United States
                     Environmental Protection
                     Agency
Municipal Environmental Research   ^
Laboratory
Cincinnati OH 45268
                     Research and Development
EPA-600/S2-84-054  Apr. 1984
&ER&         Project Summary
                    Acid  Precipitation  and  Drinking
                    Water  Quality  in  the  Eastern
                    United  States
                     Floyd Taylor, Judith A. Taylor, George E. Symons, John J. Collins, and
                     Michael Schock
                      Research was conducted to provide
                    accurate, modern, and historical data
                    on  drinking  water quality and  the
                    possible effects of acid precipitation on
                    water samples. Samples of raw source
                    and finished water were collected from
                    more than 270 surface water  and
                    groundwater  supplies  in the  New
                    England states. New York, New Jersey,
                    Pennsylvania,  West Virginia, Virginia,
                    and North Carolina. The samples were
                    analyzed  at   U.S.  Environmental
                    Protection Agency (EPA) laboratories.
                    The study used historical records dating
                    back to 1886.
                      Acid  rain   may dissolve  harmful
                    elements from  soils and, indirectly,
                    from water supply distibution systems.
                    Causal relationships  are  difficult to
                    identify, however, because soils  can
                    alter the character of acid  rain through
                    buffering.  A helpful approach to  this
                    problem is the use of indices of water
                    supply sensitivity and corrosiveness.
                    Reliable chemical data were  used to
                    compare the water supply characteris-
                    tics with these indices and with drinking
                    water standards.
                      Although solution products of acid
                    rain  do  not  exceed EPA  primary
                    Drinking  Water Regulations,  in  the
                    water supply  sources studied,  many
                    tests for aluminum showed levels that
                    could be of concern to patients using
                    kidney dialysis.  Because  of the  low
                    alkalinity and pH observed at numerous
                    water sources, it is possible that future
                    acid  deposition  could  have a
                    detrimental effect on water  quality.
                    Quantification  remains  a problem,
                    however.
  This Project Summary was developed
by  EPA's Municipal Environmental
Research Laboratory. Cincinnati, OH,
to  announce key  findings  of  the
research  project  that is  fully  docu-
mented in a separate report of the same
title (see Project Report ordering infor-
mation at back).
Introduction
  From 1981 to 1983, the New England
Water Works Association undertook this
study with a three part program of water
sampling and analysis to learn about the
quality of  drinking  water in  states
receiving   acid   precipitation.  States
included in the first and second parts of
the study (Rounds 1 and 2) were Maine,
New  Hampshire, Vermont, Massachu-
setts,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut, and
New York (Adirondack Mountain region
only).  States included in the third part
(Round 3)  were  Massachusetts,  New
Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  West Virginia,
Virginia, and North Carolina.
  In addition  to the  data gathered on
present-day water quality, the study also
included historical waterqualitydata kept
by water utilities, state agencies, and
water  utility laboratories. Historical data
were used  to search for water quality
changes over time. Present water quality
data were compared  with water quality
standards and were  used  to calculate
water  quality  indices based on CaCO3
solubility, including the Langelier Index,
Ryznar's Stability Index, the Aggressive
Index,  and the Calcite Saturation  Index.
Many  of the waters examined were
deficient in  alkalinity  and  calcium.

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making it impossible to assign values for
pH's,  the  Langelier  Index,  and  the
Stability  Index.  Nevertheless,  these
parameters  were  determined  by  the
Larson Method for  pH's  so that some
approximation   might  be  had  of  the
relative corrosivity of the various supplies
with  respect  to  each other  and for
comparison  with  the EPA values for
corrosivity characteristics as addressed
by indices (FR August 27,1980, p57341).
In that document, no exception was made
for waters of low alkalinity.


Study  Methods
  Field activities were conducted by staff
members  selected  for  that  purpose.
Generally one person was responsible for
an entire state. Field staff visited water
utilities, gathering data, collecting water
samples, analyzing for pH, and preparing
water  samples  for  shipment  to  the
Drinking Water Research Division of the
U.S. Environmental Protection  Agency
(EPA) in Cincinnati, where analyses were
performed for  chloride, sulfate, nitrate,
alkalinity, copper, iron, manganese, lead,
cadmium,  zinc,  mercury,  calcium,
magnesium,  aluminum,  and  other
constituents. Samples with and without
acid preservation  were sent to the  EPA
laboratory.
  Water samples collected included raw
source water,  finished water at water
treatment plants,  and household water.
The   household water  samples were
collected in the morning before any other
use  of   water.  The  three  household
samples  were  collected to obtain   (1)
water that  had been held in household
plumbing overnight, (2) water  that had
been  held in the service line overnight,
and (3) water from the water main.
  The first two rounds of field activities
were  conducted  in  1981  and  1982,
respectively,  and  included  the  New
England states and  New York.  Round 3
(1982-83)  included Massachusetts
(Martha's Vineyard only), the New Jersey
Pine Barrens and coastal areas, and the
Appalachian   Mountain  regions of
Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,  Virginia,
and North Carolina.
  Analytical methods used by  the  EPA
laboratory are described in the full report.
They were generally in accordance with
Standard Methods. Field measurements
of pH were made with portable, electronic
pH meters and combination electrodes
standardized in the field before data were
collected. Quality assurance and quality
control are described in the full report.
Basis for Assessing
Water Quality
  The  quality of water  sampled  and
analyzed in this study was compared with
that specified by EPA's National Interim
Primary  Drinking  Water  Regulations
(NIPDWR).   The  regulations  have
maximum contaminant levels (MCL's) for
health-related substances, including lead
(0.05 mg/L), cadmium (0.010 mg/L), and
mercury  (0.002  mg/L).  Secondary
maximum contaminant levels (SGML's)
exist for pH (range 6.5 to 8.5), copper (1
mg/L),  zinc  (5  mg/L),  and  other
substances. EPA has noMCLorSCMLfor
aluminum. Concentrations of aluminum
measured in this study were compared
with the American  National Standards
Institute  limit for aluminum  in kidney
dialysis water (0.01 mg/L). Water quality
indices  based   on  CaCO3  solubility,
particularly the  Langelier Index and the
Stability Index, have been and are being
used  by utility  personnel  to estimate
whether water would deposit or dissolve
CaC03 and cause corrosion. The ability of
these  indices to predict  corrosion  is
limited,  however. The Calcite Saturation
Index has been used by acid precipitation
researchers to assess the susceptibility of
surface waters to acidification.

Results
  Table 1 lists  the  number of raw and
treated  water   samples  analyzed  for
cadmium, lead,  and mercury, and the
number of samples equal to or exceeding
        the MCL's. The MCL was exceeded by
        cadmium in 1 of 484 samples, by lead in 5
        of 483 samples, and by mercury in 2 of
        484 samples.
          The pH of both raw and treated waters
        often fell outside the 6.5 to 8.5 given as
        the SMCL. One fifth or more of the raw
        and finished waters from surface and
        ground sources fell outside this range in
        Round 1.  About half of the raw  waters
        sampled in Round 2 had pH values below
        6.5. Fewer than half of the treated waters
        in Round 2 fell outside the SMCL range
        for pH. In Round 3, 79 percent of the
        groundwater samples from New Jersey
        and Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts,
        had pH values below 6.0. In contrast, only
        19 percent of the samples collected in the
        Appalachian region in  Round 3 had pH
        values below 6.0.
          The 0.01 mg/L limit for aluminum  in
        kidney dialysis water was often exceeded
        in raw waters.  More than 40 percent of
        the raw surface waters from  Rounds 1
        and 2 had aluminum concentrations  of
        0.1 mg/L or higher, and about 15 percent
        of  the raw groundwaters sampled  in
        Rounds 1, 2, and 3 reached or exceeded
        this level. Only kidney dialysis patients
        need to be concerned about the health
        aspects of ingested aluminum at these
        levels.
          Forty-three sets of three household
        samples  were collected. Analysis  of
        household water  samples showed  that
        copper equalled or exceeded the 1 mg/L
        SMCL in 42 percent of the water samples
        held overnight in household plumbing, in
Table 1.    Cadmium, Lead, and Mercury in Waters Sampled
                                 Cadmium
                              (O 010 mg/L MCL)
                  Lead
              (O.05 mg/L MCL)
                         Mercury
  Type of Sample
                               No
                             >MCL
        No.
      Samples
        No.
       > MCL
        No
      Samples
        No.
       >MCL
       No.
     Samples
Raw Surface Water:
   Round 1
   Round 2
    Total

Raw Groundwater:
   Round 1
   Round 2
   Round 3
    Total

Treated Surface Water:
   Round 1
   Round 2
    Total
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
120
 42
162
 12
 83
 71
166
101
 33
134
0
0
0
0
1
1
2
119
 42
161
 12
 83
 71
166
       101
        33
       134
0
0
0
0
         0
         0
         0
       120
        42
       162
12
 83
71
166
       101
        33
       134
Treated Groundwater.
Round 1
Round 2
Total

0
0
0

10
12
22

0
1
1

10
12
22

0
0
0

10
12
22

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21  percent of the water samples  held
overnight in service lines, and in only 5
percent (2 of 43) of the samples flowing
directly to the tap from the distribution
system.  Likely sources of copper are
copper  service  lines  and  household
plumbing.
  Lead  equalled or exceeded  the 0.05
mg/L MCL in  8 percent (7 of 86) of the
household  plumbing  or  service  line
samples but did  not exceed the MCL in
water  samples flowing directly  to the
household  tap. Sources  of  lead could
include lead service lines,lead plumbing,
and lead-tin solder used to join  copper
pipes and fittings.
  Cadmium in  the  household  water
samples never exceeded the 0.010 mg/L
MCL, and  zinc  never  exceeded the 5
mg/LSMCL.
  The water quality indices calculated for
the waters sampled indicate that the raw
waters in Rounds 1 and 2 tend to dissolve
CaC03. The Langelier Index was less than
-2 for 85 percent of Round 1 raw waters
and less than -2 for more than 90 percent
of  Round  2  raw waters.  Values of
Ryznar's Stability Index exceeded 8 for 97
percent of Round 1 waters and 96 percent
of Round 2 waters. These stability index
values have been associated  with water
main corrosion and rusty water problems
by Ryznar. More than 60 percent of the
raw waters from  Round 1 and more than
70 percent of the raw waters from Round
2  had  Calcite Saturation  Index  values
greater than 3, indicating susceptibility to
change.
  Alkalinity  data for  raw  waters in
Massachusetts were analyzed for trends
over time. Data for four or five decades
were available for most of  the water
sources  in this  analysis. Of the  34
sources, 20 had slopes statistically differ-
ent from zero (0.05 level). Alkalinity in 18
of the 20 sources has declined over the
time  for  which  data  are   available,
whereas alkalinity has  increased in two
water sources. Both in alkalinity and pH
of Scituate Reservoir (in  Rhode  Island)
have shown declining  trends that are
statistically significant at the  0.05 level.

Conclusions

  1. Raw  water  concentrations of
     cadmium, lead,  and mercury  very
     seldom exceeded  the MCL's (1 in
     484 samples for  Cd, 5 in 483 smples
     for Pb, and 2 in 484 samples for Hg).

  2. Raw water pH was frequently below
     pH 6.5, the lower limit of the pH
     range in the SMCL
3.  Stability Index values for many of
   the waters sampled indicate that the
   waters are corrosive to iron pipe.

4.  Household waters were found to be
   corrosive. About 40 percent of the
   overnight samples from household
   piping met or exceeded the 1 mg/L
   SMCL for copper. Eight percent (7 of
   86) of household and service line
   samples had lead concentrations at
   or  above  the 0.05 mg/L  MCL,
   whereas  none  of  the ' samples
   flowing  directly  from   the
   distribution  main  to  the   tap
   exceeded this level.
5. Alkalinity data recorded in the past
   four to five decades  showed that
   alkalinity had declined in 18  of 34
   raw water sources in Massachusetts
   and increased in two sources. The
   slope  of  the least squares  fit of
   alkalinity versus time was not statis-
     tically different from zero (0.05 level)
     for the other 14 raw water sources.

  6. No direct  relationship was found
     between acid precipitation and the
     decline in  alkalinity in the 18 raw
     water sources, nor  was any rela-
     tionship   found  between  acid
     precipitation and the unstable and
     potentially corrosive nature of these
     sources. The potentially detrimental
     effects  of acid precipitation should
     not be  discounted, however,  given
     the  limited  buffering capacity  in
     these supplies, the historical down-
     ward trend in alkalinity, and the low
     pH of the rainfall in the study area.
     More study should be undertaken
     on this  issue.
  The full  report was submitted in fulfill-
ment of  Cooperative  Agreement CR-
807808010  by the New England Water
Works Association  under the  sponsor-
ship of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency.
 Floyd Taylor and Judith A. Taylor are with the New England Water Works Associa-
   tion, Dedham, MA 02026; George E. Symons and John J. Collins, Consultants.
   are retired; Michael Schock is with the Illinois State Water Survey, Champaign,
   IL 61820.
 Gary S. Logsdon is the EPA Project Officer (see below).
 The complete report, entitled "Acid Precipitation and Drinking Water Quality in
   the Eastern United States," (Order No. PB 84-157932; Cost: $17.50, subject to
   change) will be available only from:
        National Technical Information Service
        5285 Port Royal Road
        Springfield, VA 22161
        Telephone: 703-487-4650
 The EPA Project Officer can be contacted at:
        Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory
        U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency
        Cincinnati, OH 45268
                                  if U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE; 1984 — 759-015/7643

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