELD HElGHTi,, 66-0132
LEBANON. 68-0022
MIAMI. 68-1038
SYLVANIA. 68-Hol
TOLEDO. oB-1111
OREGON. 68-0833
SEATTLE. 68-007o
PENNSYLVANIA, bd-0030.
68-0690. 68-0960.
68-118U. 68-1199.
68-120U
CARBOfJ COUNTY, ub-0142
CHAMOERSbURG. 6O-0877
CHESTER COUNTY. faO-1115
OOWiJINbTON. 0S-07o5
LANCASTER. 68-0130
LUZLHNE COUNTY, bd-0142
NORTHUMBERLAND COUNTY,
68-01^2
PHILADELPHIA. 6d-01<*2.
68-0186. 68-02t8
SCHUYLKILL COUNTY. 6
SPRING GROVE. 68-0750
STATE COLLEGE. t)8-120t
TOCKS ISLAND. 6b-i21b
KHODE ISLAND. 68-02^2. 68-03tl
SOUTH CAKOLINA
GKLLi-iVILLE. o8-00_il.
68-0032. b8-OU33. t.8-003'*
MAUDLIN. 68-U032
TENNESSEE
ALCOA. 6Q-llb3
JOHNSON CITY, 68-0077.
68-036u» 68-0363.
68-0364. 68-0380
MARYVILLE. 68-1153
NASHVILLE. 6U-0343
TEXAS
DALLAS. 68-0, 68-039U.
68-0418, 68-0046,
68-0790, 68-0
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
AGRICULTURAL WASTES
CORN* 68-0290* 68-0313
COTTON* 68-0302
DECOMPOSITION* 68-0232.
JUTE STICK* 68-0277
MANAGEMENT. 68-0287. 66-0291*
68-0301* 68-0308* 6Q-0315*
fa8-03l6
PROTEIN RECOVERY* 68-0950.
o8-0951
SILAGE* 68-0313
TOMATO. 68-0997
UTILIZATION* 68-0277. t>8-0280*
68-0287. 68-0290. 68-0924*
68-0925. 68-0926* 68-0931
AIR POLLUTION. 68-1026
ANALYSIS OF POLLUTANTS* 68-0057*
68-0636. 68-0637
BURNING WASTES. 68-000*:*
68-0017
CONTROL EQUIPMENT, 68-0435.
68-01*37. 68-01+38' 68-0524*
68-0530. 68-0770* 68-0771,
68-0788* 68-0837
FLUIDI2ED UED* 6B-051S
PARTICULATE MATTER*
68-1074. 68-10d6»
68-1087* 68-1088
COTTON-GINNING* 68-0275
GASEOUS* 68-0827
INDUSTRIAL EMISSIONS, bS-0057
LAuVS CONCERNING. 68-0002
MUNICIPALITIES' 68-005?
OPLN BURNING* 68-0039
bMOKE CONTROL. b8-0353» 68-0812
SURVEYS. 68-0057
ANIMALS
FEED LOTS* 68-0310* o8-0311,
68-0314
LABORATORY. 68-0210
AUTOMOBILES. SCRAP. oa-OJSO
ABANDONED* 68-OOOb* bb-0341*
68-0356
uUKNING. 68-0330. 68-034e>*
68-0353. 68-0355
COLLECTION, bfa-0005
DISPOSAL* t>8-0333
JUMPING* 68-0335
EQUIPMENT FOR PROCESSING,
b8-0332, 68-0338, b8~0348»
68-0349, 68-U352
BALERS* 68-1025
CRUSHERS. 68-0333
FRAGMLNTIZLRS. 6d-0330,
68-0333* 68-0340* b8-034l
HAMMERMILL* 68-0345
SHEARS* 68-0343* 68-0344*
68-0345
INCINERATION, 68-U338-0053»
68-0066* 68-0133. 68-0149.
68-0152
OUSTLESS SYSTEM. b8-U029
EFFICIENCY, 68-0144* 68-0159
EQUIPMENT* 68-0110* 68-0112*
68-0114. 68-0125. o8-0127*
o8-0128* 68-0140* 68-0161*
bS-0162. 6tt-018d
CRANES* 60-01oO
FACILITIES* t>8-01t>3
FOLIAGE. 6o-0035
FREQUENCY. 68-002b. o8-0066*
68-0132* 68-0134
INDUSTRIAL. 68-0031. U8-0032
LArf/5 CONCERNING* 0&-U028*
68-0035* 68-0039* o8-0041»
-------
Subject Index
68-0189
METHODS* 68-0021, 68-0025
MUNICIPALITIES' 68-0025, b8-0028,
68-0035, 68-0041, b8-00b6,
68-0097r 68-0117, b8-0145»
68-0170
PAPER SACK SYSTEM, 6d-0025
HYGIENIC DISPOSAL. 68-0026.
68-0027
PERSONNEL. 68-0131. 68-0135,
68-0136, 68-0137, 68-0138,
68-0139
PLASTIC SACK SYSTEM, 6M-0026,
68-0027, 68-0029
POLYETHYLENE, 68-0026,
68-0028
PNEUMATIC, 68-0118
PRIVATE COLLECTION FIRMS,
68-0031, 68-0032
SURVEYS, 68-oo3i» 68-0032,
68-0066, 68-0069, 68-0077,
68-0078, 68-0079, o8-0080,
68-0081, 68-0082, 68-0085,
68-0087, 68-0088' e>8-0089»
68-0090, 68-0091, oS-0092,
68-0093, 68-0094, 68-0097,
68-0098, 68-0099, b8~0l20,
68-0149
SYSTEMS. 68-0130
TIME AND MOTION STUDIES,
68-0135, 68-0136, 68-0137,
68-0138. 68-0139
ThUCKS, 68-0025, 68-0028,
t>8-0029, 68-0035, b8-0036,
68-0037, 68-0044, 68-0114,
68-0127, 68-0131, oB-0132,
68-0140, 68-0417
VEHICLE, 08-0020
COMPACTION
L.QUIPMENT, 68-OU83, 68-0417,
68-0419, 68-0430
TRUCK, 68-0423
FORMATION OF STRUCTURAL BLOCKS,
68-0205
GARBECUE, 68-0415
COMPOST
COMPOSITION, 66-0380, 68-0405
CALORIFIC VALUE, 6&-0359,
68-0360
FERTILIZER, 68-0374
HYuIENIC ASPECTS, 68-0362
MARKETING, 68-0357, 68-0382,
o8-0391
NITROGEN CONTENT, 68-0370
TESTING, 68-0359, 68-UJ60,
68-0380, 68-0383, 68-0384,
68-0385, 68-0386, b8-0403
UTILIZATION, 68-0362, 68-0370
COMPOSTING, 68-0970
BIOLOGICAL DECOMPOSITION,
68-0358, 68-0381, 68-101b
CANNERY WASTES, 68-0383, 68-0384,
68-0385, 68-0386
CELLULOSE, 68-039a
COMBINED WITH INCINERATION,
68-0394, 68-0395, 68-Ob74,
68-1033
COMBINED WITH OTHER DISPOSAL
METHODS, 68-0361, 68-0365,
68-0583
COSTS, 68-0390, 68-0392, 68-0401
DIGESTION TIME, 68-0403
EQUIPMENT, 68-0358
PULVERIZER, 68-0399
TURNING, 68-0363
HYGIENIC ASPECTS, 68-0371, 68-0402,
68-0625, 68-0693, o8-089l
INSECTICIDES, 68-0367
INSTALLATIONS
FOREIGN, 68-0241, 68-0^63,
68-0364, 68-03o6» 68-0373,
68-0379, 68-0388, 68-0389,
68-0394, 68-0395, 68-0397,
68-0399, 68-0401
U.S., 68-0364, 68-03b9,
68-0387, 68-0390, 68-0393,
68-0400
LAWS CONCERNING, 6d~0401
METHODS
DANO PROCESS, 68-0368,
68-0396
INDORE SYSTEM, 6
-------
Subject Index
&8-0373, 68-0379' oB-0382
UTILIZATION, 68-0372
CONFERENCES, bB-0199
DISPOSAL OF WASTES' 68-0152' 68-0197,
68-0238, 68-0826* 68-lulb
BIOLOGICAL. b8-0738
CONFERENCE. 68-0211. 68-U235,
68-0261. 68-0265. 68-0557
CONTACT STABILISATION. 66-07aG
COSTS. bb-OOO^. 68-OOOb.
08-0012. b6-0ul4. b8-00l5.
68-0032. b8-0033» b8-004l»
68-0053. 68-0060. 68-OObl»
68-0064
TOTAL-COST BIDDING.
68-0009. 68-0010. 6ti-0011
DEEP WELL. 68-0195. 68-0196.
b8-0198
OKEDGINGS, 68-0191
UUMPS. 68-0041
EFFECTS OF WAR. 68-0145
ELECTROLYSED SEAWATER METHOD. b8-0678
EQUIPMENT. 68-0162
FACILITIES. 6e-ooo9. 66-0010,
08-0011. 68-0012. 68-0015,
68-0058. 68-0066' 68-0086.
68-0250
FOLIAGE. 68-0002
FOSSIL FUELS. 68-0012
HAZARDOUS WASTES. 68-0054
HEALTH ASPECTS. 68-0887.
b8-1166
HOG FEEDING. 68-0303
HOSPITALS. 66-0054
INTERNATIONAL PRACTICES.
68-0014
LAWS CONCERNING. 68-0054
METHODS. 68-0004. 68-0012.
68-0014. 68-0015' t>8-0031.
68-0032. 68-0033. o8-0036.
68-0086' 68-0202' bS-0218
COMPARISON. 66-0038.
68-0058' 68-0059. 66-0099
MULTI-STOKY BUILDINGS. 68-0038
MUNICIPALITIES' 68-0015. 68-0064
PYROLYSIS. 68-0213' 68-0245.
68-0466. 68-0469. 68-0476.
68-0484
RESEARCH. 68-0006. 60-0012.
68-0058. 68-0060
RURAL AREAS' 68-0214
SANITARY LANDFILLS' 68-0041.
68-0053
SELECTING A METHOD. 66-0258.
68-0817
SITES. 68-0012. 6ti-0036»
68-0041, 68-0059. 68-006'*'
68-0066, 68-008b
SORTING. 66-0014
SPECIAL TREATMENT. 60-0054
SURVEYS. 68-0004. 68-0058,
68-0060. 68-0061, oS-OOb9.
68-0070. 68-0071, 58-007,;,
68-0073, 68-0074, bB-007s.
68-0077. 68-0076, o8-Q07y.
68-0080. 6d-0081, 68-006,;,
66-0084, 68-0085. o8-008b?
68-0087, 68-006a, ofi-0089.
68-0090, 68-0091, 68-0092,
68-0093, 68-0095. b8-009«,
68-0179, 68-0180, o8-062b
DUMPS
ELIMINATION, 68-0517, 68-1109.
68-1123. 68-1124
LAWS CONCERNING' 68-0031'
68-0040
PUBLIC HEALTH ASPECT^. 68-0032.
68-0033
WATER POLLUTION. 68-0633
EDUCATION
AGRICULTURAL WASTES. L.8-0294
DRIVER. 68-0158
GRADUATE TRAINING, 66-1171.
68-1172. 68-1174, 68-1176,
68-1177, 68-1178, 68-1179,
68-1180
INCINERATORS, 68-1183
EQUIPMENT, 68-0038
AGRICULTURAL' 68-0302, 68-0313
BALERS' 68-1025
HOSPITAL, 68-0026
REFUSE HANDLING, 68-0038
SALVAGE AND RECLAMATION' b8-1045
SANITARY LANDFILLS. oB-lll-i,
68-1130. 68-1139
SEPARATORS. 68-10i+9
SHREDDING. 66-1015. 68-1040
FERTILIZERS
LEAVES. 68-1046
SEAWEED, 66-0935
FIRES
COAL MINING WASTED, &8-0690
FLY ASH
DISPOSAL, 68-1067, 68-1085
FILTERING AID, 68-1094
RECOVERY OF METAL FRONu 66-1089
RECOVERY OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
FROM, 68-0931
SOIL CONDITIONER. 68-1095
TESTING, 68-1091
-------
Subject Index
UTILIZATION* 68-1075* t>8-1083*
66-1084* 68-1092* &a-io93
BRICKS* 68-1070
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
MATLRIALS. 66-1071*
68-1081r 68-1090
CEMENT* 67-1068' b6-1069*
68-1073
CONCRETE.* 68-107b
MINE STABILIZATION.
68-107?* 68-1077* 68-1078*
bS-1082
ROADkAY CONSTRUCTION*
66-1080. 66-1096
FOOD PROCESSING BASTES
BAGASSE. 68-1044
bAKERY. b8-0659
UFET SUGAR. 68-0722
BIOLOGICAL DECOMPOSITION* 68-0742
BREWERY* 68-0727
CANNERY* 68-0363* 68-0384.
b8-0385* 68-0386* oS-0729*
68-0763* 68-0797* oB-0798*
&8-0873
CENTRALIZED TREATMENT PLANT* 68-07*7
CHEESE WHEY* 68-0997
COCONUT FIBERS* 68-0993
COFFEE. 68-0197
DAIRY. 68-0267. 68-02bri,
68-0269. 68-0704* 68-0767*
68-0820. 68-0876
DISPOSAL METHODS* 68-0673.
08-0730
FRUITS* 68-0707. 68-0862
INCINERATION. 68-044j
INSTITUTIONAL* b8-02<>0
MEAT PACKING PLANT* 68-0684,
68-0784. 68-0816* 68-0824
MOLASSES* 68-0777
POTATO* 68-0717. 68-09bl
POULTRY. faS-0305. 68-0306
RESTAURANTS* 68-0251
SLAUGHTERHOUSE. 68-0329
SUGAR, 66-0630* 68-0697, 68-1028
TOMATO. 6b-0924. 68-0925.
68-0926
TREATMENT. 68-osi3
UTILIZATION* oS-0763. 68-0924,
68-092b. 68-0926
GARBAGE GRINDING* 68-0181
GLASS
INCINERATOR RESIDUE. 68-1020
PACKAGING. 68-0695
REUSE. 68-0903. 68-0908
UTILIZATION. 68-0938
GRANTS
FEDERAL. 68-0060* 68-0086
RESEARCH. 68-0001
GHOUNDWATER
POLLUTION. 68-0058, b8-032H,
68-0325, 68-032b» 68-03P7,
68-0328
GYPSUM
UTILIZATION. 68-0976. 68-1027
HAZARDOUS WASTES. 68-0260
CHEMICAL* b8-0894
DISPOSAL, 68-0893
HOSPITALS, 68-0083* b8-0187»
68-0232
INCINERATION, 68-0249, 68-0433
INDUSTRIAL* 68-0260
HOSPITALS
DISPOSABLE ITEMS. 68-0063*
68-0889, 68-0905
DISPOSAL OF WASTES, 68-0026*
68-0042* 68-0054
EQUIPMENT* 68-002b
COMPACTORS* 68-OOb3
INCINERATION* 68-0042, 68-0063
PNEUMATIC TRANSPORTATION
SYSTEM* 68-0054
INCINERATION, CENTRAL, 6tt-0437,
68-0477, 68-0500* 68-0517,
68-0522, 68-0525* 68-0538,
68-0563, 68-0564, 68-0569,
68-0571, 68-0577* 68-0585
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL* 68-0439,
68-0460, 68-0463* 68-0473*
66-0510, 68-0514, t>8-0544,
68-0549, 68-0554, o8-056ii,
68-0575* 68-0580, 68-059,;
AUXILIARY FUEL* 6a-0bb9
CAPACITY* 68-0044, 68-0597,
68-0599* 63-0619
COMBINED WITH COMPOSTING, 68-0583
COMBINED WITH SEWA&E TREATMENT,
68-0182* 68-0778
COMBUSTION ENGINEERING, 68-0434,
68-0617
COMBUSTION RATES* 68-0457, 68-0458
CONFERENCE* 68-0480* 68-0518*
68-0593
CONSTRUCTION OF PLANT* 68-0476
CONTINUOUS PROCESSING* 68-0462*
68-0480
CORROSION. 68-0509. 68-0566*
68-0576* 68-0589
COSTS. 68-0008* 68-0033*
68-0452* 68-0560
CRITERIA, 68-oooa
-------
Subject Index
DESIGN OF PLANTr 68-04.31' 68-0446,
68-0454, 68-0457* 68-0458,
68-0459, 68-0463' 68-0475,
68-0501. 68-0521, 68-0535.
68-0536» 68-0546» 68-0568,
68-0586. 68-0593' 68-0597,
68-0599' 68-0600' 68-0601'
68-0605' 68-0611' 68-Ot>19
EFFECT OF VARIATION IN REFUSE.
68-0487. 68-0565
ECONOMICS. 68-0008' 68-0453. 66-0558
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR. 68-0612
EMISSIONS. 68-0044. b6-0473, 68-0536
OUST. 68-0554
GASES. 68-0483
TESTING. 68-04
-------
Subject Index
PAPERr 68-0172
SLUDGE' 68-021*7
TYPE OF REFUSE BURNED
ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS* 68-0499
FOOD WASTES. 68-0578
MANURE. 68-0289
RUBBER. 68-0615
SAWDUST. 68-0637
WASTE HEAT UTILIZATION. 68-060fa
INCINERATORS. SPECIAL PURPOSE
AQUEOUS WASTES. 68-0502
HAZARDOUS WASTES. 68-0618
INFECTIOUS WASTES. 66-0433
PIT. OPEN. 68-0440. 68-0507.
68-0513
PULP MILL WASTES. 68-0540
RADIOACTIVE WASTES. fa8-0490,
68-0491. 68-0492. b8~0493
HAW TAR. 68-1021
TE.EPEES. 68-0471, 68-0490. 68-0491.
68-0492. 68-0493. 68-0635.
66-0637
UNDERGROUND. 68-0519
WOOD. 68-0616
INDUSTRIAL WASTES
AERATION. 68-0643
AIR POLLUTION PROBLEMS. 68-0786
ANAEROBIC TREATMENT. 6d-0684.
68-0798
ANALYSIS. 68-0985
ASBESTOS. 68-101+2
AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY. 68-0863.
68-0868
BA&ASSE. 68-0231. 68-0270,
68-0973
BARK, 68-0467, 68-0523, 68-0540,
68-0712. 68-0713. b8~0721.
68-0804. 68-0821, b8-087b,
68-1043
BIOGAS FORMATION. 68-UB74
BIOLOGICAL. 68-0675
BREWERY. 68-0727
CANNERY. &8-0274. 68-0288.
b8-0707. 68-0729
CEMENT PLANT. 68-0969
CENTRALIZED DISPOSAL PLANT,
68-0645, 68-0646' 68-0661.
68-0662. 68-0682. 68-0731,
68-0756. 68-0832
CLNTRIFUGING, 68-0620
CERAMIC. 68-0772
CHLMICAL. 68-0494, 6a-os52, 68-0645.
58-0749. 68-0751. o8~0752.
68-0777, 68-080Q. o8-0870»
68-0894. 68-0976
COLLECTION. 68-OOl9» 68-0982
COMBINED WITH MUNICIPAL WAbTES.
68-0236. 68-0244. 68-0700.
68-0705. 68-075&. 68-0761.
68-0773. 68-0662. 68-0882.
66-1038
CONFERENCE. 68-08b5» 68-0863.
68-0979
COSTS OF TREATMENT. 08-0928
COTTON-GINNING. 68-0275.
68-0284. 68-0801
DAIRIES. 68-0267. 68-0266.
68-0269. 68-0704, 68-0767.
68-0782. 68-0801, 68-0820
DEEP WELLS. 68-0198. 68-0259.
68-0266
DEWATERlNG. b8-0622
DISPOSAL METHODS. 68-0019. 68-082&
DUMPING. 68-0626
EFFLUENT CHARGES. 68-0723
FILTERING
MIXED-MEDIA. 68-0666
FOUNDRY. 68-0623' 68-0805.
68-0814. 68-0968. 68-0977
GYPSUM. 68-0976
INCINERATION. 68-0448.
68-0455. 68-0464, 68-0467.
68-0494. 68-0502. 68-0503.
68-0508. 68-0552. 68-0556.
68-0572, 68-0573
LAWS CONCERNING. fa8-0019
LEATHER' 68-0983
LIME. 68-0998
LYE. 68-0992
MEAT PACKING PLANT. 68-0773.
68-0784. 68-0824. 68-0876
METAL PLATING. 68-0808. 68-0831.
68-0864, 68-0928
METALS. 68-0648. 68-0649.
68-0650, 68-0651, 68-0764.
68-0930
METALWORKING PLANT. 68-0621.
68-0644. 68-0734. 68-088b»
68-1009. 68-1029
MINING' 68-0979. 68-1023
OCEAN DISPOSAL. 6tJ-08bl
ODORS. 68-0795
OIL. 68-0600. 68-U65b, 68-0974
OXIDATION DITCH TREATMENT. 68-0797.
68-0798
PAPER AND PULP MILL. 68-0472.
68-0505, 68-0540. 68-0643.
68-0647. 68-0664. b8-066b»
68-0698, 68-071b, b8-07l8»
68-u719. 68-0765. o8-077b»
280
-------
Subject Index
08-0833* 68-0871, o8-0989
PtTROLEUM, 68-0231* o8-08o1
PHARMACEUTICALS, &8-0715* 68-0752
PLASTICS* 68-U166
PYKOLYSIS* 68-0466
QUANTITY PRODUCED* 6H-G019
RECREATIONAL AREAS' o8-0675
REFINERY* 68-0686* 68-0790*
t>8-0822* 68-0811* o8-1021
RLSINS* 68-065**
RURAL AREAS* 68-0675
SAWDUST* 68-0635* 68-0636*
68-0952* 68-0981. 68-0989*
68-1013
STEEL MILL* 68-0683* oa-0759.
68-0923. 68-0967* 68-0969*
08-0971* 68-0978* 68-0985.
68-1011. 68-1022* 68-1079
STORAGE* 68-0019
SURVEYS* 68-0626, 68-0668*
68-0735* 68-0711
TANNERY* 68-0687
TIXTILE* 58-0275* 68-iu58
TRANSPORTATION* 68-0019
TREATMENT. 68-0879
UTILIZATION. 68-0281* 68-0801.
68-1059
wOOD. 68-0720. 68-0721* 68-077b.
t>8-0993
WOOL. 68-1066
JUNKYARDS
EQUIPMENT, 68-0936
LAoOONS
AtRATED* 68-0613
FOOD PROCESSING WASTtS' 68-03^9
FREEZING. 68-0631
MANURE TREATMENT. 68-0291*
08-0291, 68-0298. t>8-0299.
68-0301* 68-0307. 68-0312
LAND RECLAMATION
REFUSE UTILIZATION. 68-1110
SLUDGE UTILIZATION. t>8-0b70,
68-0760. 68-0825. 68-0919
SPORTS FACILITY, 68-1131
LAnS. 68-0015
CIVIL AMENITIES ACT. 68-0005.
68-0020
COLLECTION OF WASTES. 68-0020,
68-0188
DISPOSAL OF WASTES* o8-0001,
68-0003* 68-0007
ENFORCEMENT. 68-0003. 68-0007
FEED LOTS, 68-0300
INCINERATOR DESIGN. 68-0592
MUNICIPALITY. 68-0020
PUBLIC HEALTH. 66-0003*
68-0006* 68-0007
SCRAP AUTOMOBILES, 6d-0005
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL, 68-0009,
68-0010, 68-0011
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL ACT*
68-0006
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT. 68-0007
LITTER* 68-1222
CAMPAIGNS. 68-1158
COST OF REMOVAL. 68-U91H
68-1157
PACKAGING MATERIALS. 68-0917
RECREATION AREAS. 68-1156
SURVEYS* 68-1163
MANAGEMENT. 68-1192* 68-1207
COMPUTERIZED SYSTEM, 68-1206
CONFERENCE. 68-0013. b8-0065.
68-1208
DECISION MAKING. bB-0116*
68-0117* 68-0118, 68-0119,
68-0150, 68-0151, 58-0152,
68-0153, 68-0151. 08-0155*
68-0156* 68-0157. o8-1212.
68-1213
JURISDICTION. 68-0001, 68-006b
PACKAGING. 68-0917
PLANNING* 68-0039, 68-0216,
68-1185* 68-H89* 68-1202*
68-1218, 68-1220. 68-1229
COUNTY* 68-0031
FEDERAL* 68-Oui8f 68-0183*
68-0208* 68-0230, 68-0231*
68-0239, 68-12U9, o8-1211»
6fl-1217, 68-l2.il, oS-1222.
68-1223, 68-1221, 68-1225,
68-1227
INTERNATIONAL, 66-0217,
68-1211. 68-1228, 68-1231
MUNICIPAL. 68-0016. 68-0209.
68-0210, 68-OEoU" 68-0585.
68-1187, 66-1230, 68-1232
REGIONAL, 68-0012, 68-0065.
68-0185. 68-0192. 68-0193.
68-0191. 68-0215. O8-0223.
68-0226, 68-0227, 68-0228,
68-0229, 68-0230. 68-0252.
68-0253. 68-0251. 68-0255.
68-0256. 68-0257, 68-0168.
68-1188. 68-1190. 68-1193.
68-1191, 68-1198, 68-1201
RURAL. 68-0211
STATE* 68-0001, 68-0233,
68-0212. 68-ll07» 68-1196*
68-1199. 68-1200. 68-1201.
281
-------
Subject Index
68-1203, 68-12U5' 66-1216
SELECTION OF SOLID WASTE
DISPOSAL SYSTEM, 68-OObb
SOLID WASTES PROGRAM* 68-OOOlf
68-0004, 68-0034, 68-0039,
68-0040, 68-00*43, u8-1191
COMPARISON, b8-0048
STATISTICS, 68-1195
STUDIES, 68-0034, 68-0048,
68-0065, 68-1215
MAlMUKt
CATTLE, 6a-o276» o8-o2a3»
68-0314, 68-1056
DISPOSAL, 68-0210, 66-0273,
b8-0281, b8-0287, o8-0289»
68-0293, 68-0294, o8-0295,
68-0296, 68-0297, 68-0298,
b8-0299, 68-0300* 68-0308,
68-0310, 68-0325, o8-0326
COSTS, 68-0314
RESEAHCH, 68-032a
DRYING, 68-0281, 68-0292,
68-0305, 68-0312
FEED LOTS, 68-0293' b8-0307
HEALTH ASPECTS' 68-0304, b8-03G7»
68-0311, 68-0693
IRRIGATION WITH SLURRY, 66-0283
OLJORS, 68-0292, 68-0305,
b8-0309, 68-0311t o8-0317
OXIDATION DITCH TREATMENT, 68-0282'
68-0303, 68-0309
PHOSPHATE IN, &a-o285
HOULTRY, faS-0280, 68-0281,
u8-0^92» 68-0303' o8-0304,
fa8-030b, b8-0312
SHEEP, 68-0285
STuRAGK, o8-02Bb, 68-0^09
SwINE, 68-0279' 6a~0302»
68-0303, 68-0307, b8-0309
UTILIZATION, 68-0271, bS-1056
METALS
ALUMINUM, 68-1030
COMPACTION, 68-0927
PROCESSING, 68-0764
KtCOVERY, 68-0520, 68-0651,
68-0812, b8-0819' b8-0919,
68-0948, 68-0966' 68-0986,
68-1035, 68-1061
SCRAP, 68-0922
ANALYSIS' 68-0934
CHARGING, 68-0987
COPPER, 68-0333, b8-0334,
68-0341, 68-0342' 68-0948'
68-1004
ECONOMICS, 68-1032, 68-1175
EQUIPMENT
BALERS, 68-1U2S
FURNACE, b8-0349' 68-0350
SHREDDING, 6B-1040
IRON' t>8-0963, 6d-09b6,
68-1041
MARKETING, 68-0981, 68-1039
NICKEL' 68-1019
NONFERROUS, 6a-0339, 68-0929,
68-0958, 68-1001
RECOVERY, 68-0930, 65-0934,
68-1001, 68-1000,
68-1039, 68-1048
STEEL MILL, b8-09fa7,
68-0991
UTILIZATION' &8-0933
SWARF» 68-0621' 68-Oo44, 66-0858
TIN, 68-1013, 68-1051,
68-1062
ZINC' 68-1000
MINES
DISPOSAL OF WASTES FKOM, fao-0b57,
68-0663, 68-0681, o8-0b90
DISPOSAL OF WASTES IN, 68-0142
68-1003, 68-1097
UTILIZATION OF WASTES FROM,
68-0971, 68-1002
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
SOLID WASTE INDUSTRY, 68-1226
OCEAN DISPOSAL, 68-0186, 68-0641
ARTIFICIAL REEFS' 68-0347
INCINERATOR RESIDUE, 68-0512
INTERNATIONAL CONTROL, 66-0219
POLLUTION, 68-0262
SLUDGE' 68-0248, bd-0671
PACKAGING MATERIALS
DISPOSAL, 68-0896, 66-0916,
68-0918
QUANTITIES, 68-0904, 68-0912
RESEARCH, fc.8-0917
SELF-DESTROYING' bti-0907,
68-0913
PACKAGING WASTES
DISPOSAL, 68-0914
PAPER
BALING, 68-0995' 68-1014
DE-INKING, 68-0740, b8-0943,
68-0954
FEEDING LIVESTOCK WITH, 68-0961
HYDROGENATION, 68-1010
HYDROLYSIS, 68-0190
MADE FROM WASTES' 68-0943'
68-1018
PORTEOUS PROCESS' b8-0962
RECOVERY' 68-0945, 68-0946,
282
-------
Subject Index
68-0947. 68-0954. 68~0990»
68-1016, 68-1038. 68-1057
SHREDDING. 68-0201* 68-1012.
68-1047
UTILIZATION, 68-0956. 68-1008.
68-1017. 68-1060
PAPER INDUSTRY WASTES
CHIPPERS, 68-0718
CLARIFICATION. 68-0767
DISPOSAL. 68-0776. 68-0787.
68-1050
COSTS. 68-0818
EVAPORATION. 68-0698
INCINERATION. 68-Q74U
ODOR CONTROL. 68-0795
PURIFAX PROCESS, 68-U716
RECOVERY, 68-0833. 66-0838.
68-0932. 68-1007
SLUDGE. 66-0713
TREATMENT. 68-0719
UTILIZATION. 68-0799. 68-0955.
b8-1093
MTER REUSE. 68-0726
PESTICIDES
AGRICULTURAL WASTES. 6d-0315,
68-0316
J1SPOSAL. 68-0890
PLASTICS
dOTTLES. o8-0909. 68-0910
DISPOSAL. 68-0898, 68-0900
INCINERATION, 68-0911. &8-o9is
PERCENTAGE IN REFUSE. o8-0897,
68-0899. 68-0901
PROPERTIES. 68-0906
RECOVERY. 68-0902
PUBLIC HEALTH
GARBAGE DISPOSAL. 68-0887.
oS-1186
PUbLIC RELATIONS
ABANDONED AUTOMOBILES, 68-0335.
68-0356
RAOIOACTIVE WASTES
AGRICULTURE. 68-0315, o8-0316
DISPOSAL. 68-0886. 66-0888
RECREATIONAL AREAS. 68-1223
REDUCTION OF WASTES. b8-0045
COMPACTION. 68-0408. btt-0409.
o8-04lO. 68-0411, bB-0412
c&UIPMENT
HAMMERMILL, 68-0407, 68-0424.
68-0425. 68-042b» 68-0427.
68-0428
INCINERATION
PREPARATION. 68-0413
PULVERIZING. 68-0424. t>8-0425»
68-0426, 68-0427. 68-042a
REFUSE UTILIZATION, 68-0416. 68-0420.
68-0421. 68-0422
SANITARY LANDFILL PREPARATION.
68-0408. 68-0409. 68-0410.
68-0411. 68-0412, o8-041a
LAND RECLAMATION, 68-0416,
68-0420. 68-0421. 68-0422
SEERDRUM SYSTEM. 68-0429
REFINERY WASTES
TREATMENT. 66-066b
REFUSE
CALORIFIC VALUE. 68-0447.
68-0452. 68-0500. 68-0560.
68-0567. 68-0595. 68-0602
CHARACTERISTICS, bfl-0409
CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATION.
68-0206
CLASSIFICATIONS. 68-0062
COMPOSITION. 68-0062. 68-0988
ANALYSIS. 68-0184, 68-0203.
68-0204. 68-0237. 68-07fa8
DECOMPOSITION. 68-0222
QUANTITY. 68-0062. 68-0096.
68-0134. 68-0500
RECLAMATION, 68-0988
SEASONAL VARIATIONS, 68-0062
UTILIZATION. 68-0208. 68-0582
REGIONAL PLANNING. 68-0001. 68-0003,
68-0049. 68-0051
COUNTY. 68-0040. 60-0055
DISPOSAL OF WASTES, 68-0009,
68-0010, 68-0011
LEGAL AUTHORITY, fc>8-0053
MUNICIPALITIES. 6fa-0040. 68-0053
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL. 68-0007
SURVEYS, 68-0070. 68-0071.
68-0072. 68-0073. 68-0074.
68-0075. 68-0077. O8-0078.
68-0079. 68-0080. O8-0081,
68-0082, 68-0085
RESEARCH
COMPOSTING. 68-llb8
CURRENT PROJECTS. fa8-1169.
68-1170. 6d-1181
DISPOSAL OF WASTES. faB-OObl,
68-0076, 68-024,3
FLUIDIZED OED SYSTEMS, 68-0432
GRANTS. 68-1175, b8-H82.
68-1184
INCINERATION, 68-0&17
MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS, o8-1173
MANURE DISPOSAL, 68-U282.
68-0301
MINERAL WASTES. bd-lU34
283
-------
Subject Index
SLUDGE TREATMENT. 68-0594.
68-0672. 68-0679
UTILIZATION OF WASTES. 68-0061
RUBBER
BURNING. 68-0996
TIRES. 68-0615. 68-1052
UTILIZATION. 68-09'*'*. 68-0996
SALVAGE AND RECLAMATION
68-0957. 68-0958' 68-0999.
o8-1031
ALUMINUM. 68-0919
BARK WASTES. 68-0712. (38-0713.
t>8-n920
CARBON BLACK. 68-0965
COMPOSTING PLANT. 68-0937
CONVERTING WASTES TO CARBON.
o8-0940
CONVERTING WASTES TO FOOD.
i>8-0290» 68-0921
CONVERTING WASTES TO FUEL.
68-Ob82» 63-0940
JOi'.ESTIC REFUSE. b8-0531
ECONOMICS. 68-0920
EQUIPMENT. 68-1045
BALERS. 68-0927
CRANES. 68-0959. btt-0980
GAS TORCH. 68-09jfa
MAGNETS. 68-0959
SEPARATORS. 68-iut9
SHEARS. 68-0953. 68-1037
SHREDDING. b8-101b
FOOD PROCESSING WASTES.
b8-0924. 68-0925' 66-0926.
68-10bb
INDUSTRIAL WASTES. 68-1059
MLTALS. 68-0919. 68-0922.
68-093'+. 68-0918. 68-0953.
68-1032
MINE WASTES. 68-1053. 6&-105<+
NON-FERROUS METALS. bO-1000
PAPER. 68-094b» 68-09i*b.
68-0947. 68-1060
RAILROAD CARS. 68-0212
HLFUSE. 68-01*36. 68-U988
RUBBER TIRES. 6B-0944. 68-1052
SAWDUST. 68-0984
SLAG. 68-0985
SANITARY LANDFILLS. 68-004'*. 68-0047,
08-1016. 68-1096' 68-lu9'^»
08-1100. 68-1101. 68-1104.
t>8-1137. 68-1143. 68-1155
ANALYSIS. 68-1147
BUILDING ON. 06-1122. u8-1146>
uS-1197
CONTRACTS, 68-1117
COSTS. 68-0033. 68-1103
COVER. 68-1127
DECOMPOSITION OF REFUSE.
68-1132. 68-ll'*9. 68-1150.
68-1152
ECONOMICS. 66-1117
EQUIPMENT. 68-1113. 68-1130.
68-1139
FENCING. 68-111'*
INDUSTRIAL WASTES, 68-1108
LAND RECLAMATION. 68-1109.
68-1110. 68-1114. 68-1119.
68-1122. 68-1131, o8-1133»
68-1135, 68-1136. 68-1141
LEACHING, 68-0189, 68-1115.
68-1118. 68-1126, bS-1129,
68-1132
LITERATURE, 68-1148
MANAGEMENT. 68-1112. 68-1116
MINES, 68-1097
OPERATION. 68-1120. 68-1138.
68-1142. 68-1145
REGIONAL COOPERATION. 68-1111.
68-1125. 68-ll'*4, 68-1153
REGULATION, 68-1135
SITES. 68-1107. 68-1121
STABILIZATION, 68-lli>0. 66-1151
SURVEYS. 68-1105. 68-1106
TRANSPORT TO
RAILWAYS. 68-0067
TRUCKS. 68-oob7
WATER POLLUTION. 68-0189. b8-1102.
68-1118. 68-1128. fa8-1132.
68-1140. 68-1152. 68-1154
SEWAGE. 68-0047
ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS. b8-0632.
68-0639. 68-0640. b8-0677.
68-0679, 68-0694, 68-0706.
68-0746. 68-0750. 68-0769.
68-0852. 68-0860, e>6-0867»
68-0880
CONTROLLING PARAMETERS,
68-0728
TOXICITY, 68-0711
AERATION. 68-0871
AEROBIC DIGESTION. 66-0725.
68-0733
ANAEROBIC DIGESTION. 68-0747.
68-0762
ANALYSIS. 68-0701. 68-0766.
68-0794. 68-0854. 68-1036
BIOLOGICAL PONDS. t>8-0691
CLARIFIER. 63-0683
CONFERENCES. 68-0866
CONSOLIDATION. 68-0660
284
-------
Subject Index
SLAG
CONTACT STABILIZATION. 68-0780
DEEP-WELL DISPOSAL. o8-0839
OESILTING, 68-075b
OEWATERING, 68-0708. 68-0709
DISPOSAL. 68-0003
EFFECTS OF DETERGENT. 68-0624.
bS-0657
FILTER PRESSES. 68-0714
FILTERING. 68-0689. 68-0766.
68-0942
FLOCCULANTS. 68-0775. 68-0842.
68-0872
GAS UTILIZATION. 68-0694
HEAT TREATMENT. 68-0708. 68-0709
HYGIENIC ASPECTS. 68-0703
INCINERATION. 66-0840
IRRIGATION WITH, 68-0724. 68-0753,
68-0757. bS-0760, 68-0825.
bB-0877. 68-0939. b8-0949»
68-0960. 68-0972, bB-097b,
68-0984, 68-1005. 68-1063
LAGOONS. 68-0631
MOblLE DtWATERER. 68-0779.
b8-0849
ODORS. b8-085b
ORGANIC MATTER. 68-076fc>, 68-0815
PARASITES, 68-0693
PASVEER DITCH, 68-0836
PIPELINE TRANSPORT. o8-0739.
b8-0949
POKTEOUS PROCESS, 68-OB11
RESEARCH. 68-0710. 68-0711.
68-0733, 68-0766" 68-0861
HOTTING PLANTS, 68-0744
SELECTING DISPOSAL METHOD,
68-078b» 68-0817
ShPTIC TANK WASTES. 68-0835
SLUDGE, 68-0696, 68-U734.
68-0736. 68-0737, bB-0845»
68-0884
SMALL SCALE TREATMENT, 68-0829,
66-0850
SUGAR REMOVAL, 68-0796
TOXICITY, 68-0783
TREATMENT PLANT, b8-0o38» 68-Oo67.
68-0732, 68-0783. oS-0786.
o8-0802, 68-0803. e>8-0807.
b8-C8lO. U8-0848' O8-0855.
68-085b
AEKOHYDRAULICS. 68-0685
ELECTROFLOTATION, bS-0683
ELECTROLYZED SEArtATER. 68-0678
TERTIARY, 68-0781
UTILIZATION, 68-0923
SLUDGE
ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS, 68-0639
ANAEROBIC TREATMENT, 68-08.}0
CLARIFIER. 68-0748
COLLECTION. 68-0128
CONFERENCE, 68-0699
DEWATERING. 68-0620, 68-0622i
68-0629. 68-0631. 68-0656,
68-0669, 68-0680, 68-069b»
68-0754, 68-0774, b8-0881
DIGESTION, 68-0653, 68-0809,
68-0843
DIGESTOR CLEANING COSTS, 68-0658
DISPOSAL, 68-0642, 68-0844,
68-0846, 68-0850
CENTRALIZED, 68-0715
DNA CONTENT, 68-0793
DRYING, 68-0634
EQUIPMENT FOR HANDLING,
68-0676. 68-0791
FILTRATION. 68-0699
FLOCCULANTS. 68-0652' 68-0654,
68-0859
FREEZING PLANT, 68-0847
INCINERATION, 68-0594
LAND SPREADING. 68-Oo74
OCEAN DISPOSAL, 68-0702. 68-0853
PASSAVANT PROCESS. 68-0&99,
68-0774
RESEARCH, 68-0269, 68-0688,
68-0692, 68-0754, 68-0789,
68-0792, 68-083o, 68-0852
SETTLING, 68-0692, 68-0789,
68-0852
SURVEY, 68-0670, 68-0753
TRANSPORT, 68-0671, oS-0877
UTILIZATION, 66-1038
WET OXIDATION. 68-0505.
68-0584. 68-080fa
SOIL
FILTERING PROPERTIES, 68-0288.
68-0320, 68-0321
MICROORGANISMS, 68-0323
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL ACT
68-0001
STORAGE OF WASTES
BULK CONTAINERS
CAPACITY, 68-0023
CONTAINERS, 68-0024, 68-00^2.
68-0068
CAPACITY. 68-0021
COST, b8-0021
FIRE-PROOF, 68-0021
PAPER SACKS, o8-00l8
PLASTIC. 68-0017, 68-0021
285
-------
Subject Index
PLASTIC LINERS' 68-0022
COSTS* 68-0017. 68-0018*
fc>8-0022r 68-0023* 66-0024
LAWS CONCERNING. bS-0024
MUNICIPALITYr 68-0017
RESEARCH. 68-0017
SACK HOLDERS. 68-0018
SYSTEMS. 68-0022. 68-0023
PAPER SACKS» 68-0018* 68-0024
PLASTIC SACKS. 66-0042
STREET CLEANING. 68-1164
EQUIPMENT. 68-0037' t>8-00b8.
68-0221. 68-1160* 68-1161*
68-1162. 68-1165* 68-1166
FOLIAGE* 68-0221* 68-1161
NIGHT SWEEPING' 68-0037
SURVEYS
COLLECTION OF WASTES. 68-0045.
68-0049* 68-0050* 68-0051*
68-0052* 68-0055* 68-0056*
68-0207
COSTS* 68-0052* 68-0055* 68-0056
DISPOSAL OF WASTES' 68-0045*
68-0046. 68-0047* 68-0049* •
68-0050. 68-0051' 68-0052*
fc.8-0055. 68-0056. 68-0207
MUNICIPALITIES' 68-0055.
68-0056
QUANTITIES OF REFUSE' 68-0045*
68-0046. 68-0050* 68-0052*
68-0055* 68-0056
SANITARY LANDFILLS* 68-0050*
68-0052
SCRAP AUTOMOBILES* 66-0045,
68-0050
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS* 68-016-i* 68-0164*
D8-0170. 68-1203* 66-1205
COLLECTION OF WASTES. 68-1219
COMPUTER SIMULATION. 68-0165.
08-0166. 68-0167* 68-0168*
68-016S
DISPOSAL OF WASTES* b8-U19
LAWS CONCERNING* 6B-0039
REGIONAL PLAN* 68-0067
TANNERY WASTES
TREATMENT. 68-0687
TOXIC MATERIALS
RESEARCH* 68-0891
SELENIUM* 68-0892* 68-121U
TRANSFER SYSTEMS* 68-0121* 68-0171
DESIGN. 66-0130
TRANSPORTATION OF WASTES.
o8-0086
COSTS* 68-0607
METHODS' 68-0720
PIPELINE* 68-0111* 66-0113f
68-0116. 68-0122. 68-0123.
68-0124. 68-0143. t>8-0l76.
68-0177* 68-017a
PNEUMATIC. 68-0118. 68-0172*
68-0539
RAILROAD* t)8-0100, 66-0101*
68-0102* 68-0103* 66-0104*
68-0105* 68-0106* t>8-0l07*
68-0108* 68-0109* 68-0115.
68-0119* 68-0126. 08-0142*
68-0174* 68-0175
SCRAP AUTOMOBILES* 66-0337*
68-0354
SHIP. 68-0607
VECTOR CONTROL
FLY* 68-0272* 68-0371
WATER POLLUTION. 68-0246
AGRICULTURAL WASTES* 68-0318
68-0319. 68-0320* b8-0321*
68-0322* 68-0323* b8-0324*
68-0325. 68-0326. 68-0327*
68-0723
FEED LOTS. 68-0293. b8-0295.
68-0296. 68-0297. o8-0296*
68-0299* 68-0300, oS-0308
MANURE* 68-0328
MERCURY. 68-0823
METALS* 68-0808. 68-0814
NITROGEN CYCLE* 66-0.118.
68-0319. 68-0320. 68-0321*
68-0322* 68-0323. 68-0324.
68-0325. 68-0326. aO-0327
OIL. 68-0804
PAPER MILL WASTES. 6tt-0726*
68-0743
PESTICIDES. 68-0308
SEWAGE DISPOSAL. 68-0810'
68-0869
WOOD
UTILIZATION* 68-1064. 68-1065
ZIMMERMAN PROCESS. 68-0044
pcr72-4-09s
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1972 484-487/3551-3
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