vxEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of
Solid Waste and
Emergency Response
9200.6-303(94-3)
EPA/540/R-94/114
PB94-921102
November 1994
Superfund
Health Effects Assessment
Summary Tables FY 1994
Supplement Number 2
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9200.6-303(94-3)
EPA540/R-94/114
PB94-921102
November 1994
HEALTH EFFECTS ASSESSMENT
SUMMARY TABLES
FY-1994 Supplement No. 2
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 5, Library (PL-12J)
77 West Jackson Boulevard, 12th Floor
Chicago, IL 60604-3590
Office of Research and Development
Office of Emergency and Remedial Response
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, DC 20460
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HEALTH EFFECTS ASSESSMENT SUMMARY TABLES
FY-1994 SUPPLEMENT NO. 2
Prepared by:
Ida C. Miller
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Oak Ridge, Tennessee
Interagency Agreement No. DW89935192
Prepared for:
Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
26 West Martin Luther King Drive
Cincinnati, OH 45268
Adib "Ed" Tabri, Technical Project Monitor
Patricia A. Daunt, IRIS/HEAST Liaison
Carol Haynes, Project Officer
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been prepared by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. The information contained herein has been taken
from final documents prepared by the Office of Health and Environ-
mental Assessment for the Office of Solid Waste and Emergency
Response and the Office of Water, Washington, DC and the Office of
Air Quality Planning and Standards, Research Triangle Park, NC.
These documents were reviewed in accordance with Agency policy and
approved for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial
products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION 1
WHAT'S NEW IN THE NOVEMBER 1994 SUPPLEMENT NO. 2 9
USER'S GUIDE: RADIONUCLIDE CARCINOGENICITY 15
HEAST TABLE 1: SUBCHRONIC AND CHRONIC TOXICITY
(OTHER THAN CARCINOGENICITY) 1-1
REFERENCES FOR HEAST TABLE 1: SUBCHRONIC AND CHRONIC
TOXICITY (OTHER THAN CARCINOGENICITY) Rl-1
HEAST TABLE 3: CARCINOGENICITY 3-1
REFERENCES FOR HEAST TABLE 3: CARCINOGENICITY R3-1
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INTRODUCTION
This document is the November 1994 Supplement No. 2 for the
March 1994 Annual Update of the Health Effects Assessment Summary
Tables (HEAST) prepared by EPA's Office of Health and Environmental
Assessment, Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office,
Cincinnati, OH for use at both Superfund and RCRA sites.
Supplement No. 2 updates the information in the March 1994 HEAST
Annual Update and Supplement No I. When using this document,
please refer to the Annual Update and Supplement No. 1. The
supplements were not produced to stand alone and do not contain the
User's Guides or Appendix that are available in the Annual Update.
Thus, the user is strongly encouraged to reference the March 1994
HEAST for this information.
The HEAST is a comprehensive listing consisting almost
entirely of PROVISIONAL HEALTH EFFECTS INFORMATION relative to oral
and inhalation routes for chemicals of interest to Superfund, the
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) , and the EPA in
general. These entries in the HEAST are limited to chemicals that
have undergone review and have the concurrence of individual Agency
Program Offices, and each is supported by an Agency reference.
This health effects information has not, however, had enough review
to be recognized as high quality, Agency-wide consensus
information.
The Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) is the Agency's
official repository of Agency-wide consensus chronic human health
risk information. IRIS evaluations are conducted by the Agency's
Work Group Review process, i.e., they have been examined by either
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the Reference Dose/Reference Concentration (RfD/RfC) Work Group or
the Carcinogen Risk Assessment Verification Endeavor (CRAVE) Work
Group. These Agency Work Groups conduct a process that leads to
internal Agency scientific consensus regarding health effects
information on a chemical. This information is recorded on IRIS,
is considered to be "Work Group Verified," and does not appear on
the HEAST. Thus, provisional health effects information on the
HEAST is subject to possible review and revision by these Agency
Work Groups.
There are two exceptions to the above discussion. The HEAST
also contains information on chemicals that are a part of the
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) or the Drinking
Water Criteria Document (DWCD) series. In each of these cases, the
chemicals are subject to extensive scientific peer review processes
of extremely high quality.
CHEMICAL STATUS DEFINITIONS
Chemicals reviewed by the Agency Work Groups are classified
according to their status as either "verified," "not verifiable,"
or "under review." The toxicity values (other than NAAQS or DWCD
values) listed on the HEAST are considered to be "provisional."
The Agency has no official definitions for these terms, but the
HEAST user may interpret them as follows:
Provisional: A toxicity value or a cancer value is
"provisional" if the value has had some form of Agency
review, but it does not appear on the IRIS system. These
values are generated in several ways. Often they are
determined in the course of developing an Agency document
on a chemical or on a class of chemicals. Some have been
generated through the Work Group process, but have not
yet been input to the IRIS system. At the time each
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value was derived, all available information on the
chemical was evaluated, the value was calculated using
the most current methodology, and a consensus was reached
on the value by Agency scientists.
Brackets are placed around the names of toxicity and
carcinogenicity values on the HEAST to distinguish these
"provisional" values from information on IRIS. The
following names are affected: RfD to [RfD], RfC to
[RfC], slope factor to [slope factor], EPA group to [EPA
Group] and unit risk to [unit risk].
These "provisional" values are found on the HEAST. They
do not appear on IRIS.
Verified: A toxicity value or a cancer value is "Work
Group Verified" if all available information on the value
has been examined by an Agency Work Group, the value has
been calculated using current Work Group methodology, a
unanimous consensus has been reached on the value by the
Work Group, and the value appears on IRIS.
Some numbers that have achieved unanimous consensus by
the Work Group may appear on the HEAST for a short time
until they are loaded onto IRIS, at which time they are
termed, "verified." During the interim, they are
considered to be "provisional" values that are still
"under review" by the Work Group.
These "verified" numbers only appear on IRIS. They do
not appear on the HEAST.
Not verifiable: A toxicity value is "not verifiable" if
an Agency Work Group has considered all available data on
a chemical and has unanimously determined that data are
inadequate to generate a value that would be suitable for
inclusion on IRIS. No toxicity value is calculated; no
toxicity value is available for IRIS or the HEAST.
This "not verifiable" status is noted on IRIS, and is
sometimes found on the HEAST, with a pointer to the IRIS
system.
Under Review: A toxicity value is "under review" if an
Agency Work Group is in the process of considering all
available data on a chemical. -All Work Group chemicals
will have this status until the toxicity value is placed
on the IRIS system. Toxicity values that have been
withdrawn from IRIS by a Work Group for further review
will have this status.
This "under review" status may be indicated on IRIS or on
the HEAST. During this time, "provisional" toxicity
values may appear on the HEAST.
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In all cases, the status of a chemical may change as new data
become available, and the assessment is revisited.
CAUTION
It is imperative for each user of the HEAST to recognize that
the values listed in the toxicity tables and the cancer table are
generally considered to be PROVISIONAL HEALTH EFFECTS INFORMATION.
The user is referred to IRIS for "Work Group Verified" values. It
is also important to remember that the numbers in these tables
alone tell very little about the adverse effects of a chemical or
the quality of evidence on which health effects information is
based. Original assessment documents must be consulted by users of
the HEAST in order to fully appreciate the strengths and limita-
tions of a specific data base. Original source documents will
allow for the most complete characterization of potential toxicity
associated with the range of exposure pathways generally evaluated
at Superfund and RCRA sites. The Reference Tables point the user
to these sources.
CONTRIBUTORS
Chemicals commonly found at RCRA sites as identified by the
Office of Solid Waste's (OSW) Technical Assessment Branch are
included in the HEAST. The Office of Radiation Programs has
provided data on radionuclide carcinogenicity for Tables 4A and 4B
of the HEAST. Finally, the Office of Air Quality Planning and
Standards (OAQPS) has provided information on chemicals for which
Air Quality Criteria Documents and National Ambient Air Quality
Standards have been developed.
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CHEMICALS LISTED
Most of the chemicals included on the toxicity tables and
carcinogenicity table are those for which at least one of the
following EPA documents has been written: Health Effects Assess-
ment Document (HEA), Health and Environmental Effects Profile
(KEEP), Health and Environmental Effects Document (HEED), Health
Assessment Document (HAD), Air Quality Criteria Document (AQCD) ,
Drinking Water Criteria Document (DWCD). A description of each is
provided in Appendix A, Section I. In a few cases, the values are
supported by other written material, such as Work Group meeting
notes or Carcinogen Assessment Group (CAG) Profiles. Radionuclide
slope factor values are calculated by the EPA's Office of Radiation
Programs.
The names of criteria pollutants that are regulated as
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) under the Clean Air
Act are listed in the main body of the HEAST, but the actual
criteria are included as Section V of Appendix A: Technical
Information. The NAAQS were not included in the tables in order to
distinguish them from the reference concentration ([RfC]) values.
The NAAQS and [RfC]s represent different levels of review and
different methods of calculation and thus, must be interpreted and
used differently.
HIERARCHY OF SOURCES
It is recognized that at any point in time there may be
multiple old and new Agency documents or data bases that present
different values on a specific chemical. For chemicals other than
those represented by the NAAQS or DWCDs, the following hierarchy of
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sources is recommended in evaluating chemical toxicity for
Superfund sites:
1. The Agency's Integrated Risk Information System
(IRIS) and cited references. Changes are made in
this data base on a monthly basis, but there may be
data gaps. Call the RISK INFORMATION HOTLINE at
(513)569-7254 for further information.
2. The Health Effects Assessment Summary Tables (HEAST)
and cited references.
3. Consultation with the Superfund Health Risk Tech-
nical Support Center (TSC) at (513)569-7300.
4. Do not consult either the toxicity tables (Appendix
A) in the Superfund Public Health Evaluation Manual
(SPHEM, U.S. EPA, 1986) or the September 1988 Public
Health Risk Evaluation Data Base (PHRED) as these
sources are likely to contain numerous values that
have since become out-of-date.
QUESTIONS
Chemical Toxicity and Carcinogenicity
Regional EPA Superfund Staff may direct questions regarding
the contents of the chemical toxicity and carcinogenicity tables on
the HEAST (e.g., chemicals not covered, chemicals with pending
[RfD]s) to EPA's Superfund Health Risk Technical Support Center
(TSC) in Cincinnati, OH at (513)569-7300. Questions from other
users must be syty^frted to the TSC in writincr and must contain the
following information:
Superfund site name, site location and twelve-digit
site number;
Name and phone number of the site Remedial Project
Manager (RPM) or Regional Risk Assessor/Toxicologist;
Detailed description of the health effects information
related question.
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Please send requests via mail or FAX to:
Superfund Health Risk Technical Support Center
US EPA
26 W. Martin Luther King Dr.
Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office
MS 117
Cincinnati, OH 45268
FAX#: (513)569-7159
RCRA Chemicals
Questions about RCRA chemicals may be addressed by calling the
Office of Solid Waste at (202) 260-4761.
Radionuclide Carcinogenicity
Questions concerning radionuclide carcinogenicity should first
be addressed by contacting the appropriate Regional Radiation
Program Manager. A listing of these managers and several contacts
in the Office of Radiation Programs can be found in Exhibit 2 of
the User's Guide - Radionuclide Carcinogenicity.
REFERENCES
Most cited Agency references (e.g., HEAs, HEEPs, HEEDs), are
(or will soon be) available through the National Technical
Information Service (NTIS), 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA
22161 [(703)487-4650]. Carcinogen Assessment Group (CAG) Profiles
cited in Table 3 are available through the RCRA docket
(202)260-9327.
Drinking water documents are available by calling the Drinking
Water Docket at (202)260-3027.
ORDERING INFORMATION
Limited copies of the HEAST are available for EPA Superfund
staff, State Superfund programs and other Federal agencies working
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on Superfund sites. Users in these groups can call Syracuse
Research Corporation (616) 375-2121 to be put on the mailing list.
EPA's Office of Solid Waste (OSW) requests that their users
(i.e., OSW staff, contractors, State solid waste programs) call the
Health Assessment Section (202) 260-4761 to obtain copies of the
HEAST. Regional OSW staff are reminded that copies are sent to all
EPA Regional libraries.
Users of the HEAST in EPA's Office of Air and Radiation and
State air programs should call Kelly Rimer of EPA's Office of Air
Quality Planning and Standards at (919) 541-2962.
All other users must purchase the document from:
National Technical Information Service (NTIS)
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, VA 22161
(703) 487-4650
For ordering information, call the NTIS Subscriptions
Department at (703) 487-4630. NTIS normally ships 4th class United
States mail. Therefore, users may wish to consult with NTIS
concerning the use of an overnight delivery service. When ordering
the 1994 Health Effects Assessment Summary Table annual update and
supplements from NTIS refer to the following order numbers:
PB94-921100: Annual HEAST Update and Supplements
PB94-921199: Annual HEAST update
PB94-921101: July 1994 Supplement No. 1
PB94-921102: November 1994 Supplement No. 2
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WHAT'S NEW IN THE NOVEMBER 1994 SUPPLEMENT NO. 2
GENERAL CHANGES -- CHEMICAL TOXICITY AND CARCINOGENICITY
The changes in this version of the HEAST reflect changes in
IRIS through September, 1994. It is also current with RfD/RfC
and CRAVE Work Group activities through September, 1994.
CHEMICAL-SPECIFIC CHANGES -- CHEMICAL TOXICITY AND
CARCINOGENICITY
A. CHEMICAL-SPECIFIC CHANGES ON HEAST TABLE 1: SUBCHRONIC AND
CHRONIC TOXICITY (OTHER THAN CARCINOGENICITY)
Acetone cyanohvdrin / (2-Methyllactonitrile) 000075-86-5
The chronic oral [RfD] now under review by the RfD/RfC Work Group
was added to Table 1. The chronic oral [RfD] was modified to
derive the subchronic oral [RfD]. The synonym used by the
RfD/RfC Work Group in its latest review is now included in HEAST.
Acrolein 000107-02-8
The subchronic [RfD] and [RfC] Risk Assessment Issue Papers for
this compound were not reexamined by ECAO this year and the
comment to contact the Superfund Health Risk Technical Support
Center was removed from HEAST. No further change to the table.
Anthracene 000120-12-7
A comment was added to indicate that the chronic inhalation [RfC]
is considered not verifiable (08/04/93) by the RfD/RfC Work
Group.
Benzo[AT anthracene 000056-55-3
A comment was added to indicate that the chronic inhalation [RfC]
is considered not verifiable (08/04/93) by the RfD/RfC Work
Group.
Caprolactam 000105-60-2
An indicator was added to show that a comment is now on IRIS that
the chronic inhalation RfC is considered not verifiable
(08/03/94) by the RfD/RfC Work Group.
Chlordane 000057-74-9
The subchronic [RfC] Risk Assessment Issue Paper for this
compound was not reexamined by ECAO this year and the comment to
contact the Superfund Health Risk Technical Support Center was
removed from HEAST. No further change to the table.
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Dacthal 001861-32-1
The chronic oral RfD has been replaced on IRIS. The chronic oral
RfD was adopted as the subchronic oral [RfD].
Dichlorobenzene, 1,2- 000095-50-1
The subchronic [RfD] Risk Assessment Issue Paper for this
compound was not reexamined by ECAO this year and the comment to
contact the Superfund Health Risk Technical Support Center was
removed from HEAST. No further change to the table.
Dichloroethane. 1.2- 000107-06-2
The subchronic [RfD] and [RfC] Risk Assessment Issue Papers for
this compound were not reexamined by ECAO this year. The comment
to contact the Superfund Health Risk Technical Support Center was
the only information on Table 1, therefore the compound was
removed from Table 1.
Fluoranthene 000206-44-0
A comment was added to indicate that the chronic inhalation [RfC]
is considered not verifiable (08/04/93) by the RfD/RfC Work
Group.
Hexachlorobenzene 000118-74-1
The subchronic [RfD] Risk Assessment Issue Paper for this
compound was not reexamined by ECAO this year and the comment to
contact the Superfund Health Risk Technical Support Center was
removed from HEAST. No further change to the table.
Hexachlorobutadiene OQ0087-68-3
The subchronic [RfC] Risk Assessment Issue Paper for this
compound was not reexamined by ECAO this year and the comment to
contact the Superfund Health Risk Technical Support Center was
removed from HEAST. No further change to the table.
Nitric oxide 010102-43-9
The chronic oral RfD for this compound has been permanently
withdrawn (09/01/94) from IRIS.
Nitrogen dioxide 010102-44-0
The chronic oral RfD for this compound has been permanently
withdrawn (09/01/94) from IRIS. The subchronic oral [RfD] was
removed from HEAST.
Phenanthrene 000085-01-8
A comment was added to indicate that the chronic inhalation [RfC]
is considered not verifiable (08/04/93) by the RfD/RfC Work
Group.
Pyrene 000129-00-0
A comment was added to indicate that the chronic inhalation [RfC]
is considered not verifiable (08/04/93) by the RfD/RfC Work
Group.
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Styrene 000100-42-5
The subchronic [RfD] Risk Assessment Issue Paper for this
compound was not reexamined by ECAO this year and the comment to
contact the Superfund Health Risk Technical Support Center was
removed from HEAST. No further change to the table.
B. CHEMICAL-SPECIFIC CHANGES ON HEAST TABLE 2: ALTERNATE
METHODS -- SUBCHRONIC AND CHRONIC TOXICITY (OTHER THAN
CARCINOGENICITY)
No changes were made to HEAST Table 2.
C. CHEMICAL-SPECIFIC CHANGES ON HEAST TABLE 3: CARCINOGENICITY
Vinyl chloride 000075-01-4
No change in values. The General Comment was changed to reflect
additional review by the CRAVE Work Group.
D. CHEMICAL-SPECIFIC CHANGES ON HEAST TABLE 4: RADIONUCLIDE
CARCINOGENICITY -- SLOPE FACTORS
EPA's Office of Radiation and Indoor Air (ORIA) has recently
revised its methodology for estimating radiogenic cancer risks
and for deriving radionuclide slope factors1. Specifically, ORIA
has:
S revised its risk models for potential cancer sites based on
current epidemiological data on radiogenic cancers in humans
and on recent recommendations of the National Academy of
Sciences (NAS) Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation
1 Radionuclide ingestion and inhalation slope factors are central estimates in a linear model of the age-
averaged, lifetime attributable radiation cancer incidence (fatal and nonfatal cancer) risk per unit of activity
inhaled or ingested, expressed as risk per picocurie (pCi). External exposure slope factors are central estimates
of lifetime attributable radiation cancer incidence risk for each year of exposure to external radiation from
photon-emitting radionuclides distributed uniformly in a thick layer of soil, and are expressed as risk/yr per
pCi/g soil.
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(BEIR) Committee2, the International Commission on
Radiological Protection (ICRP)3, and the U.S. Nuclear
Regulatory Commission (NRC)4; (EPA's previous radiogenic
cancer risk models were based primarily upon NAS BEIR III
Committee recommendations.)
incorporated a dose and dose rate effectiveness factor
(DDREF) of 2 for low-LET radiation for all cancer sites
except breast (DDREF=1) whenever the total dose is below 20
rad (0.2 Gy) or the dose rate is below 10 mrad/min (0.1
mGy/min); (In EPA's previous methodology, a value of
DDREF=1 was assumed for low-LET radiation for all cancer
sites. For high-LET alpha radiation, EPA has retained the
value of DDREF=1.)
revised the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) for
alpha particles to RBE=20 for all cancer sites except breast
(RBE=10) and leukemia (RBE=1); (In the previous methodology,
EPA assumed a value of RBE=8 all cancer sites with the
exception of leukemia (RBE=1.117).)
taken survival data and vital statistics from the (7.5.
Decennial Life Tables for 1979-1981; (Previously, EPA used
life table data for the 1970 decennial U.S. population in
the calculation of radionuclide slope factors.)
revised its method for integrating vital statistics and risk
models for reference populations;
re-evaluated and revised (as appropriate) the radiation dose
estimates used to derive the slope factors;
increased the Agency's estimate of the lifetime fatal cancer
risk associated with uniform, whole-body irradiation of the
U.S. population from low-LET radiation at low doses and dose
rates by approximately 24% from 392 to 509 per 106 person-
rad (392 to 509 per 104 person-Gy); and
increased the Agency's cancer morbidity risk estimate from
623 to 761 per 106 person-rad (623 to 761 per 104 person-
Gy) .
National Academy of Sciences (1990). Health Effects of Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation.
BEIR V. Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiations, National Research Council, Washington,
D.C.
International Commission on Radiological Protection (1991), 1990 Recommendations of the International
Comn^igsion on Radiological Protection. ICRP Publication 60, Pergamon Press, New York, NY.
4 U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (1991, 1993), Health Effects Models for Nuclear Power Plant
Accident Consequence Analysis. NUREG/CR-4214. Addenda documenting the scientific basis for radiogenic
risk models published in 1991 (for low-LET radiation) and 1993 (for alpha radiation). See EPA 402-R-93-076
for discussion of these models.
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As a result of these changes in risk assessment methodology,
assumptions, and calculations, ORIA has also rederived its
lifetime excess cancer incidence slope factors for all
radionuclides listed in previous HEAST updates and for a few new
radionuclides added to this update. The HEAST User's Guide on
Radionuclide Carcinogenicity provides an overview of ORIA's
revised methodology for deriving radionuclide slope factors, and
interested users are directed to Estimating Radiogenic Cancer
Risks (EPA 402-R-93-076) for a more detailed discussion of ORIA's
approach and assumptions.
For simplicity and to minimize the possibility of confusion
and errors, this HEAST update includes a single table—Table 4—of
radionuclide slope factors in customary activity units of
picocuries (pCi) only, consistent with the reporting format for
radionuclide slope factors in EPA's Integrated Risk Information
System (IRIS) data base. Previous HEAST updates presented
radionuclide slope factors in both customary units and the
International System (SI) units of becquerels (Bq) in Tables 4A
and 4B, respectively.
Similar to the former HEAST Tables 4A and 4B, the new Table
4 provides reference toxicity information for each radionuclide,
including a Chemical Abstract Service Reference Number (CASRN),
radioactive half-life, lung clearance classification and
gastrointestinal (GI) absorption factor (where appropriate). It
should be noted that the GI absorption factors, lung
classifications and radioactive half-lives are provided in HEAST
Table 4 for reference only and should not be used to correct,
modify, or in any way adjust radionuclide slope factors or intake
assumptions in risk calculations.
Inhalation, ingestion and external exposure slope factors
for radionuclides marked with the suffix "+D" in Table 4 include
the added risks from associated radioactive decay chain products
with half-lives less than or equal to six months, assuming
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equilibrium with the principal or parent radionuclide in the
environment. (Note that slope factors for all radionuclides
always account for associated decay products created within the
body after intake.)
In summary, key features of this HEAST update for
radionuclides are:
All radionuclide ingestion, inhalation and external exposure
cancer slope factors have been updated to incorporate EPA's
revised methodology for estimating radiogenic cancer risk.
Table 4 presents radionuclide slope factors in customary
activity units of picocuries (pCi) only, consistent with
EPA's IRIS data base format for radionuclides.
Additional slope factors are now provided for the following
six radionuclide decay chains:
Ag-108m+D, Ce-144+D, Cm-243+D, Pu-241+D, Pu-244+D, and Sb-
125+D.
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USER'S GUIDE: RADIONUCLIDE CARCINOGENICITY
Introduction
EPA classifies all radionuclides as Group A carcinogens.
HEAST Table 4 lists ingestion, inhalation and external exposure
cancer slope factors for radionuclides in units of picocuries
(pCi).5 Ingestion and inhalation slope factors are central
estimates in a linear model of the age-averaged, lifetime
attributable radiation cancer incidence (fatal and nonfatal
cancer) risk per unit of activity inhaled or ingested, expressed
as risk/pCi. External exposure slope factors are central
estimates of lifetime attributable radiation cancer incidence
risk for each year of exposure to external radiation from photon-
emitting radionuclides distributed uniformly in a thick layer of
soil, and are expressed as risk/yr per pCi/gram soil. When
combined with site-specific media concentration data and
appropriate exposure assumptions6, slope factors can be used to
estimate lifetime cancer risks to members of the general
population due to radionuclide exposures.
5 Slope factors are reported in Table 4 in the customary units of picocuries (1 pCi = 10'12 curies (Ci) =
3.7xlO'2 nuclear transformations per second) for consistency with the system used for radionuclides in the IRIS
database. If required, slope factors in Table 4 can be convened into the International System (SO units of
becquerels (1 Bq = 1 nuclear transformation per second) by dividing each inhalation, ingestion, or external
exposure value by 27.03. Users can calculate cancer risks using slope factors expressed in either customary
units or SI units with equivalent results, provided that they also use air, water and soil concentration values in
the same system of units.
6 Agency standardized default exposure scenarios and assumptions for use in baseline risk assessment
are provided in EPA (1991), Risk Assessment Guidance for Super/and, Vol. I, Human Health Evaluation
Manual, Supplemental Guidance: "Standard Default Exposure Factors" (Interim Final), Office of Emergency
and Remedial Response, OSWER Directive 9285.6-03. [NTIS order number: PB 91-921314.]
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Intended Users and Applications
HEAST users include individuals from the EPA, other Federal
agencies, States and contractors who are responsible for the
identification, characterization and remediation of sites
contaminated with radioactive materials. Radionuclide slope
factors are calculated by EPA's Office of Radiation and Indoor
Air (ORIA) to assist HEAST users with risk-related evaluations
and decision-making at various stages of the remediation process.
During site assessment, for example, slope factors are used in
EPA's Hazard Ranking System (HRSh to assign toxicity factor
values to radionuclides to calculate site scores. During the
remedial investigation and feasibility study (RI/FS), slope
factors are used to determine baseline site risk, to develop
preliminary remediation goals, and to evaluate cleanup
alternatives. For further examples on the application of
radionuclide slope factors in risk evaluations, users are
referred to the following EPA documents:
• Hazard Ranking System (HRS), Federal Register (55 FR
515320), December 1990.
• Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund; Volume I - Human
Health Evaluation Manual (RAGS/HHEM), Part A, Baseline Risk
Assessment (EPA/540/1-89/002).
• RAGS/HHEM Part B, Development of Risk-Based Preliminary
Remediation Goals (OSWER Directive 9285.7-01B). [NTIS order
number: PB 92-963333.]
• RAGS/HHEM Part C, Risk Evaluation of Remedial Alternatives
(OSWER Directive 9285.7-01C). [NTIS order number: PB 92-
963334.]
Copies of RAGS/HHEM Parts A, B and C are available to the
public from the National Technical Information Service (NTIS) at
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(703) 487-4650. Copies are available to EPA staff by calling the
Superfund Documents Center at (703) 603-8917.
Radiation Effects
Ionizing radiation has been shown to be a carcinogen, a
mutagen, and a teratogen. Radiation can induce cancers in nearly
any tissue or organ in both humans and animals, and the
probability of cancer induction increases with increasing
radiation dose. Cancer induction is a delayed response that has
been documented extensively in epidemiological studies of
Japanese atomic bomb survivors, underground uranium miners,
radium dial painters, and patients subject to a variety of
radiation treatments. Laboratory animal research and mammalian
tissue culture studies have provided additional, collaborative
data.
Mutagenic effects of radiation have been demonstrated
primarily in animal and tissue culture studies; limited data from
studies of A-bomb survivors indicate that humans may be as
sensitive or less sensitive than animals to radiogenic
mutagenicity. Data are also available from both human and animal
studies on the teratogenic effects of radiation. These data show
that the fetus is most sensitive to radiation injury during the
early stages of organ development (between 8 and 15 weeks for the
human fetus). Resultant radiation-induced malformations depend
on which cells are most actively differentiating at the time of
exposure.
EPA classifies all radionuclides as Group A carcinogens, based
on their property of emitting ionizing radiation and on the
-17-
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extensive weight of evidence provided by epidemiological studies
of radiogenic cancers in humans. At Superfund radiation sites,
EPA generally evaluates potential human health risks based on the
radiotoxicity, i.e., adverse health effects caused by ionizing
radiation, rather than on the chemical toxicity, of each
radionuclide present. These evaluations consider the
carcinogenic effects of radionuclides only. In most cases,
cancer risks are limiting, exceeding both mutagenic and
teratogenic risks.
Derivation of Radionuclide Slope Factors
EPA's Office of Radiation and Indoor Air (ORIA) calculates
radionuclide slope factor values using health effects data and
dose and risk models from a number of national and international
scientific advisory commissions and organizations, including the
National Academy of Sciences (NAS), the National Council on
Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP), the United Nations
Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
(UNSCEAR), and the International Commission on Radiological
Protection (ICRP). A detailed discussion of ORIA's approach and
assumptions is provided in Estimating Radiogenic Cancer Risks
(EPA 402-R-93-076).
Radionuclide slope factors are calculated for each
radionuclide individually, based on its unique chemical,
metabolic and radioactive properties. The calculation uses dose
estimates from EPA's computer code RADRISK7, vital statistics
7 Dunning, D.E. Jr., Leggett, R.W., and Yalcinatas, M.G. (1980). "A Combined Methodology for
Estimating Dose Rates and Health Effects from Exposure to Radioactive Pollutants," ORNL/TM-710S.
-18-
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from the U.S. Decennial Life Tables for 1979-1981 (described in
EPA 402-R-93-076), and cancer risk estimates based largely on the
results of the NAS BEIR V report8, ICRP Publication 609, and U.S.
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) analyses.10 Ingestion and
inhalation slope factors for radionuclides account for:
• the amount of radionuclide transported into the bloodstream
from either the gastrointestinal (GI) tract following
ingestion, or from the lungs following inhalation;
• the ingrowth and decay of radioactive progeny produced
within the body subsequent to intake,-
• the distribution and retention of each radionuclide (and its
associated progeny, if appropriate) in body tissues and
organs;
• the radiation dose delivered to body tissues and organs from
the radionuclide (and its associated progeny, if
appropriate); and
• the sex, age, and organ-specific risk factors over the
lifetime of exposure.
The slope factors are the average risk per unit intake or
exposure for an individual in a stationary population with vital
statistics (mortality rates) of the United States in 1980. (The
expected lifetime for an individual in this population is about
74 years.) Consequently, radionuclide ingestion and inhalation
slope factors are not expressed as a function of body weight and
8 National Academy of Sciences (1990). Health Effects of Exposure to Low Levels pf Tppjpng Radiation.
BEIR V. Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiations, National Research Council, Washington,
D.C.
9 International Commission on Radiological Protection (1991), 1990 Ref-"f"rp^™fotions of the International
Commission on Radiological Protection. ICRP Publication 60, Pergamon Press, New York, NY.
10 U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (1991, 1993), Health Effects Models for Nuclear Power Plant
Accident Consequence Analysis. NUREG/CR-4214. Addenda documenting the scientific basis for radiogenic
risk models published in 1991 (for low-LET radiation) and 1993 (for alpha radiation). See EPA 402-R-93-076
for discussion of these models.
-19-
-------
time, and do not require corrections for GI absorption or lung
transfer efficiencies.
NOTE: The GI absorption values (fj), ICRP lung classifications (D, W, Y) and
radioactive half-ttves are provided in HEAST Table 4 for reference only and should not
be used to correct, modify, or in any way adjust radionucttde slope factors or intake
assumptions in risk calculations.
External slope factors provide cancer risk estimates per unit
exposure to a uniform radionuclide concentration in soil. These
factors, which account for photon energy flux attenuation and
buildup in soil, are calculated for each radionuclide using
volume and surface dose factors derived using the computer code
DFSOIL.11
Because of the radiation risk models employed for both
internal and external exposures, slope factors for radionuclides
are characterized as central estimates in a linear model of the
age-averaged lifetime total radiation cancer incidence risk per
unit intake or exposure.
About the Information Provided in Table 4
Table 4 lists ingestion, inhalation and external exposure
slope factors of principal radionuclides, and provides key
parameter values used in the derivation of slope factor values.
Radionuclides are presented alphabetically by element and atomic
weight.
11 Sjoreen, A.L., Kocher, D.C., Killough, G.G. and Miller C.W. (1984). "MLSOIL and DFSOIL -
Computer Codes to Estimate Effective Ground Surface Concentrations for Dose Computations," Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, ORNL-5974.
-20-
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Selected radionuclides and radioactive decay chain products
are designated in HEAST Table 4 with the suffix "+D" (e.g., U-
238+D, Ra-226+D, Cs-137+D) to indicate that cancer risk estimates
for these radionuclides include the contributions from their
short-lived decay products, assuming equal activity
concentrations (i.e., secular equilibrium) with the principal or
parent nuclide in the environment.12 Decay chains are identified
in Exhibit 1.
In most cases, site-specific analytical data should be used to
establish the actual degree of equilibrium between each parent
radionuclide and its decay products in each media sampled.
However, in the absence of empirical data, the "+D" values for
radionuclides should be used unless there are compelling reasons
not to. For example, the external slope factors for Cs-137 and
Cs-137+D are 0.0 and 2xlO"6 (risk per year per pCi/gram) ,
respectively. The value for Cs-137+D is higher because it
includes the risk contribution from cesium's short-lived gamma-
emitting decay product Ba-137m (half-life, 25.5 minutes) which,
under most environmental conditions, will be in secular
equilibrium with Cs-137.
Note that there may be circumstances, such as long disposal
times or technologically enhanced concentrations of naturally
occurring radionuclides, that may necessitate the combination of
the risks of a parent radionuclide and its decay products over
several contiguous subchains. For example, Ra-226 soil analyses
12 There is one exception to the assumption of secular equilibrium. For the inhalation slope factor for Rn-
222+D reported in HEAST Table 4, ORIA assumes a 50% equilibrium value for radon decay products (Po-
218, Pb-214, Bi-214 and Po-214) in air.
-21-
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at a site might show that all radium decay products are present
in secular equilibrium down to stable Pb-206 (See Exhibit 1).
In this case, Ra-226 risk calculations should be based on the
ingestion, inhalation and external exposure slope factors for the
Ra-226+D subchain, plus the ingestion, inhalation and external
exposure factors for the Pb-210+D subchain. For actual sites,
users should consult with a health physicist or radiochemist (1)
to evaluate the site-specific analytical data to determine the
degree of equilibrium between parent radionuclides and decay
members of contiguous decay chains and (2) to assist in the
combination of appropriate slope factor values. For health
physics and radioanalytical support, HEAST users may contact
EPA's Regional Radiation Program Managers, ORIA's National Air
and Radiation Laboratory (NAREL) in Montgomery, Alabama, ORIA's
Las Vegas Laboratory (ORIA-LV) in Las Vegas, Nevada, or the ORIA
contact at EPA headquarters in Washington, D.C., listed in
Exhibit 2.
A Chemical Abstract System Reference Number (CASRN) is
assigned to each radionuclide for identification and reporting
accuracy during risk assessments, and radioactive half-lives are
provided for reference.
The designations "D", "W", and "Y" presented in Table 4 under
the heading "ICRP Lung Class" in the tables refer to the lung
clearance times for inhaled particulate radionuclides, expressed
as days (D), weeks (W), or years (Y), as recommended by the
International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP).
Gaseous radionuclides, e.g., Rn-222, are designated with an
asterisk ("*"). "GI Absorption Factors, f^1 are the fractional
-22-
-------
amounts of each radionuclide that may be absorbed from the
gastrointestinal (GI) tract into blood following an oral intake.
The ICRP lung clearance classifications and GI absorption factors
provided in Table 4 are the default values that EPA used to
calculate radionuclide slope factors for inhalation and ingestion
exposures, respectively. These factors are provided for reference
only (see the Note Box).
Where to Address Questions About Radionuclide Slope Factors:
EPA continuously reviews the scientific literature on
radiation effects to ensure that the Agency's risk assessment
methodologies are consistent with current models and assumptions.
As risk methodologies are refined, EPA will revise and update the
slope factors in Table 4.
HEAST users with questions about radionuclide slope factor
values and their use in radiation risk assessments should contact
Michael Boyd of the Remedial Guidance Section of the Radiation
Assessment Branch of ORIA at (202) 233-9395. Written requests
for assistance can be sent by fax to (202) 233-9650.
-23-
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Exhibit 1. Radionuclide Decay Chains Considered Explicitly in HEAST Table 4*
Principal Radionuclide2
Nuclide
Ac-227+D
Ag-108m+D
Ag-llOm+D
Am-243+D
Ce-144+D
Cs-137+D
Np-237+D
Pb-210+D
Pu-241+D
Pu-244+D
Ra-226+D
Ra-2284-D
Ru-106+D
Sb-125+D
Half-life
(yr)
22
127
0.7
7.4 x 103
0.8
30
2.1 x 106
22
14
8.3 x 107
1.6 x 103
8
1
3
Associated Decay Chainb
[Th-227 (98.6%, 19 d)]
Fr-223 (1.4%, 22 min)
Ra-223 (11 d)
Rn-219 (4 s)
Po-215 (2 ms)
Pb-211 (36 min)
Bi-211 (2 min)
[Tl-207 (99.7%, 5 min)
Po-211 (0.3%, 0.5 s)]
_d
Ag-108 (9%, 2 min)
Ag-110(l%, 25 s)
Np-239 (2 d)
[Pr-144 (9%, 17 min)
Pr-144m(2%, 7 min)]
Ba-137m(95%, 3 min)
Pa-233 (27 d)
Bi-210 (5 d)
Po-210 (138 d)
[Am-241 (-100%, 432 y)
U-237 (7 d)]e
U-240(-100%, 14 h)
Np-240
Rn-222 (4 d)
Po-218(3min) .
Pb-214(-100%, 27 min)
Bi-214 (20 min)
Po-214(-100%, 1 min)
Ac-228 (6 h)
Rh-106 (30 s)
Te-125m(23%,58d)
Terminal Nuclide or
Radionuclide0
Nuclide
Pb-207
Pd-108(91%)
[Cd-108 (98%)
Pd-108 (2%)]
Cd-110 (99%)
[Cd-110
(99.7%)
Pd-110(0.3%)
Pu-239
Nd-144
Ba-137
U-233
Pb-206
Np-237
Pu-240
Pb-210
Th-228
Pd-106
Te-125
Half-life
(yr)
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
2.4 x
104
*
*
1.6 x
105
*
2.1 x
106
6.5 x
103
22
2
*
*
-24-
-------
Principal Radionuclide11
Nuclide
Sr-90+D
Th-228+D
Th-229+D
U-235+D
U-238+D
Half-life
(yr)
29
2
7.3 x 103
7.0 x 108
4.5 x 109
Associated Decay Chain6
Y-90 (64 h)
Ra-224 (4 d)
Rn-220 (56 s)
Po-216 (0.2 s)
Pb-212 11 h)
Bi-212 (61 min)
[Po-212 (64%, 0.3 ^s)
Tl-208 (36%, 3 min)]
Ra-225 (15 d)
Ac-225 (10 d)
Fr-221 (5 min)
At-217 (32 ms)
Bi-213 (46 min)
[Po-213 (98%, 4 jts)
71-209(2%, 2 min)]
Pd-209 (3 h)
Th-231 (26 h)
Th-234 (24 d)
[Pa-234m(99.8%, 1 min)
Pa-234(0.2%,7h)]
Terminal Nuclide or
Radionuclide0
Nuclide
Zr-90
Pb-208
Bi-209
Pa-231
U-234
Half-life
(yr)
*
*
*
3.4 x
104
2.4 x
10s
Radionuclides with half-lives greater than six months. "+D" designates principal radionuclides with
associated decay chains.
The chain of decay products of a principal radionuclide extending to (but not including) the next principal
radionuclide or a stable radionuclide. Half-lives are given in parentheses. Branches are indicated by
square brackets with branching ratios in parentheses.
The principal radionuclide or stable nuclide that terminates an associated decay chain. Stable nuclides are
indicated by an asterisk (*) in place of a half-life.
A hyphen indicates that there are no associated decay products.
The branching decay for Pu-241 and Cm-243 involves multiple principal radionuclides and associated
radionuclides.
* Table adapted from: C. Yu, et al. (1994), "Manual for Implementing Residual Radioactive Materials
Guidelines Using RESRAD, Version 5.0," Argonne National Laboratory.
-25-
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Exhibit 2. EPA Radiation Program Staff
Tom D'Avanzo
Radiation Program Manager, Region 1
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
John F. Kennedy Federal Building/ATR
One Congress Street
Boston, MA 02203
Paul A. Giardina
Radiation Program Manager, Region 2
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency/1005A
26 Federal Plaza
New York, NY 10278
Lewis Felleisen
Radiation Program Manager, Region 3
Special Program Section (3AT12)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
841 Chestnut Street
Philadelphia, PA 19107
Paul Wagner
Radiation Program Manager, Region 4
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
345 Courtland Street, NE
Atlanta, GA 30365
Jack Barnette
Radiation Program Manager, Region 5
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
77 West Jackson Boulevard/ATI8J
Chicago, IL 60604-3507
Donna Ascenzi
Radiation Program Manger, Region 6
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Air Enforcement Branch (6T-E)
1445 Ross Avenue
Dallas, TX 75202-2733
Robert Dye
Radiation Program Manager, Region 7
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
726 Minnesota Avenue/ARTXARBR
Kansas City, KS 66101
(617) 565-4502
(212) 264-4110
(215) 597-8326
(404) 347-3907
(312) 886-6175
(214) 655-7224
(913) 551-7605
-26-
-------
Exhibit 2 (Continued)
Milton W. Lammering (303) 293-1440
Radiation Program Manager, Region 8
(8HWM-RP)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Suite 500
999 18th Street
Denver, CO 80202-2405
Michael S. Bandrowski (415) 744-1048
Radiation Program Manager, Region 9
(Al-1)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
75 Hawthorne Street
San Francisco, CA 94105
Jerry Leitch (206) 442-7660
Radiation Program Manager, Region 10
(AT-082)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
1200 Sixth Avenue
Seattle, WA 98101
Samuel T. Windham, Director (205) 270-3402
Office of Radiation and Indoor Air
National Air and Radiation Environmental Laboratory (NAREL)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
540 South Morris Avenue
Montgomery, AL 36115-2601
Jed Harrison, Director (702) 798-2476
Office of Radiation and Indoor Air
Las Vegas Laboratory
EPA Facilities
P.O. Box 98516
Las Vegas, NV 89193-8516
Michael Boyd (202) 233-9395
Office of Radiation and Indoor Air (6603J)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
401 M Street, SW
Washington, DC 20460
-27-
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Table 4
Radionuclide Carcinogencity - Slope Factors
(In Units of Picocuries)
NOVEMBER 1994
NOTE: To convert radionuclide slope factors into the International System (SI)
activity units of becquerels (Bq), multiply each value in Table 4 by 3.70E-02.
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