v/EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Water
Program Operations (WH-547)
Washington DC 20460
September 1980
430/981 012
Utilization of Municipal
Wastewater and Sludge
for Land Reclamation
and Biomass Production
Symposium Proceedings
and Engineering
Assessment
X,
«*•
/
~t«F
MCD-80
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EPA 430/9-81-012
UTILIZATION OF MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER AND SLUDGE
FOR LAND RECLAMATION AND BIOMASS PRODUCTION
Symposium Proceedings and
Engineering Assessment
Robert K. Bastian
Project Officer
SEPTEMBER 1980
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Water Program Operations
Municipal Construction Division
Washington, D.C. 20460
u.S. Environmental Protraction Agency
Vteglon 5, Library (5PL-16)
230 S. Dearborn Street, Room 1670
Chicago, IL 60604
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Disclaimer Statement
This report has been reviewed by the Environmental
Protection Agency and approved for publication. Approval
does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the
views and policies of the Environmental Protection Agency
or other agencies involved, nor does mention of trade
names or commercial products constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use.
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Land Reclamation and Biomass
Production with Municipal
Wastewater and Sludge
Edited by William E. Sopper, Eileen M. Seaker,
and Robert K. Bastian
The Pennsylvania State University Press
University Park and London
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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Main entry under title:
Land reclamation and biomass production with
municipal wastewater and sludge.
Symposium proceedings held in Pittsburgh, Pa. on
Sept. 16-18, 1980 and sponsored by U.S. EPA,
Office of Water Program Operations, and others.
1. Reclamation of land-United States-Congresses.
2. Strip mining-Environmental aspects—United
States-Congresses. 3. Sewage as fertilizer-United
States—Congresses. 4. Sewage sludge as fertilizer
-United States-Congresses. 5. Revegetation—
United States-Congresses. 6. Agriculture-United
States—Congresses. I. Sopper, William E.
II. Seaker, Eileen M. III. Bastian, Robert K.
IV. United States. Environmental Protection Agency.
Office of Water Program Operations.
S621.5.S8L36 631.6*4 82-80452
ISBN 0-271-00314-6 AACR2
Copyright © 1982 The Pennsylvania State University
All rights reserved
Typeset by Aha Arlene Barger
Printed in the United States of America
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Contents
Foreword ix
Preface xi
Program Advisory Committee xiii
I Potential Use of Sludge for Reclamation
1 The Basic Need for and Values Gained from Reclaiming
Strip-Mined and Other Disturbed Areas 1
D. R. Maneval
2 Constraints to the Use of Treated Municipal Sludge in Western
Surface Mine Reclamation 9
D. J. Snyder, III
II Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation Program
Overview 11
R. S. Madancy
3 The Potential for Using Municipal Wastewater and Sludge in Land
Reclamation and Biomass Production as an I/A Technology: An
Overview 13
R. K. Bastian, A. Montague, and T. Numbers
4 Mine Land Reclamation with Municipal Sludge - Pennsylvania's
Demonstration Program 55
W. E. Sopper and S. N. Kerr
5 Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Forest Biomass
Production on Marginal and Disturbed Land 75
S. N. Kerr and W. E. Sopper
III Philadelphia Strip Mine Reclamation Program
Overview 88
G. K. Dotson
6 Philadelphia's Sludge Management Program—A Multi-faceted
Approach 90
F. Senske and D. Garvey
7 Implementation of the Philadelphia Strip-mine Reclamation
Program in Somerset County, Pennsylvania 101
D. T. Murray and T. Giddings
8 One Alternative to Ocean Disposal of Sludge: Recycling Through
Land Reclamation 105
S. N. Kerr and W. E. Sopper
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9 i,.u:J Reclamation of Strip-mined Spoil in Pennsylvania: A
K< j^i'Utoty Agcr.c" Review 118
W. / . Pounds
InsUtut or,,:l, Legal. Economic, and Public Relations Barriers
•">."<; - ,,v "125
13. b. burma.ster
'0 i-,., nnron-il, Legal. Technical, and Economic Constraints in
T,.,r jcn ,;-;MI oi Sludge tor Li,id Application to Eastern Surface
V' I-} Mie.-, I V6
•//. P.. N>e, E. Yang, J. W. Futrell. M. Reuter, F. R. Kahn,
i. Ookirn. Mid R. O. Bardvvcll
Ir.itir'ti.u.al ^(•'isiriiints ^isd Public Participation Barriers to
'.'. n!i.' it -or. of Municipal Wastewatet and Sludge for Land
'. I ..!, 'i.al'on a'lu Bioina-s Products 158
: t iJcesv'. ]. R. Mivarcs, and S. Fogel
.'. '.!• ,- • , C ;. (i Pi;r ;..i hoi. Ore Overburden
'. . i i'.c- 'i '?,
.' Ma;, ,;:, <
. i • . \'.) . i -jev\ >,i•. Si'ul^c: Bark Sci ceilings Compost for the
l , „ !.!'. ) ,,-,... , , ^ud Mine .poil 195
1 :•.' ., ! < Pu nee, ard H. A. Mcnsir, Jr.
. o, u, .!.-.. ..:' 'V.-.i. Amended Gi ivei Spoi'b 207
'- : i1 . 1.1 • ,v. tie bflluent and Sludge to Reclaim Soil
,.<.,' .ix.tu 1 !'•• ToA'c. Fumes hoin a Zinc Smelter 219
'•v ^ i:r.r u . VI. Persinger, A. lob, and P. Inyangetor
' '''I ,/u..,i_'. .'i 'Voodv riant Species on Iron-ore Overburden
.!•._•.>! ,r-:^">,! wi;J! St.wage Effluent in Minnesota 252
,. i r<>.o'-,K^ ai'J K. N Brooks
i."".i,: 'i --^T'-S ,,t Jtilization of Sewage Sludge for Biomass
i • • • . , ^ < ; 6
C voic, >„;. ]. sioliod, U. M. Stone, C. G. Wells, W. H.
.i • d; u ., M kartell
' >* ,n icii^t f.cosystems to Sludge and Wastewater
. i -i . - A s,1 .< : Siu ;y in Western Washington 274
> a;;, '-iuilge :or Tree Seedling and Christmas Tree
:,v2
. ../I, i '.u .iiif! C. Weidcnsaul
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19 Reclamation of Acidic Stripmine Spoil with Papermill
Sludge 301
H. A. J. Hoitink and M. E. Watson
20 Sewage Sludge Aids Reclamation of Disturbed Forest Land in the
Southeast 307
C. R. Berry
21 Use of Organic Amendments for Biomass Production on Reclaimed
Strip Mines in the Southwest 317
E. F. Aldon
VII Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
Overview 321
J. Schweigert
22 Metropolitan Chicago's Fulton County Sludge Utilization
Program 322
J. R. Peterson, C. Lue-Hing, J. Gschwind, R. I. Pietz, and
D. R. Zenz
23 Effects of Chemical and Physical Changes in Strip-mined
Spoil Amended with Sewage Sludge on the Uptake of Metals
by Plants 339
T. D. Hinesly, D. E. Redborg, E. L. Ziegler, and I. H.
Rose-Innes
24 Effects of Natural Exposure of Cattle and Swine to Anaerobically
Digested Sludge 353
P. R. Fitzgerald
25 Restoration of a Woody Ecosystem on a Sludge-Amended
Devastated Mine-Site 368
P. L. Roth, G. T. Weaver, and M. Morin
26 Leachate Quality in Acid Mine-Spoil Columns and Field Plots
Treated with Municipal Sewage Sludge 386
D. H, Urie, C. K. Losche, and F. D. McBride
VIII Vegetation Establishment
Overview 399
E. H. Bryan
27 Use of Sewage Sludge to Improve Taconite Tailings as a Medium
for Plant Growth 400
J. V. Cavey and J. A. Bowles
28 The Response of Native Herbaceous Prairie Species on Iron-ore
Tailings Under Different Rates of Fertilizer and Sludge
Application 410
D. G. Morrison and J. Bardell
29 Use of Municipal Sludge in the Reclamation of Abandoned Pyrite
Mines in Virginia 421
K. R. Hinkle
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30 Vegetation Establishment on Acidic Mine Spoils as Influenced by
Sludge Application 433
F. Haghiri and P. Sutton
IIX Engineering Assessment
Overview 447
R. K. Bastian
31 Use and Treatment of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge in Land
Reclamation and Biomass Production Projects - An Engineering
Assessment 448
W. J. Jewell
32 Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Land
Reclamation and Biomass Production - An Engineering Assessment
of its Potential in the Western United States 481
L. Gene Suhr
33 Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Land
Reclamation and Biomass Production - An Engineering Assessment
of its Potential in the Eastern United States 498
H. G. Schwartz, Jr. and W. D. Lehman
List of Contributors 520
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FOREWORD
Under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 and
1977, thousands of new municipal wastewater treatment plants are being
constructed or expanded across the country to help control or prevent water
pollution. Many treatment technologies are being used in our efforts to
restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the
Nation's waters, yet most of them have one thing in common -- they produce
sludge. This increase in sludge is creating a serious management problem
for many municipalities.
Yet, managed properly, sludge can be beneficial. The application of
both municipal wastewater and sludge to the land can utilize plants and
the soil to help remove previously unwanted materials by effectively recycling
them.
Land reclamation and biomass production projects that effectively
recycle municipal wastewater or sludge can, in many cases, be designed and
operated to be both cost-effective and environmentally acceptable. In recent
years the necessary research and monitoring studies have been undertaken
to develop sound guidelines for the beneficial recycling of municipal
wastewater and sludge in land reclamation and biomass production.
Appropriate management practices have been developed to allow these
systems to be properly designed and operated from an environmental
standpoint, which also helps assure the long term productivity and protection
of the lands to which these materials are applied.
Finally, in addition to providing beneficial uses for municipal
wastewater and sludge, these projects provide the added opportunity to help
deal with the serious erosion and water quality problems that can result
from unproductive and poor textured soils as well as surface mining, clear
cutting, construction, dredge spoils disposal and other activities that can
seriously disturb the land.
Existing regulations, criteria and guidelines and those being developed
under the authorities of the Clean Water Act, the Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act and other recent environmental legislation will provide
the necessary mechanisms to properly control land reclamation and biomass
production uses of municipal wastewater and sludge, so that human health
can be fully protected.
Recycling the soil-building and nutrient resources in municipal
wastewater and sludge by utilization in land reclamation and biomass
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production projects have been well demonstrated and documented as shown
by this volume. I sincerely hope it will lead to an increase in such uses
in the future.
Douglas M. Costle
Administrator
United States Environmental
Protection Agency
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PREFACE
To meet the increasing demand for energy, • ,:nicip.ue.i I!M; e : .' .
activities will be greatly accelerated. Most <>t the coal \vill h< ifcove.
strip mining methods that have increased concerns -eiau d to the > c •, U
of these disturbed lands. New reclamation regulat'ons -long with ind
costs of chemical fertilizer have resulted r ,>n ip'-'v-c it iri'!'••,'
use of municipal wastewater and sludge ,ss liriih'tr , I'l^Munc >\
amendments to facilitate the establishment »i • g'ti';.ii -. '.
drastically disturbed lands. The purpose ot tin symposium was fo
and discuss the current knowledge related to •.;' i '*,\
wastewater and sludge for revegetation and oim,i,i-, >•> • :.!,' ,'i .;
of disturbed land. The symposium was ais;. (Jcsij-."-.1 ' -••"! - .'•
for an engineering assessment, which would ad.lu^-- !•.<>.-,• ;",)>
innovative and alternative wastewater and sludij t'nt". ••' •',,!"!••'
Many types of research and full-scale cp. : '
use of municipal wastewater and sluiige in the rc
biomass production, the problems faced \\"''
institutional constraints and recommendations (>"«
as well as the reactions of local. State, and } euei '
were described in thf symposium presentations.
summarized the available engineering criteria and u
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Resources; Water Department, City of Philadelphia and Modern-Earthline
Companies. Partial financial support was provided under U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency Grant No. CR807408010 under Project Officer, G.
Kenneth Dotson, Wastewater Research Division, Municipal Environmental
Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio.
We would like to extend our appreciation to Sonja N. Kerr, The
Pennsylvania State University and Allison Duryee, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency for their assistance in the compilation of this proceedings.
William E. Sopper
Robert K. Bastian
Symposium Co-Directors
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PROGRAM ADVISORY COMMITTEE
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Robert Bastian — Office of Water Program Operations
G. Kenneth Dotson — Office of Research and Development
U. S. Department of Interior
Robert Madancy - Office of Water Research and Technology
Richard Nalbandian -- Office of Abandoned Mine Land
Jerry Schweigert — Office of Abandoned Mine Land
William Mason - U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service
U. S. Department of Agriculture
Peter Smith — Office of Environmental Quality
James O. Evans - Forest Environment Research, United States Forest
Service
U. S. Department of Energy
Leon Lehr - Community System Technology Branch
Robin Farrow -- Biomass Energy Systems Division
Council on Environmental Quality
David Burmaster
National Science Foundation
Edward H. Bryan -- Appropriate Technology Program
Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources
James Snyder - Bureau of Solid Waste Management
William Pounds — Bureau of Solid Waste Management
City of Philadelphia
Steven Townsend — Water Department
Modern-Earthline Companies
Douglas T. Murray
The Pennsylvania State University
William E. Sopper -- Institute for Research on Land and Water Resources
Sonja N. Kerr - Institute for Research on Land and Water Resources
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/ POTENTIAL USE OF SLUDGE
FOR RECLAMATION
1
THE BASIC NEED FOR AND VALUES GAINED FROM
RECLAIMING STRIP-MINED AND OTHER
DISTURBED AREAS
David R. Maneval
During the 1960s and 1970s there was continual agitation in the U.S.
Congress for the enactment of a surface mining act which would regulate
the coal mining industry. It was the view of the Congress that the air
pollution, water pollution, and land devastation associated with the surface
effects of coal mining were not necessary but could be brought under control
as they had been in several of the individual States. Part of President Carter's
platform in the fall of 1976 was the enactment of surface mining legislation.
In the summer of 1977 Congress passed the Surface Mining Control and
Reclamation Act, and on August 3, 1977, it was signed into law as P.L.
95-87 by the President. This was accomplished by growing public support
for the concept that surface mining could be controlled and the industry
could still make a reasonable profit. The Act also called for the establishment
of the Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (now known
informally as OSM) in the Department of the Interior. In this paper I will
discuss some of the adverse effects of surface mining which brought about
the Act.
Many surface mining operations resulted in disturbance of surface areas
that burden and adversely affect Congress and the public welfare by
destroying or diminishing the utility of land for commercial, industrial,
residential, recreational, agricultural, and forestry purposes, by causing
erosion and landslides, by contributing to floods, by polluting the water,
by destroying fish and wildlife habitats, by impairing natural beauty, by
damaging the property of citizens, by creating hazards to life and property,
by degrading the quality of life in local communities, and by counteracting
governmental programs and efforts to conserve soil, water, and other natural
resources. This, in part, is one of the findings of Congress in the statement
of purpose for passing the Act.
Experience in many States, in particular the State of Pennsylvania, has
shown that surface mining can be regulated and operators can comply with
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2 Sludge Reclamation Potential
the regulations while at the same time making a fair and reasonable profit.
In this paper I will discuss Pennsylvania's experience which led to the passage
of landmark legislation in that State in the 1960's and OSM's experience
to date with the interim regulatory program. I will also discuss our perception
of the values to be gained from the reclaiming of strip mine areas as well
as the surface effects of underground mining.
Introduction
During the 1940s and 1950s, there was awareness in some States that surface
mining was increasing in popularity. More and more coal was being mined
by this method. In a typical State like Tennessee, in 1955, about 20% of
the production was from surface mining. In contrast, today about 80% is
from surface mining. The trend in many States, dictated by the location
of the coal deposits and market conditions, has been to go to surface mining.
At the same time that surface mining was increasing in popularity, there
was a realization in some quarters that this was not an unmixed blessing.
It was found that there were problems associated with it.
My home State of Pennsylvania was at the leading edge of the public
effort to control the problems associated with surface mining of coal, and
laws were passed by the State legislature to bring the growing surface mining
industry into compliance with regulatory controls so that the environment
would not be damaged forever. I will summarize the evolution of the surface
mining regulatory program in Pennsylvania.
The first regulation of surface mining in Pennsylvania was the
requirement, in 1941, that mined areas be revegetated with trees. During
World War II, regulations' were pretty much suspended, as the primary
emphasis was understandably on production. Some outcrop and
slope-reduction requirements were passed in the 1950s and early 1960s.
Probably the landmark piece of legislation was passed in 1963, making
highwalls illegal-all highwalls had to be covered. Some States are struggling
even now to pass similar legislation, 17 years after the law was passed in
Pennsylvania.
Another result of the 1963 legislation was that mine operators were
required to have a mining license to mine in Pennsylvania, just as a driver's
license is needed to drive.
I was part of the State of Pennsylvania government during that era.
We had marches on Harrisburg and saw busloads of mine operators and
workers who thought these laws, while nice for the environmentalists, would
be the death knell for the industry. What really happened in Pennsylvania
after the "landmark" law was passed?
The first year after the law was passed, the number of licensed operators
dropped from 300 to 125. People said, "Aha! We told you so!" But in
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Manevai 3
fact what really happened was that many of the small operators consolidated;
a number of companies would band together to do the preplanning and
hire the professional engineers needed to comply with the new regulations,
The plea was also made that there would be a serious drop in
employment. However, in the years 1964-68, the employment in the surface
coal mining industry remained nearly level, at 5,900. Because of marker
conditions, and not because of the regulations, there was a drop in
employment in 1969, but then employment rose through 1975, to 8,100.
As you can see, employment rose in that 11-year period.
What did the law do to production? Again, in the years 1964-68, ther"
was virtually no drop in production with the imposition of the regulations
that required that the mined land be returned to original contour; it stayed
at about 24 million tons per year. As with employment, 1969 was the low
spot because of market conditions, and production dropped to about 20.5
million tons per year. However, it had recovered by 1975, and production
was up to 37 million tons per year.
What are the conditions in this typical case State, Pennsylvania, that
we are examining? About 25% of the mining is on slopes of less than 12 ,
58% is on slopes of 12 -20 , and 17% is on slopes of more than 20 . So
the State has a typical array of flat, rolling, and steep terrain. Docs
Pennsylvania have only big operators? No. The State, again in 1975, h^d
545 operators, half of whom produced less than 25,000 tons per year. Only
4? operators produced more than 200,000 tons per year.
Most surface mining in this country is area mining on flat terrain,
contour mining on rolling terrain, and steep-slope mining on steep terrain,
as it is in Pennsylvania. During this period there were interested observers
looking over the fence. These were concerned people in other States and
also in the U.S. Congress. They looked at Pennsylvania and said, "If this
State can do it and bring this growing form of coal production under control,
why should neighboring States be at a competitive advantage because they
don't require many of these same environmental controls?" That was their
concern.
With proof that surface mining could be controlled, Congress, through
a slow, evolutionary process, finally in 1975 passed a surface mining control
act. It was vetoed by President Ford. Part of President Carter's platform
was that if elected, and Congress enacted a surface mining act, he would
sign it. In July 1977, Congress passed the Surface Mining Control ?nd
Reclamation Act of 1977, and on August 3, 1977, it was signed into law
as Public Law 95-87 by the President. This was accomplished by growing
public support for the notion that surface mining could be controlled and
industry could still make a reasonable profit. The Act also called for
establishment of the Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement,
now known informally as the Office of Surface Mining or OSM in the U.S.
Department of the Interior, to carry out the requirements of the Act.
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• 1'id^e Reclamation Potential
:.•.;.!-;' Regulatory Program
• < i I lie vcars many States had various degrees of surface mining regulation,
it ,r:')>t had not passed legislation to bring surface mining under adequate
• vitroi. Ohio, Maryland, West Virginia, and some other States had, of their
' •?. r . ulirion, passed legislation to control many of the problems after
. !- •!•• i.ig the results in Pennsylvania, but this left those States at a
Competitive disadvantage with the States that had not passed similar
• :,;i'-;.'"KH>, According lo the commerce clause of the Constitution, a State
•. -il not be nut at a competitive advantage, or disadvantage, relative to its
••-; 'nb..r',. Therefore, the intent of the Act was for it to have a leveling
•luo'i'o, -o that each ton of coal would be produced according to the
.:itv .i' ri-innance standards.
">n(-»ic^s knowing that some of the regulations would have virtually
ii'. unn-ict on some States and would be very unsettling in many other States.
i ''.Dicier] to put the regulatory program in place in two stages, fir-,t as an
"iitial regulatoiy program and then as a permanent regulatory program. The
;"ir>.ii program is in effect now.
1 he initial iegulatory program was outlined through a series of proposed
recuiu' ions that were issued in September 1977 and that became final in
•.. ^-:tn\j,T 1977. These went into effect for all new coal mines in Februaiy
i 973 and foi all existing coal mines in May 1978. The items chosen by
. r>i.Lve<-s -or the initial program were those based on the immediacy of the
;:<•! i\. ,ir.d they comprise eight performance standards that cover items which,
i! n: t (nought under control or regulated, might have the laigest potential
• >' 0,1 rm to the environment and to public health and safety. These are:
.,,^pinning land use; return of mined land to approximate original contour;
I •>,>"'..'!( icnioval, including retention and spreading; protection of hyclrologic
':•• 1,-nct" disposal of spoil: use of explosives; and a pair of related regulations
" ,-'! a in!'' to steep-slope mining and mountain top removal. The initial
trof-'.n: also includes an arrangement whereby State inspectors and OSM
'Prci jrr. jointly enforce the regulatory program.
^Vrrrtanent Regulatory Program
'i\ Ivre ,ind July of 1978, OSM issued landmark preproposed regulations.
'< 'us is the first time we know of this being tried. We put out these
i 'CprupDsed regulations, in mimeograph form, to invite comment. This was
.i.jt r.'ouiiecl by any law but was an effort to get maximum public
p.i!nci,",.lion from the industry, from labor, from other government agencies,
' ;' fiom the public. As a result of the preproposed regulations, we had
,i . ,iva!,r,ichc of comments that were considered very seriously.
On September 18, 1978, we published in the Federal Register our
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formal proposed >--gul ti > .
comment period but h • • ,
extended the pi Mod '
included 2S d.i\ s ,i( |i> .»-.
of comments. PI .u i it'll ':• >•
and I was responsible ' •. -i- .
to the proposed • p. s
In January of I1)?') -A-,'
and on March 13 19''° !!"•
of you who havi no' i • •
the documeiK
your local distntl (Ni; •
regulations jre t.ithe' I >•:•
A lot of the ill mn,il -i • "
go about ')br,i'!iinj: -i-'
The core oi th< :n. ' :
requirements, s'ibtii.'i . r
K which flea's wi:!i ii,
mines.
Accompanying rli • i .
You don't ha-, e t > : a. ' -
is the preaniK'<-. ano
this tells you wh, t \- •
the usual int: ocii , ::
analysis >< how \\ • ' i ,;'
make chat;g"s .»s .. r
long comiiu-n! ;H-; ,
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6 8'uclge Reclamation Potential
p/oductivity. Then, stratum by stratum, the mining will basically exfoliate
the layers. First the A horizon is taken off and stored separately, then the
H horizon, then the C horizon. After the coal has been removed and the
toxic materials buried, the overburden materials are returned to the pit in
th' samf order in which they came out. The mine operator must be careful
in the replacement of these materials so that there is no undue compaction
that will preclude the restoration of the resulting farmland to its original
pruductivitv
The mining of alluvial valley floors is very much of a problem in the
W,1:.!. !n many areas the way that water travels from mountain slope A
to rown 3 in the valley is by transfer of water through an aquifer that
mai also be the coal bed to be mined. Consequently, the disturbance of
alluvial valley floors is carefully regulated. If an operator has a Federal coal
lease on in alluvial valley floor and there is no way to do the mining without
disturbing the aquifer, the Federal government may trade one block of the
coal reserves on the alluvial valley floor for a nearby one which does not
h.iv-'; the geomorphological function of the alluvial valley floor.
Certain lands designated by Congress cannot be disturbed, or a State
m?y find an area "unsuitable for mining." If there is absolutely no way
to mine an area and then restore it properly, it is possible through a series
of steps to declare that land as unsuitable for mining.
Fish and wildlife need protection during mining. This includes buffer
zones near streams that have aquatic flora and fauna.
Protection of clean water must be assured, and this includes
requirements for protection of wells. EPA's water-quality guidelines are
inrludeii by reference.
Blast ng lequirements are based on data from the Bureau of Mines.
Fo; ireas where, because of the swell factor, excess spoil will have
tc be disposed of, there are requirements concerning head-of-hollow and
ey fills. These large structures must be built in a stable manner so that
/ \.ii! not be subject to sliding.
Si.-me of the requirements that will have an impact on underground
mining are the control of subsidence damage, quality of discharged water,
and gravity discharge from underground mines. The regulations will also
control the demolition and reclamation of offsite preparation plants including
black-water clarification ponds and settling facilities.
Roads at mines are also covered, by a three-class road system that is
very similar to that used for other purposes in many States. The requirements
are based on the lifetime and use of the roads. If a road is going to be
used for exploration, the requirements are minimal; if it is going to be used
by loaded coal trucks for the next 5 years, the requirements won't be too
much different than for some other heavy-duty roads.
Revegetation requirements are related to the terrain. They are somewhat
different :or the East than for the West. One of the major problems in
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Maneval 7
mining in the West is the combination of low rainfall and use of rangeland
for grazing. Generally revegetation must be suitable for the proposed
postmining land use.
In connection with this conference you may be interested in the OSM
view of the use of sludge-derived fertilizers and soil conditioners.
We have reviewed the material in the preproposal draft regulation which
was announced by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the
Federal Register of May 7, 1980. We understand the problems which are
discussed in this document and would like to provide for your consideration
our views as follows:
1. The "governmental use" of sludge is probably not acceptable
as a part of our abandoned mine land reclamation projects. Our
difficulty with the utilization or acceptance of this sludge on our
abandoned mine land project areas is that the candidate areas for our
AML funds are not necessarily public lands. As a matter of fact, very
few of the lands which will be repaired and restored under Title IV
of Public Law 95-87 are public lands. The vast majority of them are
private property. Inasmuch as we do not have control of such private
lands, we could not assure ourselves or EPA that sludge use on such
AML sites would not, at some future time, be used for "food chain
production."
2. This agency would have no objection to the use of the
"unrestricted sludges" or sludge-derived products in either active or
abandoned mine reclamation projects. However, we merely require that
a mine operator comply with our regulations in his or her revegetation
efforts. This most often includes, after proper application of topsoils,
the utilization of soil amendments and lime and mulch. It is the
operator's option whether or not to comply with our requirements by
utilization of an "unrestricted sludge" or "sludge product" in complying
with our regulations. We could not require an operator to utilize such
materials rather than commercial fertilizer and commercial mulch.
3. Because of the potential of solubilization or resolubilization of
heavy metals or other organically toxic materials, in all instances we
must be assured that "restricted or governmental use" sludges not be
disposed of in active mine reclamation projects or be disposed of in
abandoned coal mines.
Current Status of State Programs
The permanent regulations serve as a model to the States who, since March
13, 1979, have been comparing their current regulations with OSM's
regulations and making adjustments if necessary. Many States will have to
go back to their legislatures for new regulatory authority, as agencies can
-------
8 Sludge Reclamation Potential
write regulations only if there is a law that gives them such powers. Section
731.13 of the Federal regulations is a so-called "State window" which, as
we have been admonished by the Congress, will allow a State to propose
alternatives to our regulations in order to tailor its program to fit the various
kinds of topography, terrain, climate, etc., of the State. It would be a little
ridiculous to require that Maryland, for instance, prepare a whole set of
regulations on mining in alluvial valley floors since it doesn't have any. Nor
will we be requiring the State of Iowa to prepare regulations on mountaintop
removal, because they don't have any mountains.
The States have generally completed the process of reviewing their own
regulations and comparing them with OSM's permanent regulations. OSM
has, done a side-by-side comparison to see if the regulations are comparable
to our permanent regulations.
The Secretary of the Interior is making decisions in September as to
which programs are approvable. State programs not approved can be
resubmkted and reconsidered. A second round of decisions will be made
in January 1981 on resubrnitted State plans.
Conclusions
These, then, are the highlights of how the Act came into being, the two-tier
system tiat the Congress built into it, with an initial regulatory program
and then a permanent regulatory program, and some of the major technical
components of the regulations. States have the opportunity to continue to
inn their own programs. After the State programs have been designed,
presentee, and approved, financial aid is available to the States from this
Act and from the Congress to help them improve their staffs, getting them
up to a reasonable level, provide in-service training for their people, provide
instrumentation and other monitoring devices, and to just assist the programs
overall.
To quote directly from PL-95-87 (Section 101.(c)), the Congress found
that many surface mining operations result in disturbances of surface areas
that burden and adversely affect commerce and the public welfare by
destroying or diminishing the utility of land for commercial, industrial,
residential, recreational, agricultural, and forestry purposes, by causing
erosion and landslides, by contributing to floods, by polluting the water,
by destroying fish and wildlife habitats, by impairing natural beauty, by
damaging the property of citizens, by creating hazards dangerous to life and
property by degrading the quality of life in local communities, and by
counteracting governmental programs and efforts to conserve soil, water, and
other natural resources.
The mission of OSM is to end and reverse these problems while assuring
the continued production of coal. This, then, is the basic need and value
to be gained from reclaiming strip-mined land.
-------
2
CONSTRAINTS TO THE USE OF TREATED MUNICIPAL
SLUDGE IN WESTERN SURFACE MINE RECLAMATION
Daniel J. Snyder, III
Western surface mines in the Powder River Basin are expected to play a
growing role in our national energy picture between now and the year 2000.
According to the recently published report of the World Coal Study entitled,
"Coal: Bridge to the Future," U.S. coal productions will have to triple by
1995 to meet U.S. and free world energy demand. Since eastern production
comes largely from high cost underground operations, much of this additional
demand must be met by expanding the western surface mining industry.
The Surface Mining and Reclamation Act of 1977 required the use
of the best available land reclamation practices. The arid climate in many
western states plus generally poor soil conditions presents a real challenge
to western surface mine operators. Most large operators now maintain a
professional staff of soil scientists. The reclamation of mined lands can un-
accomplished only at substantial cost. These costs are passed on to consumers
in the form of higher prices and utility rates. According to other industry-
sources, reclamation costs are now approaching 25 percent of the FOB mine
price of the coal. Any savings in reclamation costs will immediately be passed
through to the consumer in the present highly competitive steam coal market.
Western states acted long before the passage of the Surface Mining and
Reclamation Act to require good land reclamation practices. Westerners have
a strong attachment to their land and are willing to support energy
development only so long as it does not do lasting harm to agricultural,
grazing, and recreational activities. In several western states the reclamation
requirements are even more stringent than those being enforced by the
Federal Office of Surface Mining.
The deeply felt western concern for maintaining a high quality
environment can serve to either encourage or retard the use of municipal
sludge in reclamation activities. In some cases the use of sludge as a fertiii/et
and bulking agent could serve to increase the productivity of marginal grazing
and forage crop areas. This would be welcomed by western environmental
interests. More difficult to assess is the likely western reaction to bringing
treated municipal sludge from urban areas into rural western mining regions.
Public education and understanding will be critical.
I want to now leave this more general discussion of the future of western
mining as it relates to western public attitudes, and discuss some specific
cost and attitude factors associated with a real surface mining operation.
Westmoreland Resources is 60 percent ov/ned by the Westmoreland Coal
Company. The other owners are Morrison and Knudsen and Penn Virginia.
This company operates a large surface mine on the Crow Indian reservation
-------
10 Sludge Reclamation Potential
about 30 miles South of Hardin, Montana. The lease from the Crow Indian
Tribe contains in excess of 500 million tons of coal. The mine is presently
producing 5 3 million tons per year. This coal is shipped to midwestern
utilities in unit trains (10,000 tons per train). The mine has the online
capacity to produce 11 million tons per year when market conditions
warrant.
Two thick seams of coal are mined at a roughly 4 to 1 coal to
overburden ratio. Two large draglines (110 cubic yard) are utilized to remove
the overburden. The top 3 feet of soil is segregated. The coal is blasted
and loaded on trucks for shipment to the storage barn and train load out.
Overburden is replaced and the topsoil is put back in place.
The sparse rainfall and predominant soil conditions in the area of the
mine present substantial reclamation problems. A nitrogen and phosphate
fertilizer with an analysis of 25-25-0 is presently applied to the top soil.
This fertilizer costs $248/ton. It is applied at a rate of approximately 125
pounds per acre. The major reason for this application of fertilizer is to
stimulate the quick growth of vegetative cover for erosion control.
Northern Great Plains soils are predominantly alkaline. This would serve
to mobilize the trace metals but make the use of a liquid lime sludge most
undesirable. The addition of soluble salts would also be highly detrimental
since precipitation is not sufficient to wash such salts from the soil.
Substantial transportation economics could be realized by shipping
treated sludge back from the midwest in empty unit trains. Mining operations
would have to have the ability to unload these rail cars quickly, clean them,
and fill them with coal for their return trip. Compost or treated sludge
would have to be utilized to avoid activity from transportation corridor
residents. This two-way unit train traffic would do a great deal for railroad
economics, since the return haul from the power plant is now a total loss.
In summary, treated sludge can be used to reclaim western surface
mined lands if proper scientific evaluation is done, and if the public can
be made to understand and support the effort. Savings in fertilizer and
transportation costs will be passed on to consumers because of the highly
competitive coal market. This would be welcome news in today's high energy
price economy.
-------
II / PENNSYLVANIA MINE RECLAMATION
PROGRAM
OVERVIEW
Robert S. Madancy
The papers presented in Section II clearly indicate that municipal wastewaters
and sludges can be considered as valuable resources rather than waste
materials. The paper by Bastian, Montague, and Numbers and the ones by
Sopper and Kerr describe the use of wastewater and sludges in biomdss
production and land reclamation. The conventional outlook in the past has
been to consider only the costs involved in disposing of these materials
without examining the benefits that could be derived from their beneficial
reclamation and reuse. Reuse and recycling of wastewaters has generally been
considered to be of practical value primarily in the water-short western and
southern areas of the United States. The papers presented in this session
indicate that reuse of these resources can also have significant economic
and environmental value in northeastern states that have generally hsc-
considered to be "water-surplus" areas. One of the wastewater use
applications, that of biomass production, offers a cost competitive method
of not only reducing water pollution but incieasing energy production by
using both the water and its nutrient constituents. Other applications sach
as revegetation of strip mined and other marginal lands indicate ru,;|Oi
potential for using a waste product from one location to prevent Wdter
quality degradation at another site while restoring the land for future
beneficial use.
Water reuse research and development programs of the Office ot
Research and Technology and the Environmental Protection Agency have
been working on new methods and techniques for reclaiming wastewaters
to augment existing water supplies and reduce pollutant loads to suifa^t
waters. Many municipalities and universities throughout the United Srate.-,
have also been involved in significant efforts for utilization of wasievvjters
and sludges. The mine reclamation project described by Sopper is an excellent
example of the practical results that can be obtained in cooperative efforts
by local government and universities. It is particularly appropriate that The
Pennsylvania State University has been involved in this landmark project
since most of the current efforts in land application of municipal wastewaceis
have emanated from the pioneering research in this field conducted by Penn
-------
1 2 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
State in the 1960s.
The papers presented at this session and others during the symposium
indicate thai: reclamation and beneficial reuse of wastewaters and sludges
are now progressing well beyond the research stage in many instances and
show major promise and potential for future large-scale applications
throughout the United States.
-------
3
THE POTENTIAL FOR USING MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER
AND SLUDGE IN LAND RECLAMATION AND BIOMASS
PRODUCTION AS AN I/A TECHNOLOGY:
AN OVERVIEW
Robert K. Bastian, Albert Montague, and Thomas Numbers
Millions of acres of disturbed lands and unproductive areas exist throughout
the United States that cry out for reclamation or improvement. Ar the saim
time, municipalities across the country are faced with the problem-., ot
managing the treatment and disposal of ever growing volumes of municipal
wastewater and sludge that contain the very nutrients and soil building
properties needed to help improve these areas.
Various approaches for utilizing municipal wastewater and sludge iu
land reclamation and biomass production projects have been cle.ul/
demonstrated as effective means of treating and recycling these "wastes'
as valuable resources. They also have been shown to help alleviate soir.c
of the serious water quality, erosion and low productivity probL'im
associated with areas such as abandoned snip mine spoils, mine >,>;.hng'..
dredge spoils, quarries, borrow pits, clear cut foiests, construction site^, cti .
while producing biomass that tan be converted to energy or used for '>f!ni
purposes.
Many reuse and disposal alternatives for managing rnunic'.pal wastev,-,,r- .
and sludge are being greatly limited due to increasing fuel and other operating
costs as well as local. State and Federal regulations or other restriction^
At the same time methods have been developed and demonstrated fo,
beneficially recycling these misplaced resources in the reclamation.
stabih/ation and icvegetation of various types of disturbed and unproductive
areas that appear to be both environmentally acceptable and cost competitive
with conventional means of dealing with land reclamation and wast'
management problems. These practices should be seriously considered a
innovative and alternative 'I'A; technologies for municipal waste* .tie.
treatment and sludge management which are eligible tor inc leased levei- ot
Federal funding and other support through FPA's construction 5,1 HT-
program.
Introduction
Due to their wide acceptance by the engineering community and publu
health officials, conventional wastewater treatment practices (espccull.
activated sludge and trickling filter facilities) followed by the discharge o'
treated effluents into surface waters, have served as the major technologic
-------
14 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
used for treating municipal wastewater in an effort to meet the requirements
of both Federal and State water pollution control laws. Incineration,
landfilling, land application, lagooning and ocean disposal practices and
associated treatment processes have been widely used to treat and dispose
of the sludges resulting from these conventional wastewater treatment
practices.
However, many of these same widely accepted, conventional wastewater
treatment and sludge management technologies depend heavily upon the use
of large amounts of energy as well as sophisticated equipment, chemicals
and skilled labor. In addition, new regulatory requirements have greatly
constrained the use of certain waste management practices (e.g., ocean
disposal, incineration and land disposal of sludge) and have led many
communities and their consultants to begin seriously looking for more
innovative and efficient ways to manage municipal wastes.
Many communities have given serious consideration to various high
technology solutions, including waste-to-energy projects, in hopes of solving
their waste management problems in a way that could lead to both energy
recovery and cost savings in the long run. However, many problems have
been associated with implementing such high technology projects, including
the need for large capital investments and skilled labor, high O&M
requirements and costs, as well as siting problems, indebtedness associated
with existing facilities, and difficulties in gaining local public acceptance and
regulatory agency approvals of new technologies. These and other problems
have led many communities and their consultants to reject the use of
innovative waste management concepts and to continue their use of the more
widely accepted, conventional treatment and disposal practices incorporating
where possible improvements that save energy, lower O&M costs, and
improve overall system efficiency and treatment performance.
In response to the dramatic cost increases for energy, raw materials,
construction, and labor some enterprising communities and their consultants
are seriously re-evaluating the potential role of more self-sufficient, managed
natural ecosystems as a part of municipal wastewater treatment and sludge
management systems. A few imaginative individuals have been striving to
develop innovative wastewater treatment and sludge management practices,
including techniques that harness natural biological processes, to help treat
municipal wastewater and sludge in a more cost-effective and energy efficient
manner while effectively recycling or reusing municipal wastewater or sludge
and their constituents. While more land intensive, such natural biological
recycle/reuse systems frequently cost less to operate, require less
sophisticated equipment and operators, and use less energy and
non-renewable resources. The management of such natural biological
processes also provides an opportunity to enhance the environment by
helping to improve disturbed or impoverished soils, increase soil productivity,
wildlife production and habitat availability, create new recreation
-------
Bastian, Montague, and
Table 3-1. Status of Major Treatment Process at Municipal Wastewater Treatment
Facilities.3
Treatment Processes
Primary Sedimentation
Trickling Filters
Activated Sludge
Land Treatment
Ponds
Oxidation Ditch
BioOisc (RBC)
Microstrainers
Now
No.
5,736
2,863
7,670
488
7,263
337
71
95
in Use Under Construction
MGD -'' No CGD -''
20,856 278 918
4,514 8b ?'«\
24,912 %2 t,95U
583 56 55
4,581 476 94,
131 K5 r?
74 8b ?t •
976 it Jo
a/ Based on 1978 Needs Survey (1) resales, results of the 198u Nee^s Surv>,
update should be available by early 1981.
b/ Projected design flow of wastewater treatment plants usinq each
treatment process.
opportunities, and produce biomass for use as soil amendments, animal (< < d:.
alternative energy sources, etc.
Municipal Wastewater and Sludge Production,
Characteristics, and Disposal Practices
Over 25 billion gallons of domestic and industrial wastes ate discharged oail-
into the Nation's municipal sewers by some 144 million Americans and t*
least 87,000 industrial contributors serviced through centralized wastevv.suv
collection and treatment facilities. The treatment of these wastes cutteiitlv
produces nearly 7 million dry tons of processed sludge, as well as tn-aled
wastewater for reuse or disposal. In addition, it is estimated that nearly
700,000 dry tons of septage are produced annually from the septic tank
which treat wastes from about 25% of the U.S. homes.
The 1978 Needs Survey (1) identified over 14,500 existing publk'1
owned and operated wastewater treatment works (POTWs'; mo><. than 8i!" ,
of these POTWs treat flows less than 1 mgd while fewer than 350 tn;:t
flows more than 10 mgd. Over 7,000 of the POTWs consist simply of
wastewater treatment ponds while some of the others involve ratlur
sophisticated treatment processes (Table 3-1).
Only a small percentage (about 2.3%) of the entire volume of municipal
wastewater is currently being directly applied to the land via land treatmerf
-------
.1* if ip.il Was tewater Treatment
. '. ij .liscli.irged trom
lor disposal and/or
'. dt •• pioduced is applied
•• 'in or another and the
:• i !.c oxtail !Table-> 3-2
jiiu i>' nod , of time in
• / ^,.s ,,!(> applied to the
,i'.-!>^\ scheduled to be
.» i.,': '^ !r,ai'd,,re and the
. i- '.' s been decreasing
. .' iih 'i;c development
u'Or ajd landfilling
, - J.-titig !uel prices have
:,. iii ''a^jeinent practices
• i .' )•, ;>t.
1 '• -i . treated muti.cipal
-------
Bastun, Montagu..1, and Numb' r<.
Table 3-3. Estimated Quantities and Disposition of Treated Sewage Sludje in 1980.
Landfill
Inc. i nerat ion
Land Appl i cation
Sludge Lagoons
Ocean Disposal
Total
Quantity of Treated Sludge L)/
1 ,399,600
9JJ,ir>C.
1,017,900
466,500
424,100
4,241,200
Percent
< j
i"-i
p
i'j
ICO
£/ Based on data from a draft Report to Congress by EPA/0'mPO.
b/ It is estimated that more tnan a 35? volume reduction of raw siud
from 6,861,000 to 4,211,800 dry tons results from treatment, lo.'iq
term storage, etc
Table 3-4. Annual Production of Organic Wastes in the U.S.d
Organic Waste
Animal Manure
Crop residues
b/
Treated sewage sludge & Septage ~
Food Processing
Industrial organic
Logging & wood manufacturing
Municipal refuse
Total 803,152
a/ Based on data from "Improving Soils with Organic Wastes'1 by USOA, t
b/ Updated estimates provided by EPA/OWPO.
c/ In addition, EPA/OWPO estimates over 25 billion gallons per day ot
treated municipal wastewater are produced by the Nation's publicly
owned and operated wastewater treatment facilities that could be
recycled and reused as an irrigation and nutrient source.
-------
18 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
wastewater, sewage sludge, and septage offer a potentially valuable source
of nutrients, organic soil amendments and water for use in land reclamation,
and biomass production efforts. The total estimated quantities of primary
nutrients (N, P, and K) present in these materials are shown in Table 3-5.
Total reuse of the amounts of nutrients calculated as present in these organic
wastes would amount to over 13% of the nitrogen (N), 11% of the
phosphorus (P), and 12% of the potassium (K), or about $.8 billion worth
of the primary nutrients currently supplied by commercial fertilizer sources
(assuming the price of these nutrients at $300/ton for N, $800/ton for P,
and $200/ton for K). In addition, treated effluents have considerable value
as a source of irrigation water, especially in areas of limited water supplies;
borh sewage sludge and septage can be converted into excellent organic soil
amendment materials by composting or other processing; and municipal
\v.i^tcwat..r, sewage sludge and septage all contain many micronutrients in
'dition to N, P, and K.
However, a major drawback in the use of these materials as a source
of nunicnts, organic soil amendments, and irrigation water is their potential
variability in content of heavy metals, toxic organic compounds and
pathi-itTL-ns as well as nutrients and organic matter (Tables 3-6 to 3-11), which
has led to constraints being placed on certain uses. In some locations concerns
>ver possible odors or other nuisances as well as chemical or pathogen
Table 3-5. Estimated Total Amounts of Primary Plant Nutrients in Municipal
Wastewater, Sludge, and Septage.
Total nutrients — In:
Nitrogen (N)
Piosphorus (P)
Potassium (K)
Commercial
Fertilizer
Use in 1978
lOOOT/yr
10,642
2,453
4,844
Raw Waste-
water -
lOOOT/yr
1,534
275
590
Treated
Effluent
lOOOT/yr
1,012
204
572
Sewage
Sludge Septage
lOOOT/yr IQQOT/yr
399 18
72 11
18 3
a/ Based in part on data from a draft Report to Congress by EPA/OWPO and
"Improving soils with Organic Wastes" by USOA, 1978.
D' Assumes 66", total N in raw wastewater remains in treated effluent and 26%
ends up in sewage sludge, 74% total P remains in treated effluent and 26%
in sewage sludge, 97% K remains in treated effluent and 3% in sewage
s'udge.
:J Assumes 39 mg/1 nitrogen, 7 mg/1 phosphorus, 15 mg/1 potassium.
-------
Bastian, Montague, and Numbers 19
contamination of the soil, crops, surface water or groundwater have led to
difficult institutional barriers and public acceptance problems when waste
reuse and recycling projects have been proposed. Public opposition and
institutional red tape have often caused serious project delays and in some
cases resulted in projects being abandoned. Unless properly handled such
concerns can lead to the rejection of proposed recycling or reuse projects
by local or State officials. Therefore, care should be taken to assure that
the quality of municipal wastewater, sewage sludge or septage used in
beneficial reuse projects is acceptable and that good management practices
are followed when implementing such projects. Good management practices
and proper controls have been developed that will allow safe recycling of
municipal wastewater, sewage sludge and septage in many situations
Table 3-6. Typical Composition of Domestic Wastewater Before and After Treatment
(all values except settleable solids and Coliform bacteria are expressed in mg/L).
Concentration
Constituent
Solids, Total
Dissolved, total
Fixed
Volatile
Suspended, total
Fixed
Volatile
Settleable solids, ml/I
Biochemical oxygen
demand, 5-day 20 C
Total organic carbon
Chemical Oxygen demand
Nitrogen (Total as N)
Organic
Free Ammonia
Nitrates
Nitrites
Phosphorus (Total as P)
Organic
Inorganic . ,
Chlorides -'
Co^baaena,
Heavy metals .
Refractory organics —
Alkalinity (as CaCO,)
Grease
Before After After
Treatment Secondary Advanced
Range Typical Treatment Treatment
350-1200
250-850
145-525
105-325
100-350
20-75
80-275
5-20
110-400
80-290
250-1000
20-85
8-35
12-50
0-0
0-0
4-15
1-5
3-10
30-100
io5-io9
0.1-2.5
0.2-7.4
50-200
50-150
720
500
300
200
220 20 <3
55
165
10
220 20 1
160
500 80 1 0
40 30 2
15
25
0
0
8 2
3
5
50
107 20 <2
1.3 .8 <0.1
1.4 .2 <0.1
100
100
- From Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., 1979. Wastewater Engineering, Treatment
Disposal Reuse. Second edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 920 pp.
— Should be increased by the amount of domestic water supply.
- Surfactants, primarily.
-------
20 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
Table 3-7. Typical Chemical Composition of Raw and Digested Sludge.
Raw Primary Sludge
Item
Total dry solids (TS), %
Volatile solids (X of TS)
Grease and fats (ether
soluble, % of TS)
Protein (% of TS)
Nitrogen (N, % of TS)
Phosphorus (PpOj, % of TS)
Potash (K20, % of TS)
Cellulose (X of TS)
Iron (not as Sulfide)(mg/l )
Silica (Si02> °!° of TS)
PH
Alkalinity (mg/1 as CaCOj)
Organic Acids (mg/1 as HAc)
Thermal content (Btu/lb)
Range
2.0-7.0
60-80
6.0-30.0
20-30
1.5-4.0
0.8-2.8
0-1.0
8.0-15.0
2.0-4.0
15.0-20.0
5.0-8.0
500-1,500
200-2,000
6,800-10,000
Typical
4.0
65
...
25
2.5
1.6
0.4
10.0
2.5
6.0
600
500
b/
7,000 -
Digested
Range
6.0-12.0
30-60
5.0-20.0
15-20
1.6-6.0
1.5-4.0
0.0-3.0
8.0-15.0
3.0-8.0
10.0-20.0
6.5-7.5
2,500-3,500
100-500
2,700-6,800
SI udge
Typical
10.0
40.0
—
18
3.0
2.5
1.0
10.0
4.0
7.0
3,000
200
4,000
—' From Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., 1972. Wastewater Engineering, Collection
Treatment Disposal, New York: McGraw-Hill, 782 pp.
— Based on 65 percent volatile matter.
£/ Based on 40 percent volatile matter.
Table 3-8. Typical Metals in Municipal Sludges (mg/kg dry sludge).
Range
Mean
Median
Ag,
As,
B,
Ba,
Be,
Cd,
Co,
Cr,
Cu,
Hg,
Mn,
Ni,
Pb,
Sr,
Se,
V,
Zn,
Silver
Arsenic
Boron
Barium
Beryl 1 ium
Cadmium
Cobalt
Chromium
Copper
Mercury
Manganese
Nickel
Lead
Strontium
Selenium
Vanadium
Zinc
nd-960
10-50
200-1430
nd-3000
nd
nd-1100
nd-800
22-30,000
45-16,030
0.1-89
100-8800
nd-2800
80-26,000
nd-2230
10-180
nd-2100
51-28,360
225
9
430
1460
nd
87
350
1800
1250
7
1190
410
1940
440
26
510
3483
90
8
350
1300
nd
20
100
600
700
4
400
100
600
150
20
400
1800
nd = not detected
-/ From Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., 1972. Wastewater Engineering, Collection
Treatment Disposal, New York: McGraw-Hill, 782 pp.
-------
Bastian, Montague, and Numbers 21
Table 3-9. Metal Content of Digested Municipal Sludges.
Zn
Cu
Ni
Cd
Pb
Hq
Cr
Element
, ppm
, ppm
, ppm
, ppm
, ppm
, ppm
, ppm
Purely ,
Domestic -
750
250
25
5
150
2
50
Controlled c/,
Municipal
2500
1000
200
25
1000
10
100
Observed
Maximum
50,000
17,000
8,000
3,410
10,000
100
30,000
a/ From U.S. E.P.A., April 1976, Municipal Sludge Management: EPA
Construction Grants Program, An overview of the Sludge Management
Situation. EPA 430/9-76-(MCD-30).
From Chaney, R.L. and P.M. Giordano. 1976. Microelements as related
to plant deficiences and territories. In: l.f. Elliott and
F.J. Stevenson (eds) Soils for Management and Utilization of Organic
Wastes.
- Observed in sludges from newer suburban communities.
-- Typical of sludges from communities without excessive industrial
waste sources or with adequate source abatement.
Table 3-10. Variability of Cd, Cu and Ni in Eight Sewage Sludges.
Metal
Cd
Cu
Ni
Sludge
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Range
109-372
4-39
483-1,177
3-150
24-756
12-163
22-256
11-32
4,083-7,174
5,741-11,875
2,081-3,510
452-802
391-6,973
300-1,800
422-1,392
979-1,475
1,932-4,016
663-1,351
468-812
75-219
40-797
46-92
47-547
65-93
Median
mg/kg -
170
15
806
40
663
12
154
11
6,525
8,386
2,390
683
476
682
894
1,144
3,543
1,053
651
95
86
88
367
79
Mean
210
19
846
53
503
43
136
16
6,079
8,381
2,594
662
1,747
778
871
1,154
3,184
1,015
649
119
252
81
349
80
Coefficient
of Variation
**/
45
67
27
95
63
160
69
54
19
27
21
18
167
67
47
15
27
29
21
50
144
22
55
12
a/ Adapted from Sommers, L.E., D.W. Nelson and K.J. Yost. 1976.
Variable Nature of Chemical Composition of Sewage Sludges.
JEQ 5:303-306 .
]>/ Oven-dry basis.
£/ Standard deviation expressed as a percentage of the mean.
-------
22 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
Table 3-11. Characteristics of Domestic Septage.
Parameter
Total solids (TS)
Total volatile solids
% of TS
Suspended solids (SS)
Volatile suspended
solids, % of SS
5-day biochemical oxygen
demand
Total chemical oxygen
demand
Chemical oxygen demand
Total organic carbon
Total Kjeldahl nitrogen
Ammonia nitrogen
Total phosphorus
pH (units)
Grease
Linear alkyl sulfonate
Iron (Fe)
Zinc (Zn)
Aluminum (Al )
Lead (Pb)
Copper (Cu)
Manganese (Mn)
Chromium (Cr)
Nickel (Ni)
Cadmium (Cd)
Mercury (Hg)
Arsenic (As)
Selenium (Se)
Total Coliform
Fecal Coliform
Fecal Streptococci
Ps. aeruginosa
Salmonella sp.
f/
Parasites ~~
., Standard b/ .
Mean -' Deviation -' Range -'
38,800
65.1
13,014
67.0
5,000
42,850 ...
2.570-/
9,930
677
157
253 d
6.9-'
9,090
157
205
49.0
48
8.4
6.4
5.02
1.07
0.90
0.71
0.28
0.16
0.076
Typical
io7
6
10
IO6
1
10
1
23,700
11.3
6,020
9.3
4,570
36,950
_
6,990
427
120
178
-
6,530
45
184
40.2
61
12.7
8.3
6.25
0.64
0.59
2.17
0.79
0.18
0.074
Range e
-IO9
8
- 10
-io7
3
- 10
2
- 10
3,600-106,000
32-81
1,770-22,600
51-85
1,460-18,600
2,200-190,000
_
1,316-18,400
66-1,560
6-385
24-760
6.0-8.8
604-23,468
110-200
3-750
4.5-153
2-200
1.5-31
0.3-38
0.5-32
0.3-2.2
0.2-3.7
<.05-10.8
<0002-4.0
0.03-0.5
<0.02-0.3
Number of
Samples
25
22
15
15
13
37
21
9
37
25
37
25
17
3
37
38
9
5
19
38
12
34
24
35
12
13
Present
a/ From Process Design Manual for Sludge Treatment and Disposal,
September 1979(EPA 625/1-79-011) and Design Manual for Onsite
Wastewater Treatment and Disposal Systems, October 1980.
b/ Values are concentrations in mg/1, unless otherwise noted.
c/ Soluble COD is 6 percent of total COD.
A/ Median.
e/ Counts/100 ml.
f/ May include Toxacara, Asearis Lumbricoides, Trjchuris trichiura,
T.vulpis.
-------
Bastian, Montague, and Numbers 23
(2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10). At the same time the establishment and use of local
advisory groups, demonstration projects, site visits, public relations campaigns
and even compensation measures may become necessary steps in gaining and
maintaining the level of public acceptance required to allow even a well
designed and managed project to be implemented.
EPA Policy, Regulations and Guidance Impacting
Recycling of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge
by Land Application
As a result of increasing interest by Congress in addressing environmental
problems, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has been charged with
numerous mandates to deal with a wide variety of waste management
problems ranging from the control of both point and nonpoint sources of
water pollution to the management of hazardous wastes (Appendix). While
individual pieces of legislation generally have been developed to address
specific environmental problems on a media basis (air, land or water), taken
as a whole they serve as the basis for addressing waste management activities
in a comprehensive and potentially integrated manner (11).
EPA has actively encouraged the beneficial reuse of waste materials
(such as municipal wastewater, sewage sludge and septage), as mandated by
the Clean Water Act (CWA), the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
(RCRA), and other recent environmental legislation. At the same time, the
Agency has recognized that certain waste materials and waste management
practices have a greater potential for creating environmental or public health
problems. In developing guidelines and regulations to help control waste
management practices, the Agency is actively seeking to identify acceptable
levels of risk while encouraging the maximum recycling of wastes as a
resource.
Land Treatment, Reuse and Reclamation of Municipal Wastewater
In recent years EPA has placed considerable effort in developing land
treatment technologies and improving methods of recycling municipal
wastewater. Land treatment practices have become acceptable as viable
wastewater management techniques that must be considered and where
possible implemented if EPA construction grant funds are involved (12,13).
This policy has been established in an effort to encourage full implementation
of land treatment processes for treating municipal wastewater while
recovering and recycling wastewater nutrients in a beneficial manner.
There should be a great potential for incorporating land reclamation
and biomass production into the design of land treatment and reuse projects
while meeting the intent of Congress which directed EPA to encourage waste
treatment practices that result in facilities which 1) recycle potential
-------
24 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
pollutants through the production of agricultural, silvicultural and
aquacultural products; 2) reclaim wastewater; and 3) eliminate the discharge
of pollutants. Although most land treatment projects involving crop
production developed to date have focused upon the use of conventional
agricultural crops, a number of forrest irrigation systems also have been built
and are in operation. With the current increased interest in improving forestry
production through fertilization and/or irrigation practices (especially for
marginal soils), the potential beneficial use of municipal wastewater in such
practices may yet be realized.
Regulations and guidelines as well as considerable design information
are already available that can be easily applied to the design, management
and control of land treatment projects incorporating both the treatment and
utilization of municipal wastewater in various types of land reclamation and
biomass production practices. These include best practicable waste treatment
technology (BPWTT) criteria and guidelines on the maintenance of ground
water quality for land treatment systems (41 FR 6190; February 1976) and
"Alternative Waste Management Techniques for BPWTT"(EPA 430/9-75-013,
October 1975), the Process Design Manual for Land Treatment of Municipal
Wastewater (EPA 625/1-77-008, October 1977), and other materials.
Sewage Sludge Management
A number of years ago the first regulations were issued that applied directly
to the incineration and ocean disposal of sewage sludge. Recently, efforts
have been made to update these requirements and to address other sludge
management practices such as land application (2,14,15).
It is currently EPA's intention to issue comprehensive regulations on
sewage sludge management practices under the broad authority of Section
405 of CWA and other statutory authorities. "Criteria for Classification of
Solid Waste Disposal Facilities" (40 CFR Part 257) were issued on
September 13, 1979, under the joint authority of Sections 1008(a)(3) and
4004(a) of RCRA and Section 405(d) of CWA. These criteria cover land
application, landfilling and other land disposal practices (including surface
impoundments) and require a phase-out of unacceptable practices such as
"open dumps" within a five year period. Pathogen destruction requirements
and limits, on cadmium and PCB additions for sludge application to land
used for the production of food chain crops are included, but to date only
in interim final form. These requirements are expected to be finalized by
the end of 1981. Proposed regulations governing the giveaway or sale of
sludge derived products under the authority of Section 405 of Clean Water
Act are also being developed.
The Hazardous Waste Regulations (40 CFR 260-265) issued in final
form in May 1980, did not list municipal sludge as a "hazardous waste",
but also did not exclude sewage sludges which are tested and found to exhibit
the characteristics of "hazardous waste" from being controlled by these
-------
Bastian, Montague, and Numbers 25
regulations. It is planned, however, that once the comprehensive regulations
on sewage sludge management practices are issued under the authority of
Section 405 of CWA, sewage sludge will be excluded from coverage under
the general hazardous waste regulations; in this case sewage sludge that would
otherwise qualify as a hazardous waste will receive an equivalent level of
protection under the comprehensive sewage sludge regulations.
EPA has issued a number of technical bulletins and guidance documents
concerning municipal sludge management practices and has recently prepared
"A Guide to Regulations and Guidance for the Utilization and Disposal of
Municipal Sewage Sludge" (15). This "can-do" document provides a concise
outline of current EPA sludge management regulations and guidelines,
problems frequently encountered where implementing sludge utilization
projects, and guidance on dealing with these regulatory requirements and
operations problems.
EPA, continuing the work of its predecessor agencies, has been
developing environmentally acceptable methods for the management of
municipal sludge since the enactment of the first federal water pollution
control laws. The initial phase of the research program were concerned with
sludge processing and treatment alternatives and dewatering techniques, since
most disposal methods required some processing, treatment and dewatering
prior to ultimate disposal. The more recent research and demonstration
program emphasis has shifted toward the development of improved
technologies for returning sludge to the environment in an ecologically
acceptable manner. The emphasis is now and will continue to be on beneficial
utilization, e.g., land application for soil enhancement, crop production and
reclamation of disturbed lands, energy conservation and resource recovery,
as well as technology transfer efforts. The FY '80 research and demonstration
(R&D) funding for municipal sludge technology and health programs was
about $5.6 million. The current R&D program does include a series of land
reclamation projects in Pennsylvania and other land application projects, as
well as projects involving composting, thermal conversion, energy
conservation and recovery, and other sludge management practices.
Information from these and other studies has been and will continue to
be made readily available to the communities faced with municipal sludge
management problems. Also, an updated EPA Sludge Treatment and Disposal
Process Design Manual was issued in September 1979 and a special land
application manual, including coverage of land reclamation and biomass
production practices, is scheduled for completion during 1982.
The Construction Grants Program
Through the EPA construction grants program of the EPA, in partnership
with States and municipalities, the funding of municipal wastewater
treatment works has grown from a relatively small federal grants program
to become the largest public works endeavor that is specifically directed
-------
26 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
at improving the environment. Under the original federal assistance program,
for the period from 1956 to 1972, 13,764 projects totaling $14 billion in
eligible costs were provided with $5.2 billion in grants. The current program
effort, which was launched by the Federal Water Pollution Act Amendments
of 1972 (PL 92-500), has assisted over 20,000 projects costing some $33
billion with nearly $28 billion in federal grants funded for the most part
at the rate of 75 percent for eligible costs (16). Projects assisted include
the planning, design and construction of new treatment plants, upgrading
of existing treatment facilities, interceptor and collector sewers, pump
stations, corrections to infiltration/inflow and combined sewer overflow
problems, and sludge management systems.
It has been general practice for consulting engineers to rely on the
more traditional and widely utilized conventional wastewater treatment and
sludge management technologies in the construction of these facilities. The
intent of PL 92-500 and the more recent provisions of the Clean Water
Act of 1977 (PL 95-217), however, was clearly to push toward more
self-sufficient and permanent long-term solutions based upon sound
ecological reuse/recycle concepts and to encourage the technological
community to find better and less expensive ways to do the job (17,18).
In fact, Congress has actively encouraged greater use of wastewater and sludge
management practices which result in the construction of revenue producing
facilities that recycle potential sewage pollutants through the production of
agricultural, silviculture, and aquaculture products.
The I/A Program
The EPA has developed a program to implement the new provisions of the
Clean Water Act, which provide special new incentives for increased use of
innovative and alternative (I/A) technologies and methodologies to help
overcome the impediments facing increased implementation of these practices
through the construction grants program. The new provisions include
increased federal funding for design and construction of I/A projects
(increased from 75 percent to 85 percent), a 15 percent cost-effective
preference for I/A practices over least cost conventional practices, 100
percent funding to modify or replace I/A facilities should they fail, and
specific set-asides in State allotments of construction grants funds to fund
only I/A projects.
When Congress passed the Clean Water Act, specific goals were set forth
for I/A technologies and methodologies. These goals, which have been
incorporated into the EPA construction grants regulations and guidance
(19,20), focus on reclamation and reuse of wastewater and wastewater
constituents, recovery and conservation of energy, and reduction in costs
compared to existing conventional technologies.
Under its construction grants program, EPA has defined "alternative"
-------
Bastian, Montague, and Numbers 27
technologies and methodologies as proven methods which provide for
reclamation and reuse of wastewater, productive recycling of wastewater
constituents or recovery of energy. "Innovative" technologies and
methodologies have been defined as developed methods which offer an
advancement in the state-of-the-art, but which have not been fully proven
in the circumstances of their intended use. These innovative practices are
to be primarily directed at achieving increased reclamation, recycling and
recovery of wastewater, beneficial use of wastewater constituents and energy
recovery as well as cost reduction, reduction in use of resources, and other
environmental benefits.
Land Reclamation and Biomass Production Potentials
An area that has shown great promise and response as an I/A technology
is the use and treatment of municipal wastewater and sludge in land
reclamation and biomass production. A wide range of such land reclamation
and biomass production projects have been investigated and employed to
date (see Map 3-1). Such systems generally involve the reclamation,
stabilization and revegetation of areas that are causing serious non-point
water pollution and other problems. They involve the application of
wastewater or sludge to disturbed areas such as strip mine spoils, mine
tailings, dredge spoils, borrow pits and construction sites, quarries and gravel
pits, clear-cut and burned forests, as well as marginally productive forests.
Municipal sludges have even been used to stabilize shifting sand dunes (21)
and to help create near shore islands for recreation use. Studies are currently
going on to evaluate the use of sewage sludge in stabilizing certain ash covered
forest production areas near the now famous Mt. St. Helens volcano.
Such systems represent prime examples of the basic land treatment,
recycle/reuse concepts which have been strongly encouraged by Congress
and EPA. There is a great amount of research and demonstration experience
and guidance information available on various land application/recycling
practices (2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,22,23). This background along with the growing
number of successful land reclamation/biomass production demonstration
projects that have been undertaken across the country, serve as a clear
indication of the potential value and benefits to be achieved through the
thoughtful use of these "sewage wastes" as a valuable resource in land
reclamation and biomass production.
Possible Areas for Implementation
Millions of acres of disturbed lands and unproductive areas currently exist
throughout the United States. Millions more will be disturbed by mining,
forestry, construction, natural disasters, etc., in future years. Many of these
areas will require reclamation, stabilization and revegetation to help control
-------
28 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
-------
Bastian, Montague, and Numbers 29
Table 3-12. Comparison of Major Land Uses in the United States, 1969.a
(lower
Major Land Use
Agricultural
Cropland
Grassland pasture and range
Forest land grazed
Farmstead, farm roads
Total agricultural land
Non-Agricultural
Forest land not grazed
Special uses2* ' .
Miscellaneous57 ..
Mining, 1930-7F7
Total non-agricultural land
Total land area
48
States)
Land Area
Million ha
191
244
80
4
212
68
114
1
.1
.6
.1
.6
520.4
.6
.4
.6
.5
397.1
917.5
% of
20
26
8
0
23
7
12
0
Total
.8
.7
.7
.5
56
.2
.5
.4
.2
43
100.
.7
.3
.0
ay From Paone,Struthers and Johnson, 1978.
b_/ Special uses include land for development of urban areas, recreation
and wildlife, transportation networks, and public installations
and facilities.
— Miscellaneous uses include uninventoried land and areas of little
or no use such as marshes, swamps, tundra, desert, etc.
Mining areas include both surface mining (open pit, stri
dredging, and hydraulic mining) and underground mining.
runoff, soil erosion and other problems. In 1969 cropland, pasture and
range-land represented nearly 50% and forested land (both grazed and
ungrazed) over 30% of the total land area of over 2.2 billion acres (917
million ha) in the lower 48 States (Table 3-12). Overall, non-agricultural
land uses including mining, non-grazed forest land, urban development,
recreation and wildlife, transportation networks, public installations and
facilities represented over 40% of this large land area.
Prime areas where municipal wastewater and sludge could be effectively
utilized and treated as a part of land reclamation and biomass production
projects would include: surface mines, mine tailing, borrow pits, quarries.
etc.; clear cut, burned and low production forest areas; and dredge spoils,
fly ash, highway corridors, rights-of-way, construction sites, and other
disturbed lands or areas of poor productivity. These areas are located
throughout the county and for the most part are readily accessible to sources
of municipal sludges (and to a lesser extent municipal wastewater) by
available major transportation routes. Although transport costs and public
acceptance/institutional constraints can play a major role in limiting the
potential use of these materials for land reclamation and biomass production
purposes, opportunities exist to establish local demonstration projects and
backhaul arrangements to help improve public acceptance and establish
-------
30 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
cost-effective transport of municipal wastewater or sludge to strip mines,
forests, etc. Ideally, federal and State owned and controlled lands as well
as private lands could become involved in projects for treating and recycling
municipal wastewater and sludge through land reclamation and biomass
production.
The potential for tie-ins between urban areas which produce municipal
wastewater and sludge (in quantities somewhat proportional to their
population) and prime areas where these misplaced resources could be used
for land reclamation and biomass production can be envisioned by
comparison of maps in an atlas depicting urbanized areas, strip mines,
commercial forests, and government-owned or -administered lands, plus the
major transportation routes between these areas. A simple comparison of
municipal wastewater and sludge sources (i.e., the urban areas), the location
of federal lands and forests, available transportation systems, abandoned coal
mine areas and coal reserves would suggest a good potential exists for creating
projects to reuse municipal wastewater and sludge in the reclamation of
abandoned and active coal mine areas, to revegetate areas ravaged by forest
fires, and even to produce biomass on federal lands where they can be
developed in a publicly acceptable manner and demonstrated to be both
cost effective and environmentally acceptable. The possibilities for
establishing backhaul arrangements to transport sludge to active coal mine
areas also appear to be substantial.
Surface Mines, Mine Tailings, Borrow Pits, Quarries, etc.
Disturbed land can result from both surface and underground mining
practices. Mining occurs in all States and although the acreage disturbed
is a small percentage of the total national land area (Table 3-13), it is
geographically concentrated and can result in major water quality problems,
as well as physical and esthetic impacts upon the environment. The effects
of acid mine drainage, surface runoff and erosion have created serious water
pollution and land degradation problems which have contributed to the
overall economic hardships of many local mining communities, especially
after mining activities have ceased (24,25,29,30,37).
A Bureau of Mines survey revealed that the U.S. mining industry
disturbed over 3.65 million acres (1.48 million ha) in the 41 year period
between 1930-1971, while reclaiming 40% of this area (Table 3-13). In 1971
alone, 206,000 acres (83,000 ha) were mined and 163,000 acres (66,000
ha) reclaimed (2). While nearly 80% of the total area disturbed was associated
with surface mining (either excavation or overburden and refuse disposal),
95% of the area reclaimed was previously disturbed by stripmining activity.
About 13% of the area disturbed and 3% of the area reclaimed were
associated with disposal of milling and processing wastes, while areas used
for disposal of underground mine wastes accounted for 5% of the area
disturbed and less than 2% of the area reclaimed. On a commodity basis,
-------
Bastian, Montague, and Numbers 31
Table 3-13. Land Utilized and Reclaimed by the Mining Industry in the U.S., 1930-71.
~~~~ Area in ha, by type of commodity
Metals Non-Metals Fossil Fuels b/ Total
Type of
Activity Mined Reclaimed Mined Reclaimed Mined Reclaimed Mined Reclaimed
Surface mining
excavation 58,700 7,040 429,000 102,000 391,000 290,000 879,000 399,000
Overburden and
refuse disposal
from surface
mining 49,800 2,130 118,000 52,200 129,000 108,000 297,000 162,000
Subsidence and
disturbance
from underground
mining 4,940 720 1,850
Disposal of
refuse from
underground
mining 8,860 610 846
Disposal of
wastes from
milling and
processing 89,400 7,000 81,300
TOTAL£/ 212,00 17,500 631,000
40 35,600 1,620 42,400
70 67,200 8,090 76,900
9,430 12,900 2,620 184,000
104,000 635,000 410,000 1,480,000
(3.65
million
acres)
2,400
8,770
19,100
591,000
(1.46
mil 1 ion
acres)
a_/ From Paone, Struthers and Johnson, 1978.
b/ Excludes oil and gas exploration.
c_/ Data may not add to totals shown because of independent rounding.
Table 3-14. Commodities Surface Mined in 1975.a
Crude ore commodity
Clay
Phosphate rock
Sand and gravel
Stone
Copper
Iron ore
Bituminous coal
All other commodities
Millions
short tons
43
186
789
867
240
230
356
95
2,806
Recovered by
surface mining
98%
100%
100%
967.
89%
96%
55%
50%
86%
ay Data from USDA/SCS. 1977. The Status of Land Disturbed by Surface
Mining in the U.S.; Basic Statistics by State and County as of
July 1, 1977. SCS-TP-158.
-------
32 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
the Bureau of Mines study indicated the following breakdown of land used
for mining between 1930-1971:
Bituminuous Coal 40%
Sand and Gravel 18%
Stone 14%
Clay 5%
Copper 5%
Iron Ore 3%
Phosphate Rock 2%
Other Minerals 13%
The principal legislative and technical experience in reclaiming disturbed
land has centered on surface mine lands, especially lands strip mined for
coal (27.28). In 1975, surface mining accounted for about 96% of the
domestic production of non-metallic ores (29) 88% of the metallic ores,
and 55% of coal (Table 3-14). In a survey report on the status of land
disturbed by surface mining in the U.S., the Soil Conservation Service (SCS)
estimated that as of July 1, 1977, the mineral industry had disturbed over
5.7 million acres (2.3 million ha) in the U.S. (Table 3-15). This estimate
included land disturbed by all mining of subsurface resources by removing
overburden lying above natural mineral deposits, mining directly from
exposed natural mineral deposits and underground mining with significant
effects on the surface.
The 1977 SCS survey (29) of surface mined land found that there was
no legal requirement to reclaim some 2.7 million acres (1.1 million ha) of
the unreclaimed mined lands (i.e., abandoned or orphaned mine lands),
including about 1.1 million acres (.5 million ha) affected by coal mines,
(Map 3-2) 800,000 acres (320,000 ha) affected by sand and gravel mining
and another 800,000 acres (320,000 ha) affected by other types of mining.
However, acid runoff from many of the abandoned coal mines has resulted
Table 3-15. Status of Land Disturbed by Surface Mining in the United States from
January 1, 1965, to July 1, 1977.a (Thousands of acres)
Status of mined land 1965 1972 1974 1977
Land requiring
Land not requiring
2 040 6
1,147.2
2,181 2
1,823.7
2 542 7
1,876.0
3 821
1,898
fi
•>
Total land disturbed 3,187.8 4,004.9 4,418.7 5.719.E
a/ Data from USDA/SCS. 1977. The Status of Land Disturbed by Surface
"Mining in the U.S.; Basic Statistics by State and County as of
July 1, 1977. SCS-TP-158.
-------
Bastian, Montague, and Numbers 33
j
•a
a>
c
~8
-o
-------
34 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
in particularly troublesome water quality problems. Pennsylvania, Ohio,
Kentucky and Illinois each were found to have over 100,000 acres (40,000
ha) and West Virginia, Alabama and Missouri over 50,000 acres (20,000 ha)
of unreclaimed coal mine land. These same States and several others also
were found to have large acreages of coal mined land that did require
reclamation by State law. This same survey found that Florida had over
200,000 acres (80,000 ha) of unreclaimed land that had been mined for
phosphate or other commodities (Table 3-16).
Estimates of acreage and status of land disturbed by surface mining
on an annual basis apparently is not well documented. The Department of
the Interior (30), however, did estimate that 153,000 acres of land were
disturbed during 1964 by surface and strip mining, in the following
categories:
Sand and Gravel 60,000 acres 39.2%
Coal 46,000 acres 30.1%
Stone 21,000 acres 13.7%
Clay 9,000 acres 5.9%
Phosphate Rock 8,000 acres 5.9%
Other Minerals 8,000 acres 5.2%
152,000 acres 100.0%
The more recent SCS (29) attempt to depict the nationwide changes
in the status of surface mined land between 1965 and 1977 is shown in
Table 3-15. This indicates an average rate of land disturbance of over 200,000
acres (80,000 ha) per year, with only a limited acreage being reclaimed until
after 1974 when guidelines on reclamation requirements became much more
stringent in many areas.
Recent articles in the Wall Street Journal and Washington Post note
the following statistics about coal production and usage:
1. Coal currently provides 25% of the world's energy,
2. Today the U.S. gets about 19% of its energy from coal,
3. Two-thirds of the world's energy needed to fuel economic growth
over the next 20 years could be supplied by coal if production
triples and exports expand,
4. In 1947 the U.S. produced 630 million tons of coal, but by 1961
production dropped to 402 million tons due to readily available
and cheap oil; the 1973-74 Arab oil embargo triggered the 1975
coal production in the U.S. to exceed the 1947 levels,
5. By 1979 the U.S. produced 776 million tons of coal and in 1980
is projected to produce 825 million tons,
6. In 1979 there were 5,534 coal mining operations in the U.S., down
from the 8,000 in the mid-50's; a further 15% decline is expected
during 1980 as large operations become more dominant in this
industry,
7. The U.S.G.S. lists known recoverable coal reserves in the U.S. at
-------
Bastian, Montague, and Numbers 35
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38 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
-------
Bastian, Montague, and Numbers 39
a total of 225 billion tons, of which nearly three-quarters are
located on federally administered lands in the west (Map 3-3),
8. The National Coal Association claims that the U.S. currently has
an excess coal production capacity of 100 million tons and that
the total U.S. coal production could be doubled in 10 years; they
also claim that as much as 1.79 trillion tons of coal may ultimately
be recoverable in the U.S.
In conjunction with "Project Independence," the Bureau of Mines has
projected the amount of land that will be used by the surface coal mining
industry (Table 3-17) (27). In addition, future commercial scale development
of synfuels from oil shale and tar sands could result in extensive areas of
disturbance and literally mountains of residuals requiring reclamation and
stabilization in Utah, Colorado, Wyoming, California, New Mexico, Texas,
Kentucky, Alabama, and possibly other states (31). Spent shale from surface
retorting of oil shale produces about 0.9 metric tons (1 short ton) of waste
for each 159 liters (1 barrel) of oil produced. Therefore, each of the 16
million liter (100,000 barrel) per day surface retorting operations that have
been proposed for Colorado and Utah oil shale development would generate
enough spent shale to fill a canyon 600 m (~2000ft) wide, 60 m (~200ft)
deep, and 16 km (~10 mi) long each day (32)! These and other sources
of information would suggest a continuing availability of large acreages of
land disturbed by mining or mineral-processing activities where municipal
jvastewater and sludge could potentially be utilized as a part of land
•eclamation, stabilization, and revegetation efforts.
Table 3-17. Projected Regional Land Use for Coal Production from Surface Mining.3
Area in ha, by year
Region
Northern Appalachia
Southern Appalachia
Midwest
Gulf
Northern Great Plains
Rocky Mountain
Pacific Coast
TOTAL y
1975
8,000
5,500
7,200
800
400
500
600
23,000
1977
8,300
5,700
7,400
1,400
500
600
800
25,000
1980
9,400
6,800
8,300
3,900
600
600
1,200
31,000
1985
10,800
8,500
9,900
5,800
900
700
1,900
39,000
1990
14,000
10,300
11,700
7,200
1,100
900
2,200
47,000
a/ From Paone, Struthers and Johnson, 1978.
b/ Data may not add to totals because of independent rounding.
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40 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
Cleat-cut, Burned and Low Production Forest Areas
The use of wood and other forms of biomass as an alternative energy source
to replace diminishing supplies of oil and natural gas is growing in many
parts of the U.S. Past projections have shown a potential for economical
use of various forms of biomass based upon increased oil and gas prices
(34). However, a recent overview of the U.S. potentials for solar biomass
energy judged that the harvest of cropland residues for their energy value,
the use of large-scale production of electricity and synthetic fuels, and the
resubstitution of natural products for petroleum-based synthetics were not
highly appropriate directions for the U.S. to take as a whole in meeting
future energy requirements (36). This same review article, on the other hand,
did suggest that considerable opportunities exist to use biomass residues and
improved management practices to increase forest growth and production
rates in millions of acres of productive forest land.
In recent years there has been a growing interest in the potential for
increasing productivity in managed forests through fertilization, irrigation
and other more intensive tree farming practices (23,35,37). The use of
municipal wastewater and sewage sludge to help shorten wood production
cycles and increase production (especially on marginally productive soils)
as well as to revegetate and stabilize areas that have been clearcut or
devastated by forest fires could play an important role in achieving increased
forest productivity, at least in certain locations (23).
The area classified by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (29) as forest
land occupies about 662 million acres (265 million ha); over 285 million
acres (114 million ha) of federally controlled and 376 million acres (150
million ha) of non-federal forest land (Table 3-18). About 75% of the
commercial non-federal forest land is primarily under control of farmers and
other private owners (commercial forest land is forest land that produces
or can produce more than twenty cubic feet per acre per year of industrial
wood under proper management and has not been withdrawn from timber
production). Industry owns nearly 18% of this land while State, county and
municipal governments own about 8% (Table 3-19). Nearly 30% of the
noncommercial forest land is in non-federal ownership. The largest part of
this acreage is held by farmers and other private owners. There are an
estimated 4 million private owners of noncommercial forest land, with 72%
of the holdings at 500 acres or less (29,32).
Large acreages of forest are harvested or devastated by forest fires, land
slides or other natural disasters each year which require reforestation if full
production or recovery is desired within a reasonably short time. The
National Forest System, which occupies some 187 million acres (75 million
ha) and harvested well over 10 million board feet of lumber in fiscal year
1979 alone, had over 1.6 million acres (.6 million ha) in FY 79 requiring
reforestation (33). USDA/Forest Service manages a cooperative fire
protection program that currently provides fire protection for about 197
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Bastian, Montague, and Numbers 41
Table 3-18. Federal and Non-federal Forest Land in 1977, By Regions, Subregions,
and States.3
North
Northeast
Connecticut
Del awdre
Maine
Maryl and
Massachusetts
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New York
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
Vermont . .
West Virginia
Total
North Central
111 inois
Indiana
Iowa
Michigan
Minnesota
Mi ssouri
Ohio
Wi scons in
Total
Total for North
South
Southeast
Fl orida
Georgia
North Carol ina
South Carol ina
Virginia
Total
South Central
Al abama
Kentucky
Loui s iana
Mississippi
Okl ahoma
Tennessee ...
Total
Total for South
Federal
2
5
228
155
60
694
94
200
557
7
275
964
3,241
340
364
26
3,358
2,980
1,414
206
1,642
10,330
13,571
2,319
1,498
1,825
757
2,081
8,480
840
2,661
936
740
1,299
323
1,061
807
8,667
17,147
Non-federal
(1,000 acres)
1,418
360
16,520
2,160
2,756
3,976
1 967
15,445
14,349
303
3,931
9,805
72,990
3,026
3,533
1,483
15,322
13,807
10,829
5,860
13, '52
67,112
140,102
12,146
21,567
16,818
10,770
13S237
74,538
19,792
14,069
10,645
12,594
14,416
4,933
11,639
9,240
97,328
171,866
Total
1,420
365
16,748
2 315
2,816
4,670
2 061
15,645
14,906
310
4,206
10,769
76,231
3,366
3,897
1,509
18,680
16,787
12,24?
6,066
14,894
77,442
153,673
14,465
23,065
18,643
11,527
15,318
83,018
20,632
16,730
11,581
13,334
15,715
5,256
12,700
10,047
105,995
189,013
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42 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
Table 3-18. (Continued)
Federal
Non-federal
Total
Rocky Mountain and Great Plains
Great Plains
Kansas 786
Nebraska 45
North Dakota 35
South Dakota 1,057
Total 1,208
Rocky Mountains
Arizona 9,853
Colorado 14,961
Idaho 16,978
Montana 16,324
Nevada 5,352
New Mexico 10,559
Utah 11,446
Wyoming 8,523
Total 93,996
Total for Rocky Mountain
and Great Plains 95,204
Pacific Coast
Pacific Northwest
Alaska 112,245
Oregon 18,698
Washington 9,474
Total 140,417
Pacific Southwest
California 18,819
Hawai i 0
Total 18,819
Total for Pacific Coast... 159,236
Caribbean, 28
Total for United States and
Caribbean 285,186
(1,000 acres)
857
439
368
333
1,926
1,804
3,343
4,229
6,343
229
3,426
1,066
1,163
21,603
23,529
6,900
10,062
12,413
29,375
9,857
1,443
11,300
40,675
428
376,600
857
484
403
,390
3,134
11,657
18,304
21,207
22,667
5,581
13,985
12,512
9,686
115,599
118,733
119,145
28,760
21,887
169,792
28,676
1,443
30,119
199,911
456
661,786
a-'
- Fron USDA, 1980. Soil and Water Resource Conservation Act:
Appraisal 80. Review Draft. Part I.
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Bastian, Montague, and Numbers
Table 3-19. Commercial Forest Land Acreage and Ownership for 19''4'
Land Ownership (in 10 acres)
State
and
Area Acreage Federal Local Industry Farm
Northeast
Southeast
West
Total
177.9
192.5
129.3
499.5
12.3
14.6
80.6
107.5
(21.4%)
19.6
3.0
6.4
29.0
(5.8%)
17.6
35.3
14.4
67.3
(13.5?,)
51.0
65.1
15.0
131.1
(26.2%)
77,4
'4.8
12. n
165.0
( 33 , 0» )
- Data from U.S. Forest Service. 1974. Forest Resources Report and
C.C. Burnwell SCIENCE Vol. 199:4041-1048.
million acres (79 million ha) of federal, State and private owned timbet
or forest producing lands or watershed from which water is secured for
domestic use or irrigation (39). While there has been more than a 90",
reduction since 1924 in losses to fires on forested and untorested Ut.ci
protected under this cooperative program—from 93,112 acres burnej pe-
million acres protected in 1925 to 1,208 acres burned per million a. i •
protected in 1978 (38)—large acreages of forested and nonforested land a^e
still devastated by wild fires each year. In 1979 alone, wildland fires but'i. d
3% of the acres protected by the USDA/Forest Service (33,40)
Earthquakes, land slides and other natural disasters also cai* destroy
large acreages, generally on a localized basis. The May 18, 1980, fituptu i1
of Mt. St. Helens alone resulted in severe damage and destruction to rru.'f
than 150,600 acres of forested land within the blast zone (41). \Vh:l,-
sometimes occurring in many sites of small acreages, it would appeal U'cii
a continuing supply of available forested areas disturbed by harvesting i":!
natural disasters will be available as possible sites where municipal wastev^.ilcr
and sludge could be both treated and used beneficially as a pait of ii<--_ ..
land stabilization and reforestation activities as well as efforts to inrr.a.w
forest productivity and shorten wood production cycles.
Dredged Material, Fly Ash, Highway Corridors, Rights of Way, Construction
Sites and Other Disturbed Lands or Areas of Poor Productivity
In addition to mining and forestry related activities, there is also consid"r;ibk
potential for the use (and treatment) of municipal vvastewater and slud;v'
by application to many other types of disturbed land or arras of pun-
productivity.
Dredged Material. Around $300 million are required each year to dt',]./,<-
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44 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
some 340 million m (442 million cu yd) of bottom sediments in an effort
to maintain almost 40,000 km (24,000 mi) of waterways and 1,000 harbors.
An additional 60 million m (78 million cu yd) of sediment are removed
to develop new projects (42,43). Historically on a basis of economics, about
two third of the dredged materials were deposited in open water disposal
sites. Recent environmental laws and regulations, however, have placed
restrictions on the open water disposal of the more polluted dredge materials
resulting in more disposal in diked containment or on-land areas involving
around 28 million m (7,000 acres) per year (44). Many sites where dredged
spoils have been deposited in the past have resulted in areas that are highly
acidic (pH 3.0), low in organic matter and fertility. Such areas have been
easily eroded and difficult to stabilize and revegetate, and often contribute
significantly to the water quality and sediment load problems of nearby
waterways—in some cases the very areas from which the materials were
originally dredged.
Although dredged materials have been used successfully for a number
of productive purposes, such as the development of offshore islands,
manufacture of construction materials, and even land reclamation activities
(42,43,45,46) there will probably be considerably more land disposal of
dredged material in future years. Municipal sewage sludge has already been
effectively used to help stabilize and revegetate acidic dredge spoils along
the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal (47). The opportunity for more use
of municipal wastewater and sludge to help stabilize and revegetate sites
used for land disposal of dredged material will most likely increase.
Fly Ash. Like dredged materials, the disposal of fly ash, cinders, and bottom
ash which ,ire produced in large quantities by coal fired power plants has
also become a major problem in many parts of the country. Since the end
of World War II, nearly 700 million metric tons (770 million short tons)
of ash may have accumulated in the U.S. (48). In 1977, approximately 62
million metric tons (68.2 short tons) of ash and 2.5 million metric tons
(2.75 million short tons) of flue gas desulfurization sludge were produced
by approximately 400 power plants producing some 200,000 MW of power.
It has been estimated that new coal fired power plants coming on line by
1985 will increase this total to 70 million metric tons (77 million short
tons) of ash and 10 million metric tons (11 million short tons) of flue gas
desulfurization sludge per year (49).
Typically these materials have been disposed of on land as a waste
in numerous landfills, pits, ponds and piles, although like dredged materials
fly ash has been successfully utilized in a variety of productive activities
(48). While fly ash does contain many of the elements essential for plant
growth and has been effectively used as a soil amendment source of CaO,
K^O, ^2^5' ^me sand and silt, it lacks any nitrogen. Some work is currently
underway in Ohio to evaluate the use of municipal sludge to enhance the
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Bastian, Montague, and Numbers 45
value of fly ash in reclaiming strip mine spoils. Certainly there will be an
ever growing potential for the use of municipal wastewater and sludge to
help stabilize fly ash disposal sites as the use of coal increases in power
production for major urban areas.
Highway Corridors, Rights of Way, Construction Sites and Other Disturbed
Lands or Areas of Poor Productivity. The nearly 6.4 million km (4 million
miles) of public roads and highways in the U.S. occupy over 10.4 million
ha (26 million acres) of land. Most high speed and limited access highways
have wide rights of ways on both sides. Many more millions of acres of
land are occupied by railroads, transmission lines, etc. involving rights of
ways, that along with areas of new development can involve considerable
land disturbance by construction and maintenance activities. In addition,
many areas of the country have soils of low productivity due to limited
nutrient and/or organic matter content (See Maps 3-4 and 3-5).
The construction and maintenance of highway corridors and other
rights-of-way as well as construction activities at major development sites
frequently lead to environmental impacts such as conditions of poor soil
stability and severe water and wind erosion due to the disturbance of natural
contours, drainage areas and climax vegetation (50,51). The same effect has
often resulted from poor farming, ranching and forestry practices in areas
with poor soils. The vast amounts of experience gained from dealing with
these problems in the past had led to a number of basic procedures for
arresting erosion from construction, farming, forestry, and other activities
in areas of poor soils. These procedures include such practices as proper
grading of slopes, use of specialized drainage, tillage and planting techniques,
and addition of topsoil, soil amendments, mulches, use of nets and binders,
and special fertilization and maintenance practices (50,51,52,53,54,55).
Again, some efforts have been made to utilize municipal wastewater and
sludge in stabilizing construction sites (56,57), building in part upon the
more extensive experience in using these materials for agriculture, mine land
reclamation and biomass production purposes.
Major Benefits and Problems Facing Land Reclamation and Biomass Projects
Involving Municipal Wastewater and Sludge
Past efforts in reclaiming strip mined areas and other disturbed lands have
met with mixed results. Considerable detailed information is available on
the planning, economics, social and legal aspects as well as engineering and
other technical requirements of land reclamation practices. A numbei of
recent publications have done an excellent job of reviewing the needs for,
benefits derived, and state-of-the-art practices for reclaiming and revegetating
various types of disturbed lands (24,25,58,59). These references cover a wide
range of land reclamation and revegetation practices that are appropriate
for humid and arid regions, as well as presenting a review of recent research
results. Taken together they address the reclamation and revegetation of
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46 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
o
in
o
o
u_
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o
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-------
Bastian, Montague, and Numbers 47
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48 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
many types of disturbed lands (e.g., mined land, mine tailings and
overburden, sand and gravel pits, borrow pits, dredged material, fly ash, etc.)
in a rather comprehensive manner. The potential use of municipal wastewater
and sewage sludge as sources of irrigation water, mulch, nutrients, organic
soil amendments and conditioners are frequently mentioned in these and
other related publications.
Actual project experience under a wide variety of conditions has clearly
demonstrated that when properly managed sewage sludge and municipal
wastewater can be safely and effectively used in land reclamation and biomass
production/reforestation efforts. The severe soil conditions often associated
with abandoned or orphan mine spoils, including lack of nutrients and
organic matter, low pH, low water holding capacity, toxic levels of heavy
metals and poor physical characteristics have frequently negated even
repeated efforts to revegetate such areas when using conventional reclamation
practices. But projects utilizing both liquid and dewatered or composted
sewage sludge as an organic soil amendment and slow release nutrient source
have successfully reclaimed and revegetated such barren mine land sites.
Improved erosion control, soil structure and biomass production have all
been achieved by reclamation and revegetation projects using municipal
wastewater and sewage sludge on naturally unproductive or disturbed areas
as well as sites degraded by man as a result of farming, mining, smelting,
construction, forestry and waste disposal activities. Municipal wastewater and
sewage sludge have also been effectively used in arid areas and for combatting
desertification problems on a limited scale.
Obviously adequate controls must be placed on how municipal
wastewater and sewage sludge are used to avoid possible odors and other
nuisances, and contamination of workers, soil, crops, surface water or
groundwater. Efforts to develop regulations and technical guidance, design
manuals, etc. to cover the many uses of municipal wastewater and sewage
sludge are well in hand although far from complete
(4,5,6,7,8,9,10,15,20,22,23,61). However, the major problems restricting
greater use of these materials in land reclamation and biomass
production/reforestation projects also include serious
transportation/distribution constraints as well as the numerous public
acceptance and institutional constraints that face all land application
practices. Getting the wastewater or sludge from its point of generation to
an area where it can be utilized is often a complex and expensive matter.
Even potentially cost effective arrangements for backhauling sewage sludge
from a city to mining areas in the same rail cars or trucks that are used
to transport coal into the city must deal with loading/unloading delays,
weather complications, and equipment availability and compatability
problems (60). In addition, wastewater or sludge delivery, on-site storage,
and timing of applications to the land can lead to complications if the
reclamation site is located in an area of active mining, construction, or other
-------
Bastian, Montague, and Number1.
on-going activity.
The use and treatment of municipal wastewater and sewage sludy-. >
land reclamation and biomass production/reforestation projects pioviti •
special opportunity to avoid many of the concems associated v. *:
agricultural uses of these materials while helping to deal with many of tli
problems associated with areas that are marginally productive and ':•.."•
need of reclamation, stabilization and revegetation. Neither the ie-.. hno^ •,,
problems of designing and operating land application system:, nor trV. '.v,.'.
acceptance and institutional constraints facing their implementation <•-.•*•.
prevent increased future use of municipal wastewater and sewage shsdp
land reclamation and biomass production/reforestation project?, Wru-r" '• ;
systems can be made to work, they should offer effective solutions <_e •'.'<
need for cost-effective and environmentally acceptable waste m ir.ajii ,
practices. In order to assist the encouragement of greatei ur.e of such si
we need to make sure that the results of past and ongoing full scale u;>-. :„•.,>
projects as well as research and demonstration efforts are More s<:n<.- ;
considered by communities and their consultant.-! when evaluating. \v,< ..
waste management options are most suitable for their problem-.
APPENDIX: Pertinent Legislation Concerning Sludge
and Wastewater Utilization
Federal Water Pollution Control Act as amended in 1972 (PL 92-500;
1977 (PL 95-217) focuses on the restoration and maintenance ot
/chemical, physical and biological integrity of the Nation's water s. RJSCJ
standards and enforcement, water quality planning and consume!ion ^*.
program authorities arc included which center on the contiol i-f ho'.t. p.
or nonpoint discharge sources of water pollution. CWA author ue;- 'ed
funding for the planning, design and construction of pi'Mi< ly ",-v,
wastewater treatment works (POTWs) including sludge management *.<• i:
It also authorizes the issuance of comprehensive sewage sludge man vet,
guidelines and regulations, the issuance of National Pollutant D's^'h,
Elimination System (NPDES) permits for point source discharges, a'Hj
development of areawide waste treatment management plans iiu hiding !
management practices (BMPs) for non-point sources of water pollution
requires the development and implementation of pretreatment .-.t^ndjri"
industrial discharges into POTWs. The 1977 amendments added S.
important waste management provisions including special inctnti ','
greater use of innovative and alternative waste treatment tecruiolog'-ct
methodologies, broad authority to regulate sewage sludge man-i^ei
ptactices, and pretreatment credits for industrial discharger', to i-'O' v
The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 197r> (PL 9-i-'.
focuses on the regulation of "discarded materials" management pracC- .
-------
50 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
protect human health and the environment while promoting the conservation
and recovery of resources from solid wastes. Technical and financial
assistance, training grants, solid waste planning, resource recovery
demonstration assistance and hazardous waste regulatory program authorities
are included. RCRA provides for technical and financial assistance to State,
local and interstate agencies for the development of solid waste management
plans and training grants in occupations involving solid waste management
systems. It also prohibits future open dumping of any wastes, and authorizes
regulating the treatment, storage, transport, and disposal of hazardous wastes
which have adverse effects on health and the environment, promotes a
rational R&D program for improving solid waste management practices, and
calls for a cooperative effort among the federal, State, and local governments
and private enterprise to recover valuable materials and energy from solid
'I'he Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970 (PL 91-604) and 1977 (PL
'•" ')5) focus on the protection and enhancement of the quality of the
Nation's air resources in order to protect public health and welfare and the
productive capacity of the country. A national R&D program, technical and
Pni'udal assistance, emission standards, and air quality planning assistance
program authorities are included. CAA provides for technical and financial
.isMstanci' to State and local governments in connection with the development
iinr' execution of their air pollution and control programs, encourages and
•.^•s tr e development and operation of regional air pollution control
p'ogt.ims, ,.nd initiates an accelerated national R&D program to achieve the
prevention and control of air pollution. It also authorizes the development
of State implementation plans (SIPs) for the purpose of meeting minimum
fcdeial ambient air quality standards and the issuance of regulations to
ro.itiol hazardous air pollutants and new source performance standards (i.e.,
emission standards).
The Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act of 1977 (PL
92-532) and its amendments of 1977 (PL 95-153) focuses on regulating the
dumping of all types of materials into ocean waters and limiting the ocean
dumping ot materials which would adversely affect human health and welfare
of the marine environment and its commercial values. Permitting and
regulations, marine research and marine sanctuaries establishment provisions
are included. The 1977 Amendments effectively establish December 31,
1981. as the deadline for terminating ocean dumping of sewage sludge "which
may unreasonably degrade or endanger human health, welfare, amenities,
or 'he marine environment, ecological systems, or economic potentialities."
The To-xic Substances Control Act of 1976 (PL 94-469) focuses on
the need ior testing, premanufacture notification, regulating production and
placing necessary use restrictions on certain chemical substances and mixtures
which present an unreasonable risk of injury to health or the environment.
Along with Us many regulatory, testing and reporting requirements, EPA
-------
Bastian, Montague, and Numbers 51
is also required under Section 9 of TSCA to coordinate actions taken under
TSCA with actions taken under other Federal laws. At present the disposal
of materials or mixtures with more than 50 ppm PCB are required to comply
with special PCB manufacturing, processing, distribution and use regulations
that have been issued under TSCA.
Literature Cited
1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, February 1979. 1978 Needs Survey;
Conveyance and Treatment of Municipal Wastewater; Summaries of Technical Data.
EPA 430/9-79-002 (FRD-2).
2. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, October 1977. Municipal Sludge
Management: Environmental Factors. EPA 430/9-77-004.
3. Knezek, B. D. and R. H. Miller (eds.), March 1976. Application of Sludges and
Wastewaters on Agricultural Land: A Planning and Educational Guide. North
Central Res. Publ. No. 235. (reprinted by EPA as MCD-35, March 1978).
4. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, October 1978. Sludge Treatment and
Disposal, EPA 625/4-78-012.
5. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. October 1977. Process Design Manual for
Land Treatment of Municipal Wastewater. EPA 625/1-77-008.
6. Sopper, W. E. and S. N. Kerr (eds.), 1979. Utilization of Municipal Sewage Effluent
and Sludge on Forest and Disturbed Land. The Pennsylvania State University Press,
pp. 537.
7. Loehr, R. C. (ed.), 1977. Food, Fertilizer and Agricultural Residues, Proceedings
of the 1977 Cornell Agricultural Waste Management Conference. Ann Arbor
Science, pp. 727.
8. Loehr, R. C. (ed.), 1977. Land as a Waste Management Alternative. Proceedings
of the 1976 Cornell Agricultural Waste Management Conference. Ann Arbor
Science, pp. 811.
9. Sopper, W. E. and L. T. Kardos (eds.), 1973. Recycling Treated Municipal
Wastewater and Sludge Through Forest and Cropland. The Pennsylvania State
University Press, pp. 479.
10. CAST, November 1976. Application of Sewage Sludge to Cropland: Appraisal of
Potential Hazards of the Heavy Metals to Plants and Animals, EPA 430/9-76-013
(also Council for Agricultural Science and Technology Rept. No. 64).
11. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1990 Strategy for Municipal Wastewater
Treatment; Integrated Waste Management Concept Paper; Office of Water Program
Operations.
12. Costle, D., October 3, 1977. EPA Policy on Land Treatment of Municipal
Wastewater.
13. Construction Grants Program Requirements Memorandum PRM 79-3.
November 25, 1978. Revision of Agency Guidance for Evaluation of Land
Treatment Alternatives Employing Surface Application.
-------
52 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
14. Bastian, R. K., September 1978. Sludge Disposal-Is Land Use the Answer?
Consulting Engineers Magazine Vol. 55, No. 3, p. 120-123.
15. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, September 1980. A Guide to Regulations
and Guidance for the Utilization and Disposal of Municipal Sewage Sludge. EPA
430/9-80-015.
16. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Program Operations,
September 1980. "Clean Water Fact Sheet."
17. Muskie, E. S., 1976. The Economy, Energy and Clean Water Legislation. In: J.
Tourbier and R. W. Pierson (eds.), Biological Control of Water Pollution.
University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 340.
18. Library of Congress, January 1973. A Legislative History of the Water Pollution
Control Act Amendments of 1972. Vols. 1 & 2; and October 1978. A Legislative
History of the Clean Water Act of 1977-A Continuation of the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act. Vols. 1-4. U.S. Government Printing Office.
19. 40 CFR Part 35. Municipal Wastewater Treatment Works, Construction Grants
Program Regulations (also FR September 27, 1978).
20. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, February 1980. Innovative and Alternative
Technology Assessment Manual. EPA 430/9-78-009. (MCD-53).
21. Ward, G. D., 1975. Engineering Study and Field Demonstration Trials for Sand
Dune Stabilization. In: Proceedings of the 1975 National Conference on Municipal
Sludge Management and Disposal. Anaheim, Ca., August 18-20. p. 200-203.
22. McKim, H. L. (ed.), 1978. Proceedings of the International Symposium on the
State of Knowledge in Land Treatment of Wastewater. Vols. 1 & 2. August 20-25.
U.S. Army Cold Regions Res. and Engr. Lab., Hanover, NH.
23. Bledsoe, C. S. (ed.), 1980. Proceedings of the Regional Symposium on Municipal
Sewage Waste Application to Land in the Pacific Northwest. The University of
Washington. Seattle, Wa., July 8-10.
24. Schaller, F. and P. Button (eds.), 1978. Reclamation of Drastically Disturbed
Lands. ASA, CSSA, SSSA, pp. 742.
25. Bradshaw, A. D. and M. J. Chadwick, 1980. The Restoration of Land; The Ecology
and Reclamation of Derelict and Degraded Land. The University of California
Press, pp. 317.
26. Paone, J., J. L. Morning, and L. Guorgetti, 1974. Land Utilization and Reclamation
in the Mining Industry, 1930-71. U.S. Bureau of Mines Inf. Circ. 8642.
27. Paone, J., P. Struthers and W. Johnson, 1978. Extent of Disturbed Lands and
Major Reclamation Problems in the United States. In: F. Schaller and P. Sutton
(eds.), Reclamation of Drastically Disturbed Lands, ASA, CSSA, SSSA, p. 11-22.
28. Paone, J. and A. B. Meyer, 1978. Present Status and Potential Impact of Surface
Mining on Forest and Rangelands. Forest for People. Proc. Soc. Amer. For.,
Albuquerque, NM. Oct. 16, 1977.
29. U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1980. Soil and Water Resource Conservation Act:
Appraisal 80. Review Draft. Part I.
30. USDI, 1967. Surface Mining and Our Environment; A Special Report to the Nation.
31. Schwartz, M. (Personal Communication), Bureau of Land Management.
-------
Bastian, Montague, and Numbers 53
32. Davis, G., 1978. Oil Shale. In: F. Schaller and P. Sutton (eds.), Reclamation of
Drastically Disturbed Lands, ASA, CSSA, SSSA, p. 609-618.
33. USDA/Forest Service. Report of the Forest Service, Fiscal Year '79.
34. Alich, J. A. and R. E. Inman, 1975. Utilization of Plant Biomass as an Energy
Feedstock In: W. J. Jewell (ed.), Energy, Agriculture and Waste Management. Ann
Arbor Science, pp. 453-466.
35. Cole, D. W., 1977. Ecosystem Research in the National Management Forest.
IUFRO, Division I Meeting in Ossiach, Austria. September.
36. Burwell, C. C., 1978. Solar Biomass Energy: An Overview of the U.S. Potential.
SCIENCE Vol. 199:1041-1048.
37. Waring, R. H. (ed.), 1979. Forests: Fresh Perspectives from Ecosystems Analysis.
Oregon State University Press, pp. 199.
38. CEQ, December 1979. Environmental Quality-1979: The Tenth Annual Report
of the Council on Environmental Quality, pp. 816.
39. USDA/Forest Service, April 1980. 1978 Wildfire Statistics. FS-343.
40. USDA/Forest Service. National Forest Fire Report 1979.
41. Rae, Paul (Personal Communication), Watershed Rehabilitation Division, Gifford
Pmchot National Forest, Vancouver, WA.
42. Saucier, R. T., 1976. Dredged Material as a Natural Resource-Concepts for Land
Improvement and Reclamation. Technical Report D-76-13. U.S. Army Eng.
Waterways Exp. Stn., Vicksburg, MISS.
43. Souder, P. S., L. Tobias, J. F. Imperial, and F. C. Mushal, June 1970. Dredge
Material Transport Systems for Inland Disposal and/or Productive Use Concepts.
Dredge Material Research Program Technical Report D-78-28. U.S. Army Eng.
Exp. Stn., Vicksburg, MISS.
44. Kirby, C. J., J. W. Keeley, and J. Harrison, 1973. An Overview of the Technical
Aspects of the Corps of Engineers National Dredge Material Research Program.
Dredge Material Research Program Technical Report D-73-9. U.S. Army Eng.
Waterways Exp. Stn., Vicksburg, MISS.
45. Perrier, E. R., J. L. Llopis, and P. A. Spaine, July 1980. Area Strip Mine
Reclamation Using Dredged Material: A field Demonstration. Technical Report
EL- 80-4. U.S. Army Eng. Waterways Exp. Stn., Vicksburg, MISS.
46. Krizek, R. J. and D. K. Atmatzids, 1978. Disposition of Dredged Material. In:
F. Schaller and P. Sutton (eds.) Reclamation of Drastically Disturbed Lands. ASA,
CSSA, SSSA. p. 629-644.
47. Palazzo, A. J., June 1977. Reclamation of Acidic Dredge Soils with Sewage Sludge
and Lime at the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal. Special Report 77-19. U.S. Army
Cold Regions Res. and Eng. Lab., Hanover, NH.
48. Capp, J. P., 1978. Power Plant Fly Ash Utilization for Land Reclamation in the
Eastern United States. In: F. Schaller and P. Sutton (eds.) Reclamation in the
Eastern United States. In: F. Schaller and P. Sutton (eds.) Reclamation of
Drastically Disturbed Lands. ASA, CSSA, SSSA. p. 339-354.
49. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December 1979. Environmental Impact
Statement; Criteria for Classification of Solid Waste Disposal Facilities and
-------
54 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
Practices. SW-821.
50. Tillman, R. (ed), 1976. Proceedings of the First National Symposium on
Environmental Concerns in Rights-of-Way Management. Mississippi State Univ. pp.
335.
51. Wright, D. L., H. D. Perry and R. E. Blaser, 1978. Persistent Low Maintenance
Vegetation for Erosion Control and Aesthetics in Highway Corridors. In: F.
Schaller and P. Sutton (eds.) Reclamation of Drastically Disturbed Lands. ASA,
CSSA, SSSA. p. 553-584.
52. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, July 1976. Areawide Assessment
Procedures Manual, Vol. EPA 600/9-73-010.
53. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, October 1973. Methods and Practices for
Controlling Water Pollution from Agricultural Nonpoint Sources. EPA
430/9-73-015.
54. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, October 1973. Processes, Procedures, and
Methods to Control Pollution Resulting from Silvicultural Activities. EPA
430/9-73-010.
55. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, April 1976. Forest Harvest Residue
Treatment, Reforestation and Protection of Water Quality. EPA 910/9-76-020.
(Region X).
56. Gaskin, D. A., W. Hannel, A. J. Palazzo, R. E. Bates and L. E. Stanley, November
1977. Utilization of Sewage Sludge for Terrain Stabilization in Cold Regions.
Special Report 77-37. U.S. Army Cold Regions Res. and Eng. Lab., Hanover, NH.
57. Palazzo, A. J., S. D. Rindge, and D. A. Gaskin, January 1980. Revegetation at
Two Construction Sites in New Hampshire and Alaska. CRREL Report 80-3. U.S.
Army Cold Regions Res. and Eng. Lab., Hanover, NH.
58. Thames, J. L. (ed.), 1977. Reclamation and Use of Disturbed Land in the
Southwest. The Univ. of Arizona Press, pp. 362.
59. Wali, M. K. (ed.), 1979. Ecology and Coal Resource Development, Vol's. 1 &
2. Pergamon Press, pp. 1091.
60. Hill, R. D. and A. Montague, 1977. Potential for Using Sludges and Compost
in Mine Reclamation. In: Proceedings of the Third National Conference on Sludge
Management Disposal and Utilization. Miami, FL. December 14-16. p. 39-45.
61. Smith, W. H. and J. O. Evans, 1977. Special Opportunities and Problems in Using
Forest Soils for Organic Waste Application. In: Soils for Management of Organic
Wastes and Wastewaters. SSSA. p. 428-454.
-------
4
MINE LAND RECLAMATION WITH MUNICIPAL
SLUDGE-PENNSYLVANIA'S DEMONSTRATION PROGRAM
William E. Sopper and Sonja N. Kerr
The use of municipal sludge to revegetate mined land in an environmentally
acceptable manner was demonstrated on several 4-hectare plots in the
anthracite and bituminous coal mining regions of Pennsylvania. Five sites
representative of abandoned, barren bituminous and anthracite mines, as well
as currently mined sites, were treated with various types of municipal sludge
at high and low application rates and broadcast seeded with a mixture of
grasses and legumes. A monitoring system was installed at each demonstration
site to determine the effects of the sludge applications on groundwater and
soil percolate water chemical and bacteriological quality, chemical properties
of the soil, and quality and growth of vegetative cover. Data collected during
the study period indicate that the sludge applications ameliorated the harsh
site conditions and resulted in a quick vegetative cover that completely
stabilized the demonstration site. Moreover, each site's vegetative cover has
persisted and improved each year since its establishment. No deterioration
in vegetation yield or quality has been observed. Although sludge applications
increased some trace metal concentrations in the vegetation, all
concentrations were below plant tolerance levels and no phytotoxicity was
observed. Sludge applications had no significant adverse effect on soil
percolate or groundwater chemical or bacteriological quality. The results
from these demonstration projects indicate that stabilized municipal sludges,
if applied properly, can be used to revegetate mined lands in an
environmentally safe manner with no adverse effects on the vegetation, soil,
or groundwater quality.
Introduction
Pennsylvania is rich in coal. Recoverable coal reserves of over 34.5 billion
metric tons exist under 41 of the 67 counties. However, removal of this
coal in the past created a myriad of environmental problems. These included
erosion and sedimentation, acid mine drainage, and the loss of productive
cropland and forestland. Scars of past mining operations are evident
throughout the Commonwealth. In Pennsylvania, over 97,000 hectares have
been disturbed by strip mining and have been abandoned or inadequately
reclaimed. The new Federal Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act
of 1977 has established strict regulations for the revegetation of currently
mined land. It will be difficult to meet these strict requirements using current
reclamation techniques. New methods will have to be developed and larger
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56 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
amounts of lime, fertilizer, and seed will undoubtedly have to be used. In
addition, soil amendments and irrigation may be required on some sites.
During the past decade, a considerable amount of research has been
conducted that has shown stabilized municipal sludge from secondary
wastewater treatment plants is an excellent soil amendment and chemical
fertilizer substitute. Many municipalities are reconsidering their current
methods of sludge processing and disposal due to escalating costs and
environmental pressures. Particularly hard-pressed to find an environmentally
acceptable alternative are large coastal metropolitan areas that currently
dispose of sludge in the ocean, which must cease by December, 1981.
Concern has been raised over the potential health hazard of using sludges
on agricultural land and the potential introduction of toxic elements into
the human food chain. A possible alternative that might alleviate these
concerns is to utilize the sludge to reclaim and revegetate marginal,
unproductive lands or barren lands disturbed by coal mining activities.
Federal and State Guidelines and Regulations
However, if sludge is to be used in the reclamation process there are two
sets of State and Federal guidelines and regulations that must be considered.
First, we have the Federal and State regulations concerning revegetation as
required under the new Federal Surface Mining Control and Reclamation
Act of 1977 (Public Law 95-87). Section 515 of the Law states that a
permanent vegetative cover of the same seasonal variety native to the area
of land to be affected must be established and must be capable of
self-regeneration and plant succession at least equal in extent of cover to
the natural vegetation of the area. The Office of Surface Mining Reclamation
and Enforcement (OSM), established under the Law, has recommended
performance standards for meeting the revegetation requirements.
These recommendations stated in subchapter K, part 816 of the
Preferred Alternate Final Rules of the Final Environmental Statement (1)
prepared by OSM are as follows:
1. Ground cover and productivity of living plants on the
revegetated area shall be equal to that of an approved reference area.
2. The period of responsibility initiates when ground cover equals
the approved standard after the last year of augmented seeding,
fertilizing, irrigation or other work which ensures success.
3. In areas of more than 66 centimeters of average annual
precipitation, the period of extended responsibility will continue for
not less than five years. In areas with 66 centimeters of precipitation
or less, the period of responsibility will continue for not less than 10
years.
4. In both cases, the ground cover and productivity shall equal
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Sopper and Kerr 57
the approved standard for the last two consecutive years of the
responsibility period.
5. The ground cover and productivity of the revegetated area shall
be considered equal if they are at least 90 percent of that of the
approved reference area.
Secondly, we have the State and Federal guidelines and regulations
related to land application of sludge that must be followed. Most of these
guidelines set limits on sludge application rates based on nitrogen and other
plant nutrient requirements of the vegetation as well as trace metal loadings.
For example, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has issued
recommendations for the maximum amounts of trace metals that can be
applied to agricultural soils via sewage sludge (2). These maximum amounts
are related to the soil cation exchange capacity. These criteria are given
in Table 4-1.
In addition, some states have even more stringent guidelines concerning
sludge application on the land. For instance, in 1977 the Pennsylvania
Department of Environmental Resources (PDER) issued "Interim Guidelines
for Sewage Sludge Use for Land Reclamation" (3). These guidelines state
that due to the high permeability of mine spoils and low retention of organic
matter, sufficient nitrogen in excess of the crop requirement must be
provided in order to establish growth. To provide sufficient nitrogen a
maximum application rate of 134 dry metric tons per hectare may be utilized
for land reclamation. In addition, the application is further limited according
to the trace metal content of the sludge and application rates may not exceed
the limits given in Table 4-2.
The guidelines further state that the soil pH must be adjusted to 6.0
during the first year of sludge application and must be maintained at 6.5
for two years following final sludge application. Liming is required to
immobilize the trace metals in order to reduce their availability for plant
uptake and to prevent their leaching into groundwater.
Other requirements include the following:
1. Sludge is to be incorporated within 24 hours after application.
2. Sludge is not to be applied when the ground is saturated,
snow-covered, frozen or during periods of rain.
3. Sludge is not to be applied within 30 meters of streams, 91
meters of water supplies, 8 meters of bedrock outcrops, 15 meters of
property lines, or 91 meters of occupied dwellings.
4. Sludge for revegetation of inactive mines or active coal refuse
piles is not to be applied to slopes exceeding 15 percent.
5. Dairy cattle must not be allowed to graze land for at least
two months after sludge application.
These guidelines have been designated as interim so that changes can
be made as more information becomes available.
So if municipal sludge is going to be used to reclaim mined land, one
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58 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
Table 4-1. EPA Recommended Total Trace Metal Loadings for Agricultural Land.
"fetal
Fb
Zn
C'u
Ni
Cd
Soil
0-5
560
280
110
140
6
Cation Exchange Capacity (meq/lOOg)
5-15 >15
Amount of Metal (kg/ha)
1120
560
280
280
11
2240
1120
560
560
22
Table 4-2. PDER Recommended Maximum Trace Element Loading Rates for Land
Reclamation.
Constituent Maximum Loading Rate Maximum Loading Rate
for Land Reclamation Land Reclamation for Farming
Cd
Cu
Cr
Pb
Hg
Nl
Zn
kg/ha
3
112
112
112
0.6
22
224
kg/ha
3
67
67
67
0.2
13
134
is faced with the challenge of finding a harmonious marriage between the
two sets of guidelines and regulations.
Initial Project Proposals
Five years ago several attempts were made in Pennsylvania to develop projects
using municipal sludge for strip mine land reclamation. One project in
Clearfield County proposed reclaiming 405 hectares (1000 acres) of
abandoned mine land with digested sludge from Philadelphia. The project
was technically sound and had the support of the Pennsylvania Department
of Environmental Resources, the county commissioners, and the township
supervisors. Public meetings were held to explain the project, a series of
informational articles were written for the local newspapers, radio interviews
were given, and a "hot line" was established to allow citizens to call at
any time to have questions answered. Were all these activities successful in
gaining public support? No, they were not successful. Public opposition was
so great that project approval could not be given by the regulatory agency.
While the teasons for local opposition are not clear, the following factors
probably contributed to the failure to gain support:
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Sopper and Kerr 59
1. The concept of using sludge to reclaim mined land was relatively
new in Pennsylvania.
2. The size of the project (405 ha) was too large.
3. Sludge from a large metropolitan city was to be used rather
than local sludge.
4. It would have been the first large-scale application of sludge
in Pennsylvania. The only other applications in the Commonwealth were
on small research plots.
5. The public was confused by false information and conflicting
information about the project reported in the local newspapers.
Pennsylvania Demonstration Program
It was quite obvious that we had to bridge the gap between available technical
information and public understanding. To accomplish this, a cooperative
project was initiated in 1977 with funding from the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency to establish 4-ha (10 acre) demonstration plots in both
the anthracite and bituminous coal mining regions of Pennsylvania.
Cooperating in this effort were the Pennsylvania Bureau of Solid Waste
Management, the Pennsylvania office of the USDA Agricultural Stabilization
and Conservation Service, and the Appalachian Regional Commission. This
effort was expanded in 1978 in cooperation with the City of Philadelphia
Water Department and Modern-Earthline Companies.
Projects were conducted using several types of sludges on a variety of
site conditions. Types of sludges used were 1) liquid digested, 2) dewatered
by centrifuge, vacuum filter, and sand bed drying, 3) heat dried, 4)
composted with wood chips, and 5) compost-sludge cake mix. Site conditions
evaluated were:
A. Bituminous strip mine banks
1. Abandoned mine land—Recontoured without top soil
2. Currently mined land—Recontoured with top soil
B. Anthracite refuse banks
1. Burned and recontoured
2. Unburned and recontoured
Bituminous Strip Mine Banks
Abandoned Mine Land—Recontoured Without Top Soil
This site, located in Venango County, is representative of bituminous strip
mine banks, which have been backfilled and recontoured after mining
without top soil replacement. Several attempts had been made to revegetate
the area using lime, commercial fertilizer, and seed, but without success.
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60 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
The surface spoil was compacted, extremely acid (pH 3.8), and devoid of
vegetation. A 4-hectare demonstration plot was established. The plot was
scarified with a chisel plow to loosen the surface spoil material and then
treated with agricultural lime (4.5 to 12.3 metric tons per hectare) to raise
the spoil pH to 6.5.
Sludge for the project was obtained from three local waste treatment
plants. Liquid digested sludge was obtained from Farrell and Oil City, and
was transported to the site in tank trucks. Dewatered sludge was obtained
from Franklin where the sludge is dewatered by centrifuging, and from Oil
City where the sludge is dewatered by spreading on sand drying beds. The
dewatered sludge was brought to the site in coal trucks. The 4-ha plot was
subdivided into four 1-ha subplots for application of liquid digested sludge
at two rates and dewatered sludge at two rates. Liquid digested sludge was
applied with a vacuum tank liquid manure spreader at 103 cubic meters
per hectare (equivalent to 7 metric tons/hectare) and 155 cubic meters per
hectare (equivalent to 11 metric tons/hectare). Dewatered sludge was applied
at 90 and 184 metric tons per hectare.
Immediately after sludge application and incorporation, the site was
broadcast seeded with a mixture of two grasses and two legumes. The seeding
mixture was Kentucky-31 tall fescue (22 kg/ha), Pennlate orchardgrass (22
kg/ha), Penngift crownvetch (11 kg/ha) and Empire birdsfoot trefoil (11
kg/ha). The site was mulched with straw and hay at the rate of 3.8 metric
tons per hectare.
The amounts of trace metals applied at the highest liquid and dewatered
sludge application rates are given in Table 4-3 along with the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency and Pennsylvania Department of
Environmental Resources interim guideline recommendations. It is quite
obvious that the amounts of trace metals applied even at the highest sludge
application rate were well below the recommended lifetime limits except
for copper, which slightly exceeded the Pennsylvania guidelines.
The amounts of nutrients applied by each of the sludge application
rates are given in Table 4-4. Potassium is the only plant nutrient deficient
in all sludge application rates. The commercial fertilizer equivalents are also
given in Table 4-4. The highest sludge application rate (184 mt/ha) was
equivalent to applying 22 metric tons per hectare of an 11-9-0 commercial
chemical fertilizer. One of the principal advantages of using sludge is that
it is a slow-release fertilizer and will supply plant nutrients for 3 to 5 years.
Most of the nitrogen is in the organic form and therefore not immediately
available for plant use until it is mineralized and converted to available plant
forms. Only approximately 20 percent of the organic nitrogen is mineralized
in the first year and 5 to 10 percent of the remaining organic nitrogen
is released the second year (4). Decreasing amounts of organic nitrogen are
subsequently released each following year. After this period the natural
process of nutrient recycling should be well established for sustaining the
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Sopper and Kerr 61
Table 4-3. Comparison of Trace Metal Loadings of the Highest Liquid and Dewatered
Sludge Applications at the Venango County Demonstration with EPA and PDER
Recommendations.
Constituent
Cu
Zn
Cd
Pb
Ni
Cr
Hg
Sludge Application
Rates mt/ha
11 184
21
21
0.1
10
1
16
0.01
129
147
0.6
55
12
74
0.09
Recommendations
EPA1 PDER
(CEC 5-15)
280
560
11
1120
280
NR2
NR2
112
224
3
112
22
112
0.6
— Average CEC of site ranged from 11.6 - 15.2 meq/lOOg
— No recommendations given by EPA
Table 4-4. Commercial Fertilizer Equivalents of the Sludge Application at the Venango
County Demonstration Site.
Sludge Application Fertilizer Equivalent
Rate
mt/ha
184
90
11
7
Amount
kg /ha
22,400
11,200
2,240
2,240
N
kg/ha(%)
2388(11)
1165(10)
284(13)
187( 8)
(Fertilizer Formula)
p2o5
kg/hatX)
2103 (9)
1026 (9)
143 (6)
95 (4)
K20
kg/ha(%)
21 (0)
11 (0)
6 (0)
2 (0)
vegetati'
All sludge treated areas had a complete vegetative cover established
within several weeks after sludge was applied. Vegetation growth and dry
matter production were measured at the end of each growing season (1977
to 1979). Results are given in Table 4-5. Both vegetation height growth
and dry matter production increased during the three-year period. During
the second growing season the two grasses produced prolific seed heads.
Sampling indicated a seed production ranging from 168 to 336 kilograms
of seed per hectare.
Samples of the individual grass and legume species were collected at
the end of each growing season for foliar analyses. Results for tall fescue
and birdsfoot trefoil for the highest sludge application rate are given in Table
4-6. Foliar trace metal concentrations generally decreased over the three-year
period. Overall the trace metal concentrations were well below the suggested
tolerance levels and no phytotoxicity symptoms were observed (5,6).
In general, the vegetation cover has improved over the three growing
seasons following sludge application. No deterioration in vegetation quality
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62 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
or yield has been measured or observed. In comparison, the remainder of
the site, not treated with sludge, remained barren.
Spoil samples were collected at the end of each growing season to
evaluate the effect of the lime and sludge applications on spoil pH. Results
for the highest sludge application (184 mt/ha) were as follows:
Spoil pH
Before ~ ~ ~
Spoil Depth Sludge 1977 1978 1979
0-15 3.8 6.2 6.7 7.3
15-30 3.8 4.2 4.6 5.1
Surface spoil pH continually increased over the 2.5-year period
following sludge application. Results indicate that the lime and sludge
applications did raise the spoil pH significantly and that the higher pH was
Table 4-5. Vegetation Height Growth and Dry Matter Production at the Venango County
Demonstration Site.
Sludge
Application
7
11
90
184
7
11
90
184
1977
29
32
34
35
6349
7731
4757
6013
Height
1978
37
30
41
52
Dry Matter Production
9537
8654
7409
9336
1979
52
43
41
44
18538
17141
13327
11322
Table 4-6. Average Concentration of Trace Metals in the Foliar Samples Collected from
the 184 mt/ha Plot at the Venango County Demonstration Site.
Species
Tall Fescue
Birdsfoot Trefoil
Suggested Tolerance
Level 5,6
Year
1977
1978
1979
1977
1978
1979
Cu
9.4
8.6
9.2
13.9
7.7
9.2
150
Zn
44.
44.
72.
95.
30.
41.
300
4
4
5
9
4
5
t
0,
0,
0.
1,
0,
1.
2
;r
.8
.8
.5
.0
.3
,7
Pb
- Pg/g -
4.5
4.5
1.8
7.4
8.5
1.8
10
Co
1.5
1.6
0.6
2.1
3.0
0.3
5
C
0.
0.
0.
0.
0,
0.
3
•A
.20
.41
.08
.43
.07
,04
Hi
9.8
3.7
2.5
6.3
4.8
6.3
50
-------
Sopper and Kerr 63
maintained.
Spoil samples were also analyzed for trace metals. A comparison of
trace metal concentrations before and after sludge was applied is given in
Table 4-7. Even at the highest sludge application rate (184 mt/ha) the trace
metal concentrations in the surface spoil (0-15 centimeters) were only slightly
increased. In general, the trace metal concentrations in the spoil were all
extremely low in comparison to published normal ranges for soils (7).
Groundwater samples were collected bi-weekly from monitoring wells
to evaluate the effect of the sludge applications on water quality. Results
of these analyses are given in Table 4-8.
Well No. 1 was drilled as a control outside the area of influence of
the sludge applications. Groundwater flow under the dewatered
sludge-treated area is toward Well No. 2 located approximately 11 meters
downslope from the plot. Results indicate that the high application of
dewatered sludge did not significantly increase the concentration of NO^-N
in groundwater. Concentrations of NO^-N were below the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency limit for potable water (10 mg/1) for all
months sampled. It also should be noted that the average depth to
groundwater in Well No. 2 was only 3 meters.
Results of analyses of groundwater samples for trace metals during the
three years after sludge was applied are also given in Table 4-8. There appears
to be no significant increase in any of the trace metal concentrations in
Well No. 2, which was influenced by the sludge applications. Average annual
concentrations were below the USEPA drinking water standards.
All groundwater samples collected during the period July, 1977 to
September, 1980 were also analyzed for coliforms. No fecal coliform colonies
were observed for any sample.
To maximize the value of the demonstration project, a second site was
chosen on abandoned bituminous spoil for a fall sludge application. This
would allow the evaluation of a fall seeding on the establishment of a
vegetative cover and the efficacy of that cover to control the environmental
effects of the sludge application. During the spring of 1979, a site was located
in the bituminous coal region of Southwestern Pennsylvania in Derry
Township, Westmoreland County. The area had been mined approximately
10 years ago and is typical of bituminous spoil banks that had been
recontoured without topsoil replacement. Four hectares of the approximate
6-hectare area were selected for sludge application.
Sludge for the project was obtained from the City of Philadelphia Water
Pollution Control Plant, which is located approximately 450 kilometers from
the site. The plant produces a dewatered centrifuged sludge that is composted
with wood chips. The composted sludge is then mixed with equal parts of
centrifuged sludge-cake to increase the nutrient value of the final product.
The total nitrogen content of the composted sludge is approximately 0.6
percent; whereas, the centrifuged sludge cake total nitrogen content is
-------
64 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
Table 4-7. Analyses of Spoil Samples for Extractable Trace Metals on the 184 mt/ha
Plot at the Venango County Demonstration Site.
Time of
Sampling
Before Sludge
Applied
Four months
after sludge
applied
Eighteen months
after sludge
applied
Normal range
soil7
Spoil
Depth
0-15
15-30
30-60
0-15
15-30
30-60
0-15
15-30
30-60
Cu
2.5
3.0
3.7
10.8
4.0
4.9
8.8
2.5
1.8
2-
100
Zn
2.9
2.4
3.6
7.7
2.0
2.9
7.7
1.7
1.8
10-
300
Cr
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.1
0.2
<0.1
<0.1
5-
3000
Pb
0.5
0.6
0.9
3.5
1.3
1.9
2.3
1.3
1.5
2-
200
Co
0.7
0.7
1.0
1.3
0.2
0.3
1.2
0.5
0.5
1-
40
Cd
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01-
7.0
Nl
1.1
1.0
1.6
0.9
0.4
0.5
1.2
0.7
0.7
10-
1000
Table 4-8. Groundwater Analyses for Trace Metals and Nitrate-Nitrogen Following
Sludge Application at the Venango County Demonstration Site.
Well No.
Well 1
(control)
Well 2
(Dewatered
Sludge)
(184 mt/ha)
EPA Drinking
Water Standard
Year1
1977
1978
1979
1977
1978
1979
Cu
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
.22
23
.17
10
14
0.18
1.
.00
Zn
4
2,
1.
3.
3.
1.
5
.13
.02
48
39
.29
.83
.00
Cr
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.03
0.01
0.03
0.05
Pb
0.14
0.19
0.13
0.09
0.20
0.13
0.05
Co
3.
1.
0.
2.
1.
1.
5.
,19
04
58
12
16
92
,00'
Cd
0.006
0.002
0.002
0.001
0.002
0.001
0.010
Nl
3.
1,
0.
2.
1.
0.
2
.23
.00
.50
.67
.26
.97
.00'
N03-N
1.4
<0.5
<0.5
1.1
<0.5
<0.5
10.0
Values represent the mean of all samples collected from each well for the year.
No limits given for drinking water standards; these are recommended values for
irrigation water for agricultural use.
approximately 2.0 percent.
Results of the analyses of the compost-cake mix were used to calculate
the amounts of selected nutrients and trace metals applied. The results
indicated that the compost-cake mix supplied 968 kg/ha of nitrogen, 1816
kg/ha of phosphate, and 215 kg/ha of potash to the area. This would be
equivalent to applying 10 mt/ha of a 10-18-2 commercial fertilizer. The value
of sludge as a substitute for commercial fertilizer is obvious.
A comparison of the application rate with the EPA and PDER
recommendations for maximum trace metal loadings on the land is given
in Table 4-9. This comparison indicates that the recommended limits were
essentially met with the sludge application rate of 134 mt/ha. It should
-------
Sopper and Kerr 65
Table 4-9, Comparison of Trace Metal Loadings at the Westmoreland County
Demonstration Project with EPA and PDER Recommendations.
Constituent Sludge Application
134 rat/ha
Recommendations
EPA PDER
(CEC 5-15)1
1
2
Cd
Cu
Cr
Pb
Hg
Ni
Zn
Average
No recor
0.2
76
42
19
0.06
13
245
CEC of site ranged
nmendation given by
kg/ ha
22
560
NR2
2240
NR2
560
1120
from 16.7 to 19.0 meq/lOOg.
EPA.
3
112
112
112
0.6
22
224
be noted that the sludge application of 134 mt/ha is well below the limits
recommended by the EPA and with the exception of zinc meets all PDER
guidelines. The recommended maximum loading rate, established by the
PDER guidelines, for zinc is 224 kg/ha, whereas the actual application was
245 kg/ha.
Pre-treatment surface soil samples were collected and analyzed for pH
and buffer pH to determine the liming requirements. Results indicated that
the average soil pH was 4.3. Thirteen metric tons of agricultural lime per
hectare were applied on September 24 and 25 to adjust the soil pH to 6.0.
Monitoring instruments were installed, including suction lysimeters at the
90 cm depth and groundwater wells, prior to sludge application.
On September 24 and 25, 1979, the compost-cake mix was transported
by 20-ton capacity coal trucks from Philadelphia to the site on a return
trip after delivering coal. The sludge was loaded into manure spreaders and
spread on the site; this was completed on September 26, 1979. Immediately
after the spreading, the area was disked to incorporate the sludge into the
surface 10 cm of soil material.
After the incorporation of the sludge, the area was broadcast seeded.
The seed mixture used was Kentucky 31 Tall Fescue (11 kg/ha), Birdsfoot
Trefoil (6 kg/ha), and Winter Rye (63 kg/ha). Completion of seeding by
October 1, 1979 would allow approximately 6 to 8 weeks for vegetation
growth to become winter hardy.
A site inspection on November 29, 1979, approximately 8 weeks after
seeding, indicated that a protective cover of winter rye had been established.
Vegetation was approximately 5 crn in height. There was no evidence of
any erosion on the sludge treatment area. It appeared that sufficient
vegetation was established to protect the site from erosion and runoff over
the winter season. This was confirmed by a site inspection on March 28,
1980. The entire sludge-treated area was covered by a vegetative cover ranging
-------
66 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
from 5 to 10 cm in height. On the basis of ocular estimates, the percentage
areal cover ranged from 80 to 90 percent. There was no evidence of surface
runoff or erosion from the sludge-treated area. However, some erosion did
occur from barren areas upslope of the sludge-treated area. The
sediment-laden surface runoff from these areas was dispersed as soon as it
encountered the sludge-treated plot, which had been roughened by contour
chisel plowing to incorporate the sludge. As soon as the site was dry enough,
April 24, 1980, the remaining portion of the seeding mixture was broadcast.
The spring seeding mixture used was Orchardgrass (11 kg/ha) and Birdsfoot
trefoil (6 kg/ha). By early summer, there was a complete lush vegetative
cover on the entire site. At the end of the first growing season, (1980),
average vegetation height was 68 cm and average dry matter product was
11036 kg/ha. This would indicate that sludge can successfully be applied
in the fall as well as the spring.
Results of the analyses of groundwater well samples are given in Table
4-10. Water level depth in Well 1 fluctuated between 1.7 and 1.8 m during
the period of sampling. Sludge application did not have any apparent effect
on the concentration of any constituents. The concentration of NOj-N in
Well 1 was slightly higher than the potable water standard (17 mg/1 vs 10
mg/1). However, it decreased to 7.1 mg/1 during the first month following
sludge application and remained at a low level during the period of sampling.
Concentrations of all trace metals except Pb were below the maximum
Table 4-10. Groundwater Analyses for Trace Metals and Nitrate-Nitrogen at the
Westmoreland County Demonstration Project During 1979 and 1980.
Well
No.
Well 1
Well 2
Month1
and Year
Sept 79
Oct 79
Nov 79
Dec 79
Jan 80
Feb 80
Mar 80
Apr 80
May 80
Sept 79
Oct 79
Nov 79
Dec 79
Jan 80
Feb 80
Mar 80
Cu
0.
0.
0.
0,
0.
0,
0.
0.
0,
0.
0
0
0
<0
<0
<0
05
.11
07
,09
,04
.01
.01
,05
,05
.02
.03
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
Zn
0.23
0.22
0.14
1.05
0.30
0.07
0.11
0.13
0.31
0.17
0.11
0.01
0.36
0.12
0.04
0.02
Cr
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.01
<0.01
0.01
<0.01
<0.01
0.03
Pb
Co
mg/1
0.14 0.03
0.27
0.14
0.14
0.20
0.02
0.01
0.06
0.04
0.03
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.08
0.02
0.08
0.06
0.01
0.06
0.02
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.05
0.24
0.04
<0.01
0.02
0.10
0.07
0.07
Cd
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.001
<0.001
0.001
0.001
0.003
Ni
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
05
06
05
07
03
.03
.02
0.03
0.
0.
0,
0.
0,
0.
0,
0.
01
17
.04
07
.01
.04
.06
.09
N03-N
17.6
7.1
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
1.3
1.9
1.3
<0.5
1.7
1.0
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
EPA Drinking
Water
Standards
1
.0
5.0
0.05
0.05
5.02
0.01
2
.02
10.0
September values represent pre-treatment conditions.
No limits given for drinking water standards; these are recommended values for
irrigation water for agricultural use.
-------
Sopper and Kcrr 67
allowable limits for potable water. Lead concentrations exceeded the USEPA
standards on both the control and sludge-treated area.
Currently Mined Land—Recontoured With Top Soil
This site located in Somerset County was representative of current
bituminous coal mining operations conducted under Pennsylvania's amended
Surface Mining Conservation and Reclamation Act that requires backfilling
to the approximate original contour and top soil replacement. After top
soil replacement was completed in April, 1978, a 4-hectare demonstration
site was established for sludge application. This project was conducted by
Modern-Earthline Companies, Environmental Consultants for the City of
Philadelphia Water Department.
The site was first scarified with a chisel plow to alleviate surface soil
compaction resulting from heavy equipment traffic in the top-soiling
operation. Agricultural lime was applied at the rate of seven metric tons
per hectare to raise the soil pH to 6.5 (average soil pH was 5.1).
Sludge for the project was obtained from the Philadelphia Northeast
Water Pollution Control Plant. The liquid digested sludge was dewatered by
centrifuging, then composted with wood chips at a rate of 1 part of sludge
to 2 parts of wood chips. The composted sludge, with the wood chips still
included, was then shredded. The compost was transported to the site (400
kilometers) by coal trucks on a return trip after delivering coal. Compost
was applied in early June using manure spreaders. Compost was applied at
the rate of 202 metric tons per hectare. Immediately following spreading,
the compost was incorporated with a chisel plow and disk. The site was
then broadcast seeded with the same grass and legume mixtures as used
in Venango County.
At the rate applied, the mixture supplied 726 kilograms of nitrogen,
464 kilograms of phosphorus, and 181 kilograms of potassium. This is
equivalent to 6700 kilograms of an 11-16-3 commercial fertilizer per hectare.
The amounts of trace metals applied in the compost, along with the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and Pennsylvania Department of
Environmental Resources interim guideline recommendations are given in
Table 4-11. The total trace metal loadings are well below the EPA
recommendations; however, all trace metal loadings except for Cr and Hg
exceeded the PDER recommendations.
Within several weeks a complete vegetation cover was established.
Vegetation height growth and dry matter production were measured at the
end of the first growing season (1978), average vegetation height growth
over the compost treated plot was 20 cm and ranged from 8 to 46
centimeters. Dry matter production averaged 1592 kilograms per hectare and
ranged from 731 to 3742 kilograms per hectare. By the end of the second
growing season (1979), there was a four-fold increase in dry matter
production. Average height increased to 66 cm and average dry matter
-------
68 P'-.nnsylvania Mine Reclamation
Table 4-11, Comparison of Trace Metal Loadings at the Somerset County Demonstration
P'O'er-t with EPA and PDER Recommendations.
Zn
Cd
Pb
KJ
Cr
Compost
Application Rate
203 mt/ha
131
313
5
131
30
40
0.1
Recommendat ions
EPA
(CEC 5-15)1
280
560
11
1120
280
NR2
NR2
PDER
112
224
3
112
7?
11?
0.6
erafe CEC. of site ranged ,'rom 14.0 to 14.8 meq/100 g.
rarommendations given by EPA.
"table 4-12. Average Concentrations of Trace Metals in Foiiar Samples Collected at
t!ie Somerset County Demonstration Site.
^penidi
Ta 1 Ft
birdsfc
Irero':
Trchar,'
;r<>v,v<
-Ui>ges,
.llVl'ls
Compost
Application
.if . in 0
203
203
•ct 0
i 203
203
-prass 203
203
:trh 203
203
ed Tolerance
-',*>
Year
1978
1978
1979
1978
1978
1979
1978
1979
1978
1979
Cu
11
15
9
3
10
7
17
8
18
8
150
Zn
24
52
55
20
67
33
60
71
295
159
300
Cr
0.
1.
1.
0.
0.
74
06
58
,74
,74
0.25
0.
1.
0.
1.
2
82
25
98
00
Pb
0.
5.
5.
1.
7.
5.
3
1.
9,
4
10
;/g -
.63
.12
.08
.10
.70
.42
.94
.75
.57
.92
Co
1.
1.
2.
1.
2,
2,
1
1.
4.
1.
5
,12
,69
.67
.70
.01
.75
.1?
.17
.22
.92
Cd
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
3.
0.
3
11
77
57
14
53
18
54
62
77
58
Ni
0.31
5.48
4.75
2.66
5.32
4.08
4.59
2.92
8.85
5.42
50
production increased to 9089 kilograms per hectare.
Individual samples of each of the two grass and two legume species
•vt-re collected from the compost treated area for foliar analyses to determine
pi-int uptake of trace metals. Tall fescue and birdsfoot trefoil were collected
from an adjacent area that had not received compost but had applications
of iime and commercial fertilizer. Results of the chemical analyses for the
grasses and legume? are given in Table 4-12. At the end of the first growing
season, ]978, foliar trace metal concentrations for all species treated were
below the suggested tolerance levels for agronomic crops, except for the
folur (.onrtntration of cadmium in crownvetch. Foliar concentrations of
ti?ce metals generally decreased by the end of the second year, including
-------
Sopper and Kerr 69
Table 4-13. Analyses of Soil Samples for Extractable Trace Metals at the Somerset
County Demonstration Site.
Year1
1978
1979
Normal
Soils7
Depth
0-15
15-30
30-60
0-15
15-30
30-60
Range in
Cu
3.7
4.6
5.3
25.2
3.2
3.4
2-
100
Zn
1.0
1.1
1.9
54.3
3.3
3.8
10-
300
Cr
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
3.85
0.15
0.10
5-
3000
Pb
2.80
2.80
2.75
33.80
2.75
2.75
2-
200
Co
1.15
1.15
1.65
0.85
0.75
0.75
1-
40
Cd
0.014
0.015
0.017
0.723
0.050
0.042
0.01-
7.00
Ni
0.40
0.35
1.60
3.10
1.85
2.60
10-
1000
1978 represents pre-treatment conditions.
cadmium. The suggested tolerance levels shown in Table 4-12 represent the
levels at which a yield reduction might occur and do not represent the levels
at which toxicity occurs. There were no phytotoxicity symptoms observed
for the vegetation grown on the compost treated area.
To evaluate the effects of the compost on the trace metal concentrations
of the soil, soil samples were collected at various depths in April, 1979,
ten months following the application of the compost. The results of these
analyses are given in Table 4-13. Trace metal concentrations were increased
by the compost application, with the greatest increase occurring at the 15-cm
depth; however, these increased concentrations of the trace metals on the
compost area are within the normal ranges found in soils.
Groundwater samples were collected bi-weekly from monitoring wells
to evaluate the effect of the compost application on water quality. The
primary monitoring well influenced by the compost application is located
along the downslope border of the compost treated plot. Average depth
to groundwater was 12 meters. Results of analysis for trace metals and
nitrate-nitrogen for the period April, 1978 to May, 1980 are given in Table
4-14. Results of the analyses indicated that the application of compost did
not have any significant effect on the concentration of nitrate-nitrogen,
which was consistently below U.S. Environmental Protection Agency potable
water standards. No significant increases in trace metal concentrations were
observed after compost was applied. There is an obvious trend toward
decreasing concentrations during the second and third years. Separate samples
of groundwater were collected on each sampling date and analyzed for
coliforms. No fecal coliform colonies were found in any samples.
-------
70 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
Table 4-14. Groundwater Analyses for Trace Metals and Nitrate-Nitrogen at the
Somerset County Demonstration Site.
Date Cu Zn Cr Pb Co Cd Ni NO-N
Before
Compost
Applied
After
Compost
Applied
1°78
Apr
May
May
Jun
Jun
Jul
Jul
Aug
Aug
Sep
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
1979
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Au.g
Sep
Oct
No/
Dec
1980
Jan
fsb
Mar
Apr
May
19
11
25
12
26
10
24
4
21
7
19
18
10
6
EPA Drinking
0.06
0.07
1.28
0.11
1.11
0.10
0.94
0.09
1.66
0.05
1.01
0.01
0.03
0.72
0.10
<0.01
<0.01
0.09
0.10
<0.01
<0.01
0.16
0.03
0.01
0.07
0.04
0.02
0.17
0.12
1.00
0.26
0.58
1.53
0.86
0.38
2.04
0.29
0.32
1.39
0.44
0.36
0.60
0.31
0.35
0.20
0.10
0.40
0.52
0.74
0.14
0.35
0.32
0.49
0.88
0.55
0.56
0.81
0.89
1.08
5.00
<0.01
0.01
<0.01
0.01
<0.01
0.04
<0.01
0.01
0.04
0.02
0.04
0.04
0.01
0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
0.01
<0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.06
0.09
0.05
<0.01
0.02
0.08
0.01
0.14
<0.01
0.16
0.08
0.09
0.07
0.14
0.02
0.02
0.14
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
0.03
0.06
0.02
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.06
0.05
0.09
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.05
HP / 1
"b/ -L
0,
0.
0,
0.
0,
0.
<0.
0,
0
<0.
<0.
<0
<0.
0
<0
.07
.17
,05
.08
.08
.10
.01
.10
.23
.01
.01
.01
.01
.02
.01
<0.01
<0
0.
0,
0
0.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
.01
.02
.03
.03
.02
.02
.39
.19
.08
.05
.02
.12
.03
.oo1
0.007
0.001
0.001
0.001
<0.001
0.001
0.005
0.005
0.002
<0.001
<0.001
0.001
0.001
0.002
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.002
<0.001
<0.001
0.001
<0.001
0.001
0.003
0.002
<0.001
<0.001
0.010
0.17
0.18
0.30
0.08
0.05
0.10
0.04
0.04
0.47
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.08
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.05
0.01
0.03
0.06
0.03
0.04
0.15
0.10
0.08
0.04
0.25
0.13
2.001
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
10.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
2.2
10.00
Water Standards
Limits for irrigation water for agricultural land. No criteria set for drinking
Anthracite Refuse Bank
Burned and Recontoured
In 1974, a project was initiated in Lackawanna County in the city of
Scranton, Pennsylvania. The project was located on an anthracite refuse bank
that had burned for many years before an underground mine fire was
extinguished. After the fire, the refuse bank had been recontoured and it
remained barren for many years. Heat-dried sludge from the Scranton waste
water treatment plant was transported by truck to the area in May, 1974.
The sludge was spread and incorporated with a tractor and cultivator. Sludge
application rates were 0, 40, 76, and 148 metric tons per hectare. The area
-------
Sopper and Kerr 71
was then planted with 10 species of tree seedlings and broadcast seeded
with 5 species of grasses and 5 species of legumes.
By September, 1974, the entire sludge treated area had a lush vegetative
cover, while the surrounding area remained barren. Even after the fifth
growing season there was no apparent deterioration of the vegetative cover;
in fact, the dry matter production of the herbaceous vegetation had more
than doubled.
Of the 10 tree species planted, the best survival and growth response
was obtained with hybrid poplar, black locust, and European alder. The
average height of the hybrid poplar cuttings at the end of five growing seasons
indicate that the application of 148 mt/ha of sludge nearly doubled the
height growth of the hybrid poplar. The average height of the hybrid poplar
trees grown where no sludge was applied was 2.5 meters, whereas the height
of the poplars grown with 148 mt/ha of sludge was 4.5 meters. The average
basal diameter of the hybrid poplar in the 0 DT/A plot was 2.5 centimeters,
and in the 148 mt/ha plot the average was 6.1 cm. This indicates that after
five years, the production of biomass more than quadrupled with the
application of sludge.
Unburned and Recontoured
This site is located in Lackawanna County in the city of Scranton,
Pennsylvania. Being devoid of vegetation, the area was subject to severe
erosion and was a constant eyesore in the city of Scranton. In order to
demonstrate that sludge can be used in an environmentally acceptable manner
in the cities as well as in the rural areas, four hectares of this area were
selected for reclamation with sludge.
In April, 1978, the 4-ha area was recontoured. A chisel plow was used
to loosen the surface refuse material because of the compaction caused by
the leveling process. Analyses of surface refuse samples indicated a pH of
3.6; therefore 11 mt/ha of lime was applied to the area. Monitoring
instrumentation was installed to collect soil percolate water at the 90-cm
depth; groundwater wells were drilled to monitor the effect of the sludge
on the groundwater leaving the site. Dewatered, vacuum-filtered, sludge was
obtained from the Scranton waste water treatment plant. The sludge was
applied with manure spreaders and incorporated. The area was broadcast
seeded with the same mixture of grasses and legumes as the Venango County
demonstration. The area was then mulched with hay and straw at the rate
of 3.4 mt/ha.
Sludge was applied at 80 and 108 mt/ha. The amounts of trace metals
applied by the sludge application are given in Table 4-15 along with the
EPA and PDER guideline recommendations. Both sludge application rates
were well below all recommendations for maximum trace metal loadings.
The highest sludge application rate applied 1691 kilograms of nitrogen, 456
kilograms of phosphorus, and 141 kilograms of potassium per hectare.
-------
72 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
Table 4-1 5. Comparison of Trace Metal Lo'admgs on the Unburned Anthracite Refuse
Site in Lackawanna County with EPA and PDER Recommendations.
Sludge Application
Recommendations
Rate (mt/ha)
Constituent
Cu
Zn
Cd
Pb
Ni
CT
Hg
80
67
64
1.2
'i9
4.4
16
0.1
108
92
86
1.7
67
5.9
21
0.2
EPA
(CEC 5-15)
280
560
11
1120
280.
NIC
NR2
PDER
112
224
3
112
22
112
0.6
Average CEC of site ranged from 11.1 to 11.6 meq/100 g.
No recommendations given by EPA.
By August, 1978, two months after the sludge application, there was
a complete vegetative cover established. There was no significant difference
in vegetation growth between the two sludge application rates. At the end
of the first growing season (1978), average vegetation height was 41 cm
and average dry matter production was 3655 kg/ha. By the end of the second
growing season (1979) these values more than doubled.
Groundwater monitoring wells were drilled on site and samples collected
bi-weekly after sludge was applied. Results indicate that the sludge
applications had little effect on the groundwater quality with all sample
concentrations of nitrate-nitrogen remaining well below USPHS limits for
potable water. Zinc was the only trace metal which increased in
concentration in the groundwater. However, the highest Zn concentration
recorded (1.35 mg/1) is still well below the drinking water standard for Zn
of 5 mg/1. Separate samples were collected for bacterial analyses. No fecal
coliforrns were found in any sample to date.
Practical Operations
As a result of these successful demonstration projects, a full-scale program
was initiated by the City of Philadelphia and Modern-Earthline Companies
to revegetate large acreages of strip-mined land in Somerset County with
compost-cake mix from Philadelphia. This program included extensive public
relations with contact and explanation of the project to land owners, mining
company officials, township supervisors, and county commissioners. Once
their support was obtained the public relations program was expanded to
include talks to local civic clubs such as Rotary, Lions, and Kiwanis. This
-------
Sopper and Kerr 73
was followed by newspaper articles and TV news coverage of the proposed
project. Eventually a local Advisory Committee was formed. This Advisory
Committee consisted of recognized community leaders. Membership included
local farmers, Soil Conservation District representatives, game commission,
Soil Conservation Service, district forester, county agent, and community
resource development agents. After gaining local community support,
approximately 122 hectares were revegetated in 1979. All of the areas treated
with the compost mix were abandoned strip-mine areas where previous
attempts to revegetate by conventional methods were unsuccessful. These
projects were performed by Modern-Earthline Companies for the Philadelphia
Water Department. During 1980 approximately 280 to 400 hectares will
be reclaimed using a compost-cake mix from the City of Philadelphia.
Conclusions
Results from these demonstration projects prove that stabilized municipal
sludges can be used to revegetate various types of land disturbed by mining
activities in an environmentally safe manner with no adverse effects on
vegetation, soil, or groundwater quality and with little risk to animal or
human health. It appears that the use of these small-scale local demonstration
projects are the best method of obtaining public acceptance and support
for large practical applications.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. Financial support for the demonstration projects
reported herein was provided through Grant No. S-804511-020 from the
Municipal Environmental Research Lab, U.S. EPA, Cincinnati, Ohio; Grants
No. G0133133 and G0166049 from the Bureau of Mines, U.S. Dept. of
the Interior; and the City of Philadelphia Water Department. Special thanks
to Modern-Earthline Companies, Environmental Consultants for the City of
Philadelphia, who conducted the Somerset Demonstration Project. The
Venango, Lackawanna, and Westmoreland County Demonstration Projects
were a cooperative effort with the Bureau of Solid Waste Management of
the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources, the Pennsylvania
Department of Transportation, the Agricultural Stabilization and
Conservation Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the
Appalachian Regional Commission.
Literature Cited
1. Office of Surface Mining and Enforcement. "Permanent Regulatory Program
Implementing Section 501(b) of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act
-------
74 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
of L977." Final Environmental Statement, OSM-EIS-1, U.S. Department of
Interior, 1979.
2. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Municipal Sludge Management:
Environmental Factors," Technical Bulletin EPA 430/9-76-004, MCD-28, 1977.
3. Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources. "Interim Guidelines for
Sewage Sludge Use for Land Reclamation." In The Rules and Regulations of trie
Department of Environmental Resources, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Chapter
75, Subchapter C, Section 75.32, 1977.
4. Ken, S. N., W. E. Sopper and B. R. Edgerton. "Reclaiming Anthracite Refuse
Banks with Heat-Dried Sewage Sludge." In Utilization of Municipal Sewage
Effluent and Sludge on Forest and Disturbed Land, edited by W. E. Sopper and
S. N. Kerr, The Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, Pennsylvania,
pp. 333-351, 1979.
5. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology. "Application of Sewage Sludge
to Cropland: Appraisal of Potential Hazards of the Heavy Metals to Plants and
Animals," Office of Water Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
EPA-430-9-76-013, 63 pp., 1976.
6. Melsted, S. W. "Soil-Plant Relationships," Recycling Municipal Sludges and
Effluents on Land, National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant
Colleges, Wash., D.C., pp. 121-128, 1973.
7. Allaway, W. H. "Agronomic Controls Ovei the Environmental Cycling of Trace
Metals," Adv. Agron. 20:235-271. 1968.
-------
5
UTILIZATION OF MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER AND
SLUDGE FOR FOREST BIOMASS PRODUCTION ON
MARGINAL AND DISTURBED LAND
Sonja N. Kerr and William E. Sopper
The feasibility of increasing woody biomass production from forest energy
plantations through the use of municipal wastewater irrigation was
investigated in Central Pennsylvania on marginal land. Energy plantations
were established to evaluate the growth and development of hybrid poplar
cuttings planted at densities of 0.09, 0.19, 0.37 m^ of growing space per
tree. Treated municipal wastewater was used to irrigate half of the plantations
during the growing season (April to October) at the rate of 5 cm per week.
Wastewater irrigation significantly increased diameter and total height
growth. Total woody biomass (stemwood, bark, and branches) production
was more than doubled by wastewater irrigation.
A second field demonstration was initiated in 1974 in Scranton,
Pennsylvania, using municipal sludge for the reclamation and reforestation
of an anthracite coal refuse bank. Sludge application rates were 0, 40, 75,
and 150 dry metric tons per hectare. Ten species of trees were planted and
five species of grasses and five species of legumes were seeded. The survival
and growth responses were evaluated at the end of each growing season.
After five years, the production of woody biomass increased more than
tenfold with the single application of sludge.
Introduction
With the escalating costs of imported oil and increasing demands for energy.
more and more people are turning to the nation's own resources for
affordable energy. Since current domestic supplies of natural gas and liquid
petroleum products appear to be insufficient to meet current energy
demands, a search for alternative energy sources has been initiated. One viable
alternative for future increased energy production is the utilization of forest
biomass. Wood is the most abundant biomass resource in the United States
(1). However, the Federal Energy Administration (2) estimated that wood
currently supplies about 1.1 to 1.7 quads of energy to the total annual
energy needs in the United States (75 quads). A Society of American
Foresters Task Force (3) has reported that forest biomass could contribute
the equivalent of approximately 9.5 quads to our energy needs. This Task
Force report also indicated that if commercial forestland were fully stocked
and intensively managed, biomass available for energy could increase to the
equivalent of 18.9 quads by the mid-21st century. Forestland is still the
-------
76 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
largest single land use in the United States with forest and brushland
occupying over 33 percent of the total land area (4).
Forests are a renewable resource with the wood produced having many
advantages as an energy source. Wood contains only traces of sulfur, has
no "spill" or "leakage" problems associated with its use, is a continuous
solar energy accumulator, and its use enables carbon and heat to be cycled
in a relatively short time. Furthermore, its combustion can be in compliance
with existing air pollution requirements using available technology and its
combustion product (ash) can be directly used on the land as a source of
potential plant nutrients.
To provide guaranteed supplies of wood for energy, it may be necessary
to establish silviculture energy farms as well as manage natural stands. Fege
et al. (5) estimated that energy farms might reasonably supply enough
biomass to produce 4.5 quads of energy annually, approximately 5 percent
of the current U.S. Energy requirements. The energy farm concept involves
growing forest species in a very intensive manner on a short-term coppice
rotation. Biomass productivity under close-spaced, short-rotation conditions
has been estimated to range from 11.2 to 29.1 dry tons per hectare per
year with current technology.
A key to maximum biomass production is rapid establishment and early
utilization of the growing capacity of the site. Optimized conditions for
nutrients, water, and tree growing space will be required for maximum yield.
This can be accomplished in short-rotation energy plantations by using close
spacings and high tree densities. However, annual biomass production will
be influenced by rainfall and may require irrigation to assure maximum
production. The accelerated harvesting of the short-rotation plantations at
intervals of 4 to 8 yeais may rapidly deplete the site of plant nutrients
and require fertilization to maintain maximum production. Therefore, the
need to irrigate and fertilize might increase forest biomass production costs
considerably. Inman (6) made an economic evaluation of production costs
for silvicultural energy farms and found that the two primary production
cost items were fertilization and irrigation, accounting for up to 40 percent
of the total forest biomass production cost.
A possible economic solution to these two requirements (irrigation and
fertilization) to maximize biomass production might be to utilize treated
municipal wastewater. More than 98 billion liters of wastewater are
discharged daily into streams and lakes throughout the United States and
represent one of the principal point sources of water pollution. Passage of
the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1970 and Public Law 92-500,
the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972, set into
motion federal action to alleviate water pollution and to eliminate the
discharge of pollutants into the nations's waterways by 1985. With federal
cost-sharing funds authorized through the Act more waste treatment plants
are being constructed and a higher degree of treatment is being required.
-------
Kerr and Sopper 77
As a consequence, the volume of secondary treated wastewater will increase
greatly during the next 20 years. Secondary treated wastewater has had most
of the suspended solids and organic matter removed but still contains high
concentrations of dissolved nutrients. In many cases, advanced treatment
is required to reduce nutrient concentrations to acceptable levels prior to
discharge to receiving waters to prevent water pollution. One of the
alternatives for advanced treatment of wastewater is land application.
Passage of the Clean Water Act of 1977 further encouraged land
treatment systems by providing financial incentives. Under this Act,
innovative treatment systems, which include land treatment, are given 85
percent funding for design and construction as opposed to 75 percent funding
for conventional systems. Land treatment systems may require large tracts
of land. For instance, Pound et al. (7) estimated that land requirements
for a 10 mgd wastewater treatment plant might range from 567 to 1377
hectares depending upon climatic, soil, and irrigation application rate. Such
land could be used for the establishment of energy plantations. The forest
energy plantations could benefit from the nutrients in the wastewater, which
might increase biomass productivity and shorten rotation periods, and at
the same time provide a land treatment system for the renovation of the
urban wastewater.
Based upon current levels of short rotation tree crop productivity,
Inman (6) has estimated that 2 to 5 million hectares of land are required
to produce one quad of energy. As the demand for food and fiber production
increases, the availability of prime land for energy production will likely
decrease. With the amount of prime farmland decreasing and the value of
land increasing, it may become necessary to utilize marginal lands or lands
unsuitable for agricultural production to establish energy plantations.
Energy Plantations
Marginal Land
A study was initiated to determine if wastewater irrigation would increase
biomass production on marginal land, and at the same time if the energy
plantation could satisfactorily renovate the wastewater for direct
groundwater recharge.
In 1973, a hybrid poplar (Populus spp.) plantation was established on
an abandoned agricultural field at the Penn State Wastewater Project Facility
on a Hagerstown silt loam soil (Typic Hapludalf). Cuttings were planted
at three spacings of 12, 24, and 48 cm in rows 76 cm apart, which provided
0.09, 0.19, and 0.37 square meters of growing space per tree, respectively.
Six replications were established. Three replications received wastewater
irrigation and three replications were maintained as an unirrigated control.
In 1978, a similar plantation was established adjacent to the existing
-------
78 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
Table 5-1. Typical Concentrations of Selected Chemical Constituents Applied in the
Wastewater.
Constituent
PH
Concentration
7
.5
Constituent
mg/1
Ortho P
Total P
N03-N
NH4-N
Org N
Total N
Cl
K
Ca
Mg
Na
Fe
It
5
8
8
3
18
47
10
47
11
32
0
.3
.6
.0
.0
.2
.9
.1
.3
.8
.9
.8
.5
Cu
Zn
Mn
Cr
Pb
Cd
Co
Ni
Hg
Concentration
Pg/1
81.
183.
70,
45
28
6.
19
25
3.
.6
.0
.0
.8
.9
.8
.1
.6
.9
Table 5-2. Hybrid Poplar Cutting Survival on Marginal Land With and Without Weed
Control.
Plot
Control
Wastewater
Irrigated
Growing
Space
2
m
0.09
0.19
0.37
0.09
0.19
0.37
First Yeari
%
92
94
88
83
93
79
- Survival -
Fifth Yeari
7.
87
93
87
57
79
64
_______
First Year^-
7.
94
95
96
95
98
97
— With weed control.
plantation, which duplicated the exact spacings and treatments. Secondary
treated municipal wastewater was pumped from the University Waste
Treatment Plant to the site. The irrigated plantations received an application
rate of 5 cm per week during the growing season (April to October). Samples
of the wastewater applied were collected at the time of irrigation and
analyzed for various chemical constituents. Typical concentrations of these
constituents are presented in Table 5-1.
To obtain samples of soil water percolate, suction lysimeters were
installed at the 120 cm depth in each growing space subplot of both the
wastewater irrigated and control plantations. Samples were collected within
24 hours after the irrigation period.
Total tree height and basal diameters, (outside bark and 25 cm above
-------
Kerr and Sopper 79
the ground), were measured on all trees in 1977 at the end of the fifth
growing season. Eighteen trees were selected that were representative of the
average height and basal diameter in each growing space for determination
of biomass production. After the sample trees were harvested and all
measurements completed, the entire plantation was harvested. The trees were
cut 5 cm above the ground allowing for coppice regrowth the following
spring. At the end of the 1978 and 1979 growing season, tree heights and
basal diameter were measured on all trees in both plantations.
First-year tree survival and final survival at harvest after 5 years are
given in Table 5-2. Overall survival was higher on the control plot for all
tree densities. It is quite apparent that on the control plot most of the
mortality occurred during the first year. Trees that survived the year of
establishment usually survived until harvest. Survival was slightly lower on
the wastewater irrigated plot during the first year. However, considerable
mortality occurred during the last 4 years. There appears to be no correlation
between survival and tree density. One possible explanation for the higher
mortality in the wastewater irrigated plantations might be the fact that
wastewater irrigation stimulates herbaceous vegetation growth thus providing
a more favorable habitat for mice and rabbits. No cultural treatments were
used to control herbaceous vegetation in this plantation.
In the second hybrid poplar plantation established in 1978, weed
control was used to reduce competition of the herbaceous vegetation with
the newly planted cuttings. Survival was tallied at the end of the first growing
season and the results are given in Table 5-2. Employing weed control during
the first growing season, significantly increased tree survival in the wastewater
irrigated plot to where it surpassed survival in the control plot. As without
Table 5-3. Average Height and Diameter Growth of Hybrid Poplar Cuttings After Five
Growing Seasons on Marginal Land.
Growing - - - Height Growth - - -
Space Control Wastewater Irrigated
0.09 2.9 4.4
0.19 3.2 4.8
0.37 2.8 5.3
Growing - - - Basal Diameter— - - -
Sgace Control Wastewater_Irrigated_
2
0.09 21.5 34.5
0.19 25.5 37.8
0.37 27.5 51.2
I/ Outside bark.
-------
80 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
Table 5-4. Actual and Potential Woody Biomass Production for each Growing Space
in the Hybrid Poplar Plantations on Marginal Land After Five Years.
Treatment
Control
Wastewater
Irrigated
Spacing
2
0.09
0.19
0.37
0.09
0.19
0.37
Woody
Actual
28.4
22.7
8.9
83.7
57.8
37.0
Biomass Productivity ,
Potential-
32.6
24.4
10.2
147.0
73.0
58.0
IV Based upon 100% survival.
weed control there appears to be no direct correlation between survival and
tree density.
Effects of growing space and wastewater irrigation on tree height and
diameter growth after five years are given in Table 5-3. Wastewater irrigation
almost doubled total tree height growth at all spacings. In the wastewater
irrigated plantation there was a direct correlation between growing space
and average total height growth with height growth increasing as growing
space increased. In both the control and irrigated plantations, average
diameter growth increased as growing space increased. Wastewater irrigation
significantly increased average diameter growth at all three growing spaces.
In March 1978, after 5 growing seasons, all trees were harvested and
weighed. Subsamples of trees from each plantation were chipped and
oven-dried to determine average moisture content. Average moisture content
was 54 percent by weight. Total biomass production (stemwood, bark, and
branches) for each growing space is given in Table 5-4 for both the control
and wastewater irrigated plantations. Biomass production in the plantations
was inversely related to growing space, with the highest productivity
occurring in the plantations with 0.09 m2 of growing space per tree.
Wastewater irrigation more than doubled the biomass production at all
spacings. Mean annual biomass increment was 16.7, 11.6, and 7.4 dt/ha for
0.09, 0.19, and 0.37 m2 of growing space, respectively. In the control
plantation, the mean annual biomass increment was 5.7, 4.5, and 1.8 dt/ha
for growing spaces of 0.09, 0.19, and 0.37 m2 respectively. Biomass values
given in Table 5-4 are based only upon the number of surviving trees after
5 years. Wastewater irrigation resulted in a lower survival rate than that
found in the control plantation. If one could control mortality through some
type of cultural treatment, the biomass production could be increased
significantly. For example, the effects of weeding on total height and
diameter growth of the hybrid poplar cuttings planted at the 0.19 m2 spacing
are shown in Figures 5-1 and 5-2. Weeding significantly accelerated diameter
-------
Kerr ,it,d S'ipp-
"J
40
E
530
bJ
I
.J20
',„
0 19m' ;>
CONTROL /' '
— -IRRIGATED /
/
/ WO
/- /
/ / /
1 / ''
1 / ./
/ / S* s*
4 / / ,/
~ /^^
1 2 3 4 •>
AGE (YR)
Figure 5-1. Total Height Growth of Hybrid Poplar Trees Planted on Marginal Lafd
with 0.19 m2 of Growing Space Per free With (W) and Without (WOi
Control.
40 T OI9m2
CONTROL
-p — IRRIGATED
I 2
AGE (YR)
Figure 5-2. Diameter Growth of Hybrid Poplar Trees Planted on Marginal LaoC w.r'i
0.19 m2 of Growing Space Per Tree With (W) and Without (WO) Weeri Comrr.i
and height growth in both the control and wastewatet p!a: 'I.UKSIV IA'IMI
100 percent tree survival, the potential biomass production cc'uld ?pp i-icl
150 dt/ha with 0.09 m^ of growing space per tree.
Coppice biomass production during the second ru'J'.ion w,4i ^rcv.ly
accelerated in both the control and waste-water irrigated plantatioiis At fit
end of the second year, the potential woody biomass pioduc tu,i: «,•,!'
approximately equivalent to that predicted for the fourth y ,u of l!uj :,".;
rotation. Thus, the total woody biomass produced at the end of :!K- sucntv
rotation will undoubtedly greatly exceed that harvested at die end ot ;h"
-------
82 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
first rotation.
Wastewater irrigation was effective in increasing biomass production on
marginal land. However, for the system to operate properly, the plantation
must renovate the wastewater satisfactorily. The fate of nitrogen is one of
the most important aspects that must be considered in regard to land
application of municipal wastewater. This is particularly true for land
application systems where the primary goal is renovation of the wastewater
for direct: recharge to the groundwater reservoir. Renovation, in terms of
nitrogen, means that the concentration of nitrate-N in soil water leaving
the root zone should not exceed 10 mg/1 (U.S. Public Health limit for potable
water). Average monthly concentrations of nitrate-N in the percolating water
at the 120 cm depth are given in Table 5-5. Results indicate that the hybrid
poplar plantations were quite efficient in renovating the wastewater even
after seven years of irrigation, which added 1386 kg of nitrogen per hectare
t'/ the system. The annual average concentration of NO3-N in the percolating
vvater at the 120 cm depth was 7.0 mg/1 after the first year and only increased
to 8.5 mg/1 after 7 years of wastewater irrigation. In comparison the average
annual concentration for the unirrigated control plantation was 3.9 mg/1.
Even though the concentration of NO3-N increased after 7 years, it is below
the USPH limit of 10 mg/1 for potable water.
Renovation is primarily due to uptake of available nitrogen by both
the hybrid poplar trees and the herbaceous vegetation. The contribution of
the vegetative cover to the renovation process is particularly important in
respect to plantation management. While the prolific growth of herbaceous
vegetation in response to the wastewater irrigation is necessary to achieve
maximum uptake of available nitrogen, it also competes with the newly
planted cuttings the first year and provides a favorable habitat for rodent
populations, all of which result in greater tree mortality. This is a trade-off
that mus: be optimized to achieve adequate wastewater renovation and
maximum biomass production.
Table 5-5. Average Monthly Concentration of NOg-N in Percolating Water at the 120-cm
Soil Depth.
Month
May
June
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
Control
mg/1
It.l-
4.3
4.9
3.5
3.8
3.7
2.7
3.3
Wastewater
First Year
mg/1
0.7
3.4
6.2
5.8
12.1
8.1
10.5
9.0
Irrigated
Sixth Year
mg/1
10.6
5.7
8.9
6.1
5.4
7.9
10.2
8.4
3.9 7.0 8.5
— Average of all samples collected at all three growing spaces.
-------
Kerr and Sopper 83
Disturbed Land
With the increasing number of wastewater treatment plants being built and
upgraded to help alleviate water pollution problems, an additional problem
is created by the increased production of sewage sludge. It is estimated that
over 5 million dry tons of municipal sludge are currently being produced
in the United States and that by 1985, this volume may reach 9 million
dry tons per year as wastewater treatment facilities across the country are
upgraded. Currently, most sludge is disposed of by land filling (40%),
incineration (25%), land application (20%), and ocean dumping (15%). Most
of these methods are costly, wasteful, and unproductive. Sludge can be a
valuable resource that should be utilized.
A better alternative to the present methods of disposal of wastewater
treatment plant sludges is land application. The option of recycling sludge
on the land provides an opportunity for beneficial use of the nutrients rather
than disposal of a valuable resource. A considerable amount of research has
demonstrated that stabilized municipal sludge is an excellent soil amendment
and chemical fertilizer substitute. However, some concern has been raised
regarding the potential health hazard of using sludges on agricultural land
and the potential introduction of unwanted elements into the human food
chain. An alternative to agricultural lands is to utilize sludge to revegetate
marginal unproductive lands or barren lands disturbed by coal mining
activities.
It is estimated that nearly half of the world supply of coal, 3.6 trillion
metric tons, lies beneath American Soil. At the present rate of mining,
recoverable deposits should last four hundred years. However, population
and industrial expansion, along with urbanization have placed an increased
demand on these energy reserves with the demand for coal expected to more
than double by 1985. Surface mining of coal is expected to account for
70 percent of this anticipated increased production.
The strip mining industry already has disturbed over 1.8 million hectares
of land in the United States. It is estimated that the removal of the remaining
recoverable coal resources could result in a disturbed land area covering
184,000 square kilometers. Much of these recoverable coal reserves lie
beneath the hill and mountain ridges. Ridge-top mining, once thought to
be too costly, is becoming more economical due to the increased demand
for coal. The ridge-tops, currently occupied by forests, will be harvested
before mining begins. The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of
1977, PL-95-87, states that a permanent vegetative cover of the same seasonal
variety native to the area of land to be affected must be established. Where
coal is surface mined, the reestablishment of a vegetative cover can pose
a significant problem. General site characteristics associated with post-mining
areas include low amounts of plant nutrients and organic matter, low pH,
low water holding capacity, poor physical characteristics, and toxic levels
of trace elements. These conditions may be compounded by high surface
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84 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
temperatures on dark spoil which can pose a potential threat of heat injury
to tree seedlings and impede plant establishment and survival.
On the other hand, a key to maximizing tree growth and woody biomass
production is rapid establishment and utilization of the growing capacity
of the site. In order to alleviate the poor growing conditions present on
a site after surface mining, large applications of lime and fertilizer are often
necessary. In some instances, organic soil amendments and mulches are
needed in order to obtain satisfactory vegetation establishment and meet
the strict reclamation requirements set forth in Public Law 95-87. With the
escalating cost of chemical fertilizers, proper revegetation will become
extremely expensive.
The use of treated municipal sludge to safely ameliorate harsh site
conditions and improve vegetation establishment and growth is well
documented. Its use on mined land to revegetate these disturbed areas into
potential energy forests can minimize many of the public health concerns
since products from the forest are not generally a factor in the human food
chain.
After many years of research into the feasibility of using treated
municipal sludge for the reclamation and reforestation of mined lands, a
field demonstration was initiated in May, 1974 in the City of Scranton,
Pennsylvania. The site was typical of anthracite coal refuse banks that had
burned for many years before an underground mine fire was extinguished.
The resultant material was extremely low in plant nutrients and contained
virtually no organic matter. Dewatered and heat dried sludge was trucked
from the Scranton wastewater treatment plant to the site, where it was spread
and incorporated with standard farm equipment. The area was subsequently
planted with 10 species of tree seedlings and broadcast-seeded with five
species of grasses and five species of legumes. Sludge application rates were
0, 40, 75, and 150 metric tons per hectare, with the highest sludge
application rate equivalent to applying 20 rnt/ha of a 15-4-0 commercial
fertilizer.
The single application of sludge significantly improved the harsh site
conditions. By September, 1974, the entire sludge treated area had a lush
vegetative cover, while the surrounding area remained barren. Even after the
sixth growing season there was no apparent deterioration of the vegetative
cover; in fact, the dry matter production of the herbaceous vegetation more
than doubled. This in part is due to the fact that sludge acts as a slow-release
fercilizer. Since most of the nutrients supplied by the sludge are in the form
of organic compounds, only a certain percentage are mineralized and released
for plant uptake each year. The single application of sludge provided plant
nutrients to sustain vegetation growth for a period of five years. By the
end of this period, a permanent vegetative cover was established and the
natural process of nutrient recycling is now sufficient to sustain the
vegetation.
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Kerr and Sopper 85
The survival and growth responses of the tree species were evaluated
at the end of each growing season. The hardwoods were far superior to
the conifers in terms of both survival and growth. This is partially due to
the fact that the sludge also stimulated the growth of the herbaceous
vegetation, which overtopped and crowded out the slower growing conifers.
Of the ten tree species planted, the best survival and growth response was
obtained with hybrid poplar, black locust, and European alder. Results of
the hybrid poplar height and diameter measurements are given in Table 5-6.
At the end of five growing seasons, it was evident that the hybrid poplars
grown on the area that received a single application of 1 50 mt/ha of sludge
nearly doubled in height growth over the poplars planted in an area that
received no sludge. After five years, the average height of the hybrid poplars
planted in an area that received no sludge was 2.5 meters whereas the height
of the poplars grown in the sludge treated area was 4.5 meters. The average
basal diameter of the poplars in the unsludged area was 2.5 cm and in the
150 mt/ha area, 6.1 cm. The potential woody biomass of the hybrid poplars
at the end of five growing seasons was calculated using average height and
basal diameter measurements and assuming 100 percent survival. The results
are given in Table 5-7. The results indicate that on an area where no sludge
was applied to the burned anthracite refuse, 5 mt/ha of woody biomass
Table 5-6. Average Height and Diameter Growth of Hybrid Poplar Cuttings Grown
on Anthracite Refuse After Five Growing Seasons.
Sludge
Application
Rate
mt/ha
0
40
75
150
Height
m
2.46
3.41
3.80
4.53
Diameter
mm
25
42
47
61
Table 5-7. Potential Woody Biomass Production of the Hybrid Poplars Grown on
Anthracite Refuse After Five Years.
Sludge
Application ,
Rate Potential— Biomass Production
mt/ha mt/ha
0 5.0
40 19.8
75 27.6
150 55.3
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86 Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation
was produced; whereas, in the area that received an application of 150 mt/ha
of sludge, 55 mt/ha of woody biomass was produced. This indicates that
after five years the production of woody biomass increased more than tenfold
with the single application of sludge.
Conclusions
With increased population and industrial expansion, along with urbanization,
the demand for energy is expected to steadily increase. Due to the limited
supply of existing fossil fuel resources, alternative renewable energy sources
are being investigated. Results of these two field studies indicate that there
is a common relationship between the two concepts of land treatment of
municipal wastewater and sludges and increased woody biomass production
on silvicultural energy farms.
The use of wastewater and sludge on marginal and disturbed lands
provides an economical method of establishing and growing wood fiber and
at the same time efficiently renovates wastewater for groundwater recharge
and utilizes sludge without adverse effects to the environment.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. Financial support was provided by the Department
of Energy (DOE) Grant No. ET-78-G-01-3066. Partial support was also
provided by the Northeastern Forest Experiment Station of the USDA Forest
Service through the Urban Forest Research Program and the Bureau of Mines,
U.S. Department of the Interior, Grants No. G0133133 and G0166049.
However, any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed
herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views
of DOE.
Literature Cited
1. Rochlin, G. I. 1974. Scientific Technology and Social Change. Readings for
Scientific American. W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco, 403 pp.
2. Federal Energy Administration. 1976. National Energy Outlook. U.S. Gov. Print.
Office, Washington, D.C. 562 pp.
3. Society of American Foresters Task Force. 1979. Forest Biomass as an Energy
Source. Washington, D.C. 7 pp.
4. USDA, Forest Service. 1973. The Outlook for Timber in the United States. Forest
Service Report No. 20, 367 pp.
5. Fege, A. S., R. E. Inman and D. J. Salo. 1979. Energy Farms for the Future.
Jour, of Forestry, 77(6):3S8-361.
6. Inman, R. E. 1977. Silvicultural Biomass Farms. Vol. I Summary, MITRE Tech.
-------
Kerr and Sopper 87
Report No. 7347, Vol I, 62 pp.
7. Pounds, C. E., R. W. Crites and R. G. Smith. 1975. Cost-Effective Comparison
of Land Application and Advanced Wastewater Treatment. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, EPA- 430/9-75-016, 25 pp.
-------
/ PHILADELPHIA STRIP MINE
RECLAMATION PROGRAM
OVERVIEW
G. Kenneth Dotson
In Section II, the small reclamation demonstration projects of the state of
Pennsylvania were discussed. Several other small research and demonstration
projects will be discussed in the symposium, but there are few large full-scale
mine reclamation projects with sludge, where economic and engineering
feasibility can be evaluated. In this section, one such project will be discussed
from the point of view of the city that produces sludge, the contractor
who reclaims the mine spoil, and the state agency with regulatory
responsibility.
The permanence of the increase in productivity of the spoil that is
invariably observed from sludge use remains to be determined. The
Pennsylvania demonstrations show that all application rates used have
supported grass and legumes for three years. The project will be continued
for two more years to determine whether the grass and legumes will continue
to grow satisfactorily after five years from the time of sludge application.
One of the early studies, using anaerobically digested liquid sludge for
reclamation purposes, was conducted at two sites in Stark County, Ohio
in ]965. One site, in Pike Township, was divided into diked plots upon
which sludge was applied from a tank truck at rates varying from three
to fifteen gallons per square foot. The spoil was classified as marginal for
reclamation because of strong acidity, but it was not so acidic as to prevent
tree growth.
A second site, in Sandy Township, was very small, but too acidic to
reclaim with conventional reclamation methods. The pH varied from 2.8
to 3.3 and had thwarted reclamation efforts for eight years.
After application, the liquid sludge was allowed to dry enough to form
cracks and a mixture of four grasses and one legume was surface sown.
Vigorous growth resulted wherever the dried sludge thickness was one inch
or more. I visited the sites in 1968, and again in 1972, and found a thick
stand of grass in the plots. No crop had been removed so nutrients were
recycled. If a crop had been harvested and removed from the site annually,
frequent maintenance applications of nutrients might have been required to
maintain a satisfactory growth rate.
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Dotson 89
Even though sludge is very effective when it is used to renovate
recalcitrant mined lands, there are many questions concerning future use
of the land to be answered before plans for sludge use can be developed
with confidence. There is little need for concern about the metals added
to the land. However, if society decides that the land should be returned
to production of crops, or developed into residential sites the same
restrictions on sludge application that are used on agricultural land will be
needed. So, some of the decisions about the use of sludge on mined land
are political decisions to be made by society. There is little need for concern
about the metals added to the land, if the vegetative cover to be established
is to meet regulating requirements on land that will not be used for crops
or residential development.
-------
6
PHILADELPHIA'S SLUDGE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM-A
MULTI-FACETED APPROACH
Frank Senske and Diane Garvey
History
Ocean dispersal of sewage sludge was first practiced by Philadelphia in 1961.
In 1972, the Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act (PL92-532)
was passed by Congress and ocean barging was banned as a disposal method.
Soon after, U.S.E.P.A. Region III formulated a permitting system whereby
the City would reduce the quantity of barged sludge by 50% before 1979,
and totally stop barging before 1981.
The City filed an appeal against the agency's decision based on extensive
studies at two disposal sites which revealed little evidence of damage to
the marine environment.
At the same time, the public became very concerned about dumping
of wastes in the ocean. Political and emotional aspects of the issue were
highly visible in newspaper and magazine articles. Many unexplained
phenomena, such as the occurrence of a sonic boom over the ocean, were
attributed to ocean barging of municipal sludge. Subsequently, the courts
ruled that PL93-532 would be rigidly interpreted.
The City was forced to quickly substitute ocean disposal with alternate
methods while, at the same time, new secondary wastewater treatment plants
were being constructed. The new plants now produce 190 DTPD of sludge
and by 1985 it is expected that daily production will reach 305 DTPD.
To evaluate new sludge alternatives, the City examined three general
categories: thermal processing, land disposal and land utilization. The
following section is an evaluation of the major alternatives that were
considered.
Alternatives
Thermal Processing
Incineration is a form of volume reduction whereby solid waste is sterilized
and reduced in volume. Actually, this is a processing step before final disposal
or utilization on land. For a large city, incineration is a viable alternative
because the land requirements are minimal. Also, if sludge is coincinerated
with municipal refuse, it is possible to recover energy for direct use by the
City. Another thermal process, starved air combustion systems (pyrolysis),
is suitable for highly toxic sludges because less particulates are emitted and
-------
Senske and Garvey 91
many non-biodegradeable pollutants such as PCB's are destroyed.
Conversely, incineration has disadvantages which may pose
insurmountable problems, including the release of heavy metals to the
atmosphere. Even the use of scrubbers, precipitators and cyclones does not
prevent long-range atmospheric transport of pollutants. For instance,
conventional air pollution control devices permit 40% of cadmium in the
waste to be emitted (1).
Another drawback of sludge incinerators is the high cost of fuel oil
needed. Even when codisposed with refuse, substantial quantities of fuel
are needed to evaporate the moisture from sludge before the material reaches
an autogeneous state. In an EPA study of 150 sludge incinerators, 10% of
these were shut down due to high fuel costs or inability to meet air quality
standards and an additional 20% were in violation of their State
Implementation Plan.
Although land requirements for an incinerator are minimal, the siting
of an incinerator is difficult due to localized citizen objections. Also, disposal
of ash, usually in a slurry form, requires a suitable area for lagoons or a
landfill.
Finally, thermal processing sacrifices the valuable organic fiber and
essential micro and macro-nutrients, contained in sewage sludge. Unlike
commercial fertilizers, the nutrients are in a temporarily bound form and
are released slowly over a 2 to 4-year period.
One form of thermal processing has been undertaken by the City as
an alternative. The Ecorock process designed by the Franklin Institute
Research Laboratory is a demonstration project whereby dewatered sewage
and municipal solid waste incinerator residue will be combined in a rotary
kiln. The inert material in the wastes will reach molten state at 1800 F
which, when cooled, becomes a hard rock. The rock when crushed is
expected to be an excellent road aggregate which will pass Federal Highway
Administration testing for skid resistance. Construction of the pilot plant
is scheduled to be completed in July, 1981.
Land Disposal
Sludge disposal in landfills may serve as a short-term disposal method;
however, a survey of landfills available for Philadelphia sludge showed an
uncertain future. PaDER does not recommend landfilling sewage sludge with
municipal refuse and at present, no landfills are open for sludges.
Surface impoundments (lagoons) are used for interim storage but are
not suitable as a long-term solution due to the humid climate in this area.
In arid climates where the evaporation rate is high, lagoons may be a
long-term solution.
Land Utilization
This alternative is inherently different from other options since sludge-based
-------
92 Philadelphia Strip Mine Reclamation
soil conditioners utilize the nutrients and organic material contained in
municipal wastes. Sludge-based products are 40-50% organic matter and this
imparts beneficial characteristics to the soil. Increased water retention and
granulation, decreased plasticity and cohesion, high cation exchange capacity
and organic forms of nitrogen, phosphorous and sulfur are all characteristics
of organic soil (3). Small amounts of organic compounds are of great benefit
to plant life and it is believed that growth inducing substances, such as
vitamins, hormones and amino acids, are taken up directly through the roots
of plants (3). The application of sludge benefits the land in this manner
by imparting organic characteristics to the soil.
Large amounts of land are required for a successful land application
program. Philadelphia, producing an expected 70,000 DTPY, would require
about 2000 acres per year of state permitted farmland, reclamation land
and landscaped area combined.
Public acceptance is required before a land utilization program can be
fully implemented. It has been found that citizens outside Philadelphia
County are concerned about surface and groundwater contamination,
introduction of heavy metals on the food chain, odor problems and
pathogens. Educational programs must be conducted to show that by using
a high quality sludge under proper management techniques, such drawbacks
are avoided. Other more radical opponents of sludge utilization voice
unfounded accusations ranging from sludge causing fetal abnormalities to
land application being an underhanded plot to dispose of Three Mile Island's
radioactive material. Only many years of successful and responsible land
application projects can change these attitudes.
Other alternatives to ocean dispersal are the high technology methods.
Private companies have made many proposals involving "special processes"
whereby dangerous substances would be annihilated or permanently found
in an inert form. Usually these proposals are unproven and costly. Even
if the process is economically and scientifically feasible, the POTW is
ultimately responsible for its sludge. Sludge is produced daily and a POTW
is reluctant to place itself in a situation where final sludge disposal will
be totally dependent on a private enterprise.
Philadelphia's Experience
After investigating the alternatives, Philadelphia formulated the following
Sludge Master Plan (4):
1. Product and Market Development
A. Give Away Program
B. Market Evaluation
C. Disinfection Evaluation
D. Recycle Center
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Senske and Garvey 93
E. Industrial Waste Regulations
F. Composting Program
2. Sludge Diversion
A. Dewatering Program
B. Liquid Application Program
3. Alternative Methods for Using Diverted Sludge
A. Reclamation Program
B. Landfill Program
C. Agricultural Uses
D. Non-Agricultural Uses
E. Resources Recovery Programs
The plan involved utilization rather than disposal techniques as
recommended by the Federal government in the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act. Therefore, the quality of sludge is of major importance. One
way in which Philadelphia maintains a consistently high quality sludge is
through Industrial Waste Regulations.
Starting in 1977, before Federal agencies promulgated industrial effluent
metal limitations, the City implemented its own set of metals limitations
on industrial effluent entering the sewage system (See Table 6-1). This step
has significantly lowered metals concentrations in the sludge as can be seen
in the before and after liquid sludge analysis shown in Table 6-2. The
Northeast Plant is especially influenced since it serves the City's major
industrial area.
Enforcement of the regulations is conducted by a special unit in the
Water Department. Automatic samplers are placed at industrial connections
and various interceptors to monitor BOD and suspended solids or metals,
and appropriate surcharges are collected. When monitoring data indicate a
mobile source, the Industrial Waste Unit cooperates with the Police
Department in prosecuting "midnight dumpers".
Another method of improving the final product is sludge digestion. At
both treatment plants sludge is anaerobically digested for at least 15 days
at 98 F. This is a Process to Significantly Reduce Pathogens according to
EPA. This process also reduces odors and produces a more acceptable
material.
The digested product at 5% solids can be utilized in the City's Liquid
Philorganic Program. The material not only contains up to 50% organic
matter, but also ranges between 3 and 4% nitrogen by weight. When the
liquid is sprayed or injected on grain or sod farms, it can supply 100%
of the crop's nitrogen demand without exceeding PaDER metals limitations.
The City provides supervised application of Liquid Philorganic to
suitable farmers in the five-county metropolitan area surrounding
Philadelphia. A suitable farmer is one who uses responsible farming
techniques on land of less than 15% slope and fairly well-drained soils. The
program, according to DER guidelines, promotes the practice of good soil
-------
94 Philadelphia Strip Mine Reclamation
Table 6-1. Philadelphia Industrial Effluent Limitations: Effective Date. January 1, 1977.
METAL
Arsenic
Silver
Cadmium
Nickel
Lead
Zinc
Copper
Chromium
Mercury
Selenium
PRE-effectlve date
connections
mg/1
1
5
0.1
10
3
30
15
15
0.005
POST-effective date
connections
mg/1
1
3
0,
3
1
5
3
3
0,
0,
,1
.005
.1
Table 6-2. Typical Analyses of Philadelphia Liquid Digested Sludge.
Metal
Cadmium
Copper
Nickel
Lead
Zinc
Chromium
Northeast
1976
100
2200
350
2600
5700
2200
1979
mg/kg dry wt.
30
1100
350
700
(4700)
1000
Southwest
1976
25
1100
100
2700
2700
1200
1979
20
750
100
750
(2800)
350
These values are expected to drop due to decreased zinc usage in the
Water Distribution System.
0369
Figure 6-1. Percent Organic Matter in Soil (N X 20).
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Senske and Garvey 95
conservation techniques such as contour plowing, slope limitations and buffer
zones.
A farmer using Philorganic has reduced fertilizer requirements and can
save approximately $40/acre [in 1979 dollars]. In addition to fertilizing
ability, liquid sludge can renew the supply of organic material removed by
cropping. Figure 6-1 shows the extent to which organic matter is lost by
normal farming practices. About 25% of the organic matter is lost from
the 0 to 6 inch layer as a result of cropping (4).
The application of the liquid is coordinated with the farmer's
management plan but equipment operators and field supervision is conducted
by Water Department employees and contractors. The applicator vehicle is
especially designed to prevent soil compaction through the use of flotation
tires. Tanker trucks transport the liquid to the site where it is then transferred
to the applicator vehicles. The vehicles owned by the City each have the
ability to both inject and spray liquid sludge at constant rates. However,
the liquid program is limited due to low application rates (see Table 6-3)
and high transportation costs. Furthermore, public opposition has slowed
almost every liquid project undertaken outside the City boundaries.
In order to develop other sludge management alternatives, the digested
sludge must be dewatered. The dewatering facilities at the Southwest Water
Pollution Control Plant include two Bird HB6400 units rated at 100 DTPD
and an Infilco filter press rated at 150 DTPD. The total plant dewatering
capacity is 350 DTPD and a sludge cake is produced which averages 25%
solids.
At the Northeast Plant, two Sharpies centrifuges dewater 50 DTPD each
and three Carter belt filter presses at a rated capacity of 50 DTPD bringing
the total dewatering capacity of this plant to 250 DTPD.
After dewatering, sludge is loaded on dump trucks and transported to
the interim composting sites at each plant. The extended pile aeration
Table 6-3. Philadelphia Agricultural Application Rates.
Parameter
Cadmium
Copper
Nickel
Lead
Zinc
Chromium
Nitrogen
Pa.DER Limits
Ibs/a/yr
1
20
4
20
40
20
crop
Liquid
NE
Sludge
SW
- - Solids loading
17
9
6
14
4
10
6
25
13
20
13
7
29
5
Compos
NE
rate (dt/a/yr)
34
9
13
18
9
25
23
it
SW
34
22
33
17
10
40
30
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96 Philadelphia Strip Mine Reclamation
GX:
»«h-H -
, h-
s,
pr
st
1'
reened
oduct
orage
UTILIZATION METHODS
2 Strip Mine Reclamatioi
3 Bulk Give Away
4 Small L'ser Glve Away
5 Marketing
6 Special Dro}ects
Figure 6-2. Sludge Handling, Processing, and Utilization.
method works well using woodchips as a bulking agent with a ratio of sludge
to woodchips of 1:2. The woodchips are a major expense at $8 per yd^
so a shredder/screen system is used to reclaim the chips. Moreover, the
screened compost is a fine, homogeneous soil conditioner which is used for
several programs: marketing, small user Philorganic Giveaway and special
projects. At this time, screening capacity is limited to 200 yds^/day;
therefore, the Philorganic Give Away also offers unscreened material to large
users.
A schematic diagram of sludge handling and processing is shown in
Figure 6-2, as well as a list of utilization methods. Bulk giveaway and small
user giveaway are part of the Philorganic program. Compost and instructional
brochures can be picked up by the homeowner or landscaper at one of
two distribution centers in the City. At present, no EPA guidelines have
been recommended for distribution and marketing of sludge-amended
products; therefore, the Water Department has adopted a conservative policy
on Philorganic recommendations. For instance, Philorganic is not
recommended for use on vegetables.
The volume given away each year has been steadily increasing. This
is attributed to improved sludge quality and continuous efforts towards
developing public awareness. Public education is achieved through a hotline
number which, when dialed, provides a recording with information for the
potential user. The hotline number is broadcast on television and radio public
service announcements and through Philorganic posters on City vehicles.
Another tool used to increase public awareness is a standing floor display
equipped with signs, illustrations and instructional brochures. The exhibit
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Senske and Garvey 97
has been shown in lobbies and offices around town, and at libraries, trade
shows and conventions in the metropolitan area. The major educational event
used by the Philadelphia Water Department is the Philadelphia Flower Show
where more than 200,000 people have an opportunity to learn about all
of the City's sludge utilization projects.
Dry and Liquid Philorganic is also used in several special projects. Ball
fields, parks and City-owned golf courses have been rejuvenated. Landfills
and abandoned lots have been reclaimed using specialized equipment capable
of incorporating compost to a depth of eighteen inches.
The Marketing Program has just recently gone on line. The Southwest
compost material under the tradename of "Gardenlife" will be sold under
contract in 40-pound bags, by a firm which expects to sell 50,000 bags
of screened product before July of 1981. This may eventually phase out
the giveaway program, but both will continue until marketing proves
successful.
Strip mine reclamation projects utilize a special combination of sludge
products: one part unscreened compost and one part dewatered digested
sludge. This "mine mix" has a higher nitrogen content than straight compost
and operational costs are reduced by deleting the composting steps for 50%
of the material. At the same time, transportation costs are less than those
of liquid and are feasible for the 250 mile haul.
In 1978, a demonstration was performed on 10 acres of land in
Somerset County. The 90 dry ton per acre application rate stimulated the
growth of a mixture of grasses and legumes. Extensive monitoring was
conducted by Perm State University and included laboratory analysis of
surface water, soil water, ground water, vegetation, sludge products and yield
studies. Parameters tested include 11 metals, various forms of nitrogen,
nutrients and fertilizer equivalents. Results for the monitoring program
indicated the worth of the application program to the reclamation process
and showed no detrimental effects to site water or vegetation.
In full-scale projects, application rates are calculated in accordance with
PaDER Guidelines, "Sewage Sludge Use for Land Reclamation," (Chapter
75, Subchapter C, Section 75.32). Table 6-4 shows how these limits affect
Philadelphia's program. Philadelphia sludge is low in metals; thus, maximum
rates of 60 dt/acre can be applied without surpassing the recommended metal
loading rates.
For each reclamation project, a permit application is prepared for the
City by Modern-Earthline Company and submitted to PaDER. Copies of
the application are also sent to Township Supervisors and the local health
department for their review.
Once a permit is approved, local truckers are hired to transport the
sludge. Usually these are coal trucks delivering coal to Philadelphia and
transporting mine mix back to western Pennsylvania. Upon delivery to the
site the sludge is deposited in a designated, bermed area.
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98 Philadelphia Strip Mine Reclamation
Table 6-4. Philadelphia Reclamation Application Rates.
Mix-Material Pa. DER Limits Amount Applied
Cadmium
Copper
Nickel
Lead
Zinc
Chromium
mg/kg
5
625
94
473
1495
377
Ibs/acre
3
100
20
100
200
100
Ibs/acre
0.6
75
11
57
179
45
Pa.DER Max. solids loading rate is 60 DT/AC
2 At 60 DT/AC
Once a mine is backfilled and topsoil replaced, inspectors from the
Office of Surface Mining visit the site and check for proper drainage features,
erosion control and suitable slopes. Approval may be given with specified
conditions such as mulching, diversions, gravel waterways or sedimentation
ponds. When DER receives written approval from the Office of Surface
Mining, a solid waste specialist also performs a site investigation. Again
recommendations are made for erosion and runoff control and a permit may
be approved with additional conditions. Often conditions include: staking
haybales where gullies form for purposes of filtration, contour incorporation
of mine mix, buffer zones where slopes exceed 15%, netting and
woodshavings in gullies..
Occasionally, a finished portion of a site that is not completely
backfilled can be approved for temporary storage of the sludge product.
A suitable storage site must be backfilled to the original contour, leveled
and bermed. The mine mix is then covered with plastic to prevent infiltration
of rain water.
In order to facilitate proper loading rates during application projects,
two-acre plots are staked out and the appropriate amount of sludge product
is spread in each area. For instance, at a loading rate of 60 dt/ac each 2
acre area receives 10 truckloads of mine mix. Prior to sludge application,
the area is also limed and the pH is brought up to at least 6.5.
Local farmers are employed to spread the material using manure
spreaders. In addition, a special vehicle, the Ag Chem "Terragator" is also
used to spread mine mix. This large five wheeled vehicle has a 17-ton capacity
and can apply a full load in 5 minutes. Incorporation along the contour
is performed using a disk or tractor.
A seed mixture of two legumes and two grasses are then broadcast
at a rate of 60 Ib/acre. The varieties are chosen according to their suitability
-------
Senske and Garvey 99
to the season and sludge compatability. The most popular varieties are
crownvetch, alfalfa, winter rye, birdsfoot trefoil, orchard grass, and tall
fescue. Vegetation is analyzed annually for metals by Penn State Laboratories
and within two years the area is suitable for grazing.
Summary
Despite difficulties encountered in implementing sludge utilization
alternatives, the City of Philadelphia is now involved in several full-scale
sludge utilization programs. The following is a brief description of each
alternative:
The Ecorock Sludge-Residue Fusion Demonstration Plant is now under
construction. This process will utilize the inert portion of digested dewatered
sludge to produce a dense rock suitable for use as road aggregate.
Liquid sludge is applied on farmland for pastures, grain and sod farms.
The application is free to qualifying farmers in the five-county Philadelphia
area and can supply up to 100% of the crop's nitrogen requirements.
The Philorganic Giveaway Program provides residents of the Philadelphia
area with a high quality soil conditioner. Dry Philorganic is not recommended
for use on vegetable gardens but instructions are provided for use on house
plants, landscaping projects, trees, shrubs, lawns and flower gardens.
The screened compost product is marketed in 40-lb. bags under the
registered trade name of Gardenlife. Vendors of the product include
nurseries, florists, supermarkets and hardware stores.
The strip mine reclamation program utilizes the largest quantity of
sludge product. The digested sludge-compost mixture is trucked to western
Pennsylvania and applied to backfilled stripmines. This method of
reclamation results in lush vegetative growth whereas conventional techniques
result in minimal growth.
In the future, the Water Department will continue to pursue its
multi-faceted sludge management policy and hopefully develop each Program
to the point where it could utilize the majority of the sludge generated
by the City. This should provide the greatest degree of flexibility in dealing
with changing attitudes and regulations.
Literature Cited
1. U.S.E.P.A., A Review of Standards of Performance of New Stationary Sources
Sewage Sludge Incinerators EPA 450/2-27-010. 1979.
2. U.S.E.P.A., Retrieval Edit Report, Compliance Data System: Incineration
Compliance Status. Office of Enforcement, Washington, D.C., March 13. 1980.
3. "The Nature and Properties of Soils" 8th Edition, by Nyle C. Brady, Macmillan
-------
1C;1! Philadelphia Strip Mine Reclamation
Publishing Co, Inc. N.Y pp. 150, 151, 160. 1974.
') ' ^1111,'tMphi.i's Managemint Plan A Status Report" by Steven Townsend and
Ffn;'k S^rske, Sanitary Engmeeis, Philadelphia Water Department. 1980.
-------
7
IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PHILADELPHIA STRIP-MINE
RECLAMATION PROGRAM IN SOMERSET COUNTY,
PENNSYLVANIA
Douglas T. Murray and Todd Giddings
Public opinion on the utilization of municipal sewage sludge and compost
for revegetation of strip-mined land ranges from reluctance to strong
opposition in rural Pennsylvania. The demonstration-site approach was
chosen for implementation of Philadelphia's program in order to overcome
this situation and to gain the confidence of rural communities for full-scale
operations in subsequent years. Citizen involvement, through monitoring, and
an education program were key aspects for maintaining acceptance gained
through the first year's demonstration phase.
Background
The successful implementation of Philadelphia's strip-mine reclamation
program was based on Modern-Earthline Companies' more than 15 years
of experience in the waste disposal field and on more than 10 years of
research on sludge utilization by The Pennsylvania State University. In view
of the traditional public opinion that sludge is a waste product for disposal
and that utilization poses a health hazard, a demonstration-site approach
was chosen to form the basis of an education program to gain acceptance
of sludge utilization for strip-mined land reclamation. The reluctance of the
general public was compounded by the hesitancy of rural communities to
accept sludge from a large, metropolitan area even though these rural areas
were where the greatest benefit could be derived from utilization of the
sludge. Candidate sites in several counties were rejected by local officials
except in Somerset County where the County Commissioners supported the
operation of a demonstration site.
Approach
The demonstration-site approach was selected for several reasons. The
proposed site was only ten acres in area, and being very small in size, would
not pose a large imagined threat to health in the minds of the public.
Monitoring of all environmental aspects of the project was conducted in
a very thorough and intense manner so that all possible questions of
environmental impact and health aspects could be answered for the
questioning public. This demonstration-plot approach is similar to that often
-------
102 Philadelphia Strip Mine Reclamation
utilized by county extension agents who introduce a new corn variety on
a small part of one farmer's field so that many of the farmers in the county
can then visit that field at the end of the growing season and observe
first-hand the success of this new and formerly untested seed.
Site Selection
The site selection process was the first key step to developing the
demonstration site. A site was chosen that was readily visible from an
improved township road and in a location that was readily accessible from
the nearby communities. Also, the site was adjacent to an area that was
strip mined the previous year and reclaimed by commercial fertilizer and
conventional reclamation methods to provide a comparison of the standard
reclamation methods with the results from utilizing municipal sewage sludge.
Design
The design of the operation emphasized the employment of local people
for all appropriate work in conducting the project. Local truckers were hired
to haul the composted sewage sludge from Philadelphia to the site, and local
farmers were hired with their equipment to spread and incorporate the
compost and to seed the site. In this way, many local people gained a
first-hand personal experience with the operation, economic benefit, and
were able to explain it to their neighbors.'
Operation
The operation was designed by technical consultants to Modern-Earthline
Companies, and all operational phases were supervised by both management
and technical personnel, who were on site at all times during the operation
to direct the work. An extraordinarily thorough monitoring program was
designed and implemented at the site to provide answers to almost every
question that could be posed by the skeptical public. Soil characteristics,
soil-water quality, and ground-water quality were sampled and analyzed prior
to application of the compost, and then soil-water and ground-water were
monitored frequently throughout the application operation and first two
years of vegetation growth. Soil samples and vegetation samples were
analyzed at the end of the first and second years' growth to demonstrate
that no harmful build-up of heavy metals or other elements in the soil or
vegetation had occurred. The vegetation growth was more dense and lush
than the neighboring, conventionally reclaimed site and provided a good
contrast for the local citizens to observe and compare the benefits of utilizing
the compost.
Education
Recognizing the health concerns and general opposition of the uninformed
public to a project of this type, a comprehensive public education program
-------
Murray and Giddings 103
was implemented early in the project. Informational meetings utilizing 35
mm slide programs and question-and-answer sessions were conducted
throughout the county with such groups as the Conservation District, the
Lions Club, and the Rotary Club. In this way, a foundation was prepared
to indicate that there was no risk posed to public health by this project,
and that all aspects were very thoroughly designed and monitored.
Descriptive pamphlets were passed out to site visitors and interviews and
news releases were prepared for local TV, newspaper, and other news media.
Full-scale Operation
The second step in the demonstration-site approach was to utilize the very
satisfactory monitoring data and successful revegetation results as the
technical basis for expanding the utilization of compost and sludge to a
full-scale operation in the second year. Therefore, early in 1979 several public
meetings were held throughout Somerset County to present the results of
the demonstration site operation and to explain the proposed expansion to
a full-scale operation at several locations throughout the county. A Strip
Mine Reclamation Advisory Board was formed, and these public officials
and citizens met monthly with operational and technical personnel to discuss
the operation and monitoring results of the project. This group provided
a liaison with the citizens and assisted in explaining their experiences with
the project and in educating their neighbors. The Advisory Board conducted
site visits and tours of the six sites that were reclaimed in several areas
of the county during 1979. Following these site visits, they provided
suggestions and guidance for future operations.
Th,e next step in the process was to build upon the experience that
had been gained in revegetating approximately 300 acres in 1979 in order
to facilitate permitting, operation, and monitoring of the approximately 700
acres reclaimed utilizing compost and sludge in 1980. Many procedures and
designs were standardized to facilitate installation and operation of the
ground-water quality monitoring wells, installation and maintenance of
sediment and erosion control structures, and to maintain and coordinate
input from the Somerset County Conservation District and Soil Conservation
Service personnel. These procedures were developed to assist operational,
technical, and Department of Environmental Resources review personnel in
conducting the various activities necessary to permit, operate, and monitor
many sites located in several counties.
Summary
The demonstration-site approach to developing a large-scale (multi-site and
-------
104 Philadelphia Strip Mine Reclamation
multi-county) program for the utilization of Philadelphia compost and sewage
sludge has proven to be very successful. Key aspects of the program were
the continuous involvement of experienced operations and technical
personnel in every project phase, involvement of local citizens both working
on the operations and in providing review and input, close coordination with
the Department of Environmental Resources technical staff, and an on-going
public education program. The success of the program has spread throughout
Somerset and neighboring counties, and many strip-mine operators are now
desirous of being involved in the program. Continued public education
activities will be necessary as new sites are developed in new areas.
Modern-Earthline Companies is now utilizing specialized equipment and
following the proven approach of local involvement and close coordination
so that the continued success of this strip-mine reclamation program
throughout a wider area of western Pennsylvania is assured.
-------
8
ONE ALTERNATIVE TO OCEAN DISPOSAL OF SLUDGE:
RECYCLING THROUGH LAND RECLAMATION
Sonja N. Kerr and William E. Sopper
With the cessation of ocean disposal of sludge mandated for December 31,
1981, large coastal metropolitan cities are faced with a dilemma. They must
come up with an environmentally acceptable alternative. Usually there is
very little land in close proximity to the city for use as either an on-going
land-based utilization facility or area available to be dedicated as a sanitary
landfill. Incineration is becoming more and more costly as the price of natural
gas increases and it becomes increasingly more difficult to meet the strict
federal and state air pollution requirements. The City of Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, with the help of Modern-Earthline Companies, has
demonstrated that sludge can be used to revegetate barren strip mine land
in Western Pennsylvania, 400 kilometers from the city limits, in an
environmentally safe manner and at the same time it can be economically
competitive with other methods of sludge disposal.
Introduction
Over 4.5 million dry metric tons of municipal sludge are currently produced
annually in the United States. It is estimated that this figure will double
in the next few years as wastewater treatment facilities are upgraded to
meet federal water pollution regulations. Currently, approximately 700,000
metric tons of sludge are being disposed of annually by ocean dumping.
Federal law now mandates that ocean disposal of sludge must cease by
December 31, 1981. Large coastal metropolitan areas are particularly hard
pressed to find an environmentally acceptable alternative of sludge disposal
as ocean dumping is phased out. One of several innovative sludge disposal
alternatives was investigated and is currently being used by the City of
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Several years ago attempts were made to apply
Philadelphia sludge to various large tracts of land in Pennsylvania. Even
though the research had been conducted showing that treated municipal
sludge can be an excellent soil amendment and chemical fertilizer substitute,
the projects were all rejected by local opposition. Faced with a daily
production of sludge approaching 360 metric tons and ocean disposal being
eliminated, Philadelphia, in 1976, began looking for a land based alternative.
With the help and ingenuity of Modern-Earthline Companies, environmental
consultants to the city, an intensive public relations program was initiated
in Somerset County, Pennsylvania.
Somerset County is one of the larger coal producing counties in the
-------
106 Philadelphia Strip Mine Reclamation
Commonwealth with hundreds of hectares of lands devastated by past mining
and improper reclamation. Much of its currently mined coal is delivered
to the Philadelphia area. Ordinarily the trucks, after delivering the coal,
would return to Somerset empty. One of the obstacles for Philadelphia to
overcome was the cost of transporting sludge 400 kilometers to a site. By
combining the sludge transportation with the empty backhaul of a coal truck,
the concept of mine land reclamation with Philadelphia sludge became a.
viable alternative to investigate further.
Initial Acceptance
In 1977, Modern-Earthline Companies initiated an intensive public relations
program to help insure the success of a strip mine reclamation project in
Somerset County using Philadelphia sludge. This program included contact
and explanation of the project to land owners, mining company officials,
township supervisors, and county commissioners. Once their support was
obtained, the program was expanded to include talks to local civic clubs
such as Rotary, Lions, and Kiwanis. This was followed by newspaper articles
and TV news coverage of the proposed project. Eventually a local Advisory
Committee was formed consisting of recognized community leaders,
including local farmers, Soil Conservation District representatives, Game
Commission, Soil Conservation Service, district forester, county agent, and
community resource development agents. After gaining local community
support, a four-hectare site was selected for the initial demonstration project.
The site is representative of current bituminous coal mining operations
conducted under Pennsylvania's amended Surface Mining Conservation and
Reclamation Act that requires backfilling to the appropriate original contour
with top soil replacement. An intensive monitoring system was initiated to
demonstrate to the public that there would be no detrimental effects to
the soil, vegetation, or ground water due to the utilization of sludge rather
than commercial fertilizer for reclamation.
Prior to sludge application, suction lysimeters were installed at the
90-centimeter depth on the site to monitor any effect on soil percolate water.
Deeper groundwater wells were drilled and household wells in the area were
sampled. Soil samples were collected from various depths so that they could
be compared with samples taken a year after the sludge application. Surface
soil samples were collected and analyzed for soil nutrient levels, as well as
the cation exchange capacity, pH, and buffer pH. The results indicated that
the soil pH was 5.1; therefore 6.7 metric tons per hectare of agricultural
lime was applied. Liming is required in Pennsylvania to immobilize the heavy
metal constituents in the sludge to reduce their availability for plant uptake
and to prevent their leaching into the groundwater.
Sludge for the project was obtained from the Philadelphia Northeast
-------
Kerr and Sopper 107
Water Pollution Control Plant. The liquid digested sludge is dewatered by
centrifuging then composted with wood chips. The composting mixture
consisted of 1 part of sludge for 2 parts of wood chips. Prior to
transportation to the site, the compost, with the wood chips still included,
was shredded. The compost was transported 400 kilometers to the site by
coal trucks returning from deliveries in the Philadelphia area. As the compost
was delivered to the site, composite samples were collected and analyzed
for various chemical constituents. The results of the analyses were used to
determine the actual rate applied and to calculate the amounts of selected
nutrients and trace metals applied. These results are given in Table 8-1, along
with the Pennsylvania Interim Guidelines for Sewage Sludge Use for Land
Reclamation (1977)(1), and the cumulative metal loadings for agricultural
land recommended by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. A
comparison of the demonstration project trace metal loadings with the
Pennsylvania Guidelines indicates that the compost application exceeded the
recommended amounts for all metals with the exception of Cr and Hg.
However, if one compares the loading rate with those recommended by the
EPA for agricultural land, then it is quite acceptable. According to the EPA
publication on Municipal Sludge Management (2), it has been demonstrated
that the total cumulative metal loadings shown in Table 8-1 from applying
municipal sludge to agricultural land have not led to environmental problems
(when soil pH is controlled). The EPA recommended cumulative metal
loadings vary with the soil cation exchange capacity (CEC). The average
CEC of the surface soil on the demonstration site is 14.4 (ranged from 14.0
to 14.8). At the application rate of 203 metric tons per hectare,
approximately 726 kilograms of nitrogen, 464 kilograms of phosphorus, and
181 kilograms of potassium were applied per hectare. This would be
equivalent to applying 6720 kilograms of an 11-16-3 commercial fertilizer
Table 8-1. Comparison of Trace Metal Loadings at the Somerset County Demonstration
Project with EPA and PDER Recommendations.
Constituent
Cu
Zn
Cd
Pb
Ni
Cr
Hg
Compost
Application Rate
203 mt/ha
131
343
5
131
30
40
0.3
Recommendations
EPA PDER
(CEC 5-15)
280
560
11
1120
280
NR2
NR2
112
224
3
112
22
112
0.6
Average CEC of site ranged from 14.0 to 14.8 meq/100 g.
No recommendations given by EPA.
-------
108 Philadelphia Strip Mine Reclamation
per hectare.
Prior to sludge application, the site was first scarified with a chisel
plow to alleviate surface soil compaction resulting from heavy equipment
traffic in the top-soiling operation. Compost was applied in June, 1978, by
manure spreaders at a rate of 203 metric tons per hectare. Immediately
after spreading, the compost was incorporated by chisel plowing and disking.
To reveget«te the demonstration area, a mixture of grasses and legumes
was applied. The site was broadcast seeded with a mixture of two grasses
and two legumes at the following rate:
Species Amount
Kentucky-31 Tall Fescue 22 kg/ha
Pennlate Orchardgrass 22 kg/ha
Penngift Crownvetch 11 kg/ha
Birdsfoot Trefoil 11 kg/ha
The rationale for the selection of this seeding mixture is that the two grass
species will germinate quickly and provide a complete protective cover the
first year allowing time for two legume species to become established and
developed into the final vegetative cover.
After seeding there were unusually high temperatures in the early
summer months and not much rain, which contributed to the delay of seed
germination until July. However, by early August there was a complete
healthy vegetative cover on the treated site. At the end of each growing
season vegetation height and productivity were measured, as well as the
chemical composition of the individual species. Results of the measurements
for height growth and dry-matter production are given in Table 8-2. By
September, 1978 average height growth over the plot was 20 centimeters
and ranged from 8 to 46 centimeters; dry-matter production averaged 1592
kg/ha and ranged from 731 to 3743 kg/ha. By the endt>f the second growing
season the vegetative cover was well established with results indicating a
fourfold increase in vegetation height and approximately a sixfold increase
in dry matter production (Table 8-2).
Individual samples of each of the two grass and two legume species
were collected from the compost treated area for foliar analyses to determine
plant uptake of trace metals. Tall fescue and birdsfoot trefoil were collected
from an adjacent area that had not received compost but had applications
of lime and commercial fertilizer. Results of the chemical analyses for the
grasses and legumes are given in Table 8-3. At the end of the first growing
season, 1978, foliar trace metal concentrations for all species tested were
below the suggested tolerance levels for agronomic crops, except for the
foliar concentration of cadmium in crownvetch. Foliar concentrations of
trace metals generally decreased by the end of the second year including
cadmium in the crownvetch, which decreased from 3.77 to 0.58 Mg/g- The
suggested tolerance levels shown in Table 8-3 represent the levels at which
-------
Kerr and Sopper 109
Table 8-2. Vegetation Height Growth and Dry Matter Production for Two Growing
Seasons After Compost Application.
1978 1979
Height Growth 20 66
(centimeters)
Dry Matter 1592 9089
Production
(kg/ha)
Table 8-3. Mean Concentrations of Trace Metals in Vegetation Foliar Samples Collected
at the End of the 1978 and 1979 Growing Seasons.
Compost
Species Application Year Cu Zn Cr Pb Co Cd Ni
Tall Fescue
Birdsf oot
Trefoil
Orchardgrass
Crownvetch
mt/ha
0
203
203
0
203
203
203
203
203
203
1978
1978
1979
1978
1978
1979
1978
1979
1978
1979
Suggested Tolerance
Level3,'1
11
15
9
8
10
7
17
8
18
8
150
24
52
55
20
67
83
60
71
295
159
300
0.74
1.06
1.58
0.74
0.74
0.25
0.82
1.25
0.98
1.00
2
yg/g
0.63
5.12
5.08
1.10
7.70
5.42
3.94
1.75
9.57
4.92
10
1.12
1.69
2.67
1.70
2.01
2.75
1.12
1.17
4.22
1.92
5
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0,
.11
.77
57
.14
,53
,18
,54
0.62
3,
0.
3
,77
,58
0.
5.
4.
2.
5.
4.
4.
2.
8.
5.
50
31
48
75
66
32
08
59
92
85
42
a yield reduction might occur and do not represent the levels at which
toxicity occurs. There were no phytotoxicity symptoms observed for the
vegetation grown on the compost treated area.
To evaluate the effects of the compost on the chemical properties of
the soil samples were collected in April, 1979, and April, 1980, one and
two years following the application. Soil samples were collected from various
locations on the plot at the 0-15, 15-30, and 30-60 centimeter depth. These
samples were analyzed for the same constituents as the pre-treatment soil
samples to determine the effects of the compost application on the soil
chemical properties. The results of these analyses are given in Table 8-4.
Results of the analyses indicate that soil concentrations of iron, manganese,
and aluminum, elements associated with acid mine drainage, were all reduced
following the compost application. Trace metal concentrations were increased
-------
110 Philadelphia Strip Mine Reclamation
Table 8-4. Comparison of Soil Analyses for Cations and Extractable Trace Metals Before
and After Sludge Application at the Somerset County Demonstration Site.
Year1
1978
1979
1980
Soil
Depth
0-15
15-30
30-60
0-15
15-30
30-60
0-15
15-30
30-60
Ft
19.
20,
20.
13.
13.
14.
14.
15.
17,
,6
.8
.0
.6
.8
,4
.7
.7
.7
Mr
66.
81.
80.
26.
64.
77.
25.
67.
89.
t
8
.2
0
4
4
7
2
.0
,3
A]
133.
114.
107.
20.
121.
105.
6.
163,
86.
0
,0
,2
7
7
8
0
.3
.0
K
74.1
78.0
78.0
78.0
70.2
74.1
77.7
69.5
81.3
Ca
846.0
828.0
816.0
1612.0
750.0
684.0
1335.3
546.0
470.7
Mi
44.
67,
230.
90,
75,
189.
29.
57
210
,4
.2
.4
.0
.6
,6
,3
.3
.0
1978
1979
1980
Normal
Soils5
0-15
15-30
30-60
0-15
15-30
30-60
0-15
15-30
30-60
Range in
3.7
4.6
5.3
25.2
3.2
3.4
29.4
3.2
3.3
2-
100
1.0
1.1
1.9
54.3
3.3
3.8
13.2
3.4
4.5
10-
300
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
3.85
0.15
0.10
3.70
0.20
0.15
5-
3000
2.80
2.80
2.75
33.80
2.75
2.75
37.00
2.83
2.27
2-
200
1.15
1.15
1.65
0.85
0.75
0.75
1.32
1.20
1.53
1-
40
0.014
0.015
0.017
0.723
0.050
0.042
0.156
0.010
0.012
0.01-
7.00
0.40
0.35
1.60
3.10
1.85
2.60
4.30
6.72
4.30
10-
1000
1978 represents pre-sludge conditions.
by the sludge application, with the greatest increases occurring at the 0-15
cm depth; however, these increased concentrations were minimal. All soil
concentrations of the trace metals on the compost area are within the normal
range found in Pennsylvania on non-sludge treated soils.
Surface soil samples were collected from the compost treated area in
May, 1980, two years after the application, for the determination of soil
pH. According to the Pennsylvania guidelines, the soil pH must be adjusted
to 6.0 during the first year of sludge application and must be maintained
at 6.5 for two years following final sludge application. Results of the analyses
indicate the soil pH was 7.3 at the end of the second year.
Soil percolate water samples were collected from lysimeters installed
at the 90-cm depth for chemical analyses. Results are given in Table 8-5.
Results of these analyses indicated that average concentrations of NO3-N
in the percolate following compost application were consistently below
potable water standards (10 mg/1) except for one occasion when NO3-N
-------
Kerr and Sopper 111
concentration reached a peak of 12.9 mg/1. Concentrations of trace metals
in the percolate were extremely low. Average monthly concentrations of
all trace metals except lead were below EPA drinking water standards.
Although the average concentrations of lead in the percolate exceeded
potable water standards on a few sampling dates after the application of
compost, it should be noted that it also exceeded these standards prior to
the compost application. In general, there has been a trend toward decreasing
concentrations of trace metals in the percolate during the two-year period
following compost application.
Separate samples of percolate were collected on each sampling date
and analyzed for total and fecal coliforms. No fecal coliform colonies (per
100 ml aliquots) were found in any samples.
Two monitoring wells were drilled to evaluate the effect of the compost
application on groundwater quality. Well No. 1 was drilled adjacent to the
Table 8-5. Results of Chemical Analyses for Percolate Water at the 90 Centimeter Depth
at the Somerset Demonstration Site.
Location
Before
Compost
After
Compost
Applied
Date
1 Q 7£
.iy /c
May
Jun
Jun
Jun
Jul
Jul
Aug
Aug
Sep
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
30
7
12
26
10
24
4
21
7
19
Cu
0.03
0.04
0.07
0.11
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.04
0.03
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.01
Zn
0.92
1.55
0.92
3.48
1.44
1.40
1.16
1.21
0.76
0.78
0.94
0.52
0.52
Cr
0.01
0.01
<0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
<0.01
0.02
0.03
0.05
0.04
0.01
0.01
I
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0,
0.
0.
0.
>b
.05
.06
05
,06
01
05
,03
.21
.12
.02
,08
,23
.06
Co
i^
0.25
0.19
0.94
2.15
0.56
0.79
0.69
0.51
0.31
0.26
0.36
0.10
0.32
Cd
0.009
0.012
0.010
0.027
0.012
0.011
0.014
0.007
0.006
0.005
0.007
0.004
0.004
Ni
0.82
0.26
1.46
2.43
0.84
0.62
0.41
0.96
0.58
0.51
0.55
0.01
0.44
N03-N
2.9
2.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
5.1
6.4
12.9
7.2
8.5
6.9
6.3
1.9
1979
Mar <0.01 0.21 <0.01 <0.01 0.13 0.001 0.14 1.0
Apr <0.01 0.23 <0.01 <0.01 0.12 0.001 0.15 1.1
May <0.01 0.24 <0.01 <0.01 0.10 0.001 0.16 1.2
Jun 0.01 0.40 <:0.01 0.03 0.17 0.001 0.25 1.4
Jul 0.01 0.31 <0.01 0.05 0.18 0.001 0.24 0.8
Aug 0.01 0.31 <0.01 0.06 0.15 0.001 0.24 0.6
Sep 0.01 0.41 0.01 0.02 0.17 0.001 0.25 <0.5
Oct 0.01 0.16 <0.01 0.02 0.05 0.001 0.08 <0.5
Nov 0.05 0.10 0.01 0.02 0.24 0.001 0.18 <0.5
Dec 0.08 0.12 0.01 0.04 0.30 0.001 0.11 <0.5
1980
Jan 0.01 0.22 0.01 0.03 0.10 0.001 0.18 <0.5
Feb
Mar 0.01 0.30 0.03 0.02 0.05 0.001 0.12 <0.5
Apr <0.01 0.10 0.04 0.02 0.04 <0.001 0.09 <0.5
May 0.01 0.29 0.05 0.02 0.04 <0.001 0.10 <0.5
EPA Drinking
Water Standards 1.00 5.00 0.05 0.05 0.010 10.0
-------
112 Philadelphia Strip Mine Reclamation
4-hectare plot and was representative of background groundwater quality.
Well No. 2 was drilled within the compost-treated plot on the down-gradient
side and reflected the effect of the compost application on groundwater
quality. Water table depth ranged from 17 to 18 meters in Well No. 1 and
from 12 to 13 meters in Well No. 2 over the sampling period.
Results of the analyses of groundwater samples indicated that the
compost application did not have any significant effect on the concentration
of NO3-N which, was consistently below EPA potable water standards after
compost was applied. There was also no significant change in the
concentrations of cations in the groundwater. In general, trace metal
concentrations were higher in Well No. 1, representing background
groundwater quality, than in Well No. 2, most influenced by the compost
application. Trace metal concentrations in Well No. 2 were extremely low
both before and after compost application. No significant increases in trace
metal concentrations were observed after the applications. Separate samples
of groundwater were collected on each sampling date and analyzed for total
and fecal coliforms. No fecal coliform colonies (per 100 ml aliquot) were
found in any samples.
Expanded Operations
At all stages of the project the local public was encouraged to visit the
site. One factor that must be dealt with in many land application projects
is the public fear that someone is hiding something. It is hard to convince
someone who for years has believed that sludge is a waste product to be
disposed of, that sludge actually is a valuable resource to be used rather
than disposed of as a waste. One way that Modern-Earthline dealt with this
concern was to be totally open and have any and all results available on
request. Local citizens were encouraged to take their own samples and send
them to different laboratories if they did not believe the results and wanted
to see for themselves-and they did. The local advisory group came to the
site and collected their own samples of compost, vegetation, and soil. After
they received the results of their samples, they were convinced that nothing
was hidden. All results were similar between laboratories and samplers. This
openness and "nothing hidden" attitude was one important step in gaining
public support and acceptance for expanding from a small scale
demonstration project to a large scale on-going operation.
Based on the successful acceptance of the demonstration project,
Modern-Earthline Companies proposed to revegetate 150 hectares in
Somerset County with Philadelphia compost in 1979. One site typical of
the area to be revegetated in 1979 was a 20-hectare tract of abandoned
strip mine land on the Robert Decker farm. The area is typical of abandoned
bituminous coal mined land, which has been recontoured without topsoil
-------
and Soppe: ' • •
replacement. The site was extremely eroded with 'arge ditches throughou.
the site. In April 1979, the eroded gullies and ditches were fi!);o flt\ii r- •
entire area was dragged with an '']" beam to fill in small gullies ,.nd sou,- ••!; -
level the surface. Average soil pH ranged fru:n 3,5 .<> '? 8 ^i,:r.'.«-
agricultural lime was applied at a rate of 11 metric ton; per hectare. 'i'h<
average cation exchange capacity of the soil .angtn !;LHII " l.'L
meq/lOOg. The area was chisel-plowed to rotiuh.-ii the urtr _e r'; - '-
spreading.
In order to increase the nutrient quality of lh<* conj^o r i-oi'
Philadelphia, it was decided to try a one-to-one mix 01 eqiui p^rn ceimiiLigCt
sludge cake with compost. Compost is a very acceptable procu.ct tv *• "rl<
with, in that it is dry (70% solids), easily spread, and has vcrv ii.t't uuor
whereas a centrifuged sludge cake is wet (20% solids) and can be (•.-•-.
But in terms of nutrients, the sludge cake is a better piodini ili.--; t •
compost. For example, the total nitrogen content of thr sludge i -i •:- •
approximately 2%, whereas the compost total nitrogen content is O.f% -'iu •
much of the nitrogen is driven off due to high temperatures oi toi/ipo',. n;t.
In an attempt to combine the best oi these tv/o piod'.ict.-. tho u .> c.1
one-to-one was tried. The final mixed product was qinte .if'. eptablt ' i r
were collected at the site, as it was delivered, for chemical ,-'iuKv!s '•' i.f '.>•
of these analyses were used to calculate the application 'att .snd the , t,. <• .it'.
of selected nutrients and trace metals applied. The compost.--a'*.' mi • • >.
applied at the rate of 132 metric tons per he't.ce. A c omp.;.;>.-t> •-' , •
metal loading at the Decker site with the EPA and PIH',R t-ico'im,! n.Ux,
guidelines is given in Table 8-6. This comparison indicates thdi <,: tiii --• .,;
EPA. At the application rate of 132 metric tons per hectare, appr')* ur r • U
1057 kilograms of nitrogen, 925 kilograms of phosphorus, .nut 1 .i'' i'J1 'f,: M",
of potassium were applied per hectare. This would be equivalent to ipplV'i.v.
10,000 kg/ha of an 11-9-1 commercial fertilizer.
After the compost-cake mixture was incorporated into the s,'ri,, ,• •'•
centimeters of soil with a chisel plow, the area was seeded v/'th ,, mr-i'i
of grasses and legumes. The treated area had a complete vegfUiu-e ,-,.\
by early July, 1979. Average height growth over the plot V/JK t>4 c t-ii!jiin-t,-i
and ranged from 36 to 93 centimeters. Dry matter production avc, jgr 14, '•'?,
kg/ha and ranged from 3409 to 33.422 kg/ha. Individual samples »i ._,.i i.
of the two grass and two legume species weie collected iiurr :;
-------
114 Philadelphia Strip Mine Reclamation
Table 8-6. Comparison of Trace Metal Loadings at the Decker Site with EPA and PDER
Recommendations.
Const ituent
Cu
Zn
Cd
Pb
Ni
Cr
Hg
Compost
Application Rate
132 mt/ha
78
221
1
75
17
36
0.07
Recommendations
EPA
(CEC 5-15)1
280
560
11
1120
280
NR2
NR2
PDER
112
224
3
112
22
112
0.6
Average CEC of site ranged from 1A.5 to 16.3 meq/100
No recommendations given by EPA.
Table 8-7. Mean Concentrations of Trace Metals in Vegetation Foliar Samples Collected
at the End of the 1979 Growing Season from the Decker Site.
Species
Birdsfoot Trefoil
Tall Fescue
Orchardgrass
Alfalfa
Suggested Tolerance
Levels 3,4
Cu
10.0
11.5
14.2
11.1
150
Zn
46.4
36.8
53.3
79.8
300
Cl
0.
0,
1.
0.
2
r
7
8
.0
.8
.0
Pb
,
4.3
2.7
3.7
6.3
10.0
(
1.
1,
1,
1
5
:o
.7
.3
.6
.8
.0
(
0.
0.
0,
0.
3,
:d
,06
.03
.11
.14
.0
(
4.
4.
5,
5.
50
)i
2
3
_5
,9
trace metal concentrations for all species tested were below the suggested
tolerance levels for agronomic crops. These suggested tolerance levels, shown
in Table 8-7 represent the levels at which toxicity occurs. There were no
phytotoxicity systems observed for the vegetation grown on the treated area.
To evaluate the effects of the compost-cake mix on the chemical
properties of the soil, soil samples were collected from the plot at the 0-15,
15-30, and 30-60 centimeter depth. These samples were analyzed for the
same constituents as the pre-treatment soil samples collected in April, 1979.
The results of these analyses are given in Table 8-8. Soil concentrations of
iron, aluminum, and manganese, elements associated with acid mine drainage,
were all reduced following the application of the compost-cake mixture. Soil
extractable trace metal concentrations were increased following treatment,
with the greatest increase occurring at the 15 cm depth; however, these
increased concentrations were minimal. All soil concentrations of the trace
metals on the treated area are within the normal range found in non-sludge
-------
Kerr and Sopper 115
Table 8-8. Comparison of Soil Analyses for Cations and Extractable Trace Metals Before
and One Year After Treatment at the Decker Site.
Year
1979
1980
Year
1979
1980
Normal
In Soil
Soil
Depth
0-15
15-30
30-60
60-90
0-15
15-30
30-60
Soil
Depth
0-15
15-30
30-60
60-90
0-15
15-30
30-60
Range
s5
Fe
45.3
60.8
55.0
44.2
15.2
18.5
20.1
Cu
3.8
4.1
4.4
4.5
26.3
6.4
4.2
2-
100
Mn
34.1
68.0
168.8
239.5
23.1
53.1
162.5
Zn
3.7
4.7
7.3
5.9
13.5
8.9
6.9
10-
300
Al
659.2
542.4
374.2
121.4
216.0
485.3
308.0
Cr
0.13
0.17
0.23
0.16
5.83
0.78
0.27
3000
K
51.3
147.2
59.0
70.8
107.9
88.7
90.1
Pb
.
0.25
0.43
1.17
1.56
17.72
2.20
1.07
2-
200
Ca
584.0
1856.4
4062.8
3677.2
1268.7
996.7
1884.0
Co
0.35
0.63
1.40
1.68
0.83
1.32
2.70
1-
40
Mg
176.9
222.0
426.8
460.0
94.0
196.7
240.0
Cd
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.004
0.020
0.003
0.002
0.01-
7.00
Na
35.6
35.8
39.8
41.0
25.7
28.2
27.7
Ni
0.59
3.56
1.63
1.81
7.08
3.48
2.58
10-
1000
treated soils.
Two monitoring wells were drilled to evaluate the effects of the
compost-cake mix application on groundwater quality. Water table depths
range from 5 to 10 meters in Well 1 and 14 to 25 meters in Well 2 over
the sampling period.
Results of the analyses of groundwater samples are given in Table 8-9.
Concentrations of nitrate-nitrogen were consistently below EPA potable
water standards of 10 mg/1. In general, concentrations of all trace metals
except for lead were consistently below the EPA drinking water standards.
Concentrations of chromium and cadmium exceeded EPA drinking water
standards on one sampling date and by the next sampling date were again
below the EPA drinking water standard. On several sampling dates, both
before and after sludge application, the concentration of lead exceeded
drinking water standards. However, it should be noted that these increases
were minimal and pose no threat to public health.
Several other areas in Somerset County were treated with the mixed
product in 1979 and had similar results. All of the projects can be termed
highly successful both in terms of public acceptance and revegetation of
problem areas.
Based on the success in 1978 and 1979 it is estimated that
approximately 50% of Philadelphia's annual sludge production will be used
-------
116 Philadelphia Strip Mine Reclamation
Table 8-9. Results of Chemical Analyses of Groundwater Samples Collected from the
Decker Site.
Location
Well 1
Well 2
EPA Drinking
Date
1 Q7Q
17 / 7
Apr 25
May 10
May 16
May 18
June 12
July 2
July 20
July 26
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
1980
Jan
Feb
March
April
May
1979
Apr 25
May 10
May 16
May 18
June 12
June 2
July 20
July 26
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
1980
Jan
Feb
March
April
May
Water Standard
Cu
0.05
0.05
0.10
0.30
0.09
0.01
0.06
0.06
0.01
0.04
0.05
0.02
0.09
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.05
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.15
<0.01
0.09
0.10
<0.01
0.01
0.04
0.07
0.02
<0.01
<0.01
0.02
0.10
0.10
1.00
Zn
0.05
0.10
0.10
0.50
0.12
0.03
0.19
0.13
0.39
0.20
0.24
0.10
0.18
0.23
0.42
0.13
0.31
0.80
0.05
0.10
0.10
0.20
0.29
0.15
0.24
0.33
0.89
0.34
0.27
0.14
0.16
0.07
0.16
0.24
1.33
1.03
5.00
Cr
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.03
0.08
0.01
0.03
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.02
0.01
0.01
<0.01
<0.01
0.01
<0.01
0.01
0.03
<0.01
0.02
0.13
0.02
0.01
0.05
Pb
.
— — — mg / 1
0.05
0.07
0.08
0.15
0.18
0.17
0.11
0.13
0.11
0.10
0.12
0.21
0.27
0.16
0.11
0.10
0.06
0.08
<0.01
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.15
0.08
0.08
0.10
0.07
0.02
0.10
0.12
0.06
0.09
0.05
0.04
<0.01
0.05
Co
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.04
0.06
0.02
0.02
0.06
0.02
0.25
0.27
0.05
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.03
0.04
0.02
<0.01
0.01
<0.01
0.01
0.08
0.22
0.04
0.03
0.01
<0.01
0.06
Cd
<0.001
0.001
<0.001
0.001
<0.001
0.005
<0.001
<0.001
0.003
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.001
<0.001
0.001
0.002
<0.001
<0.001
0.001
0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.011
<0.001
0.001
0.002
<0.001
0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.001
0.001
0.010
Ni
0.05
0.10
0.10
0.05
0.07
0.07
0.06
0.03
0.05
0.01
0.03
0.15
0.03
0.05
0.06
0.04
0.04
0.05
0.10
0.05
0.10
0.05
0.05
0.12
0.02
<0.01
0.01
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.07
0.02
0.04
0.07
<0.01
0.12
NO,-N
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
1.2
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
3.6
1.2
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
1.2
3.6
<0.5
10.0
this year, 1980, to revegetate approximately 280 to 400 hectares of mined
land in the Commonwealth.
-------
Kerr and Sopper 117
Conclusion
There appears to be a great opportunity to partially solve the urban sludge
disposal problem by recycling this so-called waste product on mined land.
Not only would this help to alleviate problems caused by the cessation of
ocean disposal of sludge but it would also provide an opportunity to utilize
the valuable nutrients for a beneficial use. The City of Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania with the help of Modern-Earthline Companies, has
demonstrated that a large industrial city can successfully recycle its sludge
on rural mined land economically and in an environmentally acceptable
manner. Within three years a large scale land-based utilization program has
been successfully established and Philadelphia will be able to cease ocean
disposal of sludge by December 31, 1980, one year prior to the mandated
cessation date of December 31, 1981.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. Special thanks to Modern-Earthline Companies and
the City of Philadelphia Water Department who provided the financial
support for these projects.
Literature Cited
1. Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources. "Interim Guidelines for
Sewage Sludge Use for Land Reclamation." In The Rules and Regulations of the
Department of Environmental Resources, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Chapter
75, Subchapter C, Section 75.32, 1977.
2. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Municipal Sludge Management:
Environmental Factors," Technical Bulletin EPA 430/9-76-004, MCD-28, 1977.
3. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology. "Application of Sewage Sludge
to Cropland: Appraisal of Potential Hazards of the Heavy Metals to Plants and
Animals," Office of Water Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
EPA- 430-9-76-013, 63 pp., 1976.
4. Melsted, S. W. "Soil-Plant Relationships," Recycling Municipal Sludges and
Effluents on Land, National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant
Colleges, Wash., D.C., pp. 121-128, 1973.
S. Allaway, W. H. "Agronomic Controls Over the Environmental Cycling of Trace
Metals," Adv. Agron. 20:235-271, 1968.
-------
g
LAND RECLAMATION OF STRIP-MINE SPOIL IN
PENNSYLVANIA: A REGULATORY AGENCY REVIEW
William F. Pounds
In July of 1968, the General Assembly of the Commonwealth of
Pennsylvania passed Act 241, the Solid Waste Management Act. This Act
provided for planning and regulation of solid waste storage, collection,
transportation, processing and disposal systems. The permitting and
enforcement powers of this Act were delegated to the Department of Health
(1). The 1968 Solid Waste Management Act was amended twice in 1970
and again in 1972. Permitting and enforcement powers were delegated along
with all environmental protection responsibilities to the new Department
of Environmental Resources created in January, 1971. On July 7, of this
year, The General Assembly passed and Governor Dick Thornburgh signed
into law Act 97, the 1980 Solid Waste Management Act (2).
Act 241(1) and the Chapter 75 Rules and Regulations which followed,
both define "solid waste" as garbage, refuse, and other discarded materials
including, but not limited to solid and liquid waste materials resulting from
industrial, commercial, agricultural and residential activities. This definition,
of course, includes sewage sludge, both the liquid and solid phases. In fact
sewage sludge is defined in Chapter 75 as "the coarse grains, grit, and
dewatered or air-dried sludges, septic and holding pumpings, and other
residues from sewage collection and treatment systems which require
disposal" (3).
The responsibility for environmentally safe disposal or utilization of
this material has rested with the Department of Environmental Resources
since its inception in 1971. The initial provisions of Chapter 75, adopted
in August of 1971, vaguely addressed the permitting of sewage sludge disposal
sites, but offered no clear-cut regulations for such permitting. Because of
this, most sewage sludge disposal or utilization from 1968 to 1977, was
carried out with letters of approval from the Department, or illegally. On
May 24, 1977, Chapter 75 was revised to establish an active permitting
program for sewage sludge.
Over 1,000,000 tons of sewage sludge are generated in Pennsylvania
annually (assuming 20 percent solids). Current estimates indicate that of
the total volumes of sludge generated in Pennsylvania; 10 percent is
incinerated, 20 percent is disposed of via ocean disposal, 40 percent is sent
to landfills, and 30 percent is destined for land spreading by agricultural
utilization or land reclamation (4).
The increased costs of fuel have many sewage treatment plants now
utilizing incineration, looking for other methods of disposal. The practice
of ocean dumping will be ended by January 1, 1981. The revision of Chapter
-------
Pounds 119
75 limited sludge disposal in landfills to those sludges which are digested
or stabilized and dried to 20 percent or greater solids content by weight
(3). Only those sanitary landfills utilizing leachate collection and treatment
systems under permit to the Department may be approved for sludge
disposal. All these factors combined have made land spreading of sludge
the most economically feasible of those methods available using current
technology for sludge disposal or utilization.
With this in mind, Pennsylvania has developed regulations and guidelines
to add sludge to the soil at environmentally safe loading rates. The
development of these regulations and guidelines took more than three years.
Extensive research of the literature was performed to determine how much
sludge could be applied to the land without adversely affecting food chain
crops or groundwater. Researchers in the field of sludge application to the
land were contacted for their input on these regulations. These included
Doctors William Sopper and Dale Baker from Pennsylvania State University,
Doctor Rufus Chaney with the U.S. Department of Agriculture Research
Center in Beltsville, Maryland, and others. Other states also were contacted
to determine how they were handling the sewage sludge land application
problem. Those with active programs were requested to send copies of their
regulations for our evaluations and review.
All this information was considered in developing the current guidelines
for operation of and calculating loading rates for land spreading sludge in
Pennsylvania. They were used initially in early 1977. DER developed two
different sets of guidelines, one for agricultural utilization (5) and one for
land reclamation (6). Questions and opposition immediately arose from the
public, who thought loading rates were too liberal, and sludge producers
and haulers, who thought the guidelines too restrictive.
On November 1, 1976, the Department received a United States
Environmental Protection Agency grant to apply sludge to surface mined
land for reclamation. The purpose of this grant was several fold. For the
Bureau of Solid Waste Management, the main objectives were to test different
application rates of sludge materials under strictly monitored controlled
conditions and to demonstrate to the public on a small scale what could
be accomplished with the application of sewage sludge to land that is scarred
by strip-mining (7). With several thousand acres of abandoned strip-mined
land in Pennsylvania and many thousand more inadequately reclaimed, there
is a need for an effective and economical way to reclaim the land. This
need has been enhanced with the advent of the energy crisis and the talk
of greater coal production in the future.
Previous proposals for sewage utilization in large strip-mined land
reclamation projects had met with tremendous public opposition, largely
because of the lack of research on the subject and lack of local citizen
involvement. Demonstration projects were set up in three areas throughout
the state. Local involvement and public interest were solicited from their
-------
120 Philadelphia Strip Mine Reclamation
beginnings. These projects still are monitored for possible groundwater, soil,
and vegetative contamination from heavy metals in the sludge. In addition,
an experimental permit was issued to the City of Philadelphia for a ten
acre land reclamation project in Somerset County (8). Their loading rates
exceed those approved by Departmental guidelines.
The remainder of this paper will deal primarily with the current
reclamation guidelines and the practical aspects of sludge application to
strip-mine land as this author sees them.
The guidelines developed for land reclamation are entitled "Interim
Guidelines for Sewage Sludge Use for Land Reclamation" (6). Although the
term interim is used, these are the current guidelines used by the Department
for permitting sludge use sites. The Department hopes to utilize knowledge
gained from the demonstration projects, experience from actual application
of the sludge on permitted sites, and monitoring data from both
demonstration and permitted sites, in considering future guidelines.
The rate of application is calculated by two factors, nitrogen loading
and the trace metal content of the sludge. Because of the high permeability
of mine spoils and low organic matter content, nitrogen in excess of the
crop requirement was believed to be necessary in order to establish and
promote adequate vegetative growth. The Department researched literature
and consultated with people most knowledgeable in the field of land
reclamation through the use of sewage sludge (primarily Doctor Sopper),
before determining that at least 1,000 pounds of nitrogen may be required
to establish and promote plant growth. Assuming on an average that nitrogen
content of sludge is 2 percent, a maximum of 60 dry tons per acre may
be utilized for land reclamation. This would provide ample nitrogen for plant
growth and also create minimum threat to groundwater contamination
through the leaching of nitrogen before plant uptake.
Table 9-1, taken from the guidelines (6), gives the lifetime loading rates
for land reclamation based on the chemical analyses of the sludge. This table
is broken into two loading rates based on the ultimate use of the land.
if the land is to be used for farming, the maximum loading rate for metals
is approximately 60 percent of that for land reclaimed but not placed back
in agricultural production. In addition, if the land is to be used for farming,
a complete soil analysis is required after final sludge application.
There are several operational requirements built into the guidelines to
prevent contamination of ground and surface waters during application of
the sludge and prior to the adequate protection developed by new vegetation.
These requirements include provisions for spreading and incorporating sludge,
preventing of runoff from the site, and adjusting the pH to 6.5 or greater
to prevent leaching of metals (6).
In addition to guideline requirements, DER uses several policies and
procedures for permitting of land reclamation sites. The most important of
these is the requirement of two on-site investigations of the site prior to
-------
Pounds 121
Table 9-1. Maximum Lifetime Trace Metal Loading Rates for Land Protection.
Element
Cadmium
Copper
Chromium
Lead
Mercury
Nickel
Zinc
Maximum Loading Rate
Land Reclamation
Ibs/a
3
100
100
100
.3
20
200
Maximum Loading
Rate Land Recla-
mation for Farming
Ibs/a
3
60
60
60
.2
12
120
the spreading of sludge. The first investigation is made by the Department's
Regional Soil Scientist and Hydrogeologist during the application review
process. The second investigation is made prior to sludge application, but
after all proposed erosion and sedimentation control and monitoring devices
are in place. DER feels that control of surface water runoff is the most
important aspect of the land reclamation project. Detailed erosion and
sedimentation control plans must be included as a part of the application
to keep sludge and soil on the site until the seed has a chance to germinate.
In many cases, mulching is required to prevent sludge runoff and erosion
of particularly steep or critical areas.
The second investigation usually is performed jointly with the Bureau
of Mining and Reclamation and the consultants for the applicant. Whenever
possible, DER also recommends that the initial on-site investigation be a
joint one with the applicant's consultants. Critical areas of concern can be
pointed out at this time to eliminate the costly time involved with the
exchange of written review comments by the Department and responses from
the applicant.
After a site has been recontoured and meets all the reclamation
requirements of the Bureau of Mining and Reclamation, the permit is issued
for sludge application by the Bureau of Solid Waste Management. This is
another critical phase in the land reclamation process. Since most permits
are issued for one application of sludge followed by seeding of the site,
a great deal of material must be applied in a short period of time. In most
cases, this requires stockpiling sludge at a particular site, and assembling
the necessary man power and equipment for the sludge spreading and seeding
process, that may only last a few days.
The storage areas must be approved by the Department. Minimum
requirements to be met for storage are diversion of surface water above
and below the area, berms constructed around the area, and possibly that
the stockpiled sludge be covered with plastic to prevent rain infiltration.
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122 Philadelphia Strip Mine Reclamation
As a part of the permitting process, soils are analyzed for metal content
and pH. Prior to the sludge application, lime is added to adjust the pH
of the soil receiving the sludge. This is done normally through the use of
conventional lime spreading equipment. The soil pH at a land reclamation
site is co be adjusted to 6.0 or greater within the first year of initial sludge
application, and 6.5 within the second year. A pH of 6.5 is to be maintained
for two years after final sludge applications (6).
After the lime has been applied, DER recommends that the land be
scarified. This is especially important for liquid sludge. Sludge is then spread,
depending on the percent solids of the material, by tanker or conventional
farm spreading equipment. The sludge must be incorporated into the soil
within twen:y-four hours. For most abandoned surface-mined sites, this
speedy incorporation will require large disc-type equipment. Under present
reclamation practices, where topsoil is placed back on the reclaimed area,
a chisel plow normally would adequately incorporate the sludge.
Once the sludge has been incorporated, the area is then seeded
immediately. The Department does not recommend a specific seeding
mixture. However it does recommend that the mixture contain both grasses
and legumes. Certain critical areas where there is a possibility of erosion
should be mulched immediately after seeding.
The site should then be inspected monthly to determine whether there
is evidence of erosion channels being formed. These areas should be mulched,
to prevent large channels from forming. Erosion and sedimentation control
facilities are also inspected at this time. Where severe erosion occurs, the
area should be filled, reseeded, and mulched. The progress of germination
and growth of vegetation also should be checked during these inspection
visits.
Chemical and bacteriological analyses for the monitoring systems should
continue for a minimum of one year after sludge is applied. The sampling
program consists of a collection of three samples from monitoring wells and
lysimeters prior to sludge application, and sampling the wells monthly for
a period of one year.
Samples collected before sludge is applied and for the first three months
following the application should be analyzed for pH, Chlorides,
Nitrate-Nitrogen, Ammonia Nitrogen, Organic Nitrogen, Iron, Aluminum,
Manganese, Copper, Zinc, Chromium, Cobalt, Lead, Cadmium, Nickel, and
total and fecal coliforms. Water samples collected during the fourth month
through the eleventh month following sludge application should be analyzed
for pH, Ammonia Nitrogen, Nitrate Nitrogen, certain trace metals (Zinc,
Copper, Lead, Cobalt, Nickel, Cadmium, Chromium), and total and fecal
coliforms. Water samples collected in the twelfth month should be analyzed
for those constituents in the background and first three months samples.
Water sampling will be terminated after one year unless results of the
third quarterly report to the Department indicate a need for further sampling.
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Pounds 123
If further sampling is required, samples will be collected quarterly until
sufficient data is collected to formulate a solution to the problem.
Soil sampling is also important to determine migration, if any, of metals
through the soil profile. Initial soil samples, taken prior to the sludge
application, should be analyzed for pH, and cation exchange capacity.
Samples from the complete soil profile are collected from pits that were
excavated to install lysimeters. The samples are taken from various depths
in the profile, prior to application and one year after application and
analyzed for pH, Bray Phosphorus, Calcium, Magnesium, Potassium, Sodium,
Iron, Aluminum, Manganese, Copper, Zinc, Chromium, Cobalt, Lead,
Cadmium, Nickel, and Kjeldahl Nitrogen. At the end of the second year
after sludge application, surface soil samples are collected and analyzed for
pH to determine if it remains 6.5 or greater.
Vegetation samples are also taken after the first growing season and
analyzed for Nitrogen and Phosphorus content and uptake of Potassium,
Magnesium, Aluminum, Copper, Chromium, Lead, Nickel, Calcium, Iron,
Manganese, Zinc, Cobalt, and Cadmium.
The monitoring program was developed as a result of the data gained
from the Department of Environmental Resources demonstration projects,
the experimental Philadelphia project, and from permitted reclamation site
monitoring wells over the last year-and-a-half.
Through the current permitting process, and the actual application of
sludge to the site, there are several areas where problems can and do arise.
When an application was received prior to September 5, 1980, County
Commissioner approval was needed before a site could be permitted. Since
many of the applications received public opposition, many counties were
unwilling to grant approval for the application of sludge. Also, prior to the
demonstration projects, many local operators wanted nothing to do with
sludge application, since it meant obtaining a variance to the reclamation
plan. This usually was a very time consuming and costly procedure as far
as coal strippers were concerned.
Even with three years of demonstration under our belt, there is still
considerable public opposition to sewage sludge on strip-mine land.
Philadelphia, for example, has received opposition to move its operation from
one township to another within the same county.
On September 5, 1980, Act 97 became effective. Although the
requirement for County Commissioner approval of sludge disposal in surface
mined areas has been eliminated in the new law, an active public participation
program is encouraged. The applicant is required to submit seven copies
of his application to the Department. One copy is sent to the County
Planning Commission, one copy to the township where the proposed site
is located, and one copy is made available at all times in our Regional Office
for public review. The county and local government agencies are given sixty
days to comment on the application. These comments are taken into
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124 Philadelphia Strip Mine Reclamation
consideration prior to issuance or denial of any permit. If the Department
issues a permit, it must respond to the opposition in writing and this response
is published in the Pennsylvania Bulletin.
With the new Act, there will be additional public participation in the
form of public hearings and meetings during the review process. All these
requirements of Act 97 are designed to keep the public informed about
the application and permitting process of the Bureau of Solid Waste
Management not only for land reclamation, but for all programs for which
the Bureau issues permits.
In the past, the Bureau actively participated in public meetings,
particularly on controversial programs such as sewage sludge and land
reclamation. During the permitting of several of the Philadelphia sites,
members of the Department participated in meetings and informed the public
of the demonstration projects and what success we had with no harm to
the environment.
In conclusion, the use of sludge for land reclamation could be one
of the best things that ever happened from the standpoint of economically
reclaiming ravaged lands. However, it is extremely important that it be done
in an environmentally safe fashion, with the public kept aware of the benefits
as well as any problems that may arise if the project is not handled properly.
Literature Cited
1. Act 241 (as amended) Pennsylvania Solid Waste Management Act (August 1968
Revised 1-70, 8-72), Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Department of
Environmental Resources.
2. Act 97 Solid Waste Management Act (1980), (July 1980), Commonwealth of
Pennsylvania, Department of Environmental Resources.
3. Rules and Regulations, August 1971 (amended May 24, 1977), Department of
Environmental Resources, Chapter 75, Solid Waste Management.
4. Galida, G. R., Residual Waste Projections, Municipal and Commercial Residuals,
March 1978, Department of Environmental Resources, Bureau of Land Protection.
5. Interim Guidelines for Sewage Sludge, Septic Tank, and Holding Tank Waste Use
on Agricultural Lands, Under, Department of Environmental Resources, Chapter
75, Subchapter C, Section 75.32.
6. Interim Guidelines for Sewage Sludge Use for Land Reclamation, Department of
Environmental Resources, Chapter 75, Subchapter C, Section 75.32.
7. Sopper, William E. and Kerr, Sonja N., Revegetating Strip-Mined Land with
Municipal Sewage Sludge, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Grant No.
S-804511.
8. Somerset County Reclamation Site, Blue Lick Parcel, Experimental Permit No.
600210, June 2, 1978, City of Philadelphia.
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IV / INSTITUTIONAL, LEGAL, ECONOMIC,
AND PUBLIC RELATIONS BARRIERS
OVERVIEW
David E. Burmaster
A project proposed to utilize municipal waste water and sludge for land
reclamation or biomass production must withstand scrutiny and challenges
of many varieties, which may include public opposition, institutional red
tape, or transportation problems. In the past few years, a number of
technically and economically sound projects have failed in the planning stage
because the proponents did not or could not respond to social, psychological,
or political questions raised by neighbors, environmentalists, or local officials.
Slowly, engineers have learned that a sludge-use proposal must include
detailed, simultaneous consideration of technical, economic, institutional,
legal, social, and political concerns from the outset.
Two groups of consultants, headed by the Environmental Law Institute
and Urban Systems Research & Engineering, Inc., respectively, have analyzed
a number of case studies from the last decade to learn ways to meet
"Transportation Impediments" and "Institutional Constraints and Public
Acceptance Barriers" in these types of projects. Both papers in this session
include an applied and theoretical analysis of the cases and concludes with
practical recommendations for the design of new projects.
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10
INSTITUTIONAL, LEGAL, TECHNICAL, AND ECONOMIC
CONSTRAINTS IN TRANSPORTATION OF SLUDGE FOR
LAND APPLICATION TO EASTERN SURFACE MINE
SITES
William B. Nye, Edward Yang, J. William Futrell,
Margaret Reuter, Fritz R. Kahn, Jack Osborn,
and Robert O. Bardwell
Introduction
Although in many regions of the world the application of human waste
to land to enhance soil fertility is an ancient, time-honored practice, it is
a practice that is in its conceptual infancy in the public mind in the United
States. Municipal sludge, the abundant residue of municipal wastewater
treatment plants, can be used to enrich poor soils such as those found at
surface mine sites. To be sure, there are a great number of isolated instances
of sludge application to land in the United States. It is a low-keyed practice.
Conventional wisdom is that it is not a subject the public wants to hear
about, and that drawing attention to the practice may arouse public
objection.
Many of the ongoing land application practices are not difficult to
detect. "Milorganite," Milwaukee's processed and bagged sewage sludge, sold
for many years to turf growers, golf courses and in home garden stores,
is clearly labeled and advertised as a sludge-derived product. Many small
cities apply sludge locally to land, as do a few large cities, such as Chicago
and Denver. Because its use is encouraged by many local wastewater
authorities, government agencies that are sensitive to health concerns
recommend appropriate care be taken in its use.
Recent water pollution laws and regulations limiting pollutant discharges
have resulted in a substantial increase in the quantity of municipal sludge.
As the effect of these laws and federal grants and local expenditures to
build and operate wastewater treatment plants have their impact, municipal
sludge will continue to increase in amount.
Conventional sludge disposal techniques-ocean dumping, incineration
and landfill-are becoming increasingly unavailable because of regulation and
physical limitation.
The problem is one of moving from generally small-scale to larger-scale
use of the land application practice. An increasingly attractive alternative
is using urban sludge for improving poor soils, especially surface mined land
located primarily in rural areas. More and more people are recognizing the
value of recycling organic resources and the need to reclaim eroding mine
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Nye, Yang, Futrell, Reuter, Kahn, Osburn, and Bardwell 127
lands. Properly processed or composted sludge, which produces a material
of low odor and relatively low toxicity should cause less objection from
application area citizens and their officials when land application projects
are considered.
Obviously, transporting urban sludge to rural surface mines for
reclamation solves two land-use problems at once. Facilitating this would
bring many environmental benefits and an efficient use of natural resources.
Where the coal transport system can be used to backhaul municipal sludge,
this will also avoid the economic and energy waste of empty carriage.
However, land application of municipal sludge has frequently
encountered public objection in the proposed receiving areas, especially when
the sludge originates in distant cities. Few rural communities are willing to
serve as "city dumps." Indeed, public resistance may arise over even
transporting municipal sludge through their communities.
Transporting municipal sludge is thought by many to have institutional,
legal, technical, and economic problems, which may result in delay, high
costs, or even insurmountable barriers.
This study sought to identify the main institutional, legal, technical
and economic constraints to transporting municipal sludge to reclamation
sites, and to point out the most promising ways of avoiding, mitigating,
or removing these constraints.
Although opportunities exist for the use of municipal sludge for coal
surface mine land in the West as well as in the East, this study deals primarily
with opportunities east of the Mississippi River. This choice was made not
only because of funding and time limitations, but also because the distance
from major metropolitan areas to mine sites is generally shorter in the East.
This offers potentially lower transportation costs, and therefore greater
immediate feasibility from a cost standpoint. The study does, however, point
out some additional problems in western application of this technology and
some advantages.
This paper deals only with our findings, conclusions and
recommendations. The final report will provide their basis in detail, and
will include four other memoranda appendices. The four are independent
memoranda on institutional, legal, technical and economic constraints.
The term "city" is used throughout this paper to mean large urban
area wastewater authorities, whether a regional authority or a combination,
individually or collectively, of authorities within a large urban area. Reference
to the size of a "city" references the relative population size of the urban
area, not just the core city. Rather than repeat the phrase "municipal sludge"
throughout this paper, the term "sludge" is used generally alone to indicate
"municipal sludge." Any quote of a part of this paper should insert the
word "municipal" in brackets before the word "sludge" where it is not
stated.
The term "program" is used throughout this paper to mean a program
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128 Barriers to Utilization
of transporting municipal sludge to rural surface mine land sites and
application of the sludge to these sites.
Findings and Conclusions
This section sets forth the major findings and conclusions of our study that
relate to constraints on municipal sludge transportation. Many other
conclusions providing detail to help shape the transportation element of a
program of land application of sludge will be covered in the final report.
General Findings and Conclusions
The key to succeeding with the land application element, and indirectly
the transportation element, is public acceptance. We found no barriers to
developing a well-planned transportation element capable of being well
executed. The only real barrier to successfully implementing the
transportation of sludge for land application is failure to successfully
implement the land application element.
Although the transportation element of a sludge land application
program must deal with numerous legal, technical, and economic
complexities, none are necessarily constraints. There is no significant public
opposition to well planned and executed transportation of sludge.
Technically, the "hazardous waste/material" threshold level should allow,
without being classed "hazardous," higher toxic organic chemicals, heavy
metal or pathogen content in sludge in transportation than in land
application. It is so perceived by the public and public officials. (There are
no legally established "hazardous" thresholds for transporting sludge.) For
these reasons, when well planned and executed, transportation of sludge in
connection with a well planned and executed program of land application
has a high certainty of being free of constraint. Its certainty of being free
of constraint is far greater than for the land application element.
For the transportation of sludge, legal issues do not drive technical
or economic issues significantly, except in basic vehicular safety. The legal
system, administered by the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), does
provide a degree of protection from the economic pitfalls of market
dominance and a means to seek avoidance if and when they materialize.
In this sense only an economic issue does drive one area of the legal
framework: offsetting market dominance underlies the creation of the ICC.
However, the belief that law has fostered more control of economic forces
than is necessary, has recently resulted in a substantial deregulation of the
transportation industry. Thus, economic forces are now substantially free
from legal constraint. Thus price and rates are freely negotiable for all but
a few transportation choices.
Technical issues and economic issues drive each other, and interplay
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Nye, Yang, Futrell, Reuter, Kahn, Osburn, and Bardwell 129
extensively. They are the two sides of the same coin. Broadly and simply,
certain equipment is available which has associated cost to load and move
it a specified distance and unload it. Distance and volume have
economies-of-scale implications which in turn have equipment-characteristics
choice implications. In reverse, equipment capacity and characteristics of
way force other economic results.
Institutional issues drive all other issues: legal, technical, and economic.
The need for public acceptance of applying sludge to land is the core issue
on which programs involving sludge transport, no matter how well planned
and marketed, may flounder. This institutional issue drives the choice within
a range of legally available options, and of modes and configurations of
transportation, choices which may not be the least costly. The one legal
issue that poses a potential constraint, state common law of nuisance, does
so only because it, too, is so subject to local public attitudes. It is a legal
issue that is largely driven by institutional issues, which therefore, contribute
to making it a law of uncertain application.
Public acceptance can be geographically subdivided. There are three
categories of communities that are always present: the receiving community,
the transit-only community, and the originating community. Two other
community categories that may be involved are transfer communities and
storage communities (with pipeline, a remote composting or treatment area
is a potential sixth category). Public acceptance in the receiving community
is the most tenuous, and the category of communities our study most closely
examined. The transit-only and originating communities have potential
problems which are avoidable with well planned and executed programs.
The existence of transfer and storage areas, hence transfer and storage
communities, can be avoided, but at a cost if the total trip distance is long.
We found adequate indications in our study of the transportation
element that successful land application elements can be developed, that
we assume (not conclude, because we did not study this aspect in depth)
this barrier can be overcome in a sufficient number of instances, and assume
it will be. We conclude that with the help of this study, transportation
elements can be well planned and executed, and that a well planned and
executed transportation element can help gain and maintain public
acceptance of land application.
All other direct transportation factors are a matter of relative
constraints. Generally, it is a matter of identifying the best ways to handle
the transportation element so as to avoid potential constraints, rather than
always the quickest, simplest or least-cost alternatives. A little less than what
we indicate is the best way for avoiding institutional constraints may, in
some cases of local variation, work even better (especially when a particularly
favorable back-haul is available). In many instances, only the best way will
work, at least in early phases of programs. In the many cases of relatively
short trip distance, higher cost will not be much higher. The principal reason
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130 Barriers to Utilization
to explore other than the path of least institutional constraint is significantly
higher cost.
It also became clear that many land application factors have an
important indirect impact on the transportation element, and vice versa.
The best way to handle the transportation element will be easier for
some cities than others. Distance between city and land application sites
is the major determining factor. The longer the distance, the exponentially
greater the cost of the best sludge transport mode for avoiding institutional
constraint, as compared with an available lower-cost option. Some cost
savings ways may be possible where the normal likely risk of public
acceptance involved can be eliminated or greatly minimized. It depends on
careful route planning to find and take advantage of local conditions found
along potential trip routes. In addition, as programs become accepted, the
potential for transporting larger sludge volumes increases, and there is a
somewhat reduced need for maximum route and volume/schedule flexibility.
The larger sludge volumes and reduced need for flexibility creates an
opportunity to reduce unit cost through use of lower cost, high-volume
capacity modes of transportation such as barge or rail. Careful study of
feasibility must, however, precede any change in transport mode. Transfer
and storage of sludge become key public acceptance issues with these lower
cost, high-volume modes.
The potential advantages of surface mine land application in obtaining
public acceptance are many. Sludge can beneficially fit into the local coal
economy, physiology and psychology. Because of coal mining, unusually
disturbed land occurs. There is frequently a more pronounced locally voiced
need to stop erosion than in non-coal mining areas. Sludge utilization can
provide a positive fit in. the local economy, helping to restore the problem
site while creating new work for local people, including drivers. Where there
is a backhaul opportunity for coal haulers, it may also provide more local
jobs, and potential cost savings for the local coal haulers (and the city).
Because coal has become an accepted part of the local scene, sludge,
if it follows in reverse the path of coal, is more likely accepted. The use
of established coal haul roads is likely more acceptable to the public than
"new" routes in non-coal areas.
The transportation equipment used to move coal, because of the similar
density of composted sludge, makes it the most suitable for transporting
composted sludge (with additional measures to prevent the escape of sludge
in transit), and technically and economically nearly ideal for backhaul. Less
dewatered sludge is heavier by volume and more costly to transport by
weight-restricted modes. How much more costly depends on how much more
water is transported.
There is an absolute need to plan, market, and execute a sludge land
application program well, with mine-site community acceptance the guiding
principle. Our study gives some guidance to these three activities even though
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Nye, Yang, Futrell, Reuter, Kahn, Osburn, and Bardwell 131
the study is confined to transportation. Program planning, marketing, and
execution, while keyed to institutional factors, must carefully, with thorough
knowledge of these issues, make legal, technical, and economic choices. A
thorough understanding of the general social-political aspects, technology and
economics of coal surface mining, specifically of the target site community
area is also necessary. Because in the East a program must usually deal with
surface mining in transition, an understanding of the history of reclamation,
the concept of abandoned lands, the legal principles of mineral and surface
rights in land, and reclamation technology and law are also required.
The Philadelphia-Somerset case study shows a successful program can
be accomplished. This does not mean a very similar effort will succeed in
every other location. The promoters of the Philadelphia-Somerset program
found cautiously receptive local rural public officials in a county where there
are problem surface mine sites and where there were landowners receptive
to sludge being applied to their land to assist in its reclamation. This was
a rural jurisdiction where difficult-to-reclaim surface mine lands were being
severely eroded. Mine land erosion was known to have resulted in community
problems that were of concern to local citizens and public officials. These
factors may have been the key factors resulting in local receptivity. The
number of situations where this set of circumstances and human attitudes
exist is difficult to predict. The skill of the sludge-producing city or its
contractor in evaluating and utilizing these circumstances successfully is also
difficult to predict. Therefore, although we can say that in a well planned
and executed program there is little likelihood of constraint of transportation
occurring, this does not mean the particular overall program will succeed.
The land application element is a much higher public acceptance hurdle.
Institutional Findings, Conclusions, and Constraints
Public and Public Official Resistance. As is well known, a significant segment
of the public has a negative reaction toward municipal sewage sludge.
Community acceptance problems exist even toward programs dealing with
its own sludge. There is generally less acceptance of sludge from another
community. There is even greater resistance in rural areas to accepting sludge
from large cities (a factor that argues for use of a general contractor as
a deflecting intermediary). It is likely that the rural resistance is less if the
population density of the community is small and dispersed, and the area
selected where the sludge will be placed is "out of the way" and will cause
the least possible impact on the least number of even this small number
of people. The experience of one of the authors using buffered unused public
land would serve as an example. This situation may exist in a few areas
in the East, especially where there is public ownership of previously mined
land. It will occur with greater frequency in the West, especially with leasing
and mining of federal land managed by the Bureau of Land Management,
and where huge tracts of land are owned or controlled by coal companies.
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.i Utilisation
H..-.ii public resistance to receiving large-city sludge is based on social,
n.'.nr.c, , nd political grounds. It is in part emotionally based, as well
ocirn; r i^ed on potentially valid physiological or technical grounds. The
n(?icsl or technical issues will usually be the expressed rationale for
itM-i Thete is resentment Insed on the perception that cities and their
i its hav, .ustorically dumped wastes of all types in rural areas. This
ri'tj: M'.chides the perception of wealth being amassed and kept in
oh en ti cm rural resources, while its refuse is the rural area's only
'.•i;.'-y That municipal sludge is a refuse that can be used to the social
-"••-( economic bcrefit of the rural areas, may help overcome this resentment.
invs .d<-.,-n>i-.)i;C should not be lost by now benefiting only wealthy rural
Vuidov.Tij-s. Gate :n sck-cting a mix of application site landowners and order
•'• :,iti use should be exercised.
'I! ;• physiological or technical concern about city sludge is based on
factiji) perfections which are in part accurate but incomplete. The perception
;o: -C**~K is tliat sludge is highly odiferous and contains dangerous pathogens,
without knowledge of the composting (and other) processes that sufficiently
<;'ir~iri3.fr odcr ,>nd pathogens. For others the perception is that industrial
.d'-! or her professes ir. cities contribute toxic organic chemicals and heavy
iiif-'K f.i, rhe sludge in amounts that pose a threat to public health and
Ao pivi'-inment that these substances will contaminate vegetation, wildlife,
.sur'ace arcl Eiouncnvater and enter the human food chain. The tact is that
toxicants and h^avy metals are present in the municipal sludge of various
,s!/e 'ities. n-".t inst large ones, but generally are available at levels that are
low ei).x:gh th.tt land application programs can be designed and operated
in .i manner (hat does not pit-sent a danger to public health or the
onvironmei!'.. Arco>ding to EPA and state requirements, many municipal
•ia'ig;:;, '. ar> be jpphed saiely to land used to grow food chain crops. Sludge
with biglif i levels of contaminants that could not be cost-effectively applied
''•> C!opl?ntl, according to these requirements, can be applied safely to land
not U'jed to grow tooa chain crops. Research studies have also provided
']•:•;!u: re.-c-rnmcndations for land application projects.
v':ibiic resistance is nearly always focused on the application of sludge
to land- Transportation of sludgt in connection with land application, if
opposed i; pa, v. of the opposition to land application, will be a secondary
n-'-ct, V/rien Lnd application programs arc accepted, the local public will
ion-;juif to monitor the tiansportation element, but if it is well planned
;i-nl citoriiti-ti the opposition will be slight, if any. However, if sludge
~.:iPsrotU"io" '5 pTorly planned or executed, opposition to transportation
car, (>• "-i;no cqn-illy »erious. In transit-only jurisdictions, opposition to sludge
fanspo-•-•ti.-.n will materialize if transportation is poorly planned or
cvf i lit* fl. The <;tizc-i's transportation concerns will likely be odor, routing,
s.iill.iRe, leak,-.!'- ar.d blow off precautions, spill clean-up procedures, and
on MI.
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Nye, Yang, Futrell, Reuter, Kahn, Osburn, and Bardwell 133
Local public officials of in-transit only communities were not concerned
so long as the sludge was not hazardous. If hazardous, they would want
to be informed and have some say in routing and scheduling. They expressed
a preference that it stay on the interstate highway. Although the case study
was a single, interstate route-specific example, it is our impression that
composted sludge transportation will not create transit-only community
opposition. Other processed dewatered sludge transportation is not likely
to create opposition. We would expect the likelihood of opposition to
increase in areas where interstate highways are not available and the sludge
is more objectionable.
Public officials are likely to reflect somewhat the opinions of their
constituency, however, individually public officials are likely to have personal
biases that can hurt or help a. land application program.2
A well-planned, marketed, and executed program, including the
transportation element, keyed to public acceptance in the application site
community is essential. The Philadelphia-Somerset case study showed that
such a program can adequately minimize public opposition and gain public
official support. It also showed that a well planned and executed
transportation element can completely avoid public (and public official)
opposition, and help in the marketing of the entire program.
A program entirely within one state, where possible, should have a
greater chance of success. Neither the city nor the rural area are as foreign
to each other. At the state level there is greater opportunity for legislative
trading and an agency that is interested in helping to solve both the city's
sludge management problems and the state's mine land reclamation problems.
An open, well conceived and implemented presentation of the land
application and transportation plan is essential. Initiating contact with
community leaders, public officials and others, openness to public inquiry
and a willingness to create opportunity for disclosure and public inquiry
are all essential. Explanatory material should be developed (e.g., film and/or
slides, brochures, reports of test data) on all program elements.
Sludge storage on the application site can be a major problem. It can
be the major transportation-related technical or physical constraint. The
potential problem must be avoided by planning the transportation element
to minimize on-site storage volume and duration. Truck transportation
flexibility offers the best technical solution to these problems for short
distance hauling, and for longer distance as well, unless off-site storage
facilities can be established. Off-site storage may present a public acceptance
problem in another community.
Using composted sludge which is low in contaminants can be of major
assistance in gaining public acceptance. Its earth-like odor and physical
characteristics that resemble a potting soil are strong assets. It handles better
in unloading at the application site than does wetter sludge. It is less
objectionable in transit and in case of spillage. It is less objectionable in
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134 Barriers to Utilization
on-site storage.
Public acceptance of programs is more likely to occur if sites are at
first selected that even prior to mining had poor soil structure and now
cause revegetation and erosion problems as a result of the land disturbance
from mining. Because adequate topsoil was not available for reclaiming this
type of site, the program will provide even more beneficial gains to the
mine-site community.
Monitoring the sludge for toxic organic chemicals, heavy metal, and
pathogens, by the city's or its contractor's consultant, and locally established
independent monitoring of soil, crops, surface and ground water of the sites
and off-site areas for these contaminants to prove that they remain at
acceptable levels, is essential to building local trust and acceptance. Where
possible, monitoring by a well-known and trusted university group, often
with a preference for being from the minesite state, should be provided.
This promotes an accurate and positive image of the company's willingness
to be independently and professionally judged, and by a group more likely
to be locally trusted and an institution that has locally established
relationships.
Wastewater Engineer and Transportation Company Attitudes.
Consulting wastewater engineers are generally not opposed to these programs
but are skeptical that they are likely to receive public acceptance in the
mine site area. The depth and meaning of this skepticism is unknown. The
possibilities for this approach will generally need to be demonstrated through
feasibility studies before these engineers will recommend investing in staff
time or further contract commitments to program development, and
probably before they will recommend composting, although composting may
be viable for other types of land application programs, and therefore an
easier decision. The successful Philadelphia-Somerset program should help
ease such skepticism.
Transportation companies are generally more skeptical of entering as
the investing catalysts for this type of sludge reuse program. A few have
tried unsuccessfully, large-volume sludge reuse projects. They see public
acceptance as too fragile a web to justify the investment in such projects.
We suspect it may also require too great a planning and marketing investment
for the potential amount of business to be gained. There appears to be no
opposition to merely providing the transportation service for transporting
sludge in a program where the non-transportation investment comes from
other sources. The city will clearly have to share in the investment and
risk.
Transportation companies are also reluctant to enter into complicated
government program contracts. Contract models providing performance
criteria rather than details of performance may be of some help. As a caveat,
however, the company staff for any full program contract, whether a
transportation company or a managing contractor, must include, in a
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Nye, Yang, Futrell, Reuter, Kahn, Osburn, and Bardwell 135
controlling position, people with citizen participation mechanism skills, for
proper planning, marketing, and program management.
Legal Findings, Conclusions, and Constraints
Laws having a potential impact on the transportation of sludge are grouped
under two broad categories: safety regulation and economic regulation. The
former are concerned primarily with ensuring that transportation operations
are performed in a manner that minimizes the risk of harm to both shipper
and carrier employees and the communities through which the sludge is
transported. The latter are concerned primarily with the adequacy of
available transportation services and the rates paid for such services.
Health and safety regulations are administered by the Department of
Transportation and the Environmental Protection Agency on the federal level
and state agencies on the state level. Economic regulation of interstate
commerce is under the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), which
regulates licensing of firms, level of services provided, and rates charged (and
generally similar state structures for intrastate commerce).
Our examination of laws and existing and proposed potential regulations
in both categories indicates that current government regulation of
transportation should not be a substantial impediment to the movement of
municipal sludge for land application. On the other hand, we found that
the absence of a regulatory scheme for transporting hazardous sludge was
a constraint, although probably not a series one. Absence of a regulatory
scheme leaves state common law of nuisance court test outcomes more
uncertain than would be the case with a regulatory scheme.
The only laws that currently pose a. potential constraint to sludge
transportation are the nuisance laws contained in the common law of the
states. Common law nuisance suits, based on allegation of hazard or nuisance,
can be brought by aggrieved officials or citizens in local state courts before
locally elected judges. Public opinion and local public official perceptions
can weigh significantly in these suits.
In the land application jurisdiction, suits will more likely and more
easily be waged against the land application element. Even if transportation
of sludge is an included complaint, court decisions are far more likely to
be adverse only to the land application element. A primary reason is the
general perception that potential hazards in transporting sludge are not nearly
as great as potential hazards from its application to land.
In the transit-only jurisdictions involved in the Philadelphia-Somerset
program there was not significant opposition to the well-planned and
executed transportation element. Sludge is also currently transported by
many cities for other means of sludge disposition in their own and nearby
jurisdictions without adverse transportation nuisance case decisions being a
significant constraint. Substances perceived as even more objectionable travel
interstate highways with little, if any, public objection.
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136 Barriers to Utilization
For these reasons there is a high certainty that state common law of
nuisance will not pose a constraint to well-planned and executed
transportation of sludge for land application. However, these laws would
be constraints to poorly planned or executed transportation.
Uncertainty does exist in the common law of nuisance, by its very
nature of inexactness (not statutory) and the variability of local court
jurisdiction. Although not a serious constraint to transportation, its
uncertainty can and should be greatly narrowed and substantially removed
by further development of a more complete hazardous waste and material
transportation regulatory scheme for sludge under current federal laws.
There are two existing federal laws that allow development of sludge
transportation regulations: the Hazardous Materials Transportation Act3
administered by the Department of Transportation (DOT), and the Solid
Waste Disposal Act as amended by the Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act (RCRA) administered by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).4
Both relate to hazardous waste/materials transportation. The first is intended
to apply to any material (including waste) that is hazardous in transportation.
The second is intended to apply to any waste material that is transported
and is hazardous in disposition (but not necessarily hazardous in
transportation). The first requires special equipment, and for trucks, higher
insurance. The second merely requires participation in EPA's manifest system
which is designed to keep a record of where the waste is routed and disposed
of.
Regulations might in error be developed that would pose constraints
to well-planned and executed transportation of sludge. Effort should be made
to see that they do not. Effort should also be made to assure that instead,
regulations are developed that aid transportation of sludge that is well
planned and executed, placing constraint only on those that are not. This
would have the important secondary benefit of guiding local state courts
in nuisance suits, administrative regulators, planners, and investment decision
makers in developing programs, and would aid a more accurate public
perception of sludge.
In the four states examined, we found no existing law authorizing a
transportation regulatory scheme based on hazardousness in transportation
or to control the whereabouts of sludge in transit. The probable fight over
proposals of new state law specifically for sludge would be
counterproductive. Regulations pursuant to any such law of any state, if
any exists, should be similarly developed to provide an even more complete
regulatory scheme.
In addition to state nuisance lawsuits, there is also the possibility, even
absent federal regulations, that a federal court action involving transporting
sludge could be brought under the Hazardous Materials Transportation Act5
or the Solid Waste Act as amended by the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act6 or both to compel its classification as "hazardous" even
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Nye, Yang, Futrell, Reuter, Kahn, Osburn, and Bardwell 137
though not so classed by regulation. If such a suit or both suits succeeded,
this would not block sludge transportation but would instead impose for
trucks the additional requirements of the EPA manifest system, substantially
higher insurance, and more expensive equipment. It might, however, destroy
any hope of public acceptance of the sludge for land application. The test
for hazardousness in a federal court is likely to follow federal guidelines
for land application or a yet unformed lower standard for hazardous waste
in transportation, depending on the court's acceptance of there existing in
fact such a differentiation. This is further reason why caution dictates the
use of high-quality sludge, following the EPA guidelines.
A regulatory system would place some strictures on the new less certain
operation of common law (and obviate the possibility of adverse federal
court action, as long as the needed EPA and DOT regulations are followed).
Establishing in the regulations a definition of sludge that is hazardous only
in transportation makes it clear that other sludge is not. A federal regulatory
scheme does not preempt operation of state common law of nuisance. In
matters of safety, unless a federal law specifically provides for preemption
it is presumed not to preempt state law. However, a federal regulatory scheme
for sludge transportation would have the effect of supplying definitions
which tend to become guidelines for the state courts. It becomes difficult
for a judge to justify choosing a different definition. Therefore, reasonable
federal and state regulatory schemes would tend to place guidelines on the
new "roving gun" of a local nuisance lawsuit.
Federal and state economic regulation of transportation, although
containing some uncertainty regarding its application to sludge
transportation, poses no serious constraint to sludge transportation. At most,
rate overcharge recourse to the ICC may be limited for a few carrier
classification choices within the truck and barge mode. As in the case of
safety regulation, being under such a federal regulatory scheme would provide
greater certainty of fair rates. Here the rate certainty would come from
access to recourse against market dominance-caused over-pricing. There
would be little disbenefit from sludge coming under the existing scheme.
The certainty gained is that certain carriers and equipment will be available
at equitable cost. The uncertainty of cost when not under ICC regulation,
however, is not likely a constraint to sludge transport.7
In the case of economic regulation a regulatory scheme exists, but sludge
transportation needs to be specifically brought under it. The likelihood of
sludge qualifying to come under the existing transportation economic
regulatory scheme is highly probable. The probability would be even greater
were public agencies to jointly urge its regulation by the ICC. Such regulation
will not present a constraint. The possibility for negotiating fair rates will
remain, and be enhanced by the new potential for access to ICC rate
regulation.
Sludge has long been transported, but generally for short distances in
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138 Barriers to Utilization
its local jurisdiction or origin or to nearby jurisdictions. This had produced
little impetus for either safety or economic regulation of its transportation
at the state and federal level. This leaves a degree of uncertainty for planners
and investors, but not sufficient uncertainty to be a constraint to developing
the transportation element of programs.
The uncertainty in both the safety and economic area of the law relates
to regulation, but each in a different way, requiring different remedies. Under
safety, because a regulatory scheme for hazardous sludge transportation has
not been structured, the remedy is for regulations to be drafted and
promulgated. For economic regulation, a comprehensive regulatory scheme
exists, but sludge has just never been brought under it. The remedy is an
ICC decision invoking its regulatory jurisdiction through a permit application.
Large cities developing programs for the disposal of sewage sludge
should become acquainted with the existing framework of safety and
economic regulation, since decisions made in response to this two-part
regulatory framework may affect the ultimate cost of transportation and
even create impediments where they could have been avoided. The differing
application of laws and regulations to interstate and intrastate transportation
should always be borne in mind.
Technical
Adequate equipment for transporting sludge to mine sites is readily available
for two of the four modes studied, truck and rail. Barge is readily available
where waterways exist. Pipelines are generally not available. Trucks and
barges can be purchased and used on public rights-of-way. Railway and
pipeline rights-of-way are not public but rail cars can be purchased and law
requires railways to permit their use if possible. Purchase of right-of-way
is impractical for rail haul, however, spurs will cost the same as if purchased
(but built and maintained by the railroad company). Pipeline "purchase"
requires both investment in right-of-way and pipeline construction. This may
be possible for the full-scale phases of some larger successful projects that
may be developed by very large cities for short- or long-distance transport
of sludge.
Institutional considerations, for reducing likelihood of opposition to
sludge transportation, compel use of certain additional equipment on truck
and rail carriers, and care in selecting quality truck, rail or barge equipment.
The public and public officials' concern in all jurisdictions is with the choice
of route (kept off local roads as much as possible), spillage, leakage and
blow-off prevention, and odor elimination. Tarpaulin or other covers should
be used for truck, barge and some rail units and seals should be included
on trucks and some rail cars. These provide greatly improved assurances
against dry sludge blow-off, wet sludge leakage, and "dry" sludge becoming
wet from rain. This may seem like excessive protection-that one or the
other would suffice-and it is. Covers are most important, and also make
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Nye, Yang, Futrell, Reuter, Kahn, Osburn, and Bardwell 139
the cargo more indistinguishable from other cargoes, avoiding subjecting more
people than necessary to seeing sludge, which can be an important aesthetic
point.
Equipment that appears and is in good condition helps create a better
impression and reduces breakdown problems. Equipment in obvious poor
condition will create legitimate safety concerns, as well as an overall negative
impression. Extra locks should be used on truck gates. Instructing drivers
and handlers to immediately clean up a spill is also important. The use of
well-composted sludge is best to minimize odor problems, which can be
especially important in avoiding general program opposition. Composted
sludge can also be more easily handled at transfer points, at the application
site, and in the event of spills.
Trucks provide the greatest low-volume hauling and scheduling
flexibility. These benefits help assure the least capital or contract
commitments to transport a specific long-term sludge volume and to a
specific destination. Use of only trucks avoids the necessity to transfer in
transit. This flexibility minimizes storage, capital investment and long-term
contract commitment in the early stages. The use of trucks also provides
the opportunity to hire drivers from the local mine site area. These
advantages are important for minimizing opposition to the transportation
element and financial risk.
For very short distances and low sludge volume, dump trucks (with
higher sides added) are best. For most short distances and longer distance,
larger capacity dump trailers are best.
Trucks are cost competitive with other modes for shorter distances (e.g.,
100 miles and sometimes more) and smaller annual sludge volumes (e.g.,
up to around 20,000 cubic yards but sometimes more). They start to
gradually lose competitiveness at about 80 miles. They are competitive for
a longer distance and larger volume where one or two rail spurs are a
necessary part of the alternative. How much longer and larger depends on
the length of the spur(s). When larger sludge volumes of well-established
programs of large cities are involved, the cost competitiveness of trucks drops
markedly compared to other sludge transportation modes over long distances.
In early stages of a program, the use of trucks will help minimize the
risk of public opposition. If the trip is over a long distance, combining tiuck
with other transportation modes may have to be considered, especially when
volume of sludge available every two days grows to the minimum capacity
of the larger-capacity equipment of other modes (e.g., a few rail cars, a
single barge in a multiple barge tow). Whether to arrange for the unloading
and loading transfer in a transit-only jurisdiction should be considered at
this point but local condition will vary so markedly that no conclusion can
be made about this factor. Local established practices for the transport of
coal or other bulk industrial commodities are likely to be an important factor
in deciding on the feasibility of transfer points. A possible alternative is
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140 Barriers to Utilization
temporary storage in "parked" rail cars or barge. Public opposition may
prohibit the use of barge for storage.
There may be, in addition to public acceptance, economic reasons for
preferring trucks. The need to start with small volumes, the probable
necessity of a heavy investment in rail spurs, and the economies of scale
in rail and barge, with their larger capacity equipment, not being available
until volume is larger, will usually argue, for economic reasons, against use
of rail or barge in early stages. However, backhaul possibilities may alter
this. An example is where an existing rail spur for coal exists.
For longer distances with larger volume, the possible extra cost of
utilizing trucks, at least in the early stages of a program, may still be
necessary to reduce the risk of public objection. When sludge volume is
low, even for long distances, the economies of higher minimum capacity
rail, and especially barge, are not as compelling, and a slightly higher truck
cost may still be economically tolerable. In later stages of established
programs, the use of modes other than trucks can be reassessed. Specific
program feasibility studies will be necessary in the planning of the program
and from time to time thereafter to determine the best choice of
transportation modes and configurations. Established coal practices are
important factors to consider.
A coal backhaul is best for institutional, technical, and economic
reasons. Coal is also probably the most available backhaul commodity. The
association of sludge transport with coal should lend to reducing the risk
ot public opposition. This is especially so if routing follows an existing
coal-haul route. Using roads already in use by coal trucks, including the
empty return trip, should result in less opposition since the only change
is that for return trips instead of an empty truck there will be a full but
covered truck. Activities relating to coal transportation also are somewhat
objectionable, but have probably already gained general local acceptance.
(if this is not the case, the reverse is true, so do not get caught in a local
coal mining acceptability fight.) Coal transportation equipment is best suited
for sludge. Coal may also constitute a large segment of the local economy.
Providing an opportunity for backhaul is likely to be seen as a benefit to
the local economy.
There is also a marked preference for using interstate highways as much
as possible. A preference for local coal-haul roads generally applies once
off the interstate highways. This dictates that sites closest to interstate
highways will generally be preferable. If coal-haul roads are not available,
roads through the least residentially and commercially developed areas are
best.
For rail transportation of sludge, hopper cars are best for all but
high-volume programs. When sites for large-volume programs are firmly
assured, less-expensive gondola cars, which require long-term investment in
costly unloading facilities, may become preferable.
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Nye, Yang, Futrell, Reuter, Kahn, Osburn, and Bardwell 141
Suitable sludge loading and unloading equipment is readily available.
Suitable sludge loading and unloading facilities may not be available. They
may have to be constructed. New fixed facilities will be an extra cost (e.g.,
spurs, pads, ramps). Necessary loading or unloading operations present no
physical constraints nor is there necessarily a very significant cost difference
between modes, although truck is likely to be lowest in cost, except in
large-volume programs. Equipment choices within transport modes, however,
present considerable cost differences. This is especially true for rail transport,
which may be justified for high-volume established programs. In-transit
loading/unloading operations will nearly always involve two transport modes,
unloading from one mode to load another. In a few cases more than two
modes of transport could be involved. One origination loading and
destination unloading is included in the costs we used (and in the rate)
for each mode; however, the more transport modes used, the greater the
number of transfers, and the higher the cost.
Because of the need to start land application programs with small
volumes of sludge, and to increase volume slowly, volume over time is an
important factor for consideration. This compels long-term planning of
programs, with frequent estimates of future volume levels in order to
determine the best transit mode for each changing phase of the program.
Although public opinion as to transportation of sludge and legal concern
for avoiding sludge that might be found by a court to be hazardous in
transportation probably allows for the transportation of sludges less
acceptable than composted sludge and sludge of higher contaminants without
increasing public-acceptance risk in the transportation element, there are
important transportation physical and institutional advantages to composted
sludge. It is more acceptable in storage and transfers due to low odor and
less potential for runoff. It is easier to load and unload because it is dryer
and does not jam up in trucks or bridge the bottom doors of rail hopper
cars. The need to wash trucks or rail cars prior to coal or other use is
avoided.
It is possible for a city to develop sites in other communities, with
existing sites available to help market the concept, in order to increase
volume at an earlier point in time. Because of the need to spend a great
deal of time in any community marketing and managing programs, care must
be used to not over-extend available staff with these skills. Opportunities
for cost savings in transportation routings should be assessed when selecting
other site communities and specific sites. However, the fact that local
backhaul has important public acceptance aspects should not be lightly cast
aside for the sake of relatively small transport cost savings.
In multiple-community programs, local backhaul preference may involve
more than one transportation firm in that different firms may be established
haulers in different communities. Program commitment to a single carrier
should be limited. It is preferable for the city itself (or its general program
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142 Barriers to Utilization
contractor) to subcontract for the sludge transportation element that best
fits a specific site, route, cost, and stage of a program, if a city does not
have the 'staff with time and necessary skill to handle certain program
components, including management of sludge transportation, it should plan
to contract for these services with a private company. It might also want
to contract with a company to operate the entire program, including the
subcontracting for sludge transportation.
Economic
This study found no significant economic constraints to sludge transport.
However, our study did not compare cost of land application with other
disposition options. There are ample alternatives available wnen choosing
transportation modes. It is a matter of selecting the best mode and
configuration within that mode, or combination of modes and specific
configurations, for the particular program.
There seems to be enough competition within these transport modes
and between modes that overcharging is not a significant factor.
Until site acreage and sludge volumes are at full program levels, purchase
of transportation equipment is an option which should not be pursued for
reasons of risk of capital investment and loss of management flexibility.
During the early stages of a program, contract negotiation with carriers is
preferred. Purchase of fixed facilities may not be totally avoidable, but
should be kept to the minimum necessary through transport mode and
configuration choices that require less costly fixed facilities.
Cities can develop and operate their own programs, however, private
contract development and operation is usually preferable. The city will
probably, at this stage and for some time in the future, have to share much
of the financial risk in order to attract contractors. The city will have to
do all it can to help reduce risks as well. This may include accepting the
cost of composting sludge and paying the higher transportation (and other)
cost required to gain mine-site community and landowner acceptance. It
may also require paying for site community, route and transport mode
feasibility studies, demonstration projects, and detailed planning and
marketing.
Efficient management by the city is particularly important at this
development stage. Possible mismanagement of public funds and trust will
quickly raise enough obstacles to immobilize the operation. This is an
additional reason for the municipal governments to pay careful attention
to the points previously discussed, and to do all that is possible to achievt
the key element for success: application-site community public acceptance.
It is generally preferable to involve private sector participation and
management with close coordination and oversight by the city.
Sludge volume and distance transported are generally the greatest
variables in the cost of programs. For volume, the variance is generally
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Nye, Yang, Futrell, Reuter, Kahn, Osburn, and Bardwell 143
greatest over time. Among all cities as a group, distance is the greatest
variable; however, distance generally is not as large a variable as is volume
with a specific city, especially not over time. Once an application-site
community is selected and the land application program is established, the
trip distance should stay nearly constant, while the volume of sludge applied
to the land should increase markedly over time. If the city's volume available
requires land application sites in other communities, communities near the
program application-site community, knowing of the program's success, are
the most likely future site communities. This should keep the trip distance
in a fairly tight range over time. Sludge volume used in land application
on surface mine sites, however, would keep on increasing. With a highly
successful program, volume will stabilize eventually. In the meantime,
improvements in wastewater treatment and any growth in population will
be further variables for sludge volume.
Another reason for sludge volume to be a greater cost variable for all
cities is that while each produces a different given total volume of sludge
(which also increases with improved treatment), a city can design a land
application program for as little or as much of that city's total sludge as
it chooses. The further reason that sludge volume is the greatest cost variable
is the relationship of volume to lower cost-higher volume transport modes
and that discounts are available in transport contract negotiations for higher
volumes of cargo and long-term haulage commitment, adding variables to
price for unit of sludge-volume hauled.
Each city has a given location with reference to mine sites which defines
its distance range. The unknown distance variable then is how far into a
large surface-mining area must the city venture to find suitable sites and
an accepting community? It should be remembered, however, that the
shortest distance is not necessarily the least costly, when transport mode
choices and institutional factors are considered.
Figures 10-1 and 10-2 show the total costs of truck, rail and barge
modes for use in transporting sludge for distances of 80 and 320 miles
respectively. The lines show the relationships between volume of sludge
extends to 1,000,000 cubic yards of sludge per annum.
Examining Figure 10-1, it seems truck loses its competitiveness at
around annual volume of 20,000 cubic yards, with widening unit cost
differential as volume further increases. Barge seems competitive with rail
at high volume. The studies available did not provide cost for volume less
than 500,000 cubic yards for barge. However, because of the large capacity
of a single barge and the need to ship at least every two workdays, this
approaches the minimum annual volume for barge use.
Barge and rail are still competitive when the distance increases to 300
miles. However, truck now has become very much less competitive. For
500,000 cubic yards, truck will cost $33,581,000, compared with $4,000,000
for barge and rail.
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144 Barriers to Utilization
Figure 10-1. Total Cost Comparison Between Three Modes of Transportation
(Truck, Rail, Barge) at a Distance of 80 Miles.
wo -
I 2 468 10 Z 468 100 2 4
ANNUAL SLUDGE VOLUME, IOOO CUBIC YARDS
» 30-COBIC T4RO THUCK
6 6
Figure 10-2. Total Cost Comparison Among Three Modes of Transportation
(Truck, Rail and Barge) at a 320 Mile Haul.
KDOflOO
SOjOOO -
2 468 10 2 4 6 8 IOO 2 466
ANNUAL SLUDGE VOLUME, IOOO CUBIC YARDS
— Promoted Cost
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Nye, Yang, Futrell, Reuter, K.ahn, O-,Un , and ' :<
Figure 10-3. Unit Cost Difference Between Trurk and Hail b> '>
5,000.000 Cubic Yards.
24 r
22 -
20 -
ie >
I6 I
,4:
6 -
4 -
50 100 ft' 200 'i:
TRANSPORTATION UISTANCE Mu
Although we cannot establish a lirm breakeven Mi
trucks are competitive with rail and baigc under 1t-0 n'ici,
at an increasing rate once the mileagr is greatt- than rf'l ni;'^-
of increasing distance on unit cost can be see1, in "\M'. i>
The cost cutves in Figures 10-1 and 10-2 can Le P^-IU Ki'.v
used together with Table 10-1 where a lis,t ot t itu •• -• • .,p w
annual volume of sludge (for most i itiesj and appro' i-,i;iic
surface mines.
There are a few instances when- transpori cuiiioi - r,, nv
city may be advisable. Idealh, a city may owi. a c'niiucd u
is also the possibility of working out transpoi tation ai ..lU^i'iii
the city and the nearby privately owned coa! fired pov. .
for vehicle ownership by either party setviclng the otncr
of coal mines may also be helpful, but this is nor rhi pr
in the East. (It should be an impoitant ficto', IP
destination-area drivers could stil! be hired to drive '.;i>'
trucks if local law or labor contracts do not orohil-'i
Recommendations: The Chronology of a Successful Sluuge
Transportation Operation
General Attitudes
1. Developing programs of land application ot iminir ipal Ja.i^r both
transpoi tation and land application, should be \u'vvcd as one wh )U pn.uei.
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146 Barriers to Utilization
Table 10-1. Annual Sludge Volume and Distance to Surface Mine Areas.
Nearest site Next closest large Amount of sludge
SMSA area distance site area annual volume
New York
Newark
Philadelphia
Pittsburgh
Baltimore
Washington
Atlanta
Cleveland
Columbus
Cincinnati
Detroit
Indianapolis
Milwaukee
Chicago
Memphis
St. Louis
Boston
New Orleans
100
110
80
20
140
110
130
50
30
100
190
60
240
160
160
50
250/400
300
340
310
280
100
220
200
300
180
100
220
220
160/310
*220/360
**180/300
290
220
500
*350/550
***
cubic yards
83,304
49,140
80,496
28,548
108,108
26,208
32,520
391,248
34,164
391,248
34,164
117,468
241,784
57,096
metric tons
64,080
37,800
61,920
21,960
83,168
20,160
25,020
300,960
26,280
300,960
26 , 280
90,360
193,680
43,920
Two directions.
AA
Two barging distances.
AAA
Using conversion factor of 1400 Ib of
composted sludge per cubic yard.
During the course of the study of institutional constraints, many factors
were found that applied primarily to the land application element which
also impacted the transportation element. Many transportation factors were
also found which impacted the land application element. Studies may treat
land application from sludge transportation as two separate processes, but
this must not be allowed to happen in program development.
2. Sludge transportation programs should be planned so that all
concerned understand the need for and seek to insure public acceptance
of transportation and land application of sludge.
Preparatory Actions
3. Appropriate actions should be taken to insure legal authority for
all of the city's entire land application program activities. The appropriate
ordinances and enabling actions should include the authority for entering
into necessary contracts, undertaking studies and plans, implementing
ongoing programs once developed, and for their funding. By planning these
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Nye, Yang, Futrell, Reuter, Kahn, Osburn, and Bardwell 147
necessary authorizations early (well before the first application site is
selected), the city is more likely to withstand later "hometown" attacks
on its program.
4. At an early stage, the city should determine the scale of the desired
potential land application element of its overall sludge management activities.
Setting a goal for the annual volume of sludge it hopes can be handled
annually through the land application process will determine the scale goal
of the land application program. A decision should be reached on the type
and quality of sludge to be handled in the land application process. The
ability to produce sludge over time with contaminant levels acceptable for
land application will be a limit on the volume goal.
For the reasons discussed in the study, it is generally essential that
composted sludge or, in some cases or later phases, otherwise well-stabilized
sludge of a low level of contaminants be used. EPA and state requirements
and guidelines should be utilized, especially for land application sites which
may eventually involve food chain crop production. The use of a high-quality
sludge will further enhance the possibility of public acceptance even if the
site to be used will not involve food chain crop production (certain fiber
crops, forests, or biomass energy crops).
5. The city should determine what agency and staff, or contractor will
administer and carry out program operations. In many cases, the city will
probably select and contract with a private contractor for the entire land
application program: planning, marketing, subcontracting, and ongoing
program management. Managing transport and application is also part of
a single process. The Philadelphia-Somerset program is an example of a
program using multiple subcontractors with one prime contractor responsible
to the City of Philadelphia for program development and implementation.
In developing such a contract with a private contractor, the two parties
will need to decide on the share of risk each is to assume. It is most important
that the prime contractor hired be capable of gaining and keeping public
acceptance. Transportation is a service that can be further subcontracted
by the prime contractor or supplied directed by the city. However, it is
important for maintaining the mine-site community's acceptance that the
prime contractor be able to control, manage, and discharge personnel or
subcontractors if operations need improvement. Poor transportation service,
the failure to meet delivery schedules and provide a certain level of service,
can destroy hard-won public acceptance.
Pre-Program Planning
6. A feasibility study is a necessary early step. A primary purpose should
be to help assess the public acceptance potential of various site communities.
Public acceptance in all effected communities must be gained. In the
beginning, a limited operation involving only the basic originating,
transit-only, and receiving communities should be planned. Early operations
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will probably depend solely on trucks, although an existing non-truck coal
backhaul option (e.g., rail, barge or a combination of either with trucks)
may be available. The feasibility study should evaluate a number of different
potential mine-site communities for the potential for matching-up suitable
problem sites, interested site owners and receptive local public officials and
other key local leaders. State agency attitudes must also be assessed. It is
very helpful if they are receptive and supportive. It is very important that
they at least be tolerant.
The feasibility study should gather alternative routing data and evaluate
it to determine short-term and long-term transportation modes and the
potential for avoiding possible points of conflict. For the short term, this
may include availability of interstate highways for a large segment of the
trip and existing coal-haul roads for a short distance. A study of the
availability of coal backhaul options should be included. For the long term,
if distance is much over 100 miles, modes other than truck must be
examined. Economic analysis of the different routing options is necessary.
As a result of this analysis, site communities and routing options for
each should be ranked and a target land-application community selected.
It is generally best to choose one community (the study will have identified
back-up options) and concentrate efforts to gain public acceptance on it,
rather than dividing efforts among more than one community at one time.
7. After these preliminary studies, short-term, incremental and long-term
sludge volume goals should be reestablished, based on the site feasibility
study, volume of acceptable-quality sludge, and now better-known distance
probabilities.
Program Implementation
8. An interim, small-volume program for producing composted sludge,
or in some cases, otherwise well-stabilized sludge, should be established by
the city if it has not already done so.
9. Site use agreements must be obtained from owners of a few of the
targeted application sites. Care must be used in selecting landowners as well
as sites. Large acreage owners should be avoided in the early phase.
Landowners who are respected for community concern should be selected.
Care should be taken that the early-phase site is not owned by an absent
owner, or even a wealthy local landowner if this risks labelling the program
as only benefiting the absent or rich owner, to the detriment of the average
resident.
10. Backhaul arrangements should be further investigated and
preliminarily established as soon as possible. This may require continuing
negotiations until a suitable volume is assured. Caution should be used in
backhaul-hauler selection and contract terms to avoid and control poor
performance. Contracts should not be entered before the public has had
an opportunity to suggest other transport modes or routes felt preferable.
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Nye, Yang, Futrell, Reuter, Kahn, Osburn, and Bardwell 149
11. Detailed short-term and early interim plans should be developed,
including the transportation element, for the selected mine sites. The
transportation plan and the remote sludge storage plan must be integrated.
12. Tentative provisions should be made for the use of proper
transportation equipment. Use of precautionary equipment should be
planned as appropriate for the mode chosen (e.g., for trucks: tarpaulin covers,
foam seals, and extra gate locks). The use of local mine-site area people
for driving and other services should be arranged as this can help win local
acceptance of the entire program.
Institutional Arrangements
13. The city should arrange for professional third-party monitoring to
insure a quality operation and to facilitate public approval. The appropriate
university, preferably located in the application site state, for reasons of
local trust and already established relations, should be used. A locally trusted
local consultant would be the second best choice. Try to also have the
appropriate local agency or the state conduct independent monitoring.
14. An active program of public involvement to help assure public
acceptance should be implemented.
(a) Mine-site community public officials and other key leaders
including local media should be contacted, shown plans and studies and
invited to visit the city's wastewater treatment and sludge processing
facilities, as well as any site where a similar project is ongoing (e.g., Somerset
County, Pennsylvania, if similar).
(b) Well prepared public meetings conducted by the city or its
contractor should follow. Several preliminary meetings should be scheduled,
located at places and times convenient to the public.
(c) Meetings should seek wide public involvement with
participation by as many agency key staff, site landowners, and local people
as possible. The city or its contractor should have its key staff and
consultants present with adequate information and supporting material. The
key city or contractor staff person must be a person with proven skill at
handling citizen concerns. The pre-planned program should be described as
a proposal subject to change as a result of citizen participation.
(d) The presentation should stress and provide for citizen input.
It should also provide a fast education for citizens on the technical concepts
involved in the program, including the technical aspects of transportation,
so that they can contribute to problem solving as well as raise questions
and criticisms. Company participants should be thoroughly prepared to
candidly respond to citizen inquiry or comment. Slides showing the proposed
sites, unloading and storage locations, and other contemplated program
components including early-phase sites should be utilized. The slides and
their presentation should identify the existing problems associated with the
sites and how they will be corrected by the sludge application program.
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150 Barriers to Utilization
In the Philadelphia-Somerset program, the sludge-based composted mix (e.g.,
municipal sludge and wood chips) was called "compost mix" rather than
sludge. It is important to use care in selecting terminology that is honest
but that also places the program in the best light. Possible problems
associated with sludge quality, transportation, storage, unloading, and site
preparation and application techniques should be frankly presented. The
vegetational growth potential should be emphasized. The benefit to the local
economy should be fully discussed, but not overemphasized.
(e) Once initial local approval is gained and the first on-site sludge
application is underway, further meetings should be scheduled, and
invitations extended to visit the site. Buses or smaller passenger vehicles
should be provided to facilitate site visitation.
(f) Similar programs should continue throughout future phases of
the program, no matter how large the approved acreage becomes.
Transition to Large-Scale Operations
15. At later phases, as the volume of sludge transported increases
substantially (and perhaps earlier where the trip distances are longer), carriage
by truck may become too uneconomical. At this point, the city should
reconsider its choice of carrier and re-examine which transport mode (truck,
rail, barge or pipeline) or combination of modes is best suited for its
operations. If interstate travel is involved, the impact of Interstate Commerce
Commission regulation on rates, entry, and level of service should be assessed.
The city should compare different types of carriage arrangements (e.g.>
private ownership, private carriage, contract carriage, and common carriage,
as applicable to the different modes).
(a) When truck carriage is utilized, dump trucks will generally be
most economical and suitable for short hauls or short-haul truck segments
combined with other modes. With longer hauls (of up to 100 miles and
sometimes more), dump trailers (pulled by truck tractors) will be most
economical and suitable for the earlier phases of a program, but only for
very early, small-volume phases of very much longer distance hauls. For
distances much greater than 100 miles serious consideration should be given
to rail or barge (if available) as alternatives to truck hauling. If rail is the
alternative and rail spurs must be built, a longer distance than 100 miles
will be the breakeven point for truck and the alternative mode. How much
greater depends on the length of the needed rail spur construction. Truck
should generally be the best connecting transport mode where barge is
involved. Local backhaul options should be investigated as they can alter
these preferences.
(b) If rail haul is chosen, hopper cars with tarpaulin covers and
foam seals should generally be used. Hopper cars with steeper interior slope
are preferable to facilitate unloading. Composted sludge is best in the
unloading of these cars, but they will handle otherwise dewatered sludge.
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Nye, Yang, Futrell, Reuter, Kahn, Osburn, and Bardwell 151
The problem is the wetter the sludge, the more difficult is unloading. For
high-volume, well-established programs, the use of less expensive gondolas
with their more expensive fixed unloading facility may prove more cost
effective. For very high-volume, well-established programs, unit trains
(preferably in a backhaul arrangement) and pipelines should be analyzed
for availability, suitability and economic preference.
(c) Barge transport generally is less costly than rail transport where
route length options are equal or nearly so. Where a barge transport waterway
is available, its use should be analyzed. It should generally be equal in terms
of public-acceptance risk to rail transport where truck transport is the final
link to the application sites for both transport modes (e.g., rail spurs are
not used). A potential advantage of rail haul is the possible opportunity
to keep transfer points and storage facilities significantly further away from
major water bodies, reducing the risk of public objection based on concern
over runoff that could lead to increased water pollution. Such secondary
factors should also be considered when making transportation mode choices.
(d) The equipment used should be maintained in good appearance
as well as good operating condition. Public acceptance of transport is thereby
better assured in transit-only communities as well as in the application-site
community.
16. Because a city may eventually establish land application programs
in more than one community, and carefully selected and managed local
transportation, perhaps a different carrier in different communities, can help
promote local public acceptance of programs, a city or its contractor should
not over-commit to a single carrier. Options should be kept open as much
as may be appropriate for desired flexibility. Since poor performance of
a carrier can damage public acceptance of a land application program,
contract withdrawal rights should be as favorable as possible to the city
or its contractor.
17. In considering transport modes, the location and management of
any necessary transfer points and sludge storage off the land application
site should be carefully considered. These requirements of the rail and barge
transport modes may have a significant impact on cost (e.g., additional fixed
facilities and transfers), transportation arrangements (e.g., less direct routing,
also a cost factor), and public attitudes. The cost of establishing rail spur
(an investment approximately equal to the full capital cost of construction)
should be investigated to avoid a transfer of sludge to truck if an acceptable
transfer point (points if no spur exists at the wastewater treatment plant)
or acceptable off-site storage area is unavailable. On-site storage can be a
serious public acceptance problem unless available site acreage is of sufficient
amount to daily accommodate application and tillage of at least half the
trip sludge volume. This can be a major problem with the use of rail or
barge, both having much larger volume capacity (without economic penalty)
than truck.
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18. Cities should keep informed of the sludge handling programs of
other cities and cooperate to achieve a better economic and regulatory
environment. Efforts to monitor and guide development of the safety and
health regulations based on federal and state laws should be collectively
pursued. In developing sludge land application programs in the meantime
(and thereafter as well), they should be developed to present the least
likelihood of being impeded by common law nuisance suit decisions.
APPENDIX—Long-Term Potential and Primarily Western
Potential for Longer-Distance, High-Volume Transport of
Municipal Sludge for Use in Surface Mine Land Application
William B. Nye
The Long-Term Potential
The potential for long-term land application of municipal sludge is enormous.
The amount of sewage sludge produced in the United States in the late
1970s was estimated to be about 5 million tons annually and is expected
to reach nearly 10 million tons by 1986, largely because of the improvement
in wastewater treatment facilities. Sludge production is a direct factor of
the size of the population served and level of wastewater treatment. Adding
secondary treatment to a primary wastewater treatment plant can double
the amount of sludge produced. Advanced or tertiary treatment creates even
greater volumes of sludge.9
The phasing out of ocean dumping and the increasing difficulty in
obtaining suitable landfill space is creating a greater interest in a long known,
but relatively little used method for beneficial use of sludge-land application.
It is believed that most municipal sludge can be safely applied and
tilled into the soil. Sludge serves to improve soil structure and organic
nutrient content. Because some sludges may in fact be "hazardous" waste,
due to high levels of chemical and heavy metal contaminants-in part from
industrial wastes entering municipal wastewater treatment plants-there are
limits to the type and amount of sludge that can be applied to land. The
land that can be used for sludge application may also be limited by the
amount of contaminants in the sludge and the use of the land. A key issue
is whether the land will be used to grow human food chain crops. The
impact of the sludge on surface water runoff and groundwater, if either
enters the human food chain, will be an issue as well. In theory, sludge
with higher levels of contaminants can be applied to land not used to grow
food chain crops. Most agricultural land is used to grow food chain crops.
It should be noted, however, that increasing requirements for industrial
pre-treatment of wastes discharged into municipal wastewater treatment
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Nye, Yang, Futrell, Reuter, Kahn, Osburn, and Bardwell 153
plants will help reduce the amount of contaminants in municipal sludge
produced by these treatment plants. This will further increase the amount
of sewage sludge that is suitable and available for land application. It should
also be noted that a certain amount of so-called contaminants become
"unavailable" in the soil and do not enter vegetation or leach, and that
vegetation controls erosion, avoiding their release in surface water runoff.
It is felt that land which has been used to mine coal (and some other
minerals), primarily by the surface mine method, represents a high ratio
of land not used to grow food chain crops, thus available for application
of sludge with higher levels of contaminants.
Prior to treatment, sludge also contains a high level of pathogens.
However, these pathogens are reduced to low levels by modern treatment
processes that are in wide use. Composting sludge provides even further
assurance of reduced levels of pathogens because of the heat produced
naturally in the composting process and the resulting drier state of the sludge.
Lime stabilization, heat treatment (a high commercial energy user) and other
processes can achieve similar pathogen-removal results.
Large cities produce the largest concentrated volumes of sludge and
have the greatest problem finding nearby sludge disposal sites. The three
largest cities in the United States produce ten percent of the Nation's
sludge.10 Our study concentrated on the larger cities east of the Mississippi
River, which includes two of the three largest cities, New York and Chicago.
We also confined our inquiry primarily to the issue of land application of
sludge to coal surface mine land.
There are over one million acres of abandoned coal surface mine land.
Almost all of it east of the Mississippi River, mostly in the Appalachian
states. Abandoned mine land refers to land that was mined but not reclaimed
before effective reclamation laws were enacted. Today, the pace of coal
surface mining is increasing as the nation emphasizes greater use of coal
for domestic energy. Greater export of coal is also anticipated. Sewage sludge
can be effectively utilized in reclaiming both abandoned and active surface
mine sites.
A determination of the amount of potential sludge and the amount
of potential surface mine land available for sludge application would be
difficult to do with exactness. The amount of sludge that can be applied
to land varies with the levels of contaminants in the sludge, the intended
crop use of the land, and site characteristics. However, some benchmarks
are available.
This study found Philadelphia to have a relatively large program of
transporting sludge for use in reclaiming surface mine sites. Philadelphia
annually produces approximately 65,000 dry tons of sludge. Philadelphia
officials project using approximately half of this for surface mine land
application on approximately 400 acres in 1980. They anticipate using 8,000
dry tons of composted sludge per 100 acres, which amounts to a 2-inch-thick
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layer that is immediately tilled into the soil. At this application rate, 80
million dry tons of sludge compost could theoretically be applied to one
million acres of coal surface mine land. This is roughly equivalent to
reclaiming all the abandoned surface mine land, were it used for this purpose.
Thus there is the potential to apply essentially all of the Nation's sludge
produced for approximately the next ten years to existing abandoned coal
surface mine land.
Many cities already are engaged in other forms of land application of
sludge. These other forms range from application to agricultural land to
bagging it for marketing to, among other places, home garden stores. A few
cities in the East and many cities in the West are generally considered too
far distant from mine sites to economically transport their sludge to mine
lands for application. In reality, given these other forms of land application,
abandoned mine sites alone probably could offer several decades of available
sites for sludge utilization.
There are many new mine sites being opened. A future of increasing
coal mining offers an even more permanent potential for sludge application,
especially in the West. In program development, decision makers can rely
on the potential acreage that will allow long-term plans and investments,
including those for transportation-once the program itself has achieved the
necessary initial regulatory and public acceptance success and so long as
the program is well and sensitively managed.
Near-Term Potential for Larger Volume Programs
Large Acreage and Absence of Public Opposition
There may be opportunities for land application of sludge on immediately
available, large, contiguous acreage where public acceptance would not be
expected to be a significant issue. This may occur in the East, perhaps on
a few large tracts of federal or state-owned lands used in such a way as
to provide a land buffer for surrounding population. It is more likely that
large tracts of surface mine land will occur in the West within federal- or
state-owned land when it is surface mined and within large tracts of land
owned or otherwise controlled by mining companies where the surrounding
area is very sparsely populated. To minimize what public concern might
develop, it would generally be prudent to start the program in the interior
of the tract. Although in this more isolated situation public nuisance concerns
should be minimal, there will still be regulatory and public concern for
environmental impacts. It will be necessary to monitor runoff, leachate and
vegetation. EPA guidelines for food chain and non-food chain need to be
followed. A court challenge is still a real possibility.
These large, isolated tract operations will in nearly all instances, involve
very long distance hauls. Due to the distance involved and the large
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Nye, Yang, Futrell, Reuter, Kahn, Osburn, and Bardwell 155
sludge-volume potential, unit-trains seem most appropriate, although some
barge and unit-train combinations would also be appropriate and economical
for some cities. Where western low-sulfur coal is transported to eastern cities,
opportunity for a backhaul for sludge is very likely available. For the East
Coast, with the exception of a few cities, however, this is not yet a very
wide-spread occurrence. However, commodities other than coal may provide
a unit-train backhaul opportunity to a point that is reasonably close to the
large tract site. Transporting western coal to eastern cities is likely to increase,
but mostly with eastern cities not located in coal-producing states. Even
with the cost savings of backhaul and unit-train, shipping sludge from much
of the East to the West will still be expensive. Composting may be avoided
but composting and eastern application may be a smaller cost than the cost
of transporting eastern-most sludge to western states.
Many of the preferences noted in this study relate to minimizing public
opposition can be tempered considerably if public opposition is not a major
issue. Economics can become a more guiding principle. With reduced
likelihood of public concern for the odor and appearance of the sludge,
a wetter, less processed sludge may be usable in some cases. This should
provide greater feasibility for the use of pipeline. Pipeline may not be feasible
for the very long East-to-West distance, or over mountains from West Coast
cities.
The West
The figure for the Nation's total sewage sludge includes sludge produced
in the West. Large-scale western coal surface mining began fairly recently.
There are very few abandoned surface coal mines in the West, but there
are a growing number of operating mines. The sites involved tend to be
very large and generally in areas of sparse population. Distances between
western and Mississippi valley-area large cities and mine sites are generally
far greater than the distance between eastern and Mississippi valley-area large
cities and eastern coal mining areas. In summary, the potential for sludge
application to surface mine sites in the West has less immediate general
potential. There is, however, a potential for advantageously located programs
to develop in the West.
For those western urban areas with relatively arid land and a general
water shortage problem, there may be less objection to the use of wetter
sludge on nearby agricultural land. Wastewater, after being adequately treated
for public health and safety, is currently used in western irrigation. Where
this is the practice, public acceptance of sludge application to land may
be facilitated.
Because of the need for high volumes of water to make pipeline usable,
in western water-short areas water rights and water diversion may be a
problem. The possibility exists for cooperative use with coal slurry pipelines
(this possibility may exist in the East in a very few instances), were there
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substantial re-use of the coal slurry water in a substantially closed system.
Another possibility may occur where the sludge-originating community is
located in a water surplus area where water diversion is not a significant
public concern and the water that is available in a potential mining area
is not sufficient for mining operations and mine-land reclamation activities.
The cooperative use of pipeline could provide public benefits at both ends
of the pipeline. It might bring needed water to the coal mining area and
solve the sludge management problem of the water surplus city, perhaps
doing both tasks at lower cost. Such a program could potentially include
water diversion for use in mine-land reclamation as well as use in sludge
and wastewater transport. Because of a general water shortage situation in
much of the potential western coal mining areas, there may be opportunities
for use of both sludge and wastewater in mine reclamation.
Use of a single pipeline for two-way traffic may present difficult
scheduling and possible cleaning problems for each change of product. A
more costly dual pipeline may be necessary, but may be cost effective if
water availability in the mining area is a significant problem. Major cost
savings will be available if an already acquired right-of-way permits and will
physically accommodate an additional pipeline.
Energy Use Competition
From a long-term land application program standpoint, there is the potential
for competitive uses of sludge for energy production through incineration
and heat recovery. The challenge is to remove enough water to achieve
combustion without use of auxiliary fuel. Current sludge-drying technology
uses large amounts of energy to dry the sludge prior to burning. Should
efficient technology be developed, there will still be a heavy front-end
investment in sludge-to-energy combustion facilities. This issue could
eventually raise a public policy issue over competing uses of sludge. The
issue would be whether sewage sludge use best serves the public in soil
restoration or in providing energy. One factor will be that using sludge to
enhance soil can assist in the production of biomass for energy use while
also controlling soil erosion.
Notes
1. The amount, types, and staging of industrial processes, and degree of
existing industrial pretreatment, are sludge contaminant variables with any
size industrial community. With land application of sludge, the amount of
sludge per acre is another contaminant-related variable. In terms of
contaminant availability to vegetation and surface and groundwater, the
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Nye, Yang, Futrell, Reuter, Kahn, Osburn, and Bardwell 157
degree of soil acidity is another contaminant-related variable.
2. A public official who would like to minimize controversy might take
a position opposing land application of sludge although only a minority of
his or her constituency might be opposed. He or she would expect an even
smaller minority is likely to be actively in favor of the program. Another
public official might be open to further exploration of the issue and eventual
support of the program.
3. 49 U.S.C. sees. 1471, 1655, 1761-62, 1801, and 1812.
4. 42 U.S.C. sees. 6901 et seq.
5. Ibid., at 3.
6. Ibid., at 4.
7. According to utility argument against the pending federal rail deregulation
bill, coal transportation (and thereby backhaul of sludge) is a rail market
dominance situation. If this is true, the bill could cause higher transportation
costs for sludge carriage by rail.
8. Source of the sludge volume is the EPA-Environmental Impact on Criteria
for Classification of Solid Waste Disposal Facilities and Practices. Note the
recorded volume of sludge is only part of the waste from treatment plants.
As sludge management becomes more effective, more wastes will be processed
to sludge.
9. Sewage Sludge-How Do We Cope with It?, GAO; CED-78-152 (9-25-78),
p. 1.
10. Ibid., p. 4.
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11
INSTITUTIONAL CONSTRAINTS AND PUBLIC PARTICI-
PATION BARRIERS TO UTILIZATION OF MUNICIPAL
WASTEWATER AND SLUDGE FOR LAND
RECLAMATION AND BIOMASS PRODUCTION
Patricia L. Deese, J. Raymond Miyares, and Samuel Fogel
Introduction
Researchers have repeatedly demonstrated the technical feasibility and
potential benefits of applying municipal sewage sludges to enhance biomass
production and reclaim disturbed sites. The formidable tasks of obtaining
regulatory approvals and overcoming public concern often discourage serious
examination of the alternative. However, those who have successfully
negotiated the approvals process have achieved excellent results, both in
terms of land reclamation and biomass production. These successful projects
are proof that overcoming institutional constraints and public acceptance
barriers can be well worth the effort.
The goals of this research effort have been to identify the institutional
pitfalls and public opposition obstacles, and to suggest methods for
addressing these non-technical aspects of project implementation. The study
focused on projects utilizing sewage sludge for reclamation and biomass
production, although many of the findings presented here are relevant to
a broad range of municipal wastewater and sewage sludge land application
projects.
Constraints and Barriers
Public Opposition
Although some land application projects have proceeded virtually unopposed,
most have generated some level of local controversy. If a sufficient number
of individuals feel their interests threatened, the "Core Opposition Group"
they form can often mount a significant campaign against a project.
Historically, Core Groups have been formed to oppose a specific project.
In contrast, traditional environmental organizations, such as the National
Wildlife Federation, National Resources Defense Council, Sierra Club and
Audubon Society have typically not mobilized their membership against such
projects.
While Core Groups may vary in composition from site to site, they
most frequently include owners of property abutting the project site or along
the transportation route to be used for site access. Such parties generally
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Deese, Miyares, and Fogel 159
expect that a project will result in personal inconvenience or loss of property
value. Other private citizens may also participate in Core Groups, however,
for a variety of reasons including environmental and health concerns, and
general animosity toward accepting another municipality's sludge. Once a
Core Group has coalesced, a strategy for fighting the sludge project may
be developed, consisting of one or more of the following components:
Regulatory Intervention. Before a project can obtain the necessary
federal, state or local approvals, opponents may seek to intervene in the
regulatory proceedings. Simultaneously, they may launch a political effort
to influence regulatory decision makers, either through direct lobbying or
by indirect means such as public information campaigns. The goal of the
component is either to deny a project sponsor the necessary permits outright,
or to raise the costs of obtaining such permits sufficiently to make the project
financially infeasible. Since land application projects are likely to be anything
but routine, the Core Group may attempt to convince a large number of
licensing and permitting authorities to assert their jurisdiction. Frequently,
such efforts can be successful if the roles of the various federal, state and
local authorities are not well defined. Of course, as experience with land
application increases, the regulatory scheme will become more routine and
the possibility of overlapping and conflicting jurisdictions should decrease.
Court or Administrative Challenge. Once a particular approval has been
given, opponents may challenge this decision in an appeal either to a higher
administrative authority (if there is one) or to the courts. Courts often
decline to consider an appeal, however, before administrative remedies have
been exhausted. The ground for such an appeal may be jurisdictional,
procedural or substantive. A jurisdictional challenge questions the power of
the particular agency or board to grant the approval given. A procedural
challenge is aimed at the process by which that approval was given and
may involve allegations of violations of due process or of any applicable
administrative procedures. A substantive challenge questions the sufficiency
of the evidence in support of an approval decision, or the correctness of
the standard applied. Any of these proceedings can, of course, be quite
lengthy and can raise the cost of gaining final approval. However, litigation
and appeals are costly to the complaining parties as well.
Nuisance Action. Even after approval of a project is final, opponents
can challenge the project in a common law nuisance action. Such an action
may be difficult to maintain if the characteristics of the project that are
alleged to constitute the nuisance-for example, its odor-have been expressly
sanctioned in the regulatory proceeding. In most cases, however, nuisance
allegations arise when the actual characteristics of a project fall below the
standard promised during the regulatory proceeding. While it is occasionally
possible to have a project declared to be an "anticipatory nuisance," based
on a finding that the untoward effects alleged are imminent and unavoidable,
generally nuisance actions must await the initiation of a project. Nevertheless,
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the availability of a nuisance action permits project opponents to resume
their dispute long after they lose the regulatory battle.
Institutional Setting
Obviously, no project will proceed unless some public or private organization
is willing to serve as its sponsor. The sludge generating municipality, the
consulting engineers, the site owner, or the receiving community may initiate
consideration of a land application project. In many cases the primary
sponsors have retained the services of a specialized contractor to actually
implement the program. This is a reflection of the relatively low levels of
capital investment and high personal service requirements of project
sponsorship. In contrast to other wastewater and sludge treatment
technologies, land application primarily involves identifying sites, attending
public hearings, meeting with public officials, negotiating with landowners
and transportation companies, and applying for the necessary permits. All
of these activities are generally aimed at only a few weeks of actual sludge
application annually. While a firm that specialized in performing the
necessary services can apparently profit from the initiation of a reclamation
project, the more traditional consulting engineering firm, which concentrates
on equipment design, has few incentives to participate.
A key actor in a sludge reclamation project is the application site owner.
The range of possible public or private site owners presented in Figure 11-1
is reflected in the variety of institutional arrangements exhibited in the case
studies. The type of ownership becomes a key factor in cases where, in
order to meet permit requirements, certain restrictions must be placed on
Figure 11-1. Land Ownership.
Federal Government Private Owner in Fee Sample
(National Forest, National Park (Industry, coal company,
DOE, Department of Interior, timber company, farmer,
Indian Lands, etc.) private individuals, en-
vironmentalist organizations,
Federal Lands managed by private etc.)
concerns
(Mineral or timber rights leased Private Owner in Fee Subject to
to private concerns) mineral or timber rights in
another party
Owned by Private General Con-
(parks, conservation land, forests, tractor
abandoned coal mines, etc.)
(wastewater management authority,
land within one community but
owned by another, conservation
and recreation sites, etc.)
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Deese, Miyares, and Fogel 161
the future uses of the sites. Such restrictions are not uncommon on
publicly-owned lands. However, a private owner may demand compensation
in some form before accepting a restriction on the use of his land, and
enforcement of such restrictions may be impossible.
The siting of a land application project has the potential for creating
controversy. Moreover, this potential increases with any increase in the
number of regulatory bodies which may have jurisdiction over the site. Since
each review conducted, or permit applied for, represents a possible snag in
the approval process, it also represents an increased potential that the
proposed project may not be initiated.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has promulgated
guidelines for land application of municipal sewage sludge and the Office
of Surface Mining of the Department of Interior has developed guidelines
for mine reclamation practices. These federal guidelines represent minimum
levels for acceptable performance. The states have been tasked with
developing programs to implement these guidelines. EPA's regional offices
are assigned the duty of insuring state compliance with EPA guidelines. In
addition, some state and local governments have developed more stringent
regulations. However, since each requirement is set to serve the issuing
organization's best interests, the rules vary considerably. It is difficult to
reconcile all of the regulatory requirements applicable to a given application
site. This problem can be exacerbated when the staffs of the various
regulatory bodies exhibit competitiveness or jealousy over their jurisdictional
authority.
Many of the regulatory agencies that have jurisdiction over some aspect
of a municipal sludge land application project are listed in Figure 11-2.
Federal Programs and Regulations
Wastewater Management. Under the Federal Water Pollution Control
Act (FWPCA) 1 as amended, nearly all POTW's were required to have achieved
secondary treatment by 1977. They are also under a mandate to use the
"best practicable" waste treatment technology by 1983.
To assist municipalities in meeting their obligations under the FWPCA
Act, EPA is authorized to pay 75% of the costs to plan, design, and construct
municipal wastewater treatment facilities. Over 20,000 grants for planning,
design and construction, amounting to about $28 billion, had been made
under the program by September 1980. Thus, as a practical matter, EPA
has a considerable influence over POTW technology through both its
regulatory and its construction grants programs.
The 1977 amendments to the FWPCA, contained in the Clean Water
Act (CWA), placed new "technology forcing" mechanisms into EPA's hands
by providing incentives for the use of "innovative and alternative" (I/A)
technology in the construction grants program.2 EPA had defined land
application of POTW sludges as an alternative wastewater treatment and
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162 Barriers to Utilization
Figure 11-2. Institutional Framework.
Federal^
gencies with Jurisdiction over Land Application
National
Regional^
Office of Water Programs
Operations—Construction Grants
Solid Waste Management Guidelines
Enforcement Policy
Construction Grants Review
Solid Waste Program Review
Enforcement
Office of Surface Mining—National Guidelines
.Wastewater Programs
Environmental Quality (surface water, ground water, soils,
etc.)
Solid Waste Management
Public Health
Agriculture
Transportation
Local
(receivin;
community)
,and Use
Conservation/Environmental quality
Public Health
Solid Waste Management
sludge technology within the definition of this provision. An I/A process
option can be funded if the life cycle cost exceeds the life cycle costs of
the conventional option by less than 15%. In addition, EPA may fund 85%,
rather than 75%, of eligible cost for the I/A portion of any project. Finally,
EPA is authorized to pay 100% of all costs to replace or modify I/A facilities
if they fail to meet their performance specifications.
In a series of regulatory measures beginning in 1975, and as yet
incomplete, EPA has restricted the incineration, ocean dumping, land
disposal, and landspreading" of sludges. Each of these measures has
effectively made the disposal of sludge more complex and more costly, and
in part has contributed to a shifting of the focus away from disposal methods
that are regulated to methods that remain unregulated, or are regulated less
severely. EPA has promulgated a set of interim final regulations for land
disposal of POTW sludges under the joint authority of the CWA' and the
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) . Two provisions are most
relevant to POTW sludge reclamation projects:
1. No contamination of underground drinking water sources
beyond the outermost perimeter of the site is permitted;
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Deese, Miyares, and Fogel 163
2. The cadmium and polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs) levels of
POTW sludges applied to land used for the production of food chain
(i.e., human food chain) crops are strictly regulated.
Of the metals present in municipal sludge, cadmium is of greatest importance
because of its potential toxicity and the relatively low levels in the natural
background. EPA has expended much effort to develop health protection
criteria for this metal pollutant.
With respect to cadmium, a less stringent standard is set for those lands
where the only food-chain crop produced is animal feed; a plan exists for
assuring that the crops produced will not be ingested by humans; and future
owners are notified by a stipulation in the land record or property deed
that the site has received high cadmium waste applications and that food
chain crops should not be grown due to possible health concerns.
In situations where sludge is used as an amendment for growth of
agricultural crops, annual and cumulative limits for cadmium have been
recommended. These limits are designed to minimize the potential for plants
to incorporate this metal into plant tissue which may later be consumed
by animals or humans. The imposed limits take into account three factors:
1. The type of crop is important since metals such as cadmium
more readily enter the leafy portions of crops than the grain or root
portions. Thus, the selection of a crop permits a degree of control over
cadmium uptake.
2. The annual and cumulative loadings of metals provide a
quantitative framework for assessing the soil's capacity to bind metals.
The cation exchange capacity (CEC) of the soil is a measure of the
degree to which metals are bound to soil particles and consequently
the degree to which the metals can be leached into solution where
they would be available to plants. Thus, annual and cumulative loadings
of metals need to be evaluated so that the metals holding capacity
of a given soil is not exceeded. Metal loadings to soil must be known
to keep metal levels in the soil below concentrations that are toxic
to plants.
3. The pH of the soil strongly governs the uptake of metals by
plants. Since most of the metals of concern are present in soil as
insoluble precipitates under neutral-to-basic conditions, their availability
to plants is lessened. Alternatively, acid soils (pH less than 6.0) facilitate
metal movement into plants and groundwater.
EPA's cumulative limits (interim final) for food chain application range
between 4.5 and 18 Ibs./acre cadmium (depending on the soil CEC) per
acre application.
With regard to PCB's, EPA's concern has been directed toward methods
of incorporation into soil, depending on the PCB content of sludge. This
criterion is based on the observation that municipal sludge may be ingested
by grazing cows if it is deposited or merely sprayed on soil or growing
-------
:nf f"'-t>:nti;,i result of such ir/gestion is the Appearance of PCB's
.]'•' . Y<> in'nimiye t}::s possibility, EPA requires that sludges containing
[;•.•ed by FPA.
' it- ir,i-;ta ,'ma! regulations outline two levels of treatment for
, jj.', -i> • o-iti'.l and stabilisation of POTW sludge prior to land application.
gent treatment is authorized where public access to the land
>i .- I for ;>t least 12 months after application, and grazing by animals
toducts are consumed bv humans is prevented for at least one month.
, • sinne^m neatrnenf is mandated if crops for direct human
i >on i:" '''it n'.iy apply :o the land application of POTW sludges. In
\->j; <';<;'• • ?i.'itit'e C of RCRA, EPA has issued "cradle to grave"
Mup;. !•". err. ing the tlispoial of hazardous wastes. While most POTW
o- ••' '1 ">nr Cvj').stitutfc hazardous wastes, there is nothing in the
-i.o ;, d'-fii'i'io!) ot the term that would automatically exclude them.
•l.-i'i'iuoii is based upon four characteristics: ignitability, corrosivity,
''v, and ex!i,j(fion procedure (EP) toxicity.
?i 'di-.- i'- obviously iliificult to ignite, and seldom corrosive or reactive;
• • i Ji',..-n o EC toKicitv. A POTW sludge is presumed to be
r . 'MOU-. unless EP tests, conducted either by the POTW staffer another
i"ci '-i indicate otherwise The potentially hazardous chemicals of
-'i a: i tho^e liiteci in EPA's drinking water quality criteria and include:
Arsenic Endrin
Barium Lindane
Cadrniim Methoxychlor
Li-aA 2,4-D
Mercury 2,4, 5-T
-
tesj.ng results on a specific sludge show that the concentration
I'K' o; rnc-'C or the above chemicals equals or exceeds 100 times the
.ii-U"j watci standards (for the respective chemical), the sludge is
' :;~:d 'icd T or- A h.'/nrdous waste and subject to the provisions of the
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Deese, Miyares, and Fogel 165
hazardous waste regulations. Based on recent information, very few sludges
are likely to be designated hazardous under EPA's EP testing procedure.
However, new criteria, such as one for PCB's, are expected to add to EPA's
list in the near future. This may increase the fraction of those sludges found
to be hazardous wastes.
If a particular sewage sludge is found to be a hazardous waste, then
the site of a land reclamation project utilizing such a sludge would be a
hazardous waste disposal facility. EPA has promulgated extensive regulations
governing the operation, maintenance, monitoring and eventual closure of
such facilities, including numerous safeguards designed to protect surface
and groundwater quality from contamination, and to restrict uses of the
site in perpetuity.
In the preamble to the hazardous waste regulations. EPA has
acknowledged that it eventually intends to issue a comprehensive regulation
under the authority of Sec. 405 of CWA, dealing with all forms of sewage
sludge disposal. Such a regulation, EPA states, will deal with both hazardous
and non-hazardous sewage sludges and will include provisions "equivalent"
(but not necessarily identical) to those contained in the existing RCRA
hazardous waste regulations. Once such regulations are in place, EPA states
that it intends to exclude sewage sludges from the provisions now in effect.
For now, however, these provisions govern land disposal of sewage sludges
that are found to be hazardous wastes.
No regulations presently cover the large number of potentially toxic
synthetic organic chemicals (other than PCB's) in sewage sludge. This
situation exists because a vast majority of these chemicals are present in
only trace quantities and generally constitute no health hazard. Note that
such organic contaminants present in sewage sludge would probably not be
highly toxic to soil microorganisms since they would have been toxic in
the sewage treatment plant organisms, and would already be known.
Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act. The SMCRA,^ passed
in 1977, established a nationwide program to protect the environment from
the adverse impacts of surface coal mining and prohibits such mining where
land reclamation is not feasible.
The Department of the Interior issued its regulations under SMCRA
in March 1979. They set performance standards for surface mining of coal
to protect the environment and the public health and safety. Specifically,
the regulations require mine operations post a bond to insure that they will
conserve natural resources in the course of their mining activity; stabilize
surface areas during mining and reclaim mine lands contemporaneously as
mining proceeds; and restore prime farmland and revegetate all land promptly
upon completion of the mining operation. The regulations require that the
soil be able to support the same or higher uses after reclamation that it
was capable of supporting before the mining operation began.
Where the land was used for agricultural purposes before mining began,
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166 Barriers to Utilization
the SMCRA regulations require that such agricultural uses be possible after
reclamation. Yet, under the regulations governing sludge application, such
future uses may need to be prohibited or restricted for some time, or even
permanently, depending upon the quality and quantity of sludge and sludge
contaminants applied to the land. Where such a prohibition or restriction
would be permanent (based on current and future guidelines) the SMCRA
requirements may not be met. Where such a restriction would be temporary,
for example 18 months, the SMCRA regulations would appear not to be
met during the time of the restriction. Holding of the bonds posted by
a mine operator to guarantee reclamation may be required during that period.
However, if the land was a forest and not involved in food chain crop
production before surface mining operation began, the SMCRA regulations
requiring that it be suitable for reforestation after reclamation could easily
be met even if restrictions were placed on the land for future food chain
crop production by the sludge management regulations.
SMCRA establishes an Abandoned Mine Reclamation Fund, financed
by fees levied against all coal mine operators subject to the Act, to be used
for reclaiming and restoring land adversely affected by past coal mining,
including revegetation of such land. The Fund is to be used to reclaim land
that was mined or affected by mining before August 3, 1977; that was left
in unreclaimed or inadequately reclaimed condition; and for which the
mining operator has no continuing responsibility for reclamation. The Fund
may be used to acquire land by purchase or eminent domain, if such
acquisition is deemed necessary for successful reclamation.
There is no regulatory obligation for abandoned mine lands that are
being reclaimed to be restored to their use before mining began. Thus, the
fact that sewage sludge application might restrict future land use should
not pose a barrier to projects on abandoned mine lands. Of course, if the
land is to remain in private hands, the owner would have to agree to any
restrictions on her own and later uses of the land, preferably by deed
restriction.
The National Environmental Policy Act. The NEPA^ requires that an
environmental impact statement be prepared for all "major Federal actions
significantly affecting the quality of the human environment". The award
of a construction grant for a large POTW by EPA can be such a major
federal action warranting a full EIS. It is common for EPA to conduct only
an environmental assessment before awarding small grants. Where the grant
involves funds to implement land application projects, the impacts will be
examined by EPA in either the EIA or EIS process before a final funding
decision is made. A problem arises on how to prepare an EIS if the actual
application sites are not yet know. In addition, alternative means of sludge
management must be considered and their environmental consequences
evaluated and compared to the land application option. An EIS frequently
takes months or even years to complete, but the federal action at issue
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Deese, Miyares, and Fogel 167
cannot proceed until this process is complete.
Actions taken by the Interior Department under SMCRA might also
be considered "major" and thus require an EIS. A decision to license a
major mining operation is one example. A decision to reclaim a major
abandoned mine is another. In both these instances, an EIS might have to
be prepared before the final decision is made.
State Programs: Relevant State Agencies
Wherever a public agency or private body decides to investigate, sponsor,
or promote a land application project utilizing sewage sludges, it will face
the problem of compliance with the various federal regulatory programs and
funding conditions outlined above. In contrast, experience with state and
local regulations may vary widely. This is because the 50 states are separate
sovereigns, each with their own administrative structure and regulatory
priorities. Thus, there is no uniform body of state procedures or substantive
regulations that will apply to a project involving land application.
Nevertheless, a few common aspects of several state programs can be
highlighted.
As noted above, a number of regulatory bodies may have authority
over a sewage sludge land application project. In many states, most of the
environmental regulatory power is vested in a single agency, such as a
Department of Environmental Affairs. Such an agency may be separately
constituted, or it may be part of a state Public Health Agency, which has
a wider jurisdiction. Many states also have Departments of Natural Resources
that have primary authority over minerals, watersheds, certain lands such
as forests, and other natural resources. Finally, many states have Departments
of Agriculture that may be concerned with the proper protection of farm
products.
In nearly every state, at least one form of license or permit would
be required to apply POTW sludge to a particular site. Thus, for example
in Pennsylvania, the Department of Environmental Resources must issue a
permit for sludge utilization in land reclamation projects. The state has issued
guidelines which specify maximum lifetime loading rates for land reclamation
under conditions where farming of the reclaimed site is not intended. A
maximum of 3 Ibs. of cadmium per acre is specified along with a maximum
sludge loading of 60 dry tons per acre. The implications of this limitation
are potentially significant when one considers that sludge loadings for
reclamation projects are also based on the nitrogen content of the sludge.
For example, good management practices utilize about 1000 Ibs. total
nitrogen per acre. (It is generally assumed that only 200 Ibs. of nitrogen
is actually available for plant uptake during the first year.) Thus, if the
nitrogen content of the sludge is 1% then 50 dry tons/acre is necessary.
If, however, the sludge has been composted and has a nitrogen content of
0.5% then 100 dry tons/acre are needed to provide sufficient nitrogen. This
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168 Barriers to Utilization
loading would be in excess of the 60 dry ton limit and would not be possible
irrespective of cadmium content under the current Pennsylvania guidelines
as is shown in Figure 11-3.
When the values of Figure 11-3 are compared, for example, with loading
rates of one hundred tons/acre (for a 0.5% nitrogen content sludge) needed
to restore both the organic matter and nutrients to strip mined lands, a
potential constraint is apparent if the cadmium content of the sludge is
20-30 ppm. The conservative nature of these guidelines apparently arose out
of the perception on the part of officials that there would be a lack of
on-site controls during and following sludge application. It is important to
note, however, that if a sludge is low in nitrogen content, commercial
fertilizers containing nitrogen can be added to augment the nitrogen content
and consequently reduce the need for higher overall sludge loadings.
Permits issued for land application of sludge typically are accompanied
by a number of special conditions designed to assure project safety. These
requirements are likely to become more structured as states gain experience
with RCRA and other applicable environmental regulatory programs, and
as comprehensive sludge disposal regulations, under CWA, are developed by
EPA. At present, the permit conditions may be the product of case-by-case,
ad hoc agency deliberations, under a general mandate to protect the
environment, public health and safety. Typically, such conditions might
include requirements that the operator of the site provide for proper surface
drainage and initiate a monitoring program. States may require that private
contractors post a bond or otherwise demonstrate financial responsibility
for damages that may be caused by a land application project.
In addition to direct permitting of land application sites, a number
of state agencies may assert authority over and the right to control such
operations because of their concern with a particular aspect of public welfare
potentially affected by the operation. For example, most states have drinking
water programs that require monitoring and protection of water supplies
Figure 11-3. Relationship of Cadmium Content of Sludge to Sludge Loadings to Soil.
Sludge Lifetime
Cd Content Loadings Under
in Sludge PDER Guidelines
(ppm) (tons/acre)
10 150*
20 75
25 60
40 37.5
__80_ 18.7 _ _
*
Not allowed because of 60 tons/acre limit on total
sludge.
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Deese, Miyares, and Fogel 169
from certain contaminants. Similarly, air pollution control boards may
conceivably be concerned with the potential for odors or aerosols being
generated during land application. In states with substantial mining
operations, a state or local agency may be specifically authorized to regulate
the operation of land reclamation projects on mine sites.
Local Programs
Powers of Organizations Operating the POTW. States have
comprehensive police powers, may take a variety of regulatory actions and
may make spending decisions they deem appropriate when in reasonable
pursuit of protecting the public's health, safety and welfare. Local
governments frequently lack such powers. Local government entities, whether
a municipality or a special purpose authority, typically have only limited
powers, and must adhere closely to the restrictions of their state enabling
legislation.
A number of powers which would be quite useful to the successful
implementation of a land application project may thus be lacking in
particular situations. These powers would be especially important where the
operator of the POTW generating the sludge is the project sponsor. They
might include the power to engage in commercial activities beyond the
operation of the POTW; the power to acquire land by purchase or eminent
domain within or outside the physical jurisdiction of the POTW authority;
the power to operate sewage facilities outside such boundaries; and the power
to give something (sludge) away. Depending on the design of a particular
project, any or all of these powers may be required. If the POTW authority
does not have the necessary powers, new legislation may be required to
grant them, or the project may have to be restructured or limited in scope.
Relevant Agencies in the Receiving Community. A number of local
boards and commissions may assert authority over the site where POTW
sludges are to be applied. In a few communities, a local board such as a
county health department has primary authority over the siting of waste
disposal facilities. It may issue a comprehensive operating or solid waste
landfill permit. It may conduct some form of environmental impact
assessment prior to the issuance of such a permit, and it may attach
monitoring or other conditions to the permits.
Other local boards that may have jurisdiction over the land reclamation
site are planning boards, zoning boards, and conservation commissions. The
influence of these boards, however, may be minimized in those circumstances
where a governmental entity is undertaking the project. In general, a
federally-owned site will be exempt from local land use controls unless the
federal agency voluntarily submits itself to local control. Other governments
are usually immune from local zoning regulation, at least when they are
exercising a "governmental" rather than a "proprietary" function. Waste
management has generally been regarded in the law as such a "governmental"
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170 Barriers to Utilization
function, and there appears to be no reason to expect that the result would
be different where the waste management involves land reclamation or
biomas:; production as well.
Many land application sites, however, will be neither owned nor
operated by government entities, and thus will be subject to zoning. Although
many local governments have declined to exercise zoning power over remote,
sparsely populated areas where surface mines frequently are located, the
extent and breadth of zoning control continues to expand. Thus, it is
increasingly likely that a land reclamation project will be subject to zoning
regulation.
Few (if any) local zoning ordinances will include land application as
one of the listed land uses. Waste disposal, however, is a commonly listed
land use, and is generally severely restricted to only a very small zone within
a community. Thus, if a land application project is characterized as a waste
disposal land use, it is quite possible that it will not be permitted in many
zones where it may be suitable.
The argument that a sewage sludge land application project constitutes
waste disposal is bolstered by the fact that such a project is treated as waste
disposal for the purpose of the environmental regulations discussed above,
and by the fact that, like conventional landfills, some of the concerns
associated with the project remain after application is completed. On the
other hand, land reclamation is not unlike other types of site preparation
associaled with any creation of new land uses. Site preparation itself is never
considered a land use for zoning purposes, and is generally permitted if the
ultimate land use is permitted. Under such a view, sewage sludge land
application can proceed as long as the utlimate land use — agriculture or
forestry or the like -- is permitted. Such uses are, of course, among the
most widely allowed. The latter argument has prevailed in the only reported
decision to consider this issue, but there remains a substantial question of
characterizing land application uses under each zoning regime.
General Legal Issues
Ownership of Application Site. A key problem in organizing a sewage
sludge land application project is in sorting through the various land
ownership interests associated with a particular site. Typically, in the case
of surface coal mines, the land title is held by one party while a mine
operator has purchased or leased only the mineral rights in the land. Thus,
while a mine operator may have a statutory obligation under SMCRA to
reclaim the land after surface coal mining operations are complete, it may
be powerless to effect reclamation in other circumstances or to restrict the
later uses of the land by convenant. These powers may remain with a site
owner who may have few other assets.
A project sponsor will thus have to identify the appropriate ownership
interests in a proposed reclamation site and negotiate agreements with such
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Deese, Miyares, and Fogel 171
owners as seems appropriate. When the sponsor is a public authority with
power to acquire land interests by eminent domain, this negotiation may
be facilitated somewhat.
Easements and Covenants. An easement allows someone to use the land
of another for a special purpose not inconsistent with the general property
interests of the owner. A covenant is an agreement of two or more parties
by deed in which one of the parties pledges himself to the other that
something is either done or will be done. Each of these instruments may
be needed if a proper, enforceable promise from the owner of the land
is expected to restrict the property to cert?in uses.
As noted above, current EPA land disposal regulations require, in certain
instances, that future owners of property to which POTW sludges have been
applied be notified of high cadmium waste applications in the land record
or property deed. There is an important difference, however, between giving
notice that crops should not be grown on a particular property and recording
a restriction of the property's use. A notice may remain recorded in the
land record indefinitely, but is not legally enforceable in the way a restriction
would be. A deed restriction, however, is enforceable only by the party
owning the benefit of the restriction, and, in many jurisdictions, will be
automatically extinguished after the passage of a certain period if it is not
rerecorded.
Enforcement of such restrictions can, of course, be troublesome after
the passage of time. Moreover, a problem associated with creating legally
enforceable land restrictions is that some entity must be said to "own" the
restriction, and only that entity will have the power to enforce it. This
is true whether the owner conveys an easement restricting certain uses of
the property or guaranteeing access to it, or alternatively records a covenant
promising and requiring the necessary restrictions. The easement must, of
course, be conveyed to someone -- the project sponsor or the local
community, for example. The covenant, however, must recite the benefit
received by the landowner in exchange for the restriction, and only the
party who has given that benefit can enforce the restriction. Moreover, in
many jurisdictions, the covenant must be attached to a particular parcel
of land.
Thus, it will be no simple task to draft the legal document that may
be necessary to restrict future land uses in order to gain agency approval
for land reclamation of biomass production projects using POTW sludges
or to respond to local concerns about the potential impacts of such a project.
Nor is it always realistic to expect that such land use restrictions can be
enforced in perpetuity.
Externalities from Operation. The fact that many land application
projects using POTW sludges have faced opposition from abutting property
owners indicates that such parties frequently believe that they will suffer,
or are suffering unreasonable harm from the project at issue, if the project
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172 Barriers to Utilization
sponsor is a public body, these persons may legally oppose the project by
asserting that it is effecting a diminution in the value of their property
substantial enough to constitute a "taking" of value under the fifth
amendment of the Constitution. Regardless of the identity of the sponsor,
they may also argue that the project should be stopped as a nuisance.
In legal terms, a nuisance is more than merely a hurt, annoyance or
inconvenience. The law of nuisance embodies two entirely distinct — and
arguably unrelated -- concepts. A public nuisance is "an unreasonable
interference with a right common to the public". Under this definition,
land application will be considered unreasonable unless its utility outweighs
the gravity of the harm it produces. In contrast, a private nuisance consists
of an invasion of a person's interest in the private use and enjoyment of
land. A private nuisance is actionable if it is either: (a) intentional and
unreasonable, or (b) unintentional but negligent, reckless, or abnormally
dangerous.
Under both nuisance concepts, the legal injury involved is a rough
balance of the benefits and burdens derived from a particular activity. An
activity will be actionable as a nuisance if its harms are not justified by
its utility. A land application project using sewage sludge could thus be the
subject of a nuisance action for a number of reasons. Certainly any allegation
of air or water pollution, odors, or spills can be a sufficient basis for action.
Alternatively, a nuisance case might allege that the land application was
inappropriate by its very nature for the area in which it is or is to be located.
Finally, a nuisance action may allege that insufficient ameliorative measures
have been taken to reduce the harmful effects of the project, or that
inadequate warnings have been given so that others may take such measures.
The alleged harms that arise from even proper operations of a POTW
sludge land application project have been repeatedly noted. They include
odor, water pollution or contamination, the attraction of rodents and other
disease-carrying pests, and the raising of the heavy metal content of the
soil. For each project under litigation, a court would have to make an
individual determination concerning the magnitudes of these burdens, the
availability and use of ameliorative measure such as incorporating sludges
in the soils or applying dry rather than wet sludges, and the benefits to
the public and to the land owner. Where the harms arising from an
unreclaimed mine are substantial, the benefit of reclamation will be likely
to outweigh its burden.
Indeed, if the focus of a "taking" or nuisance case is on the adverse
effect of property values associated with a project, it should be noted that
land values around a reclaimed surface mine may not be diminished at all.
On the contrary, they may be increased.
Of course, very different conclusions concerning liability to third parties
can be drawn where the evidence is that negligence was involved in a project.
Such negligence might, for example, be the application of the sewage sludge
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Deese, Miyares, and Fogel 173
to a spot that was not intended, permitted, or licensed to receive it.
Insufficient monitoring of the project might also constitute negligence.
The law evaluates whether conduct is negligent by focusing on a
"reasonable person" possessing ordinary skills and prudence. If the conduct
alleged does not conform to what such a person would do under similar
circumstances, then it is negligent. Obviously, any lawsuit alleging negligence
would turn on its own peculiar facts, and the question of negligence would
be resolved as a matter of fact by a jury.
Past Experience
As part of this research effort, the staff developed case studies on the
institutional and public acceptance aspects of a number of actual and
attempted POTW sludge land application projects. The files were compiled
from a series of telephone interviews with key project participants as well
as from secondary sources.
The selected sites included most of the well-known sludge land
application projects, as well as some which have received less publicity. In
order to increase our sample size we also included several projects which
involved land application of POTW sludge for agricultural purposes since
the institutional and public acceptance issues raised by such projects are
much the same. After eliminating from further analysis those case studies
that were primarily demonstration projects, we analyzed the remaining 16
sites to determine if we could discern any significant patterns among them.
Key information about all the case studies is presented in Figure 11-4.
Individual case study summaries are in our final report to the President's
Council o'n Environmental Quality.
Permitting Process
The 16 case studies suggest that the actual procedures for obtaining approval
of a land application project may differ from the procedures set forth in
the applicable statutes and regulations. For example, even in the absence
of a statutory requirement that project sponsors obtain the consent of the
local community prior to obtaining a state permit, state regulatory agencies
have demonstrated sensitivity to the wishes of the community which is to
receive the solid waste. This informal policy has resulted in communities
having de facto power over regulatory decisions, even where such power
is not conferred by the law.
Where state law provides no formal mechanism for local regulation of
a land application project, local governments may enact ordinances which
give them control over project operations. Such ordinances have been passed
even in the absence of clear statutory or constitutional authority for such
regulation. When one county government, for example, authorized the
-------
174 Barriers to Utilization
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176 Barriers to Utilization
county Board of Health to issue permits for the transportation, storage, use
and/or disposal of digested and undigested sludge, a subsequent challenge
resulted in the invalidation of the ordinance on the grounds that the county
had exceeded its authority. Clearly, such actions by county governments
can slow or stop project implementation.
Even when a single agency has sole permitting authority, the formal
review process whereby that agency decides whether or not to issue a permit
may involve several different independent agencies and offices within these
agencies. The case studies indicate that the inability of various offices, either
in one or several agencies, to agree upon a common policy regarding sludge
application has complicated and hindered issuance of permits.
Generally Applicable Public Attitudes Concerning Sludge
The case studies (and common sense) indicate that the willingness of a
community to cooperate with a land application project varies with the
community's perceptions of the project's potential benefits and costs. For
a land application project to gain public acceptance, the majority of the
community must determine that the reclamation or other benefits (e.g.,
monetary compensation) are greater than any burdens (odors, noise, truck
traffic, etc.).
The major public acceptance barrier which surfaced in all the case
studies is the widely held perception of sewage sludge as malodorous, disease
causing and otherwise repulsive. These attitudes are a barrier to any beneficial
use of wastewater or sewage sludges. Experience has shown that public
apprehension on these points can be allayed somewhat—although not totally
dispelled—through public education campaigns. Demonstration projects
which provide first hand experience are an invaluable public education tool
in this regard.
The case study experience also indicates that members of core
opposition groups seize upon the public's lack of experience with wastewater
or sewage sludges and attempt to propagate the view that sludge is repulsive
in an effort to frustrate project implementation. It is also clear that there
is an irrational component to public attitudes about sludge which means
that public education will not always be entirely successful.
The relative novelty to the public of the concept and practice of land
application of sludges may, in itself, be a barrier to public acceptance of
such projects. Even after extensive public education by regulatory officials
addressing the scientific data available to date, there often remain lingering
doubts by the public about the safety of the procedure, based upon fears
that the risks are not yet apparent. The growing awareness about hazardous
wastes and the inadequacy of their past disposal practices will inevitably
increase public skepticism about land application of sludge.
-------
Transporting Sludge into Other Communitid?
In 1.3 of 16 cases studied, the sludge -axa. i,air.- i.i ':,
to use an application site outside 'ts own sewa.- 't.-
case, the sludge-generating < om.nur.iry aiteiup.i ; ;•
in another state. The case studies dernonstnr' ' n
application sites will frecii'cntl) compel ,' '!•. •
obtain land application sites heyond its inns. ' -;;.
The success of any sludge application p">t- > . I ;.
ability to gain the cooperation -.<{: (iy ,i'e sm' >HM
owners; (3) the suirouiiding (Otiiimumy; and • '. •
officials. Transporting sludge into other coinvini'i:..
institutional barriers. While a siudge-g''uer;i ting -null >;>•
to persuade, if not coerce, communities within i •; !u<
sludge, it has no such influence 01 conuul ovci o'1;-!
the opportunities tor pioie^t opponents to obst;.i._. . •
by intervening in local regulatory proceJuri..- >-,'. 'ri^
lines are crossed. When state lines ,ire csosst.-J c-. <•
Success in obtaining use of .in .-ppii'. atiu:. M;- •.
will vary with the ability of the projt\ t spons; ^ i;- .!•,
potential conflicts with local interests, There Miay t
between the sludge -genet at'iig comniutuiy .>t'.._;;
receiving (often rural) community. 'I Hese rivalrie. 111.1
of a variety oi factors, niclud'ag jjcrn-ived >ultL;t.;i
rivalry, and economic inequality. Wh,;ut'ei fr.,- •'.'•••
between the communities, the uureiol"'->l ''oiii!1. " <. m,- >
a project is proposed.
Ownership of the Site
Of the 16 cases considered, 6 projects >veit .j^ooj
obtain access to sites which were publicly owned -; i
government) prior to the itKCpnor. oi the p-o^,.' ^ .
succeeded in securing access to the sites,
In four other cases, ihe sludge geneiatiiig ^o,i!
leased sites from private land owners. Two c! :iies< !
full-scale opeiations, one project !.-> aitemptiri;;' it; ovou
public acceptance bart'ers to implemcntatio!i a:id ''loi
frustrated by legal action which w,is unreiat.''! to cv.nt .
Six of the i_ase study project design1. i"iVv.'\'.'a
privately-owned sites which were to jerualJi 11, pn\<,!i 'C
the project. Of these, thiee reached full-sca'c op. ration.-., ,-•
because the private landowner withdrew fiom !i;e |".i|-'('
failed because of legal action or inability to ol» .HI tl < i
These results do not reveal any ineainrij.';.'.! or , t ,.\:'
identity of the application site O\M'.:I <»iri ihe >.'.ce;s •
-------
178 Barriers to Utilization
projects. However, there are some interesting findings with regard to
application site ownership and project initiation and operations. Authorities
responsible for management of publicly owned sites may initially be more
receptive to projects than the owners of private sites. This is particularly
true with respect to federal lands, where some agencies have actively sought
to become involved in land application projects. Indeed, in the case of the
Savannah River Laboratory project in South Carolina, and the Palzo Project
in Illinois, where successful land application projects have been conducted
on federally owned lands, the initiative for the projects came from the federal
agencies which had responsibility for management of the sites.
There is no apparent correlation between site ownership and the
uninterrupted implementation of projects. The cases included one project
where application on publicly-owned land was terminated after start-up and
two cases where projects on privately-owned lands were interrupted after
start-up. However, whereas the project on publicly-owned land was stopped
by legal action initiated by local government, the projects on privately-owned
land were stopped because the land owners of the application site decided
to withdraw from the project.
It would appear that where the application site is owned by a private
party, that private party constitutes a potential weak link in the project's
operations. Such a land owner may, for personal reasons or as a result of
public pressure, withdraw from the program at any time. For these reasons,
a project promoter may wish to consider approaches which give them at
least limited control over the site, such as leasing.
Abutting Land Uses
For the purposes of the cross-case analysis, the areas abutting the application
sites were categorized according to use and density on a comparative basis
as: low (forests, barren strip mine sites and sand dunes); medium (active
strip mining, low-intensity farming such as grazing and ranching); and high
(residential areas and intensive agriculture). Five of the 16 land application
sites were next to low-use/density areas. Eight sites were next to
medium-use/density areas and three projects were next to high-use/density
areas.
Public opposition to project implementation varied directly with the
nature of the abutting land uses. Among the four cases where abutting land
use was categorized as low, there was no significant public opposition to
project implementation. Three of the four projects achieved full scale
operations; the failure of the fourth project was directly attributable to a
political decision not to permit importation of sludge from another state.
Among the eight cases where abutting land uses were categorized as
medium, there were two cases where community groups actively opposed
the project; five cases where individual abutters voiced opposition; and only
one case where there was no significant public opposition. In three cases
-------
Deese, Miyares, and Fogel 179
lawsuits were filed against the project. Five of the projects abutted by
medium land uses achieved full scale operations; the failure of two of the
other three was at least partially attributable to public opposition.
In each of the three cases where abutting land uses were categorized
as high, abutters organized to oppose project implementation. Each of these
projects became the subject of a lawsuit and failed as a result of legal action.
Public Relations
For this analysis, public relations has been defined as that component of
the project which was designed to create favorable public attitudes. This
is different from the public participation component where a public forum
is provided for discussion of unfavorable as well as favorable aspects of several
alternative projects. While public relations management strategies varied from
case to case, concerted public relations efforts were made in at least 14
of the 16 case studies.
Public officials and private contractors involved in project planning
often expressed the opinion that an effective public relations campaign was
an essential component of a successful project. The attitude was also
expressed that, while a public relations campaign did not ensure project
success, failure to undertake a public relations campaign ensured project
failure.
It was apparent that the importance given to public relations varied
with the likelihood of significant public opposition. Projects carried out on
isolated sites generally did not involve significant public relations efforts.
Sites in densely settled areas or which were likely to be the objects of
inter-jurisdictional conflict were the focus of extensive public relations
campaigns.
Responsibility for Public Relations. Primary responsibility for
conducting public relations campaigns falls either to public officials who
have no particular training in the field (six cases) or to specialized consultants
(eight cases). Five of the eight projects involving private contractors were
eventually implemented as full scale operations, while only two of the six
projects whose public relations were handled by public officials were similarly
successful. Given the limited number of cases considered and the great
number of variables which affect project implementation, caution is advised
in drawing a correlation between responsibility for public relations
management and project success.
The interviews with public officials and private contractors suggested
that the contractors were often able to serve as a "buffer" or mediator
between a wary and suspicious receiving community and the sludge
generating authority. The case studies provide some indication that, where
an inter-jurisdictional or public acceptance barrier was likely, the generating
community recognized the need to enlist a private consultant. Three of the
six cases where public relations were managed by public officials involved
-------
180 Barriers to Utilization
the use of relatively isolated, publicly-owned application sites which posed
little risk of public opposition. However, six of the eight cases where public
relations were handled by private consultants involved privately-owned sites
in medium or high-use areas, with a high risk of vocal public opposition.
Specific Public Relations Techniques. There was a wide range of
techniques which were used in connection with public relations campaigns,
both by private and public promoters. These included distributions of
brochures describing the project; public meetings to explain the project and
to field questions from the public; lectures to citizens groups (e.g., Kiwanis
Club, League of Women Voters); interviews with project officials on TV
and radio; visits to demonstration projects; educational programs in the
schools; and establishment of a "hot-line" telephone service to answer
questions.
These tactics were used about as often for projects that failed as for
projects that succeeded. No single or combined use of any set of techniques
appears to be more effective than any other.
Public Relations Strategies. One of the 16 case study projects operates
on the philosophy that litigation is to be avoided at all costs, even if it
means the abandonment of particular application sites. The rationale for
this strategy is that litigation, even if successful, results in negative publicity
for land application of sludge. This publicity, in turn, tends to harden public
resistance to project implementation when it is attempted at other sites.
Adherence to this philosophy has resulted, however, in abandonment of
between 40-50% of the application sites considered by the project.
The experience of several projects suggests that the effectiveness of
public relations compaigns may be directly related to the timing and visibility
of such campaigns. Several project managers expressed the opinion that
public attitudes about a project tended to form and "harden" very soon
after initial public disclosure. Moreover, the terms and issues of the ensuing
public debate tended to be determined by the tone and content of the initial
public disclosure. Hostile attitudes and misconceptions engendered by an
unfavorable initial public disclosure may be difficult to allay by a subsequent
public relations campaign.
The timing of public relations alone did not, of course, ensure a positive
public response to project implementation. In one case where there was an
early and aggressive public relations campaign, public opposition to the
project proved insurmountable. However, seizure of the initiative by the
project sponsor in the public debate over the advisability of the project
can be one factor contributing to the success of the project.
It should be noted that some project managers disagreed with the
proposition that public relations campaigns should be highly visible early
in project planning. These people argued that a highly visible public relations
campaign, in the absence of clear signs of public opposition, would in itself
alarm and harden public opinion against the project.
-------
Deese, Miyares, and Fogel 181
The public relations campaigns of the various projects differed most
markedly with respect to who was included (or excluded) as the objects
of the public relations efforts. Some projects were narrow in scope: public
relations were limited to the application site owner, or to the immediately
surrounding community. Other projects made full scale efforts to win over
local journalists, politicians, land owners, administrative officials,
businessmen, etc.
Some public relations efforts may be described as passive, in the sense
that there was little effort to reach out to particular segments or constituents
of the public. Rather, information about the project was made available
for individuals and groups which made the effort to obtain it. Other public
relations efforts were designed to reach particular audiences and to win them
over to support of the project.
Application Methods
It is difficult to say to what extent odors emanating from sludge may be
imagined. However, it is the most common ground voiced by opponents
in taking action against land application projects.
Of the nine projects studied which have reached full-scale
implementation, eight involved the use of aged or anaerobically digested
liquid sludge. Of these, the three which were in low land-use areas proceeded
with no adverse public reaction. However, the remaining five, which were
surrounded by either medium or high land use, were plagued by abutting
land owners' complaints of odors. In each case, administrative or court action
resulted in modification to the application methods which ensured greater
incorporation of the sludge into the soil.
Two of the three projects which reached the full scale implementation
stage but were interrupted by litigation employed the use of liquid
anaerobically digested sludge. In one case, the project management would
have changed from spraying to direct incorporation if the courts had allowed
continuation of the project.
Not surprisingly, the presence of storage lagoons near the application
site also arouses public opposition. Six of the eight projects involving the
use of storage lagoons became the object of lawsuits or administrative actions
based on odor complaints. In two of these cases, litigation was directly
related to the existence of the storage lagoons.
Strategies for Project Sponsors
Land application projects have been initiated by landowners, receiving
communities, sludge producers and private contractors. In this section, we
have summarized our research findings in terms of strategies for any of these
parties interested in sponsoring a project. As the analysis of the case studies
-------
182 Barriers to Utilization
indicates, no one approach will guarantee public acceptance or regulatory
approval of a given proposal.
Nevertheless, at least two general lessons were learned from the case
studies. First, patience is required to implement a land application project.
Second, for a wide variety of reasons, land application simply will not be
acceptable on every site where it is technically appropriate. While no strategy
can guarantee success, due consideration of the following issues should help
sponsors reduce the risk that their proposed projects will not be approved.
Hire Experts
Some wastewater management authorities have found it useful to hand over
various aspects of the project's promotion to specialized contractors. This
step may be desirable in some cases, though it may not be essential. However,
any project sponsor should investigate the possibility of hiring an expert
to assist in the permitting process. In most cases, the retention of a local
lawyer who can provide expertise on both the formal and informal
requirements for obtaining local approvals is desirable. Certainly an
environmental specialist familiar with the state regulatory procedures and
staff would be helpful.
Reduce Risk of Public Opposition Through Proper Design
From the case studies, it is clear that the degree of public opposition to
past projects has been directly related to the intensity of abutting land uses.
The selection of isolated sites greatly improves the possibility of project
acceptance. Similarly, the project should be designed to minimize any
potential impact from odors. While soil incorporation greatly reduces odors
from application of anaerobically digested sludge, the use of an aged or
thoroughly aerobic sludge form, such as properly composted sludge, should
be considered. Also, extensive on-site storage of sludge in any form is not
recommended.
Clarify the Incentives
When a land application project is proposed, one can assume that it is because
the sponsor seeks to take advantage of some benefit to be derived from
the project. Other parties, however, may stand either to gain or to lose
from the proposal. By identifying who these parties are, the project sponsor
can clarify for each what benefits they are likely to derive from the project
and can develop strategies for altering the balance of such benefits against
any project-related burdens (for example, by initiating compensation).
Based on the unique character of a given proposal the sponsor should
make sure that everyone whose interests are served in any way is informed
exactly how they will benefit. Figure 11-5 summarizes the possible incentives
that various parties associated with a reclamation program might have.
-------
Deese, Miyares, and Fogel 183
Figure 11-5. Incentives.
Wastewater Authority
Alternative sludge disposal option
Sludge disposal at lower cost
Sludge disposal acceptable to EPA
*
Active Coal Strip Mine Operator
Meet reclamation requirements for less money
Less risk of reclamation failure
Prompt bond return
**
Active Coal Strip Mine Site Owner
Reclamation quality higher than required by OSM
***
Other Application Site Owner
Increase property value at low investment
Improved public image
Reduce conflict with water quality agencies
Contractor
Business revenues
Local Community
Improved aesthetic environs
Improved water quality
Increased tax base
Jobs and local business
Other compensation
Abutters
Improved environment
Increased property values
Other compensation
*
Usually a mining company.
**
May be the same as the operator or may be a different party who
has leased or sold mineral rights to the mining company.
***
Abandoned mines, mill tailing, dredge spoils, etc.
Provide Indemnity and Obtain Insurance
In any land application project, the potential exists for some harms to project
participants, property owners, workers or others, either out of some
negligence or from statutory or regulatory violation. In either case, when
personal injury or property damage occurs, tort claims and lawsuits are likely
to follow.
In such a situation, an injured party normally has a selection of possible
defendants, including the engineer that designed the project; the contractor
that executed it; any subcontractors involved; the owner of the land; the
operator of the mine; and the municipality that generated the sludge.
Moreover, when only some of these defendants are named, they may bring
others into the litigation by filing third party complaints. Any one of the
defendants in a common lawsuit could conceivably be held liable for the
entire amount of damages due -- even if that amount is out of proportion
-------
184 Barriers to Utilization
to trie injury - when other defendants fail or are unable to pay their share.
Because land application involves some undeniable risks, and because
the precise nature and magnitude of those risks may be unknown,
participants essential to a project may be reluctant to join. Although not
used in any of the case studies, one way for a project sponsor to overcome
such reluctance is to offer to indemnify such participants for any liabilities
they incur or damages they suffer themselves, as a result of their
participation.
The project sponsor is ordinarily in the best position to assess the risks
of the project. Thus, if it can satisfy itself that the risks are outweighed
by the benefits, it can provide reassurance to other participants by voluntarily
assuming those risks. The indemnity agreement should explicitly state if the
sponsor is assuming liability for even those harms resulting from the
negligence of other project participants, since such indemnity may be
demanded as a condition of participation.
Indemnity agreements do not preclude an injured party from bringing
suit against the project participants perceived to be actually at fault in causing
the harm alleged. Rather, they provide a conceptual basis for those
participants to be reimbursed by the project sponsor. Such a contract may
be worthless, however, if the project sponsor is without the financial
resources, to provide such reimbursement. In such circumstances, project
participants are still liable to injured parties, and may be left without recourse
for damages they had sought to shift to the sponsor.
The obvious solution is insurance. By providing insurance for all harms
arising out of a particular project, for a premium paid at the outset, a project
sponsor can back an indemnity agreement with the security of a major
insurance corporation, and thereby satisfy any objections to the sponsor's
ability to provide the indemnity agreed upon. In any case, a sludge-generating
authority and specialized contractor should obtain professional liability
insurance.
Compile Comprehensive Record
There are two reasons for a project sponsor to compile as complete a record
about the project as practical. First, a comprehensive record-keeping
mechanism provides evidence that the sponsor has control over the project.
It can therefore serve to reassure abutting property owners and the receiving
community that every step possible is being taken to implement the project
in accordance with a specific plan, to guarantee that the plan is followed,
and to record the effects of the application of sludge as they are monitored.
Second, in the event that something goes wrong with a land application
project, the sponsor will be in a better position to explain and defend its
actions -- and possibly avoid liability for itself and other project participants
- if it has prepared and maintained a comprehensive record. Since those
who are thinking of participating in projects may be quite concerned with
-------
Deese, Miyares, and Fogel 185
their potential liability, the existence of a mechanism for compiling such
a record can serve as an inducement to their participation.
In addition to arranging for the compilation and maintenance of factual
data about the design, operation and effects of the reclamation project, the
sponsor should provide for continuous analysis of these data with as much
critical objectivity as possible. Project design, inspection procedures, testing,
quality control efforts, safety measures, and warnings should be scheduled
for regular examination as critically and freshly as possible. The information
contained in such evaluations, as well as accident or incident reports, should
be widely circulated among project participants and within the community.
The sponsors should take care to avoid preparing a record that can
be used unfairly against them. For example, care should be taken not to
write a tentative report analyzing an incident or procedure that looks like
a final report. Nor should a final report be written before all relevant evidence
is gathered, especially if it is critical of present or.past practices. Words
that imply negligence should be avoided. For example, reporting that a
lysimeter has "cracked" is more accurate and objective than stating that
it "failed".
Comprehensive and Open Monitoring Program
While the details of a monitoring program will be governed by site-specific
considerations there are some generalizations that can be made about
monitoring programs. Monitoring serves two important non-technical roles.
As discussed above, monitoring provides a much-needed record, if there are
questions in the future about the project. Monitoring also provides a means
of allaying some of the public's fears about adverse impacts. For these reasons
alone, regardless of their technical importance, monitoring programs should
be carefully designed and conscientiously implemented.
The specifics of a monitoring program must be determined on a
site-by-site basis. A comprehensive monitoring program should have three
components: sludge quality, field operations, and environmental effects.
Sludge quality should be assessed in two ways. First, it is important
to know something of the historic composition of the sludge. At least a
one year record of such compositional data as nitrogen, heavy metals and
PCB content should be obtainable from the POTW. This information can
then be used to establish loading rates. Second, a composite sample should
be taken from the particular batch of sludge actually applied to a given
site. Analysis of this sample should be recorded and evaluated to ensure
that the heavy metals and PCB loadings were, in fact, within the limits
specified in permits.
Field operations are the procedures by which the site is prepared and
sludge is applied. The state or local permitting agency may wish to have
an observer at the site to ensure that the specified procedures are, in fact,
followed. In any case, it is in the sponsor's best interest to encourage such
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186 Barriers to Utilization
observations
Environmental effects include project effects on ground water, soil
water, soil, and vegetation. Pennsylvania, for example, has developed a
relatively standardized monitoring program which calls for ground water,
soil water, vegetation and soils monitoring at quarterly intervals for a
minimum of one year. The decision as to whether or not to continue
monitoring is then based on the results of the first year tests.
The question of who does the monitoring raises many credibility issues.
In at least three of the case studies, the local community felt uncomfortable
having to believe the project management's results. Sponsors should not take
these concerns as an attack on their integrity, but rather as legitimate
concerns based on unfortunate past experience. A number of approaches
can be used in the resolution of this issue. Probably most cost-effective is
for the sponsor to arrange to have a third party perform the monitoring.
This third party might be the local university or agricultural college, the
state water quality control agency, the state department of agriculture, or
a private laboratory. In any case, the project management can arrange to
cover the costs of monitoring and use the results for their own records.
Alternatively, the project management can offer to split samples collected
with any of the regulatory authorities or public interest groups. The project
management should be prepared to finance the duplicate analysis as well
as their own. Finally, the local community can conduct a sampling program
completely independent of the project's program. While this may seem
excessive, it may also be politically necessary.
Public Relations Campaigns
As discussed above, there are no sure ways to gain public acceptance of
land application projects, short of locating them in completely isolated areas.
Where interaction with the public is projected, there are various techniques
that may help the promoter to gain public acceptance.
While public relations campaigns are designed and carried out by the
project sponsor to bring out a project's major benefits, candor is nevertheless
essential in order to do this effectively. The case studies revealed a wide
range of public relations techniques that have been used to promote POTW
sludge projects, including development and distribution of glossy brochures
describing the project; open public meetings; presentations to specific interest
groups; presentation of films about similar projects; local media coverage;
technical education campaigns for the public and in the schools;
establishment of a hotline for quick response to individual questions; and
presentation of materials stressing community benefits from the project.
It is important to design a public relations program which fits the
character of the receiving community and the specifics of the application
site, A major consideration is whether to take an aggressive or passive
approach to public relations. There has been mixed success with both tactics.
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Deese, Miyares, and Fogel 187
An aggressive campaign allows a sponsor to stay on the offensive and to
conduct an effective technical education before project opponents can play
upon public prejudices against sludge, but may also engender opposition
where none would have existed otherwise.
The case studies show a direct correlation between highet density
abutting land uses and the amount of public controversy. Thus, a passive
public relations campaign should be implemented only in situations where
the application site is relatively isolated. For other sites, which are likely
to be controversial anyway, an aggressive public relations campaign is
recommended.
Technical Education
Before local citizens can discuss the pros and cons of a proposed project
they must become familiar with the technical aspects of a new field. A
technical education program presenting the fundamentals of the land
application process will enable various participants to ask questions. Unlike
a public relations campaign which is directed at the community as a whole,
technical education is directed toward a more limited audience with greater
than average interest in the project.
It is likely that many with whom a sponsor deals will have had little
or no experience with POTW sludge or land application. The first phase
of this program, therefore, should be to explain exactly what will happen
if the project is implemented: how the land is prepared; what time of year
the sludge is applied; when a grass cover can be expected, etc. This is one
point where reclamation projects have an advantage over some other land
application projects. Since the sludge used in reclamation is generally only
applied once, the public can be assured that any inconvenience due to traffic,
dust or odors will be a one-time occurrence of very short duration. While
movies on the general topic can be used to introduce the subject, it is
important also to set out the specifics of the particular application proposal.
Oral, written and visual materials should be prepared for presentation at
public meetings.
The next important effort is to inform the public as to the high degree
of anticipated compliance with state and federal guidelines and standards.
Particular mention should be made of guidelines and standards dealing with
pathogen control, heavy metal content of sludge and soil, synthetic organic
chemical content, storage facilities, application methods, site preparation,
seeding methods, monitoring plans, and deed restrictions.
Where possible, standards of performance should be stated and the
expected conformance of the project to these standards should be stressed.
For example, with respect to sludge stabilization for odor and pathogen
control, details of the composting process or anaerobic digestion process
should be provided. For heavy metals, the composition of the sludge and
the resulting soil and crop concentration of metals should be presented and
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188 Barriers to Utilization
comparisons made where possible. It is particularly important to compare
the proposed loading with prescribed loadings as recommended in state and
EPA guidelines.
It would be a good idea to enlist local experts, university researchers,
or agricultural/forestry extension staff to assist with a public education effort
in order to improve credibility of the project.
Advisory Panels
Another proven means of gaining credibility for a project and to defuse
public opposition is to ask parties with a potential interest to participate
on a project advisory panel. This is particularly useful in the case of the
first site to be located in a general area. Governmental personnel with actual
or de facto power of approval should be asked to participate along with
representatives of the core opposition group, abutters and other groups. Such
a panel provides a perfect mechanism for finalizing monitoring procedures
and reviewing project progress. It also provides a forum for the settlement
of disputes. Advisory panels have proven very useful during the facilities
planning stages for a wide range of wastewater treatment options under EPA
public participation regulations and appear to be particularly useful during
the initial phases of a land reclamation project.
Demonstration Projects
Conducting a demonstration project does not guarantee that promoters will
be able to expand a project to full scale. However, it is much easier to
start a demonstration project than it is to start a full scale project. Once
under way, the demonstration project sets the stage for a larger program.
The sponsor may wish to plan a strategy whereby full scale operations can
be reached after three or four years. Experience has indicated that a well-run
demonstration program can help sell a full-scale project. Thus, a
demonstration should be initiated if there is no ongoing land application
project within a reasonable distance from the proposed Site. A local
demonstration program, preferably with extensive participation of local
university researchers, will provide an excellent vehicle for educating the
public about the process, and should receive local media coverage.
Such demonstration programs, when operated as a "pilot program" to
develop full scale project design criteria may be fundable under the Step
I facilities planning portion of the EPA construction grants process. We have
identified a number of instances where such "pilot" scale wastewater
treatment programs have been funded in this manner. Also, research funding
to support demonstration programs may be available from EPA, other federal
or state agencies. Otherwise, the costs of demonstration programs may have
to be borne by the project promoter prior to seeking assistance for
establishing full-scale projects.
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Deese, Miyares, and Fogel 189
Compensation to the Receiving Community
In many cases, the recipient community may not have any incentive to
provide the necessary project approval. In cases where public opposition is
anticipated, the promoters should carefully examine the community's
incentives and consider the possibility of modifying the project to increase
them. Recent research^ jn the field of community compensation
summarized the various methods into four major categories.
Impact Prevention. This category covers the technical aspects of the
project discussed under the strategy of proper design. To gain public
acceptance a project sponsor must be sensitive to local concerns and be
willing to modify practices to meet local requirements. Some modifications
which might be considered are:
- Location changes
- Changes in sludge application technique
- Use of dry rather than wet sludge
- Truck route changes
- Drainage control system
- Buffer zone
Impact Mitigation. These techniques are used to compensate a
community or individuals for adverse impacts of a project which are
unavoidable. Although the risk of such impacts is often very small, it is
advisable to establish a mechanism to provide compensation just in case.
It is very unlikely that this form of compensation will be required for land
application projects.
Side Payments. This form of compensation involves the payment of
a benefit to the community to offset any burdens. These payments may
be in the form of direct monetary payments or may be more indirect. One
approach is transfer of a service or amenity to the community which is
the direct result of a land reclamation project. For example, a portion of
the reclaimed site could be deeded to the community as a park. Side
payments may also be possible in the form of local economic support. For
example, consider the maximum use of local resources such as local trucking
firms, local labor, and local merchants.
Contingency Management. This is the method of local compensation
most commonly used in reclamation projects to date. Sponsors use these
techniques to reassure the community that the project is well managed and
that procedures have been established to deal with problems. Providing the
local community not only with access to the site for purposes of monitoring
but also providing them with funds to conduct an independent monitoring
program has been a key to project acceptance in the past. Such independent
monitoring programs can be financed either directly or through a tipping
fee on each truck load of sludge brought into the community. Other methods
used to reassure the local communities include posting of performance bonds,
purchasing of liability insurance, and establishing a "hotline".
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190 Barriers to Utilization
Conclusion
While no one is going to say that gaining approval for land application
projects is easy, it is certainly possible, and may, in fact, be no more difficult
than gaining approval for other types of wastewater and sewage sludge
management projects. Sponsors who are patient, taking the time to properly
design projects, to conduct demonstrations, and to provide public education
programs, will most likely be able to successfully establish projects.
At this time, the only note of caution is that land application as a
management option is very vulnerable. Public acceptance of the concept is
growing with every successfully implemented project, but it might only take
one disaster to shelve the technology. Thus, while dealing with the red tape
of federal guidelines and state permit requirements may be frustrating, it
will be worthwhile if projects perform well.
With the number of disturbed areas in this country increasing daily,
the potential for sewage sludges in reclamation and biomass production
projects is enormous. If projects implemented during the next five years
demonstrate that the procedures not only work, but can be conducted in
a publicly acceptable manner, it is quite likely that land reclamation and
biomass production will become a more widely used method of recycling
sewage sludges. Land owners may then begin to assume an increasing share
of the overall project costs.
Literature Cited
1. 33 U.S.C. Sees. 1251 et seq.
2. 33 U.S.C. Sec 1281(d).
3. See EPA's regulations under the Clean Air Act (CAA), 42 U.S.C. Sees. 7401 et
seq., dealing with new stationary sources of air emissions, 40 C.F.R. Part 60,
and with hazardous pollutants. 40 C.F.R. Part 61. See also EPA's Toxic Substances
Control Act (TSCA), 15 U.S.C. Sees. 2601 et seq. regulations on PCBs, 40 C.F.R.
Part 761, and the recently promulgated hazardous waste regulations under the
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCAA), 42 U.S.C. Sees. 6901 et seq.,
40 C.F.R. Parts 260 et seq.
4. See EPA's ocean dumping regulations, 40 C.F.R. Parts 220-230, promulgated under
the Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act, 33 U.S.C. Sees. 1401 et
seq.
5. See EPA's PCB regulations, 40 C.F.R. Part 761, and its solid waste disposal
regulations, promulgated jointly under RCRA and the CWA at 40 C.F.R. Part
257. See also EPA's hazardous waste regulations, 40 C.F.R. Parts 260 et seq.
6. See EPA's solid waste disposal regulations, 40 C.F.R. Part 257, and the forthcoming
regulations on distribution and marketing of sewage sludge products, to be codified
at 40 C.F.R. Part 258.
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Deese, Miyares, and Fogel 191
7. 33 U.S.C. Sec. 1345(d).
8. 42 U.S.C. Sees. 6907, 6944. These standards appear at 40 C.F.R. Part 257.
9. 40 C.F.R. Part 258 (forthcoming).
10. 30 U.S.C. Sees. 1202 et seq.
11. 42 U.S.C. Sees. 4321 et seq.
12. Restatement (second) of torts Sec. 821B.
13. "A Handbook for States m the Use of Compensation and Incentives in the Siting
of Hazardous Waste Management Facilities" (Draft), September, 1980, prepared
by USR&E for EPA.
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V / RECLAMATION OF GRAVEL PITS
AND IRON-ORE OVERBURDEN
OVERVIEW
CONSIDERING FISH AND WILDLIFE BIOMASS
PRODUCTION ON SURFACE MINES USING
SLUDGE AND WASTEWATER APPLICATIONS
William T. Mason, Jr.
As the United States enters a new decade, it is important to review past
options and gain new perspectives for dealing with a subject of immense
environmental concern -- the disposal of municipal sludge and wastewater.
How can we, to best advantage of our society and renewable resources,
restore reclaimed nutrients from wastewater treatment to the natural nutrient
cycling process' Symposia such as this are commendable because they
provide a forum and stimulation to additional research and inquiry leading
to formulation of sound land-use planning to deal with the question. Many
of the research papers presented in this book attest to our store of knowledge
on the demonstrable benefits of sludge and wastewater applications to
increased plant biomass production on surface mines.
Before moving to the papers in this Section, I would like to take a
moment to "wave the flag" for fish and wildlife considerations on reclaimed
mine lands and point out the obvious aesthetic, recreational and general
benefit of enhancing fish and wildlife. Fortunately for the nation's fish and
wildlife populations, surface-mined lands are found in rural domains. The
citizens in these areas, including "miners," are well attuned to the enjoyment
of fish and wildlife and expect diverse and abundant fish and wildlife
populations as a heritage.
Few of the papers presented in this Symposium contain information
on the animal component of mined lands receiving sludge and wastewater
applications. Future research might focus on aspects of the uptake and
transformation of potentially toxic substances contained in sludge and how
these substances, in concert with background levels of metals, acid water,
etc., may act synergistically to limit fish and wildlife populations. Studies
on the behavior of substances in sludge, especially in relation to the early
developmental stages of wildlife, will be most beneficial to determining the
future scope of use of municipal sludge and wastewater for mine land
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Mason 193
reclamation purposes.
During 1981, The Eastern Energy and Land Use Team, OBS, in
cooperation with OSM, plans to initiate projects in northern Appalachia and
southcentral United States to demonstrate cost-effective methods for
reclaiming mined-lands for fish and wildlife enhancement. Efforts will be
made to demonstrate the benefits of sludge and wastewater applications and
perhaps test some of the technologies described in this Symposium. We will
need to call on the experiences of many of the participants here to assist
us in developing demonstration areas that will give high visibility to those
methods that are regarded as most promising for future reclamation work.
I urge the Symposium participants and other researchers conducting
studies of sludge and wastewater applications on mined lands to examine
their current demonstration site for potential fish and wildlife benefits.
Relatively little tuning of research projects may result in significant benefits
to the fish and wildlife populations. For example, arrangement of grasses,
legumes, shrubs and trees in the proper manner on experimental plants could
provide for wildlife movement corridors, highly productive border areas, as
well as food and cover. Maintenance of water, wherever permissible is
encouraged. Long after the study is completed, fish and wildlife populations
in the area will derive benefits from the attention.
Researchers and administrators, who are planning new experimental
studies involving sewage sludge and wastewater may also wish to incorporate
fish and wildlife concerns into future site demonstrations. State federal fish
and wildlife agencies that are funding surface mining research should keep
in mind'the demonstrated benefits of sludge applications to surface-mined
land for increased plant biomass production, and wherever possible, should
advance the frontier of knowledge on the pathway of movements of
substances in wastewater and sludge throughout the animal food chain and
other ecosystem components.
Fish and wildlife need food, cover, water, and living space for normal
life history functions; breeding, feeding and resting. Our job now is to
package existing information on cost-effective methods in a form that is
easily understood and used by reclamation planners and managers. The Office
of Biological Services (OBS), U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, has developed
aids in the form of manuals, handbooks, guides, instruction packages and
other tools for assistance that deal with fish and wildlife needs on
surface-mined lands. OBS will gladly provide a variety of materials to meet
information needs. In addition, for on-ground support, the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service maintains Regional Offices in Portland, Oregon;
Albuquerque, New Mexico; Twin Cities, Minnesota; Atlanta, Georgia; Newton
Corner, Massachusetts; and Denver, Colorado. Other federal agencies that
provide assistance related to coal surface mining, in addition to the U.S.
EPA, include: Forest Service and Soil Conservation Service, U.S. Department
of Agriculture, and the Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and
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194 Reclamation of Metal-Ore and Gravel Spoils
Enforcement (OSM), Bureau of Land Management, and Geological Survey,
U.S. Department of the Interior. State reclamation and fish and game
agencies are excellent sources of valuable information on the location and
life necessities of fish and wildlife populations.
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12
THE UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE SLUDGE:BARK
SCREENINGS COMPOST FOR THE CULTURE OF
BLUEBERRIES ON ACID MINESPOIL
Kevin W. Tunison, Bradford C. Bearce, and
Harry A. Menser, Jr.
Growth media consisting of municipal sewage sludge, bark shredder
screenings and composts of these wastes mixed with acid minespoil were
tested to determine the potential value of these wastes as sources of nutrients
for the culture of blueberries, (V. corymbosum) an acid-tolerant crop.
Sludge contained 3.5% Kjeldahl N, 1.5% P, 0.2% K, 2.5% Ca, 0.3%
Mg, 2.5% Fe, 1250 ppm Zn, 520 ppm Mn, 392 ppm Cu, 34 ppm B, 600
ppm Cr and Pb, 50 ppm Ni, 20 ppm Co, and 5 ppm Cd. Concentrations
are expressed in dry weight.
Foliage initially appeared normal but became severely chlorotic later
in shoots reared on the sludge:minespoil medium. The content of Zn in
these tissues was ca. 100 ppm. Foliar Mg levels were low (<.16%) in plants
grown on media containing bark, sludge and minespoil but not when grown
on standard peat moss:sand media. Composting diminished the severity of
chlorosis as did foliar MgSO^ sprays.
Berries showed no significant heavy metal contamination from Cd, Cr,
Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn. Few berries grew on plants cultured in sludge:minespoil
medium; however, bark:sludge composts mixed with minespoil produced
nearly as much fruit as plants cultured on peat moss: sand medium.
Sewage sludge combined with acid minespoil was not suitable for
blueberry production. Plant mortality was relatively high with this medium.
However, when sludge and screenings were composted and mixed with
minespoil, growth compared favorably with the standard peat moss:sand
cultural medium.
Introduction
Specialty crop production on acid minespoil may provide a landowner with
the opportunity to secure an economic return from marginally productive
land. Adverse rooting conditions usually prohibit the culture of high return
horticultural crops unless extensive measures are taken to favorably modify
the spoil. Substantial amounts of lime, fertilizer, organic residues and a
dependable moisture supply are needed to broaden the selection of crops
suitable for acid minespoils. An acid-tolerant species such as blueberries
(Vaccinium corymbosum) might possibly succeed on minespoil if nutrient
and moisture requirements can be effectively managed.
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V)d Ri cla'nafion ot Metal~Oe and Gravel Spoils
H.ird.vood harks composted according to established methods are a
suitable medium for container-grown plants (Hoitink & Poole, 1980).
Composting; results in the microbial breakdown of cellulose and removal of
toxins from the b.irk. The addition of nitrogen (N) and phosphate (PO^.),
usually i;i commercial inorganic forms, increases the decomposition rate
.'Hoitink -N Poole, 1980).
ocv/a,?-1 ^ludge is a suitable alternative source of recycled nutrients for
plant grown provided toxic heavy metal contamination in the produce can
be prevented. A plethora of technical reports and reviews have been published
on the use of sewage sludge for crop production (Page, 1974; Dowdy &
Larson, 1975; Chancy & Giordano, 1977; Parretal, 1977).
Scarce (1980) tested hardwood composts derived from the screenings
of a southern Appalachian bark shredding operation. Inorganic N and
superphosphate were used in the process. Bedding plants grew successfully
in the media.
This study reports results of an experiment to determine the feasibility
of utilizing sewage sludge as a nutrient source for the preparation of composts
from har j'vood bark screenings for culture of highbush blueberries on acid
minespoil amended with compost. The objectives of the study were to
evaluate the adequacy of the compost as a plant growth medium and to
n'onito: ih:1 accumulation of toxic heavy metals in berries and foliage.
Materials and Methods
Bark screenings composted with sewage sludge were mixed with acid
tnmespoil and used as a medium ior production of blueberries. Plants were
giowu in 5 gallon plastic containers in a greenhouse.
Preparation of Composts
Screenings were a by-product of a hammermill bark shredding processor
locared about 65 km east of Charleston, West Virginia. The fines, or
screenings, sifted through a 0.5 cm mesh separator as the milled bark was
conveyed to a packaging facility.
Sewaga sludge was obtained from a secondary treatment plant at
Waynesburg, Pennsylvania, about 40 km north of Morgantown, West Virginia.
rihe sewage plant served the waste tteatment needs of approximately 10,000
residents. The community harbored no major industrial sources of heavy
metal contaminants. Lime was not used as a flocculent in dewatering the
.Judge. Tl-iise were important factors in choosing a sludge for use in a
relatively acid rooting medium.
An orphaned stiipmine a few kilometers north of Morgantown, West
Virginia, was used as a source of spoil. The textural content of the spoil
consisted rniist'y of rinely weathered sandstone passed through a 1.4 cm.
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Tunison, Bearce, and Menser 197
screen to remove coarse fragments. The pH of the spoil material was 3.2-3.5.
Dewatered sludge from drying beds at Waynesburg was trucked to the
bark shredding site for composting with bark screenings. In composting
operations, an ideal C:N ratio is 30:1 (Poincelot, 1972). To achieve this
goal, three circular, level portions of bark screenings 5 m in diameter and
35 to 40 cm deep were prepared with a front-end loader. An equal amount
of screenings was placed on each circular area. Sludge was spread upon the
screenings in proportions of 1 part sludge to 1, 1.5 and 2 parts screenings,
volume basis. The sludge was thoroughly mixed with the screenings by
rototilling. A fourth treatment consisting of 3.6 kg Nf^NO-j plus 3.0 kg
of 20% superphosphate per cubic meter, used as standard commercial
fertilizer comparison, was composted in the same manner.
Temperatures in the mix remained elevated for about 6 weeks, and
remained undisturbed for another 2 weeks.
Preparation of Cultural Media
Blueberries were grown in 19 liter (5 gallon) drainable-type plastic containers
in a greenhouse where effective practices could be used during this initial
trial. Direct planting on a stripmine site was considered; however, security
and other management factors favored the greenhouse option.
Cultural media were prepared by mixing the various materials in a
cement mixer using volume-to-volume proportions according to the schedule
shown in Table 12-1. Treatment BM contained bark composted with the
N and PC>4 commercial fertilizers, PS consisted of sphagnum peat moss and
washed coarse sand, while sludge:bark compost alone were the ingredients
Table 12-1. Media Used for Culture1 of Blueberries on Acid Minespoil.
Designation Code Mixture Ratio (V:V)
BM Hardwood bark screenings 1:1
composted with NH4N03 +
20* superphosphate mixed
with acid minespoil.
PS Sphagnum peat moss mixed 1:1
with washed sand.
SB Compost of bark screenings 1:1
and sewage sludge.
SM Sewage sludge mixed with 1:1
acid minespoil.
SMB (1:1) Compost mixed with acid 1:1
minespoil.
SMB (1:3) Compost mixed with acid
minespoil. 1:3
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198 Reclamation of Metal-Ore and Gravel Spoils
of SB. A sludge and minespoil mixture was used for treatment SM. The
two SMB treatments both contained sludge:screenings compost but three
volumes of minespoil also were used in addition to the 1:1 mix.
Highbush blueberries thrive best on acid soils in a range of pH 4.5
to 5.2. Two acidity levels, pH 4.2 to 4.5, and 5.2 to 5.5, were selected
for cultural media. The lower range was chosen because a relatively acid
rooting medium could promote the solubility and absorption of toxic heavy
metals. Preliminary incubation of the media was done in order to predict
the appropriate amounts of acidifying Al2(SC>4)3 and neutralizing CaCC>3
(ground limestone) needed to achieve desired pH levels. The incubations were
performed by adding increasing amounts of Al2(SO4)3 and CaCO^ to the
moistened media in small plastic containers kept closed to prevent drying,
and recording pH for 7 weeks at weekly intervals.
Planting, Care and Sampling
Dormant 2-year-old plants of cvs. 'Jersey' and 'Berkeley' were planted in
cultural media in July, 1979, watered thoroughly and placed under outdoor
shadecloth. Sixteen Jersey plants were set in each medium while 32 Berkeley
plants, used as pollinators, were transplanted into a peat:sand mix. Containers
were later moved into the greenhouse to afford more equitable watering
because moisture-saturated minespoil media drained poorly.
Vegetative growth was sustained until late November by placing plants
on a 16 hour light photoperiod. A thermal, floral induction period in
darkness was implemented during December, 1979, and January, 1980, by
placing plants in a cold room at a constant temperature of 2-3 C.
Plants were returned to the greenhouse in early February, 1980, and
the 16 hour photoperiod was resumed. The thermal induction period was
successful because the blueberry plants flowered 2 weeks later. All bushes
were transferred to a small, tightly enclosed greenhouse where a hive of
bees was installed to accomplish pollination. A good fruit set resulted.
Afterwards, the blueberries were returned to the greenhouse for routine care
under natural lighting.
The experimental design used throughout most of the experiment
consisted of randomized complete blocks. Initially, two plants cultured on
each medium were placed randomly in each of six replicates. Additions of
A^SO^)-} to promote acidity or CaCOj to favor neutralization were made
to one or the other of the pair of plants in each replication. No
randomization was used when plants were thermally induced for 8 weeks
at low temperatures in the dark.
Analytical determinations were made on samples collected periodically
from blueberry plants and cultural media. Compositional analyses were
performed on sewage sludge and C:N ratios were conducted on bark:sludge
composts.
Blueberry leaves were collected on July 31, 1979, just after foliage
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Tunison, Bearce, and Menser 199
emerged from dormancy, and on September 14, 6 weeks later. Ripe
blueberries were obtained during July, 1980, during first year harvest.
Samples were dried, ground in a Wiley mill, and digested in 4:1 redistilled
HNO3:HCl04 mixtures. Analytical details have been published previously
(Menser and Winant, 1980). Leaf digests were acidified with 3M HNO^ and
the concentrations of Al, B, Ca, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, Na, P, Sn and Zn were
analyzed by using inductively coupled plasma, atomic emission spectroscopy
(ICP-AES). Concentrations of Cd, Cr, K, Ni, and Pb were measured in O.lN
HCl by atomic absorption spectroscopy. Total Kjeldahl N was determined
by Technicon auto-analysis and total S was analyzed with a Leco combustion
determinator. Digestion and analysis of blueberries was accomplished by
using the same procedures as were used for leaves. Copper, Zn, Pb, Cd,
Cr, and Ni were measured by using atomic absorption spectroscopy.
Sewage sludge was also digested in HNC^HClC^ mixtures. Aluminum,
B, Ca, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, Na, P, Sr, and Zn were determined in redissolved
3M HNO^ by using inductively coupled plasma, atomic emission
spectroscopy. Technicon auto-analysis was used to measure total Kjeldahl
N. Cadmium, Cr, Ni and Pb data were furnished by Dr. Ray Shipp, Extension
Soil Scientist, Pennsylvania State University.
Compost samples for C:N ratio determination were obtained at the close
of the composting process. Dried, finely ground 10 mg samples were
combusted in an elemental analyzer. pH values of cultural media were
recorded on samples prepared as 1:1 (w/w) mixes of media and distilled
H2O.
Results and Discussion
Sewage sludge composted with hardwood bark fines, or screenings, was an
acceptable medium for culture of blueberries. Waynesburg sludge contained
sufficient amounts of essential nutrients for plant growth without excessive
contamination from toxic heavy metals (Table 12-2). Total N, P, K, Ca and
Mg were lower than the median level for these elements as compiled from
200 sludge samples from 8 states, while Al and Fe concentrations were higher
than the 200 sample average (Dowdy et al., 1973). Toxic heavy metals Zn,
Cu, B, Cd, Cr, Ni, and Pb were near the lowest limit of the ranges (Dowdy
et al., 1976; Chaney, 1974). We suspect that the content of our bark:sludge
compost did not differ appreciably from the product of the well known
USDA Beltsville compost process (Parr et al., 1977).
Carbon: nitrogen ratios of bark screenings composted with NH^NO^ and
superphosphate were slightly higher than C:N ratios of screenings of bark
composted with sewage sludge (Table 12-3). These ratios did not differ much
from the 30:1 ratio considered optimum for the composting process
(Poincelot, 1972). The rate of release of N from organically bound forms
-------
200 Reclamation of Metal-Ore and Gravel Spoils
Table 12-2. Compositional Analysis of Sewage Sludge, Secondary Treatment Plant,
Waynesburg, Pennsylvania. 1979.
Composition, Dry Weight
Element
Total N
P
&
Ca
Mg
Al
Fe
Na
S
T
2.09
1,31
.25
2,48
.26
1.90
2.65
.12
Percent
Composite
2.20
1.59
2.31
.30
2.43
2.86
.11
Element
Zn
Mn
Cu
Sr
B
Pbl/
Cr?/
Nl2/
^
Ppm
X
1249
529
392
148
34
435
575
43
6
Composite
1890
646
538
172
35
-
-
-
]_/ Data are averages of five samples collected randomly from a 3.5
to 4.0 MT stockpile. A composite was obtained by subsampling the
five replicates.
2_/ Data are averages of duplicate samples analyzed by the Pennsylvania
Department of Environmental Resources as reported to us by Ray
Shipp, Extension Soil Scientist, the Pennsylvania State University.
Table 12-3. Carbon, H, N Analysis, and C:N Ratios of Hardwood Bark Screenings and
Sewage Sludge Composts Used with Acid Minespoil for Culture of Blueberries.
Sample
Material
Standard
compost
Bark/sludge
compost
Bark/sludge
compost
Sludge
Bark
Content
Bark, NH.NO,,
and superphosphate
Bark/sludge
(2:1, v/v)
Bark/sludge
(1.5:1, v/v)
Sewage sludge
Bark screenings
Analysis,
C
29.7
27.3
24.9
18.5
35.5
% Dry kit.
H N
3.5 0.9
3.3 1.0
2.8 .8
3.0 2.1
4.4 .4
Ratio
THT
34:1
27:1
29:1
9:1
95.5:1
-------
Tunison, Bearce, and Menser 201
in the sludge appeared to proceed rapidly, The time required to complete
the composting process was about the same for screenings mixed with either
sludge or inorganic N and P sources.
Foliage appeared normal and essential nutrients were within average
ranges shortly after plants broke dormancy and leaves developed fully;
however, severe chlorosis appeared about 6 weeks later in terminal growth
of plants reared on media containing minespoil and sewage sludge. (Table
12-4). At this time, N, P, K, and S levels had declined in most leaves where
Ca concentrations had increased. Magnesium deficiency was considered as
a possible cause of the chlorosis because the symptoms centered on
interveinal areas of the leaves while the tissues adjacent to the primary veins
retained normal pigmentation. Application of MgSC>4 was mixed with
hardwood bark composts.
The absence of acute chlorosis in foliage with comparable Mg levels
tends to discredit the belief that Mg deficiency was the primary cause of
foliar chlorosis, poor blossom production, and the ultimate mortality of most
of the plants grown on minespoil mixed with sewage sludge. An increase
in Zn concentration occurred in leaves from this medium; however, the leaf
chlorosis did not resemble Zn phytotoxicity. Possibly, sludge must be
composted if it is to be used with minespoil as a cultural medium for
blueberries. Gouin (1977) and Gouin & Walker (1977) reported beneficial
results of composting sewage sludge with wood chips for nursery stock
production. Sludge compost improved soil physical properties but sewage
sludge used alone was difficult to incorporate with soils and produced cloddy
seedheads (Epstein et al., 1976). Improved physical properties may have been
one of the principal reasons for the success of blueberries on
minespoil:compost media as compared with minespoil:sludge mixes. The
latter often appeared to be waterlogged or impervious to moisture
infiltration.
Toxic metal accumulation in fruit was a primary concern in this study
because blueberries grow best under acid soil conditions that favor toxic
metal availability and absorption. The application of Al2(SO4)3 to acidify
and CaCOj to neutralize media and to secure acid (pH 4.2) and less acid
(pH 5.5) rooting conditions partially succeeded (Table 12-5). The pH of
peat:sand mixtures, sludge:bark compost, and compost:minespoil at a ratio
of 1:3 did not completely meet our objectives. However, the pH of most
of the media approached desired levels. Excess acidity may have contributed
to the poor growth of plants reared on sewage sludge and minespoil. The
use of CaCO3 with this mix resulted in better growth, improved survival
and reduced acidity. Chlorotic symptoms were not as severe in foliage of
blueberries grown on this medium after CaCC>3 applications. Excessive acidity
can lead to Al and Mn toxicity, as discussed by Foy et al. (1978). Our
analyses do not show abnormal uptake of these elements probably due to
increase in organic contents through composted bark and sludge. Brown and
-------
202 Reclamation of Metal-Ore and Gravel Spoils
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Tunison, Bearce, and Menser 203
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-------
204 Reclamation of Metal-Ore and Gravel Spoils
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-------
Tunison, Bearce, and Menser 205
Draper (1980) found differential responses of blueberries to Fe while seeking
alkaline conditions for better growth. The threat of toxic heavy metal
accumulation in blueberries could be significantly downgraded by using
cultivars adapted to more alkaline conditions.
We found no toxic accumulations of heavy metals in blueberries (Table
12-6). Although Zn, Cu, Ni, and Cr levels were slightly higher in fruit from
plants grown on sewage sludge:minespoil mixes, the concentrations remained
within limits thought to be safe for human consumption (Chancy, 1974;
Stewart & Chaney, 1976). Storage tissues generally do not accumulate toxic
metals as readily as foliage.
In summary, compost of sewage sludge and hardwood bark mixed with
acid minespoil used in containers was an acceptable medium for culture of
blueberries. Foliage generally was healthy and fruit did not accumulate toxic
heavy metals. Sewage sludge mixed with minespoil resulted in chlorosis and
poor survival, and is not recommended for blueberry production.
Literature Cited
1. Bearce, B. C., J. Montgomery, and L. Satterfield. 1980. Bedding Plant Germination
and Growth in Hardwood Bark Fines Composted with Sewage Sludge or Inorganic
Fertilizers. Prod. So. Region ASMS. Abstr. Hort Sci. 15(3) :276.
2. Brown, J. C., and A. D. Draper. 1980. Differential Responses of Blueberry
(Vaccinium) to pH and Subsequent Use of Iron. J. Amer. Hort. Sci. 105:20-24.
3. Chaney, R. F. 1974. Crop and Food Chain Effects of Toxic Elements in Sludges
and Effluents. Proc. Joint Conf. Recycling Mun. Sludges and Effluents on Land.
Natl. Assoc. State Univ. and Land Grant Coll.
4. Chaney, R. L., and P. M. Giordano. 1977. Microelements as Related to Plant
Deficiencies, p. 234-279. Soils for Management of Organic Wastes and Wastewaters.
L. F. Elliott and F. J. Stevenson (eds.) Soil Sci. Soc. of Am., Madison, Wis.
5. Dowdy, R. H., and W. E. Larson. 1975. The Availability of Sludge-Borne Metals
to Various Vegetable Crops. J. Env. Qual. 4:278-282.
6. Dowdy, R. H., W. E. Larson, and E. Epstein. 1976. Sewage Sludge and Effluent
Use in Agriculture, p. 138-153. Land Application of Waste Materials. Soil Cons.
Soc. of Amer., Ankeny, IA.
7. Epstein, E., J. M. Taylor, and R. L. Chaney. 1976. Effects of Sewage Sludge
and Sludge Compost Applied to Soil on Some Physical and Chemical Properties.
J. Env. Qual. 5:422-426.
8. Foy, C. D., R. L. Chaney, and M. C. White. 1978. The Physiology of Metal Toxicity
in Plants. Ann. Rev. Plant Physiol. 29:511-566.
9. Gouin, F, R. 1977. Conifer Tree Seedling Response to Nursery Soil Amended
-------
206 Reclamation of Metal-Ore and Gravel Spoils
with Composted Sewage Sludge. HortScience 12:341-342.
10. Gouin, F. R., and J. M. Walker. 1977. Deciduous Tree Seedling Response to
Nursery Soil Amended with Composted Sewage Sludge. HortScience 12:45-57.
11. Hoitink, H. A. J., and H. A. Poole. 1980. Bark Compost Use in Container Media.
Comp. Sci./Land Util. 21:38-41.
12. Kovanski, D., and A. Hanza. 1978. Growing Plants in Composted Hardwood Bark.
p. 18-20. Proc. of the Second Woody Ornamental Disease Workshop. Univ. of
Missouri, Columbia, Mo.
13. Menser, H. A., and W. M. Winant. 1980. Elemental Content of Vegetable Plants
Grown in Soil and Sand Culture Media Treated with Leachate from a Sanitary
Landfill. Comp. Sci./Land Util. 21:48-53, 55.
14. Page, A. L. 1974. Fate and Effects of Trace Elements in Sewage Sludge When
Applied to Agricultural Lands. A Literature Review Study. USEPA Proj. No.
EPA-670/2-74-005. p.96.
15. Parr, J. F., E. Epstein, R. L. Chaney, and G. B. Willson. 1977. Impact of the
Disposal of Heavy Metals in Residues on Land and Crops. Proc. Natl. Conf. on
Treat, and Disposal of Ind. Wastewater. Info. Trans. USEPA and Univ. of Houston,
Texas, p.126-133.
-------
13
CROP PRODUCTION ON WASTE AMENDED
GRAVEL SPOILS
Sharon B. Hornick
Utilization of sewage sludge compost and feedlot manure can provide many
chemical and physical factors necessary for the establishment of agronomic
crops on sand and gravel spoils. Such organic wastes and materials provide
much needed plant nutrients and organic matter which are drastically lacking
in many spoil sites. Addition of these materials can result in better crop
establishment and yield, avoidance of moisture stre.s in crops, and reduction
of soil erosion when compared to spoil areas receiving only inorganic
fertilizer.
Introduction
Many land areas once mined for sand and gravel and left abandoned tend
to show a lack of vegetation due to low soil pH, and inadequate levels of
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and magnesium. Severe erosion and gullying
is caused by low organic matter content which restricts water infiltration
and retention and, hence, root development and growth. Another difficulty
occurs when the fill contains large pieces of asphalt, concrete or other debris.
The result is restricted or obstructed root growth and water movement due
to a very heterogenous soil profile.
Studies in our laboratory (Griebel et al., 1979) have shown that sewage
sludge compost can be used to establish cover crops on strip mine lands.
Usually on these marginal or disturbed land areas which have been amended
with sewage sludge compost, the vegetative growth is greater than that of
control areas (Hornick et al., 1979a). This difference in crop establishment
and growth rate is attributed to the soil conditioning and fertilizing benefits
of the sewage sludge compost (Hornick et al., 1979a, 1979b).
Materials and Methods
Two Waste Experiment
In the spring of 1979, several field plots were established on sand and gravel
spoils. Macronutrient analyses showed the spoil material to be low in
phosphorous and potassium content. The organic matter content ranged from
0.4% to 1.2%. In order to determine the feasibility of growing agronomic
crops on these infertile sites, 0, 40, 80 and 160 mt/ha of sewage sludge
compost or 40, 80, and 160 mt/ha of feedlot manure were added to (6.67
-------
208 Reclamation of Metal-Ore and Gravel Spoils
x 6.67 m) plots with three replications (two waste plots).
The sewage sludge compost used in this experiment was produced from
an undigested sewage sludge from the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area
and wood chips. It is a stabilized organic material with a low heavy metal
content (Hornick et al., 1979a) resulting from the "domestic" characteristics
of the sludge.
The control or 0 mt/ha plot received inorganic fertilizer to equal
179-112-112 kg/ha of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Plots receiving
40 and 80 mt/ha of compost or feedlot manure were supplemented with
inorganic nitrogen fertilizer to equal the 179 kg/ha added to the control
plot. The plots were planted to 'Silver Queen' sweet corn.
Three Crop Experiment
Three additional and separate experiments were established growing 'SS 775'
field corn, 'Silver Queen' sweet corn, and 'Top Crop' bush beans. Corn plots
received 0, 80 and 160 mt/ha compost while the bush beans received lower
compost rates of 0, 40, and 80 mt/ha. Again the 0 mt/ha plots received
the recommended rate of inorganic fertilizer and the 80 mt/ha compost plots
were supplemented with inorganic nitrogen fertilizer to equal the nitrogen
application rate of the control.
On all field and sweet corn control plots, 89.6 kg of nitrogen per hectare
was plowed down and later sidedressed with ammonium nitrate. The bush
bean control plots were sidedressed with 224 kg/ha of 10-6-4.
From lime determinations with soil and soil-waste mixtures, the required
amount of lime was added to the control plots and to the 40 mt/ha compost
or manure treated plots. Plots receiving 80 and 160 mt/ha of manure or
compost did not require lime additions due to the wastes' buffering capacity.
Leachate Sampling
Suction lysimeters were installed in spring of 1980 on the two waste plots
at 30 cm and 120 cm depths. Plots which received only inorganic fertilizer
or 80 or 160 mt/ha compost or manure were monitored. Weekly
measurements of chloride and nitrate were performed by using specific ion
electrodes and an Orion 901 ion analyzer.
Growth Responses
Both stalk and grain were harvested, weighed and analyzed for macro- and
micronutrient elements. Soil samples were collected and analyzed.
Stalk and grain samples were harvested at maturity and fall soil samples
were collected. All samples were analyzed for macro and micronutrient
content. Heavy metals were determined by a dry ash procedure (Chaney
et al., 1977) with subsequent analysis on an IL 355 atomic absorption
spectrophotometer.
-------
Hornick
Results
Soil Temperature and Moisture
Daily morning and afternoon temperature iiua-urciritnts AC.^ c;4,en .11, >!'(-
two waste plots. Depths of 2.5 and 10 crn were monitored to determine
the effect of waste additions on both surface ind sulnuif.jct tempt -<„, ii-<.-.•.
since temperature can significantly affect germination of seed and si'hsecji er t
plant growth and root development. Figure 131 "hows, that the acMit'on
of 160 mt/ha of compost or manure resulted in a nuicli lower atteinoo.'i
soil temperature at the 10 cm depth than did the control plots wiiith contain
very little native organic matter. Afternoon temperatures taken at the 'I 3
cm depth were similar to that of the 10 c;ri depth. Due to ti.e cooling
effect of night, morning temperatures taken at both the 2.5 and 10
added to the soil, the type of waste used affected th-' pe'^ent >oil Tnoic.tuis
as follows: the control, 7%: 40, 80 and 160 n:t/ha < oir.posr. 10. 1? .-in-
15%, respectively; and 40, 80 and 160 mr/li , manure, 1 ? ;9 „! -. ^?:7
respectively.
T
E
M
?
E 8Z-
R
A
T
U
R 78-
E
70-
— — — I68MT/HA COHPOST
I68KT/HA MANURE
I I I
•« 6 6
DATE
I T
8 8
18 n
Figure 13-1. Effect of Organic Waste Amendments on Afternoon Soil Temperature
Taken at a 4 Inch Depth.
-------
210 Reclamation of Metal-Ore and Gravel Spoils
Water Quality
Weekly measurement of nitrates and chloride showed that chloride movement
at the 30 cm depth was similar both for plots receiving 80 mt/ha of compost
and those which received 160 mt/ha compost or manure (Figure 13-2). Plots
treated with 80 mt/ha of manure were lower. All of the waste treated plots
had a much higher chloride movement than did the fertilized control.
Figure 13-3 shows the chloride movement at a 120 cm spoil profile
depth for the control, 80 and 160 mt/ha of compost or manure plots. Once
again for the 160 mg/ha compost plots, a much higher initial chloride
movement was noted at the 120 cm depth than for the plots receiving lower
rates of compost or manure. On manure treated plots, the amount of chloride
movement was approaching the low level of the control.
Soil water samples taken soon after incorporation of the wastes and
planting indicated a rapid movement of nitrate at the 120 cm level for the
compost treated plots (Figure 13-4). However, plots amended with manure
showed nitrate levels below that of the ammonium nitrate fertilized control.
This result is surprising since the feedlot manure contained 5.16% total
Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) compared to 0.7% in the compost. Previous
research, such as that of Mathers and Stewart (1974), has shown that nitrate
movement to the groundwater usually occurs when high rates (over 112
mt/ha) of manure are applied to the plow layer.
Two Waste Plots
Sweet corn stalk production in 1979 was higher for the 40 and 80 mt/ha
compost treated plots than for both the control or the manure plots (Figure
13-5). However, the dry matter stalk yield was higher for plots treated with
160 mt/ha manure than for comparable rates of compost.
In contrast to the stalk yields, the highest corn ear yield (wet weight
basis) was from plots which received 40 mt/ha manure (Figure 13-6). The
yields from both the 80 and 160 mt/ha compost or manure treated plots
were similar.
Three Crop Experiments
Yields for both the field and sweet corn stalks were higher than the controls
(Figures 13-7 and 13-8). As was observed in the two waste plots ear yields
did not follow the trend of stalk yields. Except for sweet corn grown on
the 80 mt/ha compost plots, ear yields for compost treated plots growing
both sweet corn and field corn were lower than for the fertilized control.
Bush beans showed a different trend. While the number of plants grown
on each plot was similar for both the control and treated plots (Figure 13-9),
the number of beans per plant and the resulting kg/ha beans produced (wet
weight basis. Figure 13-10) were markedly different. Both the 40 and 80
mt/ha compost rates increased bean yield.
-------
Hornick 211
72B-
\
CONTROL
COMPOST 80 MT/HA
COMPOST 160 MT/HA
MANURE 80 MT/HA
MANURE 160 MT/HA
DATE
Figure 13-2. Effect of Fertilizer Treatment on Chloride Movement in the Spoil Profile
.at a One-Foot Depth.
9M-
72»-
248-
CONTROL
COMPOST 80 MT/HA
COMPOST 160 MT/HA
MANURE 80 MT/HA
MANURE 160 MT/HA
DATE
Figure 13-3. Effect of Fertilizer Treatment on Chloride Movement in the Spoil Profile
at a Four-Foot Depth.
-------
212 Reclamation of Metal-Ore and Gravel Spoils
288-
N
I
T
R
A 168-
E
P
P 188-
H
sa-
\
\ MANURE 80 MT/HA
\
\
\
\
\
/"""" x--
\''
1 I ! 1 1 1 1 1
1 2 3 4 E e 7 8
PATE
Figure 13-4. Effect of Fertilizer Treatment on Nitrate Movement in the Spoil Profile
at a Four-Foot Depth.
8,000
MANURE
COMPOST
Figure 13-5. Effect of Organic Waste on 1979 Corn Stalk Yield.
-------
Hornick 213
K
G
4,000-
3,000-
| 0 MT/HA
[Ml 40 MT/HA
80 MT/HA
160 MT/HA
SIS
MANURE COMPOST
Figure 13-6. Effect of Organic Waste on 1979 Corn Ear Yield.
10,000-
HT/HA
88 MT/HA
160 HT/HA
6,000-
EARS STALKS
Figure 13-7. Effect of Compost Rate of Field Corn Ear and Stalk Yield.
-------
214 Reclamation of Metal-Ore and Gravel Spoils
EARS STALKS
Figure 13-8. Effect of Compost Rate on Sweet Corn Ear and Stalk Yields.
Elemental Composition of Soils and Plants
Although each waste should have supplied adequate nitrogen to the soil for
crop growth, each plot amended with either compost or manure received
a sidedress of nitrogen fertilizer. This was done to supply a readily soluble
nitrogen source greatly needed by a young corn plant. Table 13-1 shows
that despite differences in fertilizer sources or plot treatment the nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, and magnesium levels in the corn grain are similar.
Calcium content in the manure is half the amount of that analyzed in the
compost. This difference is probably due to the 10% calcium carbonate
contained in the sludge compost.
Compared to the level of trace elements in the control soil, trace
element content in the waste-amended plots increased relative to the amount
of waste added (Table 13-2). Despite a rise in soil zinc and copper, corn
zinc and copper did not differ greatly from that of the control. This same
trend has been seen in other studies utilizing limed sludge compost (Hornick
et al., 1979b). Due to the high pH of the compost, metal precipitation and
adsorption occurs in the soil, thus, limiting trace metal uptake. The increase
-------
Hornick 215
409,
PLANTS
BEANS
Figure 13-9. Effect of Compost Rate on the Number of Beans and Plants Produced
Per Hectare.
in grain cadmium was not proportional to the cadmium increase in the soil.
Soil pH of the plots ranged from 6.7 to 7.9. The plots receiving the highest
amount of waste applied were highest in soil pH.
Conclusions
Sewage sludge compost and feedlot manure added to sand and gravel spoils
reduce surface and subsurface soil temperature and increase soil moisture.
These organic waste additions reduce extreme drying conditions which can
hamper seed germination and subsequent plant development.
Although sweet corn ear production on compost treated plots was
similar to areas receiving inorganic fertilizer only, stalk production was always
enhanced by compost additions. Field corn stalk yield was double that of
control plots. Compost additions also greatly increased the number of bush
beans per plant. Manure increased stalk yield of sweet corn only at the
160 mt/ha rate but increased sweet corn ear yield substantially over that
of the control at the 40 mt/ha rate.
-------
216 Reclamation of Metal-Ore and Gravel Spoils
3,800-
Figure 13-10. Effect of Compost Rate on Bush Bean Yield.
Phosphorus, calcium and magnesium contents of the sweet corn grain
were similar for control and waste-amended plots. Nitrogen content of sweet
corn grain grown on the waste-amended plots was significantly higher than
the control. Due to the buffering capacity of the wastes and resultant high
soil pH, trace element uptake was not significant in the sweet corn grain.
This study has shown that the biomass production is generally increased
when organic wastes are utilized to reclaim disturbed land areas. In order
to prevent ground water pollution from nitrates and chlorides, the waste
application rate should be determined by the waste composition, the type
of crop to be grown, and the spoil texture. As long as low metal wastes
are used and soil or spoil pH is maintained near 6.5, trace metal uptake
in crops which would enter the food chain should not be significant.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. The author wishes to express her appreciation to
Ms. Carole Sue Rodgers and Mrs. Paula Paolini for their valuable technical
assistance. This research was supported in part by funding from the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency and by technical assistance from the
Maryland Environmental Service, Annapolis, Maryland.
-------
Hornick 217
Table 13-1. Macronutrient Analyses of Sweet Corn Grain Grown in 1979 on Sand and
Gravel Spoils Amended with Sewage Sludge Compost or Feedlot Manure.
Treatment
40
80
160
40
80
160
0
compost
compost
compost
manure
manure
manure
N
0.
2.
2.
2.
2.
2.
2.
54
54
48
24
28
47
66
P
0.
33
0.32
0.34
0.34
0.
0.
0.
38
40
42
K
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
Ca
75
72
77
80
84
90
96
0.
031
0.032
0.035
0.029
0.
0.
0.
017
015
017
Mg
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
14
14
14
13
15
15
15
Table 13-2. Trace Element Analyses of Sweet Corn Grain and Sand and Gravel Spoils
Amended with Sewage Sludge Compost or Feedlot Manure.
Treatment
— mt/ha —
40
80
160
40
80
160
0
compost
compost
compost
manure
manure
manure
Sample
soil
corn
soil
corn
soil
corn
soil
corn
soil
corn
soil
corn
soil
corn
Cd Zn Cu
mg/kg dry weight
0.
0.
0.
0.
0,
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
02
.04
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,04
.50
,07
,97
,27
,03
,13
.05
.08
,07
,18
18.7
25.1
38.1
26.7
66.3
28.6
114.2
29.1
24.4
28.8
19.8
28.4
34.1
32.3
4.3
4.5
13.1
4.2
21.9
4.4
39.7
4.1
5.1
3.3
3.7
3.5
6.4
3.7
Literature Cited
1. Chaney, R. L., S. B. Hornick, and P. W. Simon. 1976. Heavy metal relationships
during land utilization of sewage sludge in the Northeast, p.283-314. In R.E. Loehr
(ed.), Land as a waste management alternative. Ann Arbor Science Publishers,
Inc., Ann Arbor, Mich.
2. Griebel, G. E., W. H. Armiger, J. F. Parr, D. W. Steck, and J. A. Adam. 1979.
Use of composted sewage sludge in revegetation of surface mined areas, p.293-305.
In W.E. Sopper and S.N. Kerr (eds.), Utilization of municipal sewage effluent
and sludge on forest and disturbed land. The Pennsylvania State Univ. Press,
-------
218 Reclamation of Metal-Ore and Gravel Spoils
University Park, Pa.
3. Hornick, S. B., J. J. Murray, and R. L. Chaney. 1979a. Overview on utilization
of composted municipal sludges. Proceedings from National Conference on
Municipal and Industrial Sludge Composting. Information Transfer, Inc., New
Carrollton, Md.
4. Hornick, S. B., J. J. Murray, and R. L. Chaney, L. J. Sikora, J. F. Parr, W. D.
Burge, G. B. Willson, C. F. Tester. 1979b. Use of sewage sludge compost for
soil improvement and plant growth. USDA-AR-SEA, ARM-NE-6, Beltsville, Md.
5. Mathers, A. C. and B. A. Stewart. 1974. Corn silage yield and soil chemical
properties affected by cattle feedlot manure. J. Environ. Qual. 3: 143-147.
6. Unger, P. W. and B. A. Stewart. 1974. Feedlot waste effects on soil conditions
and water evaporation. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 38: 954-957.
-------
14
UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
TO RECLAIM SOIL CONTAMINATED BY TOXIC
FUMES FROM A ZINC SMELTER
William A. Franks, Marie Persinger,
Asfa lob, and Patrick Inyangetor
A soil is contaminated when foreign substances which adversely affect plant
growth are introduced into the plow layer. Such soil exists in Henryetta,
Oklahoma near a zinc roaster and smelter. Emissions from the smelter have
destroyed vegetation and polluted the soil in surrounding areas for
approximately two square miles. This study was undertaken to establish
permanent vegetation plots in the polluted area.
To accomplish this, a chosen area of the polluted soil was divided into
plots and treated with various combinations of sludge, effluent, lime,
commercial fertilizer, urea, and hay mulch. Ten species of grasses and one
species of legume were planted on the treated soil and growth response of
each species was monitored. In conjunction with the plot studies, the metal
content of both the soil and plant species was studied.
Introduction
The soil mapping unit established by the Okmulgee County Soil Conservation
District for the project area is the Hector-Hartsells fine sandy loams and
more specifically the Hector part of the above. This soil is a shallow, nearly
level to steep, well drained, rapidly permeable upland soil. Before the surface
vegetation was destroyed by zinc smelter fumes, the soil profile was a dark
grayish brown, the subsurface layer was dark yellowish brown, gravelly fine
sandy loam and fine sandy loam about 15 centimeters thick. The subsoil
is dark yellowish brown fine sandy loam about 25 centimeters thick overlying
sandstone bedrock. Most of the above described Al and A2 soil horizon
(38 cm) has eroded to the point of an average topsoil depth varying from
1 cm to 4 cm. The estimated soil loss from the project area using the universal
soil loss equation exceeded 30.950 metric tons per square kilometer. Initial
studies by Smith and Duffer (1973) showed that the contaminated soil had
a low pH value and exhibited above normal concentrations of cadmium,
copper, lead, and very high concentrations of zinc.
Recent studies by Sopper et al. (1974) showed that sludge and effluent
could be utilized successfully to reclaim strip mine soil and anthracite coal
refuse banks. A three year study was then undertaken for the purpose of:
(1) establishing permanent vegetation plots on the contaminated soil by
treating the soil with sludge, lime, and effluent (2) establishing permanent
-------
220 Reclamation of Metal-Ore and Gravel Spoils
vegetation on plots using commercial fertilizer and (3) studying the effect
of the various treatments on the metal contamination, pH, and nutrient value
of the soil.
Materials and Methods
Site Study-First Year
An area located approximately 274 m north of the location of the abandoned
zinc smelter site was chosen as the test site whose soil conformed to the
average contamination of the entire area. A very rocky site of size 41m
x 14 m with a moderate slope was enclosed with a fence. The site was
then tilled twice to a depth of 15 cm on consecutive days prior to seeding.
The site was then divided into six equal plots with dimensions of
approximately 6 m x 14 m. The site was then ready for treatment and
planting.
Lime was broadcast on top of the ground at the appropriate rate.
Municipal sludge was spread in liquid form on top of the ground via
tank-wagon pump spray machine. Commercial fertilizer was broadcast on
top of the ground. All of these materials were incorporated into the soil
at a depth of 15 cm using a field cultivator consisting of steel shanks spaced
18 cm apart. The total treatment for each plot is shown in Table 14-1.
One species of legume and ten species of grasses were chosen for this
study (Table 14-2). In addition to these species there were two naturally
occurring species Panicum agrastoides (panicum grass) and Amaranthus
hydridus (pig weed family). Each of the six plots was divided into 11 equal
rectangular blocks and each block was seeded with one of the 11 different
plant species.
The seeds were broadcast on top of the ground at a seeding rate of
154 kg/ha. Immediately after seeding, approximately 3 cm of water was
applied and 3 cm of hay mulch was placed on top of the seeds for the
purpose of conserving moisture. The plots were then treated with effluent
or water on a weekly basis. After 12 weeks from the date of initial planting,
one-half of each block of each plot was treated with 45 kg/ha of
urea-nitrogen.
Site Study-Second Year
An area adjacent to the first year site with a 20% slope was divided in
four equal plots with dimensions 9 m x 10 m. The plots were prepared
and treated in the same manner as described for the first year site. The
exact amounts of each substance applied to the plots are given in Table
14-3. Bluestem grass, bermudagrass, kleingrass, and switchgrass were selected
for the second year study.
-------
Franks, Persinger, lob, and Inyangetor 221
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-------
222 Reclamation of Metal-Ore and Gravel Spoils
Table 14-2. Legumes and Grasses Planted at Site No. 1.
Legumes Grasses
Common Scientific Common Scientific
Name Name Name Name
Prostrate Lespedeza
lespedeza daurica
Bluestem
Big Bluestem
Indiangrass
Eastern
Gamagrass
Deer Tongue
Kleingrass
#75
Switchgrass
Caucasian
Bluestem
Old World
Bluestem
Fescue
Andropogon scoparius
Andropogon gerardi
Sorghastrum nuta
Tripsacum dactylodes
Panicum clandestinum
Panicum coloratum
Panicum virgatum
Andropogon caucasicus
Andropogon ischaemum
Festuca megalura
Table 14-3. Soil Treatment for Site No. 2.
Plots
Substances
1A IB 2A 2B 3A 3B 4A 4B
Amounts Per Acre
Lime
(metric tons) 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
Sludge
('centimeters) 5 5 5 5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
Urea-N
(kilograms)
45
Hay Mulch
(centimeters) 10 10
45 - 45
10 10
45
Water
(centimeters) 33333333
Site Study-Third Year
This study represented the culmination of the experimental efforts. The
results of previous years suggested that a single treatment which consisted
of lime, 3 cm of sludge, 45 kg/ha of urea-nitrogen and hay mulch (used
to conserve moisture) represented the treatment for the best growth response.
Two grasses, kleingrass and switchgrass, were used because they had
previously given the best results on the soil treated as described above.
-------
Franks, Persinger, lob, and Inyangetor 223
Chemical Analysis
Soil and plants were analyzed for metals and nutrients. The methods used
are given in Methods of Soil Analyses (Black, 1965).
Results—First Year
The first year experiments were designed to study plant growth response
with respect to the following applied substances: lime, effluent, water, liquid
sludge, commercial fertilizer, and urea-nitrogen. The liquid sludge and
effluent were analyzed to determine their chemical composition. The results
of these analyses are given in Table 14-4. Total amounts of the
macronutrients, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium and the fertilizer
equivalent applied to each plot are given in Table 14-5.
Vegetation Response
One week after initial planting fescue was very observable but the other
species were not. At the end of a two week period all species were emerging
in good fashion with the exception of prostrate lespedeza which did not
germinate on any of the plots. Table 14-6 summarizes the growth response
for the first year for plots 2B and 3B which yielded the best results.
Table 14-4. Chemical Composition of Dry Sludge and Effluent.
Constitutent
PH
Sludge
7
.30
Effluent
7.
10
Parts Per Million
Total-N
Nitrate-N
P
Copper
Zinc
Organic Matter
K
250
4
210
0
0
3
300
.0
.6
.0
.30
.50
.00
.0
4.
12.
4.
0 .
N.
N.
3.
5
4
0
3
D.
D.
00
N.D. - Not Detected
-------
224 Reclamation of Metal-Ore and Gravel Spoils
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-------
226 Reclamation of Metal-Ore and Gravel Spoils
Table 14-6. Growth Response of Grasses and Legumes for Plots No. 2 and No.
3 - Site No. 1.
Species
Results
Fescue
Bluestem
Big Bluestem
Old World Bluestem
Indiangrass
Eastern Gama
Caucasian Bluestem
Deer Tongue
Kleingrass #75
Switchgrass
Prostrate Lespedeza
No survival, completely gone
Trace stand only
Trace stand only
Good stand, 81.4 centimeters
height, moderate to good seed
head
Trace stand, 63.5 centimeters
height, very few plants
Good stand, 76.4 centimeters
height, good dark color
Fair stand, 76.4 centimeters
height, fair seed head
Fair stand, 32.5 centimeters
height, bunchy grass, good
color, no seed head
Excellent stand, 91.5 centi-
meters height, good color,
very good seed head
Excellent stand, 61.0 centi-
meters height, good color,
fair seed head
Did not germinate
Soil Analysis
The results of the chemical analysis for pH, macronutrients, and extractable
metals of the soils of site no. 1 are shown in Table 14-7. These values were
obtained from soil that had undergone treatment. The soil was analyzed
at three different depths for each side of each plot.
Plot Analysis
The results of the analysis for kleingrass, big bluestem and bermudagrass
are shown in Table 14-8. These were the only plant species of site no. 1
analyzed for the first year.
Second Year-Site No. 2
Treatment of Soil
The site was initially treated with combinations of lime, liquid sludge,
nitrogen, hay mulch, and water. No further treatments were made during
the growth season. The amount of macronutrients and the fertilizer
equivalents of each treatment applied to the soil are shown in Table 14-9.
The second year study examined the difference between 3 cm and 5 cm
liquid sludge treatment for the soil.
-------
Franks, Persinger, lob, and Inyangetor 227
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230 Reclamation of Metal-Ore and Gravel Spoils
Table 14-8. Chemical Analysis of Site No. 1 Plant Tissue.
Macronutrients Extractable metal cations
(parts per million) (parts per million)
Plot
2A Kleingrass
3A Big Blueste
Total-P
12054
15708
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1271
692
298
4
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41.40
41.70
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440 .97
122
593
Cu
36
27
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Zn
729
712
892
Cd
20
8
8
Vegetation Response
Switchgrass, kleingrass, bluestem grass, and bermudagrass were studied as
these grasses gave the best growth response for the first year. Planting-seeding
was completed on the same day. One week after planting, all grasses
germinated. Six weeks after germination, the initial growth measurement was
made for each of the four grass species on each plot. The summary of these
results are given in Table 14-10.
Plant Analysis
The amount of macronutrients determined for each plant tissue is
summarized in Table 14-11 and the extractable metals determined for each
plant tissue are summarized in Table 14-12.
Third Year
Study Site No. 1
Table 14-13 summarizes the growth response of grasses and legumes that
grew three years after planting. Plant cover and average basal area were
measured for each plant of each plot.
The macronutrients and extractable metals in plant tissue of site no.
1 were measured again after three growing seasons. These results are
summarized in Table 14-14 and Table 14-15 respectively.
The results from the determination of macronutrients and extractable
heavy metals in soil from site no. 1 after three growing seasons are given
in Table 14-16.
Study Site No. 2
Table 14-17 summarizes the results obtained from measuring plant cover
and average basal area for site no. 2 plants. These results represent plants
that grew two years after planting.
The results of the soil analyses are summarized in Table 14-18. These
results were obtained from measurements made at three different soil depths
and one year after the initial treatment of the soil.
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242 Reclamation of Metal-Ore and Gravel Spoils
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Franks, Persinger, lob, and Inyangetor 245
Table 14-19. Chemical Analysis of Klein + Switch Grass from Site No. 3.
N-NOj Tot-N Ortho-P Tot-P Org-M Ma K Cu Zn Cd
3456 26495 779 - 35 - 1 464 3
Study Site No. 3
Table 14-19 contains a summary of the results of the chemical analyses
of the plant tissue and Table 14-20 contains a summary of the results of
the chemical analyses of the soil for site no. 3.
Summary and Discussion
Results obtained from site no. 1 (first year study) demonstrated that sludge
reinforced with urea-nitrogen was very effective in reclaiming the
contaminated area and establishing permanent vegetation plots. There was
very little difference between growth response of plants grown on soil treated
with either 5 cm or 8 cm of liquid sludge. This study further demonstrated
that commercial fertilizer was very ineffective in reclaiming the contaminated
area and for establishing permanent vegetation plots. Switchgrass and
kleingrass were the most obvious early starters. Both continued to survive
after three growing seasons and this fact led to their use in two additional
sites. Eastern gamagrass was not as quick to produce vegetative cover.
However, by the third growing season, eastern gamagrass had been established
in all plots of site no. 1 with the exception of the control plot.
Plant responses from site no. 2 were used to determine if a treatment
of 3 cm of liquid sludge would yield the same response as soil treated with
either 5 cm or 8 cm of sludge. Table 14-17 summarizes growth response
from site no. 2. No significant difference exists between the growth response
of kleingrass for the four plots. The average square foot of coverage of
switchgrass was approximately the same for the soil treated with 3 cm and
5 cm. The average basal area per plant for switchgrass was three times higher
for the 5 cm treated soil than for the 3 cm treated soil. Bluestem grass
exhibited higher average coverage for soils treated with 3 cm compared to
soils treated with 5 cm of sludge. Based on these results, there appears to
be very small differences in growth response of certain plants between soil
treated with either 3 cm of sludge or 5 cm of sludge. This conclusion was
also borne out in the final study site no. 3.
The soil at site no. 3 was treated with 3 cm of liquid sludge that was
reinforced with 45 kg/ha of urea-nitrogen. After four months of growth,
the response of both kleingrass and switchgrass was excellent. It is expected,
-------
246 Reclamation of Metal-Ore and Gravel Spoils
3
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248 Reclamation of Metal-Ore and Gravel Spoils
based on previous results of this study, that survival of both grasses will
be excellent.
Chemical analysis of the soil initially showed very low pH values and
high concentrations of heavy metals especially zinc. The pH values of the
soils showed a steady increase with the number of growing seasons. After
two growing seasons, the average pH of the soils treated with lime had
increased from 5.78 to 6.46. This increase in soil pH certainly was helpful
for the establishment of permanent vegetation plots on the contaminated
soils.
The results of the chemical analysis of plants for nutrients for site no.
2 are given in Table 14-11. The average value of the total-N for all plants
was 14,606 ppm or 1.46% and was slightly lower than the average value
of 2.0% for grasses. The average value for the organic matter for all plants
(40.68%) was normal for grasses.
The average value of nitrate-N was 3278 ppm for all the plants. That
value was significant because in ruminant animals nitrate may be reduced
to nitrites by microflora in the rumen. Nitrates may then exert toxic effects
on the animal. Campbell et al. (1968) have reported methemoglobinemia
in cattle receiving water containing 2790 ppm of nitrate-N. Because of the
high concentration of nitrate-N, those grasses grown on the heavy metal
contaminated soils would appear to be undesirable as feed for ruminant
animals (Nat. Tech. Adv. Comm., 1968).
The results for the extractable metals of plant tissues for site no. 2
are given in Table 14-15. The extractable sodium and K contents were well
within the normal range. The average value of K for all plants was 333
ppm. That value compared favorably with a range from 300 ppm to 3000
ppm for dry roughages feed stuff. The values for copper, zinc, and cadmium
were all above maximum or toxic level. The average zinc concentration of
1093 pprn for all plants was higher than either the maximum of 200 ppm
recommended by Allaway (1968) or 300 ppm considered by Melsted (1973)
for plant tissues. Furthermore, Allaway (1968) suggested a maximum of 20
ppm of copper for plant tissues. The average value of 19 ppm of copper
for all plants was slightly less than the toxic level. The average of 17 ppm
of cadmium for all plants was more than five times higher than the 3 ppm
of cadmium in plants suggested by Melsted (1973).
The results of the chemical analyses of plant tissue from site no. 2
were typical of the results obtained for the analyses of plant tissue from
site no. 1 and site no. 3.
Conclusions
The results obtained from plant growth measurements for the first year for
study site no. 1 demonstrated that kleingrass and switchgrass could grow
-------
Franks, Persinger, lob, and Inyangetor 249
on contaminated soil treated with 5 cm or 8 cm of liquid sludge especially
when the sludge was reinforced by the addition of urea (U). The remaining
nine plant species did not exhibit the same growth response as the above
two grasses on the same treated soil. Therefore, it could be concluded that
both the plant species and soil treatment are important variables in the
reclamation of the soil under study.
The above conclusion was further substantiated from results obtained
during the second year study. Kleingrass and switchgrass planted the previous
year not only survived but exhibited growth response that was comparable
to or greater than their first year growth response on soil that had been
treated with 5 cm and 8 cm of liquid sludge reinforced by the addition
of U. Furthermore, results obtained from study site no. 2 also supported
results already obtained. Excellent plant growth response was obtained for
kleingrass and switchgrass on soil treated with 3 cm of liquid sludge
reinforced by the addition of U. Bermudagrass and bluestem grass exhibited
small growth response in comparison to kleingrass. and switchgrass on soil
treated with 3 cm of sludge reinforced by the addition of U.
Plant growth studies completed for kleingrass and switchgrass after three
growing seasons continued to yield results comparable to or better than those
obtained from either one or two growing seasons for soil treated with 5
cm or 8 cm of liquid sludge reinforced with U. Also, the survival of other
plant species such as eastern gamagrass indicates that other plant species
could survive on the treated soil but would take two or maybe three growing
seasons to give good growth response. The same plant growth response was
obtained for soil treated with 3 cm, 5 cm or 8 cm of liquid sludge reinforced
by the addition of U.
Treatment of the soil with lime, sludge, urea and hay mulch
undoubtedly provided a favorable environment for certain plant species to
survive and exhibit excellent growth response. One of the contributing factors
was the increase in soil pH after each growing season. A definite correlation
exists between the increase in pH of soil treated with lime and the age
of the treatment. Another important factor was the increase in
macronutrients, especially nitrogen (N), resulting from the treatment.
Chemical analysis of the plant species showed that nitrate-N, cadmium and
copper were at concentration levels above the recommended level for plant
species to be used as feed stuff. Therefore, it could be concluded that even
though excellent cover is obtained with certain plants as a direct result of
soil treatment, these plants cannot be used as feed stuff.
Recommendations
Based on the results obtained from this investigation, the following
recommendations are made:
-------
250 Reclamation of Metal-Ore and Gravel Spoils
1. Reclamation of the smelter site by treating the soil with lime (2
1/2 tons/acre), 3 cm of liquid sludge, urea (24 kilograms/acre),
and hay mulch and then planting a mixture of kleingrass and
switchgrass;
2. That the grasses be used only for cover and not for feed stuff;
and
3. Follow-up studies be conducted on noncontaminated soil to
determine the correlation between plant toxicity and
macronutrient content and heavy metal contamination of sludge.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. We would like to acknowledge the Okmulgee
County Conservation District as subcontractor for the Henryetta EPA
Project. Tom Duncan, District Manager, supervised all field work,
maintenance of plots, observation, collecting samples and information on
plant growth.
Patrick Bogart, SCS District Conservationist for Okmulgee County,
supervised final vegetation analysis, average basal area per plant, percent
cover, and overall evaluation of plants.
Special recognition and acknowledgement to John Worthy, SCS District
Conservationist at the time of the inception of the project through 2 1/2
years of the study. It was because of John's personal enthusiasm and
expertise that the District became interested in participating in such a project
with Langstori University.
Special acknowledgement is given to the following students who worked
on the project: Michael Storr, Gary Storr, and Charles Onuoha.
Special mention is made of the cooperation and assistance given by
Dr. William Duffer. Without the cooperation and direction that he provided
for the project our accomplishments would not have been the same.
This work was supported by a matching grant from the Environmental
Protection Agency (grant no. R-804323-03).
Literature Cited
1. Allaway, W. H. Agronomic Controls Over Environmental Cycling of Soil Analysis,
Part 1, edited by C. A. Black et al., American Society of Agronomy, Madison,
Wisconsin, 1968. pp. 1387-1388.
2. Black, C. A. Methods of Soil Analysis. Chemical and Microbiological Properties.
American Society of Agronomy, Inc., Madison, Wisconsin, 1965. 1572 pp.
3. Melsted, S. W. Soil-Plant Relationships (Some Practical Considerations in Waste
Management). Proc. Joint Conference on Recycling Municipal Sludge and Effluents
on Land. Sponsored by EPA, U.S.D.A., NASULGC, Champaign, Illinois, 1973.
pp 121-128.
-------
Franks, Persinger, lob, and Inyangetor 251
4. National Technical Advisory Committee to the Secretary of the Interior. Water
Quality Criteria. Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Washington,
D.C., 1968. p. 244.
5. Smith, R. and W. Duffer. Personal Communication, 1973. Unpublished data
summaries.
6. Sopper, W. E., L. T. Kardos, and Barry R. Edgerton. Using Sewage Effluent and
Liquid Digested Sludge to Establish Grasses and Legumes on Bituminous Strip-Mine
Spoils. Research Project Technical Completion Report. Project B-047-PA, Institute
for Research on Land and Water Resources, The Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, Pennsylvania, 1974. 153 pp.
-------
15
PERFORMANCE OF WOODY PLANT SPECIES ON
IRON-ORE OVERBURDEN MATERIAL IRRIGATED
WITH SEWAGE EFFLUENT IN MINNESOTA
John P. Borovsky and Kenneth N. Brooks
The potential renovation and reclamation benefits of sewage effluent
irrigation on iron-ore overburden deposits in northeastern Minnesota were
investigated in this study. Secondary treated sewage effluent was sprinkler
irrigated at 5 and 10 centimeters per week for 12 weeks following planting.
The survival and growth of six woody plant species on irrigated and control
plots were observed for three years. One hundred percent survival was
observed for green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh.) and Siberian larch
(Larix siberica Ledeb.) on control and 5 cm/wk treatment plots, respectively.
Survival of sand cherry (Prunus pumila L.) on the 10 cm/wk treatment plots
was significantly less than that observed on control and 5 cm/wk treatment
plots. No differences in survival were found among Scotch pine (Pinus
sylvestris L.), jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.) and black spruce (Picea
mariana (Mill.) B.S.P.). Height growth, determined as the change in plant
heights from 1977 to 1979, was not significantly affected by effluent
irrigation. Growth of Scotch pine was superior to all other species while
sand cherry exhibited the poorest growth.
Introduction
Minnesota is the nation's leading producer of iron concentrate. Since 1920,
iron-bearing formations have been typically mined by open-pit methods.
Open-pit mining in the region generally produces several by-products,
including stripping overburden. This material consists of glacial debris which
form the parent materials of the natural soils of the region.
Although considered nontoxic and nonacid producing, overburden
stockpiles are usually deficient in essential plant nutrients, and have a low
moisture retention capacity. Consequently, abandoned mined lands in the
region contain many overburden stockpiles which support only sparse
vegetation. Such deposits are subject to erosion which may contribute to
the sedimentation of nearby lakes and streams. Therefore, the rapid
establishment of vegetative cover on overburden stockpiles is desirable to
stabilize and reclaim these disturbed sites.
The growth of the mining industry has been accompanied with the
development of scattered small communities which in themselves contribute
to environmental issues. Small towns in the region are financially pressed
to meet sewage renovation standards. The addition of secondary treated,
-------
Borovsky and Brooks 253
domestic sewage to the numerous streams and lakes in the region leads to
several water quality problems, including eutrophication. On-land disposal
of sewage effluent is an economically attractive alternative compared to more
sophisticated treatment facilities.
In an effort to address these issues, overburden material was irrigated
with secondary sewage effluent to determine: (1) if there is a filtering effect
on nutrients resulting in the renovation of wastewater, and (2) if such
irrigation promotes the establishment of vegetation on these sites. The
renovation results were reported earlier by Brooks et al. (1979). In this
report, we will focus on the vegetation establishment results. The survival
and growth of six woody plant species on both irrigated and control plots
over a three-year period are reported.
Summer irrigation of effluent on overburden material could be
beneficial for the establishment of vegetation in essentially two ways. First,
the nutrient capital of the material may be enhanced. Nitrogen and
phosphorus levels in the overburden material were considered inadequate
for normal forest tree growth (Brooks et al., 1979). Although our earlier
report indicated effluent applications of 60 and 120 centimeters over 12
weeks did not significantly add to the total soil nutrient capital, some
nutrients, particularly Bray's phosphorus, ammonium nitrogen and nitrate
plus nitrite nitrogen, were likely increased near the soil surface. Additionally,
when comparing soil percolate at one meter depth with applied effluent,
99 percent of the phosphorus and 80 to 90 percent of the total Kjeldahl
nitrogen were removed. Calcium, magnesium and potassium were apparently
leached from the soil in proportion to the quantities of effluent applied.
The second possible benefit to plants is the addition of moisture to
the soil. Overburden waste typically contains little organic matter and may
contain excessive amounts of rock. These factors tend to diminish the
moisture retention capacity of the waste and potentially limit the initial
survival of planted vegetation.
Although most effluent irrigation research has focused on established
forests and croplands, recent work has been performed on unvegetated sites.
These investigations suggest the potential benefits of effluent irrigation to
the revegetation process may vary greatly with the plant species involved.
Cooley (1979) reported increased survival and/or growth of tulip poplar
(Liriodendron tulipifera L.), hybrid poplar (Populus deltoides x nigra), green
ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica var. lanceolata Sarg.) and northern white-cedar
(Thuja occidentalis L.) on sandy soils after effluent irrigation in Michigan.
Several other tree species failed to respond to the effluent irrigation. Other
investigations (Kardos et al., 1979) determined effluent irrigation enhanced
the survival of hybrid poplar (Populus spp.), European alder (Alnusglutinosa
(L.) Gaertn.), white pine (Plnus strobus L.), white spruce (Picea glauca
(Moench) Voss), black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) and Japanese larch
(Larix kaempferi Lamb. (Carr.)), planted in anthracite refuse. However, the
-------
254 Reclamation of Metal-Ore and Gravel Spoils
survival of red pine (Pinus resinosa Alt.) and Austrian pine (Pinus nigra
Arnold) was not significantly affected by effluent irrigation.
Methods and Materials
Overburden material was deposited from two to three meters thick on Erie
Mining Company property near Hoyt Lakes, Minnesota, as described
previously by Brooks et al. (1979). The material was sandy loam in texture,
and contained approximately 15 percent rock material by volume. The
chemical characteristics of the waste are described in Table 15-1. Nitrogen
and available phosphorus (Bray's No. 1) were considered to be limiting for
the satisfactory growth of many forest tree species in the region (Wilde,
1958). Soil reaction posed no great limitation to the selection of suitable
tree species for planting.
Twelve adjacent plots were laid out in a 3x4 pattern over the surface
of the overburden deposit, which was approximately 10x20 meters in area.
During the last two weeks of June 1976, each plot was planted with one
replication of ten, 2-year-old bare root seedlings of green ash (Fraxinus
pennsylvanica Marsh.) and sand cherry (Prunus putnila L.). Similarly, ten,
22-week-old containerized seedlings of jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.),
Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), black spruce (Picea mariana (Mill.) B.S.P.)
and Siberian larch (Larix siberica Ledeb.) were planted on each plot. The
containerized seedlings were hardened off prior to planting.
Plots irrigated at rates of 10 and 5 cm/wk were compared with control
plots with no treatment, using four replications and a split-plot randomized
block design. Effluent was applied to irrigated plots with a pressure regulated
constant head sprinkler at rates approaching 0.3 cm/hr. Applications began
July 1, 1976 and continued for 12 weeks, resulting in cumulative
applications of 120 cm and 60 cm for the 10 cm/wk and 5 cm/wk treatments,
respectively. Typically, the weekly applications were completed over a 24
to 72 hour period. While under irrigation, plots were monitored for surface
water movement. When surface flow was observed, irrigation was stopped
until hydrologic conditions permitted the continuation of irrigation.
The effluent was obtained from a secondary (activated sludge) sewage
treatment plant operated by Erie Mining Company. The effluent was of
domestic origin with no industrial wastes channeled into the facility. The
average composition of the effluent and cumulative additions of nutrients
for both irrigation rates are presented in Table 15-2. The 10 cm/wk treatment
resulted in 87.5, 43.0 and 84.7 kg/ha elemental additions of N, P, and K,
respectively.
Climatological records of precipitation, temperature and pan
evaporation, measured about 1 km south of the study site, were provided
by the Erie Mining Company for the three year period. On-site measurements
-------
Borovsky and Brooks
255
a
a
O
1
E
in
3
£
3
H
rH 0
a f.
4J ft
e s
•s
>, en
(13 0
«"S
I fW->
O -H
ecu
-------
256 Reclamation of Metal-Ore and Gravel Spoils
Table 15-2. Average Concentrations and Cumulative Additions of Nutrients from
Effluent Applied During 1976.
Cumulative additions
Mean concentration of nutrients in effluent
Nutrient
N03-tN02-N
Total K]eldahl-N
NH4-N
Total P
Cal cium
Magnesium
Sodium
Potassium
Chloride
Boron
Sodium adsorption
ratio
Typical
secondary
effluent1
20,
10.
24.
17.
50.
14.
45.
1.
2.
Imfl /
Effluent
irrigated
T *
— ling/ A/ — — -
.0 15
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
0
.0
.7
6
3.
25
10
50
7.
57
2
.2
.4
.9
.6
.2
.2
.3
.1
.2
.8
.1
for two
treatments
Maximum
(120cm)
2.
184.
43.
302.
122.
603.
84.
686.
9.
- -
Minimum
(60cm)
Kg/ha)- -
8 1
8 92
0
4
4
6
7
4
3
21
151
61
301
42
343
4
-
.4
.4
.5
.2
.2
.8
.4
.2
.7
-
Total solids 425.0 458.5 5502.0 2751.0
J-From Pound, C.E. and R.W. Crites. 1973. Wastewater treatment
and reuse by land application. Volume I: Summary. EPA-660/2-73-0062.
Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, D.c.
of precipitation, infiltration rates and soil moisture to a depth of 1 m were
made during the irrigation period.
Plant survival and growth were determined at the end of each of four
growing seasons. Plant heights were measured to the base of the terminal
bud. When apparent, browsing damage and changes in foliage coloration were
noted on each plot.
The significance (P <.05) of differences in survival, plant height and
height growth among species and treatments were tested using analysis of
variance for a split-plot design. Whole plot analyses were conducted to isolate
effects due to the level of effluent irrigation while split-plot analyses were
performed to determine effects due to species of woody plant. Differences
among response means were separated by using the Bonferroni's Critical T
to compute the least significant (P =S=.05) difference. An arc sine
transformation was applied to the survival data prior to statistical analyses.
Results and Discussion
Planting took place during the last two weeks of June, 1976, at which time
there was abundant soil moisture. Soil moisture was in excess of field
capacity on June 30, 1976 throughout the upper 90 cm of the overburden
material. The months of July through September, however, were extremely
dry with Thornthwaite's potential evapotranspiration exceeding precipitation
-------
Borovsky and Brooks 257
Table 15-3. Monthly Precipitation and Thornthwaite's Potential Evapotranspiration
During 1976 at the Erie Mining Station, Hoyt Lakes, Minnesota.
Month
May
June
July
August
September
Precipitation
(cm)
1.9
16.8
3.7
1.2
2.5
Potential Et
(cm)
9.9
14.0
14.4
13.0
8.5
Table 15-4. Average Soil Water Depletion at the Study Site from June 30, 1976 to
September 16, 1976.
Treatments
Soil Depth Control 5 cm/wk 10 cm/wk
0-30 4.5 2.6
0-90 9.7 6.4
2.3
4.5
(Table 15-3). Soil water depletion was considerable during this same period
(Table 15-4); however, soil moisture in the upper 30 cm did not approach
permanent wilting point in any of the plots. It is possible the young plants,
particularly those within the control plots, were under moisture stress at
some time during the long, dry period.
Plant Survival
After four growing seasons, the average survival of all woody plant species
was 86 percent. Average survival ranged from a high of 95 percent for
Siberian larch to a low of 79 percent for black spruce and green ash. Seedling
mortality primarily occurred during the first two growing seasons of the
study. No species experienced more than 5 percent mortality during the
last two growing seasons of the experiment.
Statistical analysis of fourth year survival results was confounded by
the uniform performance of certain species-treatment combinations. Mean
survival of green ash on the control plots and Siberian larch on the 5 cm/wk
treatment was 100 percent. The variance associated with this mean survival
was by definition zero. This variance was considered to be dissimilar to that
observed for other species-treatment combinations. In order to comply with
the assumptions of analysis of variance, two alternative analyses were
-------
258 Reclamation of Metal-Ore and Gravel Spoils
performed:
1. An analysis excluding green ash and Siberian larch.
2. An analysis where the survival of green ash and Siberian larch on
one replication of the 5 cm/wk treatment and control plots,
respectively, was altered from 100 percent to 95 percent.
Results of both methods of analysis indicated a significant interaction
between species of woody plant and level of effluent irrigation. The average
fourth year survival of woody plants irrigated with sewage effluent is shown
in Figure 15-1. This figure also shows the nature of the significant interaction
between species of woody plant and level of effluent irrigation. The average
survival of all species-treatment combinations exceeded 55 percent; however,
the survival of green ash and sand cherry was highly dependent upon the
level of effluent irrigation. Average survival of sand cherry of the 10 cm/wk
treatment was significantly less than the average survival on either the 5
cm/wk treatment or control plots. In addition, the average survival of green
ash on the control plots was substantially greater than average survival on
the treatment plots.
The second method of analysis failed to detect significant differences
among the average treatment responses for green ash. However, the variance
associated with the 100 percent survival of the control plots is zero. Thus,
it would seem reasonable to assume that survival of green ash on the irrigated
plots is significantly less than survival on the control plots.
Reasons for the relatively poor survival of green ash and sand cherry
] Siberian Larch
| Scotch Pine
] Jack Pine
Black Spruce
Green Ash
l Sand Cherry
10CH
10 cm/week
5cm/week
Control
Figure 15-1. Average Fourth Year Survival (%) of Woody Plants Irrigated with Sewage
Effluent.
-------
Borovsky and Brooks 259
on the irrigated plots are unclear. Leaf necrosis was observed on both species
during the first two years of the study, and it is interesting to note this
problem was only observed on the broadleaved species in the study.
Green ash is known to be somewhat sensitive to soil alkalinity, and
leaf chlorosis has been reported where the species was grown on a soil with
a pH of 8.1 (McComb, 1949). The pH of the effluent applied to the study
site rarely exceeded 7.5; however, it is possible the alkaline nature of the
effluent may have influenced the survival of green ash on the treatment
plots.
Sand cherry is most commonly found growing in well-aerated,
coarse-textured soils. Typical habitats include sand plains and beaches.
Periodic soil saturation on the 10 cm/wk treatment plots may have induced
a root respiration problem for sand cherry, and this may have affected the
survival of the species on the maximum treatment plots.
Plant Height and Height Growth
All species except jack pine maintained a fairly consistent pattern of height
growth throughout the monitoring period (Figure 15-2). During the 1978
Green Ash
Sand Cherry
Scotch Pine
Siberian Larch
Jack Pine
1977
1978 1979
Year
Figure 15-2. Average Height (cm) of Woody Plants Irrigated with Sewage Effluent.
-------
260 Reclamation of Metal-Ore and Gravel Spoils
growing season, jack pine height growth exceeded all other species; however,
in 1979 the average height of jack pine was actually less than that observed
in the previous year. This sharp change in height growth was more apparent
than real as the reduction in plant height was caused by extensive snowshoe
hare browsing. In many cases, the damage was so severe that plant vigor
was likely affected. In the absence of heavy browsing, jack pine may perform
more satisfactorily.
The average height of all woody plants after four growing seasons was
58.4 cm. Effluent irrigation did not affect plant height but significant
differences in plant height did exist among species (Figure 15-3). Green ash
(88.4 cm) was taller than all other species while black spruce (32.3 cm)
was shorter than all other species. The average height of sand cherry (66.6
cm) was greater than Siberian larch (52.2 cm) and jack pine (50.3 cm).
In part, differences in plant heights reflect the type of planting stock
used to introduce certain species to the site. Green ash and sand cherry
were planted as 2-year-old bare root seedlings while all other species were
planted as containerized seedlings. The initial height of the bare root stock
varied from one to two feet while the containerized seedlings were less than
a foot tall when planted. In light of this, it is not surprising that green
ash and sand cherry were taller than other species after four growing seasons.
Height growth, determined as the change in plant heights from 1977
to 1979, was different among species but was unaffected by effluent
irrigation (Figure 15-4). Scotch pine surpassed all other species in height
growth, averaging 46.1 cm of shoot growth during the measurement period.
Height growth of 9.9 cm for sand cherry during this same period was
significantly less than all other species. In addition, the average change in
height of green ash (30.6 cm) and jack pine (27.5 cm) was significantly
greater than black spruce (15.0 cm).
The cause of differences in height growth among the plant species is
unknown. Some probable factors contributing to these differences include:
-Type and dimensions of planting stock.
-Damaging agents (herbivores).
-Juvenile growth patterns.
-Ecological adaptations and requirements of the plants.
The relative importance of each of the above factors may be different
for each plant species. Further, the interaction of these factors under long
term effluent irrigation may substantially alter short-term results.
Conclusion
Efficient renovation of secondary sewage effluent applied to iron mining
overburden is partially dependent upon the successful establishment of a
vigorous plant community on the disposal site. Potential advantages provided
-------
Borovsky and Brooks
261
Siberian Larch
Scotch Pine
Jack Pine
Black Spruce
Green Ash
Sand Cherry
Species
Figure 15-3. Average Fourth Year Height of Woody Plants Irrigated with Sewage
Effluent (species with same letter do not significantly (P<05) differ).
-5
•
10-,
Siberian Larch
Scotch Pine |
Jack Pine fc^]
Black Spruce |^^
Green Ash
Sand Cherry
Species
Figure 15-4. Average Change in Height (cm) of Woody Plants Irrigated with Sewage
Effluent (species with same letter do not significantly (P<5) differ).
-------
262 Reclamation of Metal-Ore and Gravel Spoils
by vegetative cover include:
-Protection from raindrop impact.
-Stabilization of soil surface.
-Enhanced drying of irrigation site.
-Absorption of applied nutrients.
Results reported here suggest two important points regarding the
establishment of vegetation on sewage effluent disposal sites in iron mining
overburden. First, woody plant species differ in their ability to tolerate
effluent irrigation, and second, woody plant species differ in their ability
to grow satisfactorily on these sites.
The feasibility of using iron mining overburden stockpiles for the
disposal of secondary sewage effluent is good. Results reported previously
suggest efficient renovation of effluent phosphorus can be expected.
Additionally, several woody plant species may be capable of tolerating
effluent irrigation when grown in overburden; and the successful
establishment of a vigorous plant community on the disposal site should
enhance the renovation efficiency of other nutrients.
Although all overburden stockpiles are not suitable as wastewater
disposal sites, the physical and chemical properties of many stockpiles may
permit this type of land use. Pilot studies are needed to further explore
the feasibility of this method of effluent disposal and assess the prospects
of effluent irrigation in the reclamation of iron mining wastes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. This research was supported in part by funds
provided by the United States Department of the Interior, Office of Water
Research and Technology, as authorized under the Water Resources Act of
1964, PL 88-379, and in part by matching funds provided by the University
of Minnesota.
Gratitude is expressed to Mr. Dave Youngman, Supervisor, Lands and
Forestry and Mr. Clyde Keith, General Manager of Erie Mining Company,
Hoyt Lakes, Minnesota, for their cooperation in conducting this research
project. Considerable time and money were spent by Erie Mining Company
in support of this research, for which the authors are grateful. Containerized
seedlings used in this research were grown and planted by Dr. A. A. Aim,
Cloquet Forestry Center, University of Minnesota.
Literature Cited
Brooks, K. N., J. P. Borovsky and A. C. Mace, Jr. 1979. Wastewater applications to
iron-ore overburden material in northeastern Minnesota: prospects for renovation
and reclamation. "Utilization of Municipal Sewage Effluent and Sludge on Forest
and Disturbed Land," W. E. Sopper and S. N. Kerr (eds.), pp. 407-422.
-------
Borovsky and Brooks 263
Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park,
Cooley, J. H. 1979. Effects of irrigation with oxidation pond effluent on tree
establishment and growth on sand soils. "Utilization of Municipal Sewage Effluent
and Sludge on Forest and Disturbed Land," W. E. Sopper and S. N. Kerr (eds.),
pp. 145-153. Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park.
Kardos, L. T., W. E. Sopper, B. R. Edgerton and L. E. DiLissio. 1979. Sewage effluent
and liquid digested sludge as aids to revegetation of strip mine spoil and anthracite
coal refuse banks. "Utilization of Municipal Sewage Effluent and Sludge on Forest
and Disturbed Land," W. E. Sopper and S. N. Kerr (eds.), pp. 315-331.
Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park.
McComb, A. L. 1949. Some fertilizer experiments with deciduous forest tree seedlings
on several Iowa soils. Iowa Agr. Expt. Sta. Res. Bui. 369:405-448.
Wilde, S. A. 1958. Forest Soils: Their Properties and Relation to Silviculture. Ronald
Press, New York.
-------
VI / FOREST APPLICATIONS OF SLUDGE
OVERVIEW
James O. Evans
Just over eight years ago the first comprehensive symposium on sewage
wastes was held-also in Pennsylvania at University Park, site of The
Pennsylvania State University. So it seems most appropriate that this
symposium on the use of municipal wastewater and sludge for land
reclamation and biomass production is being held in Pittsburgh. Some of
the speaker-participants at this symposium also gave papers at that pioneering
symposium, the list including Bill Sopper, Tom Hinesly, Dean Urie, Jim
Peterson, and the writer.
The papers presented in Section VI address general environmental and
ecological aspects of municipal wastes recycling and reuse, effects on biomass
production, use in reclaiming unproductive disturbed forest land in the
southeast, and use in reclaiming barren strip mine spoils in the arid southwest.
One describes efforts to reclaim acidic strip mine spoils in Ohio with
papermill sludge. Each of these papers is impressive, and most significantly,
each describes highly positive responses from practical application methods
involving use of these organic wastewaters and sludges to (1) revegetate and
reclaim highly diverse previously barren or unproductive disturbed lands and
(2) dramatically increase biomass production. Environmental side effects also
have been measured and are continuing, and ecological changes, for "better"
or for "worse", are being noted and evaluated.
It might be instructive and useful to look back briefly to the earlier
symposium of August 1972 and note some of the observations and
prognostications of the final speaker (the author of this paper) at that
meeting who spoke on "Research Needs-Land Disposal of Municipal Sewage
Wastes." Very little research was underway at that time on land disposal
of wastes, and numerous unanswered questions were being raised. The
speaker listed 19 "Immediate Research Needs." Perhaps four or five of those
"needs" might now be examined to determine how much progress, if any,
has been made in addressing and assessing them during the past eight years.
The first item on the list reads "The mechanics for efficient and effective
handling of sewage wastes and their disposal on various land areas must
be developed—." It appears that this "need" is being addressed exceedingly
-------
Evans 265
well. At that time a few researchers were using experimental (and often
crude) methods of spray irrigation of wastewater and sludge, furrow and
land spreading of sewage wastes (with or without discing or other tilling
operations), and burial of sludge in shallow trenches. Now several companies
are manufacturing sophisticated machinery designed specifically for jet
spraying wastewater and sludge, sludge subsod or subsoil injection, and
surface spreading and soil incorporation of sewage wastes. Also large scale
and practical sludge composting methods have been developed.
A second "need" listed was "Determination of the role of
micro-organisms in the functioning of natural (plant) communities is
needed-the ability of key soil micro-organisms, and conversely, the impacts
of the wastes or pollutants on the micro-organisms must be determined".
Much has been learned relative to this need, but much more should be
learned. The beneficial (or otherwise) role of specific fungi in sludge disposal
and plant growth, for example, is just beginning to be seriously investigated.
"Assessment must be made of the tolerance of (agronomic) crops and
forests to various heavy metals deposited with organic sewage sludges—."
This need was listed prior to the emergence of the great cadmium
"controversy". Indeed, much about heavy metals has been determined within
the past eight years. Prescriptions for "allowable" concentrations and
amounts of key heavy metals for disposal in sludge have been developed,
although the controversy rages as strongly as ever over how strict some of
these limits should be.
"Potential health hazards due to disposal practices require urgent,
careful, and extensive investigation." Pathogens and nitrates were noted and
discussed at some length under this "need". Much has been learned since
then about combating the hazards presented by pathogens in sewage wastes.
Here again, however, considerable controversy still rages about the inherent
and site-specific dangers relative to certain pathogens, particularly the viral
types. Practical solutions to the "pathogen problems" now appear to be
available. Interestingly, several participants in the 1972 symposium, including
the writer, spoke of nitrate loadings as being perhaps the single most limiting
factor relative to allowable soil loading rates of most municipal sewage
sludges; to date, this appears to have been an accurate assessment.
The 18th "need" reads, "Research is needed on the possibility of toxic
conditions developing in certain (agronomic) plants resulting from excessive
phosphate accumulation in soils (from high phosphate sludge applications)."
To date, this appears to have been an unwarranted or unimportant concern.
The need to look upon "Sewage wastes recycling as a component of
total ecosystem functions" and to view the "Recycling and utilization of
biodegradable wastes by land application" as a viable waste disposal option
is perhaps greater now than ever before.
-------
16
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF UTILIZATION OF
SEWAGE SLUDGE FOR BIOMASS PRODUCTION
J. C. Corey, G. J. Hollod, D. M. Stone,
C. G. Wells, W. H. McKee, and S. M. B artel I
Environmental effects of application rate, season, frequency, and method
(surface versus incorporation) of sewage sludge will be investigated on four
ages of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) on two soil types. The stands were planted
in 1953, 1972, 1978 and 1981, on moderately heavy and light texture soils.
Sludge will be applied at application rates equivalent to 275 and 500 kg/ha
as total nitrogen. Environmental effects and coppice growth response by
hardwoods with and without sewage sludge also are being examined. Nutrient
cycling and groundwater quality for plantings of red maple (Acer rubrum),
sweet gum (Liquidamber styraciflua L.), american sycamore (Platanus
occidentals L.), black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), and black alder (Alnus
glutinosa) will be measured with sludge applications of 275 and 550 kg/ha
of nitrogen.
Introduction
The efficacy of land application of sewage sludge in forested areas depends
on environmental effects that the loading of nutrients, heavy metals, and
organics contained in the sewage sludge have on the forest ecosystem, and
the benefits the soil amendments have on increasing biomass production.
This paper discusses the plan for evaluating environmental effects and cost
effectiveness of land application of sewage sludge in pine and hardwood
plantations at the Savannah River Plant, Aiken, South Carolina.
Use of sewage sludge as a fertilizer and soil amendment is attractive
due to the increasing cost of fertilizers, problems of sewage sludge disposal
and trends toward recycling materials. In 1975 the United States discharged
90.5 billion liters of domestic sewage (Freshman, 1977). The equivalent
nutrient content was approximately 733 million kg nitrogen, 674 million
kg of phosphorus, and 428 million kg of potassium, corresponding to 9%,
16%, and 10% of the national fertilizer consumption of nitrogen, phosphorus,
and potassium, respectively. Approximately six percent of the nutrients
present in sewage sludge produced annually could supply the total needs
for the 510,000 ha of commercial and federal forest lands now being
fertilized (Pritchett, 1979). Utilization of the nutrients in sewage sludge could
result in a gross savings of 660 million dollars per year in fertilizer costs,
of which 60-70% of the savings is for energy related expenses of fertilizer
production.
-------
Corey, Hollod, Stone, Wells, McKee, and Bartell 267
Former studies evaluating methods to utilize the nutrients and organic
matter present in sewage sludge have focused on application to agricultural
lands (USDA, 1978, and Kelling, et al, 1977). However, the presence of
heavy metals (USEPA, 1976), pathogens, and toxic organics (Pahren, et al.,
1979) in sludges provides potential detrimental health effects to animals and
humans (Argent, et al., 1977). Alternative land disposal methods have been
evaluated (Torrey, 1979), with increasing interest in land application in
forests.
Several characteristics of southern pine and hardwood plantations make
them amenable for application of sewage sludge. Relatively remote locations
minimize exposure to humans, and the fact that forest crops are nonedible
reduces the introduction of toxic materials into food chains. Most forest
soils have high retention capacities for metals and nutrients because they
are deep, porous, well-drained, and contain a rich organic layer of leaf litter
capable of complexing metal ions. Pine and hardwood plantations are
managed to allow convenient movement of mechanized equipment within
the stands. The pine and forest plantations offer a practical means of
recycling nutrients in sludge while increasing biomass productivity.
Experimental Plan
The experimental plots are located on the Department of Energy's 775-square
kilometer Savannah River Plant near Aiken, South Carolina (Figure 16-1).
The mechanized planting and forestry management activities of the U.S.
Forest Service since 1952 have produced 41,000 ha of pine plantations of
different ages available for evaluating biomass production. The wide diversity
of soil types on site is useful for studying the retention and movement of
sludge derived nutrients, metals, and organics through soil profiles.
Sewage sludge will be applied in loblolly pine stands planted in 1953,
1972, 1978, and 1981, at rates of 275 kg/ha and 550 kg/ha as equivalent
weight of nitrogen. Four study areas have been established for two age classes
of loblolly pine (2 and 27 years) on light and medium textured soils. Each
study area has 9 plots on a randomized block design with three replications
and three treatments. The treatments will consist of three levels of sludge,
none, 33 and 66 tons per acre which will be applied this fall. The plots
are 0.5 acres or 0.27 ha in size with an interior measurement plot.
Prior to sewage sludge application, composite vegetation, litter layer,
and subsoil samples will be collected from each subplot to determine initial
conditions. Vegetation, litter, and composite soil samples from 0-7 cm, 7-15
cm, 30-38 cm and 60-76 cm depths will be analyzed for Ca, Cd, Cr, Cu,
Hg, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Pb, K and Zn. Litter and foliage samples will be dry
ashed and dissolved in dilute HNC^. Soils will be digested in hot concentrated
HNO;} and analyzed for total levels of heavy metals. Concentrations of metals
-------
268 Forest Applications
To
South
Carolina
Figure 16-1. Savannah River Plant Site.
in an available form will be determined by extracting with either ammonium
acetate or a chelating agent. Phosphorus will be extracted by an array of
reagents to determine the residual form and availability. Nitrogen will be
determined by a Kjeldahl procedure. Analysis of extracts for metals will
be accomplished by atomic absorption spectroscopy and phosphorus by
standard colorimetric procedures.
Stand conditions on each plot will be documented prior to treatment.
Measurements of tree height, diameter at breast height, basal area, stem
volume, and general stand conditions on control and treated plots will
provide a measure of stand growth with rate of sewage sludge application.
A 4-ha area was planted with five species of hardwood trees on 1.2-m
x 2.4-m centers in February, 1980; red maple (Acer rubrum), sweet gum
(Liquidamber styraciflua L.), American sycamore (Platanus occidentals L.),
black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), and black alder (Alnus glutinosa).
Seedlings were planted in a randomized block design to evaluate biomass
production by coppice growth of trees with and without sewage sludge.
Heavy metals, nutrients, and toxic organics in vegetation, soil profile and
water samples, will be monitored following application of sewage sludge at
275 and 550 kg/ha. Treatment effects on nutrient uptake by coppice growth
will be evaluated by sampling various plant parts.
Sludge will be applied with conventional farm equipment including a
-------
Corey, Hollod, Stone, Wells, McKee, and Bartell 269
70-horsepower, all-purpose farm tractor, a front-end loader, a flail spreader
with hydraulic lid opener for sludge delivery from either side, and a manure
spreader. The flail will be used in the thinned pine plantations, and the
rear delivery spreader in the younger pine stands and in the hardwood
plantations.
The source of the sewage is the Aiken county Public Service Authority
Horse Creek Pollution Control Facility. This is a 75-million liters/day (MLD)
capacity plant with estimated sludge production of 20 wet ton/week.
Industrial wastewater (principally textile industry waste) accounts for 75%
of the wastewater flow into the plant with domestic inputs comprising the
remainder. The sludge is thermally conditioned and dewatered following
aerobic digestion.
Discussion
The principal objectives of the program are to evaluate the environmental
effects and conduct benefit cost analyses for land application of sewage
sludge in pine and hardwood plantations in the southeast. The environmental
effects studies will determine the effects land application of sewage sludge
has on the hydrologic cycle and cycling of nutrients, heavy metals, and
organics in forest ecosystems. Cost-benefit analyses of using sewage sludge
as a fertilizer and soil amendment will be made by determining the increase
in wood fiber production by treatment compared to sludge handling
expenses.
Environmental Effects
A nutrient cycling model will be developed for pine and hardwood
plantations describing nutrient cycling related to wood fiber productions,
to estimate the impact of sludge amendments on the natural nutrient cycles,
to predict effects of sludge amendments on available soil nutrients, and to
develop a hydrologic model for predicting nutrient flux to groundwater. The
hydrologic model will integrate submodels generated from field
measurements for precipitation, evapotranspiration, overland flow, and
seepage losses to groundwater.
The presence of heavy metals like mercury, cadmium, copper, lead,
and nickel in sewage sludge may be the ultimate constraint to land
application of sewage sludge on forest soils due to possible phytotoxic effects
and food chain contamination. Analysis of plant parts will define the role
of trees as sinks for heavy metals.
While vegetation is geographically constrained until harvest, consumer
organisms may transfer heavy metals to man. Monitoring heavy metal
concentrations in small mammals, birds, and deer will provide data to
estimate the relative importance of consumer populations in heavy-metal
-------
270 Forest Applications
cycling and indicate accumulation of heavy metal concentrations potentially
dangerous to consumer organisms.
A wide range of organic compounds is associated with sewage sludges,
and this range is dependent on several parameters, including the type of
industries sewered, the type of sewage treatment process, and efficiency of
operation and the composition of incoming domestic waste-water. The
environmental effects of two classes of organics present in sewage sludge
will be studied. The first class of organics, which includes humic and fulvic
acids, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipid material, constitutes a major fraction
of the organics in sewage sludge, but are not a major environmental concern
since most degrade in nature. However, this group of organic compounds
is important because they can control, via complexation and adsorption,
the chemical speciation and thus the transport of heavy metals and nutrients
in soil. Therefore, the interactions of organics and heavy metals in the pine
and hardwood plantations will be important in defining environmental effects
of sewage sludge application.
The second group is the refractory organics. These are found in the
environment as a result of mans' use of plasticizers, pesticides and fossil
fuels. Such compounds as polychlorinated biphenyls, polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons, and phthalates are found in ppm concentrations in many
effluents of wastewater treatment plants (Pahren, et al., 1979). The
importance of these compounds in limiting land application of sewage sludge
have not been well documented, but the cycling and transport of some
specific organics will be studied in this program.
Quantification of fiber production related to climate, hydrology, and
elemental inputs provides a means to determine an optimal quantity and
schedule of sewage sludge applications to maximize productivity. The
seasonal variations, as well as frequency of additional treatments on the
original experimental plots will be evaluated over the course of the project.
Ultimately, it becomes necessary to understand how sludge amendments
affect net production of wood biomass. Measurements of photosynthesis,
respiration, and nutrient uptake by treatment will provide information on
how amendments enhance productivity. These data will contribute to
development of a biological process-oriented model for tree growth. It may
be possible to use, with minor modification, existing forest production
models (e.g. TEEM, FORET) (Shugart and West, 1977, and O'Neill, et al.,
1972). The overall production model will serve to integrate models that
describe system hydrology, seasonal climatic-change, nutrient cycling,
consumer population dynamics and cycling of heavy metals and organics.
Benefit Cost Analyses
To realistically evaluate the efficacy of sludge disposal on Savannah River
Plant forest soils, the ecological research directed at understanding and
quantifying relationships between treatments, climate, nutrient cycling,
-------
Corey, Hollod, Stone, Wells, McKee, and Bartell 271
hydrology, heavy metal cycling, and forest productivity must be examined
in the context of a broader economic environment. Traditionally, calories
have served as a common unit linking ecology to economics (Odum, 1971).
If more energy is required to increase fiber production than the energy
returned in the products, then disposal of sewage sludge on forest lands
would be inadvisable from an energy viewpoint. However, if the benefit cost
ratio is equal to or greater than 1.0, sludge is a resource rather than a waste
product.
The benefit cost analysis (BCA) entails more than a simple cost
accounting of the amendment operation. Once geologic and economic
constraints have been identified, converted into caloric units, and stated
formally, development of disposal plans that optimize user-defined objective
functions is possible through the use of a variety of mathematical tools that
come under the classification of operations research techniques (Wagner,
1970).
Quantification of a set of costs will be undertaken to develop equations
that describe constraints on the solution set of possible amendment strategies.
Some of these costs require simple bookkeeping: energy cost of sludge
transportation to site, cost of application, site preparation, labor capital,
cost of tree harvest, and transportation offsite. The sensitivity of the BCA
to each of these constraints can be assessed in relation to the objective
functions to be optimized. While the constraints will each generally yield
a single value, they are not constant, but change, for example, with changes
in costs of fossil fuel, wages, etc. These sliding scales will be incorporated
into the BCA.
There are also ecological constraints. Given the state of the art in
breeding of productive strains of trees, climate will set some maximum rate
of production regardless of the supply of available nutrients. Results of the
plot studies should identify an optimal rate of sludge application; however,
metabolic constraints to the conversion of nutrients in sludge to tree biomass
will ultimately place a limit on productivity. Depending upon concentration
of heavy metals in the sludge, an interesting feedback between optimal rates
of nutrient supply versus toxic accumulation of heavy metals could develop.
This plus potential groundwater contamination with metals, nitrates, and
organic compounds might impose legal, as well as economic constraints on
optimal application rates. Potentially hazardous levels of heavy metal
concentrations in consumer organisms, especially deer which are hunted by
the public on the SRP, may impose additional constraints. A major objective
of the BCA process will be to formally state the constraints in mathematical
terms with the calorie as a common unit.
Objective functions are limited mainly by the imagination of researchers
performing the BCA. However, in all foreseeable cases these functions will
involve a maximization of some perceived benefit, a minimization of a
perceived cost or some compromise of both. A reasonable function to
-------
272 Forest Applications
evaluate is one that would maximize the BC ratio for as long a period of
time as possible, even though the maximum value may be less than 1.0.
A more short-sighted function might be to derive a treatment rate that yields
the largest BC ratio regardless of the time scale or potential for future use
of the amended land. Evaluation of these functions will be performed after
formulation of appropriate constraints.
To perform the BCA, benefits accrued through increased fiber
production under varying amendment regimes must be quantified. These
benefits (converted to units of energy) include the energetic equivalent of
the fiber used for lumber, pulp, or biomass, positive externalities or ripple
effect in the local economy (wages, sales, etc.) and interestingly, the cost
of alternate methods of sludge disposal. Where necessary, economic
consultants will be asked to work with the basic research team on the
Savannah River Plant site to generate appropriate methods to estimate
benefits to be used in the BCA.
Conclusions
These studies will provide the first detailed information related to sludge
application to southeastern coastal plain forests. A series of models developed
from literature and planned filed studies will provide the capability to
estimate environmental effects of sludge application, biomass response, and
benefit cost analyses.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The information in this article was developed
during the course of work under Contract No. DE-AC09-SR00001 with the
U.S. Department of Energy.
Literature Cited
1. Freshman, J. D. 1977. A Perspective on Land as a Waste Management Alternative.
In: Land as a Waste Management Alternative, R. C. Loehr (ed), Ann Arbor Science
Publishers, Ann Arbor, Mich. pp. 3-8.
2. Pritchett, W. L. 1979. Properties and Management of Forest Soils, John Wiley
& Sons, N.Y.
3. United States Department of Agriculture, 1978. Improving Soils with Organic
Wastes.
4. Kelling, K. A., D. R. Kenney, L. M. Walsh, and J. A. Ryan. 1977. A Field Study
of the Agricultural Use of Sewage Sludge: III. Effects on Uptake and Extractability
of Sludge-Borne Metals. J. Environ. Qual. 6 (4): 352-358.
5. United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1976. Application of Sewage
-------
Corey, Hollod, Stone, Wells, McKee, and Bartell 273
Sludge to Cropland: Appraisal of Potential Hazards of the Heavy Metals to Plants
and Animals, EPA 430/9-76-013.
6. Pahren, H. R., J. B. Lucas, J. A. Ryan, and G. K. Dotson. 1979. Health Risks
Associated with Land Application of Municipal Sludge. J. WPCF. 51(11):
2588-2601.
7. Argent, V. A., J. C. Bell, and M. Emslie-Smith. 1977. Animal Disease Hazards
of Sludge Disposal to Land: Occurrence of Pathogenic Organisms. Water Pollut.
Cont. 76(4): 511-516.
8. Torrey, S. (ed)., Sludge Disposal by Landspreading Techniques, Noyes Data
Corporation, Park Ridge, N.J., 1979.
9. Shugart, H. H., Jr. and D. C. West. 1977. Development of an Appalachian
Deciduous Forest Succession Model and Its Application to Assessment of the
Chestnut Blight. J. Environ. Manage. 5. 161-179.
10. O'Neil, R. V., R. A. Goldstein, H. H. Shugart, and J. B. Mankin. 1972. Terrestrial
Ecosystem Energy Model. Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome Memo Report No.
12-19.
11. Odum, H. T. 1971. Environment, Power and Society, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
N.Y.
12. Wagner, H. M. 1970. Principles and Management Science with Applications to
Executive Decisions. Prentice-Hall, Inc., N.J.
-------
17
RESPONSE OF FOREST ECOSYSTEMS TO SLUDGE
AND WASTEWATER APPLICATIONS-A CASE
STUDY IN WESTERN WASHINGTON
Dale W. Cole
Since 1973 faculty at the University of Washington have investigated the
feasibility of applying municipal wastewater and dewatered sludge to
established forests and new plantations. Since its inception this program has
had three major goals:
1. To determine the environmental soundness of utilizing a forest
environment for disposal of these treatment plant products. The major
focus of this phase has been on nitrates, heavy metals, and pathogens.
2. To determine changes in forest productivity that can be
expected from sludge and wastewater application. A number of tree
species and age classes have been assessed for their survival and growth
response.
3. To establish economics, including both costs and benefits, of
such applications to forests of western Washington. This aspect of the
study has addressed the engineering difficulties of applying sludge to
a forest environment and silvicultural problems and opportunities that
result.
While all of these goals have not been fully met, this paper will present
the current status of the studies and direction of proposed research efforts.
It is clear from these studies that a major unresolved environmental problem
is that of nitrate leaching following dewatered sludge applications. Tree
species, including Douglas" fir, sitka spruce, lombardy poplar, and black
cottonwood, are particularly responsive to these additions. Other species such
as western hemlock, western red cedar, ponderosa pine, and noble fir are
not as responsive.
Utilizing appropriate application rates and tree species, it would be our
conclusion that both dewatered sludge and wastewaters can be effectively
and economically applied to forest settings in western Washington.
Introduction
The forest application of municipal sludge and/or effluent wastewaters has
received considerable attention in recent years. The early studies by Kardos
and Sopper in Pennsylvania (1973), Urie in Michigan (1973), and Bialkiewicz
in Poland (1978) developed much of the initial interest in the use of forests
for renovation and recycling of these materials. Consequently, a number of
similar investigations have been initiated in a variety of sites. A
-------
Cole 275
comprehensive review of the current studies can be found in "Utilization
of Municipal Sewage Effluent and Sludge on Forest and Disturbed Land,"
W. E. Sopper and S. N. Kerr (eds.), The Pennsylvania State University Press,
1979.
Similarly, a program examining the potential use of forests in the
application of both wastewater and dewatered sludge was begun in western
Washington in 1973 by researchers at the University of Washington. Since
the program's inception it has had these basic objectives:
1. Establish the environmental soundness of utilizing forest areas
for the utilization of these products. The major focus of this research
has been on nitrate leaching, heavy metal uptake by the vegetative cover
and leaching through the soil profile, and residence time and distribution
of pathogens associated with sludge materials.
2. Determine long- and short-term growth response of various
forest species of the Pacific Northwest to these applications. Both newly
established plantations and existing forests have been studied at Pack
Forest.
3. Evaluate management alternatives, engineering problems and
general economic costs and benefits of applying sludge to forest sites.
Over the 7-year period this research program has represented the
collective efforts of eight research scientists and a number of staff members
of the College of Forest Resources. By necessity a wide range of scientific
disciplines have been involved including plant physiology and nutrition, soil
science, toxicology, economics, mensuration, engineering, and forest
management technology.
Many of the detailed results from these studies have been reported in
the literature. In addition, a regional symposium updating these studies was
held in Seattle and at Pack Forest July 8-10, 1980, the proceedings from
which will be published in early 1981. For this review I will update and
highlight the major achievements with specific focus on environmental,
silvicultural, and economic implications.
Forested areas have been seriously considered for sludge and wastewater
applications in the Pacific Northwest for several important reasons:
1. There are extensive acreages of forested lands in western
Washington, many of which are located within easy hauling or pumping
distances from the municipal treatment plant facilities.
2. The forests of western Washington are typically located on the
better-drained sites and not subjected to periodic flooding of alluvial
agricultural areas.
3. Many of the forested areas are markedly deficient in major
nutrients found in municipal sludge and wastewater, especially nitrogen
and phosphorus. This is due in part to the glacial origin of many forested
sites and the fact that agricultural uses occupy areas of higher
productivity.
-------
276 Forest Applications
4. In that forests are a non-food chain crop, many of the public
health concerns and land application regulations considered in
Washington, D.C. are not critical issues.
Pack Forest, the teaching and research forest of the College of Forest
Resources, was selected for these studies. This forest area is owned and
managed by the College. Thus, long-term research projects can be conducted
at this site without the hazards of changing ownership and rededication of
the land. In addition, Pack Forest has the variety of soil types, tree species,
age classes, and slope conditions necessary for the experimental design of
this program.
Pack Forest is located on the lowlands and foothills of the Cascade
Mountains, near Mt. Rainier, approximately 110 km south of Seattle. In
that the forest is over 1700 ha (4,000 acres) in size, the necessary acreage
for conducting this program was readily available. The climate is similar to
that of the Puget Sound lowlands; a wet, mild winter and a relatively dry
mild summer. Precipitation is 140 cm (55 inches) annually, approximately
50% greater than that of Seattle.
As mentioned above the research program has examined the feasibility
of applying both wastewaters and sludges to forest environments. While these
programs were conducted at the same time, on adjacent sites, and with many
of the same scientists, for the purposes of this review the studies will be
discussed separately. It should be recognized however that a great deal of
the information derived from one study was used in design and interpretation
of the other.
Wastewater Program
The application of secondary treatment effluents to a forest site was designed
to be a part of a larger comparative study sponsored by CRREL (Cold
Regions Research and Engineering Lab) of the US Army Corps of Engineers.
The program at Pack Forest represents the forestry comparison to an
overland flow system at Vicksburg, an agricultural system at Apple Valley,
Minnesota and a grass system at the CRREL Lab near Hanover, New
Hampshire.
The field facility at Pack Forest consisted of five plot areas each with
distinctly different vegetative covers:
1. Douglas fir seedlings
2. Poplar seedlings
3. Grass
4. Barren (all vegetation removed)
5. 50-year-old Douglas fir forest
Each plot was further subdivided so one section received wastewater
at the rate of 5 cm/week while the remainder received an equal amount
-------
Cole 277
of water pumped from the adjacent river. Irrigation was conducted weekly,
on a year-round basis, over a five year period. Consequently, each plot except
for the 50-year-old Douglas fir received over 12 meters (40 feet) of irrigation
and approximately 2000 kg/ha of nitrogen. The mature Douglas fir plot
was not started until 1974. Movement of percolating waters through the
soil profile to a depth of 180 cm was carefully monitored with both tension
lysimeters and a large tank lysimeter system, 3.5 meters in diameter.
A number of important conclusions were derived from this study.
Phosphorus contained in wastewater was quickly and completely removed
from the soil solution by a sorption reaction on the soil colloidal surfaces
(Breuer et al., 1979). Thus phosphorus did not leach through any of the
plots including the one maintained in a barren state. Leaching of nitrogen
showed somewhat of a different pattern. As long as the added nitrogen
remained in ammonium form, little if any leaching was apparent. However,
with the conversion of ammonium to nitrate, leaching became rapid and
extensive. On those plots with a vegetative cover this loss of nitrogen was
minimized through plant uptake or soil storage (Table 17-1; Cole and Schiess,
1978).
Irrigation of wastewater resulted in a dramatic increase in biomass
production (Table 17-2). Average above ground production on the poplar
plots irrigated with wastewater was 25 T/ha, approximately 7 times higher
than the riverwater control. The wastewater irrigation resulted in an increase
in above ground production of nearly 4 times for the Douglas fir seedlings
and 3.5 times for the grass plot.
From this research it was possible to calculate renovation capacities
of the five plots over the 5-year period of the experiment (Table 17-3).
It is clear from these results that forests can effectively renovate wastewater
at application rates normally used in agriculture. In this case, however,
applications were made over the entire year and not just during the growing
season, typical in agriculture practices. Results from the forest plots
compared very favorably with results from the plot with grass cover. As
seen in Table 17-4 nitrate concentrations at 180 cm depth were nearly always
below 10 ppm EPA drinking water standards. Both the forested site and
poplar seedlings demonstrated excellent renovation potential with only 10%
nitrogen escapement below the rooting zone during the 5-year period of
application. Escapement losses from grass and Douglas fir seedlings were only
slightly higher and nearly always remained within the 10 ppm concentration
standard (Schiess and Cole, in press).
It could be concluded from these studies that forested sites in
Washington can effectively be used for wastewater renovation. In that forest
response was very favorable, such applications have the potential of providing
a significant economic return to the forest owner. An economic analysis
was not made of this data however because of the small size of plots and
limited design of the experiment. An economic analysis was made however
in the case of sludge-treated plots and will be discussed in the next section.
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278
Dewatered Sludge Program
The dewatered sludge program differed in several important aspects from
the wastewater program described above. Environmental and public health
issues were more significant in this program due to the pathogen and heavy
metal components of dewatered sludge. Since nitrogen loading rates were
Table 17-1. Fate of Nitrogen Applied as Wastewater to Plots at Pack Forest from
1974 to 1979 (Schiess and Cole, in press).
Component Plots
Poplar Douglas Grass Barren Douglas fir
fir 50-yr- old
Input
Vegetation ,
Accumulation
Harvest
Leaching
Soil Accumulation
and/or Denitrifi-
cat ion
2,171 1,811
317 272
930 621
253 437
671 481
2,217
0
627
271
1,319
2,286
0
0
1,252
1,034
1,333
n
0
120
-
Aboveground
Residual of input minus plant uptake and leaching loss
To be determined
Table 17-2. Aboveground Biomass Production (T/ha) by Douglas Fir, Poplar, and Grass
as a Result of Wastewater (WW) and Riverwater (RW) Irrigation (Schiess and Cole,
in press).
Poplar Douglas fir Seedling Grass
Tree Grass Total Tree Grass Total
1976
1977
1978
1979
Average
1976-1979
WW
RW
WW
RW
WW
RW
WW
RW
WW
RW
8.5
1.0
28.2
1.2
14.8
1.8
18.4
3.4
17.5
1.9
8.
1.
6.
1.
10.
2.
6.
1.
7.
1.
0
6
0
2
1
1
0
9
5
7
16.
2.
34.
2.
24.
3.
24.
5.
25.
3.
5
6
2
4
9
9
4
3
0
6
2.9
0.9
4.4
1.6
14.0
3.8
12.8
3.6
8.5
2.5
8.5
1.6
8.4
0.8
6.7
2.2
3.4
1.3
6.8
1.5
11
2
12
2
20
6
16
4
15
4
.4
.5
.8
.4
.7
.0
.2
.9
.3
.0
8.5
3.0
9.1
0.9
10.4
3.9
10.2
3.5
9.6
2.8
% Increase 921 441 694 340 453 382 342
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Cole 279
Table 17-3. Renovation and Retention Capability of a Gravelly Soil for Nitrogen Under
Wastewater Irrigation Applied to Four Vegetative Covers and a Barren Control
(Scniess and Cole, in press).
Vegetation Cover
Year
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
AVE.
Applied(kgXha)
Retained 7.
Applied (kg/ha)
Retained '/,
Applied(kg/ha)
Retained %
Applied (kg/ha)
Retained 7,
Applied(kg/ha)
Retained %
Applied(kg/ha)
Retained %
Barren
428
68%
403
34%
456
75%
449
59%
550
39%
457
55%
Grass
428
96%
398
76%
443
77%
437
96%
509
93%
443
88%
Poplar
428
53%
392
94%
438
98%
440
99%
473
98%
434
88%
Douglas
fir
Seedling
428
89%
320
84%
325
74%
359
76%
379
54%
362
76%
Forest
-
348
84%
402
97%
330
97%
253
83%
333
91%
Table 17-4. Mean Annual Nitrogen Concentration in Soil Solution Passing 180 cm
Depth Under Wastewater Irrigated Plots (Schiess and Cole, in press).
Vegetation
Type
No vegetation
Grass
Poplar
Douglas fir
Seedling
Douglas fir
Forest
1975 1976
4.8 9.5
0.7 4.2
7.7 1.1
1.9 2.6
2.8
1977
- mg/U
7.6
7.0
0.6
6.9
0.9
1978
11.8
1.2
0.5
' 5.2
0.8
1979
15.8
1.8
0.7
10.7
3.5
Average
8.3
2.3
2.1
4.4
1.7
A year covers the period September-August.
higher, potential for nitrate leaching was also greater. The technology of
applying sludge to a forest environment had not been explored and
agriculture experience could not be as readily used as was possible in
Wastewater irrigation. Applications of sludge proved to cause a marked
change in forest productivity, affecting silviculture practices and caused a
number of problems in land management not encountered in the wastewater
irrigations. Another important difference between the two studies could be
found in the scale of operations. It was possible to apply sludge to large
enough areas and diverse enough systems to permit an economic analysis
of the results. The following discussion summarizes this overall program.
-------
280 Forest Applications
Forest Application Alternatives
Dewatered sludge, containing approximately 18% solids, was applied to both
well-drained, relatively flat soils of a glacial outwash origin and soil of more
restricted drainage derived from andesitic bedrock found on upland sites.
These latter areas are on slopes ranging from 10 to 30%. Sludge was applied
to recently cleared land and established forests in both of these areas.
Application rates varied from 2.5 cm (approximately 20 dry tons/acre) to
25 cm (somewhat more than 200 dry tons/acre). These application rates
represent nitrogen loadings of 800 kg/ha for each 2.5 cm of sludge
application. Thus the 25 cm application resulted in a nitrogen addition of
8000 kg/ha, significantly increasing the 2 to 3000 kg/ha of nitrogen capital
found in these soils. Average elemental composition of the sludge, expressed
as a concentration and quantity per unit of application is tabulated in Table
17-5.
Two very different systems of application were utilized in this program.
For the establishment on new plantations, sites were cleared of all vegetation
including stumps and logging debris. The highway haul trucks delivering
sludge from the treatment plant were driven directly on the application area.
Dumping patterns for sludge trucks were established for each desired
application rate. Sludge was then incorporated into the soil with an 80cm
(32 inch) construction disc or left on the surface and sowed with oats or
grain rye. In either case it proved essential to dry and age the sludge before
tree seedlings could be successfully established. In general, a drying and aging
period of nearly one year, was necessary, depending in part when the sludge
was applied and thickness of the application.
An alternative system of application was designed by Nichols (1980)
for forest sites. This was necessary in that highway haul vehicles which
delivered the sludge to Pack Forest could not travel through forested terrain
Table 17-5. Solids and Elemental Composition of Dewatered Sludge from METRO
Sewage Treatment Facility (after Domenowske, 1980).
Component Concentration
Solids 18-20%
N 2.6%
Ca 2.6%
P 1.8%
K 1.67.
Fe 2.7%
Na 0.9%
Cl 0.2%
Mg 350 ppm
Zn 1830 ppm
Cu 1170 ppm
Ni 153 ppm
Pb 2411 ppm
Cd 64 ppm
Hg 8 ppm
-------
Cole 281
nor apply sludge uniformly to such sites. A reload reservoir system was
constructed in which sludge was dumped by the highway haul vehicles. The
sludge was then transferred to a forest application vehicle by means of
centrifuged semi-open immersed suction pump, Vaughn pump model number
200.
This initial design of a forest application vehicle was developed with
a carrying capacity of 7500 liters. Sludge is removed from the tank and
applied to the forest by means of a directional nozzle system. Pressure is
provided by a Vaughn pump, model number 500 powered from a PTO
mounted on the transfer case of the application vehicle. An application range
exceeding 40 meters is obtainable with this system. The truck can be filled
in 7 minutes and discharged in approximately the same length of time.
Although the initial application costs are higher with this system, it does
provide a number of operational advantages over direct dumping with the
highway haul vehicles, including:
1. provides a means for applying sludge to existing forested sites,
2. minimizes site preparation and land-clearing costs,
3. allows for applications at lower loading rates and greater
uniformity in sludge distribution, and
4. makes it possible to apply sludge to sites that cannot support
the weight of an application vehicle or where the vehicle cannot enter
because of broken terrain or steepness of slopes.
Public Health Studies
The fate of heavy metals, pathogens, and nitrates associated with sludge
applications to these forested areas has been systematically studied. Although
it could be argued that forests are essentially removed from the human food
chain and such public health considerations are unnecessary, it is also argued
that people frequent such sites, harvest food products from them and obtain
much of their drinking water from drainages originating in forested areas.
Consequently a number of public health studies were addressed as a part
of this overall research effort.
Heavy metal content of sludge derived from the METRO treatment
plant was previously described in Table 17-5. To provide a worst-case
example regarding leaching and uptake of these metals, 25 cm (200 dry
tons/acre) of sludge was applied. After one year, transfer of these metals
into the soil underlying the sludge and uptake by the various plant species
found in this forest environment was assessed. Rates of Cd, Pb, and Ni
leaching are clearly depicted in Figure 17-1. Movement of Cd from the sludge
into the soil is minimal, limited perhaps to only a few centimeters of soil
depth. Movement of Pb is even more restricted with no indication that
migration has occurred into the underlying soil. It should be recognized this
rate of vertical movement or lack thereof, occurred under an acidic condition
of approximately pH 6. Monitoring groundwater at approximately 10 meters
-------
282 Foiest Applications
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-------
Cole 283
has not indicated any change in heavy metal composition (Zasoski, in press).
While it can be shown that heavy metals are relatively immobile within
the soil, their availability for uptake is not as clearly defined. For example,
a number of understory species such as blackberry and thistle accumulated
heavy metals in selective and different ways (Table 17-6). While more uptake
has been noted for some species than others, no detrimental toxic effects
have been noted, nor would there be at these concentration values. The
amount of heavy metals removed from sludge by plant uptake represents
but a minor percentage of the total applied. Typically less than 0.1% of
the heavy metal composition of sludge will be assimilated by the plant cover
during the first year following application (Table 17-7; Zasoski, personal
communication).
Residence time and mobility of sludge related pathogens has also been
followed in our forest sites. While most of these studies have utilized fecal
and total coliform bacteria as indication organisms, virus and other
pathogenic organisms have also been studied to a more limited extent.
Residence of fecal coliform in sludge is less than two years following
application to forest sites. This residence time is further decreased if sludge
has been applied to recently harvested sites or applied during the summer
months. There appears to be little evidence of any downward migration of
the fecal coliform in the soil. Soil samples taken directly beneath sites
receiving sludge have a very low fecal coliform count. In addition this
elevated occurrence of fecal coliform in the soil is short-lived, disappearing
within 6 months. There has been no evidence of fecal coliform in the
groundwater table directly beneath treated areas (Edmonds 1979).
The amount and form of nitrogen loss from sludge-treated sites has
not been fully resolved. Preliminary evidence would suggest that within 2
months following sludge applications, 30 to 40% of the nitrogen disappears
from that applied, depending upon the specific treatment. This disappearance
is primarily in the gaseous form with only 1 to 2% found in leachates
collected directly under these surface sludge applications (Vogt et al., in
press). It has not been determined whether these losses are a result of
denitrification or volatilization of ammonia. In that sludge is very wet during
this initial period and has a pH higher than 7 (Edmonds and Mayer, in
press), it is clear that either mechanism could be responsible for these losses.
Losses of nitrogen from the sludge during the remainder of the 12-month
period appear to be minimal (Table 17-8; Vogt et al,, in press). In that
the pH is rapidly reduced during this period to below pH 7, it could be
suggested that the principal volatilization loss is that of ammonia
volatilization and not from denitrification.
Although the percentage of nitrogen leaching from sludge into the
underlying soil is very small, as noted above, the total amount of nitrogen
entering the soil can be quite large (Table 17-9). This influx, however, varies
widely depending on the depth of application and absence or presence of
-------
284 Forest Applications
Table 17-6. Heavy Metal Uptake by Understory Species Receiving 25 cm of Dewatered
Sludge (Zasoski, in press).
Species
Salal
sludge
control
Blackberry
sludge
control
Thistle
sludge
control
Zinc
37
22
56
34
330
30
Metal
Lead
1.7
0.6
1.2
1.5
1.7
3.1
Cadmium
0.43
0.09
0.25
0.04
2.92
0.19
Table 17-7. Heavy Metal Uptake by Oats from a Site Which Received 25 cm (200
dry tons/acre) of Sludge (Zasoski, unpublished data).
Metal
Cd
Pb
Ni
Zn
Cu
Uptake
kg/ha
0.0139
0.0038
0.089
1.361
0.127
Added*
kg/ha
27
610
63
1,110
440
% taken up
5xlO~2
6.2xlO~4
1.42X10"1
1.24X10"1
2.89xlO~2
* 1
Assumes 202 solids and density of 1.02 g/cm
Metal content on a dry wt basis of:
Zn • 2220 ppm Ni - 126 ppm Pb - 1,220 ppm
Cu » 879 ppm Cd - 354 ppm
Table 17-8. Loss of Nitrogen from Sludge Applied to Forested and Cleared Sites (after
Vogt et al., in press).
Site and treatment
Forested
10 cm sludge
25 cm sludge
Clear-ed
10 cm sludge
25 sludge
sludge-soil mix(l:2)
% loss,
2 months total
24
16
38
35
46
% loss, 1
leaching
_*
3.1
1.3
0.5
9.1
year
total
43
41
48
40
47
Not determined
-------
Cole 285
Table 17-9. Leaching of Nitrogen (kg/ha/yr) from Sludge Applied to Forested and
Cleared Sites (after Vogt et al., in press).
Leached from sludge
Site and treatment NH NO..
25 cm sludge 416 312
sludge-sawdust mix(l:l) 36 45
Cleared
10 cm sludge 73 35
25 cm sludge 42 72
sludge-soil mlx(l:2) 9 405
sludge-sawdust(1:1) 26 44
a forest cover. The highest nitrogen leaching rates are found when sludge
is incorporated into the soil (Vogt et al., in press). This is due in all
probability to high mineralization and nitrification rates and low ammonia
volatilization rates, both of which are encouraged by mixing sludge into
the soil.
The subsequent leaching of nitrogen through the soil can remain high,
especially when sludge has been applied to cleared areas being prepared as
new plantations (Riekerk and Zasoski, 1979). This high nitrate leachate has
in turn temporarily impacted the groundwater table immediately below
recently cleared areas receiving sludge in excess of 200 dry tons/ha. Current
research studies at Pack Forest are exploring ways to minimize these leaching
losses. Lower application rates, applied more frequently are being tested as
is the concept of applying sludge to forested sites rather than cleared areas
or new plantations.
Growth Response of Tree Species
As we found in the wastewater experiments, areas receiving sludge also
demonstrated a marked increase in total productivity. This increase was
particularly noted for seedlings of Lombardy poplar, hybrid cottonwood,
and sitka spruce. To a lesser extent seedlings of Douglas fir and western
hemlock also increased in production although mortality with hemlock
seedlings was almost always high. Neither Ponderosa pine nor western red
cedar responded significantly to sludge additions. Western red cedar also was
subject to high rates of mortality. A summary of the survival and growth
response data of the above species is tabulated in Table 17-10 (Archie and
Wilbert, in press).
Establishing reliable growth response information for seedlings has
proven difficult. The principal complications have been associated with
extensive weed cover which rapidly invades sludge-treated areas. The weeds
not only compete directly with trees for space and moisture, but they also
-------
286 Forest Applications
Table 17-10. Height and Diameter Response of Tree Seedlings in Two Plantations at
Pack Forest (after Archie and Wilbert, in press).
Mashel Flats Plantation
Species 1-year response*
Douglas fir
Sitka spruce
Western hemlock
Western red
cedar
Ponderosa pine
Lorobardy poplar
Black
Cottonwood
Hybrid
Cottonwood
Height
47
306
**
**
916
**
378
Diameter
181
490
**
**
909
**
273
XA5 Plantation
2-year response*
Height
20
33
46
-2
15
64
44
Diameter
88
71
76
21
43
101
86
*Percent increase over control **Mortality <80%
provide an excellent habitat for voles. These small rodents can decimate
an entire plantation by girdling the seedlings at or near ground level. The
only effective control we have found has been controlling weeds through
cultivation or herbicides. Our experience has found cultivation the most
effective of these two options.
Another problem associated with establishment and management of
sludge-treated plantations has been the extensive and selective browsing by
deer. The sludge-treated seedlings have a protein value two to three times
higher than controls. Consequently deer have selectively focused their
browsing activities in sludge-treated areas. In that deer will remove leaders
of treated trees, height growth comparison to control is not always realistic.
Although a variety of techniques were employed to control this browsing
activity including vexar tubing and BGR (big game repellent), the only
method we found sufficiently reliable for our research purposes was fencing.
This phase of the research clearly demonstrated, to the disappointment of
those responsible for the silvicultural management of the forest, that sludge
will increase total productivity to the ecosystem and not necessarily increase
seedling growth. A major land management effort is obviously required to
insure that seedlings share in this increased productivity. In general, our cost
to establish a forest plantation treated with sludge has been approximately
S1200/acre exclusive of the cost of applying sludge. Additional costs of
S200/acre have also been experienced for weed and browse control for at
least 3 additional years following plantation establishment (Archie and
Wilbert, in press). It is not suggested that these costs will reflect those that
would be experienced in a commercial forestry operation utilizing sludge.
-------
Cole 287
Applying sludge to established stands avoided many of the plantation
management problems and costs discussed above. The technique employed,
as previously described, involved a tanker truck unit with a 2,000 gallon
storage capacity. The tanker was loaded from a reservoir by means of a
transfer pump. The sludge was discharged into the forest through a nozzle
mounted on the front of the application vehicle. Forest ranging in age from
5 to 50 years received sludge utilizing this vehicle. On the younger stands
where sludge got on the foliage, it was necessary to wash the foliage
afterwards using water pumped from the same vehicle. If the sludge had
been applied during periods of high rainfall this washing procedure could
have been avoided. If the sludge was not removed from the foliage, it would
remain permanently adhered to the surfaces, detrimentally affecting
photosynthesis.
Examples of the growth response for the first two years following
application to established forests are presented in Table 17-11. With this
limited data it is premature to predict long-term response. In addition, the
best combination of stand conditions and application rates necessary to
maximize response has not been resolved. However, preliminary results in
Table 17-11 do suggest several important trends. Basal area increases for
these older stands can be dramatic. For example, a two-year growth response
of 60% was found for the 50-year-old low site (site index IV) Douglas fir.
Higher site index forest (site index III) did not show nearly as large a
response. The capability of a Douglas fir forest to respond to sludge appears
to be independent of stand age, at least up to the maximum age tested
to 50 years (Archie and Wilbert, in press). The extent of response does
not appear to be dependent on the initial density of the stand. However,
pumping of sludge into dense forests is difficult and the distance of
Table 17-11. Two-Year Basal Area Response of Douglas Fir Stands Receiving 5 cm
of Dewatered Sludge (Archie and Wilbert, in press).
Stand
Site IV
Douglas fir
50-year-old
Site III
Douglas fir
50-year- old
Site IV
Douglas fir
25-year-old
Treatment
Control
Sludge
Thinned
Sludge +
Thinned
Thinned
Sludge +
Thinned
Thinned
Sludge +
Thinned
% increase
in basal area
6.7
10.7
8.5
12.2
9.9
11.0
70.8
31.1
% increase
over control
60
44
11
50
-------
288 Forest Applications
application is decreased.
The economic advantages of applying sludge to these older forests is
clearly illustrated in Figure 17-2. For the first 2 years an economic return
of $135/acre/year was realized by applying 5 cm of dewatered sludge. This
calculation was based on an assumed standing timber value of $279/1,000
bd.ft., Scribner rule, a very conservative value considering the average timber
market during the past year. In addition, as trees increase in size, a significant
number will become number 2 saw logs, rather than number 3 saw logs
as assumed in the above calculation. This will result in step increases in
the stumpage value to $300/1,000 bd.ft. (Schreuder, Roise and Tillman, in
press).
A five- and ten-year projection (Table 17-12) represents minimum
duration of the growth response we would expect from these applications
based on the responses noted for chemical fertilizer additions. In addition,
it assumes a current market value of $270/1,000 bd.ft., a minimum estimate
as discussed above. It is our expectation that these additions should result
in a permanent change in productive capacity of these forests and as a
minimum last through the rotation of the current forest occupying the site.
Conclusions
The response of forest ecosystems to the application of dewatered sludge
and wastewater has been followed for nearly 7 years in western Washington.
This program has resulted in a number of significant findings essential in
the decision-making process by treatment plant operators and regulatory
agencies in considering forests as candidate sites for disposal or cost-efficient
recycling of these sewage products. The conclusions of this program are as
follows:
1. Wastewater can be applied at rates of 5 cm/week, year-round, to
forest sites in western Washington with only minor losses of nitrate and
no loss of phosphorus below the rooting zone. In general, renovation by
forest is equal to or better than that provided by grass. Five years of
application at the above rates clearly demonstrated the improvements in
forest productivity that can be expected by such a program.
2. Application of dewatered sludge to young plantations has resulted
in a dramatic increase in total production of the ecosystem. However, this
increase in production is not always associated with the seedlings, nor do
all seedlings respond equally to sludge applications. This is especially true
during tree establishment. Douglas fir, sitka spruce, hybrid cottonwood, and
poplar all respond positively. Red cedar and hemlock have unacceptable
mortality rates when planted into sites which have received sludge. Ponderosa
pine has excellent survival but does not appreciably respond to sludge. Many
times the competing weeds have shown the greatest increase in growth.
------- An error occurred while trying to OCR this image.
-------
290 Forest Applications
avoids many of the costs and management problems associated with
applications to plantations.
4. The technology of applying sludge to existing forests has in part
been resolved with the construction of a sludge application vehicle. Sludge
can be discharged a distance of approximately 125 feet with this vehicle,
making it practical to consider applications into existing forests.
5. The major public health issues associated with sludge applications
are those of heavy metals, pathogens, and nitrate leaching. It would appear
from our initial studies that neither heavy metals nor pathogens will be of
a lasting concern when sludge is applied to forested areas. However, nitrate
leaching below the rooting zone can be excessive especially when sludge
has been applied to newly cleared areas. Research is still underway examining
all three of these public health issues, especially the question of regulating
nitrate leaching.
Literature Cited
Archie, S. A., and M. Wilbert. In press. Management of sludge-treated plantations.
Proceedings from the Municipal Sewage Waste Application to Lands in the Pacific
Northwest, A Regional Symposium. July 8-10, 1980 in Seattle, WA.
Bialkiewicz, F. 1978. Lysimetnc and Forest Studies on the Cleaning and Productive
Utilization of Municipal Sewage. Warsaw.
Breuer, D. W., D. W. Cole, and P. Schiess. 1979. Nitrogen transformation and leaching
associated with wastewater irrigation in Douglas-fir, poplar, grass, and unvegetated
system, p. 19-34. In: W. E. Sopper and S. N. Kerr (eds.), Utilization of Municipal
Sewage Effluent and Sludge on Forest and Disturbed Land. The Pennsylvania State
University Press, University Park, PA. 537 p.
Cole, D. W., and P. Schiess. 1978. Renovation of wastewater and response of forest
ecosystems: The Pack Forest Study, p. 323-332. In: Land Treatment of
Wastewater, International Symposium, August 1978. Hanover, New Hampshire.
436 p.
Domenowske, R. S. 1980. A presentation of the Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle
(Metro) Sludge Utilization Research. National Conference on municipal and
industrial sludge utilization and disposal, Alexandria, VA, May 1980. Information
Inc., Silver Springs, MD.
Edmonds, R. L. 1979. Microbiological characteristics of dewatered sludge following
application to forest soils and clearcut areas, p. 123-136. In: W. E. Sopper and
S. N. Kerr (eds.), Utilization of Municipal Sewage Effluent and Sludge on Forest
and Disturbed Land. The Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, PA.
537 p.
Edmonds, R. L., and K. P. Mayer. In press. Biological changes in soil properties
associated with dewatered sludge application. Proceedings from the Municipal
Sewage Waste Application to Lands in the Pacific Northwest, A Regional
-------
Cole 291
Symposium. July 8-10, 1980 in Seattle, WA.
Kardos, L. T., and W. E. Sopper. 1973. Renovation of municipal wastewater through
land disposal by spray irrigation, p. 148-163. In: W. E. Sopper and L. T. Kardos
(eds.), Recycling Treated Municipal Wastewater and Sludge through Forest and
Cropland. The Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, PA.
Nichols, C. G. 1980. Engineering aspects of dewatered sewage sludge land application
to forest soils. M.S. Thesis, University of Washington, Seattle. 84 p.
Riekerk, H., and R. J. Zasoski. 1979. Effects of dewatered sludge applications to a
Douglas-fir forest soil on the soil, leachate, and groundwater composition, p. 35-46.
In: W. E. Sopper and S. N. Kerr (eds.), Utilization of Municipal Sewage Effluent
and Sludge on Forest and Disturbed Land. The Pennsylvania State University Press,
University Park, PA. 537 p.
Schiess, P., and D. W. Cole. In press. Renovation of wastewater by forest stands.
Proceedings from the Municipal Sewage Waste Application to Lands in the Pacific
Northwest, A Regional Symposium. July 8-10, 1980 in Seattle, WA.
Schreuder, G. F., J. Roise, and D. Tillman. In press. Economics of sludge utilization.
Proceedings from the Municipal Sewage Waste Application to Lands in the Pacific
Northwest, A Regional Symposium. July 8-10, 1980 in Seattle, WA.
Urie, D. H. 1973. Phosphorus and nitrate levels in groundwater as related to irrigation
of Jack Pine with sewage effluent, p. 176-183. In: W. E. Sopper and L. T. Kardos
(eds.), Recycling Treated Municipal Wastewater and Sludge through Forest and
Cropland. The Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, PA.
Vogt, K. A., R. L. Edmonds, and D. J. Vogt. In press. Nitrate leaching in soils after
sludge application. Proceedings from the Municipal Sewage Waste Application to
Lands in the Pacific Northwest, A Regional Symposium. July 8-10, 1980 in
Seattle, WA.
Zasoski, R. J. In press. Heavy metal mobility in sludge-amended soils. Proceedings from
the Municipal Sewage Waste Application to Lands in the Pacific Northwest, A
Regional Symposium. July 8-10, 1980 in Seattle, WA.
-------
18
USE OF SEWAGE SLUDGE FOR TREE SEEDLING
AND CHRISTMAS TREE PRODUCTION
David H. Lambert and Craig Weidensaul
Replicated plots at two sites with differing soils (a fertile, well drained silt
loam and an infertile, poorly drained silty clay loam) were treated with
0, 11, 22, 45, 90, or 180 dry MT/ha lime-stabilized filter cake from
Cleveland's Southerly sewage treatment plant. These plots were rotovated
and planted with seedlings of blue spruce, Douglas fir, Fraser fir, Scots pine,
and white pine. Survival and new growth data were taken and weed biomass
was measured after ten weeks. At this time, when the trees were still actively
growing, shoot growth at the better site was slightly higher than control
(+9%) at the 22 MT rate, and weed growth at both sites was greatest at
the 90 ton rate (2X and 4X control). Transplant survival was significantly
reduced at the 180 ton rate. Among the five species, growth of white pine
was most improved by lower rates and most inhibited by higher rates of
sludge.
Nursery beds on a sandy loam soil were amended with either no
treatment, 120 kg/ha ammonium nitrate-N, a poorly digested Detroit filter
cake at 35 or 80 dry MT/ha, or an anaerobically digested Mt. Vernon, Ohio
sludge at the above rates. These beds were disked and spring-seeded with
red oak, tulip poplar, black locust, blue spruce, Douglas fir, noble fir, Scots
pine, white pine, and Virginia pine, and harvested in mid-July. Although
dry weights of red oak were not affected by treatment, the small-seeded
hardwoods responded to sludge. Sludge improved growth of all poplar
treatments relative to the nontreated control, with the higher rate of Detroit
sludge superior to the nitrogen treatment. Growth of black locust was
significantly greater than the untreated control for two of the sludge
treatments. In contrast, growth of the conifer seedlings was significantly
greater with ammonium nitrate compared to any sludge treatment.
Application of sludge prior to soil fumigation is mandatory to reduce
subsequent weed and tomato problems.
Introduction
Sewage sludge usage for crop production affords separate benefits to the
producer (a disposal site) and to the recipient (a low-cost soil amendment).
if the cropland will not be used for food, both parties may be less restricted
in the quality and quantity of sludge applied. From the recipient's point
of view, crop responses to the mineral and organic matter content of the
sludge must outweigh the costs and benefits of his normal practice, and
-------
Lambert and Weidensaul 293
of any new drawbacks such as potential heavy metal and salt problems,
or increases in management costs. Further, sludge is only beneficial if the
existing limitations on crop growth are relieved by its components, primarily
nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic matter, and if sludge usage does not
impose new restrictions on growth.
Improved tree seedling growth is predictable in sludge-amended media
such as mine spoil where fertility and organic matter are low. Berry and
Marx (1, 3) have reported many-fold responses to sludge for loblolly and
other pines grown in eroded forest soil and a lesser response (two-fold) in
kaolin spoil whose severe deficiency in potassium and magnesium was not
relieved by sludge (2). In some cases, higher sludge rates reduced survival
and growth. For shortleaf pine in forest soil, this resulted from competition
with weeds. Gouin (4) and Gouin and Walker (5) obtained improved growth
of tulip poplar and dogwood in sandy soil amended with composted sewage
sludge. The highest rate of compost (448 MT/ha) reduced root development
and in some cases seed germination. Problems with weedy growth of
tomatoes led the authors to recommend a green manure crop between the
addition of compost and seeding to trees. Composted sludge did not improve
the growth or numbers of Norway spruce seedlings relative to a 1 MT/ha
treatment with a slow-release fertilizer. Seedling numbers of white pine were
increased by composted sludge incorporated at a 112 MT rate. Krapfenbauer
et al. (6), supplementing sandy and limestone soils with 20% composted
sludge obtained the best growth of Norway spruce in 100% compost or
the sandy soil-compost mix. Austrian pine did best in these two media and
in the limestone soil-compost mix. Poorest growth occurred in the untreated
soils or in compost-amended slash.
The following are reports of the effects of sludge on mid-first-season
growth of seedlings or transplants in soils of at least moderate fertility.
Typically, seedling nurseries are sited on lighter soils to assure good drainage
and to reduce root damage when trees are lifted. Such soils are usually low
in organic matter and exchange capacity, and require rotations of green
manure crops to maintain their structure and productivity. This suggests that
sludge might be added as a source of organic matter, either at a large initial
loading or continuously at lower rates. In plantations, Christmas trees are
normally grown on an 8-10 year rotation with fertilizer, if any, applied at
planting. A common feature of this system is slow development in the initial
years. In this case, application of sludge prior to planting provides an initial
surge of available N and P with some residual value in subsequent years.
Materials and Methods
At the Zanesville State Tree Nursery, eight adjoining 1.2 X 90 m beds of
sandy loam soil were plowed, disced, and fumigated with methyl bromide
-------
294 Forest Applications
in September, 1979. In October, a poorly digested filter cake from Detroit
and an anaerobically digested liquid sludge (ca. 10% solids) from Mount
Vernon, Ohio were delivered to the site (Table 18-1). These sludges were
applied with a manure spreader at approximate rates of 35, 80, and 200
MT/ha. Bulk storage of sludge on the ground prior to spreading resulted
in contamination of the sludge with nonfumigated soil. The seventh plot
was left untreated and the eighth plot was fertilized with 120 kg/ha
ammonium nitrate-N prior to seeding. In the spring, the eight beds were
disced and seeded with red oak, black locust, tulip poplar, Douglas fir, noble
fir, blue spruce, Scots pine, white pine, and Virginia pine. These species
were replicated five times in 1.2 X 1.2 m plots located at random in each
bed. Weeds developing either from tomato seeds in the sludge, from sod
or seeds in the soil spread with the sludge, or seeds occurring naturally in
the beds were removed by hand in all but the two high-rate treatments.
These two were abandoned. In late July, ca. 20 plants from each plot were
harvested and root and shoot dry weights were determined and expressed
on a per seedling basis. Stem diameters were recorded for the oak and locust.
Because some seedlings were washed out or lost during weeding, stand data
were not recorded. Data were submitted to analysis by Duncan's Modified
Least Significant Difference Test (DMLSD).
Two Chirstmas tree plantations were established near Wooster, Ohio,
one on a good site with a fertile silt loam soil previously in corn, and another
on a poor site with a less fertile, poorly drained soil recently cleared of
trees and brush. During the winter and spring of 1980, 12 X 15 m plots,
replicated four times, were treated with 0, 11, 22, 45, 90, or 180 dry MT/ha
of Cleveland (Southerly plant) sludge (Table 18-1). These plots were
rototilled and transplanted with twenty two-year-old seedlings each of
Douglas fir, Fraser fir, blue spruce, white pine, and Scots pine. In mid-July,
the length of new terminal growth was measured and survival was assessed.
At this time, all weeds in four 0.5 m^ subplots per plot were harvested,
separated into sedges, grasses, or various broadleaves, dried and weighed.
Data were submitted to analysis by DMLSD to determine differences between
sludge rates, and also to multiple regression in certain cases to determine
effects of various edaphic factors on seedling and weed growth.
Table 18-1. Chemical Analyses of Sewage Sludges.
Source
Cleveland
Detroit
Mt. Vernon
pH
11.7
5.7
6.7
OM
61
50
40
P
2.0
1.8
2.8
N
2.6
3.5
2.9
K
255
-
702
Zn
2250
2790
820
Cu
720
860
6080
Pb Cr
22 240
63 180
36 >6600
ca
318
91
6
Nl
680
550
6250
B
107
-
43
-------
Lambert and Weidensaul 295
Results and Discussion
The effects of sludge on the chemical properties of the nursery soil are
shown in Table 18-2. The increases in cation exchange capacity and organic
matter were slight, indicating that much of the organic matter had
decomposed. (Each MT/ha of dry sludge with 50% O.M. would increase the
initial organic matter in the plow layer by about 0.04%.)
Growth of the large-seeded hardwood, red oak, was not affected by
sludge rate (Table 18-3). Growth of tulip poplar was improved by all sludge
treatments, at least partially in response to nitrogen (Table 18-4). Growth
at the 80 MT rate of Detroit sludge was a significant improvement over
the N-fertilized control. Black locust, which was well nodulated in all
treatments, generally grew better in the sludge treatments, with significant
increases in dry weight in one or two instances (Table 18-5).
In contrast to the hardwoods, sludge did not improve the initial shoot
growth of the conifer seedlings (Table 18-6). With growth of the six conifers
normalized and analyzed as reps, the ammonium nitrate treatment was
significantly better than the others, while the 80 ton Mt. Vernon treatment
was significantly poorer. Seedlings in this latter plot were not chlorotic but
did appear to be reduced in number and size in a manner consistent with
a root rot problem or poor root development. While this treatment was
the one highest in Cu, Cr, and Ni, it also received the most nonsterilized
soil, so that deleterious chemical effects could not be differentiated from
biological ones on appearance alone.
The varying response of the hardwoods and conifers might be explained
by their differing nutrient demands, which were greatest for the two
small-seeded hardwoods. These grew rapidly with little seed reserves.
At the Christmas tree plantations, initial transplant survival was
significantly reduced by sludge at only the highest rate (excepting Scots
pine in the poorer soil) (Tables 18-7 and 18-8). The effect of this rate on
survival varied considerably with site. The reduction in blue spruce and white
pine survival were equivalent from site to site, while effects on Douglas fir,
Fraser fir and Scots pine were minimal to moderate on the good site but
Table 18-2. Chemical Analyses of Nursery Bed Soils.
Treatment
Initial
Check
120 kg N
35 MT Detroit
80 MT Detroit
200 MT Detroit
35 MT Mt. Vernon
80 MT Mt. Vernon
200 MT Mt. Vernon
pH
6.5
6.6
6.5
6.5
6.6
6.1
6.7
6.7
6.9
P
125
116
115
151
243
281
146
288
352
K Ca
314 2692
307
252
274
274
270
243
278
222
2410
2457
2504
2656
2761
3042
3007
3803
Mg
213
186
200
195
192
192
228
230
230
CEC
7
6
6
6
7
7
8
8
9
0
3
3
2
3
4
2
3
3
.M.
_
.1
.0
.8
.3
.8
.8
.4
.3
-------
296 Forest Applications
Table 18-3. Red Oak Shoot and Root Dry Weight and Stem Diameters.
Treatment
Check
120 kg N
35 MT Detroit
80 MT Detroit
35 MT Mt. Vernon
80 MT Mt. Vernon
Shoot Root
2.05 A 1.08 A
1.68 A
2.49 A
1.87 A
1.63 A
1.74 A
0.90 A
1.53 A
0.82 A
1.01 A
1.29 A
Stem
4.0 A
3.8 A
4.5 A
3.9 A
3.8 A
3.9 A
Table 18-4. Tulip Poplar Shoot and Root Dry Weights.
Treatment
Check
120 kg N
35 MT Detroit
80 MT Detroit
35 MT Mt. Vernon
80 MT Mt. Vernon
Shoot
0.58 C
1.09 B
0.92 B
1.49 A
0.91 B
1.16 B
Root
.018 B
.025 A
.025 A
.026 A
.023 AB
.026 A
Table 18-5. Black Locust Shoot and Root Dry Weights and Stem Diameters.
Treatment
Check
120
35
SO
35
80
kg
MT
MT
MT
MT
N
Detroit
Detroit
Mt.
Mt.
Vernon
Vernon
0
0
1
0
0
1
Shoot
.65
.88
.20
.91
.83
.17
ym
B .
AB .
A
AB .
AB .
A
Root
.083
.089
.133
.103
.103
.158
Stem
B
AB
AB
AB
AB
A
2.4
2.6
2.3
2.2
2.4
2.8
A
A
A
A
A
A
Table 18-6. Dry Weights of Conifer Shoots.
f
Treatment BS DF NF HP VP SP Norm.
-$ ">9
Check 20 A 68 A 48 A 51 A 91 A 79 AB 1.00 B
120 kg N 24 A 76 A 46 A 60 A 97 A 91 A 1.12 A
35 MT Detroit 23 A 69 A 42 A 57 A 90 A 74 AB 1.01 B
80 MT Detroit 18 A 65 A 39 A 52 A 96 A 85 AB 0.97 B
35 MT Mt. Vernon 25 A 70 A 44 A 56 A 89 A 75 AB 1.03 B
80 Mt Mt. Vernon 18 A 63 A 39 A 47 A 83 A 65 B 0.88 C
Blue spruce, Douglas^fir, noble fir, white pine, Scots
+ pine, Virginia pine.
Values followed by the same letter do not differ at P = .05.
-------
Lambert and Weidensaul 297
Table 18-7. Conifer Survival at Increasing Sludge Rates (good soil).
Rate
MT/ha
0
11
22
45
90
180
Species
BS
88
84
76
90
93
61
A
A
AB
A
A
B
DF
96
100
100
99
100
92
AB
A
A
A
A
B
FF
100
98
100
100
97
99
A
A
A
A
A
A
SP
75
79
73
80
81
62
A
A
A
A
A
A
WP
98
98
94
95
100
83
A
A
A
A
A
B
Avg
92
92
89
92
94
79
A
A
A
A
A
B
Table 18-8. Conifer Survival at Increasing Sludge Rates (poor soil).
Rate
MT/ha
0
11
22
45
90
180
Species
BS
83
79
88
85
86
59
A
A
A
A
A
B
DF
94
98
99
99
94
55
A
A
A
A
A
B
FF
95
96
98
96
95
46
A
A
A
A
A
B
SP
79 A
80 A
81 A
77 A
47 B
50 B
WP
95
94
99
100
88
81
AB
AB
AB
A
AB
B
Avg
89
89
93
91
86
58
A
A
A
A
A
B
Table 18-9. Conifer Growth at Increasing Sludge Rates (good soil).
Rate
MT/ha
0
11
22
45
90
180
Species
BS
56
47
56
50
48
46
DF
A
AB
A
AB
AB
B
42
40
43
39
42
37
A
A
A
A
A
A
FF
45
51
51
47
39
39
AB
A
A
AB
B
B
SP
34 A
35 A
38 A
30 A
25 A
26 A
WP
86
91
103
88
79
63
AB
AB
A
A
AB
B
Total
262
263
289
254
233
211
AB
AB
A
AB
BC
C
Table 18-10. Conifer Growth at Increasing Sludge Rates (poor soil).
Rate
MT/ha
0
11
22
45
90
180
Species
BS
43
42
43
41
37
27
A
A
A
A
A
B
DF
32
31
32
30
26
18
FF
A
A
A
A
AB
B
33
33
33
26
23
15
mm
A
A
A
A
AB
B
SP
26 A
25 A
26 A
19 AB
16 AB
9 B
WP
71
72
70
70
55
40
A
A
A
A
AB
B
Total
205
203
204
186
156
109
A
A
A
AB
B
C
-------
298 Forest Applications
severe on the poor site.
New terminal growth at the better site was increased by an average
of 9% by the 22 MT rate of sludge (nonsignificant), but was not improved
at the poorer site (Tables 18-9 and 18-10). Growth decreased above the
22 ton rate, by 19% at the better site and 47% at the poorer site. Growth
reductions at the higher sludge rates were again more severe in the poorer
soil and were variable with species. There was a casual relationship between
sludge effects on survival and growth. In the better soil, e.g., Fraser fir and
Douglas fir were least affected in both parameters, while in the poorer soil
both growth and survival were more affected in Scots pine than in any other
species. The assumption that sludge would be more beneficial in a less fertile
soil was not supported. It may be that this sludge was more toxic in the
poorer, acidic soil (pH 4.9 vs 6.7). Another possibility is that deleterious
sludge effects acted synergistically with other limitations on tree growth at
the poorer site. That even low rates of sludge did not improve growth suggests
other growth restrictions were important.
Sludge increased weed biomass significantly, with maximum growth at
90 MT (Figure 18-1). At the 180 ton rate, weeds were fewer in number
but not lower in weight. Although the relative proportions of weed species
400
300
: z
- t-
5 O 200
c a
9 U
•i a
J uj
J UJ
- 5 100
n
r\
I \
i i
f i
/ I 400
* 1
/ \
/ \
' S t 1
^f 1 300
^^^y^^**^s^ '
^^^"i ^^^ I
^^^^
200
100
GOOD
/%
/ t
/ t
/ t
/ I
/ 1
/ l
/ |
/
/ !
/ 1
, f i '^*«>^
POOR
0 11 22 45 90 180 0 11 22 45 90 180
SLUDGE RATE
Figure 18-1. Comparative Growth of Weeds and Christmas Trees in Two Soils as
Affected by Sewage Sludge Application (dry MT/ha).
-------
Lambert and Weidensaul 299
appeared to shift as sludge was increased, such changes were not striking
nor statistically significant.
These results are limited to initial growth, over a period when the
seedlings or transplants rely to some extent on food reserves not affected
by sludge treatment. Monitoring of these trees will continue to indicate how
beneficial sludge application is after initial effects have occurred. Detrimental
effects of sludge, such as the release of ammonia and other decomposition
products, are greatest in the period after application. With a greater demand
on the soil for nutrients and a reduction in toxicity, better subsequent
responses to sludge appear likely but remain to be seen. After the initial
flush of nitrogen, the imbalance between weed and tree growth should also
decline. These considerations indicate that heavier rates of sludge should
be incorporated, if possible, a season prior to tree seeding or transplanting.
Although grass seed germinates poorly if sown too soon after sludge
application (7), a heavy initial growth of grass may be useful if plowed
under. Where soil fumigation is used, it should be scheduled after sludge
application to eliminate weed seeds, particularly tomatoes, or plant pathogens
which might be inadvertantly mixed into the sludge.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. This study is funded primarily by USEPA Grant
No. R806672010, G. Kenneth Dotson, Project Officer, Municipal
Environmental Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
Literature Cited
1. Berry, C. R. 1980. Use of sewage sludge in the reclamation of disturbed forest
land in the Southeast. Paper presented at the present symposium - Utilization
of municipal wastewater and sludge for land reclamation and biomass production.
Pittsburgh, PA, Sept. 16-18, 1980.
2. Berry, C. R., and D. W. Marx. 1977. Growth of loblolly pine seedlings in
strip-mined kaolin spoil as influenced by sewage sludge. J. Environ. Qual.
6:379-381.
3. Berry, C. R., and D. W. Marx. 1977. Sewage sludge and Pisolithus tinctorius
ectomycorrhizae: their effects on growth of pine seedlings. Forest Sci. 22:351-358.
4. Gouin, F. R. 1977. Conifer tree seedling response to nursery soil amended with
composted sewage sludge. HortScience 12-341-342.
5. Gouin, F. R., and J. M. Walker. 1977. Deciduous tree seedling response to nursery
soil amended with composted sewage sludge, HortScience 12:45-47.
6. Krapfenbauer, A., M. Sieghardt, and E. Buchleitner. 1979.
Mullklarschlammkompost (MKK)—Gefassversuchc mil Fichte (Picea abies) und
Schwa^kiefer (Pinus nigra var austriaca). Cbl. ges. Forstwesen 96:162-174.
-------
300 Forest Applications
7. Wollan, E., R. D. Davis, and S. Jenner. 1978. Effects of sewage sludge on seed
germination. Environ. Pollut. 17-195-205.
-------
19
RECLAMATION OF ACIDIC STRIPMINE SPOIL
WITH PAPERMILL SLUDGE
H. A. J. Hoitink and M. E. Watson
Effects on plant growth of incorporating high papermill sludge rates into
acidic stripmine spoil were investigated in greenhouse pot trials. The sludge
(pH 7.2-8.5) was a mixture of primary and activated secondary sludges from
the Mead Corp. plant at Chillicothe, Ohio (Kraft pulping process). The
organic C/N ratio of the mixture ranged from 11 to 42. Sludge was
incorporated into spoil (pH 2.5, 0.82% S) at levels of 0, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, 10
and 15% (dry weight basis). Nitrogen was applied at rates equivalent to 0,
53+(178 slow release), 53+(356 slow release) and 53+(534 slow release) kg
N/ha to each treatment. Kentucky 31 Fescue grass was seeded in each
container and growth was evaluated by five harvests during 10 months
growth.
In one trial (sludge mixture C/N ratio=42) the greatest quantity of grass
dry material was produced with the 10% amendment and the 53+(356 slow
release) kg/ha N rate.
Heavy metal concentrations in the spoil were high; those in the sludge
were low, but those found in grass tissue were comparable to those in grass
growing on agricultural soils.
An observation-type field trial was established in July 1979 on acidic
spoil (pH 2.4, 0.71% S). Sludge (C/N ratio 17-42) was applied at rates of
7.5, 10 and 15% and a mixture of grasses and red clover seeded. Extensive
grass growth was observed. Analysis of the leaf tissue from this trial did
not show abnormal uptake of toxic elements. Leaf N concentrations were
normal for the 10 and 15% amendment rates but low for the 7.5% rate.
Introduction
In the paper making process, only part of the original wood fiber is converted
into paper products. The remainder, along with other by-products (mostly
kaolinite) is lost in effluent. Because of the high biological oxygen demand
(BOD) of paper mill effluent, direct disposal to natural waterways is not
feasible. Therefore, primary and secondary treatment systems have been
added to many mills to lower the BOD and remove suspended solids.
Papermill sludge presently is disposed by burning, in landfills or by top
dressing and incorporation into soil.
Sludge from mills with only primary treatment cannot be disposed of
on land without causing serious crop yield reductions. This is due to the
high organic carbon-nitrogen (C/N) ratio of the sludge (1). However, sludges
-------
302 Forest Applications
from the secondary activated biological treatment process contain sufficient
N in relation to organic C so that N is not limiting to plant growth (2,
3).
The objective of this research was to study the effects on vegetative
growth of incorporating mixtures of primary and secondary papermill sludge
into acidic stripmine spoil. Results of greenhouse studies and a field
demonstration trial are presented.
Materials and Methods
Sludge was obtained from the Mead Paper Plant (Kraft process) in
Chillicothe, Ohio. The papermill effluent treatment plant consists of a
primary and secondary activated sludge system. The ratio of primary to
secondary sludge produced varied over the course of the two year study
period. The primary sludge did not contain detectable nitrogen levels. The
organic carbon-nitrogen ratio of the secondary sludge was 7.5:1. The organic
carbon-nitrogen ratio of the primary-secondary sludge mixture varied from
13 to 42:1 (average C/N ratio for seven dates in 1979 was 23). The sludge
(25-35% solids) contained approximately 50% clay (kaolinite) and 50%
organic matter on a dry solids basis. Chemical analyses of the sludge are
presented in Table 19-1.
Greenhouse Trial
A stripmine spoil used in greenhouse pot trials contained 0.81% S and had
a pH of 2.5. Potassium and phosphorus were added to the spoil to adjust
Table 19-1. Chemical Analysis of Papermill Sludge.
Element
Total nitrogen (% N)
Phosphorus (P)
Potassium (K)
Calcium (Ca)
Magnesium (Mg)
Copper (Cu)
Zinc (Zn)
Manganese (Mn)
Cadmium (Cd)
Nickel (Ni)
Lead (Pb)
Range
0.27-1.03
21-51
231-411
2705-5820
635-874
41-61
216-366
34-41
0.1-1.4
35-63
28-37
1
A.11 values except nitrogen represent ppm.
-------
Hoitink and Watson 303
levels to 200 and 85 kg/ha, respectively. The papermill sludge used in this
trial had a pH of 7.2 and an organic carbon-nitrogen ratio of 42:1.
Sludge incorporation rates were 0%, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, 10% and 15%
on a dry weight basis (equivalent to 0, 56, 112, 168, 224 and 336 metric
tons of dry sludge/ha-15 cm). Each sludge combination was mixed
thoroughly with the spoil in a concrete mixer for 3 minutes and placed
in pots (2.5 kg/pot). The pH readings of the 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, 10 and 15%
sludge-amended spoil mixtures were 5.0, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6 and 5.6, respectively.
Five levels of nitrogen were added to each sludge incorporation rate.
Ammonium nitrate was added at 53 kg/ha. In addition, slow release fertilizer
(sulfur coated urea, O. M. Scott & Sons, Marysville, OH) was applied after
seeding at rates equivalent to 178, 356 and 534 kg/ha. Kentucky 31 tall
fescue was seeded at an equivalent rate of 55 kg/ha. Pots were watered
as needed and 20-25 C temperature was maintained in a greenhouse.
Vegetation was harvested 10 weeks after seeding. Harvesting was
repeated five times (once every 8 weeks) thereafter. Dry weight yields of
foliage were determined for each cutting.
Results
Yields of the 2nd and 4th harvest for the various sludge incorporation rates
are presented in Table 19-2. Grass died before emergence in the non-amended
spoil. As indicated by the fourth and later harvests, sludge loading rates
significantly affected yields. During earlier harvests, however, differences
were less significant. Even at the highest incorporation rate (15%), maximum
yields apparently were not obtained.
Table 19-2. Kentucky 31 Tall Fescue Yields from Acidic Stripmine Spoil Amended
with Various Rates of Papermill Sludge.
Sludge
rate (%)
0
2.S
5.0
7.5
10
15
Yield
2nd Harvest
0.00 f1
3.38 b
3.73 ab
3.66 b
4.30 a
3.89 ab
(l/pot)
4th Harvest
0.00 f
2,93 e
3.25 d
3.66 c
4.26 b
4.69 a
1
Values followed by the same letter are
not significant}/ different at the 1%
level of probability (Duncan's New
Multiple Range Test).
-------
304 Forest Applications
Table 19-3. Effect of Nitrogen on Yield of Kentucky 31 Tall Fescue Yields from Acidic
Stripmine Spoil Amended with Papermill Sludge.
Nitrogen
applied
(kg/ha)
0
53
53+ (178 SR)
53+ (356 SR)
53+ (534 SR)
Yield
2nd Harvest
2.22 c3
2.72 c
S.92 b
5.11 a
5.01 a
(g/pot) 1
4th Harvest
2.74 c
2.91 c
3.80 b
4.57 a
4.76 a
1
Values are means of five sludge
incorporation rates.
2
From slow release nitrogen fertilizer.
3
Values followed by the same letter are
not significantly different at the 1% level
of probability (Duncan's New Multiple Range
Test).
Addition of nitrogen significantly increased yields (Table 19-3). The
effect was more pronounced in the early harvests than in the later harvests.
The effects of nitrogen application on yield for the various sludge
incorporation rates are illustrated further in Figures 19-1 and 19-2. Grass
yield increased with increased sludge incorporation levels, regardless of the
N level applied. Furthermore, addition of nitrogen increased yields for each
sludge rate. However, the rate of yield increase was greater when nitrogen
was not applied (Figure 19-1) as compared to treatments where nitrogen
was added (Figure 19-2). This may indicate that the nitrogen contained in
the sludge was not as readily utilized when other sources of nitrogen were
applied. The relationship between grass yield and applied sludge rate was
predominately linear for the range of sludge rates used, indicating that
maximum vegetative yield was not attained in this experiment.
Field Demonstration Trial
A 9-acre acidic stripmine spoil area (pH 2.4, 0.71% S) near Wellston, Ohio
was selected for papermill sludge application. Sludge was applied at rates
of 0, 7.5, 10 and 15% (dry wt) and incorporated within the top six inches
of spoil. The spoil was seeded with a mixture of grasses and red clover
in June 1979. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium were applied at 20 kg/ha.
Extensive vegetation was established on all plots treated with sludge.
Vegetation did not become established on the untreated areas. Leaf tissue
was collected from this trial and analyzed for nitrogen and heavy metals.
The leaf N concentrations were normal (3.45%) for the 10 and 15% sludge
-------
Hoitink and Watson 305
= 096
I i 3 4 5 6 7 6 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16
Sludge Applied C °/o of spoil wl )
Figure 19-1. Effect of Sludge Incorporation Rate on Yield of Ky 31 Tall Fescue on
Acidic Stripmine Spoil with no Additional Nitrogen Applied.
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 I
Sludgt Apphtd ( Vo of ipoil wt )
12 13 14 15 16
Figure 19-2. Effect of Sludge Incorporation Rate on Yield of Ky 31 Tall Fescue on
Acidic Stripmine Spoil Amended with 409 kg
incorporation rates but lower (1.97%) for the 7.5% rate. The analysis showed
no abnormal heavy metal uptake by the plants grown in the sludge amended
spoil (Table 19-4). The nutrient content will be monitored through time.
Lush vegetative growth has been maintained throughout two growing seasons
without any additional fertilizers applied.
-------
306 Forest Applications
Table 19-4. Comparison of Concentrations of Heavy Metals in Foliage of Grasses
Produced on Agricultural Soils and on an Acidic Stripmine Spoil Reclaimed with
Papermill Sludge.
Concentration of metals
Element
Cd
Cu
Nl
Pb
Zn
Cr
Reclaimed
spoil
0.7
6
2.5
0.1
19
1.0
Agricultural
soils
0.01-3.0
10-30
0.5-5.0
0.5-10.0
20-30
0.05-2.0
1
All values represent ppm.
The foregoing data indicate that a mixture of primary and activated
secondary papermill sludge can be used successfully for reclamation of acidic
strip mine spoil. Results obtained in this study are similar to those published
for municipal sludges applied to acid spoils (4, 5).
Literature Cited
1. Dolar, S. G., J. R. Boyle, and D. R. Keeney. 1972. Papermill sludge disposal
on soils: Effects on the yield and mineral nutrition of oats (Avena sativa L.).
J. Environ. Quality 1:405-409.
2. Huettl, P. J., R. B. Corey, and J. G. Iyer. 1978. Cropland disposal of a primary
papermill sludge. Proceedings of the First Annual Conference of Applied Research
and Practice on Municipal and Industrial Waste, pp. 481-493. Madison, WI.
Sept. 10-13.
3. Jacobs, L. W. 1978. Utilizing paperboard waste water sludge on agricultural soils.
Proceedings of the First Annual Conference of Applied Research and Practice on
Municipal and Industrial Waste, pp. 509-516. Madison, WI. Sept. 10-13.
4. Sopper, W. E., J. A. Dickerson, C. F. Hunt, and L. T. Kardos. 1970. Revegetation
of stripmine spoil banks through irrigation with municipal sewage effluent and
sludge. Inst. for Research on Land and Water Resources. ff20. 6 p. The
Pennsylvania State University.
5. Sutton, P., and J. P. Vimmerstedt. 1973. Treat stripmine spoils with sewage sludge.
Ohio Report 58:121-123.
-------
20
SEWAGE SLUDGE AIDS RECLAMATION OF DISTURBED
FOREST LAND IN THE SOUTHEAST
Charles R. Berry
Sewage sludge as a soil amendment offers great potential for returning mine
spoils, borrow pits, or badly eroded areas in the Southeast to full
productivity. Excellent gro.wth of loblolly, Virginia, and shortleaf pines, and
sweetgum has been obtained on substrata on which 34 mt/ha of dried sewage
sludge had been broadcast. On plots amended with this amount of sewage
sludge, pine produced 25 times more seedling volume than on plots amended
with 560 kg/ha of 10-10-10 plus 2,240 kg/ha dolomitic limestone. Shortleaf
pine, however, survived poorly on eroded forest land amended with sludge.
Mortality was due largely to competition from weeds stimulated by sludge
amendments. Weed competition was not a problem on reclaimed borrow
pits or other areas not already supporting herbaceous vegetation. Slit
application of small amounts of sewage sludge is suggested for increasing
early growth of tree seedlings where weeds are a problem or transportation
of sludge in quantities sufficient for broadcast application is not feasible.
Introduction
Most published reports on use of sewage sludge in reclamation have been
concerned with rehabilitation of coal strip mines in the Northeastern and
Midwestern States. In southern Illinois, for example, Lejcher and Kunkle
(1973) achieved good cover of K-31 tall fescue (Fescue arundinaceae) and
weeping love grass (Eragrostis curvula.) on strip-mined spoil in one growing
season after applying 304 dry mt/ha of sludge containing about 5.0 percent
total nitrogen. Treatments of 78 or 178 mt/ha, however, were not effective.
Sutton and Vimmerstedt (1973) achieved good first-year growth of several
cover crops on toxic mine spoil (pH 2.3) in Ohio after applying 294 dry
mt/ha of sludge containing 1.76 percent N, 1.34 percent P, and 0.38 percent
K. Also, in southern Illinois, Roth and others (1979) obtained good first-year
response from several woody species to treatments of sewage sludge ranging
from 462 to 668 mt/ha, with sycamore and autumn olive growing particularly
well. Kerr, Sopper, and Edgerton (1979) evaluated responses after three
growing seasons of several herbaceous and woody species planted on a burned
anthracite refuse bank that had received treatments of heat-dried sewage
sludge consisting of 0, 40, 75, and 150 mt/ha. They found that, in general,
increasing sludge levels increased growth but decreased survival. Of the woody
species tested, European balck alder (Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.), hybrid
poplar (Populus sp.), and black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) grew better
-------
308 Forest Applications
than white (Pinus strobus L.), Austrian (P. nigra Arnold), Virginia (P.
virginiana. Mill.), or red (P. resinosa Ait.) pines, white spruce (Picea glauca.
(Moench.) Voss.), Japanese larch (Larix leptolepis (Sieb. and Zucc.) Gord.),
or black walnut (Juglans nigra L.).
Disturbed lands in the Southeastern United States include coal
strip-mined spoils in Alabama, Tennessee, and Virginia; phosphate-mined
spoils in Florida, North Carolina, and Tennessee; kaolin-mined spoils in
Georgia, and North and South Carolina; and borrow pits in all States. Other
problem sites are severely eroded former agricultural lands, including over
2 million hectares on the Piedmont Plateaus of Alabama, Georgia, Virginia,
and North and South Carolina, and 2 to 3 million hectares of soils with
sand two or more meters deep in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and South
Carolina. Another area badly in need of reclamation is the Copper Basin
of Tennessee. It was denuded and removed from forest production in the
1800's by air pollution from copper smelting and today remains unsightly
and the cause of severe stream siltation. While applications of sewage sludge
probably would increase productivity on all of the above types of
impoverished land, experiments with sewage sludge have been carried out
on only a few of them.
This paper summarizes several U. S. Forest Service studies on the value
of sewage sludge in reclaiming several kinds of disturbed sites in the
Southeast. None of these sites contained toxic substances, but all have been
problem sites, i.e., aesthetically displeasing, low or lacking in plant
productivity, or highly erodable. In some cases, past efforts merely to
establish a permanent ground cover have failed.
The sewage sludge for these studies was obtained from plants employing
secondary treatment with anerobic digestion and sand bed drying. An analysis
of this sludge (Berry, 1979) reveals about 2% N, 1% P, and 0.5% K. Recent
additional analyses for metals reveal approximately 1.9 ppm Cd and 251
ppm Zn.
Experimental plots were prepared by thoroughly disking the sludge into
the surface material, usually to a depth of 15 cm. In addition, the sites
were usually subsoiled to a depth of 60 to 90 cm. Subsoiling is regarded
as essential on many sites to facilitate planting and improve soil water and
soil aeration. Spacing between subsoiled furrows and whether furrows were
made in one direction or two varied by experiment. Treatment plots
contained from 16 to 36 trees, and in most experiments treatments were
replicated five times. Data were analyzed by analysis of variance and means
were separated by Duncan's multiple range test or least significant
differences.
The Tennessee Copper Basin
Starting in the early 1840s and continuing into the 1900s, air pollution
from the processing of copper ore killed nearly all natural vegetation on
-------
Berry 309
several thousand acres in the Tennessee Copper Basin. With the vegetation
gone, erosion became severe and in time most of the A and B horizon soil
throughout the basin was eroded away. In recent years, tree seedlings planted
here barely survived unless nutrients were applied. Analyses of soil in this
area reveal levels of total N, and exchangeable P and K as low as 60, 1,
and 5 ppm, respectively. Tree seedlings planted in the area are commonly
fertilized with a commercial 9 g starter tablet (Sierra Chemical Co., Miltipas,
Calif.). Attempts to reclaim the basin, however, have met with only marginal
success except near the perimeter where erosion and air pollution have not
been so severe.
A single application of dried sewage sludge 1.3 cm deep (34 mt/ha),
broadcast and incorporated into the soil before planting, stimulated volume
growth of loblolly (Pinus taeda L.), shortleaf (P. echinata Mill.), and Virginia
pines 214%, 122%, and 253%, respectively, after 4 years over seedlings grown
in plots receiving 896 kg/ha of 10-10-10 fertilizer applied in combination
with 1,417 kg/ha of CaO (Table 20-1). A nonfertilized control was omitted
from this experiment because previous work (Berry 1979) showed that
nonfertilized seedlings make extremely slow growth and usually die soon
after planting. Pines in the sludge treated plots are continuing to grow
vigorously, are producing a thick layer of duff, and erosion has been checked.
Eroded Piedmont Forest Lands
Severe erosion of cropland in the Piedmont areas of Alabama, Georgia, North
and South Carolina, and Virginia in the 1800s was brought about by poor
agricultural practices. Originally, soil in this region was rich and productive,
but after years of poor soil management much of the topsoil was removed
Table 20-1. Effect of Sewage Sludge on Growth of Pine Seedlings After 4 Years in
the Tennessee Copper Basin.1
o/
Treatment-
Sludge
Fertilizer
Sludge
Fertilizer
Sludge
Fertilizer
Survival
%
82. la
79. 4a
62. 8a
68. Sa
83. 2a
89. Oa
Height Diameter
era ana
Loblolly pine
190. 7a 49. 6a
121.3b 32. 9b
Shortleaf pine
103. 9a 26. 8a
74 . 3b 20 . 9b
Virginia pine
178. Oa 46. 9a
109. 3b 30. 7b
Volume (D2H)
cm
5,582a
l,779b
1,14 la
558b
4,491a
l,274b
— All values followed by the same letter within a column and species do
not differ significantly at P = 0.05.
— Sewage sludge broadcast at a rate of approximately 34,000 kg/ha or
1.25 cm deep. Fertilizer (10-10-10) applied at 896 kg/ha with burned
lime (CaO) applied at a rate of 1,417 kg/ha.
-------
310 Forest Applications
by erosion, leaving a hard, infertile, highly erodable substratum exposed or,
at best, covered with only a thin layer of friable soil. It is estimated that
2 million hectares of this kind of land are covered with slow growing, low
quality pines and hardwoods. Shortleaf pine, when grown on these sites often
exhibits symptoms of nitrogen deficiency-short twigs and short chlorotic
needles--a condition referred to as "littleleaf" disease. Although loblolly pines
do not exhibit symptoms of nutrient deficiency to the extent that shortleaf
pines do, growth of this species is also slow.
An experiment was conducted on a typical littleleaf site in eastern
Georgia to compare the effects of 0, 17, 34, and 68 mt/ha of dried sewage
sludge on growth of loblolly pine. Mean growth of loblolly pine was best
at 68 mt/ha while shortleaf grew better at 17 mt/ha (Table 20-2). Sewage
sludge stimulated luxuriant growth of ragweed (Ambrosia artemisifolia] and
crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis), and failure to obtain statistical significance
between mean growth values for pines is attributed in part to weed
competition (Berry 1977). These results suggest that an application of
herbicide following sludge application might be worthwhile where growth
of herbaceous species is not desirable. On most reclamation sites, however,
a heavy cover of natural vegetation may be highly desirable for stabilizing
the soil.
Borrow Pits
The use of earthfill for construction projects results in the creation of borrow
pits. Typically, borrow pits consist of exposed hard substratum material that
is low in nutrients and organic matter and with poor internal drainage. Several
experiments designed to study revegetation of borrow pits were installed
at the Department of Energy's Savannah River Plant. Two experiments, one
Table 20-2. Growth of Loblolly and Shortleaf Pines on Eroded Forest Land Amended
with Sewage Sludge After 5 Years.1
Sludge
treatment
mt/ha
0
17
34
68
0
17
34
68
Survival
X
96a
86 a
67a
67a
68a
77a
42b
-
Height
cm
Loblolly
34 la
369a
404a
359a
Shortleaf
202a
269a
281a
-
Diameter
cm
pine
8.3a
9.0a
9.9a
10. 4a
pine
5.9a
6.8a
6.5a
-
Volume
cur
24,636a
33,901a
41,345a
41,307a
8,867a
22,467a
14,308a
-
First year
weed
biomass
g/m'
121c
34 Ib
32 Ib
475a
91d
228c
370b
56 3a
— All values followed by the same letter within a column and species do
not differ significantly at P • 0.05.
-------
Berry 311
Table 20-3. Chemical Soil Properties of a Borrow Pit After 3 Years as Influenced by
Fertilizer and Lime or Sewage Sludge.
Treatment
Control
(no amendment)
Fertilizer
and llme^-'
Sewage sludge^/
N
112b
153b
595a
P
7b
13b
84 a
K
6a
7a
7a
Ca
4b
16a
22a
Hg
lib
65a
18b
Organic
matter
0.4b
0.6b
1.6a
PH
4.2b
4.9a
4.2b
— All values followed by trie same letter within a column do not differ
significantly at P • 0.05.
-^560 kg/ha of 10-10-10 fertilizer plus 2,240 kg/ha of dolomitic lime-
stone.
-^34 mt/ha.
with loblolly pine and the other with sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua
L.), have shown the value of dried sewage sludge as an amendment to improve
tree growth on borrow pit sites.
Loblolly pine was planted on plots with (1) 560 kg/ha of 10-10-10
fertilizer and 2,240 kg/ha of dolomitic limestone, (2) 17 mt/ha of dried
sewage sludge, or (3) nothing (Berry and Marx 1980). After 3 years, soil
analysis showed that the sludge application maintained respective levels of
N, P, Ca, and organic matter at 5, 11, 4, and 3 times higher than on control
plots. The fertilizer-lime application increased Ca three-fold and Mg nearly
five-fold, and raised pH from 4.2 to 4.9 (Table 20-3). While the fertilizer
and lime treatment increased certain soil nutrients and pH, it did not increase
growth of loblolly pine and only slightly improved growth of grass. Sewage
sludge, on the other hand, provided a 25-fold increase in seedling volume
and a 12-fold increase in grass cover over 3 years compared to the fertilizer
and lime treatment (Table 20-4). Similar results were obtained by Ruehle
(1980) in an adjacent study with container-grown loblolly pine seedlings.
He reported that seedlings after 2 years had 20 times more volume on plots
receiving 34 mt/ha sewage sludge than on plots receiving 560 kg/ha of
10-10-10 fertilizer with 2,240 kg/ha dolomitic limestone. Ruehle also found
that ectomycorrhizal treatments interacted with soil amendments; the
ectomycorrhizal fungus Pisolithus tinctorius stimulated 300 percent more
volume growth than Thelephora terrestris, but only on plots amended with
sewage sludge (Table 20-5).
In another experiment, sweetgum was planted on plots amended with
0, 17, 34, or 68 mt/ha of dried sewage sludge. Sweetgum, a consistent
competitor on a wide range of upland Piedmont sites, is not normally planted
to reclaim harsh disturbed sites because early height growth and crown
-------
312 Forest Applications
Table 20-4. Mean Growth and Survival of Loblolly Pine and Grass Biomass Production
After 3 Years on a Subsoiled Borrow Pit as Influenced by Sewage Sludge and
Fertilizer.
Treatment?-'
Control
Fertilizer
and 1 ime
Sewage sludge
Survival
7.
81a
77a
74a
Height
m
0.63b
0.72b
2.23a
Koot collar
diameter
cm
1.9b
2. Ob
6.4a
Seedling
volume (D2H)
cm3 (x 102)
4b
4b
lOOa
Grass
btotnass
g/n?
0
29b
35 3b
— Means followed by the same letter within a column do not differ
significantly at P = 0.05.
-'Fertilizer and lime: 560 kg/ha of 10-10-10 fertilizer plus 2,240 kg/ha
of dolomitic limestone. Sewage sludge: broadcast evenly on the soil
surface to a depth equal to 1.3 cm or 34 mt/ha. All plots double disked
to incorporate amendments.
on a Borrow Pit.
Treatment
Sludge
Fertilizer
Mycorrhizal
condition
Pis oli thus
Thelephora
Control
j£;
Pisoltthus
Thelephora
Control
X
Survival-
iS
91. 2a
73. 6a
68. Oa
77. 6B
96 .Oa
88. Ob
89. 6b
91. 2A
Height
cm
107. 2a
76. Ob
70. 7b
81. 1A
34. 5a
31.4ab
26. 3b
30. 7B
Root
collar dia.
(cm)
3.0a
1.9b
1.6b
2.2A
0.9a
0.9ab
0.7b
0.8B
Seedling
volume (D2H)
cm3
1215.4a
390. 4a
236. 5b
614. 2A
38. Oa
35.0
16. Ob
29. 7B
— Means of survivors from 25 test seedlings initially planted in each of
five plots. Each number followed by the same letter within groups of
parameters does not differ significantly at P =* 0,05.
— Damage caused by deer accounted for considerable within-treatment
variation.
— Capital letters denote significant differences (P = 0.01) between
groups according to Student*t t-test.
closure are usually slow. Although survival was poor on sludge plots in this
study-probably the result of heavy competition or allelopathic effects of
fescue (Walters and Gilmore 1976)—the sweetgum seedlings that survived are
growing very well after 4 years on plots receiving 34 or 68 mt/ha of dried
sewage sludge. Their volume averages over 10 times that of controls (Table
20-6). The short-term growth rates of surviving trees exceed what is normally
encountered in typical reforestation plantings with this species.
-------
Berry 313
Table 20-6. Response of Sweetgum to Broadcast Applications of Dried Sewage Sludge
After 4 Years.1 • *
Sludge
application
mt/ha
0
17
34
68
Survival
81a
52b
53b
42b
Height
cm
85. Ob
236. Oa
281. 5a
239. Oa
Root collar
diameter
cm
1.6c
1.9bc
2.6ab
2.7a
Volume
(D^H)
224b
1270ab
2382a
2639a
— Values followed by the same letter within a column do not differ
significantly at P = 0.05.
—Unpublished data courtesy Paul Kormanik, Richard Schultz, and William
Bryan.
Table 20-7. Effects of Slit Applications of Dried Sewage Sludge and Forest Starter
Tablets on Growth of Loblolly Pine Seedlings After 3 Growing Seasons.
Treatment
Control
30 g sludge
60 g sludge
90 g sludge
9 g tablet 2/
21 g tablet -'
Survival
Z
45a
56a
70a
63a
69 a
63a
Stem
height
cm
26. 2d
41. 8c
41. 4c
46.3bc
49. 4a
56.5a
Root collar
diameter
cm
0.6d
1.2c
1.2c
1.5b
1.6b
2.0a
Volume
(D2H)
cm3
14.3d
68.2cd
74. Oc
124. 6bc
147. %
297. 9a
— Values followed by the same letter within a column do not differ
significantly at P = 0.05.
— Sierra Chemical Company, Mlltipas, California.
Slit Applications
When disturbed areas are so remote from a sewage treatment plant that
it is not feasible to transport sludge in sufficient quantities for broadcast
applications or when growth of natural vegetation would compete with tree
seedlings, slit applications offer a viable alternative. In the Copper Basin,
Berry (1979) showed that 90 g of dried sewage sludge placed in the "closing"
hole when planting stimulated growth of loblolly pine about as much as
a commercial 9 g forest starter tablet (Table 20-7). In a subsequent study
on a borrow pit, sludge was enriched with a slow-release nitrogen [Nitroform
Powder Blue (38-0-0), Hercules, Inc., Wilmington, Del.] to adjust total N
to about 7 percent and then compressed into a circular pellet 2 inches in
diameter and 1 inch thick (about 60 grams). After 1 year, trees treated
with sludge pellets in slit applications were over 2.5 times larger in volume
than controls and approximately 63 percent as large as trees treated with
a commercial 21 g forest starter tablet (Table 20-8). A final evaluation of
these two treatments, however, will not be made until several growing seasons
have elapsed. While slit applications cannot supply quantities of nutrients
and organic matter equal to broadcast applications, they do stimulate good
early growth of tree seedlings.
-------
314 Forest Applications
Kaolin Spoil
About 8,498 ha had been surface mined for kaolin clay in Georgia by 1973,
and up to 120,000 ha of land containing kaolin clay may eventually be
mined. Spoil material from a surface mine near Macon, Georgia, was placed
in redwood microplots 1.0 m x 1.5 m x 30 cm deep. The spoil was amended
with 0, 34, 69, 138, or 275 mt/ha with each treatment replicated five times.
Eight loblolly pine seedlings were planted in each microplot on a 30 x 30
cm spacing. Fresh weight of the aboveground biomass of the seedlings after
one growing season was approximately doubled in the 34, 69, and 138 mt/ha
treatments compared to controls, while the 275 mt/ha treatment did not
improve growth over controls (Table 20-9). Although there was a significant
decrease in survival related to increased amounts of sludge, seedlings used
in the study had broken dormancy just prior to lifting from the nursery
beds and may have been more sensitive to sludge amendments than fully
dormant seedlings.
Discussion
The studies summarized in this paper have shown the value of dried sewage
sludge for reclaiming several kinds of disturbed sites in the Southeast. The
Table 20-8. Stimulation of First Year Growth of Loblolly Pine Seedlings on a Borrow
Pit with Pelletized Sewage Sludge.1
Treatment
Control
Sludge pellet
21 g starter pill
Survival
lOOa
lOOa
lOOa
Height
cm
29. 4c
33. 6b
40. 8a
Diameter
cm
0.8c
1.2b
1.4a
Volume (D2H)
cm
191c
520b
831a
— Values followed by the same letter within a column do not differ
significantly at P - 0.05.
Table 20-9. Survival and Growth of Loblolly Pine Seedlings During 6 Months in Kaolin
Mine Spoil Amended with Sewage Sludge.
Sludge rate
mt/ha
0
34
69
138
275
Survival
%
99
84
81
60
39
Height
cm
28.6
42.7
45.6
36.0
27.2
Root collar
diameter
cm
0.8
1.4
1.4
1.2
0.6
Aboveground
fresh weight
g
23.6
53.4
54.0
49.3
19.8
L.S.D. (P - 0.05) 1.5 6.2 0.09 22.3
-------
Berry 315
sludge used, while relatively low in total N and exchangeable P, was an
excellent source of nutrients and organic matter. It should be an adequate
amendment for most impoverished sites in the Southeast when applied at
a rate of 34 mt/ha. Loblolly pine, one of the most important timber species
in the South, is capable of extremely rapid early growth, even on the poorest
of sites, after amendment with sludge. Virginia pine grows as rapidly on
sludge-amended plots as loblolly pine in the Tennessee Copper Basin.
Shortleaf pine, however, was not stimulated as much as loblolly by sewage
sludge in the Copper Basin and was unable to compete with weeds,
particularly on plots amended with 68 mt/ha, on an eroded forest site in
Georgia.
Competition by naturally occurring weeds was not a problem on sites
that were completely barren. Low survival of sweetgum on amended borrow
pits, however, is attributed to competition and the allelopathic effects of
fescue which had been planted as part of the reforestation experiment. In
future reclamation efforts, the use of fescue for rapid stabilization should
be avoided when hardwoods, especially sweetgum, are being planted as
permanent species. Planting of other grasses should be delayed until tree
seedlings are established.
Metz and others (1970) found 670 to 900 kg/ha of N, 15 to 22 kg/ha
of P, and 62 to 108 kg/ha of K in the forest floor and the upper 7.6 cm
of mineral soil in 20-year-old southern pine plantations. A sludge application
rate of 34 mt/ha at 2% N, 1% P, and 0.5% K is equivalent to 680 kg/ha
of N, 340 kg/ha of P, and 170 kg/ha of K, and theoretically would transform
the nutrient status of the most barren site to that of an average southern
pine plantation. Thus, such a treatment appears at this stage in these
experiments to be more than adequate for mere reclamation, and promises
to enable restoration of a devastated site to a fully productive forest.
Slit application of sewage sludge pellets or fertilizer starter tablets needs
further study. Even though slit application of sewage sludge alone stimulated
good growth in our experiments, enrichment of the sludge with a slow-release
nitrogen fertilizer before pelletizing gave even better results. Since weeds
are not stimulated by slit applications, tree seedlings derive considerable
benefit from a minimal amount of sludge. Although seeded fescue rapidly
covered the ground in the Copper Basin experiment, the close spacing of
pines which grew rapidly on the sludge plots virtually eliminated the need
for grass. In this experiment an early thinning (5 years) was necessary in
order to maintain maximum growth of trees. Wood biomass from such early
thinning could have value as fuel resulting in an early financial return.
Our results show that very rapid early growth of timber can be achieved
on devastated sites in the Southeast by applying modest amounts of sewage
sludge. Future research efforts will explore advantages and disadvantages of:
(1) using sludge from different sources, (2) different methods of application,
(3) the enrichment of sludge with fertilizer for slit applications, and (4)
-------
316 Forest Applications
possible interactions between subsoiling and soil amendments. In a few more
years, results from these same experiments will indicate how long the benefits
of sludge application on a devastated site can be expected to continue.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. This report is based on studies carried out in
cooperation with the Catawba Timber Company, Elberton, Georgia; Cities
Service Company, Copper Hill, Tennessee; and the U.S. Department of
Energy (Contract DE-A109-76-SRO-870), Aiken, South Carolina.
Literature Cited
1. Berry, C. R. 1977. Initial Response of Pine Seedlings and Weeds to Dried Sewage
Sludge in Rehabilitation of an Eroded Forest Site. U.S. Dep. Agric. For. Serv.,
Res. Note SE-249.
2. Berry, C. R. 1979. Slit Application of Fertilizer Tablets and Sewage Sludge Improve
Initial Growth of Loblolly Pine Seedlings in the Tennessee Copper Basin. Reclam.
Rev. 2:33-38.
3. Berry, C. R., and D. H. Marx. 1980. Significance of Various Soil Amendments
to Borrow Pit Reclamation with Loblolly Pine and Fescue after 3 Years. Reclam.
Rev. 3 = 87-94.
4. Kerr, S. N., W. E. Sopper, and B. R. Edgerton. 1979. Reclaiming Anthracite Refuse
Banks with Heat-Dried Sewage Sludge. Utilization of Municipal Sewage Effluent
and Sludge on Forest and Disturbed Land, W. E. Sopper and S. N. Kerr, eds.
Pennsylvania State Univ. Press, University Park. pp. 333-351.
5. Lejcher, T. R., and S. H. Kunkle. 1973. Restoration of Acid Spoil Banks with
Treated Sewage Sludge. Recycling Treated Municipal Wastewater and Sludge
through Forest and Cropland, W. E. Sopper and L. T. Kardos, eds. Pennsylvania
State Univ. Press, University Park. pp. 184-199.
6. Metz, L. J., C. G. Wells, and P. O. Kormanik. 1970. Comparing the Forest Floor
and Surface Soil Beneath Four Pine Species in the Virginia Piedmont. U.S. Dep.
Agric. For. Serv., Res. Paper SE-55.
7. Roth, f. L., B. D. Jayko, and G. T. Weaver. 1979. Initial Survival and Performance
of Woody Plant Species on Sludge-Treated Spoils of the Palzo Mine. Utilization
of Municipal Sewage Effluent and Sludge on Forest and Disturbed Land, W. E.
Sopper and S. N. Kerr, eds. Pennsylvania State Univ. Press, University Park. pp.
389-394.
8. Ruehle, J. L. 1980. Growth of Containerized Loblolly Pine with Specific
Ectomycorrhizae after 2 Years on an Amended Borrow Pit. Reclam. Rev. 3:95-101.
9. Sutton, P., and J. P. Vimmerstedt. 1973. Treat Stripmine Spoils with Sewage
Sludge. Ohio Report 58:121-123.
10. Walters, D. T., and A. R, Gilmore. 1976. Allelopathic Effects of Fescue on the
Growth of Sweetgum. J. Chem. Ecol. 2:469-479.
-------
21
USE OF ORGANIC AMENDMENTS FOR BIOMASS
PRODUCTION ON RECLAIMED STRIP MINES
IN THE SOUTHWEST
E. F. Aldon
This paper is a brief summary of some of our work with organic amendments
on coal mine spoils in the Southwest. Much of the work is still in the
experimental stage or being prepared for publishing. This symposium offered
an opportunity to present our preliminary findings to you and they are
given in an outline form. The Station began its initial work in cooperation
with New Mexico State University with a greenhouse study using sludge
and have recently expanded this work to several field studies. Some field
studies include the use of sewage sludge. In other studies we are using other
organic amendments. Both types of studies will be reported here.
We began with a pot study in the greenhouse using organic amendments
in spoil material to test their effect on plant growth. The treatments tested
were: a hay mulch added to pots at the rate of 10 tons per acre, sewage
sludge added at rates of 40, 20, and 10 tons per acre, and nitrogen fertilizer
was added at the rate of 300 pounds per acre, along with a phosphorus
fertilizer at 3,000 pounds per acre. In addition, a topsoil treatment was
included at a rate of 100 tons per acre. A randomized complete block design
was used with four replications of each and all combinations of the
treatments.
The pots were planted to blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis) grass and later
thinned to six plants per pot. Dry matter yield was greatest for the fertilizer
and sludge amended treatments (1). Bacterial populations (heterotrophic
aerobic bacteria and several nitrogen cycle organisms) were highest in the
fertilizer-amended spoils and lowest in the unamended spoil. However, greater
fungi and actinomycete numbers were found in sludge-amended spoils than
for other treatments. Sludge-amended spoils also had a greater variety of
fungal species. Nitrification potential, CC>2 evolution, and dehydrogenase
activities are now being conducted to correlate activity with treatment
numbers and effects.
Encouraged by these results, a field study was installed this year on
San Juan Mine near Farmington, New Mexico, using native hay crimped
in the spoil at the rate of 1 ton per acre, sewage sludge applied at the
rate of 5 tons per acre, a topsoil treatment 1 foot deep, and then a series
of plots using mycorrhizae in the form of a root inoculant, a spore inoculant,
and as a topsoil inoculant. Fourwing saltbush (Atriplex canescens) was
planted. These plots were replicated four times. Each plot received 30 pounds
per acre of phosphorus and nitrogen. A control of untreated spoil material
was also used. The results of this study have not been measured as yet,
-------
318 Forest Applications
for it was just installed this past spring.
At the McKinley coal mine near Gallup, New Mexico, a study was
installed 2 years ago to determine the effects of organic amendments and
contour furrowing on grass establishment and soil moisture. The study was
conducted at two locations on the mined area, a plot study in highly sodic
shales and SAR's of around 30, and a demonstration area with SAR's of
about one-third of those values found on the plots. Treatments on the plot
area were replicated four times using approximately one-half hectare plots.
Treatments in the demonstration area were on 10-hectare plots and were
designed to demonstrate the treatments on an operational scale.
The Plot Study
Spoil amendments tested included the following: (1) partially decomposed
pine bark, (2) barley straw, and (3) a check. The bark was spread on the
spoil surface at a rate of 18 tons/ha and disked into the spoil. Nine tons/ha
of long stem straw was broadcast on the plots.
Contour furrowing, both with and without the spoil amendments, was
also tested. Large furrows (20 cm deep) were used with the bark and straw
plots and standard furrows (12 cm deep) were used with a straw mulch.
A single disk plow mounted on a crawler tractor was used to make large
furrows. The plow was operated on the contour and furrows were broken
every 5 meters by lifting the plow. A heavy disk harrow was used for
incorporation of the straw and bark and for making small contour furrows.
Rangeland drill was used to seed the following wheatgrass species:
western, fairway crested, intermediate, pubescent, and streambank
(Agropyron smithii, A. cristatum, A. intermedium, A. trichophorum, and
A. riparium). The seeding rate was 25 kg/ha with equal amounts for each
species. Chemical fertilizer was broadcast on all plots at the following rate:
56 kg/ha nitrogen, and 112 kg/ha phosphorus. All plots other than those
with organic amendments were mulched with 2.8 kg/ha of barley straw.
The numbers of plants established on the plots (including all grass
species) in 1978 and 1979 did not differ with the treatment (2). Grass plants
established ranged from 11 to 15 per square meter, considered an adequate
stand for shale spoils. Intermediate and fairway crested made up 88 percent
of the species composition. Intermediate was almost twice as tall as fairway
crested wheatgrass. In general, both furrowed and non-furrowed plots with
bark incorporation produced the tallest and thus the more vigorous plants.
Total grass production (2377 kg/ha) was greatest on plots with both
bark incorporation and large contour furrows. The next lower level (1814
kg/ha) was on bark plots without contour furrows. The remaining plots were
not different from each other and ranged between 495 and 770 kg/ha. The
bark incorporation, especially when used with furrowing, was clearly the
superior treatment on these plots.
-------
Aldon 319
Demonstration Area
Treatments on the three demonstration areas included: (1) incorporation
of 11 tons/ha of straw applied and disked into the spoil in two separate
applications and seeded; incorporation was done with the heavy disk harrow,
(2) application of approximately 15 cm of topsoil to graded spoil, contoured,
drill seeded, and broadcast straw mulch, and (3) graded spoil with the
standard reclamation practice at the mine. The standard practice consisted
of the following: contour furrowing on raw spoil with the heavy disk harrow,
seeding with the rangeland drill, and a broadcast mulch of straw (5.6
tons/ha). All three treatments received broadcast fertilizer. The species seeded
and broadcast fertilizer rates were the same as on the plot study. Soil
moisture (% by weight) of field samples (8-15 cm depth) was determined
by weighing. Bulk density was determined from cores (150 cc) of surface
material.
The number of established wheatgrass plants was similar on all three
treatments on the demonstration area. Grass plant density varied considerably
by species, regardless of treatment, with intermediate wheatgrass being by
far the most abundant. Grass plants were about four times as abundant on
the demonstration area as on the plots, indicating important site differences.
Total production was very high on all treatments when compared to
the plot area and especially to the surrounding unmined areas. The 4,038
kg/ha total production for straw incorporation is remarkably high considering
the rainfall, potential ET and the spoil substrate. Most of this production
(3,835 kg/ha) was due to intermediate wheatgrass on the straw-incorporated
area. Both fairway crested and western wheatgrass made up minor
components of the total production on this demonstration area.
During the wet 1978 fall, soil moisture was consistently high for all
treatments. The dry 1979 fall period, however, caused low soil moistures
and a difference in treatments. The straw-incorporated spoil retained more
moisture than the raw spoil and especially the topsoil. Bulk density was
also lower in the straw-incorporated area, resulting from the presence of
decomposed straw in the sample and to the greater porosity it provided.
Wheatgrasses, especially intermediate, were found to respond well to
amendments on sodic and less sodic coal spoils in the Southwest.
Amendments, including pine bark and barley straw, in combination with
contour furrowing were found to improve grass height growth and
production. The less sodic spoils were much more productive overall than
the sodic. Straw amended spoils with contour furrows produced the highest
plant production (4038 kg/ha) of all treatments. This is an exceptional
production (mainly intermediate wheatgrass) for an area of low rainfall (15
cm) and with a spoil substrate. Native production in the unmined area is
only a small fraction of this level.
-------
320 Forest Applications
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. We wish to thank Pittsburg and Midway Coal
Company and Consolidated Coal Company for their cooperation in supplying
manpower and materials to initiate and complete these studies.
Literature Cited
(1) M.S. in preparation - New Mexico State University
(2) M.S. in preparation - Rocky Mountain For. and Range Experiment Station
-------
VII / RECLAMATION WITH CHICAGO
SLUDGE
OVERVIEW
J. Schweigert
The use of municipal wastewater and sludge in land reclamation and biomass
production raises numerous questions and concerns, especially about the
potential long term environmental impacts and benefits that may result from
such projects. Several large scale projects involving such uses of municipal
sludge were initiated more than 10 years ago and have provided considerable
opportunity to observe and investigate many of their long term results. The
Fulton County Program has effectively utilized heavy applications of liquid
sludge to convert many hundreds of acres of surface mine spoils into
productive cropland. Corn, wheat and soybeans used for animal feed have
been safely produced on this land which was reclaimed using sludge
containing relatively high levels of heavy metals. Another long term project,
the Palzo Project, involved the use of very high applications of a similar
sludge to help restore highly acidic mine spoils to forest land. Careful
monitoring at these projects of surface waters and groundwater, plus detailed
studies of soils interactions, crop responses, plant uptake of contaminants
and animal feeding studies have helped answer some of the questions and
alleviate some of the concerns about the potential long term impacts of
such uses of municipal sludge in land reclamation and reforestation projects
on mine spoils. The results to date of these and other long term operational
project monitoring and research efforts have also identified other issues that
require further attention.
-------
22
METROPOLITAN CHICAGO'S FULTON COUNTY
SLUDGE UTILIZATION PROGRAM
James R. Peterson, Cecil Lue-Hing, John Gschwind,
Richard I. Pietz, and David R. Zenz
In 1968, the Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago (MSD)
adopted a policy that its sludge was to be used for land reclamation or
as an agricultural fertilizer. From 1970 through 1975, the MSD purchased
6,289 hectares of calcareous strip-mine spoils in Fulton County, Illinois for
the purpose of land reclamation.
With the cooperation of the Fulton County Board, a reclamation plan
was initiated in 1971 which included the following:
1. Level the mine spoils, where practical, to make row crop fields.
2. Apply liquid digested sewage sludge to these fields at rates which
will rapidly rebuild the topsoil to approximately its original condition
and fertility. Afterwards, sludge would be applied at a rate to maintain
this condition.
3. Establish a water monitoring system to ensure that sludge
constituents would not contaminate local waters.
Disc incorporation is used on 850 hectares of land, enabling up to 168
metric tons per hectare of sludge solids to be applied while controlling odors.
Corn, wheat, and soybeans have been successfully grown. Soil organic matter
has increased substantially, as have soil reserves of nitrogen and phosphorus.
Crops have been tested for heavy metal content, a major concern where
sludge from an industrial area is used on land. In response to recent Federal
regulations, future crops will be used only for animal feed.
Introduction
The United States sludge solids production has been estimated to be
approximately 9,072 metric tons (10,000 tons) per day, and this amount
is expected to increase to 11,800 metric tons/day (13,000 tons) by 1990
(Dean, 1973). Early workers in the field of sanitary engineering believed
that biological treatment of municipal wastewater would leave no residue.
However, it soon became apparent that whether it be the Imhoff tank,
the trickling filter, or the activated sludge process, sludge was produced in
abundant quantities which required a means of disposal. In 1900, several
methods of municipal sludge disposal were widely utilized in the U.S.;
namely, plate presses and sand drying beds were used to concentrate sludge,
and the resulting product disposed of in a landfill or given away as fertilizer
to farmers (Hyde, 1938). By 1920, the principal method of municipal sludge
-------
Peterson, Lue-Hing, Gschwind, Pietz, and Zenz 323
disposal was Imhoff digestion or separate digestion, followed by drying on
sand beds and burying in shallow trenches (Hyde, 1938).
Since the 1920s, the types of municipal sludge disposal processes
utilized have been many and varied, including flash drying to produce a
dry fertilizer and incineration of dewatered sludge. Today, one can find a
variety of processes which have found favor, but many municipalities still
use the concept first utilized at the turn of the century; that is, utilization
of municipal sludge for its fertilizer value.
It is safe to say that despite many years of research and operational
experience, the most difficult problem facing municipal wastewater treatment
agencies today is disposal of the sludge produced. In general, there is
sufficient technology available to effectively remove most pollutants from
municipal wastewater, but disposal of the resultant solids has been a difficult
technical, social, political, and aesthetic problem.
Although the sludge processing technology utilized today may be very
sophisticated, a residue always remains from processing which must be either
disposed of or utilized. The product eventually finds its way to either land,
water, or air; the consequences of which, must be evaluated. In addition,
the processes selected for use today, no matter how sophisticated, must have
low energy consumption rates.
Today, incineration is attractive to many, because the resultant product
is an inert ash that is small in volume and less aesthetically unacceptable
to citizens. However, the process releases significant quantities of air
pollutants in the absence of very advanced and expensive air pollution control
devices. Of even more concern, however, in today's energy situation, is the
amount of fuel required for this process, which in 1974 averaged 215 liters
of number 2 fuel oil to burn one metric ton of dry solids (51.6 gal/ton)
(Olexsey and Farrell, 1974).
The ocean has been utilized by many coastal cities, notably Philadelphia,
Los Angeles, and New York, as the ultimate repository of their municipal
sludge. However, in the U.S., this method is considered by the Federal
government to be detrimental to recreational use and aquatic life, and will
be eliminated by 1981 (Olexsey and Farrell, 1974).
Landfilling of sludge is utilized by many municipalities for sludge
disposal. The chief drawback to this method of sludge disposal is that there
is often insufficient landfill space available in large urban areas for solid
waste disposal.
The Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago (MSB) believes
that the fertilizer value of municipal sludge offers one of the best alternatives
to municipal wastewater treatment agencies. The sewage sludge is applied
on land in a controlled manner so as to reduce any potential environmental
hazards. Utilization, rather than disposal, requires relatively small amounts
of energy and offers the farmer a source of free or inexpensive fertilizer.
The MSD in 1970 purchased 2,898 ha (7,156 acres) of land in Fulton
-------
324 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
County, Illinois, for the purpose of recycling a portion of the digested sludge
generated within its jurisdiction. Currently, the MSD owns about 6,289 ha
(15,528 acres) of land in Fulton County.
This paper presents information concerning the operational aspects,
environmental impacts, and costs of operating a large-scale sludge utilization
program.
Operation of the Fulton County Site
Waste-activated sludge and a small percentage of primary sludge is digested
in heated (35±2 C) high rate digesters for 14 to 15 days at the MSB's
West-Southwest (WSW) plant. The solids from these high rate digesters and,
during warm weather, a portion of solids that have been previously stored
in large holding basins (lagoons) near the WSW plant are pumped to barges
for transportation to Fulton County, approximately 322 km (200 miles)
down the Illinois River. The barges are docked at Liverpool, Illinois, and
the solids are pumped 17 km (10.4 miles) through a pipeline to three holding
basins at the MSD's land spreading site.
The land at Fulton County had previously been strip-mined, and much
of it was being used for livestock pasture prior to the MSD operations. It
is the intention of the MSD to grade the land to control runoff, increase
the humus content by large additions of the organic matter contained in
the digested sludge, and restore the land to full agricultural productivity.
Sludge was applied with traveling sprinklers from 1972 to 1975. By
1977, this method was replaced with incorporation by heavy duty, off-set
discs which have several distinct advantages over traveling sprinklers. The
disc incorporation device can apply a greater amount of sludge per
application because the sludge is mixed into the soil at the time of
application. Also, the reduced visibility, in contrast to the spray application,
is an important aesthetic consideration. The disc incorporation devices can
also distribute sludge to the perimeter of fields, while the spray application
is often spotty due to difficulty of controlling the path of the spray under
varying wind conditions. The tractor must pull the tandem disc through
the soil and drag a 200 m (660 ft) length of 12.7 cm (5 in) diameter flexible
hose. Such loads make it difficult to incorporate sludge during wet soil
conditions.
The tandem disc currently being used is a heavy-duty agricultural type,
approximately 3.34 m (11 ft) in width, which can till the soil to a depth
of 20 cm (8 in). The disc is equipped with a manifold which distributes
sludge to each disc-blade. Travel speeds are approximately 1.6 to 2.4 km/hr
(1 to 1.5 mph). A disc with blades of 60 cm (24 in) or more in diameter,
a blade spacing of 23-28 cm (9-11 in), and a working weight per blade
of 90.6 kg (200 Ibs) appears to be optimum for the highly compacted clay
-------
Peterson, Lue-Hing, Gschwind, Pietz, and Zenz 325
soils at the Fulton County site.
Figure 22-1 shows a typical application field. Application fields are
situated on both non-mined and mine-spoil areas. Each field receiving sludge
is bermed and drains to a runoff retention basin. Each basin is designed
to capture a storm event equalling the regional 100 year storm (15.5 cm).
Runoff water is released only after it meets the State of Illinois permit
standards (TSS<99 mg/1, BODO3 mg/1, and fecal coliform<494 counts/100
ml).
Sludge applied to the Fulton County agricultural fields since 1971 is
typified by the 1979 data (Table 22-1). One metric ton of sludge contains
40 kg of total nitrogen; of this, 16.8 kg is ammonia nitrogen, making this
sludge an excellent source of nitrogen. The sludge is well stabilized after
high rate digestion and lagooning, and has a mean volatile solids content
of 46.5%.
The annual and cumulative sewage sludge applications through 1979
to selected Fulton County fields are shown in Table 22-2.
Soil Response
The 6,289 ha (15,528 acre) reclamation site in west central Illinois is
primarily comprised of strip-mined land, with rough corduroy topography
and numerous lakes and ponds. Certain areas have been leveled for crop
or pasture. Because sludge is being applied for reclamation purposes, the
application rates are usually higher than crop nitrogen requirements.
A typical three-year field rotation schedule is to apply sludge for two
years and then grow a crop the third year to utilize the available N and
provide economic return. Soil sampling is done each spring prior to sludge
application. Soil pH, organic carbon, and element concentrations,
subsequently reflect soil conditions approximately five to six months after
sludge application ceased the previous fall.
The effect of sludge application on soil pH in the selected fields is
shown in Table 22-3. In most instances, the soil pH for the calcareous
mine-spoil fields and non-mined (placeland) fields dropped somewhat after
sludge application. The pH drop observed was most likely a result of
organic-N being mineralized to form NH^N and NC^-N, and the
decomposition of readily degradable organic matter. These biological
processes lead to the production of hydrogen ions and organic acids noted
by other researchers (Miller, 1974; Parr, 1974; Touchton and Boswell, 1975;
Varanka et al., 1976) on sludge amended-soils.
Table 22-3 suggests that soil pH in both strip-mined and non-mined
fields decreased due to the application of sludge. On the calcareous mine-spoil
fields, which normally receive more sludge than non-mined fields, the pH
has dropped to a range of 5.9-6.8 after six years of sludge application.
-------
326 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
BERMEO FIELD
(DESIGNED FOR 100 YEAR STORM)
CONTROLLED RELEASE
TO STREAM
Figure 22-1. Typical Field Design with Runoff Water Capture System Fulton County,
Illinois.
Table 22-1. Range of the Principal Constituents of the Digested Sludge Applied to
Fulton County Fields from May 6 to October 21, 1979 and the Mean Content
Per Dry Ton. Results are Based on Twenty-Two Weekly Composite Samples.
PH
E.G. , umhos/cm
Total P
N-Kjeldahl
N-NH,
Alk as CaCO,
Cl
Fe
Zn
Cu
Nl
Mn
K
Na
Mg
Ca
Pb
Cr
Cd
Al
Hg
Total solids
Tot. vol. solids
Mlnli
7
3200
1212
1026
632
2250
176
1561
131
63
13
12
40
40
370
970
15
120
10
410
0
3
42
num Maximum
.0 7.9
6800
mg/1
2060
2435
1072
5300
960
4790
226
.0 181
43
.2 29
250
110
720
2600
.0 56.9
386
.8 19.3
830
.049 0.368
,84 6,04
.4 51.4
Mean
Dry Basis
-
kg/mT
30
40
16.8
64
7.01
46.4
3.61
1.77
0.46
0.42
3.1
1.75
10.4
28.4
0.76
4.13
0.28
12.3
0.0041
1000
465
-------
Peterson, Lue-Hing, Gschwind, Pietz, and Zenz 327
to
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-------
328 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
Table 22-3. Soil pH in Selected Sludge-Amended Fields at Fulton County, Illinois Land
Reclamation Site.
Field
Number
Mine-Spoil
1
2
3
5
7
25
26
28
30
34
W-
X
Non-Mined
10
19
20
21
22
23
31
35
37
40
W-
X
Soil pH
1973 1974
7.
7.
7.8 8.
8.
.4
,7
0
.0
8.1
6.
7.
7.
7.
7.3 7.
6.
6.
6,
6,
7.0 7.
6.
5.
5.
5.
7.0 6,
,8
3
,4
.4
.6
,0
,7
,4
.3
,1
,4
,3
.9
.7
.2
1975
6
.5
6.8
6
7
7
6
7
7
7
6
7
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
.8
.2
.2
.8
.2
.3
.0
.8
.0
.6
.9
.7
.9
.6
.3
.0
6.0
5
6
.6
.0
1976
7.0
7.3
7.2
7.2
6.8
6.5
7.2
7.2
7.4
7.0
7.1
5.8
5.9
5.3
5.6
6.0
5.9
5.8
5.8
5.4
7.4
5.9
1977
6.
6.
6.
6.
7.
6.
6.
6.
,9
,6
6
.5
,2
,5
,8
5
7.0
7.0
6.8
5.
5.
5,
5.
5.
6,
5.
5.
5.
6.
5.
,6
^4
,3
,6
.6
,4
.8
.8
.6
.2
.7
1978
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
7
6
6
6
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
5
6
.8
.8
.5
.9
.0
.5
.9
.1
.8
.6
.8
.6
,9
.1
.1
.0
.4
.3
.2
.5
.8
.1
1979
5.
6.
6.
6.
6.
6.
6.
6.
6.
6.
6.
6.
5.
5.
5.
5.
6.
6.
5.
6.
6.
6.
9
6
5
5
7
4
8
7
8
6
6
0
8
8
8
6
2
0
8
2
5
0
Composite soil samples from 0-15 cm depth were taken each spring prior
to sludge application. Soil pH was determined using 1:1 soil/water
ratio.
W-, weighted mean, is based on analyzed soil samples reported for the
year in the table.
Peterson et al. (1979) reported a mean pH of 7.4 on strip-mined lands prior
to sludge application. In non-mined fields, the soil pH range was between
5.6-6.5 in 1979. Peterson et al. (1979) found the mean pH of these lands
prior to sludge application to be 6.5. On non-mined fields, agricultural lime
has been applied as required since 1977 to raise the soil pH to a more
desirable level.
Sewage sludge application resulted in an increase in soil organic carbon
contents (Table 22-4). Zenz et al. (1976) reported that the mean organic
carbon levels of strip-mined and non-mined areas prior to sewage sludge
application were 0.61 and 1.64%, respectively. The weighted means (W-)
for the two land types in Table 22-4 show that sludge applications have
generally increased the percentage of organic carbon in the soil each year.
The 1979 sampling revealed organic carbon contents up to 4.72% in
mine-spoil field 25 and 4.30% in non-mined field 20 (Table 22-4).
The addition of sludge organic matter has changed the bulk density
-------
Peterson, Lue-Hing, Gschwind, Pietz, and Zenz 329
Table 22-4. Soil Organic Carbon in Selected Sludge-Amended Fields at Fulton County,
Illinois Land Reclamation Site."1"
Field
Number*
Mine-Spoil
1
2
3
5
7
25
26
28
30
34
W-
X
Non-Mined
10
19
20
21
22
23
31
35
37
40
Wx
Organic Carbon
1973 1974
0.68
0.54
1.25 0.86
0
0
1
0
0
0
1.25 0
0
1
2
1
1.19 1
1
0
0
0
1.19 1
.38
.30
.28
.66
.53
.48
.63
.46
.47
.25
.00
.23
.06
.48
.99
.60
.06
1975
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
2
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
.75
.95
.96
.04
.59
.44
.16
.68
.84
.17
.86
.26
.60
.46
.35
.01
.65
.47
.78
.34
.10
1976
y
— — _£-
1.30
1.28
1.23
1.14
1.20
2.48
1.59
1.38
1.06
1.32
1.40
1.26
1.26
2,03
1.36
1.24
1.76
1.06
0.96
0.94
1.50
1.34
1977
2
2
2
2
0
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
0
1
1
2
1
.31
.74
.62
.69
.98
.11
.41
.34
.89
.09
.12
.44
.76
.84
.45
.96
.06
.92
.44
.09
.32
.73
1978
2.
3.
3.
2.
2.
3.
3.
82
38
08
97
69
99
59
3.10
3.
2.
3.
3.
2.
3.
2.
2.
2.
1.
2.
1.
2.
2.
57
50
17
34
45
37
64
60
50
60
38
78
98
56
1979
3
3
3
3
3
4
3
3
3
2
3
3
3
4
3
3
3
2
3
2
2
3
.62
.72
.80
.89
.63
. 72
.13
.35
.57
.83
.63
.95
.15
.30
.64
.76
.12
.84
.78
.24
.70
.25
Composite soil samples from 0-15 cm depth were taken each spring prior
to sludge application. Soil organic carbon by Walkley-Black method
(Allison, 1965).
W-, weighted mean, is based on analyzed soil samples reported for the
year in the table.
of strip-mined and non-mined fields. Peterson et al. (1979) reported bulk
density of 1.61 and 1.29 g/cc for the upper 7.5 cm of strip-mined and
non-mined areas, respectively, not receiving sewage sludge. Sampling of
sludge-amended fields in 1977 showed a bulk density of 1.10, 1.19, and
1.10 g/cc in strip-mined fields 2, 3, and 26, respectively, and 1.23 g/cc in
non-mined field 20. This indicates a lowering of bulk density by the addition
of sewage sludge.
The soil levels of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium provide an index
for examining the effect of municipal sewage sludge on the rebuilding of
topsoil (Tables 22-5, 22-6, and 22-7). The available mineral N, exchangeable
NH4-N, and NO^+NC^-N of non-mined and strip-mined lands prior to sewage
sludge application was 8.6 and 8.4 ug/g, respectively (Peterson et al., 1979),
Soil N levels were not determined before 1975, so no comparison can be
made with soil N levels after sludge application started in 1972 and 1973.
The available mineral N generally increased each year with sewage sludge
-------
330 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
Table 22-5. Available Mineral N in Selected Sludge-Amended Fields at Fulton County,
Illinois Land Reclamation Site."1"
+ 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979
Number
Mine-Spoil
1
2
3
5
7
25
26
28
30
34
W-
X
Placeland
10
19
20
21
22
23
31
35
37
40
W-
X
32
62
37
37
60
74
114
76
60
17
60
98
62
103
58
33
24
116
31
36
62
65
48
43
77
86
90
55
71
49
80
66
69
48
107
54
60
90
105
24
80
15
65
ug/g —
123
232
225
206
68
38
127
211
126
88
144
190
185
99
39
100
61
90
212
66
184
123
21
44
28
20
26
68
42
33
52
53
39
52
71
86
42
97
31
62
75
42
106
66
156
137
224
120
248
210
261
385
239
221
220
110
235
174
243
250
126
153
235
154
157
184
Available mineral N consists of exchangeable NH,-N and NO.+NOj-N
determined according to Bremner (1965). Determinations were made
on 0-15 cm composite soil samples.
W-, weighted mean, is based on analyzed soil samples reported for
the year in the table.
application for both mine-spoil and non-mined fields (Table 22-5). By spring
of 1977, considerable amounts of mineral N were present in some fields
of both land types. Crops are grown every third year to utilize some of
the available N.
The amounts of available P in the sludge-amended fields have generally
increased with yearly sewage sludge application (Table 22-6). The available
P concentrations in the upper 15 cm of most sludge-amended fields increased
each year. The yearly weighted means (W-) for both land types show that
available P levels were generally similar in fields of both types and reflect
the amounts of P added by sludge. Any initial differences in available P
for mine-spoil and non-mined fields, prior to sludge application, were masked
by sludge applied P; however, the availability of P on mine-spoil is lower,
even though more sludge was applied to these fields.
The exchangeable K levels in the application fields were also increased
by sewage sludge application. Although the amount of K in the applied
-------
Peterson, Lue-Hing, Gschwind, Pietz, and Zenz 331
Table 22-6. Available P in Selected Sludge-Amended Fields at Fulton County, Illinois
Land Reclamation Site.*
Field*
Number
Mine-Spoil
1
2
3
5
7
25
26
28
30
34
W-
X
Placeland
10
19
20
21
22
23
31
35
37
40
W-
X
1974
9
9
20
7
9
14
11
10
19
12
24
40
42
35
40
28
18
30
14
30
1975
10
13
12
17
20
15
30
9
11
3
14
18
23
29
20
13
11
11
6
7
15
Available
1976
ug/g-
115
121
115
182
220
121
94
117
74
123
128
124
111
160
180
164
179
174
114
169
23
140
P
1977
160
171
162
150
139
109
196
172
122
88
147
150
198
205
140
222
120
129
141
97
114
152
1978
240
226
191
218
217
139
167
177
242
352
217
279
227
260
196
235
130
193
307
238
316
238
1979
280
333
258
344
287
497
523
572
558
452
410
366
403
464
411
434
352
455
452
436
450
422
-f Available phosphorus was determined by extraction with 0.03JJ
NH.F+0.025N HC1 (Olsen and Dean, 1965). Determinations were made
on 0-15 cm composite soil samples.
$ W-, weighted mean, is based on analyzed soil samples reported for
trie year in the table.
sewage sludge is approximately 0.31% on a dry weight basis (Table 22-1),
land application of sludge has generally resulted in higher concentrations
of exchangeable K in most fields from 1974 to 1979 (Table 22-7). The
weighted means (W-) for exchangeable K indicate that K concentrations
were similar for mine-spoil and non-mined areas. Initial differences in
available K, prior to sludge application, in fields on both land types were
eliminated by 1977.
Crop Response
Typical crops for the area, such as corn, soybeans, small grain, and livestock
forage, were grown to use the applied sludge components and to provide
economic return for the project. Crop yields have been quite variable, ranging
from excellent to nearly zero (Tables 22-8 and 22-9). Yields in 1977 were
-------
332 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
Table 22-7. Exchangeable K in Selected Sludge-Amended Fields at Fulton County,
Illinois Land Reclamation Site.+
Tield
Number*
Mine-Spoil
1
2
3
5
7
25
26
28
30
34
Wx
Placeland
10
19
20
21
22
23
31
35
37
40
W-
X
Exchangeable K
1974
77
65
104
57
71
95
65
61
60
73
125
108
104
109
89
55
61
102
92
94
1975
127
136
141
133
124
175
152
104
121
251
146
119
132
214
187
168
202
133
177
176
168
1976
— — — — UK/2
150
114
160
122
146
190
99
129
98
108
132
150
112
148
188
120
152
152
132
130
114
140
1977
204
210
220
191
118
144
149
200
158
115
171
213
238
217
152
180
116
140
165
151
138
171
1978
243
261
265
249
180
215
185
256
318
166
234
250
261
297
231
149
146
194
186
168
177
206
1979
282
259
178
319
227
256
179
216
199
217
233
353
241
239
331
239
189
220
245
180
154
239
Exchangeable potassium by extraction with IN NH.OAc (Pratt, 1965).
Determinations were made on 0—15 cm composite soil samples.
4 W-, weighted mean, is based on analyzed soil samples reported for
the year in the table.
affected by a dry year (20 cm r^O for June and July), resulting in poor
pollination. Adequate moisture and essential elements for crop needs on
strip-mined soil were found to be critical for yields of crops grown
immediately after land leveling. This stress condition gradually subsided as
soil organic matter and element levels were built up with successive sludge
applications (Tables 22-4, 5, 6, and 7).
Cadmium in Corn Grain
The concentration of cadmium in corn grain harvested from sludge-amended
fields in Fulton County is shown in Table 22-10. With an approximate Cd
concentration in the applied sludge of 280 ug/g on dry weight basis (Table
22-1), some fields had received 135 kg/ha of Cd by 1979.
In fields which had never received sludge, corn grain Cd levels ranged
from 0.04 to 0.46 ug/g in 1979 (Table 22-11). By comparison, 1979 Cd
-------
Peterson, Lue-Hing, Gschwind, Pietz, and Zenz 333
Table 22-8. Corn Yields in Selected Sludge Amended Fields"1" at Fulton County, Illinois
Land Reclamation Site.
Field
Number*
Mine-Spoil
1
2
3
5
7
25
26
28
30
34
W;
Placeland
10
19
20
21
22
23
31
35
37
40
W-
X
1972 1!
3.24 2
4,
3.24 3.
4.40
5.72 0.
4.19 1.
5.12 0,
4.66 3.
7.45 2.
4.
5.
5,
5.26 2.
)73
.86
,12
,49
.76
.44
.54
.72
16
.47
.35
.50
.99
Corn
1974 1975 1976 1977
.
0.85
2.95
0,55 3.99 2.01
1.16
1.62
2.39
2.80
0.70
1.61
5.32
0.55 2.84 3.11 1.18
3.75
1.60
1.25
0.58 6.46
3.85
3.30
3.37
1.14 3.56 4.54
1978 1979
3.64
1.37
5.60
2.97
4.10
4.22
1.98
1.68 4.12
6.26
6.26
Commercial fertilizer was applied to fields 10 and 23 in 1972 and to
fields 31, 34, 35, and 37 in 1973.
Weighted mean, W-, is based on yield data reported for each year in
the table. X
levels in corn grain from sludge-amended fields ranged from 0.46 to 0.81
ug/g; cumulative Cd applied to these fields ranged from 70 to 100 kg/ha
and averaged 86 kg/ha.
Federal Regulations Concerning Sludge Application to Land
On September 13, 1979, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA
1979) published "Criteria for Classification of Solid Waste Disposal Facilities
and Practices; Final, Interim Final, and Proposed Regulations" in the Federal
Register. This regulation allows two alternatives for sludge application
projects:
1. For land used to produce food chain crops other than animal feed-
a. soil pH must be maintained at 6.5 or higher;
b. by 1987, the annual application of Cd cannot exceed 0.5
kg/ha; and
-------
334 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
Table 22-9. Soybean and Wheat Yields in Selected Sludge-Amended Fields at Fulton
County, Illinois Land Reclamation Site.
Field +
Number
Mine-Spoil
34
Place land
19
20
22
37
40
W-
X
Soybeans Wheat
1975 1977 1977 1979
3.85 1.41
0.81 0.54 4.69
1.77 4.06
0.96 0.55
3.45
2.35 3.95
1,08 0.54 3.52 3.82
Weighted mean, W-, is based on yield data reported for each year in
the table.
c. the cumulative application of Cd is limited by the soil cation
exchange capacity.
2. For land used to produce animal feed--
a. soil pH must be maintained at 6.5 or greater;
b. there is a facility operating plan showing that the crops will
be used strictly for animal feed and if alternative land uses
arise, what measures will be taken to safeguard against
possible Cd health hazards; and
c. the land record or deed stipulates that the property has
received high Cd application from solid waste and food chain
crops should not be grown.
The MSD will adopt the second alternative and use the Fulton County
land for the production of animal feed. In the case of alternative land uses,
however, the MSD has recommended to the USEPA that a four-year period
following cessation of sludge application is sufficient to reduce any possible
cadmium hazard associated with food chain crops. Therefore, the MSD sees
no need for the deed stipulation requirement.
Cost Associated with the Fulton County Site
Cost is a major concern in any publicly funded sludge disposal or utilization
project. The total costs of the Fulton County project are $338.92 per metric
ton of dry solids (Table 22-12). Capital costs are $38.13/mT or only about
-------
Peterson, Lue-Hing, Gschwind, Pietz, and Zenz 335
?
(A
J
C
o
I
0}
I
(I
o
c
'S
O
c
5
c
e
3
1
(3
CM
CN
OCOr-*CMO>a-Oin\oinNOsOvooN-*r- r^^-^rmcocoinrovj-cM**
p vovoinvococMcM^oincM1^ inco co co CM rH co CM co rH co
o
(sj 00 in CM O vO vO ^O ^O CM ON rH 00 rH 00 CO CM ^ P-* in O i~H
-'-• "COCMCMCOCMCMCM COrHCMCMrHrHCO CM CM
"*
^3" O ^OOOOor^O
...... a)
ON CM *O 00 \O -tf ^O 00 i—i CO O •
rH rH i-H i
a
oooNincoooooo'kO ooNCM-^-mooooooo
dddddddddod ddornddddddd o)
0)
+^
t3 at
«i
H 3
C3 O O
O *£> O O
o o o o
o o
o o
o
o
o
9
• IrJCUOONOHCMCOrHinr-O IK
l^ OrHrHCMCMeMCMCOCOCO^1^
•a
•H
I
-------
336 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
Table 22-11. Cadmium in Corn Grain in 1979 from Fields Which Never Received Sludge.
Field
Number
Mine-Spoil
18
50
145
X
Non-Mined
51
137
X
Cd
ug/g
0.46
0.30
0.04
0.27
0.30
0.15
0.22
Table 22-12. Projected District Solids Management System Cost for 1980 at Fulton
County, Illinois.
Item
Capital4"
M & 0
$/metric ton solids
Anaerobic Digestion
Transportation
Holding Basins
Land
Site Preparation
Application
Monitoring
Sub-Total
Total
15.
*
1.
4.
5.
9.
1.
$38.
87
54
19
51
04
98
13
$338.82
45.19
146.62
1
S
102.52
6.46
$300.79
+ Lynam et al., 1978.
$ Contractional agreement, all costs are included in M & 0 costs.
§ Any M & 0 costs are included under the application M & 0 cost.
11% of total costs. The M & O costs are $300.79/mT. Transportation
accounts for 43% of the total costs.
The sludge currently being barged to Fulton County is 95% water and
5% solids (Table 22-1). The MSD is currently developing a method to increase
the solids content to 60%. Digester drawoff will be centrifuged or lagooned
-------
Peterson, Lue-Hing, Gschwind, Pietz, and Zenz 337
to obtain a 25% solids content; the sludge will then be spread 0.3-0.6 m
deep in drying areas. By daily agitation of the sludge, a final solids content
of 60% can be achieved in a few weeks. Compared to sludge with 5% solids
this will result in a volume reduction of at least ten-fold and will substantially
reduce the transportation costs.
This new program calls for two other principal modifications. The 60%
solids sludge will probably be hauled to Fulton County by rail and be spread
on fields from truck-type vehicles and later incorporated by plowing or
discing.
Conclusions
1. The land application of digested sludge has proven to be an
environmentally acceptable method of sludge management for MSD.
2. The MSD has found that incorporation of liquid sludge is more
aesthetically acceptable and allows higher and more uniform application
compared to spray application.
3, Observed increases in corn grain metal levels after sludge application
will not affect human health, since the crops grown on the Fulton County
site will be used only for animal feed.
4. The Fulton County project is a labor intensive operation with a
current total cost of $338 per metric ton of solids applied. Future plans
include going from a 5% to a 60% solids sludge, which will reduce
transportation costs by a factor of three or four.
5. The Fulton County strip-mine soils have been improved substantially
by the addition of liquid digested sludge as measured by soil fertility status.
Literature Cited
Allison, L. E. 1965. Organic Carbon, p. 1376-1378. C. A. Black (ed.), Methods of
Soil Analysis. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin,
Bremner, J. M. 1965. Inorganic Forms of Nitrogen. 1179-1237. C. A. Black (ed.),
Methods of Soil Analysis. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin.
Dean, R. B. 1973. Disposal and Reuse of Sludge and Sewage: What Are The Options.
Proceeding of Conf. on Land Disposal of Municipal Effluents and Sludges. Rutgers
Univ. New Jersey.
Hyde, Charles G. 1938. Review of Progress in Sewage Treatment During the Past Fifty
Years in the United States. Langdon Pearse (ed.), Modern Sewage Disposal, New
York, N.Y.
Lynam, B. T,, C. Lue-Hing, R. R. Rinkus, and F. C. Neil. 1978. Sewage Sludge
Utilization in Agriculture: Chicago's Prairie Plan, Presented to the Conference on
Utilization of Sewage Sludge Land, Keble College, Oxford Univ. April 10-13.
-------
338 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
Miller, R. H. 1974. Microbiology of Sewage Sludge Disposal in Soil. Report No. EPA
670/2-74-074. National Environmental Research Center, Office of Research and
Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Olexsey, R, A., and J. B. Farrell. 1974. Sludge Incineration and Fuel Conservation.
News of Environmental Research, USEPA. May 3.
Olsen, S. R., and L. A. Dean. 1965. Phosphorus, p. 1035-1049. C. A. Black (ed.),
Methods of Soil Analysis. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin.
Parr, J. F. 1974. Organic Matter Decomposition and Oxygen Relationships, p. 121-139.
Factors Involved in Land Application of Agricultural and Municipal Wastes, ARS,
USDA, Beltsville, Maryland.
Peterson, J. R., R. I. Pietz, and C. Lue-Hing. 1979. Water, Soil and Crop Quality of
Illinois Coal Mine Spoil Amended with Sewage Sludge. P. 359-368. W. E. Sopper
and S, N. Kerr (ed.), Municipal Wastewater and Sludge Recycling in Forest and
Disturbed Land. The Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, Penn.
Pratt, P. F. 1965. Potassium, p. 1022-1034. C. A. Black (ed.), Methods of Soil Analysis.
American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin.
Touchton, J. T. and F. C. Boswell. 1975. Use of Sewage Sludge as a Greenhouse Soil
Amendment. I. Effects on Soil Chemical Constituents and pH. Agriculture and
Environment 2:229-241.
USEPA. 1979. Criteria for Classification of Solid Waste Disposal Facilities and Practices.
Federal Register pp. 53438-53468. Sept. 13.
Varanka, M. W., Z. M. Zablocki, and T. D. Hinesly. 1976. The Effect of Digested
Sludge on Soil Biological Activity. JWPC 48:1728-1740.
Zenz, D. R., J. R. Peterson, D. L. Brooman, and C. Leu-Hing. 1976. Environmental
Impacts of Land Application of Sludge. JWPC 48:2232-2234.
-------
23
EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHANGES IN
STRIP-MINED SPOIL AMENDED WITH SEWAGE SLUDGE
ON THE UPTAKE OF METALS BY PLANTS
T. D. Hinesly, K. E. Redborg, E. L. Ziegler,
and I. H. Rose-lnnes
Where digested sewage sludge was incorporated into the surface of leveled,
strip-mined spoil banks at loading rates of 0, 224, 448, and 896 mt/ha (dry
weight equivalents), pH values of spoil were 7.5, 7.0, 6.3, and 6.0,
respectively. Organic carbon contents of spoil materials were increased from
2.4 to 2.8, 4.7, and 6.9 percent, according to the order of higher sludge
loading rates. Ten months after sludge incorporation, untreated spoil
contained 12.2% of water stable aggregates greater than 0.25 mm in diameter,
as compared to 42.1% in spoil amended with 896 mt/ha of sludge. The
available water holding capacity was increased from 14.8% in untreated spoil
to 21.1% in maximum sludge-treated spoil. Electrical conductivity of
saturated extracts ranged from 2.2 to 6.6 mmho/cm in untreated and
maximum sludge-treated spoil, respectively. Corn grain yields were 3.2, 7.2,
6.7, and 4.0 mt/ha, respectively, from a plot treated with inorganic fertilizer
and plots treated with 224, 448, and 896 mt/ha of sludge. Sludge applications
caused marked increases of N, P, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cd, Cu, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Zn
concentrations and decreased Na and K concentrations in spoil materials.
Increased concentrations of elements in sludge-treated spoil caused
significantly higher concentrations of N, P, Ca, Mg, Mn, Zn, Cd, and Ni
in leaves, and N, P, Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cd, and Ni in grain of corn. Comparison
of ratios of concentrations in corn plant tissues to endogenous concentrations
of chemical elements in spoil to similar concentration ratios resulting from
sludge applications showed that elements added as constituents of sludge
were less available for plant uptake than those originally present in spoil
bank materials, except for Ni.
Introduction
Where municipal sewage sludges have been used as an amendment for
reclaiming pre-law, strip-mined lands to row-crop production, yields were
often considerably lower than had been expected. There are several reasons
for low crop yields, but the main problem has been the lack of practices
and structures to control erosion. Too often reclamation has been limited
to the leveling of spoil banks to a topography that would permit use of
equipment for applying sludge and farm machinery operations. As an
afterthought, regulatory agencies have required the construction of berms
-------
340 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
around sludge application sites and the construction of settling ponds to
trap sediments that would otherwise be carried into streams. In a humid
region, the building of berms around areas of spoil material, having
exceedingly low water infiltration capacities, are inconsistent with the
production of crops and the protection of water supplies. Sludge-amended
spoil materials are eroded from the upper reaches of slopes and are deposited
behind berms until the reduction in water storage capacity results in
overtopping followed by massive discharge of materials into streams. Severe
erosion at the upper end of slopes exposes buried stones that are a continuous
obstruction to the operation of farm equipment.
Methods of applying sludges on strip-mined lands that are consistent
with crop production and erosion control are limited. Irrigation of growing
crops is limited to systems that apply sludge below the crop canopy. Spray
irrigation systems cannot be used because leaf surfaces are coated with sludge
solids that reduce light absorption and, thus, photosynthetic production
rates. Where stoniness is a problem, subsurface interjection cannot be used
because of costly repairs. Perhaps the worst system yet devised for applying
sludges are those involving the use of disc plows for incorporation. The use
of disc plows produces a subsurface compaction layer that exacerbates the
low infiltration capacity of the predominantly weathered shale and/or glacial
till material. This leads to increased runoff of water, with concomitant
increases in rates of erosion.
The main objective in reshaping the surface of strip-mined lands should
be to drain off excess water at a non-erosive tate. Sludge should be applied
at rates and by methods that maximize the potential benefits of its organic
matter contents to ameliorate physical properties of spoil that adversely
affect the growth of plants. The technology needed to do this is available.
Level-ridge terraces, equipped with surface inlets, can be used to control
erosion. Sludge, dewatered to about 70% moisture, can be applied with
ordinary farm manure spreaders.
On agricultural lands, maximum sludge loading rates should be regulated
according to the potential for contaminating subsurface water supplies with
nitrate-nitrogen. But on strip-mined lands that have subsided to form a
compact structureless mass, water movement is too slow through such
material to present a pollution hazard to ground water supplies. Protection
of surface waters is the main concern and can be accomplished by
maintaining control over runoff waters with structures and monitoring
quality of water in impoundments prior to its release. Maximum loading
rates of dewatered sludge on strip-mined lands should be limited by the
tolerance of plants to sludge constituents and their effects on crop quality.
To identify plants that would rapidly establish vegetative cover and
cropping systems that minimize erosion losses from sludge-amended spoil,
a one-time, relatively high, sludge-loading rate study was established on
strip-mined spoil banks in Fulton County, Illinois.
-------
Hinesly, Redborg, Ziegler, and Rose-Innes 341
Description of Experiment
An experimental site, with good surface drainage, was selected on spoil banks
which had been in place for about 30 years. The spoil material had a silty
clay loam texture, CaCC>3 equivalent of 3.2%, and pH value of 7.5.
Replicated (three) plots, having the dimensions of 21 x 18 m, were treated
with 0 (control), 224, 448, and 896 mt/ha (dry weighg equivalent) of
digested sewage sludge that had an average moisture content of 45%.
Following the application of sludge and its incorporation with a rotary plow
each main plot was subdivided into nine plots of 3 x 6 m and two additional
plots of 6 x 18.2 m. Each of the smaller subplots were seeded with one
of the following grasses: big bluestem (Andropogon gerandi), orchardgrass
(Dactylis glomerata), perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne), redtop (Agrostis
alba}, reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea), smooth brome (Bromus
inermis), tall fescue (Festuca elatior), timothy (Phleum pratense), and
western wheatgrass (Agropyron smithii). Rye (Secal cereale) or wheat
(Triticum vulgare) was seeded on the two larger subplots. During the first
week of May, 3 m wide strips of rye and wheat were killed with paraquat
and corn (Zea mays) was planted in the dead residues with a no-till planter.
From strips (3 x 18.2 m) of wheat and rye that were not sprayed
with paraquat the top four leaves from 150 randomly selected plants were
collected just before head emergence. Grain and straw samples were collected
at the time of harvest. The leaf adjacent to the primary ear shoots was
collected from ten corn plants in each of the dead wheat and rye plots
when about 10% of the plants had tasseled. The leaves were washed in
distilled water, dried at 60 C and ground in a Wiley mill. Corn grain and
stalk samples were collected at the time of harvest.
Samples of spoil were collected from all main plots before sludge
applications were made and each spring from subplots after sludge was
applied. Six 2.5 cm diameter samples were collected from each subplot with
stainless steel tubes to a depth of 91 cm and composited by 15 cm depth
increments, except the lower increment was 30 cm. Additional samples of
the surface 15 cm depth were collected periodically for determination of
organic carbon, nitrogen, conductivity of saturated extracts, and changes in
physical properties.
Sludge and sludge-amended spoil samples were analyzed for C, N, P,
K, Mg, Ca, Na, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Cr, Pb, Ni, and Cd concentrations. Plant
tissue samples were analyzed for contents of the same elements except C,
K and Na. Chemical analyses were previously described by Hinesly et al.,
(1977) and the procedures for measuring physical properties were those
described in Agronomy Monograph No. 9 (Black et al., 1965).
Changes in Chemical Properties of Sludge-Amended Spoil
Concentrations of the several chemical elements of interest in sludge are
-------
342 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
shown in Table 23-1, along with concentrations in sludge-amended spoil after
various amounts of sludge were incorporated. Except for Mn, concentrations
of all chemical elements were significantly affected by sludge applications.
Potassium and Na concentrations in spoil were decreased by sludge
applications, while concentrations of all other selected elements were
increased. Although the highest sludge application markedly increased C and
N concentrations in spoil, C to N ratios were changed only slightly from
10.9 and 10,3. The C to N ratio of sludge itself is intermediate to control
and maximum sludge amended spoil. Phosphorus and Fe contents were
somewhat higher in this sludge, which was dredged from a storage reservoir,
as compared to sludge drawn directly from anaerobic digesters at the same
Chicago wastewater treatment plant. However, concentrations in sludge
samples were not high enough to account for the concentrations of these
two elements found in spoil amended with 896 mt/ha of sludge. During
storage P and Fe may have been concentrated by precipitation and
sedimentation processes, but samples of dewatered sludge collected from
manure spreaders evidently did not contain concentrations as high as those
in sludge applied.
After sludge was incorporated with spoil the surface pH (15 to 18 cm
depth) was reduced from 7.5 to 7.0, 6.3, and 6.0 by 224, 448, and 896
mt/ha of sludge solids, respectively. These pH values remained fairly constant
for more than one year after incorporation. The pH of water saturated
extracts, from spoil with and without sludge, are shown in Figure 23-1.
These extracts were obtained to determine differences in electrical
conductivities associated with various sludge loading rates and these results
are shown in Figure 23-2. Electrical conductivities ranged from 2.2 mmho/cm
in spoil samples from control plots to 6.6 mmho/cm in spoil amended with
896 mt/ha of sludge.
Changes in Physical Properties of Sludge-Amended Spoil
The results obtained by standard methods of determining aggregate stabilities
by wet sieving with the Yoder apparatus for 10 minutes are shown in Figure
22-3. Water stable aggregates greater than 0.25 mm increased from 12.2%
in samples from control plots as compared to 42.1% in maximum
sludge-amended spoil.
Figure 23-4 shows that the amounts of water retained at saturation
and 1/3- and 15-bar matrix tension increases in proportion to amounts of
sludge applied. The rate of increase in moisture content at 1/3 bar was higher
than that at 15 bar, thus, there was a small but significant increase in available
moisture holding capacity with the two highest sludge application rates.
Crop Response
Corn, wheat and rye grain yields are exhibited in Table 23-2. All plots were
fertilized with the equivalent of 840 kg/ha of a 12-12-12 blend of fertilizer
-------
Hinesly, Redborg, Ziegler, and Rose-Innes 343
Table 23-1. Concentrations of Selected Chemical Elements in Sludge and
Sludge-Amended Spoil Bank Materials.
SPOIL
Sludge Application Rates
ELEMENT
C
N
P
K
Na
Ca
Mg
Fe
.SLUDGE
12
1
3
0
0
It
1
6
20
17
60
25
ou
Ol*
70
B5
0
1.
0.
0.
2.
0.
22U
11
10
08
35
97
0.6l
0.
3.
98
76
2
0
0
2
0
1
1
It
— mt/ha—
1*1*8
63 U.33
2k
78
00
0
1
1
.ko
.90
.81
87 0.72
09
02
1*8
/!,„
Mn
Zn
Cd
Cr
Cu
Ni
Pt>
BIT
1*230
276
2760
1380
281*
1090
5U8
85
0.
It It
27
lilt
15
651*
72
729
1|2
390
213
89
13l»
5
1
1
6
652
1530
95
81*7
1*31
13!
281*
.69
.13
.32
. .
.It
896
5
0
3
1
0
2
1
8
625
2500
161
111 20
693
203
It76
96
55
51
3lt
55
32
29
26
LSD
1.23*
0.09*
0.88*
0.2l*»
O.ll**
0.52*
0.17*
1.75*
n.s.
750**
36.5**
356»*
158**
38**
lU5*«
n.s. - not significant.
** = significant at P 5 0.01.
8.0
so.
7.0
6.0
224 448 672
Sludge Applied (mt/ho)
896
Figure 23-1. pH of Saturated Extracts from Strip-Mined Spoil Without and With Various
Amounts of Incorporated Sewage Sludge.
-------
344 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
224 448 672
Sludge Applied (mt/ho)
896
Figure 23-2. Electrical Conductivity of Saturated Extracts from Strip-Mined Spoil
Without and With Various Amounts of Incorporated Sewage Sludge.
prior to seeding the wheat and rye. Corn yields on plots treated with the
low and intermediate rates of sludge were significantly higher than those
on fertilized control plots and plots treated with the highest rates of sludge.
Differences in corn yields between wheat and rye mulch were not significant,
although the latter provided considerably better coverage of the spoil surface.
Wheat was preferentially grazed by wild geese for such an extended period
into the spring that grain development was severely reduced. Rye was not
grazed as intensively as wheat, but yields may have been affected since there
was no significant differences due to treatments.
Six weeks after the initial fall seeding of the nine species of grass, at
a rate of 25 kg/ha, tall fescue and perennial ryegrass were the only ones
present at acceptable stands on most plots. After seeding again in the spring,
these two were followed by fairly good stands of western wheatgrass. All
grasses weie established except big bluestem following the second fall seeding.
-------
50
§40
>o
rx
o
A.
f 30
a>
o>
•
-o 20
£
£
o
10
Hinesly, Redborg, Ziegler, and Rose-Innes 345
224 448 672
Sludge Applied (mt/ha)
896
Figure 23-3. Percent Water Stable Aggregates in Strip-Mined Spoil Without and With
Various Amounts of Incorporated Sewage Sludge.
From the standpoint of rapid establishment and vigorous growth on all
sludge-amended plots, tall fescue, perennial ryegrass and western wheatgrass
were the best by order of listing.
Inorganic Chemical Changes in Plant Tissues
Among the 12 elements for which concentrations were determined in plant
tissues, only Fe, Cr, Cu, and Pb contents were not increased in corn leaves
(Table 23-3) by sludge applications. Concentrations of Ni were increased
in leaves at the maximum sludge application. Since there were no differences
in concentrations in leaves with regard to corn grown in wheat and rye
mulch crops, the data were combined for analysis of treatment effects.
As may be seen in Table 23-4, concentrations of elements were increased
in corn grain by sludge applications except for Ca, Cr, Cu, and Pb. Iron
concentrations were increased by sludge applications in corn grain from plots
with dead wheat mulch, but not in those with rye mulch. Both Fe and
Zn concentrations were significantly higher in grain from wheat mulch as
compared to rye mulch plots. Concentrations of other elements were
unaffected by differences in mulch and thus, the data for these elements
-------
346 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
70
60
»
40
30
20
Saturation
IS Bar
224 448 672
Studs* Applied M/M
Figure 23-4. Percent Moisture Retention by Strip-Mined Spoil Without and With Various
Amounts of Incorporated Sewage Sludge.
Table 23-2. Grain Yields for Corn, Wheat, and Rye on Spoil Banks with and Without
Sludge. Corn was Planted in Dead Wheat (W) and Rye (R) Mulch With a No-Till
Planter.
SLUDGE TREATMENT
0
224
448
896
(W)
2.68
6.77
5.64
3.26
Corn
(R)
3.29
6.76
6.81
4.20
GRAINS YIELDS
Wheat
n.d.
0.72?
1 93
1.48C
&ye
2.61
2.36
2.41
2.33
LSD
2.70**
2.15*
n.d. = No yield data due to bird damage.
a = only one plot.
b = only two plots.
c = three plots.
n.s. = not significant.
* = significant at P <0.05.
** • significant at P <0.01.
-------
Hinesly, Redborg, Ziegler, and Rose-Innes 347
Table 23-3. Concentrations of Selected Chemical Elements in Corn Leaves from Plots
With and Without Sludge.
CORN LEAF
Sludge Application Rates
ELEMENT
N
P
Ca
MK
Fe
Mn
Zn
Cd
Cr
Cu
»i
Ft
0
2.83
0.23
0.59
0.1*7
ikO
25
51
0.2
<0.12
11.5
<0.62
0.72
22>(
Ul(8
3.0)4 3.17
0.28
0.65
O.U5
,
125
1(3
99
2.7
<0.12
11.6
<0.62
0.89
0.32
0.72
0.1»7
, . ,
11(6
73
192
11.6
0.15
12.0
<0.62
1.12
896
3-23
0.35
0.62
0.56
133
179
29T
15-lt
0.17
13.2
1.68
1.00
LSD
0.23"*
O.Olt**
0.08*
0.08**
n. s.
23**
6k»*
!(.!**
n.s.
n.s.
0.35**
n.s.
n.s. = not significant.
* = significant at P <_ 0.05.
«« = significant at P <_ 0.01.
Table 23-4. Concentrations of Selected Elements in Corn Grain from Plots With and
Without Sludge. Corn Was Planted With a No-Till Planter in Dead Wheat !W) and
Rye (R).
CORN GRAIN
ELEMENT
0
Sludge
221*
Application Rates
1(1(8 896
LSD
$ (dry weight)
N
P
Mg
Ca
Fe (R)
Fe (W)
Mn
Zn (R)
Zn (W)
Cd
Cr
Cu
Ni
Pb
1.1(6
0.27
0.13
65
19.9
2H.9
8.2
27.5
27.9
0.03
0.2k
2.8
<0.62
<0.62
1.68
0.31
O.lli
.
61
21.9
32.5
7.2
33.3
36.8
O.Sk
0.56
2.8
0.72
<0.62
1.69 1.78
0.36 0.38
O.lli 0.15
, . ,
51 50
22.6 22.2
31.7 3k. 9
7.6 9.6
36.9 It2.2
1(3.9 1(8.8
0.36 0.36
0.22 0.28
2.6 2.8
1.1(3 3.25
<0.62 <0.62
0.19*
0.03**
0.01**
n. s.
n.s.
5*
1.2**
7.9*
7.3**
0.12**
n.s.
n.s.
0.6k**
n.s.
(R} = corn on rye.
(W) = corn on wheat.
n.s. = not significant.
* = significant at P <. 0.05.
** - significant at P <_ 0.01.
-------
348 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
were combined. Nickel concentrations were higher in grain than in leaves.
Concentrations of selected elements in rye grain produced on control
and sludge-amended spoil banks are presented in Table 23-5. Except for
Ca, Mn, Cr, and Pb, concentrations of elements were increased as a result
of sludge applications. Of those elements whose concentrations were affected
by sludge applications, amounts of N, P, Fe, Zn, Cd, and Cu in grain were
not increased by doubling the 448 mt/ha sludge application. Thus, only Mg
and Ni concentrations were significantly increased in grain from plots treated
with 896 mt/ha when compared to levels in grain from plots treated with
448 mt/ha.
Summary and Conclusions
The incorporation of sludge into the surface 15 to 18 cm of spoil materials
produced a mixture that was about 8, 16, and 32 percent sludge for the
three respective loading rates of 224, 448, and 896 mt/ha. Thus, the effect
on physical properties were twofold. Physical properties of sludge itself were
reflected in proportion to loading rates, and, secondly, some improvement
in physical properties may have occurred as a result of stimulated microbial
activity. However, because very little organic carbon was lost during the
ten months that elapsed between incorporation of sludge and measurements
of aggregate stability and available moisture holding capacity, microbes
Table 23-5. Concentrations of Selected Chemical Elements in Rye Grain from Plots
With and Without Sludge.
RYE GRAIN
Sludfie Application Rates
ELEMENT
0
221*
1*1*8
896
LSD
% (dry weight)
N
P
Mg
Ca
Fe
Mn
Zn
Cd
Cr
Cu
Ni
Pb
2.08
0.29
0.12
1*39
1.1.5
10.8
37-7
0.06
0.18
6.1*5
<0.62
<0.62
2.28
0.33
0.12
.
1(58
1*2
8.6
57.7
0.25
O.ll*
7.18
0.1*2
<0.62
2.61*
0.1*1
0.15
, . .
1.1*8
1*7.6
10.8
75.7
0.53
0.18
8.1*
2.23
<0.62
2.62
0.1*3
0.17
1*12
1*7.9
13.7
83.1*
0.1*2
0.25
9.2
6.96
<0.62
0.1*2**
0.05**
0.02**
n.s.
5.M*
n.s.
15.30**
0.12**
n. s .
1.26**
l*.l**
n.s.
n.s. = not significant.
* = significant at P £ 0.05.
** = significant at P <. 0.01.
-------
Hinesly, Redborg, Ziegler, and Rose-Innes 349
probably played only a minor role.
Because moisture contents at 1/3 bar increased more rapidly than at
15 bar of tension, available water holding capacity increased from 14.8%
in spoil without sludge to 21.1% in spoil amended with 896 mt/ha of sludge.
This increase in available moisture may have offset some of the deleterious
effects on the growth of crops that were expected as a result of higher
soluble salt contents in sludge-amended spoil.
The electrical conductivity (25 C) of 6.6 mmho/cm for saturated
extracts of maximum sludge-amended spoil was in the range where a 25
to 50% reduction in corn yields was expected (EPA, Water Quality Criteria,
1972). Thus, at the highest sludge loading rate the increase in potential
available water holding capacity was small in comparison to the increased
osmotic pressure of soil solution. Corn yields on plots treated with 224
mt/ha of sludge were about 50% higher than those on plots treated with
896 mt/ha and it appears that this reduction was due to high concentrations
of soluble salts. Both rye and wheat are more tolerant of high salt conditions
than is corn and the results of this study show that if yields of small grains
were affected by soluble salts, it was a rather nominal effect. However, it
was probably a major factor affecting the establishment of some of the
grasses. Western wheatgrass has high salt tolerance and while perennial
ryegrass and tall fescue have only medium tolerance, they are more tolerant
than the other grass species used in this study. Soluble salts appear to be
the major factor affecting crop growth and survival of grasses at the seedling
stage on spoil amended with sludge at loading rates which exceed 224 mt/ha.
For elements that had increased concentrations in spoils as a result
of sludge applications and which were accumulated by corn plants by uptake
and translocation into leaves and grain, concentration ratios (CR) were
calculated and are presented in Tables 23-6 and 23-7. Endogenous
concentration ratios were obtained by dividing the concentrations of a
particular element in leaves or grain from control plots by total
concentrations of that element in spoil materials that were not treated with
sludge. Amended concentration ratios were calculated by subtracting
concentrations in leaves or grain from control plots from those in similar
tissues from sludge-amended plots and dividing by the remainder obtained
by subtracting endogenous concentrations in spoil from concentrations in
sludge-amended spoil. These concentration ratios are similar to those
presented by Cataldo and Wildung (1978), except that they added a single
concentration of each element (2.5 mg/kg) to the soil.
The CR's that could be calculated for corn leaves (Table 23-6) show
that, except for Ni, the constituents of sludge were either not as available
for uptake as endogenous elements or their uptake was limited by
metabolically regulated processes.
In soil amended with soluble salts of metals, Cataldo and Wildung
(1978) found CR's increased for As, Co, Cr, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, and Zn.
-------
350 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
Table 23-6. Corn Leaf Concentration Ratios for Comparing the Uptake of Endogenous
Elements to Those Added as Constituents of Sludge.
CORD LEAF CONCENTRATION RATIOS
ELEMENT
H
P
Ca
Mg
Zn
Cd
Hi
Endogenous CR
27.70
2.93
0.96
0.1*8
0.60
0.27
0.007
Slud£
221*
1.57
0.07
0.13
-0.38
0.07
0.06
0
Amended CP
;e Application
It It8
l.llt
O.OU
0.12
-0.01
0.10
0.12
0
Rates
896
0.88
0.03
0.02
0.29
0.10
0.10
0.009
Table 23-7. Corn Grain Concentration Ratios.
ELEMENT
R
P
Mg
Fe (W)
Zn (R)
Zn (W)
Cd
Ni
Endogenous
lit. 30
3.1*3
0.13
6.62 x
0.32lt
0.329
O.OU3
0.007
CORK GRAIN CONCENTRATION RATIOS
Amended CR
Sludge Application Rates
mt/hs
CR 22U 1,1,8 896
1.6lt 0.77 0.71
0.05 O.OU 0.03
, 0.28 , 0.12 , 0.07 ,
10 10.6 x 10 2.66 x 10" 2.22 x 10
0.009 0.006 0.006
O.OlU 0.011 0.009
0.005 0.003 0.002
0.009 0.012 0.018
(R) = Corn on rye.
(W) = Corn on wheat.
In this study Mn was not increased in spoil by sludge applications because
concentrations in sludge were no higher than those in untreated spoil
materials. Previous analysis of sludge from the same wastewater treatment
plant showed that As, Ca, and Mo concentrations were too low to increase
total concentrations in normal soils (Hinesly and Sosewitz, 1969) and this
has been borne out by determining concentrations in soils treated with annual
sludge applications beginning in 1967 (Hinesly and Hansen, 1979).
Concentration ratios could not be calculated for Cr and Pb because they
were not increased in corn tissues, although levels of these two metals were
markedly increased in sludge-amended spoil.
Concentrations of Ca in corn grain were not affected by sludge
treatments as they were in leaves, so CR's for this element could not be
calculated for grain (Table 23-7). Iron concentrations in leaves were not
affected by sludge treatments, but were in grain from corn grown in wheat
mulch. Since Zn concentrations were higher in grain from wheat mulch as
compared to rye mulch plots, CR's for Zn in grain from the two different
-------
Hinesly, Redborg, Ziegler, and Rose-Innes 351
plots were calculated separately. As was the case for leaves, all CR's for
grain produced on sludge-amended spoil were lower than those for grain
from control plots, except for Ni. Concentration ratios for Ni tended to
increase with increased sludge loading rates.
Because the pH was reduced from 7.5 to 6.0 on spoil amended with
896 mt/ha of sludge the decrease in concentration ratios with higher sludge
loading rates is contrary to expectations. Also, since the highest corn yields
were obtained with 224 mt/ha of sludge it is contrary to expectations that
CR's decreased with higher loading rates that resulted in lower yields. Except
perhaps for Ni, there is no evidence that metal concentrations in corn tissues
were increased as a result of a reduction in growth.
The corn hybrid used in this study was the same as that used in another
study where sludge from the same treatment plant was applied each year
at maximum annual loading rates that were about 50 mt/ha. In some years,
this hybrid accumulated Cd concentrations in grain of around 1 mg/kg.
Therefore, it is unlikely that the accumulation of Cd and other elements
in corn tissues from this high-rate study was limited by metabolic controls.
Rather, it appears that with these exceedingly high sludge loading rates, some
of the elements were less available for uptake. At such high loading rates
the availability of some metals may be controlled to a much greater extent
by the properties of sludge itself than those of the weathered geological
materials. In the presence of excessive levels of oxidizable sludge organic
matter, sparingly soluble sulfide forms of some metals may be rather stable
and thus, availability of metals for uptake by plants may be maintained
at low levels until the organic matter has been decomposed. However, it
seems unlikely that they will become more available in time because results
from other studies showed that Zn and Cd uptake decreased after
sludge-applications were terminated (Hinesly et al., 1979). In view of the
findings reported by others (Cunningham et al., 1975), it seems more likely
that the high amounts of Fe and P supplied as constituents of sludge limited
the availability of some of the metals by forming sparingly soluble
precipitates.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. The authors gratefully acknowledge financial
support provided by the Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago
and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for the work reported here.
They are indebted to Mr. Greg Kesner for his assistance in the statistical
analysis of data.
Literature Cited
1. Black, C. A., D. D. Evans, J. L. White, L. E. Ensmmger, and F. E. Clark (editors).
-------
352 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
1965. Methods of Soil Analysis. Part I. Agronomy No. 9, American Society of
Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin.
2. Cataldo, D. A., and R. E. Wildung. 1978. Soil and plant factors influencing the
accumulation of heavy metals by plants. Environ. Health Perspectives 27:149-159.
3. Cunningham, J. D., D. R. Keeney, and J. A. Ryan. 1975. Yield and metal
composition of corn and rye grown on sewage sludge-amended spoil. J. Environ.
Qual. 4:448-454.
4. Hinesly, T. D., and B. Sosewitz. 1969. Digested sludge disposal on crop land.
J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 41:822-828.
5. Hinesly, T. D., R. L. Jones, E. L. Ziegler and J. J. Tyler. 1977. Effects of annual
and accumulative applications of sewage sludge on assimilation of zinc and
cadmium by corn (Zea mays L.). Environ. Sci. Technol. 11:182-188.
6. Hinesly, T. D., and L. G. Hansen. 1979. Agricultural benefits and environmental
changes resulting from the use of digested sludge on field crops: Including animal
health effects. Progress Report (1971-1977), Agronomy Department and College
of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois.
7. Hinesly, T. D., E. L, Ziegler, and G. L. Barrett. 1979. Residual effects of irrigating
corn with digested sewage sludge. J. Environ. Qual. 8:35-38.
-------
24
EFFECTS OF NATURAL EXPOSURE OF CATTLE AND
SWINE TO ANAEROBICALLY DIGESTED SLUDGE
Paul R. Fitzgerald
During a 7-year period, the University of Illinois has cooperated with the
Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago in a study in which cattle
and swine were exposed, under natural conditions, to anaerobically digested
sewage sludge. Cattle were allowed to graze forage grown on reclaimed
strip-mined land that was treated with different quantities of anaerobically
digested sludge originating from the Chicago Metropolitan system.
Experimental cows and calves were continuously exposed to the treated land
while control cows and calves had similar exposure on land not treated with
sludge. Each fall some cows and calves from both herds were necropsied
and carcasses and tissues were examined for parasitic organisms, heavy metals,
and organic compounds.
Specific Pathogen Free pigs were also exposed to AD sludge treated
pens at various levels. The pigs were allowed to live in the "sludged"
environment for approximately 4 months then were necropsied and carcasses
and tissues were examined for abnormalities.
No significant differences in fertility were detected in the cattle herds.
There was no evidence of disease in either herd. Nutrition was excellent
due to the abundance of forage grown on the "fertilized," reclaimed land.
Although the exposure of the swine to the sludge was much more
concentrated, no disease or undesirable growing conditions developed in the
Pigs-
Parasitic organisms observed in the cattle herds were those usually found
in grazing cattle (trichostrongyle worms and coccidia), but there were no
differences between the control and experimental herds. Some experimental
pigs, exposed to anaerobically digested sludge, became lightly infested with
Ascarid worms. However, none appeared to be significantly affected. No
other organisms were detected in either cattle or swine.
In both cattle and swine, some heavy metals were accumulated in some
organs at levels variously greater than in the control animals. For example,
kidneys and livers accumulated cadmium in proportion to the time and kind
of exposure that the animals had had to AD sludge. Although accumulation
of Cd in the kidneys, for example, was greater in experimental cattle than
in control cattle, the levels were well below the concentration at which one
would begin to detect clinical evidence of disease. After 6 to 7 years of
exposure to AD sludge, no clinical or histopathological evidence was
detected.
-------
354 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
Introduction
Federal and State legislations have placed constraints on methods by which
wastes may be discarded (1). Industrial chemicals and other wastes must
be accounted for and be disposed of or inactivated in a safe manner. Soon,
the dumping of wastes in the oceans around the United States must cease.
Burning of wastes is generally inefficient, expensive, and in some cases,
converts solids or liquids to airborne wastes. A feasible alternative is to return
the waste to the land (2). Unfortunately, it is not a simple alternative.
Discoveries that there are accumulations of heavy metals and organic
chemicals in sludge-treated soils, that there may be potentially harmful
pathogens in the sludge or that public pressure against spreading sludge on
land have caused restrictions in the use of the land as a disposal site.
Disposal of industrial wastes is a problem quite different from disposal
of sewage wastes although frequently, in large metropolitan areas, the
problem is a single one. In some instances, industrial users of the public
sewage systems consider the sewer to be a logical and convenient disposal
site. The American public has found the home toilet or sewer man-hole
to be a convenient disposal site. Whatever needs to be gotten rid of can
be flushed down the toilet-"out-of-sight, out-of-mind". Unfortunately, some
organic chemicals, heavy metals, etc., don't just go away by flushing them
down the toilet. Modern-day, efficient sewage treatment plants extract those
materials and concentrate them in sewage sludges. When the sludge is applied
to the land, whatever is present becomes incorporated in the soil.
A factor important to the beneficial usage of sewage sludges is the
degree of "risk" associated with the utilization of the sludge for land
application (3). For example, is there a significant chance for disease
transmission from a sludge to plants, humans, or animals? Would the sludges
contribute substantially to food contamination by heavy metals or specific
chemicals? Is there significant pressure from the public to maintain or
improve the aesthetics of the environment? If one or more of such questions
are unanswered, then a "risk" is involved and a decision must be made as
to whether the risk to the health of the community is significant or
insignificant.
Because of the complexities and interactions of some of these factors,
the Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago and the College of
Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, have collaborated in studies
during the past eight years in an attempt to get some answers to these
important questions. This paper summarizes some of the results of these
cooperative studies.
Effect of Anaerobically Digested Sludge on
Some Plants and Macroorganisms
One of the first questions which arose as a result of application of
-------
Fitzgerald 355
anaerobically digested sludge to soil was that dealing with the effect of the
sludge upon the soil structure and upon the organisms present in it. The
effect of the sludge on the soil profile has been discussed (4,5). We initially
were concerned about the possible transmission of plant parasitic nematodes.
A summary of the results of the studies with two plant nematodes is reported
here to indicate the effect of anaerobically digested sludge (ADS) on the
soil and some organisms present in it (6). In these experiments, seedlings
of red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) or of soybean (Clark 63) (Glycine sp.)
were grown in heat-sterilized Elliott soil or in sterilized Elliott soil to which
the equivalent of 11, 23, or 45 metric tons of anaerobically digested (AD)
sludge per hectare was added. Larvae of the Lespedeza cyst nematode
(Heterodera lespedezae, Golden and Cobb, 1963), or the soybean cyst
nematode (Heterodera glycines, Ichinohe, 1952) were inoculated into a small
hole in the soil near the seedlings in each of half of the plots. There were
4 replicates for each combination of controls or treated soils which contained
the sludge and the effect of the sludge on the nematodes and the plants,
in the presence or absence of sludge, was examined. The experiments were
terminated at the end of 60 days and plants were individually harvested,
washed, and dried. Reduction of nematode cysts was used as a measure
of activity of the worms, and they were counted by recovering them from
the soil and the roots of individual plants.
Treatment of the Elliott soil with ADS, at the rates indicated, increased
plant growth significantly over that of untreated control Elliott soil. The
optimum level appeared to be 11 MT/H. Applications of the equivalent of
23 or 45 MT/H of sludge to the soil caused a slight depression in plant
growth; however, the growth was still much greater than plants grown in
the absence of ADS (Figure 24-1).
There were fewer nematode cysts recovered from the soil and plants
a.
•5
0 11.35 22.70 45.40
Sludge Added in Metric Tons/Hectare
Figure 24-1. Effect of Anaerobically Digested Sludge Upon the Growth
of Red Clover in the Presence or Absence of the Plant Parasitic
Nematode Heterodera Lespedezae.
E2 = Sludge Treated; I I = Untreated Controls.
-------
356 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
in the pots in which sludge had been added. In general, there was a reduction
in the number of nematode cysts present in the soil depending upon the
quantity of sludge added. The presence of the anaerobically digested sludge
applied at the level of 45 MT/H produced the greatest inhibition in cyst
production.
The effect of the ADS upon plant growth was directly related to the
quality of the soil prior to the addition of the sludge. When ADS, at the
levels listed, was added to a "good quality" greenhouse soil instead of Elliott
soil, it was detrimental to plant growth. In the greenhouse soil, the presence
or absence of nematodes had no significant effect on the plants grown in
soil receiving ADS or in the control soils (Figure 24-2).
These experiments suggest that indeed anaerobically digested sludge has
value as a fertilizer and soil conditioner in poor quality soils and may have
nematocidal activity against some types of plant parasitic nematodes.
Changes in Soils and Plants Repeatedly Treated
with Anaerobically Digested Sludge
With each application of sludge, organic and inorganic components (including
chemicals and heavy metals) in the soil change (7). Table 24-1 shows the
heavy metals content of some soils repeatedly treated with ADS, originating
from the MSDGC system, in contrast to similar soils not treated with ADS.
Whether the sludge is beneficial depends upon the nature of the soil. Plants
grown in treated soils, therefore, are sometimes exposed to unusual quantities
of materials like heavy metals. Plants take up the nutrients, as well as other
materials, and incorporate them in the plant tissues. Forage plants and cereals
of various kinds may incorporate some of the materials into the plant tissues
20
I '"
u 16
.£
• 14
12
_ 10-
11.35
22.70
45.40
Sludge Added in Metric Tons/Hectare
Figure 24-2. Effect of Anaerobically Digested Sludge Upon the Growth
of Soybean (Clark 63) in "Good" Quality Greenhouse Soil, in
the Presence or Absence of the Plant Parasitic Nematode
Heterodera Glycines.
E3 = Sludge Treated; O = Untreated Control.
-------
Fitzgerald 357
or the grains. These in turn may be ingested by animals and a portion of
whatever is present may be incorporated in the tissues of the animals. Table
24-1 also shows the levels of some heavy metals in forage grown in the
soils treated or not treated with anaerobically digested sludge. Insofar as
possible, plant samples were taken from plants grown in soil immediately
adjacent to the plant. The figures in Table 24-1 are averages calculated from
monthly samplings of soil and plants taken from the same plots. Control
plants were grown in soils not treated with sludge but in the same general
area as the experimental soils.
Animal Studies
The animal studies were initiated to gain information about utilization of
ADS to reclaim strip-mined land and to put it into the production of forage
plants. The forage and cereals grown were then to be utilized to feed cattle.
Although several pasture grasses and legumes were grown, the most
productive forage was the hybrid grass Sudax. Sudax was selected for a
summer forage because it grew rapidly, utilized large quantities of nitrogen
Table 24-1. Summary of Heavy Metals in Soils and Plants Irrigated or Non-Irrigated
with Anaerobically Digested Sludge. Mean Values in fJg/g (ppm) in Experimental
and Control Groups. Values Shown were Calculated from Monthly Samplings.
Soils
Cd
Exp x
Cont x
Cr
Exp x
Cont x
Cu
Exp x
Cont x
Ni
Exp x
Cont x
Pb
E7p x
Cont *
Zn
Exp x
Cont x
HaM/
Exp x
Cont x
1975
22
3
268
16
155
17
47
24
79
16
368
46
G)(PPB)
660
364
1976
36
2
382
19
224
19
73
19
126
18
479
53
590
92
1977
35
2
391
18
192
31
59
22
141
20
485
55
361
27
J978
27
2
340
7
175
22
21
46
135
23
469
50
1975
12
6
47
4
30
8
8
3
13
5
114
28
19
28
Plants
1976
15
3
136
8
75
9
19
8
45
8
198
32
115
49
1977
9
2
24
2
18
7
8
2
13
4
52
27
68
24
1978
16
3
23
1
21
8
10
3
< 8
< 8
113
25
23
30
-------
358 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
and was palatable to the cattle. Although it produced large quantities of
feed, it was relatively short lived (3-4 months). During other periods, the
cattle grazed in pastures of grasses, legumes, and cereals such as corn stubble
that were treated or untreated with sludge.
Direct Grazing by Ruminants on Forage Grown
in Sludge-Amended Soils
Foraging animals react differently to sludge-treated forage. In our studies,
it was found that ruminants (cattle) ingested sludge-amended forage readily
and there was no exclusion because of palatability. Under the conditions
of our studies, animals never refused to eat forage which had been exposed
to ADS. Although sometimes vegetation had been heavily coated with sludge
by overhead irrigation, most of the sludge dried within 24 hours and fell
off the plants to the ground. Some animals ingested sludge by licking the
ground or the hair coat, or by breathing dust that was stirred up during
feeding activities. In some instances, ear corn or seed "heads" of Sudax
grass contained dried sludge following application of anaerobically digested
sludge by overhead irrigation. Water was probably not an important source
of any unusual materials that might have been present in sludge.
We selected beef-type cows and their calves and randomly placed them
on pastures treated with ADS or in similar pastures not exposed to ADS.
Insofar as possible, 60 mature-to-aged experimental cows and 20
mature-to-aged control cows were allowed to graze on sludge-treated or
nontreated Sudax grass, corn stubble, ear corn, grass-legume pastures, etc.,
for the same lengths of time although in different pastures. The study has
been conducted as a "field study" and animals are cared for and handled
in a manner similar to that which would occur on a farm or ranch operated
by a farmer or rancher. All of the animals in each of the two groups were
examined twice yearly and observations were made daily to detect any
illnesses or health problems. Cows and calves were bled in the spring for
serological studies and new calves were vaccinated, ear tagged, castrated, etc.
Insofar as possible, milk samples were obtained from cows during the spring
examinations. During the summer, experimental cows, with their calves,
grazed in the experimentally treated pastures and control cows, with their
calves, grazed in the untreated pastures. In the fall, the animals were again
examined individually and groups of cows and calves were selected for
necropsy.
Thus far we have been unable to associate illness of cattle with
quantities of sludge ingested on forage. No gross changes in feeding activities
have been observed and animals have all appeared healthy and strong as
long as an adequate food supply was available.
Parasites in Cattle
A question which quickly arose was that of the concern for potential for
-------
Fitzgerald 359
transmission of disease from the sludge to the animals. Since it was discovered
that some parasitic organisms could pass through the sewage treatment
process unaltered (8), we initiated a study to determine the levels of
parasitism in the experimental and control herds. Among the parasitic
organisms affecting cattle are the coccidia and trichostrongylinate worms.
They are the most common potentially important parasite pathogens. In
order to assess the levels of infection with these organisms, we initiated
a system to collect random or individual fecal samples from animals in both
herds. The samples were collected and examined for these parasites at least
monthly for the past seven years. Figures 24-3 and 24-4 are a comparison
of the fluctuations in the parasite loads as determined by random and
individual fecal samples. At no time have we detected outbreaks of parasitic
disease associated with either of these groups of parasites. In examinations
of 160 cattle that have been necropsied to date, no tissue parasites (outside
of the gastrointestinal tracts) have been found. One-hundred of these have
been cattle variously exposed naturally to anaerobically digested sludge.
We have not conducted specific studies to isolate bacterial, viral, or
fungal parasites. No recognizable disease conditions have appeared in the
cattle herds that could be specifically related to these kinds of pathogens.
However, semi-annual serologic examinations for Leptospira sp. and Brucella
sp. organisms have been conducted with negative results.
Parasites in Swine
Two studies were completed in which 17 to 20 Specific Pathogen Free (SPF)
"weaner" pigs were placed in confinement pens of approximately 2 acres.
The equivalent of about 200 MT/H of dry ADS had been applied to the
soil of the pens during the previous 5 years. The pigs were allowed to live
"naturally" in the enclosure for a period of 4 months then were necropsied.
In the first experiment, 10 of the 20 contained Ascaris sp. worms in the
gastrointestinal tracts. In the second experiment, 2 of 17 contained worms
in the gastrointestinal tracts. This suggests that viable Ascaris sp. ova were
present in the soil in the pens which had been treated with the ADS and
some of the pigs became infected. The presence of the worms appeared
to have little or no detectable effect upon the pigs, however, because only
a few worms (4-5) were present in any single pig. No other parasites were
recovered from either the gastrointestinal tracts or tissues.
Heavy Metals in Animal Tissues
Cattle
One of the major problems associated with the utilization of ADS as a soil
conditioner or fertilizer has been concern for the potential transmission of
heavy metals, organic compounds or pathogens into the environment. Our
direct grazing study was concerned with the potential transmission of heavy
metals into the food chain as well as transmission of pathogens. As indicated,
-------
360 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
-------
Fitzgerald 361
D/8AO
-------
362 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
each year a number of animals from the experimental and control herds
were slaughtered with the intent of examining specific tissues for the presence
of heavy metals, organic chemicals, or disease. Slaughtered cattle were
grouped into two age groups consisting of calves less than 12 months of
age born in the project, and of mature cattle, usually 5-15 years old. Some
of the latter were born in the project. Most of the mature cattle had been
in the control or experimental groups since the inception of the study (7
years). In addition, fetal fluids and tissues were secured from fetuses from
a number of cows necropsied.
Tables 24-2 and 24-3 show the average levels of some heavy metals
in vital tissues of cows or calves in the experimental and control groups.
The figures shown represent the average ppm of heavy metals for the number
of animals shown in parenthesis. These results are based upon freeze-dried
tissues, a process which extracts essentially all of the water from the tissues.
For example, lyophilization for 48 hours removes water so that kidney tissue
is reduced to 21-23% of its original wet weight. Bone weight is reduced
by 55%. Therefore, the ppm shown in the tables needs to be decreased
Table 24-2. Summary of Heavy Metals in Tissues of Adult Cows (8-15 years old)
Ingesting Forage Irrigated with Sludge (ex) Compared to Tissues from Cows
Ingesting Forage not Irrigated with Sludge (con). 1975-1979. Dry weight basis.
pg/9
Diaphragm
x Ex (39)
X Con (14)
Heart
~TTx (39)
x Con (14)
Liver
~TTx (39)
x Con (14)
Kidney
x Ex (39)
x Con (14)
Brain
~TTx (39)
x Con ( 9)
Bone
~~ TEx (40)
x Con (14)
Blood (wet wt.)
TTx (78)
x Con (18)
Milk (wet wt.)
T974
x Ex
x" Con
1976
x Ex
x Con
Zn
134
151
68
64
192
117
114
93
51
47
58
68
3.1
3.1
2.1
2.3
3.7
2.8
Cu
5
7
16
16
164
60
21
22
13
11
2
8 .
.99
.63
.17
0.19
0.10
0.06
Cd
0.076
0.045
0.193
0.068
7.061
1.800
40.690
14.370
0.052
0.060
0.092
0.441
0.002
0.007
0.003
0.003
0.002
0.000
Cr
0.120
0.164
0.086
0.611
0.084
0.472
0.150
0.522
0.116
0.165
0.400
0.990
0.025
0.010
0.012
0.009
0.483
0.311
Ni
0.270
0.198
0.238
0.288
0.240
0.415
0.328
0.471
0.411
1.330
0.803
3.300
0.007
0.009
0.005
0.008
0.166
0.091
Pb Fe
<1 120
<1 136
<1 242
<1 216
1.109 210
<1 189
<1 306
<1 315
<1 93
<1 137
.736 2.413
.940 14
.084 NA
.026 NA
0.001 NA
0.001 NA
0.016 NA
0.008 NA
-------
Fitzgerald 363
Table 24-3. Summary of Heavy Metals in Tissues of Calves (less than 10 months old)
Ingesting Forage Irrigated with Sludge (ex) Compared to Tissues from Calves
Investing Forage not Irrigated with Sludge (con). 1975-1979. Dry weight basis.
In C"u~Cl^> ifi PIT FT
x Ex (43) 131
x" Con (20) 141
Heart
x Ex (43) 71
x Con (20) 65
Liver
x Ex (43) 114
x Con (20) 118
x Ex (43) 88
x Con (20) 81
Brain
x Ex ( 3) 47
x Con (20) 51
Bone
x Ex (43) 48
x Con (20) 49
6
6
17
16
117
113
20
20
10
11
3
6
0.094
0.067
0.111
0.119
2.301
0.688
12.302
3.875
0.062
0.032
0.416
0.731
0.309
0.618
0.220
1.215
0.205
0.360
0.188
0.357
0.121
0.088
0.574
0.907
0.296
0.385
0.428
0.931
6.052
0.606
1.566
2.376
0.290
0.418
1.670
2.249
<1 87
0 NA
<1 242
<1 NA
<1 193
<1 NA
<1 351
<1 NA
<1 66
<1 NA
1.530 19
1 . 286 NA
by nearly 5 times (kidney and other soft tissues) and 2 times (bone) to
ascertain the approximate live wet weight values in the tissues.
Table 24-2 also shows the quantity of heavy metals present in milk
and blood from cows near the beginning of the study in 1974 and two
years later after they had- been on pastures treated with ADS.
In a somewhat similar grazing study, Kienholz et al. (10) reported
significant increases in Zn and Cd in kidneys and livers of old range cows
grazing forages grown in soils in which sludge from the Denver Metropolitan
Sanitary District had been incorporated. None of the animals showed any
gross or histopathological abnormalities at necropsy. The levels of Zn and
Cd were lower in both liver and kidney than those shown in Table 24-2
of the present report. This may be partly due to their use of fewer animals,
but it may also reflect differences in sludges, soil conditions, kinds of forage
or lack thereof, etc.
Swine
Table 24-4 shows the average levels of heavy metals from tissues of swine
exposed to ADS in confined pens. Weaner pigs (35 Ibs) were confined to
pens 9 m x 14 m and the soil was treated with sludge equivalent to
applications of 12, 26, or 50 dry metric tons per hectare. They were fed
standard, commercially prepared rations for approximately 4 months and
-------
364 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
Table 24-4. Mean Levels of Heavy Metals in Selected Tissues Taken from Pigs Exposed
to Different Levels of Anaerobically Digested Sludge (Dry Equivalents in Metric
Tons/Hectare) in Soil During a 4-Month Feeding Period. Dry Weight Basis.
Control
U MT/H*
26 MT/H
50 MT/H
Control
12 MT/H
26 MT/H
50 MT/H
Control
12 MT/H
26 MT/H
50 MT/H
Control
12 MT/H
26 MT/H
50 MT/H
Control
12 MT/H
26 MT/H
50 MT/H
Animals
8
4
8
2
8
4
8
2
8
4
8
2
7
4
8
2
8
4
8
2
Cd
Cr
Diaphragm
0.027 0.217
0.047 0.235
0.368 0.425
0.026 0.469
0.040
0.057
0.032
0.050
0.074
0.369
0.822
0.451
0.544
1.322
4.375
4.488
0.059
0.035
0.039
0.051
Heart
o!472
0.288
1.269
Liver
o'.ieo
0.583
0.463
Kidney
0.442
0.194
0.322
0.088
Bone
TTT42
0.797
1.427
0.594
ng/g .
Cu
4
4
6
4
18
15
15
14
17
38
18
9
45
45
32
22
1
1
1.6
3
Ni
NA
NA
NA
0.100
NA
NA
NA
0.388
NA
NA
NA
0.087
NA
NA
0.125
NA
NA
NA
0.132
0.188
Pb
< 1
< 1
< 1
< 1
< 1
< 1
< 1
< 1
< 1
< 1
< 1
< 1
< 1
< 1
< 1
< 1
< 1
< 1
1.9
1.25
Zn
93
79
82
59
74
66
74
52
234
367
247
108
100
128
116
66
112
121
116
95
»H - hectare.
then were necropsied. Their exposure to ADS was by ingestion of plants
growing naturally in the pens and by contact with treated soil in the pens.
In general, there were linear increases in some heavy metals in some tissues,
depending upon the rates of application of sludge to the soil in the pens.
Cadmium, for example, varied from 0.54 ppm in the kidneys of unexposed
control pigs to 1.32, 4.38 and 4.49 ppm in the kidneys of experiemtnal
pigs exposed to soils treated with 12, 26 or 50 dry metric tons of ADS
per hectare. Cadmium appears lower than expected in kidneys of pigs
exposed to the maximum levels of sludge, but the analysis is based on tissues
from two animals and may not be a valid comparison.
Health Effects
In all of our studies, as well as those cited, there has been no indication
of disease in experimental animals variously exposed to ADS. As far as we
have been able to ascertain, the transmission of pathogens has not been
a problem. Disease could have occurred as a result of the presence of some
organics or heavy metals translocated to vital tissues such as kidneys and
-------
Fitzgerald 365
livers where some heavy metals accumulate, but these tissues have not shown
significant histopathology alterations. No pathogenic disease organisms have
appeared in the cattle or swine; therefore, there has been no reason to believe
that pathogens affecting cattle or swine were present in the sludge. Parasitic
organisms such as Ascaris lumbricoides suum of swine have been shown to
be transmitted through ADS to swine (9) but no similar infections have
occurred in cattle.
Serological examinations of the blood of all animals, twice yearly, have
failed to detect the presence of pathogens such as Leptospira sp. and Brucella
sp. No attempts have been made to isolate specific viruses because no disease
suggesting virus origin has appeared.
Performance
There have been no reports of morbidity or mortality in animals consuming
sludge-fertilized (SF) products in a natural environment. Although
performance data for growth of adult cattle discussed earlier are not available,
weights of 10-month-old calves from control and experimental herds are
presented. The average dressed weight of necropsied calves was 155 kg; the
average live weight was 282 kg. There were no significant weight differences
between control and experimental calves. Projected calculations to a yearling
basis indicate that calves foraging on the ADS treated pastures would be
near 350 kg (770 Ibs).
Two feeding trials, designed to ascertain whether heavy metals in tissues
of cattle could be reduced during a typical "feeding-fattening" period, were
conducted. Twenty calves, originating from pastures treated with sludge and
10 calves originating from pastures not exposed to sludge, were taken from
the experimental or control herds and were placed in a typical "feed yard"
environment. Both groups were housed in concrete corrals and were given
a prepared feed that was known to have been free of any exposure to ADS.
The calves were approximately 9 months of age at the beginning of the
experiment, and all were selected from the calves born in the project at
the experimental sites during the spring. After 150 days in the feed yard,
all were necropsied and kidney, liver, heart, diaphragm, muscle, brain, and
bone were taken for chemical analysis. The results of the analysis of tissues
from each "feeder" group are being compared to the results of analysis of
tissues taken from herd calves necropsied 150 days earlier; peers of those
necropsied after the feeding trial. The results of all the analyses are not
yet available, but preliminary indications are that there was a reduction in
the concentration of heavy metals in most tissues. Presently, we are not
able to determine whether the reductions were due to dilution by growth
or were due to physiologic activities.
-------
366 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
Reproduction
Ingestion of forages and grains grown in soils treated with ADS does not
appear to adversely affect reproduction in cattle. The presence of heavy
metals in tissues of cows at the levels indicated in Table 24-2 did not appear
to interfere with reproduction. Cows foraging on ADS fertilized pastures
have performed as well as those foraging on control pastures. The rates of
reproduction in the control and experimental herds have fluctuated between
85% and 90% during each of the 7 years of the study and there has been
no significant difference in the rates of the two herds. Calves born to cows
in the experimental group, grazing sludge treated pastures, have been equal
to or superior in quality to control calves.
Detailed information on levels of heavy metals in fetal fluids and tissues
is not yet available, but is presently being evaluated and should supply
valuable information about the potential transfer of heavy metals from darn
to foetus in the bovine.
Conclusions
Accumulation of heavy metals in soil, plants and animal tissues is of concern
to those responsible for the safe and proper disposal of sewage wastes. Not
all heavy metals are of equal concern. Currently, cadmium has received the
greatest attention. Whether it justifiably deserves this attention has not yet
been confirmed. Cadmium is accumulative in body tissues and is said to
be a cause of failure of some organs. In warm-blooded animals, it accumulates
in greatest concentrations in kidneys and livers. In our studies Cd
concentrations were always highest in these organs. Kidney and liver normally
could be expected to have higher levels of metals like Cd because it is their
function to remove excess or harmful materials that may be excessive to
the needs of the body. However, Cd is not known to be a required element
and therefore any Cd is excessive to body needs. Other organs and tissues
do not accumulate quantities of Cd at the levels found in the kidney and
liver tissue. It has been suggested that accumulation of Cd in excess of 200
ppm in human kidney interferes with normal activity. The level at which
pathology begins to occur in the ruminant kidney has not been specifically
determined. In our studies, individual animals have had as high as 106 ppm
but have shown no evidence of disease.
Other tissues such as somatic muscle, heart, brain and blood have been
shown to acquire comparatively small quantities of heavy metals. Bone tends
to accumulate lead, but it may be metabolized and pass out of the body
of some animals rather quickly. With the exceptions of Cd and Pb, none
of the other heavy metals were significantly increased in various tissues and
organs examined in our studies. Under the conditions of exposure herein
-------
Fitzgerald 367
described copper, chromium, iron, nickel and zinc did not appear to be
a threat to the animals well-being and the quantities of lead and cadmium
accumulated appeared to be well below toxic levels in both cattle and swine.
Physiologically, swine are closest to the human body in many respects.
Because of this, one may reasonably consider the results obtained in our
studies to be applicable to humans.
No evidence of disease attributable to association with ADS has
appeared in cattle in our seven-year study. Similarly, no evidence of disease
appearing in swine living in close association with ADS has appeared.
The effect of ADS upon strip-mined, reclaim-'d soils has been one of
improving the soil condition. The real value of ADS addition to soil is
dependent upon the initial condition of the soil. In high quality agricultural
soils, such as those found in Central Illinois, the addition of ADS is likely
to be unproductive. In some instances, the presence or addition of ADS
may be valuable in helping to control disease causing organisms such as plant
parasitic nernatodes.
Literature Cited
1. U. S. Government. 1979. Federal Register, Part IX. 44(179):53438-468.
2. Freshman, J. D. 1977. A Perspective on Land as a Waste Management Alternative.
In: Land as a Waste Management Alt., Ann Arbor Sci, Ann Arbor, pp. 3-8.
3. Strauch, D. 1977. Health Hazards of Agricultural, Industrial, and Municipal Wastes
Applied to Lands. In: Land as a Waste Management Alt., Ann Arbor Sci., Ann
Arbor, pp. 317-342.
4. Peterson, J. R., R. I. Pietz, and C. Lue-Hing. 1979. Water, Soil and Crop Quality
of Illinois Coal Mine Spoils Amended with Sewage Sludge. In: Utilization of
Municipal Sewage Effluent and Sludge on Forest and Disc. Land. Penn. State Univ.
Press, University Park. pp. 359-368.
5. Hinesly, T. D., R. L. Jones and B. Sosewitz. 1972. Use of Waste Treatment Plant
Solids for Mined Land Reclamation. Mining Congr J 41:828-830.
6. Sayre, R. M., W. A. Habieht and J. M. Walker. 1973. Effect of Sewage Sludges
as Soil Organic Amendments on the Incidence of Rootknot. 2nd Int. Cong. PI.
Path., Proceed. 1973 (Abst):0557.
7. Fitzgerald, P. R. 1978. Toxicology of Heavy Metals in Sludges Applied to the
Land. 5th National Conf. on Accept. Sludge Dispo. Tech. Information Trans.,
Inc., Rockville, MD. pp. 106-116.
8. Fitzgerald, P. R. and R. F. Ashley. 1977. Differential Survival of Ascaris Ova
in Wastewater Sludge. J. Water Poll. Cont. Fed. 49(7): 1722-1724.
9. Fitzgerald, P. R. 1980. Helminth Transmission from Anaerobically Digested Sludge
to Swine. J. Parasitol. 66(Abst):36.
10. Kienholz, E. 1976. Personal Communication. Colorado State University, Fort
Collins.
-------
25
RESTORATION OF A WOODY ECOSYSTEM ON A
SLUDGE-AMENDED DEVASTATED MINE-SITE
Paul L. Roth, George T. Weaver, and
Michael Morin
Anaerobically digested sewage sludge was applied to an abandoned
surface-mined tract in southern Illinois. Target application rates ranged from
400 to 1000 metric tons per hectare. The site is characterized by extensive
amounts of pyritic materials leading to barrenness, highly acid runoff, and
the most polluted waterway in Illinois. Third-year leaf, stem, and root tissue
of Acer saccharinum L., Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh, Pinus virginiana Mill,
Betula nigra L., and Populus deltoides Bartr. var. deltoides were analyzed
for concentrations of Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, and Zn in jUg/g. Sludge-amended
spoil samples from the rhizosphere of A. saccharinum were tested for pHw,
H+ ion content and metal elements Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, and Zn.
General component part concentrations (Mg/g dry weight), for third-year
samples, indicated that roots and foliage consistently have higher metal
contents than stems, but the overall trend indicates concentrations in third
year tissues are lower than first-year tissues. For example, third-year stem
and root tissues of Betula nigra exhibited Zn ratios of 11.15 and 11.33
respectively, while first-year ratios for stem and root were 17.90 and 20.40
respectively. The overall ranges in concentrations for the metals tested were:
Cd, 0.01-950; Cu, 0.50-292; Fe, 0.50-8590; Mn, 5-3270; Ni, 0.50-85; and
Zn, 10-2960.
Extractable spoil metal concentrations exceeded those in most published
reports due in part to the low pHw (4.9) and appreciable H ions present
in the spoil substrate. In general there were poor correlations between spoil
extractable amounts and concentrations in component parts of tree species.
The 126 hectare (312 ac.) Palzo tract in Williamson County, Illinois,
was surface-mined from 1959 to 1961. Coal removal severely devastated the
Palzo tract, an example of some 2835 hectares (7000 ac.) of previously
productive land in similar condition in southern Illinois. Not only was the
vegetation removed, but the patchwork of spoil types left after surface
mining, because of their geologic composition, produced mineral acids that
were extremely toxic to indigenous fauna and flora. The ultimate result has
been extensive non-point-source pollution and subsequent deterioration of
aquatic life and water quality below a site which had remained barren for
two decades.
The ultimate goal of research at the Palzo site is to develop a feasible
technology for restoration of an ecosystem on devastated mine sites through
the application of municipal sewage sludge. The multiple benefits of this
approach include: the utilization of the nutrients, organic matter, and water
-------
Roth, Weaver, and Morin 369
composing the sludge; elimination of erosion of toxic spoils; reduction of
acid runoff; restoration of barren mine land to a productive environment;
and a socially acceptable and biologically and economically feasible method
of sewage sludge disposal. The initial objectives of this study were to
determine tree species suitable for planting on similar sites based on species
overall growth performance, to evaluate several sludge application rates to
determine which, if any, is most beneficial with respect to growth and
survival of selected tree species, and to monitor any changes in acid runoff
and water quality. Current investigations include heavy metal cycling, organic
matter cycling of both the sludge and plant species, and spoil compaction.
Municipal sewage sludge, such as that from the Metropolitan Sanitary
District of Greater Chicago, usually contains several toxic heavy metals which
may damage plants, animal food chains (Chaney 1973), and adjacent aquatic
ecosystems. Minimizing these hazards by designing a reclamation system
which retains these metals on affected sites through biotic storage, while
suppressing their entry into food chains, is the focus of current research
at the Palzo site. One requisite for success is identification of woody species
that can tolerate and accumulate heavy metals in tissues which are not heavily
grazed by herbivores.
Consequently, as part of a comprehensive study for reclamation of this
site, we undertook a study of accumulation of Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, and
Zn by several tree species growing on sludge treated spoils. The specific
objectives concerned with this paper are: (1) To determine if the
concentrations of each metal increased in these tree species when grown
on sludge-treated spoils; (2) To determine if concentrations of heavy metals
in these tree species were affected by rates of sludge application to spoils;
(3) To determine if the metals tend to accumulate in particular plant tissues.
Study Area
The study site is located in Section 16, Township 10S, Range 4E, Williamson
County, Illinois (Figure 25-1). The tract of 126 ha (312 acres) was
surface-mined from 1959 to 1961 for the underlying Dekoven and Davis
coal seams. During mining approximately 1.5m (5 feet) of iron pyrite
containing black shale was placed on the surface to expose the Davis seam.
The resulting spoil was a mixture of surface and subsurface soil, black shale,
underclay, and sandstone (USDA Forest Service 1972). Upon subsequent
oxidative weathering spoil pH decreased to a range of 1.8 to 4.6, The high
acidity was the result of mineral acids formed from the oxidation of sulfides
from iron pyrites (Peterson and Nielson 1973). Under this condition of low
pH, several metals become soluble in amounts sufficient to cause toxicity
to plants (Berg and Vogel 1973).
Other hazards, known to be detrimental to the establishment and
-------
370 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
Figure 25-1. The Location of the Study Area.
SCALE IN MILES
| [ || UNRECLAIMED ACID PRODUCING
I j FULLY RECLAIMED
UNDISTURBED (NON-MINED)
PARTIALLY RECLAIMED
survival of plants, which may characterize the Palzo site, include high surface
temperature coupled with high surface evaporation and a low
moisture-holding capacity of the spoil, low organic matter content, spoil
compaction, deficiencies of macronutrients, low cation-exchange capacity,
and a high susceptibility to erosion due to barren surface and coarse texture.
Acidic runoff from the barren portion of the tract was causing severe off-site
water pollution damage to Sugar Creek and the South Fork of the Saline
River (USDA Forest Service 1972).
In order to reclaim the site to a condition capable of supporting
vegetation, anaerobically digested sewage sludge was applied to the spoils
in order to develop a soil medium capable of sustaining suitable vegetation
and abating off-site pollution. The sludge, which contained approximately
10% solids (USDA Forest Service 1972), was pumped from a holding lagoon
-------
Roth, Weaver, and Morin 371
through a flexible pipeline to a tractor-drawn disk. The fluid flowed down
the disk blades and was incorporated to a depth of approximately 30cm.
Application rates were 448, 462, 560, 619, 668, and 997 dry m tons/ha.
Before this reclamation work began at Palzo, 78 of the 126 ha were
absolutely devoid of vegetation.
Methods
Seven irregularly shaped experimental compartments averaging approximately
2 ha were laid out on the Palzo site (Figure 25-2). One compartment was
Figure 25-2. Palzo Compartment Design.
CONTROL
1 2.7 HA. 560 METRIC T/HA.
2 2.1 HA. 668 METRIC T/HA.
3 1.1 HA. 997 METRIC T/HA.
4 1.6 HA. 619 METRIC T/HA.
5 3.0 HA. 462 METRIC T/HA.
6 1.9 HA. 448 METRIC T/HA.
1.8 HA. 355 METRIC T/HA.
0 0.5 HA. NO TREATMENT
CONTROL
-------
372 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
Figure 25-3. Species Planting Design.
WOODY
left untreated to serve as a control. Each compartment was subdivided into
three equal-sized units: a woody species planting unit, a herbaceous species
planting unit, and a combination unit planted in both woody and herbaceous
species (Figure 25-3). Multiple rows of seventeen tree species were
hand-planted in the spring of 1976. Four sample plots were randomly
selected within each species for each unit containing woody plants (Figure
25-4). The five tree species selected for heavy metal analysis in this study
were Acer saccharinum L., Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh, Pinus virginiana
-------
Roth, Weaver, and Morin 373
Mill, Betula nigra L., and Populus deltoides Bartr. var. deltoides.
Baseline samples for laboratory heavy metal analysis were established
by random selection of plants of each species from the nursery stock
(Svoboda et al. 1979). The number of seedlings to be set aside for baseline
samples depended on the size of the stock. The number of seedlings selected
varied from 20-30 trees per species. These baseline samples were replicated
4 to 5 times. Following selection, the samples were individually bundled
by species and stored at 1 to 3 C until laboratory analysis could be
initiated.
First-year and third-year samples were taken from surviving trees of
each species within each woody unit of each compartment. Careful harvesting
of the trees helped insure collection of most of the rooting system. The
REP 1
Figure 25-4. Field Plot Design with Three Replications.
REP 2
REP 3
X - PLOT TREES
. - INTERPLANTS
o - FILLER TREES
B - BORDER ROW
S - SAMPLE ROW
-------
374 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
number of samples varied according to the number of replicates within
plots-either three or four. The selection of samples was made using a random
number table. Providing sufficient survival existed, one tree per row per plot
was selected for destructive sampling. Thus a maximum of three trees was
taken for each species per plot.
Since cottonwood was an invader species, the harvesting of eastern
cottonwood was conducted in a different manner than the planted species
due to its irregular occurrence. Eastern cottonwood grew in small groups
dispersed throughout the Palzo site. The groups were subdivided into two
sampling units from which six trees were harvested per unit. The selection
of trees from these sampling units was conducted randomly. Tree age was
determined by examining the number of growth rings in a cross section
of the stem just above the root collar.
In addition to the tree samples, analyses of the metal content within
the spoil surrounding the roots were made. Since testing of all spoils was
impractical for the allotted time of this research, spoil from the rooting
zone of thirty-six silver maple trees was sampled. Silver maple occurred most
frequently on the tested plots. These spoil samples were air dried and crushed
to pass a 20-mesh screen. Two methods of soil metals extraction were
employed. One was the 0.1 N HCl method which has been shown to extract
large amounts of metals (Wear and Evans 1968, Leeper 1972). The other
soil metals extraction method utilized was the DTPA chelate method
(Lindsay and Norvell 1969). The soil metals extraction methods were
designed to react under a fixed pH conditions. The pH for the DTPA chelate
method is 7.3. These pH conditions do not typify the pH conditions at
Palzo. Therefore, the pH of each of these extractants was adjusted to the
average pH of Palzo spoils (4.9) by using 6N HCl for the DTPA extractant
and NaOH for the 0.1N HCl extractant. Tests were completed under fixed
and adjusted pH conditions for comparison of these extractants when used
on sludge-treated acid surface-mine spoil.
The 0.1 HCl solution is an acid extractant which will dissolve
firmly-held, exchangeable metals. However, it will dissolve metals which are
tightly held to the soil colloids as well (Leeper 1972). Thus this method
measures the maximum amount of mobile metals present. The DTPA chelate
method has been used as an indicator of plant uptake from soils with
excessive toxic metal levels (Korcak and Fanning 1978). Leeper (1972) states
that the DTPA chelate method has been utilized for estimating the heavy
metal supplies available to plants rather than the total amounts present in
the soil (Morin 1980).
Additional soil tests were the determination of pH according to McLean
(1973) using the Lab-Omatic Model 165 pH meter, with an H ion indicating
glass electrode and a reference saturated calomel electrode, and the
determination of the H+ ion content using the SMP Buffer Method
(Shoemaker et al. 1962).
-------
Roth, Weaver, and Morin 375
The preparation of all trees of baseline, first-year and third-year data
were done in the following manner. The trees were dissected with a set
of sterilized stainless steel shears into the roots, stem, and leaves. The roots
were carefully washed with tap water to remove soil adherents, and rinsed
several times with deionized water. Following dissection, the component
parts were placed in paper sacks, labeled, and oven dried at 70 C. After
a drying period of 48 to 72 hours, the samples were ground in the Wiley
Mill to pass a 20-mesh stainless steel screen. Upon completion of the grinding,
the samples representing the different component parts of roots, stem, or
leaves were weighed to the nearest 0.001 gram. The tree samples were wet
ashed using the nitric acid-perchloric acid (HNO^-HClC^) method according
to Smith (1953). Following digestion, samples were diluted with deionized
water to a volume of 50 ml. These samples were stored at 1 to 3 C in
leached polyethylene bottles until laboratory analysis was initiated.
The laboratory analysis included the determination of the presence and
concentrations of cadmium, copper, iron, manganese, nickel, and zinc, using
recommended instrument settings and an air-acetylene flame (Perkin-Elmer
1973).
Statistical tests utilized to analyze the data included T-tests, one-way
analysis of variance, and a correlation analysis using the Partial Correlation
Coefficient.
Results and Discussion
All five tree species were combined according to component parts (roots,
foliage, and stem). Mean, minimum and maximum concentrations are
compiled in Table 25-1 for three-year-old plant materials. The limits of
concentrations (Mg/g dry weight) for heavy metals at age three were for
Fe, 0.50-8590.00; Zn, 10.0-2960.00; Mn, 5.00-3270.00; Cu, 0.50-291.50;
Cd, 0.01-950.00; and Ni, 0.50-85.00 (Morin 1980). Concentrations of
cadmium at 0.01 were actually below 0.01 but could not be recorded more
accurately with the laboratory procedure and equipment utilized in this
study.
General component part concentrations for third-year samples indicated
that roots and foliage consistently had higher metal contents than stems,
but the overall concentrations in third-year tissues were lower than first-year
tissues. For example, third-year stem and root tissues of Betula nigra
exhibited Zn ratios of 11.15 and 11.33 respectively. Concentrations in tissues
of both third-year and first-year samples were significantly greater than
concentrations in baseline nursery stock as reported by Svoboda et al. (1979).
Also, third-year concentrations were significantly greater than concentrations
reported for woody plants growing on uncontaminated sites (Guha and
Mitchell 1965, Young and Carpenter 1967, Stone 1968, Woodwell et al.
-------
376 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
Table 25-1. Mean, Minimum and Maximum Metal Concentrations ifJ-g/s) Among
Combined Component Parts of Five Tree Species Grown on Sludge-Amended
Spoils.
Mm. a/
Max. 77.00
Mean 20.94
SE 1.20
3.50
245.50
48.05
3.24
75.00
8590.00
1282.40
108.50
5.00
1315.00
196.50
16.41
0.50 15.00
44.00 1075.00
10.21 298.27
0.64 15.54
0.50
291.50
12.48
2.00
0.50
840.00
81.69
8.90
4.00
1040.00
164.76
13.46
0.50
85.00
5.90
0.72
10.00
1080.00
358.50
30.97
Mm.
Max.
Mean
SE
950.00
38.94
6.70
1.00
93.00
12.05
0.81
1.00
4090.00
256.70
36.34
5.00
3270.00
728.38
53.02
1.00
80.00
14.28
1.09
— Indicates concentrations are
40.00
2960.00
818.94
64.67
Table 25-2. Significance Rank of Metal Concentrations in the Component Parts of Five
Tree Species.
Metal
F>R>S J±. saccharinum
R>S-F F_. pennsylvanica
CADMIUM F>S=R f_. deltoides
R>S-F P_. virginiana
F>S>R B^. nigra
R>S~F A. saccharinum
COPPER R>S>F F_. pennsvlvanica
R>F~S P_. deltoides, P_. virginiana,
EL nigra
IRON R>F-S A. saccharinuin, :F. pennsylvanica,
|\ deltoides, £. virginiana,
B_. nigra
F>R-S A. saccharinurn
MANGANESE R>F=S F_. pennsylvanica
F>S-R P_. deltoides, £. virqiniana,
B^. nigra
F=R-S ^. saccharinum, ^. virginiana
NK3CEL F>R-S P. deltoides, B. nigra
R>F>S J_. pennsylvanica
F>R-S A. saccharinum, £. deltoides
ZINC R>F-S F_. pennsylvanica, £. virqiniana
F>S>R B. nigra
c^/;', indicates significance at the 0.05 level;-, indicates
non-significance at the 0.05 level.
-------
Roth, Weaver, and Morin 377
1975). Heavy metal concentrations also generally exceeded levels reported
for plants from sites contaminated primarily by atmospheric deposition of
heavy metals (Tyler 1972, Smith 1973).
Generally significant differences were delineated between combined
component parts. Foliage concentrations were significantly higher than root
or stem concentrations for Cd, Mn, Ni, and Zn. The significantly lowest
concentrations were found in stems for Fe, Mn, and Ni. The differences
for Cd, Mn, and Zn between stem and roots were not significant. There
were significant differences between two component parts for every metal
except Ni. Ni showed significant differences among all three component
parts. Fe exhibited the greatest difference in concentrations with the lowest
concentration of 81.69 ppm in the stem while the roots recorded a high
of 1292.40 ppm. Roots exhibited the highest concentrations of Cu and Fe
(Morin 1980).
Metal concentrations varied by component parts for individual species.
Table 25-2 shows the significance rank of concentrations (jUg/g) of the six
metals in the component parts for the five study species. Cadmium results
exhibited the greatest differences among the species with each species
demonstrating a different concentration pattern. Manganese concentrations
were greatest in foliage of all species except F. pennsylvanica. There were
no significant differences among all three component parts for Mn. Foliage
and stem concentrations for Cu and Fe among species were not significantly
different, except for F. pennsylvanica. Only B. nigra showed significant
differences for Zn.
Overall, A. saccharinum is different than the other species in its
concentration patterns for Cd, Cu, and Mn. F. pennsylvanica exhibited
different concentration patterns than the other species for Cd, Cu, Mn, and
Ni. No clear patterns were discernible among component parts for P.
virginiana or P. deltoides.
Discussion
Lawrey (1977), Smout (1978), and Svoboda et al. 1979) have all reported
that excessive concentrations of heavy metals occur in the component parts
of plants grown on certain surface-mined sites. At the Palzo site, the fact
that third-year and first-year tissues contained higher concentrations of heavy
metals than baseline nursery plant materials was not unexpected, since the
trees were grown on an abandoned acid-producing tract ameliorated with
metal-contaminated municipal sewage sludge.
General component part concentrations (jUg/g dry weight) for third-year
samples indicated that roots and foliage consistently had higher metal
concentrations than stems (Table 25-3), but the overall trend indicated that
concentrations in third-year tissues were lower than those in first-year tissues.
-------
378 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
However, the patterns of concentrations for heavy metals were similar for
third-year and first-year concentrations. Third-year levels, particularly in stem
and root tissues, have been sustained, indicating continued uptake of heavy
metals with accompanying increases in biomass production. Sidle and Sopper
(1976) reported similar dilution effects due to increased biomass for Cu
and Cd in the foliage of Picea glauca. The third-year concentrations continue
to portray higher levels than those found in natural ecosystems (Van Hook
et al. 1977, Woodwell et al. 1975).
It is interesting to note that some third-year concentrations at Palzo
continue to exceed levels regarded (by some scientists) as toxic. That the
plant survives may be due to heavy metals being stored in plant tissues in
forms not readily transported within the plant. In addition to biomass
productivity and heavy metal storage within the plant in relatively
non-transportable forms, two other factors appear to be taking place. A
Table 25-3. Concentrations (jUg/g) of Six Metals in the Component Parts of Five Tree
Species Harvested from Sludoe Amended Spoils.
Species
Foliage Mean Sgecies
Stem Mean Species
Root Mean
CADMIUM
2
4
1
5
3
4
3
1
2
5
2
4
3
5
1
I/Species
3/ P. d<
0.81 a
5.67 a
25.15 a
94.94 b
107.77 b
7.57 a
10.85 a. b
12.65 a b
13.10 a b
15.56 b
84.00 a
123.42 a
123.88 a
331.19 a
597.03 b
code: 1) A.
iltoides, 4/
2
1
4
3
5
COPPER
3
4
5
1
2
IRON
3
2
1
5
4
. saccharinum.
P. virginiana
1.26 a
9.65 b
15.44 b
38.33 c
73.87 d
5.27 a
6.78 a
8.25 a
13.53 a
21.77 a
50.38 a
54.53 a
67.32 a
86.52 a
167.00 b
2
3
1
4
5
3
5
2
4
1
3
2
5
1
4
16.74 a
18.21 a
19.04 a
21.63 a
33.08 b
28.35 a
46.69 a
51.45 a
53.67 a
53.92 a
697.25 a
808.64 a
1337.68 a b
1783.18 b
1879.40 b
2) F. pennsylvanica.
, 5/ B. nigra
2/Newman Keuls-Hartley Modification Mean Separation Technique;
like letters indicate homogenous subsets at the 0.05 level;
unlike letters indicate significant differences at the 0.05 level.
-------
Roth, Weaver, and Morin 379
Table 25-3. (Continued)
Species Foliage Mean
2
4
3
1
5
2
4
5
1
3
2
4
1
3
5
123.
333.
780.
955.
1836.
7,
9.
11.
12.
36.
129.
211.
791.
1639.
1930.
.93
.52
.83
.97
46
.61
,33
.95
,81
.04
.28
.30
,39
,16
62
a
b
c
a
e
a
a
a
a
b
a
a
b
c
d
Sgecies Stem
2
3
4
1
5
2
3
4
5
1
2
4
1
3
5
MANGANESE
87.
89.
122.
149.
446.
NICKEL
3.
4.
6.
7.
8.
ZINC
149.
Mean
,38 a
.79 a
.78 a
,03 a
04 b
.43 a
,42 a
.19 a
50 a
.47 a
.64 a
196.48 a b
262.
267.
1142.
,08 b
,50 b
.08 c
Sgecies
3
4
1
5
2
3
5
1
4
2
3
2
1
4
5
Root
65.
66,
Mean
,42
,48
173.61
226.
357.
5.
5.
10.
67
38
,29
.71
.25
10.67
15.
174.
272.
282.
296.
494.
25
79
.38
00
.11
.00
a
a
b
b
c
a
a
b
b
c
a
a
a
a
b
^/Species code: 1) £. saccharinum, 2} T_. pennsylvanica,
3/ £. deltoides, ^/ £. virginiana, 5_/ B^ niqra
2/Newman Keuls-Hartley Modification Mean Separation Technique; like
letters indicate homogenous subsets at the 0.05 level! unlike
letters indicate significant differences at the 0.05 level.
decline in microbial activity, due to high levels of metals in the sludge and
spoil, inhibit the reintroduction of these elements into tree component parts.
Also, there appears to be an accumulation of heavy metals in the litter layer.
An important mode of ion movement at Palzo is via airborne particles.
Several researchers (Tyler 1972, Jordon 1975, Jackson and Watson 1977)
have reported that plants grown in air-polluted environments accumulate
excessive quantities of heavy metals. Considerable evidence of airblown
deposition of the metal-rich spoil-sludge substrate was observed on the Palzo
site. Parker (et al. 1978) reported similar concentrations of heavy metals
in plant tissues in a polluted urban area of Gary, Indiana.
The relatively high heavy metal concentrations in root tissues is
probably the result of direct root contact with the spoil and sludge materials
(Smout 1978, Tisdale and Nelson 1975). The root system is continuously
expanding into new areas where previously unavailable ions are exposed.
-------
380 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
Also, the non-translocation of heavy metals from the root system to other
tree component parts and several nutrient-metal interactions merit
consideration.
The mean extractable concentrations (Mg/g) of six metals in the rooting
medium using four metal extractants are given in Table 25-4. The extractants
were adjusted to a mean of 4.9 in order to simulate the mean pH of Palzo
spoil samples. The results appear to reject the hypothesis that no significant
differences exist between two soil metal extractants under normal and
adjusted pH conditions.
Significant differences occurred among all four extractants for Fe.
Except for Zn, which showed no significant difference, all other metals tested
exhibited significant differences between at least two extractants. Table 25-5
shows the minimum, maximum, and mean extractable metal concentrations
in the rooting medium among the four extractants. The variation in
concentrations would obviously affect the data interpretation and pattern
definition, depending on the extraction method selected.
Table 25-6 indicates the r-values for the relationships between soil
hydrogen levels meq/lOOg and component part concentrations of A.
saccharinum. There were no significant relationships at the 0.05 level, though
a few positive significant correlations occurred at the 0.10 level. Root and
foliage concentrations had significant correlations to soil hydrogen levels only
Table 25-4. Extractable Concentrations
-------
Roth, Weaver, and Morin 381
Table 25-5. Mean, Minimum, and Maximum Extractable Metal Concentrations (jUg/g)
in Rooting Medium Using Four Extractions.
CD
cu
FE
MN
NI
ZN
DTPA - Standard pH
Mm.
Max.
Mean
SE
12.60
153.00
65.25
6.05
DTPA - Adjusted pH
Min.
Max.
Mean
SE
O.lN HCL
Min.
Max.
Mean
SE
0 . IN HCL
Min.
Max.
Mean
SE
7.20
120.60
44.44
4.37
- Standard
115.20
627.20
229.20
21.64
- Adjusted
179.20
889 . 60
430.57
27.00
Conditions (pH
14
107
61
4
.04
.10
.76
.21
21
156
81
5
Conditions {pH
15
176
73
7
pH
108
696
451
27
pH
1
104
26
4
I/ Indicates extractant
simulate typical con
.12
.58
.75
.00
57
370
226
13
Conditions
.80
.32
.98
.26
268
1382.
729.
52.
Conditions
.28
.96
.08
.49
was
ditio
313.
1798.
868.
7.3)
.60
.60
.30
.57
4.9)
.60
.80
.00
.24
(pH
.80
.40
.78
.31
(pH
,60
.40
.62
53.93
1
12
5
0.
V
0.
9.
3.
0.
1.3)
2.
.50
.70
.40
.49
3
70
29
2
.60
.20
.60
.80
.60 3.60
.60
.38
.36
.40
18.80
8.
0.
4.9)
1.
8.
4.
0.
.47
.02
30
70
.39
37
adjusted to Palzo
ns on site .
171
32
47
19
435.
173.
15.
32.
307.
124
10.
.00
.75
.60
.20
.20
.68
.07
.00
.20
.80
.04
mean pH in
1.
7.
5
0.
2.
6
4.
0.
3.
7.
5.
0.
1.
6.
4.
0.
.39
.59
.00
.24
.30
.35
.73
.15
.06
76
.06
.19
.82
.32
.69
.17
order to
Table 25-6. The Simple Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficients of Component
Part Concentrations (jUg/g) of Acer saccharinum to Soil Hydrogen Ion
Concentration (meq/100g).
COMPONENT
PART
CD
CU
FE
Root 0.2897** 0.2517 0.2768** 0.0519 0.0324 0.2034
Stem 0.2123 0.0095 0.0172 0.0409 -0.1849 0.3127*
Foliage 0.2749** -0.0858 0.2714** -0.1365 -0.1947 0.1169
** Indicates a significant correlation at the 0.10 level.
-------
382 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
for Cd and Fe. Only Zn had a significant stem correlation. Component part
concentrations of A. saccharinum to extractable spoil concentrations under
standard and adjusted pH conditions generally showed the same wide range
of variation under the four extractant methods with but few significant
correlations. Significant correlations were found for Cu, Mn, and Zn,
primarily in root and stem tissue (Morin 1980).
Summary and Conclusion
The data and information gathered in research upon the Palzo site provide
valuable information concerning mineral cycling changes occurring over time
on a drastically disturbed sludge-amended surface-mined site. Heavy metal
concentrations varied by species in both combined and individual plant
component parts. These concentration variations may be attributed to a wide
range of influences and factors, including:
1. The nature of both the sludge and spoil materials.
2. Detrimental effects of excessive heavy metal concentrations, on
the normal physiological functions of the plant's vascular system.
3. The changes in an ecosystem over time, such as the development
of a litter layer, a more dense plant population, and changes within
the plants themselves as biomass increases and tissues mature.
4. The introduction of herbivores to the site.
5. Interactions with varying climatic conditions.
6. The gradual breakdown of the sludge itself.
7. Differences in spoil pH.
8. The method of laboratory analysis utilized, particularly important
when comparing the data and results of other researchers.
In most cases, the highest concentrations reported were in foliage
components, then roots, and lastly stem tissues. An important avenue of
travel foi these metal elements at Palzo is via airborne particulates. The
relatively dry growing seasons together with the lack of vegetative cover
in some areas and the lack of soil aggregate structure in the immature spoil
substrate all contributed to a conveyance of particulate matter onto leaf
surfaces. With the exception of Pinus virginiana, high concentrations
exhibited in deciduous leaf tissues represent one-year concentration levels
only. Pinus virginiana is capable of holding needles up to three years.
Therefore, metal concentrations in foliage of this species are distributed
among needles of three age groups, possibly affecting concentrations. Of
the five species studied, Pinus virginiana and Fraxinus pennsylvanica
exhibited consistently lower concentrations in the foliage component. These
lowered concentrations indicate that these species are important since they
pose a lesser threat to browsing animals (Morin 1980).
The concentration results for stem and root components indicate that
-------
Roth, Weaver, and Morin 383
Betula nigra, Pinus virginiana, and Acer saccharinum were maximum root
and stem accumulators, meriting consideration of these species for future
use on these sites due to storage of potentially toxic metals in component
parts of limited access and palatability to browse species. Increases in stem
concentrations over the three-year period appear to be linked to the
translocation of elements from leaves to stem tissue prior to senescence.
In contrast, direct contact of roots with the spoil and sludge substrate
contributes appreciably to the high storage levels recorded within the roots.
Also, an apparent sink for metal elements is the developing litter layer. The
adverse effects metals have on microbial populations limit the cycling
processes on the site.
Populus deltoides, sampled as an invader species, exhibited fewer
significantly different concentrations in component parts than the planted
species, with the exception of the root component. In almost every instance,
except Cd, concentrations in the root component of P. deltoides had the
lowest average recorded.
The 0.1 N HCl extraction technique gave consistently higher levels of
metals on the spoil material than the other extraction techniques utilized
in this study. The relatively low pHw at Palzo coupled with the acidic nature
of this extraction method contributed to higher extractable concentrations.
In contrast, the consistently lower extractable amounts achieved using the
DTPA method indicate soluble chelated forms available for plant uptake.
The majority of correlations between hydrogen ion and component part
concentrations were low, but positive, indicating that H ions partially affect
metal concentrations within plant component parts (Morin 1980).
When one considers the myriad hardships and handicaps facing woody
plants on hostile sites such as Palzo, it is surprising perhaps that woody
plants can survive at all. However, the results of our research give cause
for encouragement that ultimate successful reclamation of devastated
mine-sites is both possible and feasible.
The recent enactment of the federal surface-mine legislation should
ensure that areas surface-mined for coal will be reclaimed using the most
technologically sound methods. The abandonment of surface-mined lands
in the past clearly indicates a need for reclamation in the planning of surface
and underground mines. The recent development of the Rural Abandoned
Mine Program (RAMP) represents a concerted effort by man to correct some
of the mistakes of the past. In addition, the successful revegetation of Palzo
using sludge is an example of new and developing technology for attacking
the most drastically disturbed sites. Future research at Palzo will provide
additional data which will further substantiate the need for sewage sludge
as an amendment to these disturbed spoils.
-------
384 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
Literature Cited
Berg, W. A., and W. G. Vogel. 1973. Toxicity of acid coal-mine spoils to plants. Ecology
and Reclamation of Devastated Land. R. J. Hutnik and Davis (eds.), Vol. 1, pp.
57-68. Gordon and Breach, New York.
Chaney, R. L. 1973. Crop and food chain effects of toxic elements in sludges and
effluents. Recycling Municipal Sludges and Effluents on Land. National Association
of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges, Washington, D.C.
Guha, M. M., and R. L. Mitchell. 1965. The trace and major element composition
of the leaves of some deciduous trees. I. Sampling techniques. Plant Soil
23:323-338.
Jackson, D. R., and A. P. Watson. 1977. Pisruption of nutrient pools and transport
of heavy metals in a forest watershed near a lead smelter. J. Envir. Qual.
6(4):331-38.
Jayko, B. D. 1977. The first year effects of anaerobically digested sewage sludge
treatments on the growth and survival of selected tree species used for acid strip
mine reclamation. M. C. Thesis (unpublished). Southern Illinois University,
Carbondale.
Jordon, M. J. 1975. Effects of zinc smelter emissions and fire on a chestnut-oak
woodland. Ecology. 56:78-91.
Korcak, R. F., and D. S. Fanning. 1978. Extractability of cadmium, copper, nickel,
and zinc by double acid versus DTPA and plant content at excessive soil levels.
J. Envir. Qual. 7(4):506-12.
Lawrey, J. D. 1977. Soil fungal populations and soil respiration in habitats variously
by coal strip mining. Envir. Poll. 14:195-205.
Leeper, G. W. 1972. Reactions of heavy metals with special regard to their application
in sewage wastes. Dept. of Army. Corps of Eng. under contract No.
DACW73-73-C-0026. 70p.
Lindsay, W. L., and W. A. Norvell. 1969. Development of a DTPA micronutrient soil
test, Agronomy Abstracts, p. 84. Equilibrium Relationships of Zn , Fe , Ca ,
and H+ with EDTA and DTPA in soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 33:62-68.
McLean, E. O. 1973. Testing soils for pH and lime requirement. Soil Testing and Plant
Analysis. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Madison, Wisconsin, pp. 171-92.
Monn, Michael D. 1980. Heavy metal concentrations in three-year-old trees grown on
sludge-amended surface-mine spoil. M.S. Thesis, Southern 111. Univ., Carbondale.
Parker, G. R., N. W. McFee, and J. M. Kelly. 1978. Metal distribution in forested
ecosystems in urban and rural northwestern Indiana. J. Envir. Qual. 7(3):337-342.
Perkin-Elmer. 1973. Analytical methods for atomic absorption spectrophotometry.
Perkin-Elmer Corp. Norwalk, Conn.
Peterson, H. B., and R. F. Nielson. 1973. Toxicities and deficiencies in mine tailings.
Ecology and Reclamation of Devastated Land, R. J. Hutnik and G. Davis (eds.),
Vol. 1, pp. 15-25. Gordon and Breach, New York.
Shoemaker, H. E., E. O. McLean, and P. F. Pratt. 1962. Buffer methods for determining
lime requirement of soils with appreciable amounts of extractable aluminum. Soil
-------
Roth, Weaver, and Morin 385
Sci. Soc. Proc. 25:274-77.
Sidle, R. C., and W. E. Sopper. 1976. Cadmium distribution in forest ecosystems
irrigated with treated municipal sludge. J. Envir. Qual. 5(4):419-22.
Smith, G. F. 1953. The wet ashing of organic matter employing hot concentrated
perchloric acid—the liquid fire reaction. Analytica Chemica. ACTA 8:397-421.
Smith, W. H. 1973. Metal contamination of urban woody plants. Envir. Sci. and Tech.
7(7):631-36.
Smout, G. 1978. Accumulation of heavy metals in selected tree species growing on
sewage sludge amended acid mining spoils. M.S. Thesis (unpublished) Southern
111. Univ., Carbondale.
Stone, E. L. 1968. Microelement nutrition of forest trees: A review. Forest Fertilization
Theory and Practice. Tennessee Valley Authority, National Fertilizer Development
Center, Muscle Shoals, Ala.
Svoboda, D., G. Smout, G. T. Weaver, and P. L. Roth. 1979. Accumulation of heavy
metals in selected woody plant species on sludge-treated strip mine spoils at the
Palzo site, Shawnee National Forest. Utilization of Municipal Sewage Effluent and
Sludge on Forest and Disturbed Land. Sopper and Kerr (eds.) Penn. State Univ.
Press, Univ. Park, Pa. pp. 395-405.
Tisdale, S. L., and W. L. Nelson. 1975. Soil Fertility and Fertilizers. Macmillan
Publishing Co., Inc. New York, N.Y. 695p.
Tyler, G. 1972. Heavy metals pollute nature, may reduce productivity. AMBIO.
l(2):52-59.
U.S.D.A. Forest Service. 1972. Final environmental impact statement, Palzo restoration
project. Region 9, USFS, Milwaukee, Wise.
Van Hook, R. I., W. F. Harris, and G. S. Henderson. 1977. Cadmium, lead and zinc
distributions and cycling in a mixed deciduous forest. AMBIO, 201-06.
Wear, J. I., and C. E. Evans. 1968. Relationship of zinc uptake by corn and sorghum
to soil zinc measured by three extractants. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 32:543-46.
Woodwell, G. M., R. H. Whittaker, and R. A. Houghton. 1975. Nutrient concentrations
in plants in the Brookhaven oak-pine forest. Ecology 56:318-32.
Young, H. E., and P. N. Carpenter. 1967. Weight, nutrient element and productivity
studies of seedlings and saplings of eight tree species in natural ecosystems. Maine
Agricultural Experiment Station Technical Bulletin 28, University of Maine, Orono.
-------
26
LEACHATE QUALITY IN ACID MINE-SPOIL COLUMNS
AND FIELD PLOTS TREATED WITH MUNICIPAL
SEWAGE SLUDGE
Dean H. Urie, Craig K. Losche, and
F. D. McBride
Leachate studies conducted in the greenhouse and field plots in Southern
Illinois evaluated the chemical changes following incorporation of liquid
sewage sludge into the surface 15 cm of acid mine spoils. Sludge treatments
of 336 and 672 metric tons/hectare (dry weight) resulted in increased calcium
and sodium concentrations in leachate at the 120 cm depth in both tests.
After 1 year, nitrate-N concentrations increased rapidly to over 100 and
200 pprn under the 336 and 672 mt/ha sludge rates, respectively. Iron,
aluminum and trace metal concentrations were reduced under both sludge
treatments during the 2 years after sludge incorporation.
Both sludge dosage levels reduced phytotoxic conditions in the surface
soil adequately to permit establishment and growth of cover crops over a
3-year period. Runoff from infiltrometers was reduced on the sludge treated
vegetated plots. Phosphorus and nitrogen concentrations in the runoff from
sludge treated plots were also reduced below control levels.
Mixing 67 or more metric tons of sawdust into the sludge-spoil layer
reduced the concentrations of nitrate-N in leachate below the 10 ppm level.
However, sludge-sawdust mixtures increased drought effects on small
experimental plots.
Introduction
A plot test using municipal sewage sludge was conducted in 1970-1971 on
an abandoned strip-mine in southern Illinois by the U.S. Forest Service
(Lejcher and Kunkle 1973). The results of this test indicated that at least
300 metric tons of sludge (dry solids) would be required to establish
vegetation on the 192 acres of extremely acid spoils at the "Palzo" mine.
Plans were developed for a pilot scale test involving leveling and sludge
treatment of the entire tract.
The spoil at the Palzo mine is typical of about 6,000 acres of acid
orphan spoils concentrated in Salem and Williamson Counties in southern
Illinois (Haynes and Klimstra 1975). Traditional liming and fertilization
practices have generally been unsuccessful in revegetating these acid spoil
areas. Until the spoil was graded in 1974, the Palzo mine site presented
a particularly hostile environment for plant growth as high pyrite mineral
content spoils were continually exposed by erosion. Typical surface pH values
-------
Urie, Losche, and McBride 387
ranged from 2.0 to 4.6. Before grading, the spoil was 19 percent weathered
and unweathered sandstone, 22 percent mixtures of sandstone and shale,
5 percent shale over weathered sandstone, 50 percent black shale surface,
and 5 percent bottom "fire" clay.
Before the pilot scale study was installed on the entire Palzo mine
(Cunningham et al. 1975), greenhouse research tests were begun to define
the environmental impact of sludge use and to determine the effectiveness
and acceptability of two levels of sludge applications, 336 and 662 mt/ha.
Evaluations of the changes in leachate quality were conducted in greenhouse
soil columns by the North Central Forest Experiment Station, USDA Forest
Service. Concurrently with the initiation of field treatments at the Palzo
mine, field plots were installed to test a range of sludge treatments similar
to those tested in the greenhouse. Herbaceous and tree vegetation tests were
conducted by scientists from Southern Illinois University in studies partially
funded by the USDA Forest Service, and the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency.
Greenhouse Leaching Chamber Study
Thirty-six vinyl lined boxes (30 x 60 cm x 120 cm deep) were filled with
mixed spoil from the Palzo mine. The boxes were constructed with two
ceramic soil water samplers placed at the bottom. Spoil fragments larger
than 10 cm were removed. The soil water samplers were maintained under
0.3 bar tension. The spoil filled boxes were settled and leached with 20
1 distilled water before treatment with sludge and lime.
Agricultural lime (CaCC^) at 0, 22, and 44 mt/ha and digested
municipal sludge (10% solids) at 0, 336, and 662 mt/ha were applied in
all combinations with four replications in a completely randomized design.
The lime was surface applied and incorporated to 15 cm depths. Sewage
sludge was applied at 11 mt/ha (dry wt) equivalent increments. After drying,
each increment of sludge was incorporated to 15 cm soil depths. About
two sludge applications could be made each week. The 332 mt/ha rate was
completed in about 3 months, the 662 mt/ha rate in about 5 months.
Distilled water was added to all boxes at a 5 cm/month rate (added in
bi-weekly increments) to simulate percolating precipitation at a rate about
equal to 50 percent of normal rainfall.
Leachate was measured at monthly intervals for volume and analyzed
for total acidity, S, Al, Fe, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Ca, Pb, Mg, Mn, P, Na, Zn,
NH4-N and NO3-N.
Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Al, Cu, and Mg were measured by i.e. emission
spectrophotometry; Co, Ni, Pb, and Cd by atomic absorption
spectrophotometry; Na and K by flame emission spectrophotometry; S by
the reduction method and potentiometric titration of the absorbed S =
-------
388 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
(NaOH) with AgNC>3 and Ag/S selective ion electrode; P by a modified
ascorbic acid method; NH^-N and NOj-N by specific ion electrode, and
titratable acidity potentiometrically to pH 7.0.
Two general patterns of leachate chemical concentrations resulted
during the initial 30-month period. During the sludge incorporation period,
while the spoil surface was being frequently disturbed, leachate from all
treatments contained high concentrations of all measured cations, presumably
originating from the freshly mixed raw spoils. Concentrations of S, Fe, Al,
and Mg decreased over the ensuing 2 years, with more rapid reductions in
the concentration of many elements under sludge treatments and showing
the additional effect of increasing sludge rates. Concentrations of Fe and
Al in the leachate are shown in Figure 26-1. Significant sludge effects became
evident after 9 months for Fe and after 13 months for Al.
1972
1974
Figure 26-1. Mean Iron and Aluminum Concentrations in Leachate from Columns
Treated with 0, 336, and 662 mt/ha of Sewage Sludge.
-------
Urie, Losche, and McBride 389
1972
1973
1974
1975
Figure 26-2. Mean Copper Concentrations in Leachate from Columns Treated with 0,
336, and 662 mt/ha of Sewage Sludge.
Trace element patterns were similarly affected by sludge treatments.
The pattern for copper (Cu) in Figure 26-2, is representative of those also
measured for Ni, Mn, Cr, and Pb.
Ca and Na concentrations under sludge treatments were significantly
higher than controls from the 7th through the 29th month after treatments
began.
Lime treatments were not significantly related to any cation or to P
and S concentrations in the leachate, nor did the lime significantly alter
leachate acidity.
The greatest sludge effect on leachate quality was a flush of nitrate
beginning about 6 months after sludge treatments ended (Figure 26-3).
Nitrate-N concentrations were directly related to sludge dosage rates, peaking
about 1 year after sludge additions ended. These concentrations were well
above environmentally safe levels for surface or groundwater for the
remainder of the test period.
Field Leachate Study
Field trials of the sludge dosage levels used in the greenhouse were initiated
in 1975 at the Palzo mine site. Twenty-four 15 x 30 m plots were established
-------
390 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
300
200
100
/662
\_336
1972
1973
1974
1975
Figure 26-3. Mean Nitrate Concentrations in Leachate from Columns Treated with 0,
336, and 662 mt/ha of Sewage Sludge.
Figure 26-4. Field Study of Acid-Mine Spoil Leachate Quality Using 0, 332, and 598
mt/ha of Sewage Sludge and 0 and 67 mt/ha of Lime, Palzo Mine.
-------
Urie, Losche, and McBride 391
with 12 on each side of a NW-SE oriented ridgeline (Figure 26-4). Paired
suction lysimeters were buried at 120 cm in the center of each plot and
connected to collection bottles at the edge of each plot. The entire system
was maintained at 0.3 bar tension during periods following heavy rain and
during snowmelt.
Agricultural lime (0 and 67 mt/ha) and sludge at 0, 332 and 598 mt/ha
(dry wt) were applied in all combinations with four replications. Plot
treatment pattern was dictated by the limitations of the sludge spreading
equipment. In essence, this limitation resulted in a single block of sludge
treated plots at each rate, on each aspect. Thus, each sludge-treated block
could be considered as a large plot with leachate sampled at four equally
spaced locations. Control and lime-only treated plots were interspaced
between the sludge treatment blocks.
Lime was applied before sludge treatments and disked to about 15 cm
depths. Sludge was surface spread from a liquid manure tanker in 10 mt/ha
increments. As soon as each application dried, the sludge solids were disked
into the soil. Control plots were disked at the same frequency. Sludge
applications began in August 1975. One hundred seventy-three mt/ha were
applied by the end of the 1975 field season to all sludge treatment plots.
Annual rye (Secal cereale] was seeded in October 1975 to reduce surface
erosion. Sludge applications resumed in July 1976. The 332 mt/ha treatments
were completed in August 1976. The 598 mt/ha rate was reached by the
end of the 1976 field season. The 598 mt/ha dosage was accepted as the
high rate for the field study, as sludge applications had to stop to allow
for establishment of a cover crop. This second planting included annual rye
(18 kg/ha), orchard grass (Dactylisglomerata) and tall fescue (Festuca eiatior)
(67 kg/ha). Annual rye was used to prevent erosion until the perennial grasses
became established.
Seven sets of leachate samples were collected during the sludge
application period. Five to seven sets of samples per year have been collected
since. Leachate samples did not provide a measure of total percolate under
the field conditions. Chemical analyses were similar to those utilized during
the leaching chamber study except that d.c. emission spectroscopy was used
for cation and P determinations. NO^-N analysis, using a specific ion
electrode, was the only nitrogen measurement. pH was determined by glass
electrode in the laboratory.
Concentrations of Fe, Al, and Cu in leachate from the field study
(Figure 26-5) were only 10-20 percent of those occurring at the beginning
of the leaching chamber tests. This difference may be explained by the 2-year
delay between grading of the field plots and the sludge applications, allowing
leaching during the intervening period. Concentrations were, therefore, at
about the same levels as those measured in the control leaching chambers
after 2 years. Sludge treatments with attendant surface mixing resulted in
slight increases in Fe and Al during the summers of 1975 and 1976. After
-------
392 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
e l5
- 10
1977
Figure 26-5. Mean Iron, Aluminum, and Copper Concentrations in Leachate from Field
Plots Treated with 0, 336, and 598 mt/ha of Sewage Sludge.
sludge treatments were completed a reduction in concentrations continued
over the following 2 years. Significant sludge effects were measured during
the spring of 1977. No lime effects were measured during this period.
Trace element concentrations in the field leachate were also at lower
levels than in the leaching chamber at the beginning of the field study. The
concentrations of copper (Figure 26-5) illustrate the typical pattern. Mean
concentrations of copper were consistently lower in sludge-treated spoils,
although these differences were not significantly different from controls
during any one sampling period. Significant reductions in Cu, Ni, Mn, Cr,
Hg, and B were measured 20 months after sludge treatments began.
Nitrate-N concentrations in leachate from sludge treatments reached 50
ppm by the end of the 1976 application period (Figure 26-6). Under the
332 mt/ha treatments, NOj-N levels varied from 30 to 70 ppm for 2
years,dropping to 20 ppm by the end of 1978. The additional sludge added
to the 598 mt/ha plots produced a peak NC^-N concentration of 180 ppm
in late 1977. By the end of 1978, the concentrations under both sludge
treatments were equal, although still slightly above environmentally
acceptable level for potable groundwater. Control plots showed nitrate-N
levels below 10 ppm by the end of 1977.
Calcium concentrations increased during the period when surface
-------
Urie, Losche, and McBride 393
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t-
z
0
SLUCK
>ITTT.
5E APPLIED
/ho =»336mt/ho
= ^996 mt
/
/
/
/
/
/
> ,-
x •
,A
Iw ^' \
/ \598
/ \ ^
/ \ ;\
' V N
336
'*,
\
\
XXN
\^
. / \x-
^g^
1975
1978
Figure 26-6. Mean Nitrate Concentrations in Leachate from Field Plots Treated with
0, 336, and 598 mt/ha of Sewage Sludge.
S60
0 Id 20
Months
Figure 26-7. Cumulative Volume of Leachate from Leaching Chambers.
-------
394 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
disturbance of control and treated plots were in progress. During the
following 2 years, Ca concentrations remained higher under sludge
treatments, although significant differences occurred between sludge and
nonsludge plots only in July 1975, during sludge applications, and in
September 1977.
Effects of Sludge Liquid on Chemical Concentrations
Addition of liquid sludge augmented the volume of percolate in both field
and greenhouse experiments. Figure 26-7 illustrates the cumulative volumes
of leachate removed in the greenhouse tests under controls and the two
sludge treatments. Comparative data on leachate volume could not be
collected under the field conditions. Rapid drying by greenhouse fans
evidently removed most of the sludge liquid, as the cumulative curves for
the 332 and 662 mt/ha treatments are similar even though twice as much
liquid sludge was applied to the 662 mt/ha columns. Control volumes were
lower, however, during the sludge application stages. After sludge application
ceased and all columns received equal additions of water, the leachate
volumes in both controls and sludge-treated columns equalized. About 5
cm of additional leaching had occurred in sludge treated columns at this
stage of the study, 30 percent more than in controls. Differences in the
concentrations of leachate chemicals were affected by this dilution effect.
In field studies the sludge was applied during mid-summer when surface
drying conditions were good. Although infiltration of sludge liquid was not
measured, field observations indicated that most of the sludge supernatant
liquid was held at the surface by sludge soilds which sealed the spoil surface.
No runoff of sludge was observed, although the potential soil water flux
could not be related to the volumes of leachate collected by the soil-water
samplers because the system was not contained, as in the greenhouse study.
Surface Runoff and Runoff Quality
Surface runoff measurements were not made on a continuing basis on the
field plots. In May 1977, 1 year after sludge treatments were completed,
1.2 m x 1.2 m infiltrometers were installed on selected plots, about 10
m from the upslope edge of the plot. Thirty minute infiltrometer tests at
33 mm/hr rates produced measurable runoff from both sludge-treated and
control plots (Figure 26-8). Only the sludge-treated plots supported
vegetation at this time. Runoff reductions of 33 and 50 percent less than
controls were measured on 332 and 662 mt/ha treatments, respectively. In
July 1978 the tests were repeated with a similar response, except that runoff
from the heaviest sludge dosage plots was much lower than in the earlier
-------
100
- I-
I"
i s
z S
N
I o
Urie, Losche, and McBride 395
u. «>
u.
0 4O
z
e 20
£
^J
1
"
\ 1
1 1 m-,
0 336 598
SLUDGE (mf/ha)
336
SLUDGE (mf/ha)
596
Figure 26-8. Runoff as Percent of Applied Rainfall from Infiltrometer Tests, Palzo
Field Plots, 1977 and 1978; and Mean NO3-N, NH4-N, TKN and Phosphorus
Concentrations in Runoff from Infiltrometers on Palzo Field Plots, 1977.
aoo -
l»79
Figure 26-9. Nitrate-N Concentrations in Leachate from Field Plots Treated with 472
mt/ha of Sludge and 0, 33.5, 67.0 and 100.5 mt/ha of Sawdust.
-------
396 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
test. The 332 mt/ha plots were less effective in reducing erosion, a reflection
of a reduction in vegetation density. Vegetation near the upper slopes had
been reduced to the level where its runoff limiting capability was reduced.
Analysis of the runoff water from the 1977 tests showed lower
concentrations of NH^, TKN, and NOj on vegetated, sludge-treated plots
than on controls. Nitrogen levels were about the same on both sludge
treatments.
Discussion
Sewage sludge had been shown in previous studies on the Palzo site to create
surface soil conditions which allow establishing a protective vegetation cover
and return of the site to productive uses. The large amounts of sludge
required to produce these effects result in high loadings of the potentially
toxic elements characteristics of sludge from industrial cities. The greenhouse
and field studies conducted with Palzo spoils have shown that nitrate is
the principal pollutant which must be dealth with. Calcium and sodium are
also increased in soil leachate, but not at gross pollution levels. The
recognized toxic metals are not increased in the leachate at the 120 cm
depth, at least during the years immediately following sludge treatments.
In fact, sludge incorporation into plow depths decreases the concentrations
of many of these metals in leachate from the acid spoil materials. Long-term
studies will be needed to determine whether breakdown of sludge organics
ultimately releases these metals to leaching.
In a comparison study at the Palzo mine, sawdust was mixed with
sewage sludge at 33.6, 67.2, and 100.8 mt/ha rates. The nitrate
concentrations in leachate, which was sampled at 61 cm, were reduced to
environmentally acceptable levels (Figure 26-9). However, introduction of
the sawdust apparently increased the drought stress on plants, as vegetation
did not survive through the third growing season on the small (3 x 3 m)
plots. Larger scale tests would be required to determine how serious this
might be over an extended period.
These results indicate that sludge may be used for ameliorating highly
acid spoil materials if the enrichment of groundwater with nitrate is not
a critical concern. It may be possible to combine lower rates of sludge
treatment with lime and organic residues to obtain the soil condition needed
for revegetation, thus reducing the nitrate leaching hazard.
A concern for the future, as the sludge solids decompose, may be a
lessened capability for retaining potentially toxic elements in the surface
spoil horizons. If so, leaching to groundwater could become a problem.
Maintaining a viable vegetative cover may replace organic matter adequately
to make up for the loss from sludge mineralization.
Monitoring the surface water and groundwater on the Palzo mine in
-------
Urie, Losche, and McBride 397
compliance with the State of Illinois environmental protection regulations
is continuing. Chlorides in runoff from the sludge-treated areas have increased
(Jones and Cunningham 1979). Reductions in the concentrations of Cu, Cr,
Cd, Al, Fe, Zn, and Mn in this runoff were of the same magnitude as those
found in the leachate studies reported here. The nitrate flush measured at
the 120 cm level has not yet impacted groundwater quality at 12 m depths
nor elevated levels in Sugar Creek which drains the Palzo mine site.
Presumably, the time required for vertical percolation through the
unsaturated zone has not yet passed. Movement of nitrate enriched
groundwater to surface water may be so slow that dilution will lessen the
impact of this nitrate flush.
Cost of Palzo Demonstration Project
Exclusive of research expenditures, the operational-scale portion of the Palzo
reclamation project provided a realistic estimate of total costs for similar
operations. Total rehabilitation costs for the entire strip-mined area are not
available because about 25 ha (60 acres) of the site have not yet received
sludge. Some grading costs were covered by training programs for Job Corps
equipment operators. The grading costs listed below are based on contract
grading accomplished in 1972, prior to the Job Corps program.
Estimated total costs by area and per ton of dry sludge are listed below:
Cost component Costs/unit area Costs/dry ton sludge
($/ha) ($/ac) (S/mt) ($/ton)
Grading 4,900 2,000 8 7
Sludge transportation
and application 56,800 23,200 85 77
Monitoring 2,520 950 3 3
Total $64,220 $26,150 1%"
Literature Cited
1. Cunningham, R. S., C. K. Losche, and R. K. Holtje. 1975. Water quality
implications of strip-mine reclamation by wastewater sludge. WateReuse, Proc. 2nd
Nat'l Conference on WateReuse. Am. Soc. of Chemical Eng., Chicago, IL, May 4-8,
1975, p. 643-646.
2. Haynes, R. J., and W. D. Klimstra. 1975. Illinois lands surface mined for Coal.
201 p. Southern Illinois University, Coop with Wildlife Res. Laboratory, Report.
3. Jones, M., and R. S. Cunningham. 1979. Sludge used for strip-mine restoration
at Palzoi Project development and compliance water quality monitoring. Utilization
of Municipal Sewage Effluent and Sludge on Forest and Disturbed Land. p.
369-377. W. E. Sopper and S. N. Kerr, eds. Penn. State Univ. Press, University
Park.
-------
398 Reclamation with Chicago Sludge
4. Lejcher, T. R., and S. H. Kunkle. 1973. Restoration of acid spoil banks with
treated sewage sludge. Recycling Treated Municipal Wastewater and Sludge
Through Forest and Cropland, p. 184-199. W. E. Sopper and L. T. Kardos eds.
Penn. State Univ. Press, University Park.
-------
VIM / VEGETATION ESTABLISHMENT
OVERVIEW
Edward H. Bryan
Conceptually, there is something appealing about the possibility of dealing
constructively with societal residuals, such as recognizing their potential
values as resources and then learning how to take advantage of those potential
values. However, what must be kept clearly in mind is that residuals such
as sludges from wastewater treatment plants contain many if not all of the
original constituents of the wastewater that posed a threat to public health
and represented a potential nuisance.
As an inevitable consequence of their origin, sludges derived from
human wastewater must be presumed to be infected with pathogenic
organisms and contaminated with organic and inorganic toxic substances.
After their production, wastewater treatment plant sludges may be treated
to change their composition and form by processes such as thickening,
digestion, elutriation, chemical and/or thermal conditioning, irradiation with
gamma rays or electons, mechanical dewatering and composting. Each unit
operation or process contributes to a change (usually reduction) in the risk
to human or environmental health that is associated with further processing
or management of the sludge.
The ideal concept for final disposition of sludges would be one that
reduces subsequent risk to human or ecosystem health associated with further
contacts with them to zero. More realistically, an acceptable concept would
be one that results in equal or less risk than is already associated with the
environment into which the sludge is placed. Use of sludges to reclaim land
that has been removed from otherwise productive use or which, in its existing
condition, poses a threat to human health or environmental quality is an
example of such a concept. The papers presented in this session deal with
case histories of places where this concept is now under active evaluation.
The use of sludges to revegetate land areas that have been degraded by
accumulations of spoils from mining operations may prove to be the most
appropriate, cost effective and otherwise productive way of managing both
problems. It may also prove to be the concept that minimizes any further
threat to the ecosystem posed by either the degraded land, the sludges or
both.
-------
27
USE OF SEWAGE SLUDGE TO IMPROVE TACONITE
TAILINGS AS A MEDIUM FOR PLANT GROWTH
Justin V. Cavey and James A. Bowles
The potential for use of sewage sludge to improve taconite tailings for the
growth of cover plants was investigated in this study. The tailings were
alkaline in reaction and low in available phosphorus and nitrogen. Partially
dewatered municipal sewage sludge was incorporated into the tailings at three
different rates. The establishment and growth of annual nurse plants and
perennial cover plants were compared to both untreated tailings and those
treated with three levels of commercial fertilizers during two growing seasons.
The yield on sludge-treated plots was significantly greater than on
fertilizer-treated and control plots during the second year of growth.
Sludge-treated plots also produced dense cover during the initial year, but
results were more variable due to growth of annual plants. Untreated taconite
tailings produced inadequate cover during both seasons of growth.
Introduction
Increasing demand for iron and depletion of iron-rich Lake Superior ranges
have made it economically feasible to mine low-grade taconite deposits.
Beneficiation processes magnetically separate the iron and concentrate it into
pellets, leaving a slurry of waste tailings to be deposited in diked basins
which cover extensive areas at many mine sites (Davis, 1964).
A cyclone separates the tailings into coarse and fine fractions. Coarse
tailings are utilized to construct a dike which encircles the basin while the
fine fraction materials are released into the basin interior to settle out of
suspension. Clear water is returned to the processing plant for reuse.
Most mine spoil materials are deficient in many plant nutrients, and
have low clay and humus contents and, therefore, low cation exchange
capacities (Berry and Marx, 1977; Wong and Tarn, 1977).
Tailings also lack stable structural development and are susceptible to
wind and water erosion (Shetron and Duffek, 1970). These limitations make
the required reclamation difficult and expensive.
Early stabilization of tailing basins with cover crops minimizes erosion
and improves these materials for the establishment of perpetuating plant
communities (Jones et al., 1975). Once these communities are established,
the potential for a land use compatible with adjacent lands is enhanced.
Municipal wastewater treatment plants convert the human wastes into
sewage sludge. In many locations land application of sludge is an acceptable
means of disposal (Keeney et al., 1975). Sewage sludge contains significant
-------
Cavey and Bowles 401
amounts of plant nutrients and organic matter (Sornmers, 1977).
Mineralization releases available plant nutrients in the sludge over a period
of time. Pomares-Garcia and Pratt (1978) estimated 35 to 45 percent
mineralization in the first ten months after application. Sewage sludge has
been utilized successfully as an amendment to facilitate revegetation of
various mine spoils (Stucky and Newman, 1977; Hunt et al., 1971).
The objectives of this study were: (1) to compare sewage sludge to
commercial fertilizer in revegetation of alkaline taconite tailings; and (2)
to evaluate the establishment and growth of three grass species and three
legume species on the treated and untreated taconite tailings.
Methods and Materials
The tailings basin of the Jackson County Iron Company mine located near
Black River Falls, Wisconsin, was the site of this study. Ores generating the
tailings are from the iron formation which consists mainly of magnetite,
quartzite and lenses of schist containing quartz, chlorite, muscovite, and
biotite. Removal of the high iron components yields a gray-colored, alkaline,
calcareous, moderately coarse textured tailing.
Periodic flooding and deposition of new wastes precluded use of the
basin interior as a study site. A nearly level site was selected on the berm
of the tailings dike where the basin tailings could be placed for the
experimental plots. Earthmovers and graders were utilized to cover an area
of approximately 0.33 ha with 30 cm of tailings.
Physical and chemical properties of these tailings that were considered
important in the selection of treatments and plant species were determined
or provided by either the" Jackson County Iron Company or UW-Extension
Plant and Soil Testing Laboratory.
The content of selected macronutrients is shown in Table 27-1. The
free carbonate content of the tailings would limit the availability of
phosphorus and micronutrients, i.e., molybdenum and zinc. Soil reaction
Table 27-1. Analysis of Selected Macronutrients in Taconite Tailings.*
Nutrient
Nutrient
P
K
Ca
Mg
Analysis (88 samples)
Content in kg/ha
Range
0-8.8
99-165
2,220-3,300 2
110-220
Mean
3.5
138.6
,779.7
183.7
"^Analyses providedTynjffnrTtensTbn Soil and Plant Testing Lab in
Madison, Wisconsin.
-------
402 Vegetation Establishment
was measured with a pH meter. Values ranged from 8.2 to 8.7 and the
mean for all sample plots was 8.5.
Bulk density determinations were made on all plots using the excavation
method. Samples were taken at the same time for particle size analysis using
the hydrometer method (Black, 1965). Bulk densities ranged from 1.2 to
1.8 g/cm^ with a mean of 1.6. Textures varied from heavy loamy sands
to fine sandy loams but were predominantly sandy loams. Sand content
ranged from 52 to 86 percent and had a mean value of 72 percent. (Fine
and very fine sands dominate.) Silt and clay contents varied from 12 to
56 percent and 2 to 13 percent respectively with mean values of 25 percent
silt and 3 percent clay.
A split plot design was used to divide the site into three blocks. Within
each block six treatments and a control were randomly assigned to 4.3 m
x 18.3 m plots. Treatments consisted of three commercial fertilizer and three
sludge rates (see Table 27-2). Each plot was then subdivided into three 4.3
m x 6.1 m split plots which were randomly assigned one of three plant
mixtures. Plant mixtures are listed in Table 27-3.
Sewage sludge was obtained from the Wisconsin Rapids sewage
treatment plant. The chemical composition of the sludge is shown in Table
27-4. After anaerobic digestion, the sludge was dewatered in concrete drying
beds producing a solids content of 42 percent.
Sludge was weighed in a five gallon pail and applied using a wheel
barrow and shovel. Following application, the sludge was incorporated to
a depth of 15 cm with a rototiller. Plots receiving commercial fertilizer were
rototilled prior to fertilization. Seeds were sown by hand and incorporated
with a rake. Planting was completed on June 16, 1979.
Plant growth was monitored biweekly throughout the 1979 and 1980
growing seasons. Yields were determined by clipping a representative .84
m^ circular sample from each subplot in early September, 1979 and late
July, 1980. Data were analyzed using analysis of variance and the means
were compared by Duncan's Multiple Range test.
Results and Discussion
First Growing Season
Establishment of ground cover, mainly through the use of annual grasses,
was the main objective of the initial growing season. Barley seedlings had
emerged on all plots two weeks after planting and attained heights which
ranged from 7 cm in control plots to 9 cm in plots receiving the high rate
of sludge. Plants in the control plot grew very little in comparison with
the plots treated with fertilizer and sludge, but matured and produced seed
in all plots.
Japanese millet required a longer period of time to germinate. Millet
-------
Cavey and Bowles 403
Table 27-2. Sludge and Fertilizer Rates Used on Taconite Tailings.
Treatment
Control
Low Sludge
Medium Sludge
High Sludge
Low Fertilizer
Medium Fertilizer
High Fertilizer
Rate (Available N-P-K)*
No sludge or fertilizer
12.5 Mt/ha (50-160-10 kg/ha)
25 Mt/ha (100-320-20 kg/ha)
50 Mt/ha (200-640-40 kg/ha)
55-33-49.5 kg/ha
82.5-55-49.5 kg/ha
110-77-49.5 kg/ha
*VWaiTatTle N in sludge based on 2 percent N content and a 20 per-
cent mineralization rate for initial growing season. P and K analysis
of sludge provide by UW-Extension Soil and Plant Testing Lab in Madison,
Wisconsin.
Table 27-3. Plant Mixtures Used on Taconite Tailings.
Plant Mixture
Bluegrass-Clover
Brome-Alfalfa
Wheatgrass-Clover
All Mixtures
Species
Canada Bluegrass (Poa compressa)
Red Clover (Trifolium pTatenseT
Smooth Srome~(Bronms inermis"}~
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa)"
Western Wheatgrass^TA^ropyron smithii)
Alsike Clover (7>ifonum fiybFidtiin)
Barley (Horde unTTuTgarey
11
9.7
15.2
11
9.7
11
16.5
Japanese Millet (Echinochola frjmentacea) 8.6
Table 27-4. Chemical Composition"*' of Wisconsin Rapids Municipal Sludge.
Element
P
K
As
Cd
Cr
Cu
Pb
Hg
Ni
Zn
Analyses provided by
Madison, Wisconsin.
ppm (Dry Hatter Basis)
Sample 2
11,545.0
696.2
93.4
57 5
1,337.0
172 0
242.9
5.0
392.2
444.9
1 anT^reTtTTng Lab iTT
-------
404 Vegetation Establishment
seedlings were first observed four weeks after planting. The germination
percentage of millet was also quite variable. In some plots it flourished and
became the dominant plant in 1979, while in others it did not germinate.
Millet matured and produced seed in all plots in which it was present.
Two volunteer annual grasses, witchgrass (Panicwn capillare] and hairy
crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis), were present in all plots receiving sewage
sludge and were included in annual grass production values. Annual grasses
and nurse crops dominated 1979 production and comprised an average of
96.6 percent (19,848 kg/ha), 81.7 percent (15,086 kg/ha) and 96.1 percent
(20,193 kg/ha) of the yield of bluegrass-red clover, brome-alfalfa, and
wheatgrass-alsike clover plant mixtures respectively.
The three legume species germinated in all plots two weeks after
planting. Little growth occurred in the control plots in which mean maximum
heights were 4 cm, 6 cm, and 3 cm for red clover, alfalfa, and alsike clover
respectively.
The mean height of red clover ranged from 7 cm on plots receiving
the low sludge rate to 16 cm on plots receiving the high sludge rate with
a mean maximum height on all treatments of 11 cm. The average yield
was 555.6 kg/ha which was 2.7 percent of the total production of this plant
mix.
The mean height of alfalfa ranged from 8 cm in plots receiving the
low fertilizer rate to 23 cm in plots receiving the medium sludge ratio, and
had a mean of 13 cm for all treatments. Alfalfa was the most productive
of the legumes yielding 2,187.8 kg/ha (11.8 percent of this mixture).
Alsike clover yielded 545.6 kg/ha comprising 2.6 percent of the biomass
produced by plots planted to this mixture. Maximum plant height ranged
from 6 cm in low sludge rate plots to 11 cm in high fertilizer plots and
had a mean height of 6 cm in all plots.
Smooth brome exhibited better growth in 1979 than either Canada
bluegrass or western wheatgrass. It ranged in maximum height from 6 cm
on control plots to 26 cm in plots treated with medium sludge rates and
had an overall mean of 19 cm. Production was 1,201 kg/ha (6.5 percent
of plant mix).
Canada bluegrass and western wheatgrass produced 147.0 kg/ha (0,7
percent of plant mix) and 269 kg/ha (1.3 percent of mix) respectively.
Maximum height of Canada bluegrass ranged from 3 cm on plots treated
with low sludge to 8 cm on high commercial fertilizer plots (overall mean
5 cm). Western wheatgrass had a maximum height of 4 cm in plots treated
with low sludge rates to 10 cm in high sludge plots (overall mean 8 cm).
The statistical analysis of plant mixture yields within the same soil
treatment showed no significant differences. Production values (see Table
27-5) were quite variable within a soil treatment. A major cause of this
was the inconsistent germination of Japanese millet.
The production of plant biomass varied greatly among the different
-------
Cavey and Bowles 405
Table 27-5. Effect of Soil Treatment and Seed Mixture on Yield of Plants Grown
on Taconite Tailings.
Mean Bioroass Production [kg/ha)
Soi 1 Treatment Se_e d_M i xture 1979
Control
Low Sludge
Mediun Sludge
High Sludge
Low Ferti1izer
Blue Grass-Clover
8rome-/llfalfa
Wheat Grass-Clover
Mean*
Bl ue Grass-Cl over
Brome-Alfalfa
Wheat Grass-Clover
Mean*
Blue Grass-Clover
Brome-Alfalfa
Wheat Grass-Clover
Mean*
Bl ue Grass-Clover
Brome-Al talfa
Wheat Grass-Clover
Mean*
Blue Grass-Clover
Brome-Alfalfa
Wheat Grass-Clover
Mean*
Bl ue Grass-Clover
Brome-Al falfa
Wheat Grass-Clover
Mean*
Bl ue Grass-Clover
Brome-Alfalfa
Wheat Grass-Clover
Mean*
132
252
179
188a
2,931
2,356
2,509
2,589ab
4,666
3,427
3,520
4,Wbc
6,408
4,703
5,439
5,517c
1,547
2,436
1 ,459
1 ,804ab
2,384
2,043
3,878
2,769abc
3,107
2,819
3,930
3,285bc
86
139
80
102A
2,741
3,100
2,18!
2,674f
4,53?
3, 371
2,882
3.595C
3,865
4,177
1 ,991
3,344C
284
9a7
998
746AB
999
'1 ,518
1,671
1 ,396E
823
2,223
731
1.Z59E
high Fertilizer
*Treatment means followed by difTerentTTelfteTs are significantly differ-
ent at the IX level. Each year treated separately.
soil treatments (see Table 27-5). The mean production ranged from 188
kg/ha on the control plots to 5,517 kg/ha on those with high sludge rates.
Statistical analysis showed that yields were significantly different at the one
percent level. However, the results of Duncan's Multiple Range test did not
show significant differences at the one percent level between the control
and low sludge and low and medium fertilizer rates even though yields and
ground cover were strikingly different (see Table 27-5). This was due to
the great variability between individual plots within a treatment. This
variability was mainly caused by different germination rates of Japanese
millet. Variations in texture and compaction of the taconite tailings may
also be involved in these variations. The relationship of soil treatment means
to the control are shown in Figure 27-1.
-------
406 Vegetation Establishment
Second Growing Season
There was very little regeneration of nurse crops in 1980. Although barley
produced seed in 1979, it was virtually absent in 1980. Millet plants were
present in 15 plots, but were a minor component. Two annual grass invaders
occurred in many plots. Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) was common in many
parts of the study area; and Japanese brome (Bromus japonicus) grew only
in plots that were seeded with the wheatgrass-alsike clover plant mixture.
It may have been introduced from the western wheatgrass seed. Annual
grasses comprised 13.0 percent (521 kg/ha) of the bluegrass-red clover yield,
1 percent (47.5 kg/ha) of the brome-alfalfa yield, and 12.1 percent (383.2
kg/ha) of the wheatgrass-alsike clover yield.
The legumes made the greatest increase in production, and were
dominants in all treatments except the control, in which perennial grasses
were dominant. Alsike clover increased more than either alfalfa or red clover,
and was slightly higher than alfalfa in overall production. The high
production of legumes should have a very beneficial effect on continued
plant production in materials like taconite because of their low nitrogen
5600 '
52001
H8 0 0 •
14 140 0 '
1.00 0 •
3600
3200
fa 2600
-E
cn
.*: 2 HOC
0
tu 2000
>-
1600
1200
e oo
1400
3 3 1 1
103 "4
2
IB* 102
I •
26
f89
1 1,
35
.95
3 3 *4 14
2
16 0 it
7 f
1979-
1980 •
— —
3265
769
1.3 9 6
1259
Control Low Medium Hign Low Medium High
Sludge Sludge Sludge Pert. Pert. Pert.
Figure 27-1. Comparison of Mean Yields of Sludge and Fertilizer Treatments with
Control.
-------
Cavey and Bowles 407
and humus content.
The perennial grasses all made large increases in production and made
up a significant percentage of the total yield and plant cover in most all
plots. Smooth brome was the largest producer and western wheatgrass the
lowest. Since both smooth brome and western wheatgrass are characterized
by high rhizome growth, these grasses should continue to increase in
production and percent cover.
Statistical analysis of plant mix production within soil treatments
showed significant differences at the 0.5 percent level. Duncan's Multiple
Range test indicated that brome-alfalfa plant mix was significantly different
than the wheatgrass-alsike mix. Based on mean yields of the plants tested,
brome grass and either alsike clover or alfalfa will make the best legume-grass
mix.
The production of total biomass again showed large differences among
the different soil treatments (see Table 27-5). The mean yields ranged from
102 kg/ha on control plots to 3,595 kg/ha on those receiving the medium
sludge rate. Statistical analysis showed that yields were significantly different
at the 0.5 percent level. Duncan's Multiple Range test indicated that all
treatments except the low fertilizer rate were significantly different at the
1 percent level from the control. Also, the three sludge treatments were
all significantly different from the fertilizer treatments but not from each
other (see Table 27-5). The relationship of sludge and fertilizer treatment
means with the control are shown in Figure 27-1.
There were some individual plots that showed great variation from the
mean treatment yield. Differences in taconite properties undoubtedly had
influence but it is believed that very high production of Japanese millet
and barley in 1979 may have greatly reduced the seedling survival of the
perennial plants. For example, the plot with the highest overall production
in 1979 was a wheatgrass-alsike clover plant mix on a high sludge rate
treatment. The following year this same plot produced less than all 27
sludge-treated plots except one. This change in relative yield from 1979 to
1980 was most evident in alsike clover-western wheatgrass plots that had
high Japanese millet production.
Summary and Conclusions
1. A split plot experimental design was utilized to test the effect of
both sewage sludge or commercial fertilizer applications and different plant
species on the establishment and growth of vegetation in taconite tailings.
Both sludge and fertilizer treatments resulted in yields that were appreciably
greater than those on untreated taconite. These differences were significant
at the one percent level during the initial growing season; however, variation
among individual plots within treatments caused only the high and medium
-------
403 Vegetation Establishment
sludge and high fertilizer treatments to be significant from the control. A
major factor contributing to individual plot variations was the different
germination rates of Japanese millet, one of the annual plants used in all
ploU.
2. Plant growth and cover during the initial year were dominated by
the annuals, barley and Japanese millet. Both annuals matured and produced
consider-dWe seed in all treatments except the control. Barley germinated
easier and more consistently and appeared to have less impact on the
establishment and growth of perennial plants. The perennial grasses and
legumes became established in all treatments but this was appreciably
influenced by use of sludge, rate of fertilization, and extent of dominance
of anuu.-l grasses. The differences in mean yields during the initial year
between plant groups were not statistically significant.
3. Mean yields of plant biomass produced during the second growing
season were significantly different at the 0.5 percent level. A comparison
of means, showed that all treatments were significantly different from the
control except the low fertilizer treatment. All sludge treatments were also
significantly different than the fertilizer treatments. None of the fertilizer
or sludge treatments were significantly different from each other. Field
observations and an analysis of the 1979 growing season data indicate that
this was iriinly due to variability among individual plots within a treatment.
A m,jor factor contributing to this variability was the complete dominance
i_'i -onie piors of Japanese millet during the initial growing season.
-T Pl.mt growth was dominated by legumes during the second year in
all trcatir.f nts except the control, in which perennial grasses dominated. Yield
differences, between plant groups were significant at the 0.5 percent level.
BroTie and alfalfa produced the highest yield and was significantly greater
tiian whwtgiass and alsike clover. The annual grasses planted produced low
popuUtK.ns of seedlings during the second growing season.
5. Results of this study indicate that either use of commercial fertilizers
or high organic matter amendments, i.e., sewage sludge, are essential to the
establishment and growth of vegetation in taconite tailing basins.
Results also indicate that municipal sewage sludge is more effective than
conimercipl fertilizers in preparing taconite tailings for plant growth.
Comparisons of the plant species used in this study indicate that either alsike
clover ni ilfalfa were the best legumes, smooth brome grass the best perennial
grAt*. yid b.iriey the best annual nurse crop.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. The authors appreciate the excellent cooperation
given by the Jackson County Iron Company personnel, especially Vern
Met'.gcr ;iad Gordon Vase. This company and its personnel contributed
financial support, space, time, and advice in order that this research would
"be accomplished. We also appreciate the cooperation given by James Ludwig,
-------
Cavey and Bowles 409
J.C.I.C. plant ecology consultant, the Wisconsin Department of Natural
Resources, and John Brovsky, overall Wisconsin research coordinator of
projects with the J.C.I.C.
Literature Cited
1. Berry, C. R., and D. H. Marx. 1977. Growth of loblolly pine seedlings in
strip-mined kaolin spoil as influenced by sewage sludge. J. Environ. Qual., Vol.
6:379-381.
2. Black, C. A. 1965. Methods of soil analysis, part 1. American Society of Agronomy.
Madison, Wisconsin. 770 p.
3. Davis, E. W. 1964. Pioneering with taconite. Minnesota Historical Society. St. Paul,
Minnesota. 246 p.
4. Hunt, C. F., W. E. Sopper, and L. T. Kardos. 1971. Renovation of bituminous
coal strip mine spoil by irrigation with treated munieipal sewage effluent and
digested sludge. The Pennsylvania State University. Technical Paper. Institute for
Research on Land and Water Resources.
5. Jones, J. N., Jr., W. H. Arminger, and O. L. Bennett. 1975. A two-step system
for revegetation of surface mine spoils. J. Environ. Qual., Vol. 4:233-235.
6. Keeney, D. R., K. W. Lee, and L. W. Walsh. 1975. Guidelines for the application
of wastewater sludge to agricultural land in Wisconsin. Technical Bulletin No. 88.
Department of Natural Resources. Madison, Wisconsin. 36 p.
7. Pomares-Garcia, F., and P. F. Pratt. 1978. Value of manure and sewage sludge
as N fertilizer. Agron. Journ. 70:1065-1069.
8. Shetron, S. G., and R. Duffek. 1970. Establishing vegetation on iron tailings. J.
Soil and Water Cons. 25:227-230.
9. Sommers, L. E. 1977. Chemical composition of sewage sludges and analysis of
their potential use as fertilizers. J. Environ. Qual., Vol. 6:225-231.
10. Stucky, D. J., and T. S. Newman. 1977. Effect of dried anaerobically digested
sewage sludge on yield and element accumulation in tall fescue and alfalfa. J.
Environ. Qual., Vol. 6:271-273.
11. Wong, M. H., and F. Y. Tarn. 1977. Soil and vegetation contamination by iron
ore tailings. Environ. Pollut. 14:241-254.
-------
28
THE RESPONSE OF NATIVE HERBACEOUS PRAIRIE
SPECIES ON IRON-ORE TAILINGS UNDER DIFFERENT
RATES OF FERTILIZER AND SLUDGE APPLICATION
Darrel G Morrison and Julie Hardell
Native prairie species were planted in test plots on iron ore tailing deposits
at the Jackson County Iron Company site near Black River Falls, Wisconsin,
in early June of 1979. Three levels of nitrogen and phosphorus were added
in various combinations and sewage sludge was applied at two rates. Primary
objectives of the study were to (1) determine whether fertilization made
a significant; difference in the response of the ten species selected, and if
so, (2) evaluate the performance of these species at the different levels of
fertilization.
Species utilized in the study included five native grasses (big and little
bluestem, sideoats grama, Canada wild rye, and switchgrass) and four prairie
forbs (leadplant, prairie bush-clover, beebalm, and black-eyed susan). In
addition, foxtail, a non-native annual, was planted at 10% of the seed mix
as a cover.
A total of eleven treatments were tested, including eight chemical
fertilizer combinations, two rates of sewage sludge application, and a control
with no additives. Four replications of each were plotted with the seed mix
at a rate of 22 kg/hectare (20 pounds/acre), in one-square-meter plots for
harvest, and four-square-meter plots for continued monitoring.
First-year results showed native grasses performing much better than
the forbs under all treatments. Sideoats grama was the best performer overall,
with many plants flowering the first season. Canada wild rye showed good
germination and survival, but slow growth. The native species showed little
significant response to fertilizer treatment. On the other hand, foxtail, the
cover species, performed best under the highest chemical fertilizer and sewage
sludge treatments
Introduction
Iron ore tailings deposits, in the absence of a vegetational cover, are subject
to water and wind erosion, creating a potential hazard to the surrounding
area. Revegetation of such deposits by natural invasion is typically a very
slow process (Dickinson, 1975). Therefore, selection of plant species and
techniques which will accelerate this process are important in overcoming
this hazard and in returning tailings deposit sites to a productive and
visually-attractive state.
Tailings result from the mineral extraction process, and are finely
-------
Morrison and Hardell 411
ground rock and minerals that have been processed to remove the desirable
ore. Tailings are highly variable in physical and chemical properties,
influenced by both the nature of the ore body and the type of mining
and processing operation.
Among the problems associated with tailings revegetation are the
following: (1) adverse physical properties affecting structure, density, and
water penetration; (2) extreme deficiencies of some major nutrients; (3)
presence of toxic compounds or high salt concentrations; (4) wind blasting;
and (5) high temperatures and limited water (Hunter and Whiteman, 1974).
Basically, two approaches to the establishment of vegetation on mine
wastes such as tailings have been tried historically. One is to greatly modify
the environment through various amelioration techniques, e.g., application
of a layer of topsoil, fertilization, mulching or watering; then planting
introduced agronomic species or trees and shrubs on the more amenable
site. A second approach is to utilize plant species which can tolerate the
difficult environmental conditions on the site, and which by their presence
modify conditions sufficiently for other species to invade over time.
The approach utilized in this experiment contains elements of both
of these; i.e., utilizing predominantly native species which are considered
tolerant of many of the existing environmental factors on the site, but
providing nutrients at different levels in order to increase the likelihood of
success of the plantings. It is expected that the species composition will
change over time.
Use of Native Species in Reclamation
Current Wisconsin and federal reclamation legislation stresses the importance
of promoting a natural succession of plants that will eventually lead to a
vegetational cover similar to that originally on the site (Public Law 95-87,
Sec. 515 (b)(19); Wisconsin State Statutes, Chapter 421, Sec. 144-83 (2)(c)).
Prairie species were selected for this study for several reasons. They
are tolerant of sun and wind exposure, limited water supply, and high
temperatures, as well as being tolerant of soils that are low in nutrients
and relatively high in alkalinity. Also, most of the species that were selected
are indigenous to the local area, but will not necessarily preclude invasion
by tree and shrub species whose propagules are introduced.
The use of colonizing grasses followed by the introduction of persistent
trees and shrubs was advocated by Miller (1978). Wali and Kollman (1977),
Riley (1974), and Coates (1973). All discuss the advantages of encouraging
a natural succession of species.
Fertilization Studies on Tailings
Chemical fertilization. Native species have been reported by Dickinson (1975)
to invade iron ore tailings deposits in Minnesota after fertilization. Little
work has been done to evaluate the effects of different rates of fertilizer
-------
412 Vegetation Establishment
application on sites that have been seeded to native species. The original
character of the tailings and the desired plant growth, of course, affects
the amount of nutrients needed, as noted by Nielson and Peterson (1978).
Dean and Havens (1972) found all tailings to require the addition of
nitrogen and phosphorus for plant growth. They found rates of 30 Ibs/a
N and 33 Ibs/a P to achieve satisfactory results.
Sewage sludge. Sludge improves the physical properties of soil and supplies
nutrients long enough to establish plant growth (Walsh, 1976). Types of
organic compounds in digested sewage sludge were found to be similar to
those of soil organic matter by Shammas (1978). Like other organic matter,
sewage sludge is potentially of benefit in tailings revegetation by improving
texture, increasing water-holding capacity, and protecting aginst erosion
(Dinsmoor, 1977). Further, organic matter content of the soil is instrumental
in reducing loss of nitrogen and other nutrients through leaching (Tisdale
and Nelson, 1975).
Gordon (1969) used sewage sludge for covering gold tailings to prevent
erosion. Dean et al. (1974) obtained satisfactory results by mixing sludge
with tailings and also layering it at various depths.
Field Study
Objectives of the Study
The field study initiated in 1979 evaluates the performance of prairie species
grown on iron ore tailings under different rates of fertilizer and sewage sludge
application. Specific objectives were (1) to determine if fertilization made
a significant difference in the response of the ten species selected and if
so, (2) to evaluate the performance of these species at the different levels
of fertilization. Observations are continuing during the present (1980)
growing season, and will continue for three more years.
The Site
Location. The field study was conducted at the Jackson County Iron
Company open pit mine located 11.27 km east of Black River Falls,
Wisconsin. Presettlement vegetation in this area was predominantly oak
savanna.
Climate. Precipitation averages 76.28 cm (30.03") per year with record ranges
between 47.12 cm (18.55") and 102.21 cm (40.24"). June is typically the
wettest month of the year, averaging 12.67 cm (4.99"). Seventy percent
of all precipitation falls from April through September. The average annual
temperature ranges from 4.9°C to 9.3°C (40.9°F to 48.8°F), with an absolute
range between -46.1°C to 42.2°C (-51°F to 108°F). The average frost-free
period is 116 days between May 23 and September 17.
Description of the mine and mining operation. The Jackson County Iron
-------
Morrison and Hardell 413
Company mine is the only operating mine in Wisconsin, and the smallest
iron ore mine in the United States in terms of tonnage extracted. Production
started in December 1969 and is scheduled to shut down in 1990, by which
time it will have produced 17 million tons of taconite pellets (Vase, 1980).
The operation is an open-pit mine. The pit presently covers 125 acres
and is 270 feet deep. On completion, it will cover 136 acres and be 725
feet deep.
There are two types of waste materials resulting from the mining and
extraction process-spoils and tailings. The spoils are non-ore-bearing rock
and soil lying above the ore body, and are deposited in a number of spoils
dumps near the open pit.
The tailings are a waste by-product of the magnetic extraction process.
On this site, they consist primarily of silica with trace amounts of hematite
and magnetite. The tailings are piped in a water slurry to a circular tailmgs
disposal pond, 3600 feet in diameter. At the edge of the pond, a cyclone
separator sorts the coarse fraction from the fine. The coarse tailings are
used to build the dike of the pond, which covers 319 acres. The fine fraction
is released into the pond where it is kept wet.
Materials and Methods
Plot layout. Experimental plots were set up on the western side of the tailings
dike. Road building equipment was used to grade and prepare a bed which
was level and quite compact. Plots of two different sizes were alternately
staked out with one meter between plots. The size of the larger permanent
plots was four square meters; plots scheduled for first-year harvest were one
square meter. Treatments were set up in a completely randomized design,
There were four replications of each treatment for a total of 44 large plots
and 44 small plots. A border containing the test species was planted around
the periphery.
Tailings analysis. The tailings are sandy loam in texture with an average
pH of 8.5. Analysis of them showed a low phosphorus content, maiginal
potassium and magnesium, and sufficient calcium. From previous studies it
was known that there was virtually no nitrogen present and that the oi-^anic
matter content was very low (Dinsmoor, 1977; JC1C, 1977).
Species selection and planting techniques. Each plot was planted with a mix
of ten species in June 1979 at the rate of 22 kg/ha (20 Ibs/a).
Five of the species in the mix are native prairie grasses. All five had
been previously tested at the same mine site without any fertilizer application
by Dinsmoor (1977) and seemed to warrant further consideration. The five
native grasses utilized in the 1979 field study included big bluestein
(Andropogon gerardi), little bluestem (Andropogon scopanus], sid-ruts
grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), Canada wild rye (Elymus canadotsif^
-------
414 Vegetation Establishment
Two legumes were included in the mix at a rate of 15% by number:
leadplant (Amorpha canescens) and roundhead bush clover (Lespedeza
capitata), both of which grow in dry prairies in Wisconsin, but which had
not been widely tried for revegetation of tailings. Two other prairie forbs
were included at a rate of 5% by number. These were beebalm or bergamot
(Monarda fistulosa) and black-eyed Susan (Rudbeckia hirta). Both have been
observed to invade disturbed sites readily, without persisting over long
periods; and both had earlier been seen as natural invaders on spoils deposits
at the Jackson County Iron Company site.
The tenth species utilized in the study was foxtail (Setaria spp.), planted
at 10% of the mix, by number. The foxtail seed, hand-collected for the
project, included four species, S. lutescens, S. saberii, S. verticillata, and
S. viridus, and no attempt was made to separate them. While not native,
they are annuals which provide initial cover, and a degree of protection
to first-year seedlings of the native species. Cornelius (1946) found that
weedy annual grasses, including Setaria viridus, provided about four times
as much basal cover as prairie grasses in a prairie restoration at the end
of the first growing season. He believed they were beneficial because their
cover helped control erosion and protected the young perennial grasses, but
became, almost negligible after the third growing season.
The seed mix was hand-broadcast in the plots and raked in. A pelletized
mulch of grass hulls, was applied to a thickness of 2.2 cm (1 inch). No
supplementary watering or weeding was done during the growing season.
Fertilizer Treatments
Chemical fertilizer. Phosphorus, applied as triple super phosphate, was
rototilled into the tailings at rates of 0 kg/ha, 28 kg/ha, and 112 kg/ha,
hereaftei referred to as PQ, Pj, and ?2 respectively. Nitrogen in the form
of ammonium nitrate was applied to the tailings surface and raked in at
rates of 0 kg/ha, 88 kg/ha, and 175 kg/ha, referred to as NQ, Nj, and N2
respectively. The various combinations resulted in nine different chemical
fertilizer treatments, referred to as: NgPg, N0P}, NQ?2, NlpO' NjPj, Nl?2>
N2PO N2P1' and N2P2- (see Table 284')
Sewage sludge. Two levels of sewage sludge, obtained from Wisconsin Rapids,
were applied as separate treatments (Table 28-1). The sludge was applied
at application rates of 85 mt/ha and 42 mt/ha (dry-weight basis). The sludge
was rototilled into the tailings plots ten days prior to planting. Plot surfaces
were raked smooth. See Table 28-2 for analysis of samples of sludge used
in the experiment.
Above-ground parts of plants in the 44 one-square-meter plots were
harvested in September following the first growing season. Dry weight was
of primary importance in evaluating the fertilizer and sludge treatments.
Total dry weight of all species was analyzed. Then total dry weight of Setaria
spp. and the total dry weight of all native species combined were separately
-------
Morrison and Hardell 415
Table 28-1. Fertilizer Rates Applied.
Fertilizer
Anmonium nitrate
(NH4N03)
Triple super phosphate
(Ca(H2P04)2)
Sewage sludge
Symbol
N2
NO
P2
Pi
PO
SS2
Rate
kg/ha
175
88
—
112
28
--
85 mt/ha
42 mt/ha
Ibs/A
156
79
—
100
25
--
38 t/a
19 t/a
Table 28-2. Analyses of Two Samples of Wisconsin Rapids Sewage Sludge Used in
the Experiment.
Analysis
Total N, %
NH4-N, ppcn
N03-N, ppm
P, ppm
K, ppm
As, ppm
Cd, ppm
Cr, ppm
Cu , ppm
Pb, ppm
Hg , ppm
Ni , ppm
Zn, ppm
Dry matter, %
Sample 1
n.62
8.0
360.0
14,211.0
863.7
106.6
61.8
1,607.0
199.3
277.5
5.5
448.5
506.5
64.5
Sample 2
0.73
10.5
700.0
11,545.0
696.2
93.4
57.7
1,337.0
172.3
242.9
5.0
392.4
440.9
67.6
analyzed. For selected species, the average dry weight per plot was also
analyzed.
Percent cover, plant height, and the number of plants per plot were
also collected.
Results and Discussion
Number of plants. The number of plants established at the end of the 1979
growing season was generally encouraging. The number ranged from 33 to
161 per meter-square plot with the average number over all treatments being
84. Of these 84, 20 were Setaria spp. Total number of plants in harvested
plots was 3652, of which 3542 were grasses.
-------
416 Vegetation Establishment
Elyrnus canadensis gave the best results in terms of number of plants,
making up 39.8% of the total plant count. Setaria spp., the annual cover
crop made up 23.9% of the total. Bouteloua curtipendula made up 18%
of the total. The two bluestems (Andropogon gerardi and A. scoparius]
together comprised 13.8% of the total number of plants. Panicum virgatum
accounted for only 1.5% of the total number of plants.
All of the forbs were low in numbers, totalling only 110 plants over
the 44 meter-square plots. See Table 28-3 for number of seedlings produced,
by species.
The average number of plants per plot under different treatments is
shown in Table 28-4.
Table 28-3. The Number of Seedlings Produced in 44 One Square Meter Plots.
Species
Grasses
Andropojon spp.
Bouteloua curtipendul
Elymus canadersis
Panicum virgatum
Setaria spp.
Forbs
Amorpha canescens
Lespedeza capitata
Monarda fistulosa
Rudbeckia hirta
*Species statistically
Seedlings
produced
504
a 658
1452
54
874
28
34
12
36
analyzed
Seedlings as %
of viable seed
22.9
59.8
132.0
4.9
79.4
1.7
2.0
2.3
6.8
Seedlings as
% of total no
established
13.8*
18.0*
39.8*
1.5*
23.9*
0.77
0.93
0.33
0.98
Table 28-4. Average Number of Plants Per Plot for Each Treatment.
Treatment Number of Plants/Plot
N0P0 83
N0Pi 116
NflP2 97
MP0 74
NiP-| 72
N]P2 96
N2P0 63
N2Pl 63
N2P2 56
SSi 112
SS2 85
-------
Morrison and Hardell 417
Response to fertilizer treatments. Based on dry weight of the harvested
above-ground biomass, the native prairie species showed very little response
to fertilizer treatments, while foxtail (Setaria spp.) gave the best response
with high rates of chemical fertilizer and sewage sludge application.
Possible explanations of the similar response of native prairie species
under different fertilizer treatments include the following: (1) these species
have low nutrient requirements; (2) they are very efficient at extracting
available nutrients due to their extensive network of roots; and (3) Setaria
spp. may have utilized the nutrients to the disadvantage of the slower-growing
native species.
Overall, there were significant differences in mean total dry weight per
plot under the different chemical fertilizer and sludge treatments. The largest
increase in dry weight, as shown in Table 28-5 occurs when the phosphorus
application is increased from Pj to ?2 level, in combination with Nj or
N2- Note that the mean total dry weight per plot treated with sewage sludge
increased from 309 grams at the 18.7 mt/ha application rate to 424 grams
at the 42 mt/ha rate.
Individual species responses. Bouteloua curtipendula gave the best results
overall, among the prairie species. It germinated well and grew quickly,
achieving the greatest average dry weight per plant for each treatment. Some
individuals flowered with no correlation to fertilizer treatment.
Elymus canadensis germinated exceptionally well in the field, but did
not grow as rapidly as expected, possibly because of the relatively late
planting date.
Table 28-5. Total Dry Weight Per Plot; Treatment Means and Standard Deviations
(grams).
Treatment
Vo
N0Pl
N0P2
N") PQ
N] P]
NlP2
N2P0
N2P1
N2P2
SSI
SS2
Mean
158
177
209
237
291
496
321
275
529
309
424
Standard Deviation
22
24
46
78
102
no
39
100
87
46
67
-------
418 Vegetation Establishment
Andropogon gerardi and A. scoparius were grouped together because
they could not be separately identified at hardest time due to their very
small size.
The other prairie species germinated poorly in this study; i.e., Pantcum
virgaturn and the forbs, Amorpha canescens, Espendeza capitata, Monarda
fistulosa and Rudbeckia hirta.
Setaria spp. performed well as a cover crop on the tailings. Germination
was high and growth was rapid, with virtually all plants flowering by the
end of the season. It provided good cover for the slower-growing native
perennials as well as for erosion control. It protected the prairie species
from dessication and sand-blasting. At the same time, it may have competed
for nutrients and moisture. The total dry weight for Setaria spp. was greatest
under the ^' ^^' anc^ ^ treatments.
Second-year Observations
No harvesting has occurred in 1980, the second growing season of this
planting. Hence, no quantitative data are available. Visual observations
indicate that Setaria spp. has performed as expected, being greatly reduced
in number and visual dominance during the second growing season. It has
been replaced in apparent importance by Elymus canadensis, which was
approximately 1 meter tall in most plots by midsummer and appears to
have flowered under all treatments. Bouteloua curtipendula clumps have
increased in size and appear to be the second-most important species.
Monarda fistulosa and Rudbeckia hirta, while not great in number, have
been visually significant because of their conspicuous flowering during the
second growing season. Generally speaking, plant vigor appears to be
correlated with higher application of fertilizer. The significance of these
differences will be determined only with analyses of this year's harvest.
Seedlings of Populus tremuloides have invaded in many of the plots during
the 1980 growing season.
Conclusions
Certain prairie species seem to have been established successfully on iron
ore tailings in this experiment. After one growing season, the necessity of
fertilization was not verified. After two seasons, it appears that the fertilizer
at least facilitates growth and development. The use of Setaria spp. as a
cover appears useful, although it responded best to high rates of fertilization.
It has diminished in importance during the second growing season, as
predicted. Invasion of woody species from the surrounding area has also
begun to occur.
-------
Morrison and Hardell 419
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance
of Professor Richard Corey of the Soil Science Department at the University
of Wisconsin-Madison, the Jackson County Iron Company at Black River
Falls, Wisconsin, and the University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point. The project
was funded by The Graduate School, University of Wisconsin-Madison and
Hatch funding for agricultural research, USDA, through the College of
Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Literature Cited
Coates, William E. 1973. Landscape architectural approach to surface mining
reclamation. In James R. Garvey (ed.), Research and applied technology
symposium of mined-land reclamation. National Coal Association, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, pp. 26-41.
Cornelius, D. R. 1946. Establishment of some true prairie species following reseeding.
Ecology 27: 1-12.
Dean, K. C., R. Havens, and M. T. Glantz. 1974. Methods and cost for stabilizing
fine-sized mineral wastes. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Report of Investigations, 1896,
Salt Lake City Metallurgy Research Center, Salt Lake City, Utah,
Dickinson, Sam 1975. Revegetation of taconite tailings. Duplicated copy of paper
presented at Mineral waste stabilization liaison committee, Vail, Colorado,
August 7-8.
Dinsrnoor, Philip C. 1977. An evaluation of the performance of some native plants
on iron mine wastes in Wisconsin. M.S. Thesis, Department of Landscape
Architecture, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Gordon, I. M. 1969. Erosion control at Hollinger mine tailings site. Can. Mining ].,
June, pp. 46-50.
Hunter, G. and P. C. Whiteman. 1974. Problems associated with the revegetation of
metal-mining wastes. /. Aust. Inst. Agric. So'., 40: 270-278.
Jackson County Iron Company. 1977. Mining permit application and reclamation plan
for Black River Falls Mine.
Miller, G. E. 1978. A method of establishing native vegetation on disturbed sites
consistent with the theory of nucleation. Abstract in Reclamation Review, 1: 176.
Nielson, Rex F., and H. B. Peterson. 1978. Vegetating mine tailings ponds. In Schaller
and Sutton, eds., Reclamation of drastically disturbed lands, ASA, GSSA, and
SSSA, Madison, Wisconsin, pp. 645-652.
Riley, Charles V. 1974. Ecology - ally of mined land restoration. Second research and
applied technology symposium of mined-land reclamation, Louisville, Kentucky,
pp. 54-68.
Shammas, Abdallah Toufic. 1978. Unavailability of cadmium in sewage sludge. Ph.D.
Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
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420 Vegetation Establishment
Tisdale, S. L., and W. L. Nelson. 1975. Soil fertility and fertilizers. Macmillan Publishing
Co., Inc., New York.
Vase, Gordon A. 1980. Senior Engineer for Jackson County Iron Company, Personal
communication.
Wall, Mohan K., and Alden L. Kollman. 1977. Ecology and mining or mining ecology?
In Thames, ed., Reclamation and use of disturbed land in the Southwest. The
University of Arizona Press, Tucson, pp. 108-115.
Walsh, Leo M., ed. 1976. Application of sewage sludge to cropland: appraisal of
potential hazards of the heavy metals to plants and animals. Council for agricultural
science and technology. Report No. 64.
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29
USE OF MUNICIPAL SLUDGE IN THE RECLAMATION
Of ABANDONED PYRITE MINES IN VIRGINIA
Kenneth R. Hinkle
Two abandoned pyrite mine sites consisting of approximately 8 ha along
Contrary Creek in Louisa County, Virginia have been reclaimed using
municipal sludge as a soil conditioner. A reclamation program partially
funded by an Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) demonstration grant
began in 1976. After the mine waste areas were regraded to approximate
natural contours, municipal sludge along with lime and fertilizer were applied
as soil amendments followed by seeding. All sludge used in the project was
trucked from the Blue Plains Sewage Treatment Plant in Washington, D.C.,
free of charge. The extreme toxicity of mine wastes including heavy metals
along with two very dry years in 1976 and 1977 seriously hampered efforts
to establish vegetation on the reclaimed sites, To overcome this problem
a maintenance program including the application of additional sludge, lime,
and fertilizer and reseeding has been in progress since 1976. By the summer
of 1980 about 90 percent of the reclaimed areas supported a fair to good
growth of vegetation, but some extremely toxic areas remain barren and
continue to pose problems.
Although there have been insignificant gains made in the primary
objective of this project, the improvement of water quality in Contrary
Creek, it is felt that insufficient time has elapsed to allow the hydrologic
system and mine waste chemistry to react to the reclamation effort. It has
been demonstrated that by using municipal sludge as a soil amendment,
vegetation can be grown on highly toxic mine wastes. It is probable that
not a fraction of the success in promoting vegetative growth would have
been realized without the use of sludge. No harmful effects are known to
have resulted from the use of sludge in this project, and no public opposition
has been voiced.
Introduction
The Contrary Creek project is located in Louisa County, Virginia
approximately 65 km northwest of Richmond and approximately 120 km
southwest of Washington, D.C. Contrary Creek is a small stream
approximately 8 km in length and has an average annual flow of 207 1/s
(7.3 cfs) at its mouth where it flows into Lake Anna, an impoundment
completed in 1972 as a source of cooling water for a nuclear power plant.
In the nineteenth century extensive mining activity took place in this part
of the Virginia Piedmont, and between 1880 and 1920 three deep-shaft pyrite
-------
422 Vegetation Establishment
mines were operated adjacent to Contrary Creek. During this period large
volumes of pyritic wastes were dumped along Contrary Creek disturbing
about 18 ha at the three mine sites and resulted in a severe acid mine drainage
(AMD) problem in the stream leaving it practically devoid of aquatic life.
The area remained essentially in this condition for over 50 years after the
mines closed. In the early 1970s after the Virginia Electric Power Company
decided to build a nuclear power plant downstream from the mine sites,
the Virginia State Water Control Board (SWCB) assumed responsibility for
developing a program to abate the AMD in Contrary Creek and Lake Anna.
It was feared that the continual influx of AMD which included heavy metals
would eventually result in a buildup of contaminants in the reservoir.
Project Development
In 1973 the SWCB decided to apply for an EPA demonstration grant under
Section 107 of PL 92-500 to be used in constructing abatement measures.
As part of a feasibility study done by a consultant to support the grant
request, the SWCB began a water quality monitoring program to define the
magnitude of the AMD problem in Contrary Creek. Average concentrations
of approximately 20 water samples collected at the mouth of Contrary Creek
in 1974 are shown in Table 29-1.
In 1975 the SWCB was awarded a grant to be used in reclaiming two
of the mine sites which are known as the Boyd Smith and Sulphur. The
provisions of the grant were that the EPA would provide funds for
contractual services which included construction work, and the SWCB would
match the Federal funds with 40 percent of the total project cost through
in-kind services consisting of project administration, monitoring and report
preparation. The Soil Conservation Service (SCS) has provided the SWCB
with engineering and technical assistance throughout the project. Prior to
initiating reclamation, easements were secured with each property owner
involved. A private mining firm assumed responsibility for reclaiming the
third mine site along Contrary Creek known as the Arminius.
Reclamation of the Sulphur and Boyd Smith Sites began in 1976 and
consisted essentially of (1) regrading and smoothing the mine wastes; (2)
Table 29-1. Average Composition of Water at Mouth of Contrary Creek (mg/l).*
£«
3.3
Acidity
as CaCO-j
169
SO/)
267
Fe
23.1
Cu Zn
1.20 3.5
Pb
0.05
Mn
1.5
*Average of approximately 20 samples collected in 1974.
-------
Hinkle 423
constructing diversions; (3) excavating mine wastes from stream channels
and stabilizing banks with riprap; (4) applying municipal sludge, lime and
fertilizer; and (5) seeding and mulching.
Source and Transportation of Sludge
The source of the sludge used in the project was the Blue Plains STP in
Washington, D.C. The Blue Plains STP generated approximately 275 t of
anaerobically digested sludge daily which is concentrated by vacuum
filtration to about 20% solids. The District of Columbia agreed to deliver
all of the sludge needed free of charge, which substantially lessened the
cost of the project. A cost of about $10/t for hauling had been estimated
in the feasibility study and if this had actually been billed to the project,
an additional expense of about $99,000 would have been incurred to date.
Sludge was transported in 18-t capacity trucks which were routed to
minimize travel through populated areas, and hauling was done in compliance
with Virginia Department of Highways and Transportation regulations.
Trucks were carefully cleaned after each dumping to prevent spillage on
public highways. The Virginia State Department of Health (SDH) provided
the SWCB with guidelines for sludge disposal.
Application of Sludge
Approximately 400 truckloads of sludge amounting to about 7250 wet t
were delivered in the project over a two-month period in the spring of 1976.
Since the sludge was delivered concurrently with the regrading and smoothing
work, it was possible to dump most of the sludge directly upon the
application areas after lime and fertilizer had been spread. Sludge was
normally allowed to dry a few days and then spread to a thickness of about
10 cm with a bulldozer followed by incorporation with a heavy duty disc.
The longer sludge dries, the easier it handles, but it was not practical to
let the sludge lie for long periods due to risk of heavy rains and the overall
construction time frame. It was found that spreading could be done more
efficiently by backdragging with a bulldozer rather than by pushing. Sludge
was usually incorporated to a depth of 8 to 16 cm. Where the ground was
too soft to support heavy equipment, a small disc drawn by a farm tractor
was used for incorporation.
The 1976 seeding work was performed during the month of June which
was not the most favorable time, but since the regrading and smoothing
had progressed considerably faster than expected, it was not feasible to delay
the seeding until fall. The late seeding coupled with meager rainfall during
the remainder of the summer resulted in sparse seed germination. It was
-------
424 Vegetation Establishment
obvious by late summer that a complete reseeding would be necessary.
Reseedirig with additional liming and fertilizing was done in the spring of
1977, but 1977 proved to be one of the driest years of the century making
the spring seeding almost a complete failure.
The two dry years of 1976 and 1977 combined with the extreme
toxicity of the mine wastes led to development of an annual maintenance
program. Maintenance each spring and fall beginning in 1977 has consisted
of applying soil amendments, reseeding, erosion control work, and irrigation
of a small portion of the Sulphur Site. Additional sludge was applied each
fall of 1977 thru 1979. The first real success in the vegetative work did
not occur until 1978 when nearly normal seasonal rainfall returned, but
short dry periods in 1978 and 1979 necessitated pumping irrigation water
from a nearby beaver pond to maintain new and established growth on
critical portions of the Sulphur Site.
As more of the reclaimed areas began to support vegetation and as
maintenance work concentrated on isolated problem spots, sludge was
stockpiled near application areas rather than dumped directly on them and
was usually allowed to dry for two to three weeks. Various means were
used to move sludge to application areas including an earthmoving pan, and
end loader, and a small dump truck. When a pan was used, the sludge was
partially spread as it was released from the pan, and further smoothed with
a bulldozer. Where the ground was relatively level a limited amount of sludge
was incorporated to very shallow depth of a few cm by light discing, and
on one occasion approximately 0.2 ha of the Sulphur Site was treated with
a second layer of sludge after the first application had been incorporated.
After smoothing and incorporating to a few cm with a small disc, seed was
sown directly on the second sludge layer. A similar procedure was used for
a small amount of sludge used in 1979 when application with very little
incorporation was done with an end loader. While this degree of
incorporation is less than normally desired for aesthetic reasons and leaves
a rougher surface, no problems resulted. Seed sown directly in the sludge
generally had better germination rates than elsewhere, and the rougher
surface retained more moisture. Of course, there is always some risk of heavy
rains washing sludge into nearby streams, but it was found that sludge became
more cohesive when wet and did not flow appreciably even when it was
dumped directly on moderate slopes. All sludge dumping, spreading and
incorporation was done in a manner to minimize the possibility of sludge
reaching any streams. A summary of sludge application at the Sulphur and
Boyd Smith Sites is shown in Table 29-2. Sludge was also trucked from
the Blue Plains STP to the third upstream mine site where similar reclamation
methods were used by the mining firm having an interest in that site.
-------
Hinkle 425
Composition of Sludge
During the main phase of reclamation in 1976 when 1596 dry t of sludge
were applied to the Boyd Smith and Sulphur Sites, samples were collected
from each truckload of sludge and composited into one daily sample for
analyses of pH, metals, and nutrients. Composite monthly analyses of the
Table 29-2. Summary of Sludge Application.
Year
1976
1977
1978
1979
TOTAL
(wet)
7257
1769
544
308
9878
Solids
22
19.9
20.3
19.5
15%
352
110
60
2118
Sludged
6.6
1.6
0.8
0.7
(dry)
200-260
220
138
82
90-116
99
62
37
Table 29-3. Composition of Sludge Used at Contrary Creek (ppm - dry weight).
J2H
SWCB Data(D
1976 6.5
Blue Plains (2)
STP Data
1976-79 6.1
Cu
785
678
Zn Pb Hfi
2529 550 5.1
1604 477 3.8
Cd
17.0
14.9
Cr
659
717
Ni
29
42
(^'Average of 40 daily composite samples.
(2)Average of monthly composite samples
Table 29-4. Average Percentage of Nutrients on Dry Weight Basis in Sludge Used at
Contrary Creek in 1976.
Nutrient Percent
N 3.23
P205 7.32
KgO 0.32
''•Average of 40 daily composite samples
-------
426 Vegetation Establishment
sludge were also provided by the Blue Plains STP for each month that sludge
was delivered from 1976 to 1979. Table 29-3 shows average pH and metal
analyses of sludge used in this project, and nutrient content of the 1976
sludge is shown in Table 29-4. The heavy metals content of the Blue Plains
sludge is within the range of that reported from other municipal STP's and
is generally lower than that from highly industrialized cities.
Lime and Fertilizer Application
Lime application rates were determined on the basis of pH and lime titration
analyses of composite soil samples from various parts of the reclamation
sites. Initially, 10-10-10 fertilizer was used supplemented by 38-0-0
(ureaform) on areas that could not be sludged, but continued soil analyses
indicated that the more difficult areas to vegetate were deficient in potash.
Consequently, a high potash fertilizer was used beginning in 1979. Lime
and fertilizer rates used in the project are shown in Tables 29-5 and 29-6,
respectively.
Soil Analyses
As part of an extensive monitoring program, composite soil samples have
been collected by the SCS and SWCB periodically from various areas of
the project sites for analyses of pH, nutrient availability, and heavy metals
content. All soil samples were taken with a soil auger at depths of about
5 cm in the root zone with the exception of one set collected in the fall
of 1979 below the viable soil layer. Table 29-7 compares pH and nutrient
availability before and after reclamation on the west and east sides of the
Sulphur Site. Prior to reclamation the west side was characterized by massive
heaps of fine tailings while the east side consisted primarily of coarser reject
material. The west side has been one of the more difficult areas to vegetate
in the entire project and continues to be one of the major sources of AMD
in Contrary Creek. As can be seen in Table 29-7 there was significant
improvement in pH and phosphate ^205) availability in the top layer of
soil on both the west and east sides between 1975 and 1979. The samples
collected below the root zone in what is essentially the same type of material
as covered the surface prior to reclamation showed slight improvement over
pre-reclamation conditions. The potash (KoO) availability remained
extremely low on the west side of the Sulphur Site until 1979 despite
repeated applications of sludge, lime, and fertilizer. Note that there was a
dramatic increase in pH and potash availability on the west side in the
summer of 1980 but phosphate decreased slightly. On the east side where
vegetation has been more successful, there was a pronounced increase in
-------
Hinkle 427
Table 29-5. Summary of Lime Application Rates'1' (t/ha)'2'.
1976 1977 1978 1979 1980
Spring Fall Spring Fall Spring
8.9 13.4-31.2 22.3 11.1-33.4 4.5-17.8 8.9-22.3 8.9
(1)A range of application rates indicates that the~~lower rate was
applied to all areas and the upper rate was the maximum applied to
difficult areas.
(2)lo convert t/ha to tons/ac multiply by 0.449.
Table 29-6. Summary of Fertilizer Application Rates (Kg/ha)*.
1976 1977 1979 1980
Spring Fall Spring
10-10-10 38-0-0 10-10-10 38-0-0 6-6-12 6-0-12 6-0-12
1121 448 561 448 1121 1121 1121
*To convert Kg/ha to Ibs/ac multiply by 0.892.
Table 29-7. Comparison of pH and Nutrient Availability in Soils at Sulphur Site -
1975-1980.
Area
and
Date
Sulphur West
11-75
10-79
10-79
8-80
Sulphur East
11-75
10-79
10-79
Depth
(cm)
5
5
60
5
5
5
30
PH
2.4
3.6
2.5
6.1
2.2
5.0
3.2
P2°5
0 - 7
252+
28 - 46
14
0 - 7
48 - 69
9 - 18
Ibs/ac
0
0
0
0
212
68
K20
- 18
- 18
- 18
103
- 18
- 253
- 90
6.6 14 103
-------
428 Vegetation Establishment
potash availability in the surface horizon soon after reclamation began. As
stated above, this pattern generally emerges over all of the reclaimed areas.
Soil samples were also analyzed regularly for heavy metals. Metals data
and pH values from composite samples collected from 1976 to 1980 on
both sides of the Sulphur Site are shown in Table 29-8. All of these samples
were collected at depths of about 5 cm. It can be seen that there has been
a dramatic drop in metal concentrations as reclamation progressed and that
concentrations remain considerably higher on the more toxic west side of
the Sulphur Site. Obviously, a very thin soil layer supports the vegetation
covering much of the reclaimed areas, and very toxic mine wastes still
underlie some of the now vegetated areas. An indication of the composition
of the mine wastes is presented in Table 29-9. These analyses were conducted
by EPA in the summer of 1980 on samples collected from some of the
most concentrated and relatively unweathered metal-laden mine wastes along
the stream bank of the Sulphur Site.
Table 29-8. pH and Metals Content in Soil at Sulphur Site (mg/kg - dry weight basis).
Area and Date*
Sulphur West
11-76
6-77
3-78
6-78
3-79
2-80
2H
4.1
3.1
5.1
5.9
4.5
4.9
Cu
50
62
0.1
1.0
3.2
0.2
Fe
30
34
7.8
24
7.6
0.4
Mn
74
17
6.8
3.6
6.4
2.6
Zn
262
82
6.6
1.5
28
3.4
Sulphur East
11-76
3-78
3-79
2-80
5.5
7.3
5.9
5.2
8.6
0.3
0.3
0.2
4.2
6.2
3.6
0.8
31
0.5
1.9
1.7
18.8
0.1
1.2
3.4
*Each analysis is for one composite sample collection.
Table 29-9. Analysis of Mine Wastes at Sulphur Site (mg/g).
AlCuFe Mfc Mn Mo £ Pb j^t Zn
27.7 6.6 238.7 26.0 0.3 0.08 1.4 5.2 2.4 2.4
-------
Hinkle 429
Seeding and Vegetation
The most successful planting has been Ky-31 fescue grass. This cool weather
grass tends to go dormant during the hot dry months, but usually revives
quite readily when rain comes and when irrigated. Weeping lovegrass has
been the second most successful and has demonstrated a high tolerance for
drought in this harsh environment. It has proven most invaluable in surviving
through dry periods and reducing erosion when no other vegetation
germinated and has been used in the seed formula since 1977. Both Korean
and Serecia lespedeza have been included in the seeding, but neither of these
legumes has shown appreciable success and they have never matured enough
during any growing season to achieve reseeding. Various nurse crops including
wheat, rye and oats have been sown along with each seeding and have
significantly aided in promoting vegetative growth. Typical seeding rates are
shown in Table 29-10.
In the fall of 1978 samples of vegetation from established and new
growth were collected and analyzed for metals uptake by a private firm
contracted by EPA. The results from selected areas of the project site are
shown in Table 29-11. As can be seen, most metals tended to be higher
in the reclaimed areas than from the control sample, but there seemed to
be no pronounced pattern between areas of established and new growth.
In the spring of 1977 the Glatfelter Pulpwood Company, owner of
the Sulphur Site, planted loblolly pine seedlings over the entire Sulphur Site,
but virtually none survived the dry summer that followed. The same was
true for a planting of Virginia pine seedlings at the Boyd Smith Site which
was part of the SWCB reclamation. No blanket planting of trees has been
tried since 1977. However, the Glatfelter Pulpwood Company has continued
to plant experimental plots at the Sulphur Site, but with little success.
In 1978 numerous varieties of weeds including foxtail, fall panicum,
and smartweed began to invade some of the less toxic areas reclaimed, and
at least two species of trees began to appear in significant numbers during
1979. The most abundant species is a variety of poplar that attained heights
of 0.6 m the first year. By the late summer of 1980 about 90 percent
Table 29-10. Typical Seeding Formula Used at Contrary Creek.
Species Kg/ha*
Tall Fescue 67.3
(Ky-31)
Weeping Lovegrass 2,2
Korean Lespedeza 11.2
TcTconvert Kg/ha to Ibs/ac raultiplyT>y 0.892
-------
430 Vegetation Establishment
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-------
Hinkle 431
of the reclaimed areas supported a fair to good growth of vegetation. All
of the Boyd Smith Site and over half of the Sulphur Site appeared on the
way to reverting back to the natural wildlife habitat of the surrounding
environs, but the sparsely covered stream banks and thin soil cover of the
Sulphur Site remained highly vulnerable to drought. Irrigation had to be
resumed in the summer of 1980 when hot, dry weather again threatened
the project. The early difficulties in establishing vegetation necessitated
extending the original three-year project period, 1975-78, to 1980. Due to
the continued need for maintenance and repair work, the SWCB has now
requested another two-year extension from EPA. However, the level of
maintenance work required is continually decreasing. Average cost of
reclamation including all maintenance work to date has been approximately
115,000 per ha.
Effects of Sludge on Environment and Public Reaction
No health hazards or adverse effects on the environment are known to have
resulted from the use of large volumes of sludge in this project. As part
of a comprehensive water monitoring program still in progress to assess the
overall results of the project, fecal coliform and BOD analyses were
conducted on water samples collected semi-monthly, and nutrients were
analyzed annually. No significant effects of the sludge have been detected
in the water studies. The remoteness of the project from populated areas
had undoubtedly minimized the potential for nuisance and odor complaints
and no major odor problem ever occurred. No public opposition to the use
of sludge in this project was voiced despite the fact that environmental groups
have been very active in the county. The project has been well publicized
in area newspapers, and a public meeting setting forth details of the proposed
reclamation was held in the county before the project began.
Conclusions
While there has been insignificant achievement in the principal objective of
this project, the abatement of AMD in Contrary Creek and Lake Anna,
considerable progress has been made in revegetating the formerly denuded
mine sites and erosion has been reduced substantially. There is little doubt
that not a fraction of the vegetative growth would have been realized without
the use of sludge. The utilization of municipal sludge is very beneficial in
the reclamation of areas severely devastated by mine wastes, but restoration
to the natural environment is by no means a short-term process. In a project
of this type, regular maintenance will be required for at least five years
because of the difficulty in creating a soil layer of sufficient thickness to
-------
432 Vegetation Establishment
maintain vegetative cover and withstand drought.
The continued lack of significant improvement in water quality can
be attributed to seepage from the stream banks, runoff from barren banks
during heavy rainstorms after soluble sulfate minerals have formed during
a dry period, and toxic mine wastes remaining in the stream bed. It will
take some time for the reduced infiltration and chemical changes caused
by addition of sludge and lime to reduce the AMD emanating into the stream.
Literature Cited
1. Dagenhart, T. V. The Acid Mine Drainage of Contrary Creek, Louisa County,
Virginia: Factors Causing Variations in Stream Water Chemistry. M.S. Thesis,
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, 1980.
2. Hill, R. D., K. R. Hinkle, R. S. Klingensmith. Reclamation of Orphan Mined Lands
with Municipal Sludges - Case Studies. In: Utilization of Municipal Sewage Effluent
and Sludge on Forest and Disturbed Land, W. E. Sopper and S. N. Kerr, eds.
The Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, Pennsylvania, 1979.
3. Mionn, A. F., R. S. Klingensmith and J. R. Saliunas. Contrary Creek Feasibility
Study. Gannett Flemming Corddry and Carpenter, Inc., Harrisburg, Pennsylvania,
1974.
-------
30
VEGETATION ESTABLISHMENT ON ACIDIC MINE SPOILS
AS INFLUENCED BY SLUDGE APPLICATION
Faz Haghiri and Paul Sutton
Greenhouse and field experiments were conducted to determine the optimum
rate of sewage sludge amendment for vegetation establishment on acidic mine
spoil and to determine the effect of sludge on the quality of leachate and
metal content of the established vegetation. Another field experiment has
been initiated to evaluate the use of composted papermill sludge as a
substitute for topsoil in establishing vegetation on acidic mine spoil.
The optimum rates of single application of sewage sludges for
establishment of vegetation on acidic mine spoil under greenhouse conditions
were determined. Based on the greenhouse results, field plots (lysimeters)
containing mine spoil were treated with two sludges at different rates ranging
from 179 to 716 metric tons/ha. Application of sludge markedly increased
the pH of the spoil and dry weight of plants grown. As the rate of sludge
amendment was increased both pH and dry matter yield increased. Sludge
type and rate of application significantly influenced the concentrations of
several heavy metals in Kentucky 31 tall fescue. Nitrate - N concentration
in the leachate increased with increasing rate of application and decreasee
significantly with time after application of the amendment. Irrespective of
loading rate, NO-j-N concentration in the leachate peaked during the late
winter and early spring.
Based on a greenhouse experiment, composted papermill sludge (67,
90 and 112 metric tons/ha) was applied to field plots of acidic mine spoil.
The sludge significantly increased the pH of the spoil but there were only
small increases in pH as the rate of sludge application was increased.
Persistence and growth of vegetation with and without additional applications
of plant nutrients (nutrient maintenance) will be evaluated.
Introduction
In the eastern United States there are over 400,000 hectares of land, which
have been disturbed by surface mining for coal, that is too acid to support
vegetation. These unreclaimed areas can contribute to aquifer and stream
pollution with acid mine drainage, and result in damage to roads, water
reservoirs, bottom lands and stream channels by sediment erosion and
subsequent silting.
Earlier stripmining removed the overburden and disposed of it without
regard to its chemical and physical properties. In many cases this resulted
in materials, that were not suitable for plant growth (Bennett et al. 1976,
-------
434 Vegetation Establishment
and Tyner and Smith, 1945), being placed on the surface of spoilbanks.
In stripmine areas in the Appalachian Region many of the failures to establish
vegetation were associated with high acidity caused by the exposure of pyritic
materials during mining.
Vegetation can be established on acid mine spoils by applying soil
amendments such as municipal waste or by covering the spoil with topsoil
(Lejcher and Kunkle, 1973; Peterson and Gschwind, 1973; Sopper and
Kardos, 1972; Sutton and Vimmerstedt, 1973). In many areas surrounding
unreclaimed mined lands the topsoil is very thin or nonexistent. Also, when
topsoil is removed one area is disturbed in order to reclaim another.
Although municipal wastes contain all nutrient elements required for
plant growth, they also contain, depending on the source, other elements
such as Cd, Ni, Cr, Hg, Se, As, etc., which may be considered as contaminants
in the food chain (Melsted, 1973). A major concern with regard to the
application of sewage sludge and sewage effluent on stripmine spoil is the
availability of heavy metals to plants. Another concern is the effect the
heavy metals will have on the quality of subsurface waters.
Materials and Methods
Sewage Sludge
Greenhouse Experiment. Greenhouse experiments were conducted to
determine the optimum rate of digested sewage sludge amendment for
vegetation establishment on acidic mine spoil. Vacuum filtered sewage sludges
were obtained from four different cities in Ohio (Newark, Bellaire, Cleveland,
and Canton) and their chemical composition and moisture contents were
determined (Table 30-1). The sludges were incorporated into the top 15
cm layer of acidic spoil (pH 2,9) in 7-liter capacity pots with drainage holes.
The application rates ranged from 11 to 358 metric tons per hectare, in
geometric progression, for Cleveland, Newark, and Canton sludges, while
Bellaire sludge was applied at 90, 358, and 716 dry metric tons per hectare.
After the incorporation of sludges, samples from the sludge-spoil mixtures
were obtained for pH determinations. The sludge-spoil mixtures were seeded
Table 30-1. Chemical Composition of Digested Sewage Sludges (Dry Basis) Used
in Greenhouse Investigation.
Source
(City)
Newark
Bellaire
Cleveland
Canton
pH
12.1
6.2
8.5
7.5
Ni
121
137
700
700
Cu
194
358
1015
1003
In
3150
10790
5650
5275
Cd
22
92
475
81
Mn
253
618
955
534
A.1
1.42
1.70
0.71
1.03
Solid
25.
20.
19.
51.
Hi
6
.0
.6
.5
P
0.1
1.3
2.5
4.0
Total
N
1.20
1.14
2.27
1.15
-------
Haghiri and Sutton 435
to Kentucky 31 tall fescue.
Tall fescue did not grow under the Cleveland and Canton sludge
treatments while plants responded well to Newark (45-358 metric
tons/hectare) and Bellaire (358-716 metric tons/hectare) sludge amendments.
Because the selection of the optimum rate of sludges for field application
was based on the plant response and chemical composition of the test crop
to sludge loading rates under greenhouse conditions, the sludge loading rates
of 179 and 358 metric tons per hectare for Newark and 358 and 716 dry
metric tons per hectare for Bellaire were chosen.
Field Lysimeter Experiment. In order to evaluate the vegetation
establishment and growth on acidic mine spoil, and to determine the heavy
metal content of the established vegetation and the quality of leachate water
as affected by sewage sludge application under field conditions, fourteen
precast tanks (120 cm X 240 cm X 97 cm) coated with "Thoroseal" were
placed on 2 percent sloped platforms on a spoilbank at the experimental
site on the Eastern Ohio Resource Development Center (Fig. 30-1).
At the lower end of each plot (tank) a leachate-sampling facility was
installed. In September of 1976, the field plots (tanks) were filled with acidic
mine spoil from the number 9 coal seam (Meigs Creek). The spoil materials
were allowed to settle. Newark sludge at 179 and 358 dry metric tons per
hectare and Bellaire sludge at the rates of 358 and 716 tons per hectare
were surface applied. The experimental treatments consisted of two rates
of sewage sludge, two types of sludges with three replications plus two
untreated plots (tanks) to serve as controls. After 1 month the applied sludges
were incorporated into the top 15 cm layer with a rototiller and the plots
were seeded to Kentucky 31 tall fescue. However, the seeds failed to
germinate because of severe cold weather that fall. During April 1977, the
plots were lightly raked and reseeded with fescue.
Leachates from each plot were collected in a 113-liter (30 gal.) fiber
glass container located in a 10.5 m X 3 m X 2.1 m cellar. After each leachate
event the total volume of percolates from each plot was determined. A
representative leachate sample (1 liter) was obtained from each container
and frozen for analysis of Mg, Al, Fe, Mn, Ni, Cu, Cd, Zn by atomic
absorption and ICP methods; of P and SO^ (Standard Methods for
Examination of Water and Wastewater, 1975); of total N and NF^-N
(Bremner, 1975); of total acidity and soluble salts (Brown, 1970); and of
pH by glass and reference electrodes on a pH meter.
To determine the percent organic carbon decomposition, immediately
after the application of sewage sludge and annually from then on, core
samples 0-15 cm in depth were obtained and total organic carbon determined
by the Walkley and Black Procedure.
Plant materials were harvested twice yearly, dried, weighed, ground and
digested with HC1O4 and HNC>3 for metal analyses.
-------
436 Vegetation Establishment
tM «•
>
+J
1
T3
C
S
e
O
51
6
QJ
I
-------
Haghiri and Sutton 437
Composted Papermill Sludge
Based on a greenhouse experiment, loading rates of 67, 90 and 112 t/ha
of dry composted papermill sludge were selected for a tield experiment on
acidic spoil resulting from the stripmining of the number 9 coal seam. The
papermill sludge, consisting of 50% cellulose fiber and 50% Kaolin clay, was
mixed with ground bark (fine and coarse) on a one to one part (by volume)
basis. Nitrogen and phosphorus (?2Oc>) were added at the rate of 1 and
0.3 kg/cubic meter, respectively. The mixture was composted 21 days using
the aerated pile method at a temperature ranging from 55 to 75 C during
the last 19 days of composting. In the spring of 1979, the composted
papermill sludge with fine and coarse bark was applied in three replications
to plots 6.1 m X 18.3 m and incorporated to a depth of 15 cm with a
rototiller. Nitrogen, P and K were applied at the rates of 6.7, 20 and 112
kg/ha, respectively.
During June 1979, the plots were seeded to a mixture of alsike clover,
birdsfoot trefoil, ladino clover, orchardgrass and Kentucky 31 fescue. The
plots were mulched with 4.5 metric tons/ha of straw and topdressed with
an additional 34 kg/ha of N in July 1979.
Soil samples were obtained during October 1979 from the composted
papermill sludge spoil mixed zone. During July 1980, samples of the
vegetation were obtained for yield determination.
Results and Discussion
Sewage Sludge
Greenhouse experiment. The chemical composition of digested sewage
sludges, on dry basis, from four different cities in Ohio is shown in Table
30-1. The high concentration of toxic heavy metals in the Cleveland and
Canton sludges resulted in a failure of Kentucky 31 tall fescue to grow
where the acidic spoil materials were treated with these sludges. However,
tall fescue responded well to Newark sludge (45-358 metric tons/ha) and
Bellaire sludge (358-716 metric tons/ha) amendments. The application of
these sludges significantly increased the pH of the spoil. The pH of spoil
increased from 2.9 to 6.7 and 7.1 by adding 179 and 358 metric tons/ha
of Newark sludge, respectively, while the addition of Bellaire sludge at the
rates of 358 and 716 metric tons/ha raised the pH values of the spoil to
6.2 and 6.4, respectively.
The average dry weight of tall fescue grown in the greenhouse as
affected by an initial application of different rates and types of sludge over
a three-year period is shown in Table 30-2. The yield of tall fescue increased
with increasing rate of sludge for all years. However, with the exception
of the 716 tons/ha Bellaire sludge treatment, there was a significant yield
reduction for the third year as compared to the first year's harvest.
-------
438 Vegetation Establishment
Table 30-2. Dry Weight of Tall Fescue Grown in Sludge-Treated Acidic Mine Spoil
Under Greenhouse Conditions.
Newark Sludge (MT/ha)
Year
1976
1977
1978
44
2.74
1.53
1.14
90
5.40
2,70
2.21
179
6.77
3.62
2.80
358
g
8.70
6.28
4.31
Bellaire Sludge
(MT/ha)
358
5.34
3.01
2.35
716
6.47
5.19
8.17
The concentrations of different metals in the plants obtained from the
first and final cuttings of tall fescue which were grown in sludge-treated
spoil are shown in Table 30-3. In all samples the metal concentrations were
considerably lower for the final cutting (1978) as compared with the first
cutting (1976). These decreases in yield and metal concentration with time
occurred as the readily mineralized portion of the organic nitrogen and as
the heavy metals became depleted and the residual organic nitrogen and
heavy metals were stabilized or fixed in the humic fraction of the spoil-sludge
mixture.
Generally, the concentration of heavy metals in plant tissue decreased
with the increasing loading rates. This was partially due to the increase in
the pH of the sludge-acidic spoil mixture which in turn rendered the metals
less available to plants.
Field Lysimeter Experiment. Yield and chemical composition of tall fescue.
Tall fescue was well established for both sludges and the applied loading
rate treatments. The chemical composition of digested sludges used in the
field study is shown in Table 30-4. The dry matter yield harvested over
a three-year period (1977-79) from the 179, 358 and 716 metric tons/ha
rate of the sludge are shown in Table 30-5. For the Bellaire and Newark
sludges the yields from the higher loading rate treatments were significantly
higher than the lower rate treatments. Total N concentration of plant tissue
was significantly higher from the 716 than the 358 metric ton/ha Bellaire
sludge treatment, while for Newark sludge total N concentration in plant
tissue was significantly greater at the higher rate only for the first crop
year (Table 30-5).
At the 358 metric ton/ha rate, in general, dry matter yield and total
N concentration in plants from the Newark and Bellaire sludge treated
lysimeters were not significantly different even though total N (Table 30-4)
in Bellaire sludge (1.35%) was higher than in the Newark sludge (1.13%).
Yield decreases for the 1979 crop as compared to 1978 occurred as the
readily mineralized portion of the sewage sludge organic N became depleted
and the residual organic N was stabilized in the spoil humic fraction. The
decrease of available N with time is evident by noting the total N content
of tall fescue plant tissue from different sewage sludge treatments (Table
30-5).
-------
Haghiri and Sutton 439
Table 30-3. Concentrations of Metals in Tall Fescue Grown in Sludge-Treated Mine
Spoil in the Greenhouse from the 1st (1976) and Final (1978) Cutting Harvests.
Newark Sludge (MT/ha)
Year
1976
1978
1976
1978
1976
1978
1976
1978
1976
1978
44
1.57
0.44
10.02
4.13
54.77
4.19
353
182
154
48
90
1.37
0.31
12.37
3.41
16.78
1.97
316
80
88
32
179
Cd
1.48
0.17
Cu
12.66
3.99
Ni
11.23
1.30
Mn
324
30
Zn
88
28
358
1.33
0.18
13.03
5.84
*
2.08
*
31
111
35
Bellaire Sludge
(Mr/ha)
358
3.01
1.17
25.61
9.93
6.13
2.17
427
23
417
353
716
1.20
0.90
21.61
10.37
3.71
2.50
380
14
401
200
*Not determined
Table 30-4. Chemical Composition of Digested Sewage Sludge (Dry Basis) Used in Field
Investigation.
Total
Source Cu 2n Cd Mn Ni Pb Mg Na Ca Al P N
(Jg/g 7 ."..'. . . . . . %
Newark 250 2990 28 279 153 382 5730 952 11.4 1.37 0.92 1.13
Bellaire 341 16100 63 629 110 584 5120 709 7.6 1.77 1.53 1.35
TaWe 30-5. Dry Matter Yield and Total N Concentration of Tall Fescue as Affected
by Sludge Type, Loading Rate and Time.
Sludge Loading
Rate
WT/ha
179 (Newark
358 (Newark)
358 (Bellaire)
716 (Bellaire)
*LSD at 5* for sit
Dry Weight*
1977 1978 1979
320 499 418
728 1009 857
601 900 734
905 1029 861
tige treatment: 123 g
Total N**
1977 1978 1979
\ ........
1.51 1.67 0.94
1.88 1.41 1.00
2.J2 1.41 1.00
2.57 1.91 1.17
; for year: 137 g;
and for treatment x year: 256 g.
"LSD at 5% for sludge treatment: 0.09%; for year: 0.10%;
and for treatment x year: 0.19%.
-------
440 Vegetation Establishment
The statistical analyses of the concentrations of various elements in
plant tissue (Table 30-6) showed that for the Newark sludge the
concentrations of Mg, Cu, Ni, Mn, and Zn in plant tissues for the 1977
crop wera significantly higher at the 358 than the 179 metric ton/ha rate.
The higher rate of the Bellaire sludge (716 metric ton/ha) increased the
plant concentrations of Mg, Cu, Fe, Ni, and Zn. A comparison of the effect
of the two sludges at the same amended rate (358 metric ton/ha) on the
meta! concentration in plant tissue showed that for the 1977 crop year the
concentrations of Cu, Mn, Zn, and Cd were significantly higher while Mg
and Ai were lower from the Bellaire sludge. This would be expected since
the Bellaire sludge contained considerably higher amounts of metals, with
the exception of Al, than the Newark sludge (Table 30-4).
With few exceptions, the concentrations of all the metals analyzed in
the 1 979 plant samples were significantly lower than the 1977 tissue samples.
Analysis of the tall fescue indicated that the concentrations of elements
found in the sludge were not too high to have any adverse effect on plants.
The increases in the pH (Table 30-7) and percent organic matter (Table
30-8) 01 mine spoil by sewage sludge application aided the fixation or
immobilization of heavy metals.
Lccchate Mialyses. The volume of water that leached through the lysimeters
fro.Ti November 1976 to April 1979 was considerably higher from the control
than from any sludge-treated lysimeters. The higher leachate volume from
the ccnt.ul was due to the absence of vegetation. The volume of percolate
Trorri IV. lysimeters was affected inversely with the loading rate of sludge
amendment. The quantity of percolates from the control, Newark 179 and
358 metric ton/ha, and Bellaire 358 and 716 metric ton/ha were 636, 564,
520. 540, and 512 liters, respectively. Leachate volume and NO^-N
concentr,i:ion of the leachates from various leaching events throughout the
Table 30-6. Concentration of Different Metals in Tall Fescue Samples (1st and 3rd-Year
Crops) from Sludge-Treated Mine Spoil.
Sludge
Treatment
MT/ha
Mg
1.
P
Metal Concentration
Al Cu Fe Ni Mn
l^i* (Newark)
'58
3? 8
716
LSD™
1977
1979
(Newark)
1977
1979
(Bellaire)
1977
1979
(Bellaire)
1977
1979
(5%)
Treatment
Ye
ar:
0
0.
0.
0,
0.
0
0
0
0
0
41
.17
,51
17
.28
.13
37
.09
.02
.02
0.37
0.40
0.36
0.18
0.36
0.16
0.25
0.06
0.04
0.05
173
73
197
120
157
102
190
195
33
37
10.5
2.2
14.7
2.1
16.8
3.4
18.7
3.8
1.3
0.8
156
109
157
182
193
142
291
281
35
39
8/8
5.9
0.6
3.8
0.8
4.5
1.9
5 5
1.7
0.9
1.1
61
32
20
29
199
40
204
44
9
10
Zn
61
18
83
21
420
215
537
230
47
53
Cd
pg/kg
218
173
198
172
966
751
785
626
103
115
-------
Haghiri and Sutton 441
Table 30-7. Mine Spoil pH Over a Three-Year Period at 0-15 cm Depth as Affected
by Sludge Amendment.
Amendment
Sludge Loading
Rate
MT/ha
179 (Newark)
358 (Newark)
358 (Bellaire)
716 (Bellaire)
Control
1976
5.8
7.0
6.4
6.8
2.6
Yeai
1977
pH
6.4
7.4
6.7
6.8
3.3
1978
6.4
6.3
5.9
5.5
3.3
1979
6.2
6.9
6.3
6.3
3.4
LSD at 5$ for sludge treatment: 0.6; for year:
0.1; and for treatment x year: 0.2.
Table 30-8. Organic Carbon Content of Mine Spoil at Different Depths at the Conclusion
of Study as Affected by Sludge Amendment.
Sludge Loading
Rate
MT/ha
179 (Newark)
358 (Newark)
358 (Bellaire)
716 (Bellaire)
Control
Depth (cm)
0-15
6.10
7.39
8.26
11.94
4.00
15-30
4.81
5.13
5.24
5.99
4.04
30-45
%
4.87
5.24
4.48
5.16
4.74
45-60
•*
4.81
5.01
4.84
4.71
5.01
60-80
4.54
5.00
4.87
5.44
4.60
control Q . uu t. ua n. 11 ^. vi t. pu
LSD at 5% for sludge treatment: 0.64%; and for depth: 0.44%
study period (November 1976-April 1979) at the highest rate of the two
sludges (Newark 358 and Bellaire 716 metric ton/ha) and the control are
shown in Fig. 30-2. Generally the peak concentration of NOj-N in the
leachate samples during the sampling period occurred during the late winter
and early spring. These peaks correspond to those periods when plants are
largely dormant, and subsequently, reduced evapotranspiration increased
leachate volume.
The concentration of NC^-N in the percolate from sludge treated mine
spoil was influenced by the rate of sludge amendment and the length of
time after application. As expected, NC^-N increased with increasing rate
of incorporated sludge and decreased with time after the amendment. The
monthly average concentration of NO^-N in the leachate from lysimeters
treated with 358 metric ton/ha of Newark sludge was significantly higher
than from those lysimeters which received the same rate of Bellaire sludge.
The maximum concentration (monthly average) of NO^-N in the leachates
for all treatments was found during the early spring of 1977 and the peak
values were 17.0, 12.2, 3.5, and 1.5 mg/liter for the Newark 358, Bellaire
716, Bellaire 358, control, and Newark 179 level treatments, respectively.
As far as NH3-N was concerned, the concentration of this form of N in
the leachate was not affected by sludge treatment or time after application.
Although the pH of the leachate during the 2.5 year period increased
slightly with time for all the treatments, the magnitude of change was not
-------
442 Vegetation Establishment
340
300
220
ISO
140
100
60
20
358 MT/ho Ntwurk
.——716 MT/ho Blllolr* Sludgt
•* Control
I I I I I f I I I I I I
I I i
N D,F A
76 77
J A 0 D,F A J
77 78
MONTH
A 0 D! F A
7879
ISO |-
_ ISO
I ISO
X.
r too
ao
6D
4jO
2.0
J OF
76 77
A J A 0
D,F A
77 78
VONTH
J A
0 O.F ,
78 79
Figure 30-2. Quantity and NC^-N Concentration of Leachate from Field Lysimeters
Containing Acidic Mine Spoil Treated with Sewage Sludge.
large enough to be significant. The average pH values ranged from 2.7 (in
1976) to 3.2 (in 1979} for the 716 mt/ha Bellaire treatment while the average
pH of the leachate samples from the control was approximately 3.0. The
total acidity concentration of leachates was not influenced by sewage sludge
rates. However, the concentration of acidity decreased appreciably with time
as more water percolated through the spoil profile. For example, the Bellaire
sludge at the 716 metric ton/ha treatment, the total acidity concentration
-------
Haghiri and Sutton 443
decreased from 5997 to 564 (mg/liter as CaCOj). The concentration
in the leachates to a large extent followed the same pattern as the total
acidity. The sulfate ion concentration decreased from 18069 to 1494 mg/liter
for the Bellaire 716 metric ton/ha treatment.
The concentration of Al in the leachate was affected significantly by
sludge application. The maximum concentration was found in the leachate
sample obtained from the 716 metric ton/ha of Bellaire sludge (1876
mg/liter) in 1976 but this value decreased significantly with time, to a
concentration of 64 mg/liter in the spring of 1979. At a comparable level
of sludge amendment, the average concentration of Al in the leachate was
significantly higher from the 358 metric ton/ha Bellaire than from the
Newark sludge. The concentration of Cu, Ni, Fe, and Mn in the percolate
was not significantly influenced by the sludge treatments. However, there
was a significant decrease in the concentration of these elements in the
leachate with time. The maximum concentrations of Cu (7.3 mg/1), Fe (1257
mg/1), Mn (39 mg/1), and Ni (13.8 mg/1) in the leachate were found at the
716 metric ton/ha Bellaire sludge in 1976 but the concentrations of these
metals were reduced in 1979 to 0.4, 9.0, 1.9, and 0.3 mg/1 for Cu, Fe,
Mn, and Ni, respectively. Zinc concentration (20.2 mg/1) was measured in
leachate from the 716 metric ton/ha Bellaire treatment shortly after the
application. Approximately two years later Zn concentration declined to 8.3
mg/1. At the 358 metric ton/ha, significantly more Zn was measured through
the 2.5 year period from the Bellaire than Newark sludge. This is to be
expected since Bellaire sludge contained five times as much Zn as the Newark
sludge. Although Cd concentration was influenced by sludge treatments, the
concentration levels of this metal in the leachates through the collection
period were so low (<0.1 pig/1) that they could be considered negligible.
Since P concentration of the majority of leachate samples was below the
detection limit, P concentration in the leachate water from sludge treated
mine spoil could be considered negligible.
Composted Papermill Sludge
The chemical composition of the composted sludge (papermill sludge + fine
bark) and the raw papermill sludge is shown in Table 30-9. Figure 30-3
shows the effect of raw papermill sludge amendments at varying loading
rates on the pH of acidic mine spoil under the laboratory conditions. The
pH of the mine spoil increased from 2.8 to 5.8 by the amendment of 112
mt/ha of composted sludge. Higher rates of application of composted sludge
did not influence the pH of the mine spoil. At the comparable loading rate
(112 mt/ha) the application of raw sludge increased the pH of the spoil
from 2.8 to 4.5. Figure 30-3 shows that in order to increase the pH of
the acidic spoil (from 2.8 to 5.8), it required only half as much composted
papermill sludge (112 mt/ha) as that for the raw sludge (224 mt/ha).
The effects of varying loading rates of composted papermill sludge on
-------
444 Vegetation Establishment
Table 30-9. Chemical Composition of Raw and Composted Sludge (Dry Basis).
Composted
(Sludge 5 Bark)
Raw Sludge
Composted
(Sludge 6 Bark)
Raw Sludge
N
.003
.008
Cd
17
25
P
.0063
.0125
Cu
18
36
K
0.1S
.004
Mn
729
537
Ca
. %
8.5
14.4
Nl
14
22
Mg
0.31
0.57
Pb
33
47
Al
0.63
1.22
In
685
319
Fe
0.33
0.67
B
34
33
"t
5
2
3
o.
in
«
I
+
s.
00
5.
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Composted
/-*""'X""IUJ
/ *'
/ /' Row Sludge
— / *
//
/''
1 1 1 1 1
O 5 10 20
112 224 448
1 1 i
30 40 % Sludge
673 897 T/ha
Figure 30-3. pH of Mine Spoil as Affected by Raw and Composted Papermill Sludge
Amendments.
Table 30-10. Dry Matter Yield and pH of Acidic Mine Spoil as Influenced by Rates
of Composted Papermill Sludges.
Comp Sludge Rate
(dry ton/ha)
pH
Yield
(kg/ha)
Composted with fine bark
67
90
112
Composted with
67
90
112
Control
Topsoil (20 cm) +
lime (18 T/ha)
LSD 05
4.6 2987
5.3 1906
5.7 2554
coarse bark
2669
2269
2754
5.2
5.1
5.2
3.4
7.2
3048
1221
-------
Haghiri and Sutton 445
the pH of acidic mine spoil and the dry matter yield of vegetation grown
under field conditions are shown in Table 30-10. Although composted sludge
amendment significantly increased the pH of mine spoil as compared to the
control, there were no significant differences in the pH values with increasing
rates of sludge application. The dry matter yield data shows that there were
no significant differences among the treatments which indicate that for
vegetation establishment on acidic mine spoils the application of composted
papermill sludge was just as effective as topsoiling the mine spoil with a
20 cm layer of limed soil.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. The sewage sludge portion of the research was
sponsored by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research
and Development and the Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry. The Mead
Paper Group supplied the composted papermill sludge and partially supported
that portion of the research. This paper has been approved for publication
as Journal Article No. 152-80 of the Ohio Agricultural Research and
Development Center, Wooster, Ohio 44691.
Literature Cited
Bennett, O. L., W. H. Armiger, and J. N. Jones, Jr. 1976. Revegetation and use of
eastern surface mine spoils. Land Application of Waste Materials. Ankenv, Iov,-i-
Soil Cons. Soc. Am., pp. 195-215.
Bremner, J. M. 1965. Total nitrogen. Methods of soil analysis, Part 2. C. A. BUrk
cd. Madison, Wis: Am. Soc. of Agron., pp. 1149-1178.
Bremner, J. M. 1965. Inorganic forms of nitrogen. Methods of soil analysis, Pirt 2,
C. A. Black, ed. Madison, Wis. Am. Soc. of Agron., pp. 1191-1206
Lejcher, T. R., and S. R. Kunkle. 1973. Restoration of acid spoil banks with tteated
sewage sludge. Recycling treated municipal wastewater and sludge through f >rest
and cropland. W. E. Sopper and L. T. Kardos, eds. University Park, Pa The
Pennsylvania State Univ. Press, pp. 184-199.
Melsted, S. W. 1973. Soil-plant relationships (some practical considerations in waste
management). Proc. of the Joint Conference on Recycling Municipal Sludge-, and
Effluent on Land. Washington, D.C.: National Assoc. of State Universities and
Land Grant Colleges, pp. 121-128.
Peterson, J. R., and J. Gschwind. 1973. Amelioration of coal mine spoils with digested
sewage sludge. Mined Land Reclamation Symposium. Monroeville, PJ,: Bitum".ii,"
Coal Research Inc.
Sopper, W. E., and L. T. Kardos. 1972. Municipal wastewater aids rcvegctatio'> :'
strip-mined spoil banks. J. For. pp. 612-615.
Sutton, P., and J. P. Vimmerstedt. 1973. Treat stripmine spoils with sewage sludge.
Ohio Report 58:121-123. Ohio Agric. Res. and Develop. Center, Wooster. •-">h'c:
-------
446 Vegetation Establishment
Tyner, E. H., and R. M. Smith. 1945. The reclamation of the stripmined coal lands
of West Virginia with forage species. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 10:4-49-436.
-------
IX / ENGINEERING ASSESSMENT
OVERVIEW
Robert K. Bastian
Utilizing municipal wastewater and sludge in land reclamation and biomass
production projects has been clearly demonstrated to be an effective means
of treating and beneficially recycling these materials. Systems studied to date
have included the use of municipal wastewater or sludge in reclaiming,
stabilizing and revegetating such areas as surface mine spoils, mine tailings,
borrow pits, quarries, cleared forests, dredged spoils, fly ash and construction
sites. However, there has been considerably more experience in the use of
sewage sludge than wastewater for such projects.
In conjunction with this symposium, an effort was undertaken to define
the current status of using municipal wastewater and sludge in land
reclamation and biomass production, and to determine if these practices are
ready for routine use in municipal wastewater and sludge management. If
they are not ready for such use the assessment was to recommend procedures
such as further research, demonstrations, or construction of full scale
"innovative and alternative" systems at selected locations.
A team of three internationally recognized engineers was retained to
help conduct the engineering assessment. They represent a broad range of
expertise and include both practicing consultants and a university professor.
All were experienced in both research and design of land application systems.
The team included: Mr. L. Gene Suhr, CH2M - Hill; Dr. H. G. Schwartz,
Sverdrup & Parcel and Assoc., Inc.; Dr. William J. Jewell, Cornell University.
The overall engineering assessment involved individual efforts by the
team members to evaluate the current status of utilizing municipal
wastewater and sludge in land reclamation and biomass production activities
in various areas. Team members met with the research scientists, operating
system personnel and others who presented papers on the results of various
projects and relative concepts at this symposium. Each member of the
engineering assessment team then prepared his own assessment report based
upon the symposium presentations and discussions, supplemented by
information made available from other sources.
-------
31
USE AND TREATMENT OF MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER
AND SLUDGE IN LAND RECLAMATION AND
BIOMASS PRODUCTION PROJECTS-AN ENGINEERING
ASSESSMENT
William J. Jewell
Introduction
Continued desire for improved environmental quality while energy demands
increase and urban development consumes valuable farmland is a major
concern of modern society. Historically, municipal wastes were considered
plant nutrients on loan to consumers, and after use they were returned to
the farmer for production of more food. Today there are extensive efforts
ongoing to control municipal wastes by using them for reclamation of poor
quality or spoiled land and for the production of food and biomass. This
overview was prepared to estimate the technical and economic feasibility
of using municipal wastewater and sludges for land reclamation and biomass
production.
Drastically disturbed land results from surface mining, highway
construction, and dredging of rivers and harbors. Surface mining has
disturbed 1.76 x 106 ha (6,700 miles2) in the U.S., with half of this caused
by coal mining (Schaller and Sutton, 1978). Each year an additional 40,470
ha are disturbed by coal mining, and much of this will occur in the populated
eastern half of the U.S. If this land could be reclaimed with the concomitant
purification of waste materials, two serious problems would be eliminated.
Comparison of the sludge application rates used in land reclamation show
that all of the U.S. sludge production could result in recovery of all the
disturbed land resulting from strip mining of coal. The potential of using
wasted resources in wastewaters and sludges to accomplish land reclamation
offers substantial benefits.
The goal of this assessment is to determine the capability of this
technology to adequately treat municipal wastewater or sludge as
innovative/alternative wastewater treatment and sludge management
technologies while utilizing these materials for land reclamation and biomass
production purposes. Specific objectives are to:
1. summarize applicable engineering criteria and special factors or
conditions applicable (physical characteristics, pollutant removals,
system by-products, loading rates, monitoring and other
engineering conditions); and
2. outline future research needs.
Since valuable components of wastes as well as the potential problems are
-------
Jewell 449
contained in the sludge resulting from wastewater treatment, this will be
the main focus of the study. Wastewaters will be considered only briefly.
Background and Literature Survey
Regulatory Considerations
Pollution control regulations have increasingly focused on beneficial use of
wastes since passage of the Water Quality Act Amendments of 1972
(PL92-500), and this has implied increased use of land application of
wastewaters and sludges. Relatively little progress was made in adopting land
application since most of the technology was poorly defined; and incentives
to consider recycling programs were, in large part, nonexistent. In 1978,
this deficiency was recognized and incentives were added for the
consideration of innovative and/or alternative waste treatment systems that
were cost- and energy-effective. Today there is a significant increase in new
approaches to waste treatment that include land application. A brief
summary of the Federal regulations as they apply to sludge management
will be given prior to consideration of land reclamation.
Extensive regulatory and legislative activity has focused on land
application of sludge (National Archives of the United States 1979, U.S.
Congress 1977, USEPA 1980a; 1980b, Plehn and Dietrich 1980, New York
DEC 1980). Because of numerous regulatory activities for sludge application
to land, recent attempts have been made to develop a more coordinated
regulation (USEPA, USFDA, and USDA 1981).
After many years of discussions among the federal agencies with
overlapping authorities relating to sewage sludge management (USEPA,
USFDA, and USDA, 1981), it is highly significant that they now state that
". . . the federal agencies believe that the use of high quality sludges, coupled
with proper management procedures, should safeguard the consumer from
contaminated crops and minimize any potential adverse effect on the
environment." Coordinated regulatory action has made efforts to define the
conditions under which sewage sludge can be incorporated into productive
agriculture (USEPA 1980b), whereby risks are minimized and continuing
production of high quality food is assured. The federal policy based on the
requirements of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act and the Clean
Water Act, ". . . sets forth the use of high quality sludges and proper
management practices that growers, processors and consumers can be assured
that the current high standards of food quality in this nation will not be
compromised (USEPA 1980b)." Areas that have received attention include
a definition of "high quality" sludge, maximum soil contaminant levels,
pathogen reduction, physical contamination, and soil monitoring.
One noteworthy development is the definition of a "high quality
sludge," which will become known as a "good sludge." It is a sludge that
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450 Engineering Assessment
contains no more than the following concentrations of contaminants, on
a dry weight basis (mg/kg):
Cadmium - 25
Lead - 1000
PCS - 10
Gradual phase-in of federal regulations will limit the annual application rate
of good sludges to achieve less than 0.5 kg cadmium per ha-year. Total
cumulative lifetime loadings shall not exceed between 5 and 20 kg cadmium
per ha, depending on the soil pH and cation exchange capacity. Cumulative
lead application should not exceed 800 kg per ha.
The above limitations are not considered to be highly restrictive for
"good sludges" since application at a rate equal to nitrogen or phosphorus
fertilizer needs will not cause a metal accumulation problem (Lo et al. 1980,
Naylor and Loehr 1981). For example, a typical sludge would supply crop
phosphorus and nitrogen requirements at application rates of 1 and 4 dry
tons per acre, respectively. At the nitrogen application rate the cumulative
metal loading restriction for cadmium and lead would occur after annual
applications for 125 years and 500 years, respectively.
Federal regulations for non-food chain landspreading have not been
developed for the control of substances at concentrations above those defined
earlier for a "good sludge." One option for use of heavily contaminated
cadmium sludges allows unlimited sludge application provided that: (1) the
crops grown are limited to animal feed; (2) pH is controlled, (3) a facility
operating plan prevents human ingestion of crops, and (4) future owners
of the land are provided notice that food chain crops should not be grown.
This latter requirement raises questions about the value of the land if such
a restriction remains in a deed.
Of course, the preceding limitations with food chain relations have
limited applications to land reclamation. There are several important
implications, if a "bad" sludge is used for non-food chain purposes, such
as land reclamation, the regulations suggest that the land would have to
be sold for non-food chain uses in all cases.
The possible use of wastes to reclaim strip-mine lands is attractive. The
Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act was signed on August 3, 1977,
after a long battle in Congress to enact Federal legislation regulating surface
coal mining (Harvey, 1978). The general goal of the performance standards
in the Reclamation Act is to develop a permanent vegetative cover of the
same seasonal variety native to the area of land to be affected. The vegetation
must be capable of self-regeneration and plant succession at least equal in
extent of cover to the natural vegetation of the area.
According to Maneval (1980), the OSM is not highly supportive of
sludge use for land reclamation, especially as part of the abandoned mine
land reclamation projects. Since most lands are privately owned, there is
no guarantee that after reclamation they could be restricted from use in
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Jewell 451
food chain application that USEPA would require, if a "bad sludge" were
used. The OSM would have ". . . no objection to the use of the 'unrestricted
sludges' or sludge derived products in either active or abandoned mine
reclamation projects." However, successful revegetation efforts most often
include application of topsoil, use of soil amendments, lime and mulch.
Finally, restricted or contaminated sludges are not recommended by OSM
for use in active or abandoned coal mines due to the potential of
solubilization of heavy metals or toxic organic materials. This appears to
be a highly conservative position and may not be warranted according to
the data relating to pollutant movement in soils, as will be discussed in
later sections.
Recent studies have examined the legal, institutional, technical and
economic constraints to transporting and reclaiming land with sewage sludge
(Deese, et al., 1980, Nye et al., 1980). These two studies outline methods
of responding to public concerns with full scale demonstrations and other
public information programs.
Land Application of Wastewater and Sludges
A comprehensive review of the recent papers on beneficial uses of municipal
wastewaters and sludges indicates a rapid increase in activity. The number
of papers published in each area for the past four years is summarized in
Table 31-1. The majority of these 289 papers report favorable influences
of wastewater and sludges on agricultural systems.
A large amount of information on sludge application to land can be
gained from the decades of European experience (Water Research Center,
United Kingdom, 1979). Since the mid-1930s, sludge disposal on farms has
been practiced in many facilities surrounding London. The general impression
that one receives from the farmer is stated as, ". . . reaction of user has
been consistently favorable-even enthusiastic--for over 40 years." Many of
these European studies are somewhat different than the question of
reclamation, since sludge is often used in active agriculture on the better
soils.
Table 31-1. Summary of Number of Publications on Land Application of Wastewaters
and Sewage Sludges from 1976 to 1979.
Year
1976
1977
1978
1979
Tota 1 s
Wastewater
to
7
18
40
75
Number of Articles
Sludges
16
1 5
47
136
214
Total
26
22
176
289
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452 Engineering Assessment
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-------
454 Engineering Assessment
Land Reclamation with Municipal Wastes. The 1980 Pittsburgh symposium
reported in these proceedings summarized the state of the art of the
feasibility of municipal wastes use for reclamation of land. Table 31-2
summarizes the type of land reclaimed and the amount of waste used as
reported at this meeting. Out of all the studies listed in Table 31-2, only
one did not result in rapid and successful vegetation of strip mine lands
(Hinkle, 1980). In this study, a severe drought prevented vegetation from
growing. After irrigation for several years, this site was also successfully
reclaimed.
After having a large program rejected by public opposition in 1977,
Sopper and Kerr (1980a) and 1980b) developed several four-ha
demonstration projects in Pennsylvania. An example of the metal loading
rates applied as compared to the Federal and State recommendations are
shown in Table 31-3. All sites were rapidly and successfully reclaimed with
healthy vegetation.
Sopper and Kerr concluded that the demonstration sites reclaimed with
treated sewage sludge ". . . indicate that stabilized municipal sludges, if
applied properly, can be used to revegetate mined lands in an environmentally
safe manner with no adverse effects on the vegetation, soil or groundwater
quality." Unfortunately, it is possible that the potential impact of the sludge
on the groundwater may not have occurred within the period of the study.
A general review of the data in literature show several noteworthy
trends:
1. Even the most drastically disturbed land can be successfully
reclaimed using sewage sludge with a minimum adverse effect on
the environment.
2. There is no consistent information regarding sludge characteristics
and amount required to reclaim the disturbed land. In several cases,
Table 31-3. Comparison of Recommended Soil Loading Rates for Application of Metals
in Sewage Sludges and Typical Loading Rates Used for One Study in Pennsylvania
(from Sopper and Kerr, 1980a).
Meta! Sludge Application Rate, Recommended Metal
dry MTAa Total Applications
Pennsyl vania
Cu
7n
Cd
Pb
Ni
<~JT
Hq
21
21
0.1
10
1
16
0.01
129
147
0.6
55
12
74
0.09
280
•560
11
1120
280
-
-
112
224
3
112
22
112
O.fi
-------
Jewell 455
the type of sludge (treated or raw, primary or secondary, liquid,
dewatered, or composted, etc.) was not mentioned.
3. The majority of studies were completed without the use of controls
that would enable the evaluation of the usefulness of sewage
sludge. Without the use of inorganic fertilizers, lime and mulches
at rates that provide good vegetation, it is difficult to make
economic comparisons.
The Metropolitan Sanitary District of Chicago's sludge utilization program
has contributed a great deal to the understanding of this topic (Peterson,
et al. 1980) on a large scale. Between 1970 and 1975, 6,284 ha of calcareous
strip mine land was purchased for reclamation with sludge. Careful
monitoring of sites over a seven-year period have been conducted. Yearly
application of sludge has varied from 0 to 129 MT/ha, and accumulated
additions of sludge have ranged from 235 to 453 MT/ha. Changes in soil
include some of the following:
After 7 years of
Soil Parameters Initial Sludge Application
pH 7.4 6.5
Bulk Density, gm/cc 1.61 1.10 to 1.19
Organic Matter, % 0.61 2.83 to 4.72
Available Nitrogen, /zg/g 9 220
At 280 pg/g the Chicago sludge contained about 10 times the median
concentration of cadmium, and has provided an excellent opportunity to
determine the effectiveness of high application rates. Although current
federal regulations limit maximum cadmium accumulation loading rates of
9 kg/ha for sites growing human consumed crops, some fields have received
cumulative cadmium loadings of 135 kg/ha. Corn grain grown on controls
had 0.04 to 0.46 /xg/g cadmium, whereas the grain grown on all sludge
amended sites had a cadmium concentration in 1979 ranging from 0.46 to
0.81 Mg/g- Even though the cumulative cadmium addition is high, the
increased cadmium in the corn grain after seven years of use is only 50
percent higher than the higher control values. Hinesly has shown that certain
varieties of crops such as corn have been identified that will have little or
no increased metal uptake when exposed to high soil metal levels.
Hinesly, et al. 1980 have studied extensively the impacts of land
application of the Chicago sludge. They reported beneficial aspects of sludge
application, and they also emphasized the plant uptake of metals. Protein
content increased more than 25 percent at the massive sludge loadings, but
cadmium accumulation, although increased by seven- to tenfold, remained
below levels observed in grain grown on non-sludge amended sites.
In one of the few studies of the effects of land application on animal
health, Fitzgerald (1980) reported that massive exposures of cattle and swine
to the Chicago sludge had little or no effects. After consuming a considerable
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456 Engineering Assessment
amount of the sludge through direct consumption, or indirectly by
consuming contaminated crops, some heavy metals were accumulated in
kidneys in proportion to the time and amount of exposure that the animals
had had to the anaerobically digested sludge. All concentrations were well
below the concentration at which one would expect to detect clinical
evidence of disease, and muscle tissue was not affected. After seven years
of exposure to the Chicago sludge, no clinical or histopathological evidence
was detected.
These positive studies on little health effects on animals in the Chicago
studies contrast with a number of European studies (Williams 1979) clearly
linking disease transmission with agricultural use of sludge. It would appear
that the major reason for the difference may relate to the degree of treatment
and resultant pathogen reduction achieved prior to land application.
Acid strip mine sites that resisted all revegetation efforts with
conventional methods (fertilization, pH control, and mulching) were
successfully reclaimed with sludge by Corey, et al. (1980). Typical pH values
were 2 to 4.6 at the surface. Sludge applications of greater than 300 metric
tons per ha were found to be necessary. Plot studies (15 x 30 meters) showed
that nitrate-nitrogen concentrations at 120 cm depth peaked at 170 mg/2,
(as N) two years after application at 598 MT/ha (applied over a period of
about 1.5 years). This illustrates a potential problem that may occur with
large applications of liquid sludges.
Forest Applications
A summary of several studies involving the use of woody ecosystems for
strip mine or poor soil utilization is shown in Table 31-2. Extensive studies
have been conducted by researchers at Pennsylvania State University, and
the large scale efforts in this area have been completed at the University
of Washington by Cole (1980). Cole reported on a technique for applying
liquid sludge to mature and established forests. The application of 200
tons/acre of sludge resulted in minimum movement of the metals in a gravelly
soil (at a pH of 6). A large increase (greater than 900%) in biomass
productivity was observed using either treated effluent (5 cm/week) or
sludge. The largest problem faced by the University of Washington workers
related to site management. Weeds showed a great response to waste
applications and could out-compete tree seedlings. The protein content of
vegetation at waste applied sites was two to three times higher than controls,
thus resulting in preferential browsing by wildlife. Clearly, special precautions
need to be taken early in life of a site using trees as part of the revegetation
plan. Economic analysis showed that the forest application of Seattle,
Washington, sludge was the most cost-effective final disposal method.
Additional economic discussion will be presented later.
Wastewater and sludges were successfully used to reclaim marginal and
strip mine lands in Pennsylvania (Kerr and Sopper, 1980b; Kardos, et al.,
-------
Jewell 457
1980). These studies also experience competition from weed growth and
wildlife browsing, resulting in 57 to 79% survival in trees over a five year
period. Potential tree biomass production on reclaimed strip mine land was
estimated to average 11 tons/ha-yr (control was 1 ton/ha-yr) using sludge
application. The potential of increasing tree biomass productivity on poor
soils with sewage sludge without adverse environmental effects seems to be
well established by these studies.
In summary, reclamation of strip mine lands or other adverse soils with
sludges and wastewater is technically and practically feasible. Previous and
on going demonstrations varying in size up to the massive Chicago program
now nearly a decade old with 6,000 ha emphasize significant benefits
achieved by using waste as a resource to fertilize soils to enable them to
be attractively revegetated or to be used for wood production. Applications
of sludges varying from 30 MT/ha to greater than 300 MT/ha were found
to be necessary for long-term reclamation. Several studies that have focused
on the environmental impacts report minimal effects on the environment.
Some studies reported on the possibility of excessive nitrogen leaching to
the groundwater at higher sludge application rates. Sufficient data are
available to clearly establish that wastewater and sludges can be used to
effectively place disturbed land into crop production while purifying the
wastes that are used for this purpose.
Unfortunately, it must also be concluded that the engineering design
criteria and the economic feasibility of the use of wastes for strip mine
reclamation is much less clear. Comparisons of waste management
technologies and costs and the limitations of soil to serve as a waste treatment
system will be used to clarify these two areas in subsequent sections.
Designing Land Application Systems
General Conditions
There are two major concerns that emerge when the ultimate sludge disposal
option of recycling by land application is considered. The first is the
pathogen/disease transmission concerns, and the second is concern over the
toxic contaminants that may be in sludge as a result of industrial
contamination. Examination of the literature and existing full scale
experiences with the use of sewage sludge provide little data to support
the arguments that these concerns should be considered to be major barriers
to the utilization of sewage sludge by land application, including its use
in agricultural crop production. The overall conclusions which appear to
represent the state of the art are: 1) incorporation of sewage sludge in crop
production is often the most cost-effective sludge management option; 2)
the hazardous materials can be managed and monitored so that any serious
problems resulting from land application practices can be avoided; and 3)
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458 Engineering Assessment
land application alternative represents the recycling, low resource utilizing
technology representative of the type of solutions being sought by the general
public now and for the foreseeable future.
Two aspects of the wastewater and sludge problems need to be
understood by those seeking solutions to ultimate sludge disposal. First, there
are three media for final disposal of sewage sludge-the air, land or water.
Except for the problems of several large cities, disposal on land appears
to be trie favored alternative. Second, even if all sludge were used in
agriculture at rates proportional to the amount of nutrients required by the
crops, the amount of cropland that would be utilized would be less than
1 percent, on a nationwide basis. Thus, on a national scale, it is difficult
to envision that this technology for reusing sewage sludge while effectively
controlling the sludge pollutants would result in large scale problems. Of
course, any sludge utilization scheme should be accompanied by a
comprehensive management program.
The following paragraphs discuss the historical background, present
composition and variation of toxic elements in sludge, and examine the
design problems and long-term considerations that should be included in
a land reclamation sludge management plan.
Potential Problems
There are several potential problems that need to be carefully managed when
sewage sludge is applied to the land. The hazardous materials such as the
toxic elements are perhaps of greatest concern. A number of studies have
examined the composition of toxic heavy metals in sludge from a large
number of U.S. cities, whereas few studies have been completed on the toxic
organic?. There are several important general observations to make in regards
to the composition of sewage sludge. First, it is a low quality fertilizer since
the N content is 1/3 to 1/4 the concentration of inorganic fertilizers, and
the organic nitrogen in stabilized sludge is probably largely unavailable to
plants. Thus the sludge is probably more valuable for its organic carbon
content (i.e., for soil conditioning) than for its fertilizer value. Secondly,
application of median quality sludge at a common crop use nitrogen
application rate of 200 pounds per acre per year adds about 0.1 Ibs per
acre of Cd for each application and about 6 Ibs. per acre of lead. If this
is mixed uniformly through the top 12 inches of soil, the cadmium
concentiation in the soil will increase by about 0.025 ppm per application
and the lead concentration will increase by 1.5 ppm.
Industrial Contaminants: Short- and Long-Term Effects. One of the obvious
problems with the use of sewage sludge involves the potential impact of
unexpected toxic contaminants. Since any material used in homes and
industry may be found in sewage sludge, it would probably be appropriate
to establish some type of continuous bioassay monitoring system to evaluate
unexpected or unmeasurable plant inhibitory substances in sludges. Such a
-------
Jewell 459
bioassay could involve relatively short-term (one month) response tests using
common plants (such as tomatoes or chrysanthemums). An experienced
botanist could detect minor inhibitory effects such as heavy metal toxicity,
nutrient deficiency, etc. This bioassay approach would assist in avoiding
serious short-term consequences in most cases. It would also provide
assurance to the public that a maximum effort is being taken to protect
them from unexpected situations. Such a bioassay approach is not included
in existing regulations.
Another consideration is the potential long-term effects of the toxic
materials in the soils. Because of their strong electrical charge, most heavy
metal ions are bound tightly to the soil complex and, therefore, remain
in the top few inches of soil. Annual applications of sewage sludges will
result in increased organic matter, increasing the soil's cation exchange
capacity and, in general, improving the soil's basic properties. After
terminating sludge applications, especially in cases where the maximum
quantities of metals have been applied, some concern has been expressed
regarding the long-term mobility of these elements.
There are a number of factors which appear to indicate that no serious
long term effects will be encountered. First, no data exist to indicate such
will be the case, even though historical studies have been completed. Even
at sites that are several decades old, metals have not become mobile. On
the contrary, the metals seem to enter into aging or reversion reactions which
make them less available with time.
Finally, as indicated earlier, the total quantity of material added to
soil over a 10- to 20-year period does not add toxic elements in sufficient
quantities to make them capable of significantly changing the characteristics
of the soil.
Soils as Sludge Treatment Systems
The application of sludges to soils can be a highly effective alternative to
minimize treatment cost, maximize pollution control, and recycle a useful
by-product. Soils have the capability of storing the major fertilizer nutrients,
precipitating most toxic metals into chemical forms unavailable to plants,
providing continuing stabilization of the organics, and, under proper
management, providing pathogen control. The favored type of soil for sludge
utilization would be a medium-drained, fine-textured soil with a medium
to high cation exchange capacity (>20 meq. per 100 grams of soil), high
organic content, and a neutral to alkaline pH. Modification of strip mined
areas to conform with these general considerations needs to be considered.
Sludge Quantities and Characteristics. The more than five million dry tons
of municipal sewage sludge generated each year in the U.S. is expected to
nearly double as soon as secondary treatment of domestic wastewater is
fully implemented. The total costs (capital, operation, and maintenance) of
treating and disposing of this material approaches a billion dollars per year,
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460 Engineering Assessment
and represents more than half the cost of wastewater treatment, in many
instances. It is essential that effective and low cost alternatives for utilization
and final disposal of this material be made available.
Of the nearly 16,000 municipal treatment plants in the U.S., about
5,000 are pond treatment systems with little or no sludge facilities. Of the
remaining 11,000 plants, fewer than 350 treat wastewater flows greater than
10 million gallons per day. More than two-thirds of the nation's sewage
treatment: plants have design flows less than 1 MGD (USEPA 1976, 1978).
This size distribution makes it necessary to consider sludge processing and
disposal technologies that can be utilized by small communities.
Although the characteristics of sludge are highly variable, some
generalizations are possible. A population of 10,000 will produce about one
million gallons per day of domestic wastewater from which 1,000 pounds
of dry solids at 8 percent will be separated by the primary clarifier, and400
pounds of secondary biological solids at a concentration ot 3 percent solids
would be produced by a thickener following activated sludge treatment and
secondary clarification. After two-stage anaerobic digestion, the quantity of
sludge would be about 900 pounds of dry solids in a 4 percent total solids
concentration. Composition characteristics of municipal sewage sludge, as
reported in numerous studies, are shown in Table 31-4.
Table 31-4. Composition of Sewage Sludge (USEPA, 1976).
Characteristics
Total Sol ids, <
Volati le Sol ids,
wet wt.
» dry wt.
Range
1 to 1 0
30 to 60
Typical Value/Mean
4.0
40 (digested
sludges)
Median
Values
Nutrients
Nitrogen, % TS
Phosphorous
Potash, K20, ?TS
Energy, Btu/l b
1 .6 to 6.0
0.5 to 4.0
0 to 3.0
1700-6800
3.0
3.0
0.5
4000
Heavy Metals, ppm dry
Ag, Si 1 ver
As, Arsenic
8, Ffcjron
Ba , 8a r i un
Be, Beryl 1 i urn
Cd, Cadmi i/n
Co, Cobalt
Cr , Ch romi un
Cu, Copper
Hg, Mercury
Mn, Manganese
Ni, Nickel
Pb, Lead
Sr, Strontit/n
Se, Se 1 en i um
V, Vanadiun
Zn, Zinc
*
nd-960
1-50
200-1 430
nd-300Q
nd
nd-1 100
nd-800
22-30,000
45-1 6,030
0.1-89
1 00-8800
nd-2800
B 0-2 6, 000
nd-2230
10-180
nd-2100
51-28,360
225
9
430
1460
nd
87
350
1800
1250
7
1190
410
1940
440
26
510
3483
90
8
350
1300
nd
20
100
600
700
4
400
100
600
150
20
400
1800
* not detectable
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Jewell 461
Although it may be thought that source control of toxic materials such
as heavy metals might be feasible, this is not necessarily the situation. Because
of the ubiquitous nature of some substances, such as cadmium and mercury,
even pure domestic sewage will contain some of these substances. Since
biological processes tend to separate soluble and paniculate heavy metals,
they can be concentrated in the sludge.
The major options for sludge generation, treatment and disposal are
given in Table 31-5. In general, the sludge that is generated is a stabilized
liquid or a solid containing a wide range of materials. For most land
application purposes (including reclamation), the fate and characteristics of
nitrogen will be the most important factor.
Table 31-5. List of Options for Sludge Treatment, Disposal, and Utilization.
I. On-slte Wastiewater Treatment
•Land Application
'Sewage Treatment Plane
11. Centralized Sewage Trea tmen t
A. On-site Control
l..—».,J^ Incineration—^Ash to Landfill
2. Soil assimilation with dedicated land as shown with a
typical treatment facility
a. topsoil
b. turf
B. Off-site UtlUzar Ion/Disposal
1. Raw Sludge to Sanitary Landfill
2. Water Disposal
3. Treatment and Land Spreading
a. Use in crop production--fruits and vegetables
b. Non-food crops
c. Reclamation
d. Recycled in commercial products
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462 Engineering Assessment
A considerable amount of research has been conducted on the
conditions responsible for translocation of heavy metals from sludge into
various plants and animals (Loehr et al. 1979, Sommer et al. 1976, USEPA
1977, Page 1974) and no attempt will be made to review this extensive
material. However, after considering various approaches, the USEPA has
suggested limiting sludge applications as a function of specific metal content
and soil cation exchange capacity (CEC).
There is little general agreement on the disease organism content criteria
which should be followed when applying sludge to land. In general, the
use of sludge in agriculture is generally recommended only for crops that
are not consumed raw by humans. Well digested sludge is commonly surface
applied to cropland; undigested raw sludge has been successfully injected
beneath the soil surface used for non-food crop production.
In summary, it would appear that information is now available to
minimize any potential negative impact of heavy metals in sludges as used
in agriculture. The Council for Agricultural Science and Technology
concluded that, "most metals are susceptible to control through choice of
appropriate application sites, limiting the sludge application rate to that
required to meet nutrient demands, and applying the sludge to well-aerated
soils with pH controlled by sound management practices (CAST, 1976)."
Land Application Designs to Minimize Leachate Formation. By relating the
soil assimilation rates and quantities to application rates, it should be possible
to insure control of leachate and/or predict pollutant movement and eventual
breakthrough to groundwater. This approach was developed in a land
treatment training program (Loehr et al. 1979), and is useful for sludges
and wastewater. In this method, the most restrictive pollutant loading
controls the sludge application rates.
There are two major options for beneficial reuse of sludge by land
application for land reclamation purposes. The application of sludge as a
fertilizer source is the more common use of sewage sludge. The use of sludge
on dedicated land has been practiced on a limited scale for land reclamation.
It is based on the premise that soil can be used to effectively convert large
quantities of sludge to safe residues at a minimum cost while providing
effective control over all sludge components, and land reclamation
possibilities at a low cost.
Use as a Fertilizer. Recent U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
guidance can assist in evaluating the feasibility of using sludge as a fertilizer
replacement. Calculation of the quantity of sewage sludge that can be safely
added to provide a plant fertilizer source on agricultural land used to produce
food chain crops is as follows:
1. Estimate the fertilizer requirements based on crop needs, soil
condition, and climate.
2. Estimate the plant available nitrogen in the sludge, and compare
the sludge application rate necessary to provide the crop's nitrogen
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Jewell 463
requirement to the cadmium limitations.
3. Compare acceptable loading rates for all five metals of major
concern: lead, zinc, copper, nickel, and cadmium.
4. Calculate the phosphorus and potassium crop requirements as
compared to that supplied from the limiting application rate of
sludge.
When available nitrogen limits the sludge application rate, the total amount
of sewage sludge applied will usually vary between 5 and 10 dry tons per
acre per year. When one of the metals limits the application rate, the amount
of sludge is often less than 5 dry tons per acre per year. At a median cadmium
sludge concentration of 10 ppm (dry matter basis) and a total nitrogen
content of 3 percent of the total solids, the fertilizer nitrogen requirement
for corn silage production is the limiting criteria at a loading of 5.6 dry
tons of sludge per acre per year. A 20-year total application of 112 tons
is significantly less than the safe application rate for cadmium. A total land
area of about 30 acres would be needed to make good agricultural use of
the sludge from a one million gallon per day wastewater flow for a 20 year
design life.
Sludge Application to Land Dedicated to Sludge Disposal and Reuse.
The lowest cost option for disposing and reusing sludge would involve
minimum pretreatment and direct application of raw sludge to land at
maximum assimilation rates. In order to oxidize all of the available nitrogen,
the application of sludge would be limited to about 1.7 tons per acre per
day. If the application was limited due to cold weather, the amount of
land required would be about 0.8 acres per million gallons of flow. The
application of sludge at the maximum soil assimilation capacities in a
dedicated land site has a number of advantages, as illustrated in Figure 31-1.
These are:
1. Rapidly available salts and pathogens are controlled at the
treatment site and will be of little concern in the land reclamation
scheme.
2. Highly contaminated return streams will not occur since the
underdrainage should be relatively pollutant free.
3. The volume of underdrainage is insignificant in most areas, and
what is most important is the impact of the return flow to the
treatment plant is insignificant.
4. The volume and weight of material is relatively unchanged, but
the material to be transported to a reclamation site has
characteristics and appearance of topsoil.
A dedicated, underdrained land application site for sludge disposal and
reuse essentially becomes a topsoil or turf generation site. It is assumed
that most of the organics are stabilized when the sludge is mixed into the
top 7 to 15 cm of soil over a two-year period. The volume of topsoil that
can and should be harvested relates to the concentration of organic matter
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464 Engineering Assessment
Domestic
Wastewater —j-
1 MGD r
Solids at
20S5 Ib/MGD
Secondary Treatment Facility
UnderdraLnage
Recycle
Dewatered Sludge
26,600 ft3/MGD-yr
Recovered Topsoil or Turf
- 4,900 ft3/MGD-yr
Figure 31-1. Comparison of liquid sludge management and dedicated land management
of sludge for recovery of topsoil or turf for land reclamation and other purposes.
Various assumptions used in calculating the masses and volumes are: bulk densities
of liquid sludge assumed to be 62.4 Ibs/ft, soil bulk density 91 Ib/ft, the
dedicated land site is harvested every two years, half the stabilized volatile organics
are degraded in the top 3 inches of the soil in two years, the nitrogen remains
constant at 7 percent of the sludge volatile organics, and the dewatered sludge
cake is 20 percent dry matter.
that will be required upon final application of the material. McGinnies and
Nicholas (1980) studied the relationship of topsoil depth to plant root
development on acid strip mine land with wheatgrass. He noted that normal
root development occurred with about 7.5 to 10 cm of topsoil. If it is
assumed that this depth is required to reclaim soil and that the organic
matter content must initially be 20 percent, harvesting about 8 cm depth
from a dedicated land site every two years would result in the production
of reclamation cover material for 0.25 ha per 4,000 m-'/d of flow capacity.
The fate of domestic sewage solids in a secondary treatment facility
shown in Figure 31-1 contrasts the fate of sludge in several alternative
management systems-with and without stabilization prior to land
application-and the mass and characteristics of materials handled. Without
intermediate thickening or dewatering, the volume of sludge is not affected
by stabilization. It is assumed that the dedicated land is harvested every
two years (see figure for other assumptions). A comparison of the volume
and mass of materials generated each year from the secondary treatment
of one million gallons per day are as given in Table 31-6.
Clearly, the dedicated land system described here offers significant
advantages over sludge disposal plans using liquid or dewatered sludge as
reclamation materials. Even though 82 percent of the material that would
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Jewell 465
Table 31-6. Comparison of Volumes and Masses of Sludge Material Generated from
Domestic Sewage Treated to Secondary Standards with the Major Treatment
Options. All Volumes Expressed on an Annual Basis of Amount Per MGD of
Capacity.
Weight Volume
(Tons/MSD-yr)
Liquid Sludge
(raw and diqested) 4150 (33,000
Oewatered Sludge 830 26,600
Recovered So Ifds
from Dedicated
Land Sites 223 4,900
be harvested from the top 3 inches of the dedicated land site would be
soil, the total weight and mass to be handled would only be about 5 percent
of a comparable liquid system. Not only is this material much less
objectionable to handle and transport, it should be much less costly. Since
it has been shown that 7.5 cm of topsoil can be used for reclamation, the
dedicated land sites would vary from 0.25 to 3 acres per year per MGD
of flow capacity.
There are relatively few instances where sludge has been applied at rates
designed to test the soil assimilation rate and leachate control capability
as outlined in the dedicated land treatment option. Lewis (1977) reported
successful "sludge farming" of refinery wastes on a full scale where the
application rates equalled 150 tons per acre per year of dry solids and oils.
Due to the presence of an impermeable clay layer beneath the soil horizon,
no leachate occurred in this arid climate application. Lewis estimated the
cost of this land treatment of oily sludge to be $3 per ton of refinery sludge.
The most extensive test with high rate application of sludges using the
dedicated site method has been accomplished by the Springfield, Illinois,
Sanitary District (Troemper 1974, Andrew and Troemper 1975). This system
is identical to the alternative proposed here. In a development effort which
covered a period of six years, from 1965 to 1970, an 8-acre plot was used
to apply an average of 56.8 dry tons of stabilized sludge per acre per year.
At this rate, more than 10 times the fertilizer rate, corn production rates
averaged 42 percent higher than control values. The estimated sludge disposal
costs were about $1 per dry ton of solids. They considered this to be the
most desirable sludge disposal option of those available.
Land Reclamation Practices-Nitrogen Limitations
A review of the vast amount of information describing the potential for
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466 Engineering Assessment
converting poor soils into ones that support vegetative growth appear to
include one significant deficiency-there is no goal or definition of the
minimum characteristics of a "productive soil." Generalizations are difficult
due to widely varying site-specific characteristics. However, there must be
a minimum set of conditions that would maximize the chances of establishing
a perennial vegetative cover, under normal conditions.
Aspects of these minimum conditions that could be addressed are:
nutrients available for continuous recycling; topsoil humus content, or
refractory organic content to establish nutrient holding capacity and possible
recycling of biomass; characteristics to achieve water holding capability; and
secondary topsoil requirements such as pH, trace elements, etc. It is likely
that for any given location there are a set of limiting values relating to
the above aspects that would enable artificially planted combinations of
grasses, nitrogen fixing plants, trees and bushes to eventually establish a
permanent vegetative cover.
The conditions that may be required to establish a permanent vegetative
cover using sewage may not be either economically or environmentally
attractive. For example, too much sludge may be required to establish a
minimum level of refractory organic matter in the soil, or the sludge may
result in contamination of the groundwater. Until the minimum conditions
for successful reclamation projects are established, it will be difficult to
justify differing sludge utilization practices for land reclamation.
Modeling Sludge Nitrogen Interactions
Some of the basic information exists to provide minimum goals for
permanent vegetation establishment on poor soils, but it appears that many
of the specific needs relating to sludge application are missing. One approach
for addressing the complex interactions relating to sludge use for soil
reclamation purposes is to develop a system overview using a modeling
approach. A review of this area or development of a model of the
sludge-soil-ground-water interaction is beyond the scope of this report.
However, many studies have considered aspects of this problem Particularly
intensive efforts have been made by several Cornell University researchers
to develop simple and useful models in this area. Steenhuis (1981) has
adapted several currently available models to illustrate several major
limitations of the use of sludge application to soil by focusing on the nitrogen
cycle.
The data used for validation of the Steenhuis models were obtained
from literature for the unique full scale land application site used at
Springfield, Illinois, where aerobically and anaerobically digested sludges are
applied (Andrew and Troemper, 1975). Examination of a wide variety of
land application of sludge alternatives led to the following observations.
Influence of Pretreatment on Sludge Environmental Impacts. The form of
nitrogen in the sludge will have a major influence on its interaction in soil
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Jewell 467
and the pollution potential. Untreated primary sludges will have most of
the nitrogen in a combined organic form that becomes rapidly available when
placed in soil, whereas well composted sludge will have a lower amount
of organic nitrogen that will be made available to plants much more slowly.
The application of a treated sludge in liquid form provides a large amount
of available nitrogen to the plants, and if in the nitrate form may result
in rapid movement to the groundwater.
Examples of Sludge Application Possibilities. It is reasonable to assume that
a minimum soil organic matter content will have to be established in
inorganic soils to support the sustained growth of vegetation. The fate of
sludge solids in soils showed that when one large application of anaerobically
digested sludge (200 dry tons/ha) was added, most of the organic matter
was oxidized, leaving the topsoil with an organic nitrogen content similar
to poor soils after seven years. Conversely, the application of 200 kg N/ha
of primary, anaerobically digested sludge and compost showed that only
composted sludge is useful in building topsoil organic matter for permanent
soil reclamation.
A high rate one-time application of aerobically digested sludge will result
in flushing of nitrates to the groundwater in excess of the drinking water
standard.
Comparison of Sludge Pretreatment Effects. In land reclamation, one large
addition of soil conditioning materials to enable permanent vegetative cover
would represent the lower cost option. No vegetation would be harvested
from the site. The model was used to illustrate the fate of nitrogen at a
low application rate (300 kg/ha) and a high application rate (3000 kg/ha)
for liquid anaerobically digested sludge and composted sludge (see Table
31-7). The liquid sludge loading results in relatively small additions of dry
Table 31-7. Summary of Nitrogen and Organic Solids Loading Rates Examined with
the Cornell University Soil Water-Nitrogen Models.
Sludqe Nitrogen Content
Tota 1 gm/t
gmAg dry sol ids,
Ammon ia, * Tota 1
Organic, t Total
Nitrogen Loading Rates, kg/ha
(One Appl ication)
Solids Loading Rate, MT/ha
Type of S 1 udqe
An aerob ica 1 ly
Digested
3
50
50
300
3
3000
30
Composted
1 0
0
100
300 3000
40 100
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468 Engineering Assessment
solid matter (3 to 30 MT/ha), whereas the compost adds ten times this
amount (40 to 400 MT/ha).
At a loading rate of 3000 kg N/ha with composted sludge (equivalent
to 400 metric tons/ha dry sludge) with a one-time application, the nitrogen
in the groundwater remains close to, but below, the drinking water standard
concentration. Thus, this sludge loading rate represents the maximum that
should be considered for permanent vegetation cover stimulation, where
groundwater protection is essential. A large amount of nitrogen reaches the
groundwater when the liquid sludge is applied.
The single loading of the two different forms of sludge raise interesting
policy-risk questions for land reclamation. The minimum sludge loading rate
with compost at 40 MT/ha appears to release nutrients at a low rate that
may limit vegetative growth. High applications of compost provide the
amount of organic matter and available nutrients to support a vigorous
vegetative cover for a period greater than ten years.
With large liquid sludge applications to soil that provides a larger amount
of available nutrients at lower solids application, after three years of plant
growth, most available nutrients will begin to limit plant growth. If sufficient
legumes are established three to four years after the low liquid sludge
application, it is likely that establishment of a permanent vegetative cover
will be successful. The concentration of the nitrate lost to the groundwater
will not violate the drinking water standards at the lower application of
liquid sludge, although they are much greater than the losses predicted with
composted sludge.
Relatively high application rates of liquid sludge are necessary to create
a significant amount of organic topsoil. However, the nutrients move rapidly
out of the topsoil, and the time over which a significant amount of solids
remain available is not much longer than that for lower liquid sludge
application (three to four years). Groundwater effects due to nitrate leaching
can be serious with large amounts of liquid sludge application. The drinking
water concentrations may be exceeded by as much as ten times the 10 mg/&
nitrate standard, and this can last for four years in constantly drained areas.
Economic Considerations
The economics of incorporating waste treatment and recycling into land
reclamation efforts are complex, and it is difficult to justify one activity
against another solely on an economic basis. According to coal industry
sources, strip mine reclamation costs are now approaching 25 percent of
the FOB mine price of coal. Thus any savings in land reclamation costs
could have a beneficial impact on the price of coal. The following is a brief
discussion of the various costs involved in waste treatment and land
reclamation.
Waste treatment costs. Land application as a wastewater treatment method
involving land reclamation and biomass production is not a major
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Jewell 469
consideration. Land treatment can be a cost- and energy-effective mode of
treatment for municipal wastewater. Wherever land is available this represents
a viable alternative. However, large land areas are required (frequently greater
than 200 acres per million gallons per day of capacity), and the biomass
value does not represent a major return in this waste management system.
It is difficult to envision wastewater usage for many land reclamation
projects, primarily because the sites are usually quite distant from the
wastewater generation sources.
Sludges contain 100 to 10,000 times the concentrations of plant
nutrients and other useful materials than the wastewater. Therefore where
treatment and transportation costs are acceptable, sludge incorporation in
reclamation schemes may be attractive. Typical sewage sludge treatment costs
vary as follows (USEPA 1980b):
Disposition Method $/dry ton
Incineration 80 - 240
Composting 70 - 200
Surface Disposal 25
Landfills 73 - 226
Ocean Dumping 30 - 50
Ocean Disposal 20
Land Spreading 40 - 210
Distribution & Marketing 2 - 12
The dedicated land total treatment cost would vary from $10 to $30 per
ton.
Transportation costs are highly variable and depend on haul distances
and transport method. Approximate costs may vary from $6 to $20 per
ton for a 100 mile transportation distance (Nye et al. 1980, Peterson et
al. 1980). Potential reclamation sites are located at distances varying from
30 to 450 miles for 18 of the larger Eastern cities (Nye et al. 1980).
Sludge as a Fertilizer. Land application of sewage sludge as a fertilizer raises
a number of concerns which are difficult to offset with the benefits gained
from the material. Extensive use of inorganic fertilizers has been possible
because of their low costs. Custom-applied fertilizers used on row crops and
forage seldom cost more than $150 per acre. Gross income from such crops
may vary from $100 to $500 per acre. Thus sludge use in these situations
has a maximum fertilizer value of $100 (but additional fertilizer in the form
of potassium generally are necessary). If 10 tons per acre of dry sludge
are applied each year, the value of this material averages about $10 per
ton. Although this is a highly simplistic analysis, it illustrates the difficulty
in recovering the cost of sludge processing, since the total cost of sewage
sludge stabilization, handling, and disposal often exceeds $100 per dry ton,
as shown earlier.
In cases where land reclamation is an objective, sewage sludge can
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470 Engineering Assessment
represent a high value material. The application of 50 tons per acre to
disturbed areas would result in conversion of the land to cropland. This
application or the upgrading of marginal land results in a usage of the sewage
sludge which has a value equal to or exceeding its processing cost. The total
cost of sludge treatment and transportation to reclamation sites for the city
of Chicago was estimated to be $339 per MT (capital = $38 per MT,
operation and maintenance S301 per MT; and 43% of the total was
transportation costs) (Peterson et al. 1980). Cost for the sludge disposal
in land reclamation for Philadelphia was similar. A detailed review of sludge
disposal options for Seattle showed costs varying from $280/ton (ocean
dumping) to $857 per ton (agricultural application with purchase of all land).
The lowest cost option (other than ocean disposal) was for use in silviculture
at $453 per ton (Cole 1980). Addition of sludge to established forests
resulted in a 62% increase in board feet in the Washington study, or the
value of timber increased from $140 to $150 per acre. At the sludge
application rates studied, this results in a sludge value of less than $3 per
ton. Kerr and Sopper (1980a) noted a five year increase in wood yield equal
to 7 to 16 MT/ha. The energy value of such an increase over a five-year
period could equal as much as $25/ton of sludge.
Land Reclamation Costs. One important aspect of the economic
considerations is the cost of reclamation practices without the use of sludge.
Reported values show that the reclamation costs can be extremely large.
Urie et aL (1980) gave estimated costs as follows:
Costs per Costs per
unit area, ton sludge,
Cost Component $/ha $/MT
Grading 4,900 8
Sludge transportation
and application 56,200 85
Monitoring 2,520 3
$63,620 "$96
The most important economic area in favor of sludge use may be where
it qualifies as a topsoil substitute. According to the Surface Mining and
Reclamation Act regulations, substitute materials can qualify for this
purpose. In some cases an exemption from removing, storing and reusing
the topsoil could be obtained. A large part of the total costs of strip mine
reclamation will be committed to topsoil removal (and possibly separate
removal of other soil horizons), storage, grading, and redisposition of the
stored material after the coal is removed. Extensive data reported here shows
that the addition of sludge to any soil can result in a satisfactory plant
environment, thus indicating that it should be considered a topsoil
replacement.
Minimum Cost Sludge Treatment and Disposal/Reuse with Land
Reclamation. The lowest cost option for using sludge for reclamation of
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Jewell 471
inferior soils would appear to include the use of the dedicated land system
near the treatment plant, followed by harvesting a mixture of stabilized
sludge and soil. If this mixture were applied to a depth of 10 cm and this
was sufficient to reclaim the site, the following estimated cost would be
incurred:
Cost Component $/dry ton
Sludge treatment
(with stabilization-anaerobic digestion) 150
(without stabilization) 5
Sludge application on dedicated land 31
Topsoil harvesting at 10 percent organic matter 5
Transportation - 100 miles and land application 35
Total Costs without pre-stabilization S 76
with pre-stabilization $221
These estimates are given for two major alternatives-one where the sludge
is stabilized prior to land application as is the practice at Springfield, Illinois;
and another where it is not, i.e., where raw sludge is applied. In the design
criteria the limiting loading rate factor in a dedicated land site is the soil
nitrification rate, not the organic carbon oxidation rate. It is well within
the capability of the soil biomass system to stabilize the sludge at the
suggested loading rates. However, if the dedicated land is not well isolated
and well managed, odor generation may occur with the application of raw
sludge. There should be incentive to consider options that enable land
application of raw sludge, since the pretreatment does little except provide
odor control while increasing the cost by 500 percent over the simpler
dedicated land option.
The above considerations lead to a highly cost-effective method of
treating and disposing of sludge with minimum impact while recovering
spoiled land. If the sludge loading equivalent requires 100 MT/ha (dry organic
matter) to reestablish permanent vegetative cover, a total cost of $4,500
(topsoil harvesting and transportation) per acre plus grading costs should
be the minimum cost goal. This cost should be compared to that incurred
for soil removal and storage, pH adjustment, mulching and potentially
extensive irrigation that may be required without an organic soil amendment.
Also, proper management will result in good vegetative growth and
permanent land reclamation. Other options are more complex and involve
higher costs and risk of failure. The sharing of appropriate portions of costs
using this option can result in minimum cost to the municipalities and a
savings of as much as 70 percent of strip mine reclamation costs.
Summary and Conclusions
Land application of wastewaters is a cost-effective and minimum energy
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472 Engineering Assessment
consuming treatment alternative. Where land is available, this is often the
optimum alternative, and adequate engineering design information is available
to develop these systems. In most instances, the contaminant level and
nutrient concentrations in municipal wastewaters are so dilute as to cause
few concerns. However, land reclamation with wastewaters is difficult
because of their low organic and nutrient concentrations, and because poor
soils and sites requiring reclamation are remote from the larger cities.
Conversely, the sludges contain large quantities of nutrients as well as some
hazardous materials at concentrations between 100 and 10,000 times that
of the wastewater. Thus, of the two, municipal sludges are much more useful
materials, and are the focus of this assessment. These materials must be
carefully treated and disposed of in order to minimize costs and
environmental impact. Using the soil as a treatment system and final
disposal/reuse site for sewage sludge while encouraging biomass production
or recovery of disturbed land solves two problems at the same time.
Problems with Wastewater and Sludge Use in Land Reclamation
Surface mining has disturbed 1.76 million ha of land in the U.S., with half
of this caused by coal strip mining. Each year an additional 40,000+ ha
of land is disturbed by coal mining, and this rate will increase in the future.
The quantities of municipal sewage sludge presently produced at 5
million tons per year have been projected to increase to 9 million tons per
year when secondary treatment is completely implemented. The annual total
cost will approach $900 million and be more than half the total sewage
treatment costs in many cases.
There are fewer than 350 municipal treatment plants, out of a total
of nearly 16,000, with flows greater than 10 million gallons per day (MGD).
Greater than 65 percent of all U.S. municipal treatment plants have flows
less than 1 MGD. For this reason, sludge handling and treatment need to
be simple and efficient, even at low flows.
Present practices indicate that more than half of the sewage sludge
presently produced is applied to land, and this may increase to 75 percent
when ocean dumping ceases. About 20 percent is currently used in crop
production.
A comparison of typical sewage sludge loading rates used in land
reclamation of several disturbed strip mine lands indicates that all the sewage
sludge could be used to reclaim the land disturbed by coal mining. If the
use of sewage sludge in land reclamation could be economically attractive,
this management method should receive major attention in the immediate
future.
The goal of this assessment was to determine the capability of this
technology to adequately treat municipal wastewater or sludge as
innovative/alternative wastewater treatment and sludge management
technologies while utilizing these materials for land reclamation and biomass
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Jewell 473
production purposes. This review shows that land reclamation with sludges
should receive a high priority. If widely implemented the ultimate sludge
disposal problems could be eliminated, all drastically disturbed lands could
be permanently revegetated, with significant resulting cost savings to
municipalities and strip mining interests.
Regulatory Considerations
There has been a great deal of regulatory activity directed at sludge treatment
and management at local, state, and federal levels. A large amount of research
and development data have become available as various regulations have been
formulated. Several critical factors in the regulations relate to the cessation
of ocean disposal, as well as the generally accepted position that many sewage
sludges can be managed so that their use in agriculture can be considered
safe.
Coordinated regulatory activity has addressed the most immediate
concerns related to sludge application to land, i.e., use in food chain
applications. Federal guidelines have now defined a "good" sludge that is
safe to be used in fruit and Vegetable production (one that has limited
concentrations of cadmium, lead, and PCBs). Examination of the
concentration of these elements in municipal sludges indicates that this
definition eliminates nearly half of the sludge generated from consideration
for use in fruit and vegetable production.
In general, a review of the extensive amount of data produced on land
application of sludge in Europe and the U.S. shows that the recent guidelines
are overly conservative. Even highly contaminated sludges and poor soils
can be managed to result in food production unchanged from that without
sludge benefits. The state of the art of the technology is far more advanced
than the regulations. However, the regulations will be useful in development
of key public information programs as long as the risks and benefits from
such programs are clearly defined. Hopefully, exceptions to these
conservative limitations will be granted in areas where management can
document the control necessary to protect the food chain and the
environment.
Few regulations for non-food chain uses of sludge have been
promulgated. The most significant regulation that affects land reclamation
relates to the future status of the land where a "bad" sludge is used, or
where application rates exceed the acceptable cumulative loadings stated as
being acceptable with "good" sludge. The regulations suggest that the land
receiving excessive metals loading never be used for food chain crop
production and that the property deed must state this restriction. There
is a growing body of information indicating that this restriction is not
necessary. Because of the conservative nature of regulations and definitions,
this restriction will likely limit the potential use of sewage sludge in
reclamation programs.
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474 Engineering Assessment
Passage of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977
was intended to internalize the costs of coal surface mining, which are being
borne by society in the form of ravaged land, polluted water and other
adverse effects, without significant losses in coal production. In the wetter
climates, this Act requires that a permanent vegetation (with contours and
plant species similar to the natural area) be established for a five-year period,
and that the period be extended for ten years in the dryer areas. Industry
sources have complained that these restrictions now account for as much
as 25 pet cent of the cost of coal and vary from $10,000 to 160,000 per
ha. As is shown in this overview, the option for using sludge can result
in decreasing this cost to perhaps less than $5,000 per ha, while returning
spoiled land to a healthy native self-regenerating plant cover.
Experience with Wastewater and Sludge Use in Land Reclamation
Where properly managed, the use of wastewater and sludges has been
successful and has often resulted in cost-effective pollution control/biomass
production systems. This symposium showed that the reclamation of severely
disturbed lands, such as zinc smelter areas or acid strip mines, were
immediately reclaimed using sludge applications varying from less than 10
MT/ha up to nearly 1,000 MT/ha, with application sites varying from several
square meters to 6,900 ha. In general, experience shows that demonstration
sites within a region are a key to obtaining public acceptance of sludge
reclamation programs.
Minimum soil conditions required to support perennial vegetative cover
on adverse soils such as those associated with strip mining of coal are poorly
defined, especially for use of sludge. Limiting factors, such as organic or
humic matter content, nutrient mobilization rate, cation exchange capacity,
and moisture holding capacity cannot be specified. This requires that
empirical results obtained from successful reclamation sites be used as
practice guidelines.
Some of the basic questions relating to land reclamation with sludge
have been examined in a simple but comprehensive model. This model
combines the interactions of nitrogen in soils and was validated using an
intensive and well documented sludge application system. The results show
several important considerations relating to type of sludge considered for
land reclamation, influence of application rate on vegetative cover,
groundwater influences, and the duration of adverse effects and benefits that
can be expected from sludge applications. The model results emphasize that
in some cases researchers have concluded that land application of sludge
will have no severe effect on the groundwater before such an effect can
be measured.
There is a vast but predictable difference between the use of liquid
stabilized sludge and composted sludge. Single applications of 400 MT/ha
of composted sludge will support a vigorous vegetative cover in central
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Jewell 475
Pennsylvania for more than ten years, and the loss of nitrogen to the
groundwater will result in a concentration less than 10 mg/Jl of NO^-N.
The addition of liquid stabilized sludge supports active vegetation for a short
period (three or four years) but can result in significant nitrate leaching
to the groundwater if not properly managed.
This review emphasizes that the state of the art of modeling
sludge-soil-groundwater interactions is sufficiently advanced as to allow
extensive review of policy and specific site evaluations.
Design of Land Application Systems for Sludges
Consideration of the capability of soils to assimilate (convert and control)
pollutants in sludge provides a rational basis for the design of land application
systems. Two options are considered here: (1) use as a fertilizer in
conventional agriculture; and (2) application to soil at maximum rate as
a final disposal/reuse method in a unique dedicated land area. The use of
most stabilized sewage sludge as a fertilizer source is a practical and
manageable option.
A four-step procedure is outlined which enables sewage sludge loadings
to maximize its fertilizer value and to control major toxic material at a
safe level. This usually results in the application of sludge at rates of 5
to 10 dry tons per acre per year. Land area requirements of about 30 acres
per million gallons per day of wastewater flow are controlled by the available
nitrogen.
The second unique system of dedicated land application of sludge gives
good control over all sludge interactions and represents a simple and low
cost option for sludge management. The site is located near the wastewater
treatment site, the area is underdrained, and a topsoil substitute is harvested
from the site every few years. This harvested material can be used as a
topsoil substitute in land reclamation programs. Maximum sludge application
rates may result in leachate formation, particularly nitrate-nitrogen forms.
For this reason this option is only viable where an effective underdrainage
system can be installed to capture the leachate and recycle it to the treatment
site.
The soil pollutant assimilation capacities indicate that the nitrification
reaction rate controls the sludge application rate in a dedicated land facility.
Maximum sludge assimilation rates would be approximately 300 tons (dry)
per acre per year in colder areas where application could only be practiced
for about six months of the year. This is equivalent to an underdrained
land area requirement of slightly less than one acre per million gallons of
domestic wastewater flow. It may be possible to use raw sludge in this
alternative where odor is not a concern since the limiting design consideration
should generally be the nitrification rate. In warm climates where a sludge
can be applied year-round, the area required may be as low as 0.44 acres
per million gallons per day of wastewater flow.
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476 Engineering Assessment
Economic Considerations
There is some difficulty in evaluating the economics of using sewage sludge
in agriculture, for biomass production, or for land reclamation. For example,
as a fertilizer in crop production sludge has a value varying from $10 to
$30 per ton (dry) depending on the acceptable loading rate. It may have
as high a value as this in intensive forest operations for biomass production,
but its value decreases to less than $2 per ton when used to stimulate lumber
production in older forests. Most treatment systems (anaerobic digestion,
aerobic digestion, composting) cost $100 to $300 per ton (dry) processed.
Thus, recovery of sludge treatment costs from agricultural benefits with
conventional systems is unlikely.
The use of a rational sludge management system incorporated into a
land reclamation program would appear to lead to highly cost effective
alternatives. Total sludge handling and stabilization costs for a dedicated
land system are estimated to be less than $30 per ton, and transportation
costs of a topsoil replacement would be around $45 per ton. Thus,
reclamation at applications of 100 MT organic matter per ha would cost
between $2,000 to $5,000 per acre, or less if the municipality shared in
sludge transportation costs. These costs contrast with the limited ability of
substitute material to reclaim strip mine lands at more than 10 times the
cost. This system also eliminates most concerns that relate to sludge use
since the material has the appearance and characteristics of a rich topsoil.
Thus, a land reclamation program using sludge treatment systems based on
known soil assimilation capacities (and demonstrated in full scale) can lead
to highly effective pollution control systems that reclaim land at a small
fraction of the costs of alternative practices.
Literature Cited
Andrew, R., and Troemper, A. P. 1975. "Characteristics of Underflow Resulting from
Cropland Irrigated with Sewage Sludge," Presented at the Annual Water Pollution
Control Federation Conference, Miami Beach, Florida, October 9.
Berry, C. R. 1980. "Sewage Sludge Aids Reclamation of Disturbed Forest Land in
the Southeast." Proceedings of Symposium on Utilization of Municipal Wastewater
and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass Production, Pittsburgh,
PennsyJvania, September 16-18.
Borovsky, J. P., and Brooks, K. N. 1980. "Performance of Woody Plant Species on
Iron-Ore Overburden Material Irrigated With Sewage Effluent in Minnesota."
Proceedings of Symposium on Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge
for Land Reclamation and Biomass Production, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
September 16-18.
CAST. 1976. (Council for Agricultural Science and Technology Report No. 64).
"Application of Sewage Sludge to Cropland: Appraisal of Potential Hazards of
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Jewell 477
the Heavy Metals to Plants and Animals." Published as USEPA Report Number
EPA 430/9-76-013. MCD-33. 63 pages.
Cavey, J. V., and Bowles, J. A. 1980. "Use of Sewage Sludge to Improve Taconite
Tailings as a Medium for Plant Growth." Proceedings of Symposium on Utilization
of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass
Production, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, September 16-18.
Cole, D. W. 1980. "Response of Forest Ecosystems to Sludge and Wastewater
Applications—A Case Study in Western Washington." Proceedings of Symposium
on Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Land Reclamation and
Biomass Production, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, September 16-18.
Corey, J. C., Hollod, G. J., Stone, D. M., Wells, C. G., McKee, W. H., and Bartell.
S. M. 1980. "Environmental Effects of Utilization of Sewage Sludge for Biomass
Production." Proceedings of Symposium on Utilization of Municipal Wastewater
and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass Production, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, September 16-18.
Deese, P. L., Miyares, J. R., and Fogel, S. 1980. "Institutional Constraints and Public
Acceptance Barriers." Proceedings of Symposium on Utilization of Municipal
Wastewater and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass Production, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, September 16-18.
Fitzgerald, P. R. 1980. "Effects of Natural Exposure of Cattle and Swine to
Anaerobically Digested Sludge." Proceedings of Symposium on Utilization of
Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass Production,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, September 16-18.
Franks, W. A., Persinger, M., lob, A., and Inyangetor, P. 1980. "Utilization of Sewage
Effluent and Sludge to Reclaim Soil Contaminated by Toxic Fumes from a Zinc
Smelter." Proceedings of Symposium on Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and
Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass Production, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
September 16-18.
Haghiri, F., and Sutton, P. 1980. "Vegetation Establishment on Acidic Mine Spoils
as Influenced by Sludge Application." Proceedings of Symposium on Utilization
of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass
Production, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, September 16-18.
Harvey, D. Michael. 1978. "Paradise Regained? Surface Mining Control and Reclamation
Act of 1977." Houston Law Review, Vol. 15., p. 1147.
Hinesly, T. D., Redborg, K. E., Ziegler, E. J., and Rose-Innes, I. H. 1980. "Effects
of Chemical and Physical Changes in Strip-Mined Spoil Amended with Sewage
Sludge on the Uptake of Metals by Plants." Proceedings of Symposium on
Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass
Production, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, September 16-18.
Hinkle, K. R. 1980. "Use of Municipal Sludge in the Reclamation of Abandoned Pyrite
Mines in Virginia." Proceedings of Symposium on Utilization of Municipal
Wastewater and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass Production, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, September 16-18.
Hoitink, H. A., and Watson, M. E. 1980. "Reclamation of Acidic Strip-Mine with
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478 Engineering Assessment
Papermill Sludge." Proceedings of Symposium on Utilization of Municipal
Wastewater and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass Production, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, September 16-18.
Hornick, S. B. 1980. "Crop Production on Waste Amended Gravel Spoils." Proceedings
of Symposium on Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Land
Reclamation and Biomass Production, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, September 16-18.
Kerr, S. N., and Sopper, W. E. 1980. "Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge
for Forest Biomass Production on Marginal and Disturbed Land." Proceedings of
Symposium on Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Land
Reclamation and Biomass Production, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, September 16-18.
Kerr, S. N., and Sopper, W. E. 1980. "One Alternative to Ocean Disposal of Sludge:
Recycling Through Land Reclamation." Proceedings of Symposium on Utilization
of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass
Production, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, September 16-18.
Lambert, D, H., and Weidensaul, C. 1980. "Use of Sewage Sludge for Tree Seedling
and Christmas Tree Production." Proceedings of Symposium on Utilization of
Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass Production,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, September 16-18.
Lewis, R. S. 1977. "Sludge Farming of Refinery Wastes as Practiced at Exxon's Bayway
Refinery and Chemical Plant," pages 87-92 in: Disposal of Residues on Land,
Proc. National Conf., Information Transfer, Inc., Rockville, Maryland.
Lo, P. M., Haug, R. T., and Davis, B. 1980. "Field Demonstration of Sewage Sludge
Application to Land: Implication on Health Risk Assessment of Sludge Compost
Reuse in the Western U.S." 53rd Annual Water Pollution Control Federation
Conference, Session 32, Land Treatment, Las Vegas, Nevada. October 1.
Loehr, R. C., Jewell, W. J., Novak, J. D., Clarkson, W. W., and Friedman, G. S. 1979.
Land Application of Wastes, Vol. I & II, 300 and 512 pages, respectively. Van
Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York.
Maneval, D. R. 1980. "The Basic Need for and Values Gained from Reclaiming
Strip-Mined and Other Disturbed Areas." Proceedings of Symposium on Utilization
of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass
Production, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, September 16-18.
McGinnies, N. J., and Nicholas, P. J. 1980. "Effects of Topsoil Thickness and Nitrogen
Fertilizer on the Revegetation of Coal Mine Spoils." J. of Environ. Qual., Vol
9 (no. 4) pp. 681-685.
Morrison, D. G., and Hardell, J. 1980. "The Response of Native Herbaceous Prairie
Species on Iron-Ore Tailings under Different Rates of Fertilizer and Sludge
Application." Proceedings of Symposium on Utilization of Municipal Wastewater
and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass Production, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, September 16-18.
National Archives of the United States. 1979. "Department of the Interior, Office of
Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement - Surface Coal Mining and
Reclamation Operations, Permanent Regulatory Program." Federal Register, 3
books. March 13. Book 2, p. 14901-15309. Book 3 pp. 15311-15465.
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Jewell 479
Naylor, L. M., and Loehr, R. C. 1981. "Increase in Dietary Cadmium as a Result
of Application of Sewage Sludge to Agricultural Land." J. Environmental Science
and Technology. Vol. 15, No. 8, pp. 881-886.
New York D.E.C. 1980. "Sewage and Septage Treatment and Disposal" Section 7.1.
1-1 through 7.1.1-27. Final Draft. December 19.
Nye, W. B., Yang, E., Futrell, J. W., Reuter, M., Kahn, F. R., Osborn, J., and Bardwell,
R. O. 1980. "Institutional, Legal, Technical and Economic Constraints in
Transportation of Sludge for Land Application to Eastern Surface Mine Sites -
A Symposium Paper." Proceedings of Symposium on Utilization of Municipal
Wastewater and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass Production, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, September 16-18.
Page, A. L. 1974. "Fate and Effects of Trace Elements in Sewage Effluent,
Environmental Protection Agency Report No. EPA-670/2-74-005. 108 pages.
Plehn, S., and Dietrich, G. L. 1980. "Municipal Sludge Management Rules and
Regulations" 53rd WPCF Conference, Las Vegas, Nevada. October 1.
Peterson, J. R., Lue-Hing, C., Gschwind, J., Pletz, R. I., and Zenz, D. R. 1980.
"Metropolitan Chicago's Fulton County Sludge Utilization Program." Proceedings
of Symposium on Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Land
Reclamation and Biomass Production, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, September 16-18.
Roth, P. L., Weaver, G. T., and Morin, M. 1980. "Restoration of a Woody Ecosystem
on a Sludge-Amended Devastated Mine-Site." Proceedings of Symposium on
Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass
Production, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, September 16-18.
Schaller, F. W., and Sutton, P. (eds.). 1978. Chapter 20 "Use of Municipal Sewage
Sludge in Reclamation of Soils." In: Reclamation of Drastically Disturbed Lands.
Am. Soc. of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin.
Sommer, L. E., Nelson, D. W., and Yost, K. J. 1976. "Variable Nature of Chemical
Composition of Sewage Sludge," /. of Environ. Quality, 5, pp. 303-306.
Sopper, W. E., and Kerr, S. N. 1980a. "Mine Land Reclamation With Municipal
Sludge—Pennsylvania's Demonstration Program." Proceedings of Symposium on
Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass
Production, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, September 16-18.
Sopper, W. E., and Kerr, S. N. 1980b. "Revegetating Strip-Mined Land With Municipal
Sewage Sludge." Proceedings of Symposium on Utilization of Municipal Wastewater
and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass Production, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, September 16-18.
Sopper, W. E., and Kerr, S. N. 1980c. "Strip Mine Reclamation Demonstration
Project—Blue Lick Site, Somerset County." Institute for Research on Land and
Water Resources. The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.
Steenhuis, T. S. 1981. Personal communication.
Troemper, A. P. 1974. "The Economics of Sludge Irrigation." In: Municipal Sludge
Management, Proc. of the National Conf., Information Transfer, Inc., Rockville,
Md. pp. 115-121.
Urie, D. H., Losche, C. K., and McBride, F. D. 1980. "Leachate Quality in Acid
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Mine-Spoil Columns and Field Plots Treated with Municipal Sewage Sludge."
Proceedings of Symposium on Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge
for Land Reclamation and Biomass Production, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
September 16-18.
U.S. Congress. "Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977." Public Law
95-87, August 3, 1977.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1976. "Municipal Sludge Management: EPA
Construction Grants Program," U. S. Environmental Protection Agency Report
No. EPA-430/9-76-009. MCD-30. 64 pages.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1977. "Municipal Sludge Management," Federal
Register, Wednesday, Nov. 2, Part IV, Vol. 42, Number 211, page 57420.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1978. "Needs Survey: Conveyance and
Treatment of Municipal Wastewater, Summaries of Technical Data." EPA
43019-79-002. FRD-2. 152 pages.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1980a. Office of Water Program Operations.
"A Guide to Regulations and Guidance for the Utilization and Disposal of
Municipal Sludge." Washington, D.C. September.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1980b. Distribution and Marketing of Sewage
Sludge Products. "Pre-Proposal Draft Regulation. CFR Part 258 - Sewage Sludge
Disposal. May 6.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, and U.S.
Dept. of Agriculture. 1981. "Land Application of Municipal Sewage Sludge for
the Production of Fruits and Vegetables." Washington, D.C. January.
Water Research Center. 1979. "Utilization of Sewage Sludge on Land." United
Kingdom, Oxford, England.
Williams, B. M. 1979. "The Animal Health Risks From the Use of Sewage Sludge on
Pastures." Water Research Center "Utilization of Sewage Sludge on Land" p.
177-190. Oxford, England.
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32
UTILIZATION OF MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER AND
SLUDGE FOR LAND RECLAMATION AND BIOMASS
PRODUCTION--AN ENGINEERING ASSESSMENT OF
ITS POTENTIAL IN THE WESTERN UNITED STATES
L. Gene Suhr
Introduction
"It is safe to say that despite many years of research and operational
experience the most difficult problem facing municipal wastewater treatment
agencies today is disposal of the sludge generated" (18). Regardless of the
methodology employed to treat wastewater, a residue (sludge) will remain.
This sludge residue poses both a problem difficult to solve, and an
opportunity offering significant reclamation potential.
As a problem, sludge is certainly significant: Current annual U.S.
municipal sludge production is variously estimated to range between 3.3 and
4.5 million metric tons (17,29) (tonnes, dry basis). This volume will
inevitably increase as more municipalities must provide secondary levels of
treatment in accordance with Federal law. Sludge disposal is also an expensive
undertaking. Conservatively estimated, nearly $1 billion is spent annually
to handle the 4 million dry tonnes of sludge, when all costs and credits
involved in sludge processing, transportation, and disposal are considered.
Municipal sludge is also a significant resource. Aside from the value
of its organic matter content, the N, P, and K contained in 4 million dry
tonnes per year of digested sludge (approximately 160,000, 120,000, 12,400
tonnes, respectively) would provide sufficient fertilizer to meet the average
requirements for nearly 2 million acres of cropland per year.
Unfortunately, the application of sludge to lands which are, or may
be used for agricultural purposes (particularly growing food chain crops),
has been and will likely remain highly controversial. Realistically, the
ultimate repository for sludge must be the land. Federal legislation calls for
ending dumping of harmful sludges by December 31, 1981. Although some
sludge will undoubtedly continue to be incinerated or otherwise burned,
it seems logical to conclude that a large portion of current and future
municipal sludge will ultimately wind up on the land. Basically, this suggests
that there is an increasing need to plan environmentally sound, cost-effective,
land-based systems for sludge disposition. Such systems will include landfills,
agricultural/silvicultural use, and perhaps increasingly land reclamation.
Revegetation of disturbed lands is a current area of active sludge
application testing. The new Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act
of 1977 (Section 515 of Public Law 95-87) states that a permanent vegetative
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482 Engineering Assessment
cover of the same seasonal variety native to the area of land to be affected
must be established and must be capable of self-regeneration and plant
succession to at least equal the extent of cover of the natural vegetation
of the area. The Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement
(OSM), established under the law, has recommended performance standards
for meeting the revegetation requirements. The OSM recommendations,
which follow, can provide significant guidance for future
reclamation/revegetation testing:
1. Ground cover and productivity of living plants on the revegetated
area shall be equal to that of an approved reference area,
2. The period of responsibility initiates when ground cover equals
the approved standard after the last year of augmented seeding,
fertilizing, irrigation or other work which ensures success.
3. In areas of more than 26.0 inches of average annual precipitation,
the period of extended responsibility will continue for not less
than 5 years. In areas with 26.0 inches of precipitation or less,
the period of responsibility will continue for not less than 10 years.
4. In both cases, the ground cover and productivity shall equal the
approved standard for the last 2 consecutive years of the
responsibility period.
5. The ground cover and productivity of the revegetated area shall
be considered equal if they are at least 90 percent of that of the
approved reference area.
The purpose of this paper is to present an engineering assessment of
the feasibility of reclamation and revegetation of disturbed lands or
enhancing forest productivity/biomass production while beneficially
disposing of municipal sludge. The assessment is presented in four sections:
Environmental, Social, and Engineering Concerns; Research Results; Research
Needs; and Conclusions. This assessment is intended to be directed at the
western United States, although it must (because of the available research)
draw heavily on the results of work carried out in eastern states.
The basis for this engineering assessment is in part information presented
in the technical papers presented at a 3-day symposium: "Utilization of
Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass
Production" held in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on September 16-18, 1980.
Additional information was also gathered from visits to reclamation sites
and from the literature.
Environmental, Social, and Engineering Concerns
Municipal sewage sludge, even though treated by a variety of processes to
reduce pathogens, is not a sterile material. In addition, it may contain
significant amounts of deleterious materials including certain heavy metals,
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Suhr 483
chlorinated hydrocarbons, pesticides, and the like. Its organic nitrogen
content (often about 50 percent of total nitrogen) mineralizes in soils to
form ammonia nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen, which may lead to ground
water contamination by nitrates. Ova of parasitic worms and bacterial spores
resist inactivation (except by heat or radiation) and may persist for relatively
long times in sludge-amended soils. These potential problems need to be
addressed carefully by the professionals responsible for feasibility studies
and any subsequent planning of potential land-based sludge application
projects.
The general public probably prefers not to think much about sludge.
From their viewpoint, sludge may well be a waste material of questionable
value that is potentially dangerous and is best placed somewhere, anywhere,
but a long way from their "front door." The general public will agree that
"something" needs to be done with sludge, and will usually agree that a
properly designed land application system is acceptable, as long as it is not
too close to "them." On the other hand, certain special interest groups tend
to be more specific with their concerns. They tend towards a
"quasi-scientific" approach, demanding absolute answers to a seemingly
endless list of "what if questions. Termed a "core opposition group" by
one author (7), such groups are often formed specifically to oppose a project.
However, traditional environmental groups, such as the National Wildlife
Federation, Sierra Club, National Resource Defense Council, and others with
similar names, have typically not mobilized their membership against
well-conceived and planned projects (8).
Regulations
The institutional framework of agencies having (or desiring to have)
jurisdiction over land application projects is often complex, and review and
approval processes can be lengthy, as illustrated on Figure 32-1 (7).
Regulatory aspects of sludge disposal are carried out principally by the
United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and its counterpart
state organizations. Strict regulation of sludge disposal is relatively recent;
but, in spite of its short history, is complex and is becoming increasingly
more so. Beginning in about 1975, the EPA adopted a series of regulations
that have placed restrictions on incineration, ocean dumping, land disposal,
and land spreading of sludges. Under the authority provided in both the
Clean Water Act and the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, the EPA
has promulgated a set of interim final regulations for land disposal of sludges
from publicly owned treatment works. As of this writing final regulations
to supplant the interim final regulations have not been published. In addition,
many states have adopted similar regulations that in some cases (e.g.,
Pennsylvania) are more stringent than the interim Federal standards.
In some rare instances, municipal sewage sludge may be classified as
a hazardous waste under the terms of the Resource Conservation and
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484 Engineering Assessment
NATIONAL
OFFICE OF WATER PROGRAMS OPERATIONS -
CONSTRUCTION GRANTS
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES
s „ ENFORCEMENT POLICY
CONSTRUCTION GRANTS REVIEW
FEDERAL <, L REGIONAL < SOLID WASTE PROGRAM REVIEW
L ENFORCEMENT
OFFICE OF SURFACE MINING-NATIONAL GUIDELINES
U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS
WASTE WATER PROGRAMS
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY (SURFACE WATER, GROUND WATER, SOILS, ETC.)
STATE •! SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
PUBLIC HEALTH
AGRICULTURE
TRANSPORTATION
f LAND USE
I CONSERVATION/ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY
LOCAL S
(RECEIVING PUBLIC HEALTH *AOWT|D.:RO»
COMMUNITY] ^ SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Figure 32-1. Types of Agencies Having Jurisdiction Over Land Application*
Recovery Act. For example, the sludge must be considered a hazardous waste
if the appropriate extraction procedure testing of a specific sludge sample
results in a leachate with concentrations of any chemicals equal to or
exceeding 100 times the EPA's drinking water standard. If a particular sewage
sludge is found to be a hazardous waste, then any land application project
using such a sludge would have to be classified as a hazardous waste disposal
facility and hence would be subject to very strict safeguards.
Regulations concerning sewage sludge disposal in land application
projects are in a rapid state of change. Here again, the professionals
responsible for potential or actual projects must keep themselves apprised
of the current regulations, and attempt to predict the probable future content
or revision of such regulations.
From an engineering viewpoint, designers of land application sludge
disposal systems seek four major elements in a successful project. The system
should be: implementable; environmentally sound; as economical as possible;
and adequately long-lived, predictable, flexible, and reliable. This is not to
say that there must be 100 percent "iron-clad" assurance that there will
be no problems, but rather that there be a high degree of probable success
associated with a project. Failing this, the engineer's "comfort level" may
be drastically lowered and his response, firmly rooted in engineering ethics,
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Suhr 485
may well be to turn to more proven, albeit less innovative and more costly,
techniques.
Research Results
A series of technical papers generally concerned with land application of
municipal sewage sludge was presented at this symposium. The full texts
of these papers are presented elsewhere in this publication. For the sake
of brevity, these papers are neither abstracted nor extensively quoted in
this assessment. It is of interest, however, to attempt to summarize and
to paraphrase the general consensus of the various researchers' findings as
presented at this conference.
Of the technical papers presented, 22 were based on actual in-situ
research. A variety of forms of sewage sludges were tested by these
researchers, including liquid digested sludge, dewatered digested sludge,
heat-dried digested sludge, composted digested sludge with amendments,
mixtures of composted digested sludge with amendments, and dewatered
digested sludge and kraft paper mill sludges. Application rates tested ranged
from less than 10 dry tonnes per hectare to more than 900 dry tonnes
per hectare. In most cases, the various treatments were replicated, and control
plots were extensively employed. Nine papers reported the results of leachate
quality tests and 13 papers reported on the results of plant tissue analyses.
Nineteen papers reported quantitative growth response data, while only seven
papers presented even sketchy cost information.
A variety of site conditions (many of them sites devastated by surface
mining activities) were investigated. In many instances these sites represented
what could be considered to be totally hostile environments for revegetation;
yet in nearly all cases, the researchers demonstrated that vegetation could
be successfully reestablished through the use of a regime including the
extensive use of municipal sewage sludge. Sites in 14 states were represented
by the 22 research papers presented. Of these 14 states, only 3, New Mexico,
Oklahoma, and Washington, are western states. One paper (19) presented
the results of extensive research dealing with the potential uptake of parasites
and heavy metals by swine and cattle as a result of contact with either
ground or forage subjected to municipal sewage sludge application. Table
32-1 presents a classification of these papers (1-29).
Symposium participants agreed nearly unanimously that potential
ground water pollution, either by migrating heavy metals or nitrate
contamination, did not pose a serious problem as long as appropriate loadings
and agronomic practices were followed. There was less unanimity of opinion
as to the uptake of heavy metals by plant tissue. As reported elsewhere
in the literature, such uptake is related to the type of crop, soil type, and
soil pH. Researchers tended to agree that noncomposted sewage sludges
-------
486 Engineering Assessment
Table 32-1. Classification of Papers Presented at the "Utilization of Municipal
Wastewater and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass Production"
Symposium.
oj
Iz
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
1 7
1 /
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
•H c
cn a
• 1 c
3 C <
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
0 to u
D 01 a)
o 01 a
U 01 O
fi K i-3
PA
PA
—
—
~
—
—
WV
OK
MN
SC
WA
OH
TN, GA
NM
IL
IL
IL
IL
IL
WI
WI
WA
OH
OH
MD
—
PA
01 4->
4J CO
1 H
C, AI
A, B, C,
D, E
—
—
—
-_
—
D
A
Effluent
Bl
B, A
B
B
G, B
A
A
A
A (10%)
B
B
B
F
B, F
I)
—
D, E
O m m
opsr*
Yes
Yes
—
—
-
—
—
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes-
animal
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
—
Yes
n) to co
Yes
Yes
—
—
-
—
—
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
—
Yes
CO CO ro
rH -H C
No
Yes
—
—
—
—
—
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Yes-
animal
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
—
Yes
}j
CO S
0 0
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
' No
No
No
Yes
No
i
pi
Regulations of Surface
Mining Act
Biomass Production
Research continuing
Philadelphia Program
Pennsylvania Regulations
Institute of Research
Sludge transportation
Greenhouse studies
Research continuing
Research continuing
Sludge data forthcoming
Excellent reference
$15,000 per hectare
Greenhouse export, field
lysimeter
Overview paper
Describes Philadelphia
program
A = Liquid digested sludge, A1 = sec. effluent
B
C ~ Heat dried sludge
D - Composted digested sludge with amendment
E • D + B
F » Dewatered kraft mill sludge
G - Straw or other mulch
-------
Suhr 487
tended to promote competition by weeds, but this does not seem to be
an insurmountable problem. Some researchers (13,33) pointed out that
animal browsing of trees planted in sewage-sludge-amended soils seemed to
be more prevalent than that which occurred in nonamended similar stands
nearby. Foliar uptake of heavy metals by tree species was found to be greater
in sludge-amended soils than nonamended soils (13,31,33). The long-term
impact of browsing wildlife as a result of such increased heavy metals
concentrations is now being studied (33); the testing on swine and cattle
mentioned earlier may provide some insight and guidance.
Revegetation of Disturbed Lands
A variety of sludge application methods have been studied; however, most
of the work to date concerned with reclamation of drastically disturbed
lands has utilized dewatered sludge cakes dried so that conventional
land-spreading techniques could be used. Incorporation into the soil on such
projects has tended to be through the use of chisel plow techniques, which
produces enough furrowing to leave an irregular land surface. Such techniques
not only minimize potential erosion, but are substantially less costly than
deep plowing or tilling techniques, which may often not be feasible due
to the rocky nature of the surface to which sludge is to be applied. Seeding
techniques studied have almost invariably employed seed mixtures containing
both grasses and legumes. The grasses establish themselves rapidly, and act
as a nurse crop for the slower growing legumes that begin to predominate
in later years.
Beginning in 1973, the University of Washington, College of Forest
Resources, began studies to investigate the feasibility of applying both
municipal wastewater and sludge to forest ecosystems. The results of their
extensive research were reported at a symposium: "Municipal Sewage Waste
Application to Lands in the Pacific Northwest" (July 8-10, 1980-Seattle,
Washington; the proceedings of this symposium were published in early 1981,
and may be obtained by contacting Professor Caroline Bledsoe, College of
Forest Resources, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195).
In the University of Washington research, two distinctly different
methods of sludge application were tested. One method involved the use
of dewatered sludge spread directly on sites cleared for the establishment
of new tree plantations. On some sites the sludge was spread by truck and
was incorporated into the soil layer using a construction disk. On other
sites, the sludge was left on the surface and sowed with a grain crop. In
either case, it proved necessary to age the applied sludge for a period of
about 1 year before tree seedlings could be successfully established.
The second system of sludge application involved the hydraulic spraying
of liquid sludge containing approximately 10 percent solids. This system
proved advantageous for application of sludge to existing tree stands, and
for use in reaching off-road areas that could not be traversed by trucks.
-------
488 Engineering Assessment
The Washington research has included a number of public health studies.
These included heavy metals analyses, coliform analyses, limited virus and
other pathogenic organism analyses, and studies to determine the fate of
nitrogen.
In generals the movement of cadmium and lead into the soil was found
to be very limited. Nickel, on the other hand, was found to move more
rapidly into the underlying soil, progressing about 10 centimeters in a year's
time. Extensive ground water monitoring at a depth of 10 meters did not
indicate any adverse change in ground water heavy metal concentrations,
even at the relatively high sludge dosages (200 dry tonnes per hectare) tested.
Although heavy metals remained relatively immobile in the soil, research
has indicated selective uptake, particularly by the understory species
prevalent in mature forests. For example, thistle occurring in sludge-amended
soils accumulated 15 times as much cadmium as it did on control plots,
while blackberry and salal (Gaultheria shallon) accumulated only 5 to 6 times
as much. In no event, however, did heavy metal uptakes approach phytotoxic
levels. The studies indicated that less than 1/10 of 1 percent of the heavy
metal content of sludge will be assimilated by plant cover during the first
year following application.
As is the case with other research, little evidence was found of
downward migration of coliform into the soil, and no evidence was found
of fecal coliform contamination in the ground water table directly beneath
sludge-treated areas. Coliform residence time in the sludge itself was found
to be less than 2 years after application.
The fate of nitrogen in sludge-treated forest sites is not yet fully clear.
The Washington research has indicated that within 2 months after application
up to 40 percent of the nitrogen content of the sludge had disappeared.
The loss was determined to be principally in the form of gaseous ammonia
losses; however, on cleared sites where sludge was mixed with soil, as much
as 9.1 percent of the applied nitrogen was lost as leachable nitrates. In
general, however, leachable nitrate losses were more commonly in the range
of 1 to 2 percent of total applied nitrogen.
Nitrogen in sludge may be biologically converted to either the ammonia
or nitrate forms. That these are the two forms in which nitrogen may most
easily be lost from the soil is supported by numerous researchers. Since
the conversion of nitrogen to the leachable nitrate form can create potential
water pollution problems, ways to minimize microbial activity should be
helpful in preventing nitrate problems. Vogt (34) and her co-workers have
postulated that high carbon content admixtures, when blended with sludge,
could accomplish this. Their research indicates that admixtures that produce
higher carbon-to-nitrogen ratios (sawdust for example) are helpful in reducing
the amount of nitrogen microbiologically converted to leachable nitrates.
The use of sludge in the forest ecosystem promotes the growth of an
extensive weed cover, which will compete directly with trees for both space
-------
Suhr 489
and moisture. This weed cover can be particularly troublesome in cases where
new plantations are being established. In addition to competing for space,
moisture, and nutrients, weed cover provides an excellent habitat for rodents.
In turn, the increased rodent population is quite harmful to the tree seedlings,
since the gnawing activities of the rodents results in tree girdling and
subsequent mortality. Washington research indicates that the weed problem
may be expensive (perhaps $200 per hectare) to control, and that cultivation
is a superior control method over the use of herbicides.
All of the small trees established in sludge-amended plantations exhibit
more luxurious growth with higher protein content than do seedlings grown
in control plots. The Washington research has indicated that browsing animals
such as deer will preferentially seek such seedlings for browsing. The
extensive browsing is injurious to the trees, and appears to be difficult to
control by means other than fencing. In addition to the potential damage
to plantations caused by rodents and browsing animals, the question remains
as to the possible impact of toxic substances in the sludge on wildlife.
Research has indicated that foliar heavy metal uptake does occur, but the
impact on mammals is not known. This is the subject of ongoing research
being undertaken by Professors West and Taber at the University of
Washington. Studies underway include patterns of habitat use by blacktail
deer, analysis of deer foraging patterns, determination of heavy metal
concentrations in deer and small animals, changes in small mammals species
composition on sludge deposition sites, and documentation of heavy metal
uptake rates in the small mammals.
Applying sludge directly to existing timber stands can avoid many of
the difficulties associated with weed and animal control on younger stands.
Professor Cole (13) at the University of Washington believes that typical
Northwest forest stands up to 50 years in age can benefit significantly from
the application of liquid sludge applied by spraying from a tanker.
Application on the older stands can be done at any time; however, spraying
of the younger stands of timber would necessitate washing the sludge off
the foilage in order to prevent interference with photosynthesis, unless the
spraying were done during the rainy season. The growth response of timber
is, not surprisingly, much greater for sites established in low productivity
soils. Tillman and Schreuder (30) have investigated the economics of sludge
utilization as a forest soils amendment. Their work has resulted in the
establishment of methods for projecting the potential economic return, which
may be achieved through the use of cost/benefit projections.
In summary, sludge loadings ranging from 10 to 900 tonnes per hectare
have been studied in conjunction with revegetation of disturbed lands. The
higher loadings tended to produce poor vegetative response and promoted
undesirable concentrations of contaminants in the leachate and foilage.
Application rates in the range of 100 to 200 tonnes per hectare showed
excellent vegetative response and little or no tendency to cause significant
contamination of ground water or foilage.
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490 Engineering Assessment
Large-Scale Reclamation Projects
The most recent large-scale reclamation projects are located in western
Pennsylvania and have been extremely well monitored. In these projects (36)
a mixture of about one-half dewatered, digested sludge from Philadelphia
and one-half composted dewatered, digested sludge (with wood chips added
in the ratio of 2 to 1) has been used. Loading rates of 132 tonnes per
hectare were applied, resulting in additions of 1.05, 1.11, and 0.17 tonnes
per hectare of N, P, and K respectively. Table 32-2 shows concentrations
of constituents in the sludge mixture applied and compares the loadings
applied according to Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources
(PDER) and EPA recommendations. These projects have shown no evidence
of ground water contamination, plant toxicity, or other undesirable side
effects, while still providing excellent revegetation response.
Other Pennsylvania reclamation projects have been carried out, using
a sludge amendment composed solely of composted dewatered digested
sludge (with a 2 to 1 ratio of wood chips) from Philadelphia applied at
a rate of 200 tonnes per hectare. These have been equally as successful
as the mixed compost/dewatered sludge; however, current PDER regulations
for zinc, copper, lead, nickel, and cadmium residues would have been
exceeded by this material and dosage. The added nutrient levels of N, P,
and K respectively were 0.73, 0.46, and 0.18 tonnes per hectare. This
illustrates one of the significant impacts of composting, i.e., loss of volatile
nutrients and carbon, resulting in a concentration of fixed matter including
heavy metals.
An earlier large-scale example of reclamation began in April 1974 at
the AMAX, Inc. Urad Mine near Empire, Colorado. This project which used
Table 32-2. Comparison of Recent PA Experience (36) in Sludge Application in
Stripmine Reclamation with PDER and EPA Regulations Concerning Trace Metals.
MAXIMUM ALLOWED BY
TRACE
METAL
Zn
Cu
Cr
Pb
Ni
Cd
HVJ
'Depends on
ACTUALLY
APPLIED
kg/Ha
197
80
53
60
13
06
007
EPA
(AGRICULTURAL
LANDS)*
kg/Ha
280-1200
140-560
N/A
560-2240
140-560
6-22
N/A
PDEH
AGRICULTURAL
LANDS
kg/Ha
134
67
67
67
13
3
02
NON-
AGRICULTURAL
RECLAMATION
kg/Ha
224
112
112
112
22
3
06
Soil CEC - minmum-maximum range shown
-------
Suhr 491
over 3,800 dry tonnes of dewatered, digested sewage sludge (from the
Metropolitan Denver Sewage Disposal District No. 1) has been very
successful, and in 1981 received the National Environmental Industry Award
from the President's Council on Environmental Quality (39,40).
Three major waste products were used to reclaim the tailing areas: waste
rock from a nearby mine; dewatered, digested sewage sludge; and waste wood
chips from a sawmill in the area. The waste rock was generated during the
development of another AMAX mining operation, the nearby Henderson
Mine. The source of the rock was 4,000 to 5,000 feet underground where
it was being excavated as mine tunnels were being created. The granite rock
was a sterile growth medium and would require the addition of organic
matter.
One source of organic matter was sewage sludge obtained from the
Metropolitan Denver Sewage Disposal District No. 1, located 87 miles away
from the Urad tailing area. Additional organic matter was provided by waste
wood chips from a sawmill pole-peeling operation in Frazer, Colorado,
located 23 miles away from the reclamation project. The objective of the
approach was to initiate a rapid development of a mature soil under highly
adverse conditions. The tailing areas then were seeded with a carefully
researched mixture of grasses and herbs. Trees and shrubs were also planted.
The tailing areas were first seeded with various grasses. The areas were
irrigated only during the first growing season to ensure germination and
establishing of growth. The mixture of grass seeds-developed from previous
company-sponsored research—included smooth brome, timothy, meadow
foxtail, creeping foxtail, orchard grass, red top, red fescue, hard fescue,
Kentucky bluegrass, cicer milkvetch, white clover and an annual ryegrass.
A year after the initial seeding—when grass growth was high enough
to protect seedlings from the sun and freezing winds—trees and shrubs were
planted. To date, the company has planted a total of 39,000 tree and shrub
seedlings at Urad. The trees were planted in the protection of shingle slats
and consisted of evergreens, including Engelmann spruce, lodgepole pine,
bristlecone pine, subalpine fir and limber pine. Other plantings included
aspen, willows and other vegetation native to the area. Approximately 20
different species of shrubs have been planted. In general, vegetation has
surpassed expectations for the initial 6-year growth period. Tree seedlings
and shrubs are still protected from the sun and wind by shingle slats, but
grass planted on tailing sites during the early stage of reclamation now stands
waist-high in areas.
Tree seedlings and shrubs planted on the tailing sites have experienced
a 50 to 60 percent survival rate. The rate was not expected to be higher
due to the nature of the climate and excessive exposure to freezing winter
winds. Reforestation in the more protected areas of the valley, such as road
cuts, has shown a plus-90 percent survival.
The valley today is green and stable. A vigorous, productive and diverse
-------
492 Engineering Assessment
stand of vegetation now exists. The diversity is increasing yearly with the
invasion ot native species from the surrounding area. It is anticipated that
the vegetation will be self-sustaining within 5 years, far sooner than originally
anticipated.
Research Needs
The use of municipal sewage sludges as an adjunct to reclamation and
revegetation of disturbed lands as well as improving biomass yields is
becoming increasingly well documented. A need does, however, exist for
additional information. Specifically recommended additional research is
needed in the following areas:
1. Effects of sludge-amended vegetation on wild animals.
2. Growth response of vegetation grown in sludge-amended soils in
areas of sparse precipitation.
3. Effects of uncomposted sludge on seed germination.
4. Economics of land reclamation and revegetation using
sludge-amendments, with emphasis on transportation, application,
and monitoring costs.
In particular, the use of sludge-amendments to soils in areas of sparse
precipitation has not been as well studied as similar uses in areas of more
generous precipitation. For example, all but one of the actual field research
studies reported at this symposium was conducted in areas having mean
annual precipitation rates in excess of 66 centimeters. Except for the Pacific
Northwest west of the Cascade Mountains and the other western
mountainous areas, this is a far greater annual precipitation than found in
most of the western United States. The mean annual precipitation in those
areas in which significant field studies have occurred is graphically shown
on Figure 212-2.
Insufficient information currently exists concerning determination of
the costs associated with initial surface preparation and necessary follow-up
monitoring activities for land reclamation projects. Such information as is
available suggests that monitoring costs may be relatively high, particularly
where a relatively large number of separate small reclamation projects are
involved. It is probable that a data base already exists to allow the
computation of these costs; however, the current literature is notably lacking
in such information.
The current literature also lacks recommendations as to what may be
an appropriate amount of monitoring activity to ensure environmentally
sound projects. In this respect, the state of Pennsylvania seems to lead the
way with the passage on September 5, 1980 of their Act 97, which imposes
guidelines for sewage sludge use for land reclamation. These guidelines are
based on extensive research and include not only loading factors (both for
-------
Suhr
493
1
c
3
0)
CM
CM
co
-------
494 Engineering Assessment
nitrogen and trace metals) but site suitability, site preparation, and
monitoring activities. Two onsite investigations of the site are required before
any spreading of sludge. The initial investigation includes review by soil
scientists and hydrogeologists. The second investigation is made after all
proposed erosion and sedimentation control and monitoring devices are in
place.
As a. part of Pennsylvania's permitting process, soils are analyzed for
metal content and pH and, if necessary, lime is added to adjust the pH
prior to sludge application. The regulations require that the soil pH at land
reclamation sites be adjusted to 6.0 or greater within the first year of initial
sludge application, and to 6.5 within the second year. A further requirement
is that a pH of 6.5 be maintained for 2 years after final sludge application.
Chemical and bacteriological analyses are required. At least three samples
must be collected from monitoring wells and lysimeters before sludge
application, and the sample points are checked monthly for a period of
1 year after sludge application. Samples collected before the sludge is applied
and for the first 3 months following application must be analyzed for pH,
chlorides, nitrate nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen, organic nitrogen, iron,
aluminum, manganese, copper, zinc, chromium, cobalt, lead, cadmium,
nickel, and total and fecal coliform. Samples collected during the fourth
through the eleventh months following sludge application must be analyzed
for pH, ammonia nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen, zinc, copper, lead, cobalt, nickel,
cadmium, chromium, and total coliform. Initial soil samples taken prior to
sludge application must be analyzed for pH and cation exchange capacity.
In addition, soil samples covering the entire soil profile (obtained from pits
used to install the lysimeters) are to be analyzed both before sludge
application and 1 year after sludge application for pH, Bray phosphorus,
calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, iron, aluminum, manganese, copper,
zinc, chromium, cobalt, lead, cadmium, nickel, and Kjeldahl nitrogen. In
addition, vegetation samples taken after the first growing season are to be
analyzed for nitrogen, potassium, magnesium, aluminum, copper, chromium,
lead, nickel, phosphorus, calcium, iron, manganese, zinc, cobalt, and
cadmium.
Conclusions
The use of municipal sewage sludge in the reclamation and revegetation of
devastated lands has been quite extensively investigated. The results to date
have been encouraging and environmentally beneficial, especially from test
applications on lands disturbed by mining activities. Many mining activities
bring to the ground surface spoils that weather to cause extremely low pH
conditions but have essentially no organic content. This type of condition
apparently can be ameliorated more successfully through the incorporation
-------
Suhr 495
of municipal sewage sludge than by conventional reclamation techniques,
which essentially involve only the addition of pH control, commercial
fertilizers, and mulching. The recent passage of the Surface Mining, Control,
and Reclamation Act requires restoration of lands disturbed by mining
activities and will undoubtedly provide considerable opportunity for
utilization of sludge for this purpose. When properly carried out, restoration
projects in areas of abundant rainfall have proven to be extremely
satisfactory, and these projects provide a sound design basis for additional
projects. However, the potential for accomplishing revegetation in the
semi-arid regions of the Western states is not as well documented. A need
exists to attempt demonstration projects in such areas.
The use of municipal sewage sludge to enhance forest productivity has
been quite extensively studied in the Pacific Northwest and this research
is continuing. Results are encouraging enough to make investigation at the
facilities planning level reasonable. Additional work, particularly in the area
of sludge delivery and application, is necessary to develop a more definitive
overall cost estimate. Research to date in the Pacific Northwest forests seems
to indicate that application of sludge to existing forest stands may be more
economical and perhaps more environmentally trouble free than the use of
sludge to establish new plantations. Undoubtedly, the forest ecosystem
benefits from increased productivity as a result of sludge application, and
initial attempts have been made to quantify this increased productivity in
economic terms; however, the work to date is probably not definitive enough
to form a rational basis for computing or guaranteeing an economic return
on projects based on hypothetical productivity increases alone.
Design teams associated with potential reclamation/biomass projects
must be cognizant of the need for a multiple discipline approach in their
activities. In addition to engineers, teams must include soil scientists,
hydrogeologists, agronomists, forestry specialists, chemists, biologists, and
economists. Thorough investigation must be made of the amount and
characteristics of the sludge to be applied, and projects must include a
definitive program for monitoring, before and after application. Given
appropriate attention to these types of details, it would appear that a
relatively sound basis for large scale planning of sludge
application/reclamation projects is possible.
Literature Cited
1. Maneval, David R. "The Basic Need for and Values Gained from Reclaiming Strip
Mined and Other Disturbed Areas." Utilization of Municipal Wasteteater and Sludge
for Land Reclamation and Biomass Production Symposium Proceedings and
Engineering Assessment EPA 43019-81-002 (MCD-80). Pennsylvania State
University, September 16-18, 1980. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
-------
496 Engineering Assessment
2. Kerr, Sonja N.( and Sopper, William E. "Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and
Sludge for Forest Biomass Production on Marginal and Disturbed Land." Loc.
cit.
3. Sopper, William E., and Kerr, Sonja N. "Mine Land Reclamation with Municipal
Sludge: Pennsylvania's Demonstration Program." Loc. cit.
4. Senske, Frank and Garvey, Diane. "Philadelphia's Sludge Management Program-A
Multi-Faceted Approach." Loc. cit.
5. Murray, Douglas T. and Giddings, Todd. "Implementation of the Philadelphia
Strip-Mine Reclamation Program in Somerset County, Pennsylvania." Loc. cit.
6. Pounds, William F., and Snyder, James P. "Land Reclamation of Strip-Mine Spoil
in Pennsylvania: A Regulatory Agency Review." Loc. cit.
7. Deese, Patricia L., et at. "Institutional Constraints and Public Participation Barriers
to Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Land Reclamation and
Biomass Production." A report to the President's Council on Environmental
Quality. Urban Systems Research & Engineering Inc. Cambridge, Massachusetts.
8. Nye, William B., et al. "Institutional, Legal, and Economic Constraints in
Transportation of Sludge for Land Application to Eastern Surface Mine Sites."
Loc. cit.
9. Tunison, Kevin W. "The Utilization of Sewage Sludge: Bark Screenings Compost
for the Culture of Blueberries on Acid Minespoil." Loc. cit.
10. Franks, William A. "Utilization of Sewage Effluent and Sludge to Reclaim Soil
Contaminated by Toxic Fumes from a Zinc Smelter." Loc. cit.
11. Botovsky, John P., et al. "Performance of Woody Plant Species on Iron-Ore
Overburden Material Irrigated with Sewage Effluent in Minnesota." Loc. cit.
12. Corey, J. C., et al. "Environmental Effects of Utilization of Sewage Sludge for
Biomass Production." Loc. cit.
13. Cole, Dale W. "Response of Forest Ecosystems to Sludge and Wastewater
Applications--A Case Study in Western Washington." Loc. cit.
14. Lambert, David H., and Weidensaul, Craig. "Use of Sewage Sludge for Tree Seedling
and Christmas Tree Production." Loc, cit.
15. Berry, Charles R. "Sewage Sludge Aids Reclamation of Disturbed Forest Land
in the Southeast." Loc. cit.
16. Aldon, E. F. "Use of Organic Amendments for Biomass Production on Reclaimed
Strip Mines in the Southwest." Loc. cit.
17. Peterson, James R., et al. "Metropolitan Chicago's Fulton County Sludge
Utilization Program." Loc. cit.
18. Hinesly, T. D., et al. "Effects of Chemical and Physical Changes in Strip-Mined
Spoil Amended with Sewage Sludge on the Uptake of Metals by Plants." Loc.
cit.
19. Fitzgerald, Paul R. "Effects of Natural Exposure of Cattle and Swine to
Anaerobically Digested Sludge." Loc. cit.
20. Roth, Paul L., et al. "Restoration of a Woody Ecosystem on a Sludge-Amended
Mine-Site." Loc. cit.
21. Urie, Dean H., et al. "Leachate Quality in Acid Mine-Spoil Columns and Field
Plots Treated with Municipal Sewage Sludge." Loc. cit.
-------
Suhr 497
22. Cavey, Justin V., and Bowles, James A. "Use of Sewage Sludge to Improve Taconite
Tailings as a Medium for Plant Growth." Loc. cit.
23. Morrison, Darrel G., and Hardell, Julie. "The Response of Native Herbaceous Prairie
Species on Iron-Ore Tailings Under Different Rates of Fertilizer and Sludge
Application." Loc. cit.
24. Hinkle, Kenneth R. "Use of Municipal Sludge in the Reclamation of Abandoned
Pyrite Mines in Virginia." Loc. cit.
25. Hoitink, H.A.H., and Watson, M. E. "Reclamation of Acidic Strip-Mine Spoil with
Papermill Sludge." Loc, cit.
26. Haghiri, Faz, and Sutton, Paul. "Vegetation Establishment on Acidic Mine Spoils
as Influenced by Sludge Application." Loc. cit.
27. Hornick, Sharon B. "Crop Production on Waste Amended Gravel Spoils." Loc.
cit.
28. Bastian, Robert K., et al. "The Potential for Using Municipal Wastewater and
Sludge in Land Reclamation and Biomass Production an an I/A Technology: An
Overview." Loc. cit.
29. Kerr, Sonja N., and Sopper, William E. "One Alternative to Ocean Disposal of
Sludge: Recycling Through Land Reclamation." Institute for Research on Land
and Water Resources, Pennsylvania State University.
30. Schreuder, Gerard, et al. "Economics of Sludge Disposal in Forests." Municipal
Sewage Waste Application to Lands in the Pacific Northwest Symposium.
University of Washington, July 8-10, 1980, Seattle, Washington.
31. Bledsoe, Caroline S., and Zasoski, Robert J. "Seedling Physiology of Eight Tree
Species Grown in Sludge-Amended Soils." Municipal Sewage Waste Application
to Lands in the Pacific Northwest Symposium. University of Washington, July
8-10, 1980, Seattle, Washington.
32. Zasoski, Robert J. "Heavy Metal Mobility In Sludge-Amended Soils." Loc. cit.
33. West, Stephen D., and Taber, Richard D. "Wildlife in Sludge Treated Plantations."
Loc. cit.
34. Vogt, Kristina A., et al. "Nitrate Leaching in Soils After Sludge Application."
Loc. cit.
35. Sopper, William E., and Kerr, Sonja N. "Strip Mine Reclamation Demonstration
Project, Blue Lick Site-Somerset County." Institute for Research on Land and
Water Resources, Pennsylvania State University. June 1980.
36. Sopper, William E., and Kerr, Sonja N. "Strip Mine Reclamation Project, Soberdash
Site-Somerset County" Institute for Research on Land and Water Resources.
Pennsylvania State University June 1980.
37. United States Department of the Interior, Geological Survey. The National Atlas.
June 1980.
38. Sopper, William E., and Kerr, Sonja N. "Criteria for Revegetation of Mined Land
Using Municipal Sludges." Loc. cit.
39. Brown, Larry F. "Reclamation at Climax, Urad and Henderson Mines." Mining
Congress Journal. April 1976.
40. Climax Molybdenum Co/Brown, Larry F. "National Environmental Industry Award
Entry." Private communication.
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33
UTILIZATION OF MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER AND
SLUDGE FOR LAND RECLAMATION AND BIOMASS
PRODUCTION-AN ENGINEERING ASSESSMENT OF
ITS POTENTIAL IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES
Henry G. Schwartz, Jr., and Walter D. Lehman
Introduction
The problem of sludge disposal, exacerbated by the upgrading of existing
wastewater treatment plants, the construction of new treatment plants, the
phasing out of ocean dumping, and the increasing energy costs for
incineration, is placing greater demands on landfilling and landspreading as
ultimate disposal methods. In an effort to meet these demands, along with
the added incentive provided by the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation
Act, continued research is being performed on land utilization and disposal
of sludge. Sludge utilization for the revegetation of non-productive land and
sludge disposal on forested land to increase biomass production have received
considerable attention. Incorporation of various forms of sludge into barren
soils coupled with the utilization of grasses, legumes, food crops, or trees
has been found to enhance revegetation efforts. Disposing of sludge on land
presently sustaining plant life has greatly increased the productivity of the
site. Sludge disposal on food-chain crops, however, has been the subject of
much controversy. Lack of conclusive technical information on health effects
and concern about aesthetic matters has affected public and regulatory
agency acceptance and resulted in extensive regulation.
In a closely related area, the use of raw and treated municipal
wastewaters to enhance land reclamation is being examined. The treatment
and disposal of wastewater by land application is an accepted practice, but
the use of similar techniques for land reclamation is limited.
The purpose of this paper is to assess the current status of municipal
wastewater and sludge utilization in the reclamation of disturbed and
non-vegetated land and the disposal or use of sludge on forested land in
the eastern U.S., and to determine if these systems can adequately and
routinely be used as sludge disposal alternatives. This assessment is based
principally on papers presented at the Symposium on Utilization of Municipal
Wastewater and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass Production in
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in September, 1980.
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Schwartz and Lehman 499
Performance of Wastewater Utilization and
Disposal Systems
Land application of municipal wastewater has been practiced for many years.
Design criteria and regulations are well-established. However, use of
wastewater for increased biomass production or revegetation of disturbed
and non-productive land has recently been given more attention.
Borovsky and Brooks (1980) examined irrigating iron-ore overburden
with secondary effluent. Numerous woody species were planted, irrigated,
and monitored. Application rates of 0, 5, and 10 cm/wk (0, 2, and 4 in/wk)
were used for 12 weeks. Irrigation did not substantially affect plant growth
in this study, but other research has shown more promise.
Cole (1980) performed studies on biomass production of woody and
grass species by application of secondary wastewater. Wastewater and river
water (as a control) were applied at 5 cm/wk (2 in/wk) throughout the
entire year. It was found that all species exhibited significant increases in
growth through irrigation with wastewater as compared to the controls.
Ammonia nitrogen in the wastewater showed less leaching than nitrate
nitrogen. However, those plots possessing a vegetative cover typically kept
the nitrate from reaching concentrations greater than 10 mg/1 at soil depths
of 180 cm.
Franks, et al. (1980) examined the revegetation of soil rendered
non-productive by fumes from a zinc smelter. Ten species of grass and one
of legumes were studied using combinations of sludge, secondary effluent,
fertilizer, urea, lime, mulch and water. Irrigation with the treated effluent
was not effective for adequate revegetation, whereas the sludge additive
significantly enhanced plant growth.
Sopper and Kerr (1979C) examined applying secondary effluent to
various types of soils on which different species of trees existed. At loadings
of 5 cm/wk (2 in/wk), some systems were adequate in protecting ground
water quality. However, most of the sites examined exhibited problems in
controlling ground water nitrate concentrations. One of the sites examined
had all its pine trees blown down by a snow storm. The following year
a herbaceous vegetative cover developed and subsequent analysis revealed
that ground water nitrate concentrations could be kept below 10 mg/1.
Nutter, et al. (1979) utilized an oxidation pond effluent to spray irrigate
a steep forest slope that possessed an established understory vegetation in
addition to trees. A definite increase in biomass production was observed
on the irrigated sites over the non-irrigated site. Maintaining acceptable
ground water nitrate concentrations depended upon the loading rate and
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500 Engineering Assessment
form of nitrogen applied to the site. The total nitrogen applied to the site
by the pond effluent varied from 525 kg/ha/yr when the pond was aerated
to 928 kg/ha/yr when the pond was not aerated. In addition, there was
a marked increase in the organic nitrogen loading for non-aerated effluents
over aerated effluents. It was found that ground water nitrate concentrations
could be kept below 10 mg/1 by using aerated effluent, but the
concentrations reached 16.8 mg/1 when non-aerated effluent was used for
irrigation.
Kerr and Sopper (1980) applied secondary effluent to an abandoned
agricultural field on which poplars were planted. Herbaceous growth was
not controlled and, therefore, became well-established throughout the poplar
stand. An application rate of 5 cm/wk (2 in/wk) was used from April to
October. The effluent application was effective in increasing the poplar
growth without violating ground water quality standards. The average nitrate
concentration at a 120 cm depth was 7.0 mg/1 the first year and only 8.5
mg/1 in the seventh year.
Performance of Sludge Utilization and Disposal Systems
Numerous forms of non-productive land have been studied and researched
in an attempt to develop viable methods for revegetation using sludge. These
Studies have examined various types and application rates of soil amendments
along with different species of grasses, legumes, and crops.
Hornick (1980) examined revegetation of gravel spoils with corn and
beans. A control was utilized that received 179-112-112 kg/ha (160-100-100
Ib/acre) N,P,K commercial fertilizer. Sewage sludge compost and feed lot
manure were added at 0, 40, 80, and 160 mt/ha (0, 17, 36, and 71 tons/acre)
to selected sample plots. The 40 and 80 mt/ha plots also received inorganic
nitrogen fertilizer to equal the 179 kg/ha added to the control. It was found
that the soil amendments reduced soil temperature and increased soil
moisture, resulting in increased seed germination over the control. Results
also showed an increase in biomass production for crops grown on the
amended plots with no substantial differences in the heavy metal uptake
occurring between the control and the amended plots. Leachate samples
taken at a depth of four feet revealed rapid movement of nitrates and
chlorides for the compost amended plots. The feedlot manure amended plots
showed less chloride movement than the compost plots and less nitrate
movement than the control plot.
Hinesly, et al. (1980) applied 0, 224, 448, and 896 mt/ha (0, 100,
200, and 400 tons/acre) (dry weight equivalent) of digested sewage sludge
(55% solids) to a strip mine spoil. The sludge was applied on level-ridge
terraces with manure spreaders. Disk plows were not used, however, for
incorporation of the sludge into the spoil. This prevented the development
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Schwartz and Lehman 501
of a subsurface compaction layer. Eleven species of grasses were grown, and
later strips of wheat and rye were killed with paraquat, and corn was planted
in the dead residues. The best grain yields were observed at the intermediate
loadings. The 896 mt/ha loading of sludge containing 4,230 mg Zn/kg, 276
mg Cd/kg, and 1,380 mg Cu/kg gave grain yields similar to those of the
control. Results showed that concentrations of zinc and cadmium in the
corn leaves grown on the 896 mt/ha were 297 and 15.4 mg/kg, respectively.
Sutton and Haghiri (1980) conducted studies on coal stripmine spoil
using both vacuum filtered sludge from four cities and a composted sludge
from a papermill. Greenhouse studies utilizing 11-716 mt/ha (5-320
tons/acre) of digested, vacuum filtered sludge incorporated into the top 15
cm of spoil (pH = 2.9) resulted in no response of fescue grown on two
of the sludges which contained high concentrations of heavy metals. The
plant growth response to the other sludges increased as the loading rates
increased. Additional tests, conducted on the leachate, determined that
nitrate leaching reached a peak during the late winter and early spring when
the plants are inactive, resulting in reduced evapotranspiration and
consequently increased leachate volume. Concentrations as high as 17 mg/1
of nitrate (monthly average) were obtained.
Based on the greenhouse study results, Sutton applied 0, 67, 90, and
112 mt/ha (0, 30, 40, and 50 tons/acre) of dry composted papermill sludge
on an acid mine spoil resulting from the stripmining of coal. From the
greenhouse study, it was found that applying the city sludge at 112 and
224 mt/ha (50 and 100 tons/acre) increased the spoil pH from 2.8 to 4.5
and 5.8, respectively. Subsequent application of the papermill composted
sludge at 112 mt/ha (50 tons/acre) increased the spoil pH from 2.8 to 5.8
with no further effect on spoil pH with increased application rates. The
papermill sludge contained 50% cellulose fiber and 50% kaolin clay and was
mixed in equal volume parts with bark. Nitrogen at 1 kg/m^ and phosphorus
at 0.3 kg/m-' were added to the mixture, which was then composted. A
rototiller was used to incorporate the compost into the top 15 cm of the
spoil and 6.7, 20, and 112 kg/ha (6, 18, and 100 Ib/acre) N, P, and K
were also applied. The plots were seeded with grasses and legumes and then
mulched with 4.5 mt/ha (2 ton/acre) of straw. An additional 34 kg/ha (30
Ib/acre) N was added later. No significant differences resulted between
biomass production for the different loading rates and applying 20 cm of
topsoil and 18 mt/ha (8 tons/acre) lime.
Bowles and Cavey (1980) examined the revegetation of taconite tailings
using fertilizer and sludge. A level site was obtained and tailings were adjusted
to a depth of 30 cm. A control, three fertilizer loadings of 55-33-49.5 kg/ha
N,P,K, 82.5-55-49.5 kg/ha N,P,K, and 110-77-49.5 kg/ha N,P,K, and three
sludge loadings of 28.75, 57.5 and 115 mt/ha (12.8, 25.7, and 51.3 tons/acre)
were used. The sludge, anaerobically digested and dried in concrete beds,
contained 42% solids, and approximately 1500 ppm Cr, 500 ppm Zn, and
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502 Engineering Assessment
60 ppm Cd. The sludge was applied to the plots using a shovel and
wheelbarrow and incorporated into the top 15 cm using a rototiller. Grasses
dominated the sites the first year, and legumes dominated the second year.
Both the fertilizer and sludge treatments produced increased vegetation
growth over the control, with the sludge treatment being more effective
than the fertilizer treatment. Smooth brome grass, barley, alsike clover, and
alfalfa provided the best results.
In a related study by Morrison and Hardell (1980), the same site
discussed above was used. The tailings consisted mainly of silica, with small
amounts of hematite and magnetite. Phosphorus, as triple super phosphate,
was rototilled into the tailings at 0, 28, and 112 kg/ha (0, 25, and 100
Ib/acre) and was used with 0, 88, and 175 kg/ha (0, 79, and 156 Ib/acre)
of ammonium nitrate to produce nine amendment combinations. Sludge,
containing 65% solids, and approximately 500 ppm Zn, 1,500 ppm Cr, and
60 ppm Cd, was applied at 42 and 85 mt/ha (18.7 and 37.9 tons/acre).
Plant growth increased with increasing fertilizer and sludge loadings. The
highest fertilizer loadings, however, produced better results than the highest
sludge loadings. Foxtail, Canadian rye, and side oats grama performed well
the first year with the rye diminishing the second year. Bergamot and
black-eyed Susan were more apparent the second year.
Hoitink and Watson (1980) examined revegetating stripmine spoil in
greenhouse and field tests. A sludge mixture of primary and secondary
activated sludge was obtained from a paper plant. The sludge contained
25-35% solids which consisted of 50% kaolinite clay and 50% organic matter.
Sludge incorporation rates of 0, 56, 112, 168, 224, and 336 mt/ha (0, 25,
50, 75, 100, and 150 tons/acre) were accomplished in the greenhouse study
by use of a concrete mixer. Potassium and phosphorus were added at 200
and 85 kg/ha (178 and 76 Ib/acre), respectively. Nitrogen, ammonium nitrate,
and a slow release fertilizer were also added at various loading rates.
Kentucky-31 tall fescue was sown at 55 kg/ha (49 Ib/acre). It was found
that yields improved with increasing sludge loading rates and also with
increasing nitrogen. However, the rate of increase was greatest when nitrogen
was not applied, possibly indicating that the sludge nitrogen was not as
readily utilized when other forms of nitrogen were available. It was also
concluded that the maximum vegetative yield was not attained. Based on
the greenhouse study, 0, 168, 224, and 336 mt/ha (0, 75, 100, and 150
tons/acre) were added to a spoil containing 0.81% S and having a pH =
2.5. A mixture of grasses and red clover along with 20 kg/ha (17.9 Ib/acre)
of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium were added to the field spoil. No
vegetation was established on the nontreated areas. Vegetation grown on
the amended areas contained no abnormal levels of heavy metals.
Hinkle (1980) examined the revegetation of two abandoned pyrite mine
sites. Anaerobically digested sludge vacuum filtered to 20% solids along with
lime were added to the site. A bulldozer and disks were used for
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Schwartz and Lehman 503
incorporation into the top 8-16 cm. Lime additions were based on pH and
lime titration analyses of various samples taken throughout the site. In many
cases, this calculated rate proved to be insufficient and, along with
abnormally low rainfall periods, resulted in poor vegetative responses.
Kentucky-31 tall fescue, weeping love grass, and Korean lespedeza were
planted. The fescue exhibited the best response, with the legumes never
obtaining sufficient maturity to reseed. Wheat, rye, and oats added as nurse
crops helped to establish vegetative growth. Heavy metal concentrations in
the mine wastes were significantly higher than in the overlying soil. These
highly toxic wastes were also present along the stream banks and other areas
resulting in no vegetative growth. In areas where vegetation was established,
the heavy metal concentrations in the plants were normally below accepted
tolerance levels.
In earlier work performed by Sopper and Kerr (1979B, 1980A) various
sludge loading rates were examined for revegetating coal stripmine spoils.
At each site soil samples were taken and analyzed. Lime and sludge
application rates were determined. The various sludge application rates were
compared to the EPA (Table 33-1) and Pennsylvania Department of
Environmental Resources (PDER) recommendations (Table 33-2). In all
cases, the EPA recommendations were met for metal loadings, but the PDER
recommendations were sometimes exceeded. Whenever the PDER
recommendations were met, the heavy metal concentrations found in the
vegetation were below recommended tolerance levels (Table 33-3). On
occasion, when the PDER limits were not achieved, however, certain heavy
metal tolerance levels were exceeded. In no instance did any of the vegetation
exhibit the effects of toxic contamination.
In a more recent study, Sopper and Kerr (1980B) applied composted
sludge to a bituminous coal stripmine spoil. The spoil exhibited a pH of
3.5-4.8 and a cation exchange capacity of 14.5-16.3. It was determined that
Table 33-1. EPA Recommended Total Trace Metal Loadings for Agricultural Land.1
Soil Cation Exchange Capacity (meq/100 g)
0-5 5-15 15
Pb
Zn
Cu
Ml
Cd
500
250
125
125
5
Amount of metal (Ibs/acre)
1,000
500
250
250
10
2,000
1,000
500
500
20
1 U.S. EPA (1978)
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504 Engineering Assessment
Table 33-2. PDER Recommended Maximum Trace Element Loading Rates for Land
Reclamation.
Maximum Loading Rate Maximum Loading Rate
for Land Reclamation Land Reclamation for Farming
Metal (lb/acre) (lb/acre)
Cd
Cu
Cr
Pb
Hg
Ni
Zn
3
100
100
100
0.5
20
200
3
60
60
60
0.2
12
120
Sapper and Kerr (1979A)
Table 33-3. Suggested Tolerance Levels of Heavy Metals in Agronomic Crops.
Metal
1
Cu
1
Zn
cr1
Pb1
Co1
Cd1'2
Ni2
Concentration in Vegetation (pptn)
150
300
2
10
5
3
50
1 Melsted, S. W. , 1973. "Soil-Plant Relationships," Recycling Municipal
Sludges and Effluents on Land, National Association of State Universities
and Land-Grant Colleges, Washington, D. C., pp. 121-128.
Council for Agricultural Science and Technology, 1976. "Application of
Sewage Sludge to Cropland: Appraisal of Potential Hazards of the
Heavy Metals to Plants and Animals," Office of Water Programs, U.S.
EPA, EPA-430/9-76-013, 63 pp.
11.2 mt/ha (5 tons/acre) of lime would be required to obtain the desired
pH for revegetation. One part anaerobically digested municipal sludge
centrifuged to 25% solids was mixed with two parts wood chips and
composted. The final amendment product containing 50% solids was
obtained by mixing equal parts of the compost and the centrifuged
anaerobically digested sludge (25% solids). Daily samples were taken of the
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Schwartz and Lehman 505
final product and calculations along with comparisons to the PDER
recommended guidelines resulted in an application rate of 132 mt/ha (59
dry tons/acre). At this loading rate, the compost-cake mixture had an applied
nutrient equivalent of 1,060, 925, 130 kg/ha (944, 826, 118 Ib/acre) N,
P, K, which is equivalent to 9,000 Ib of 10-21-2 commercial fertilizer per
acre. The amendment was incorporated into the top 10 cm of spoil by a
chisel plow and then 67 kg/ha (60 Ib/acre) of seed (1/3 Kentucky-31 tall
fescue, 1/3 Pennlate orchard grass, 1/6 Iroquois alfalfa, and 1/6 birdsfoot
trefoil) was applied. Analysis of metal concentrations in the vegetation one
year later showed that all were well below the recommended tolerance levels.
Analysis of heavy metal concentrations in the soil after one year showed
all to be within the normal range for soils. Soil percolate and ground water
samples showed that nitrate, copper, and zinc concentrations were
consistently within the USEPA drinking water standards. On one occasion,
the three-foot percolate concentration for cadmium exceeded the USEPA
drinking water standards. Even though lead concentrations in the three-foot
leachate and ground water samples exceeded the USEPA standards, they
also exceeded the standards prior to the application of the soil amendment
mixture.
In another recent study by Sopper and Kerr (1980C), a compost sludge
mixture from the same source as discussed above was applied to a bituminous
spoil having a pH of 4.0 to 6.7 and a cation exchange capacity of 9.5-12.3.
It was again determined that 11.2 mt/ha (5 tons/acre) of lime would be
required. Based on calculations and comparisons to the PDER guidelines,
the same application rate and application technique as the previously
mentioned study were used. Four sites were developed for study of this
spoil. One was seeded at 56 kg/ha (50 Ib/acre) with 40% Kentucky-31 tall
fescue, 40% Pennlate orchard grass, and 20% birdsfoot trefoil. The other
three sites were seeded at 91 kg/ha (81 Ib/acre) with 25% Kentucky-31 tall
fescue, 6% birdsfoot trefoil, and 69% winter rye. Analysis of metal
concentrations in vegetation, metal concentrations in the soil, and ground
water pollutant concentrations found all to be within their respective
recommended limits.
In addition to applying sludge to land for revegetation, a number of
related studies have been performed to examine the feasibility of utilizing
sludge on forested land to increase biomass production. Studies initiated
by Corey, et al. (1980) are presently examining the effects of sludge disposal
on loblolly pines. The study is being conducted on a 41,000 ha (101,000
acres) pine plantation possessing a wide variety of soil types. The sludge
will be applied at 275-550 kg/ha (245-490 Ib/acre) on pine stands that are
0, 12, 18, and 20 years old. The sludge will be obtained from a waste
treatement plant processing a waste consisting of 25% municipal and 75%
industrial (primarily textile industry) waste. The sludge is aerobically
digested, thermally conditioned, and dewatered. Conventional farm
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506 Engineering Assessment
equipment will be used to apply the sludge. The studies on this site will
investigate the effects of soil amendments on biomass production and
associated effects on soil characteristics, nutrient availability and mobility,
and contamination of groundwater.
One of the studies performed by Berry (1980) consisted of evaluating
the effect on biomass production in shortleaf and loblolly pines from the
application of sludge. The site had its top soil eroded as a result of poor
soil management. Consequently, shortleaf pines exhibited symptoms of
nitrogen deficiency, and loblolly pines displayed slow growth rates. The
sludge, a product of a secondary treatment plant utilizing anaerobic digestion
and sand drying beds, contained approximately 2% N, 1% P, 0.5% K, 1.9
ppm Cd, and 251 ppm Zn. Sludge was applied at 0, 17, 34, and 68 mt/ha
(0, 7.6, 15, and 30 tons/acre). Loblolly pines grew best at 68 mt/ha
(exhibiting an 18% increase in height and a 19% increase in diameter over
the control after five years of growth), and shortleaf pines grew best at
17 mt/ha (exhibiting a 33% increase in height and a 15% increase in diameter
over the control after five years of growth). The survival rate decreased as
the application rate increased. Competition from weed growth stimulated
by the sludge application had a noticeable effect on tree growth.
Sludge obtained from a secondary wastewater treatment plant utilizing
anaerobic digestion and sand bed drying was used by Berry (1980) in a
study to revegetate a kaolin clay strip mine spoil with loblolly pines.
Application rates of 0, 34, 69, 148, and 275 mt/ha (0, 15, 31, 62, and
123 tons/acre) were used, and the sludge was incorporated into the top
15 cm of the site by disking. The plots were also subsoiled to a depth
of 60 to 90 cm. The sludge contained approximately 2% N, 1% P, 0.5%
K, 1.9 ppm Cd, and 251 ppm Zn. The first six months' survival rates for
the pines were lowest on the 138 and 275 mt/ha plots, and the first year
biomass productions on the 34, 69, and 138 mt/ha plots were double that
of the control, while the 275 mt/ha plot biomass production was comparable
to the control.
Other studies performed by Berry (1980), using the same sludge on
various types of spoils, utilized loblolly, shortleaf, and Virginia pines along
with sweetgum for revegetation. The maximum loading rate used in these
studies was 68 mt/ha. The largest biomass productions were usually obtained
at the 17 and 34 mt/ha sludge loadings and were significantly greater than
the productions on the control plots. The sludge amendments also produced
significant weed growth, which led to competition with the pines. The 34
mt/ha was determined to be an adequate loading rate for any site.
Kerr and Sopper (1980) examined reforestation of a burned anthracite
coal refuse bank. Dewatered and heat dried sludge was applied at 0, 40,
75, and 150 mt/ha (0, 18, 33, and 67 tons/acre). Ten species of seedlings
were planted. The hardwoods exhibited better survival and growth than the
conifers, due mainly to competition between the stimulated herbaceous
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Schwartz and Lehman 507
vegetation and the slower growing conifers. Hybrid poplar, black locust, and
European alder possessed the best survival and growth. The poplars grown
on the 150 mt/ha were found to have a biomass of over ten times more
than the control after five years of growth.
Extensive work has been performed by Cole (1980), some of which
includes applying dewatered sludge (approximately 18% solids, 1,170 ppm
Cu, and 62 ppm Cd) to a clear cut site for use in establishing new tree
growth. Due to the high moisture content of the sludge, it was usually left
to dry for a year before seedlings were planted. Application rates of 45
to 450 mt/ha (20 to 200 dry tons/acre) were used. The sludge was dumped
from trucks and either left on the surface and sowed with oats or rye, or
incorporated into the soil using an 80 cm (32 inch) construction disk. There
were no toxic effects by heavy metals on the vegetation, but substantial
nitrate leaching did occur beneath the plot incorporated with 450 mt/ha.
The various species of trees responded differently to the applied sludge.
Weeds responded extremely well, and their competition with the trees along
with the subsequent arrival of voles created a problem for establishing tree
growth. An additional problem that developed after establishing tree growth
was that deer were selectively grazing on the trees grown on the sludge,
again hindering their growth.
Other work performed by Cole (1980), consisted of applying sludge
to established forest sites. A dewatered sludge, containing approximately 18%
solids, 1,170 ppm Cu, and 62 ppm Cd, was sprayed on the land by means
of a pressurizing pump and directional nozzle system, after transfer from
transport trucks to a forest application vehicle. An application range of 40
meters was achieved using this system. The sludge was applied at 45 to
450 mt/ha (20 to 200 dry tons/acre) on stands ranging from 5 to 50 years
of age. In order to prevent a reduction in photosynthesis, the younger trees
had to be washed to remove sewage from the foliage. The larger, established
trees did not need to be washed. A significant increase in the basal area
of Douglas Fir existed on all sludge-amended stands over the controls. It
was also found that 1-2% of the applied nitrogen in the sludge was being
leached past the root zone.
Related work performed by Riekerk and Zasoski (1979) examined the
effects of sludge application to forest soils on leachate and ground water.
Suction lysimeters were installed at the lower boundary of the A, B, and
C horizons. The dewatered sludge was applied in 10 and 25 cm depths on
forested sites. Results showed that there was very little leaching of
phosphorus and heavy metals below the surface soil. Nitrates, however,
reached concentrations as high as 20 ppm in the ground water, and almost
30 ppm in the spring receiving some of its source water from percolate
through the sludge applied site,
Hornbeck, et al. (1979) applied a municipal dewatered sludge (20%
solids) to a 60-year-old plot of hardwoods at 25 and 125 wet tons/ha (11
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508 Engineering Assessment
and 56 wet tons/acre, or 2 and 11 dry tons/acre). The predominant tree
species are beech, sugar maple, yellow birch, and white ash. Hand tools were
used to apply the sludge. Analysis of soil water collected by lysimeter at
20 and 45 cm showed minor changes in water chemistry for the 25 t/ha
application. Chloride concentrations were found to reach 11.3 mg/1 at the
45 cm depth beneath the 125 t/ha sludge application. Nitrates, however,
reach only 3 mg/1 at the same sample point. There was no significant
difference in tree growth between the two sludge plots and the control.
At these loading rates, which are substantially lower than the previous
mentioned loadings, the total basal area increases for two years were 0.9
m^/ha, 1.3 m^/ha, and 0.8 m^/ha for the control, 25 ton/ha, and 125 ton/ha
sites, respectively.
Lambert and Weidensaul (1980) examined biomass production by
utilizing sludge at a nursery and two Christmas tree plantations. A digested
dewatered sludge and an anaerobically digested liquid sludge (10% solids)
mixture were applied by a manure spreader at 0, 35, 80, and 120 mt/ha
(0, 16, 36, and 56 tons/acre). One plot was amended with 120 kg/ha
ammonium nitrate-N. It was found that the poplars and black locust
responded well to the sludge amendments with increased growth occurring
with increased sludge loadings. The hardwoods (red oak) were not affected
by the sludge, and the growth of the conifers was adversely affected at
the 80 mt/ha loadings.
The Christmas tree plantations, one a fertile, well drained silt loam
and the other an infertile, poorly drained silty clay, were amended with
a lime stabilized dewatered sludge at 0, 11, 22, 45, 90, and 180 mt/ha
(0, 5, 10, 20, 40, and 80 tons/acre). The plots were rototilled, and two-year
old pine seedlings were planted. The survival rate was similar at all loadings
except the 180 mt/ha at which the survival rate dropped substantially for
a great majority of the species planted. Growth rates decreased at loading
rates above 22 mt/ha with the greatest decreases occurring in the poorer
soil. Again, weed growth became a problem especially at the higher loading
rates.
Engineering Assessment
Wastewater Utilization
In the previously examined performance of wastewater utilization, it was
observed that an increase in biomass production usually could be achieved
by irrigating with wastewater. While woody species exhibited increased
growth when irrigated with wastewater, they did not effectively prevent
nitrates from contaminating ground water. Those studies utilizing herbaceous
growth as well as trees were much more effective in accomplishing plant
uptake of nitrates and, therefore, maintaining acceptable ground water nitrate
-------
Schwartz and Lehman 509
concentrations. Revegetation of disturbed and non-productive land through
the use of wastewater was not found to be as effective as other methods
of revegetation. As discussed in the following section, application of sludge
to disturbed and non-productive land provides a superior method for
establishing the basis of topsoil formation which is essential if permanent
revegetation is to occur.
Sludge Utilization
Previously, the performance of methods used to apply sludge to revegetate
disturbed and non-productive or forested land was reviewed. Initial studies
examined the effects of several types and application rates of sludge to
various forms of disturbed and non-productive land (Table 33-4). Generally,
the highest loadings of sludge, especially those containing high levels of heavy
metals, resulted in poor vegetative responses. In addition, contaminant levels
in the soil leachate (principally nitrates) and in the vegetation (metals)
reached undesirably high levels. Application rates of 80 to 202 dry mt/ha
were found to provide good vegetative response without contaminating the
ground water or the vegetation. The application rates were found to depend
on the makeup of the sludge used as a soil amendment, the condition of
the non-productive land, and the type of vegetation to be grown. Application
rates for optimum revegetation have been found in some studies to exceed
200 dry mt/ha. However, in the most recent studies by Sopper and Kerr
(1980B, 1980C), it was shown that if the EPA and PDER guidelines were
followed, successful revegetation can be accomplished without contaminating
the ground water, exceeding the tolerance limits of plants for toxic elements,
and altering the soil composition to where it no longer represents a typical
soil. The procedure developed and utilized by Sopper and Kerr (1980B,
1980C, 1980) for revegetating bituminous coal mine spoil along with the
appropriate guidelines, appears to provide a feasible means of effectively
utilizing sludge for revegetation.
Conventional land reclamation practice consists of recontouring the
land, liming, fertilizing, and seeding. In many cases, years will pass, frequently
involving annual fertilizer applications, before any sufficient positive response
is achieved. The advantages of revegetating with a sludge amendment as
opposed to a conventional soil amendment (lime and fertilizer application),
and the reasons that vegetation responds more readily, are twofold. First,
the use of stabilized sludge provides the nutrients required by vegetation
in a form in which they are released gradually for plant uptake. This avoids
excessive leaching of nutrients that are not used, and eliminates the necessity
of adding a new supply of nutrients every year. Moreover, as found by the
numerous studies using sludge, it is much more desirable from an odor
standpoint to use a stabilized sludge, especially a digested one than an
unstabilized one. Secondly, the sludge contains high amounts of organic
matter, whereas commercial fertilizer does not. The presence of the organic
-------
510 Engineering Assessment
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512 Engineering Assessment
matter accelerates the formation of a top soil which can be instrumental
in retaining moisture and affecting the temperature of the soil, both of which
benefit revegetation.
Disadvantages to revegetating a particular site depend upon the sludge
characteristics and the site conditions. Some sludges contain relatively high
levels of heavy metals and, if applied to the land in sufficient quantities,
can hinder plant growth or enter the food chain through plant uptake. In
addition to obtaining a sludge that has contaminant levels low enough so
as not to present a public health concern, the sludge source needs to be
within a reasonable haul distance of the application site in order to be
economically attractive for use in revegetation efforts.
Conventional sludge management practices include ocean dumping,
incineration, landfilling, and landspreading. Ocean dumping of sludge is a
subject of continuing regulatory debate and, in any event, is restricted to
coastal communities. Landfilling and incineration are the most prevalent
sludge disposal practices in this country. But landspreading on disturbed or
non-productive land with the intent to revegetate it or applied to cropland,
is unique in that the sludge is serving a useful function. In spite of this
inherent attractiveness, however, one must assess many factors when
considering a landspreading approach to sludge disposal.
Relatively rigorous or standard design practices have been developed
for incinerators and landfills. In contrast, landspreading with the intent to
revegetate is a more recently accepted form of sludge disposal and reuse
and, therefore, the least developed from an engineering point of view.
Furthermore, designing an adequate and viable sludge revegetation system
requires more than standard engineering practices. Soil scientists,
hydrologists;, and agronomists or foresters along with the engineers are needed
to produce sound designs. Current guidelines, knowledge obtained through
recent studies and demonstration projects, soil characteristics (e.g., pH,
texture, gradation, CEC, extractable nutrients, organic content, etc.) and the
type of vegetation and its characteristics (e.g., moisture requirements, toxic
metal tolerance levels, nutrient uptake, etc.) are all required for a sludge
utilization for revegetation project design.
In any sludge management system, pollutant mobility is a concern.
Incineration of sludge results in pollutants entering the air and the ash
produced by incineration contains pollutants that may leach out in landfills.
Landfilling without incineration still presents the problem of leaching and
contaminating ground water. Landspreading of sludge also must deal with
this problem. The EPA and state guidelines for applying sludge to land have
addressed this problem. Many studies have demonstrated that if the sludge
is applied correctly, contaminants will be fixed in the soil and/or taken up
by vegetation resulting in acceptable and or allowable levels of pollutants
in ground water. In addition, these guidelines and studies have provided for
limiting the amount of toxics taken up by plants, thereby preventing or
-------
Schwartz and Lehman 513
adequately controlling toxic effects to plants or their consumers within
currently applicable standards.
Economic constraints play a dominant role in sludge management
systems. Incineration systems require a large capital investment for
dewatering equipment, the incinerator, and air pollution control devices.
Operating and maintenance costs are also high due to the energy requirements
of the incinerator. Landfilling non-incinerated sludge requires a substantial
investment for land, involves higher transportation costs than incineration
for increased volumes, but requires considerably less energy costs.
Investments for landspreading may or may not include the cost of land since
the land is often owned by some individual desiring to utilize the sludge
as a soil amendment or fertilizer for revegetation or crop production.
Transportation cost will vary greatly depending on the proximity of the
application site to the sludge source. Each sludge management system will
need to be carefully analyzed to determine which sludge management method
is most cost effective and environmentally acceptable.
A final constraint for consideration in a sludge management system
is public acceptance. Landfill sites are subject to public scrutiny primarily
for aesthetic reasons, but also for public health considerations. A sludge
utilization system for agricultural crop production or revegetation purposes
may also be subject to public concern based on aesthetic reasons. However,
the initial opposition to landspreading of sludge for revegetation or
reclamation purposes often can be overcome by the obvious advantages of
revegetating non-productive or disturbed land. Of greater concern is the
public health aspect of potentially introducing toxics into the food chain.
EPA and state guidelines set limits restricting the amounts of toxic
contaminants from sludge that can be applied to the land in order to
adequately protect water, soil, and vegetative quality. It is imperative that
these guidelines be adhered to in the design of landspreading systems and
that monitoring programs be established to insure compliance during actual
project operation.
In addition to existing guidelines, criteria have since been issued by
the U.S. EPA that encompass landspreading as well as landfilling of municipal
wastewater sludges and other types of non-hazardous solid wastes under the
joint authority of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act and the
Clean Water Act. Interim criteria were included for cadmium and PCS
loadings from such wastes applied to land used for the production of
food-chain crops as defined in 40 CFR Part 257.
The performance of applying sludge to forested land for disposal and
to increase biomass production was also previously reviewed. The effects
of various loadings of sludge (Table 33-5) on numerous species of trees,
on the soil, and on the ground water were examined. Extensive research
has been carried out on sludge application to increase biomass production
in the state of Washington, but relatively little work has been done elsewhere.
-------
514 Engineering Assessment
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Schwartz and Lehman 515
Much of the work that has been done outside Washington has not addressed
pollutant leaching or runoff from areas receiving sludge. From the material
reviewed, there appears to be a broad range of application rates, but these
are apparently not based on the constraints for groundwater quality, soil
characteristics, or plant uptake.
The physical size of such land application sites for sludge to increase
biomass production will be similar to that for revegetation with sludge.
Compared to the conventional sludge management practices of incineration
and landfilling, the land application of sludge to forest sites will require
larger areas of land. In order to determine the actual land requirements,
however, more detailed studies with increased focus on design factors will
be necessary. To develop a design procedure for sludge application to forest
sites to increase biomass production, a number of parameters must be
considered. Regulations limiting the amount of nitrates and heavy metals
that are applied to the soil are one constraint that may be required. Pollutant
mobility, as discussed with sludge utilization for revegetation, is a primary
concern for any land application sludge management program.
Research by Cole (1980), and Riekerk and Zasoski (1979) found that
the amount of pollutants leached to ground water is reduced if the sludge
is spread on the land and not incorporated into the soil. More work is
presently being performed to examine methods of reducing the pollutant
concentrations in the leachate. Heavy metals, even though applied to the
acid soils used in these two studies, exhibited relatively little leaching. These
studies indicated that metal immobility can be expected for the specific
soil used, but the amount of metal uptake by vegetation still remains a
question, along with mobility of heavy metals in other types of soils. Unlike
the development of research on uses of sludge for revegetation, work on
application of sludge in forests to increase biomass production is still being
performed to obtain optimum application rates and techniques to minimize
the potential detrimental effects on ground water.
The nutrient requirements, most importantly nitrogen, for various
species of trees will have an effect on the sludge application rate and,
therefore, the amount of the nutrient leached past the root zone. The toxic
effects of heavy metals on trees may also be a constraint on the amount
of sludge applied. Differences in tolerance levels for various species of trees
as well as the age of trees on an application site must be considered. The
initial indication from the research performed to date is that hardwoods
are more tolerant of heavy metals than pines and that older mature trees
are more tolerant than seedlings. These early findings indicate that older
stands may be able to receive larger application rates than younger stands
and hardwoods more than pines, but no conclusive results have been
presented as yet. Engineering design procedures depend on and are related
to groundwater quality constraints and plant tolerance level, as well as the
sludge and soil characteristics.
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516 Engineering Assessment
Economic constraints for land application of sludge are similar to any
other sludge management system already discussed. Land requirements and
transportation costs will most likely be the controlling factors, and a cost
effective analysis will be needed to adequately assess all the alternatives
available to any program. Public acceptance of a sludge application to forest
land system to increase biomass production may be greater than for a sludge
utilization system for revegetation. Sludge application to forests usually
would not be considered to directly involve the human food chain. In some
studies, however, it was found that deer preferred to feed on trees grown
on sludge amended soils over trees grown on unamended soils. This does
not seem to present a significant potential contamination risk compared with
applying the same sludge to crop land.
Conclusions and Recommendations
Wastewater Utilization
Irrigating with wastewater has been shown through numerous studies to be
an effective means of increasing biomass production. Contamination of
ground water supplies, primarily through nitrate leaching, appears to be a
problem associated with this type of wastewater treatment or disposal
system. It has been shown, however, that herbaceous growth is more effective
in nitrogen uptake than is woody growth. A major deficiency in utilizing
wastewater for revegetation of disturbed and non-productive land is its
inability to provide a sufficient source of material needed for topsoil
formation.
Procedures or methodologies have not been adequately developed for
applying wastewater for biomass production. Determination of optimum
loading rates that result in an adequate increase in biomass growth while
still protecting soil, water, and public health quality is needed. Research
examining the relationships between woody and herbaceous growth is needed
so that optimum biomass production can occur along with acceptable
renovation of applied wastewater.
Land application of wastewater for treatment and disposal purposes
is well established. However, land application of wastewater to revegetate
non-productive land appears to be of limited value, while land application
of wastewater to increase biomass production has not been adequately
researched to be utilized as an engineering practice.
Sludge Utilization
The utilization of sludge to revegetate non-productive or disturbed land has
been extensively examined in numerous studies, some of which are cited
herein. Revegetation of coal stripmine spoils, gravel spoils, clay stripmine
spoils, iron-ore tailings, abandoned pyrite mine sites, and sites devastated
by toxic fumes has been demonstrated in studies with various sludges and
-------
Schwartz and Lehman 517
soil amendments. These research studies clearly demonstrate the technical
feasibility of reclaiming or revegetating non-productive or disturbed land with
municipal wastewater sludge. The most recent work of Sopper and Kerr
provides a consistent methodology for examining the sludge and soil to
determine preliminary site conditioning requirements. Federal and state
guidelines for sludge application to land are substantiated by many studies,
and result in application rates that successfully assist in the revegetation
of sites while producing currently acceptable conditions in ground water,
soil, and vegetation.
Even though the application rates and type of vegetation used are highly
site specific, enough research has been performed and sufficient guidelines
exist to develop a sound design for revegetation by sludge utilization.
Continuing research on the toxic effects of heavy metals and other pollutants
is needed to ensure the present guidelines are adequate or, if not, to provide
information for their needed refinement.
Literature Cited
1. Berry, Charles R. (1980). Sewage Sludge Aids Reclamation of Disturbed Forest
Land in the Southeast, paper presented at the Symposium on Utilization of
Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass Production,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, September 1980.
2. Borovsky, J. P. and Brooks, K. N. (1980). Performance of Woody Plant Species
on Iron-Ore Overburden Material Irrigated with Sewage Effluent in Minnesota,
paper presented at the Symposium on Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and
Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass Production, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
September 1980.
3. Bowles, J. A. and Cavey, J. V. (1980). Use of Sewage Sludge to Improve Taconite
Tailings as a Medium for Plant Growth, paper presented at the Symposium on
Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass
Production, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, September 1980.
4. Cole, D. W. (1980). Response of Forest Ecosystems to Sludge and Sewage
Wastewater Applications - A Case Study in Western Washington, paper presented
at the Symposium on Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Land
Reclamation and Biomass Production, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, September 1980.
5. Corey, J. C., et al. (1980). Environmental Effects of Utilization of Sewage Sludge
for Biomass Production, paper presented at the Symposium on Utilization of
Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass Production,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, September 1980.
6. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology. "Application of Sewage Sludge
to Cropland: Appraisal of Potential Hazards of Heavy Metals to Plants and
Animals," Office of Water Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
EPA-430/9-76-013, 63 pp., 1976.
-------
518 Engineering Assessment
7. Franks, W. A., et al. (1980). Utilization of Sewage Effluent and Sludge to Reclaim
Soil Contaminated by Toxic Fumes from a Zinc Smelter, paper presented at the
Symposium on Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Land
Reclamation and Biomass Production, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, September 1980.
8. Hinesly, T. D., et al. (1980). Effects of Chemical and Physical Changes in
Strip-Mined Spoil Amended with Sewage Sludge on the Uptake of Metals by Plants,
paper presented at the Symposium on Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and
Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass Production, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
September 1980.
9. Hinkle, K. R. (1980). Use of Municipal Sludge in the Reclamation of Abandoned
Pyrite Mines in Virginia, paper presented at the Symposium on Utilization of
Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass Production,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, September 1980.
10. Hoitink, H. A. J., and Watson, M. E. (1980). Reclamation of Acidic Stripmine
Spoil with Papermill Sludge, paper presented at the Symposium on Utilization
of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass
Production, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, September 1980.
11. Hornbeck, J. W., et al. (1979), "Sludge Application to a Northern Hardwood Forest
in New Hampshire: Potential for Dual Benefits?". Utilization of Municipal Sewage
Effluent and Sludge on Forest and Disturbed Land. Edited by W. E. Sopper and
S. N. Kerr. University Park, Pennsylvania, The Pennsylvania State University Press,
1979.
12. Hornick, S. B. (1980). Crop Production on Waste Amended Gravel Spoils, paper
presented at the Symposium on Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge
for Land Reclamation and Biomass Production, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
September 1980.
13. Kerr, S. N., and Sopper, W. E. (1980). Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and
Sludge for Forest Biomass Production on Marginal and Disturbed Land, paper
presented at the Symposium on Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge
for Land Reclamation and Biomass Production, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
September 1980.
14. Lambert, D. H., and Weidensaul, C. (1980). Use of Sewage Sludge for Tree Seedling
and Christmas Tree Production, paper presented at the Symposium on Utilization
of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass
Production, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, September 1980.
15. Melsted, S. W. (1973). Soil-Plant Relations, Proceedings of the Joint Conference
on: Recycling Municipal Sludges and Effluents on Land, Champaign, Illinois, July
1973, pgs. 121-128.
16. Morrison, D. G., and Hardell, J. (1980). The Response of Native Herbaceous Prairie
Species on Iron-Ore Tailings Under Different Rates of Fertilizer and Sludge
Application, paper presented at the Symposium on Utilization of Municipal
Wastewater and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass Production, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, September 1980.
17. Nutter, W. L., et al. (1979). "Renovation of Municipal Wastewater by Spray
-------
Schwartz and Lehman 519
Irrigation on Steep Forest Slopes in the Southern Appalachians." Utilization of
Municipal Sewage Effluent and Sludge on Forest and Disturbed Land. Edited by
W. E. Sopper and S. N. Kerr, University Park, Pennsylvania, The Pennsylvania
State University Press, 1979.
18. Riekerk, H., and Zasoski, R. J. (1979). "Effects of Dewatered Sludge Applications
to a Douglas Fir Forest Soil Leachate and Groundwater Composition." Utilization
of Municipal Sewage Effluent and Sludge on Forest and Disturbed Land, Edited
by W. E. Sopper and S. N. Kerr, University Park, Pennsylvania, The Pennsylvania
State University Press, 1979.
19. Sopper, W. E., and Kerr, S. N. (1979A). Criteria for Revegetation of Mined Land
Using Municipal Sludges, Municipal Sludge Management, Information Transfer,
Inc., Rockville, Maryland, pp. 228-237.
20. Sopper, W. E., and Kerr, S. N. (1979B). Revegetating Strip-Mined Land with
Municipal Sewage Sludge, Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, December 1979.
21. Sopper, W. E., and Kerr, S. N. (1979C). "Renovation of Municipal Wastewater
in Eastern Forest Ecosystems." Utilization of Municipal Sewage Effluent and
Sludge on Forest and Disturbed Land. Edited by W. E. Sopper and S. N. Kerr,
University Park, Pennsylvania, The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1979.
22. Sopper, W. E., and Kerr, S. N. (1980A). Strip Mine Reclamation Demonstration
Project - Blue Lick Site - Somerset County. Institute for Research on Land and
Water Resources, The Pennsylvania State University, June 1980.
23. Sopper, W. E., and Kerr, S. N. (1980S). Strip Mine Reclamation Project - Decker
Site, Somerset County. Institute for Research on Land and Water Resources, The
Pennsylvania State University, June 1980.
24. Sopper, W. E., and Kerr, S. N. (1980C). Strip Mine Reclamation Project - Soberdash
Site, Somerset County. Institute for Research on Land and Water Resources, The
Pennsylvania State University, June 1980.
25. Sopper, W. E., and Kerr, S. N. (1980D). Mine Land Reclamation with Municipal
Sludge - Pennsylvania's Demonstration Program, paper presented at the Symposium
on Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Land Reclamation and
Biomass Production, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, September 1980.
26. Sutton, P., and Haghiri, F. (1980). Vegetation Establishment on Acidic Mine Spoils
as Influenced by Sludge Application, paper presented at the Symposium on
Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass
Production, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, September 1980.
27. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Applications of Sludges and Wastewaters
on Agricultural Land: A Planning and Educational Guide," MCD-35, 1978.
-------
List of Contributors
Earl Aldon
Rocky Mountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station
517 Gold St., S.W.
Albuquerque, NM 87102
R. O. Bardwell
Environmental Law Institute
Suite 600
1346 Connecticut Ave., N.W.
Washington, DC 20036
S. M. Bartell
Savannah River Ecology Laboratory
University of Georgia
Aiken, SC 29808
Robert Ba&tian
Municipal Technology Branch
Office of Water Programs
EPA (WH-M7)
East Towet, Waterside Mall
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, DC 20460
B. C. Bearce
Plant and Soil Sciences Division
West Virginia University
Morgantown, WV 26506
Charles R. Berry
Institute for Mycorrhizal Research
and Development
US Forest Service
Southeastern Forest Experiment Station
Forestry Sciences Laboratory
Athens, GA 30602
John Borovsky
College of Natural Resources
Urav. of Wisconsin, Stevens Point
Stevens Point, WI 54481
Jarnes Bowles
College of Natural Resources
Univ. of Wisconsin-Stevens Point
Stevens Point, WI 54481
Kenneth N. Brooks
College of Forestry
University of Minnesota
St. Paul, MN 55108
Edward H. Bryan
Appropriate Technology Program
National Science Foundation
1800 G Street, N.W.
Washington, DC 20550
David Burmaster
Council on Environmental
Quality
722 Jackson Place, N.W.
Washington, DC 20006
Justin Cavey
College of Natural Resources
University of Wisconsin
Stevens Point, WI 54481
Dale W. Cole
College of Forest Resources
University of Washington
Seattle, WA 98195
John C. Corey
Environmental Transport Division
E.I. duPont de Nemours & Co.
Savannah River Laboratory
Aiken, SC 29808
Patricia Deese
Urban Systems Research
and Engineering
36 Boylston St.
Cambridge, MA 02138
G. Kenneth Dotson
MERL
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
26 West St. Clair Street
Cincinnati, OH 45268
James O. Evans
Forest Environmental Research
Forest Service, USDA
P.O. Box 2417
Washington, DC 20013
Paul R. Fitzgerald
Dept. of Pathology and Hygiene
College of Veterinary Medicine
University of Illinois
Urbana, IL 61801
-------
List of Contributors 521
S. Fogel
Urban Systems Research and
Engineering, Inc.
36 Boylston St.
Cambridge, MA 02138
William Franks
Dept. of Physical Science
Langston University
P.O. Box 779
Langston, OK 73050
J. W. Futrell
Environmental Law Institute
Suite 600
1346 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.
Washington, DC 20036
Diane Garvey
Sludge Management Unit
Philadelphia Water Department
1180 Municipal Services Bldg.
Philadelphia, PA 19107
Todd Giddings
Todd Giddings and Associates
140 W. Fairmount Ave.
State College, PA 16801
John Gschwind
Metropolitan Sanitary District of
Greater Chicago
100 East Erie St.
Chicago, IL 60601
Faz Haghiri
OARDC, Ohio State University
Wooster, OH 44691
Julie Hardell
Dept. of Landscape Architecture
25 Ag Hall
University of Wisconsin
Madison, WI 53706
Thomas Hinesly
Dept. of Agronomy
University of Illinois
Urbana, IL 61801
Kenneth R. Hinkle
Director of Special Projects
State Water Control Board
Bridgewater, VA 22812
Harry Hoitink
Dept. of Plant Pathology
OARDC
Wooster, OH 44691
G. J. Hollod
Environmental Transport Division
Savannah River Laboratory
Aiken, SC 29808
Sharon Hormck
USDA-SEA-AR
Bldg. 007 BARC-West
Beltsville, MD 20705
P. Inyangetor
Langston University
P.O. Box 779
Langston, OK 73050
A. lob
Langston University
P.O. Box 779
Langston, OK 73050
William J. Jewell
Dept. of Agricultural Engineering
Riley-Robb Hall
Cornell University
Ithaca, NY 14853
F. R. Kahn
Environmental Law Institute
Suite 600
1346 Connecticut Ave., NW
Washington, DC 20036
Sonja N. Kerr
Institute for Research on Land
and Water Resources
The Pennsylvania State University
University Park, PA 16802
David Lambert
Laboratory for Environmental
Studies
Dept. of Forestry
OARDC
Wooster, OH 44691
W. D. Lehman
Sverdrup and Parcel Associates
800 North 12th Blvd.
St. Louis, MO 63101
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522 List of Contributors
Craig K. Losche
Minerals Area Management Specialist
USDA Forest Service
Rocky Mountain Region
Lakewood, CO 80215
Cecil Lue-Hing
Metropolitan Sanitary District of
Greater Chicago
100 East Erie Street
Chicago, IL 60601
Robert Madancy
Engineering Systems Divisions
Office of Water Research
and Technology
Dept. of Interior
Washington, DC 20240
David R. Maneval
Technical Services and Research
Office of Surface Mining
1951 Constitution Avenue, N.W.
Washington, DC 20240
William T. Mason
Eastern Energy and Land Use Team
Fish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Dept. of Interior
Route 3, Box 44
Kearneysville, WV 25430
F. D. McBride
USDA Forest Service
North Central Forest Experiment
Station
Carbondale, IL 62901
W. H. McKee
Forestry Sciences Laboratory
Charleston, SC 29407
Harry Menser
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture
SEA-AR
Room 1112 AS
West Virginia University
Morgantown, WV 26506
William B. Middendorf
Deputy Secretary
Department of Environmental Resources
P.O. Box 2063
Harrisburg, PA 17120
J. Raymond Miyares
Urban Systems Research and
Engineering, Inc.
36 Boyleston St.
Cambridge, MA 02138
Albert Montague
Office of Research and
Development
Region III, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency
Philadelphia, PA 19108
Michael D. Morin
Dept. of Forestry
Southern Illinois University
Carbondale, IL 62901
Darrell Morrison
Dept. of Landscape Architecture
25 Ag Hall
University of Wisconsin
Madison, WI 53706
Douglas T. Murray
Modern-Earthline Companies
Suite 500
1015 Chestnut St.
Philadelphia, PA 19107
Thomas Numbers
Office of Research and
Development
Region III, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency
Philadelphia, PA 19108
William Nye
Environmental Law Institute
Suite 600
1346 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.
Washington, DC 20036
J. Osburn
Environmental Law Institute
Suite 600
1346 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.
Washington, DC 20036
M. Persinger
Langston University
P.O. Box 779
Langston, OK 73050
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List of Contributors 523
James R. Peterson
Metropolitan Sanitary District of
Greater Chicago
100 East Erie St.
Chicago, IL 60601
Richard I. Pietz
Metropolitan Sanitary District of
Greater Chicago
100 East Erie St.
Chicago, IL 60601
William Pounds
Bureau of Solid Waste Management
Dept. of Environmental Resources
P.O. Box 2063
Harrisburg, PA 17120
K. E. Redborg
Dept. of Agronomy
University of Illinois
Urbana, IL 61801
M. Reuter
Environmental Law Institute
Suite 600
1346 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.
Washington, DC 20036
I. H. Rose-Innes
Dept. of Agronomy
University of Illinois
Urbana, IL 61801
Paul L. Roth
Dept. of Forestry
Southern Illinois University
Carbondale, IL 62901
H. G. Schwartz, Jr.
Sverdrup and Parcel and Associates
800 North 12th Blvd.
St. Louis, MO 63101
J. Schweigert
Office of Surface Mining
1951 Constitution Ave., NW
Washington, DC 20236
Frank Senske
Sludge Management Unit
Philadelphia Water Department
1180 Municipal Services Bldg.
Philadelphia, PA 19107
Daniel Snyder
Colorado Westmoreland Inc.
Suite 205
9034 East Easter Place
Englewood, CO 80112
William E. Sopper
Institute for Research on Land
and Water Resources
The Pennsylvania State University
University Park, PA 16802
D. M. Stone
Savannah River Forest Station
U.S. Forest Service
Savannah River Plant
Aiken, SC 29808
L. Gene Suhr
CH2M - Hill Company
Box 428
Corvallis, OR 97330
Paul Sutton
Belle Valley Extension Center
S.R. 16714
Caldwell, OH 43724
K. W. Tunison
Plant and Soil Sciences Division
West Virginia University
Morgantown, WV 26506
Dean Une
North Central Forest Experiment
Station
Stephen S. Nisbet Building
1407 S. Harrison Road
East Lansing, MI 48823
M. E. Watson
Research Extension and Analytical
Lab, OARDC
Wooster, OH 44691
George P. Weaver
Dept. of "Forestry
Southern Illinois University
Carbondale, IL 62901
T. Craig Weidensaul
Laboratory for Environmental Studies
OARDC
Wooster, OH 44691
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524 List of Contributors
C. G. Wells
Forestry Sciences Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
Edward Yang
Environmental Law Institute
Suite 600
1346 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.
Washington, DC 20036
David R. Zenz
Metropolitan Sanitary District of
Greater Chicago
100 East Erie St.
Chicago, IL 60601
E. L. Ziegler
Dept. of Agronomy
University of Illinois
Urbana, IL 61801
*V.S. GOVERNMENT HttNTIBS OWICE : 1982 0-389-965/88
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