United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Health and
Environmental Assessment
Washington DC 20460
Research and Development
EPA/600/S8-85/020 Aug. 1986
s>EPA Project Summary
Evaluation of Methods for
Analysis of Human Fat, Skin,
Nails, Hair, Blood, Urine and
Breath
L Sheldon, M. Umana, J. Bursey, W. Gutknecht, R. Handy, P. Hyldburg,
L Michael, A. Moseley, J. Raymer, D. Smith, C. Sparacino, and
M. Warner
This research program surveyed and
evaluated the methods and procedures
used to identify and quantitate chemi-
cal constituents in human tissues and
fluids including fat, skin, nails, hair,
blood, urine, and breath. These meth-
ods have been evaluated to determine
their ease and rapidity, as well as cost,
accuracy, and precision. During this
evaluation, a second goal was to deter-
mine the feasibility of correlating a pre-
ferred method with a specific tissue/
fluid and with easily identifiable
chemical and physical characteristics of
the analyte.
Because of these goals, the search
strategy, as well as the literature evalu-
ation focussed on analytical methods.
The literature search was restricted to
lists of chemicals of current interest to
the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, to references cited in
"Chemicals Identified in Human Biolog-
ical Media, A Data Base," and the
"Chemical Abstracts Data Base." The
information retrieved was summarized
and classified by sampling and analysis
methodology.
This Project Summary was devel-
oped by EPA's Office of Health and En-
vironmental Assessment, Washington,
DC, to announce key findings of the re-
search project that is fully documented
in two separate reports (see Project Re-
port ordering information at back).
Introduction
For a long time, air monitoring consti-
tuted the major means of assessing
workers' exposure to chemicals in in-
dustry. But this monitoring takes into
account only exposure via the pul-
monary route and, even for respirable
chemicals, it does not indicate the ac-
tual uptake by the exposed worker.
Biological monitoring, the routine
analysis of human tissues or excreta for
direct or indirect evidence of exposure
to chemical substances, has also been
used to learn more about early detec-
tion of health impairment due to indus-
trial chemicals. The types of analyses
include the following measurements:
• concentration of the chemical in
various biological media such as
blood, urine, tissue and hair;
• concentration of metabolites of the
original chemical in the same me-
dia; and
• determination of adverse/nonad-
verse biological changes of the or-
ganism resulting from exposure to
reaction of the organism to expo-
sure.
Hence, biological monitoring is used
in the assessment of human exposure.
A main goal of such monitoring is to
ensure that the current or past levels of
worker exposure are safe. Biological
monitoring is being applied increas-
-------
ingly to the assessment of exposure in
environmentally exposed nonworker
populations.
The purpose of this research program
was to survey and evaluate the methods
and procedures used to identify and
quantitate chemical constituents in hu-
man tissues and fluids including fat,
skin, nails, hair, blood, urine, and
breath. These methods have been eval-
uated to determine their ease and rapid-
ity, as well as cost, accuracy, and preci-
sion. During this evaluation, a second
goal was to determine the feasibility of
correlating a preferred method with a
specific tissue/fluid and with easily
identifiable chemical characteristics,
such as octanol-water partition coeffi-
cient, water solubility, vapor pressure,
etc.
Because of these goals, the search
strategy and the literature evaluation fo-
cussed on analytical methods. The liter-
ature search was restricted to lists of
chemicals of current interest to the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), to references cited in "Chemicals
Identified in Human Biological Media, A
Date Base" up to 1982 and the
"Chemical Abstracts Data Base." The
Chemical Abstracts Data Base covers
the complete chemical literature from
1967 to present, however, the search
performed for this review was restricted
to 1976 to 1983.
The list of target chemicals included
in this review was compiled from a set
of five documents received from the
EPA Technical Project Monitor. The doc-
uments contained lists of compounds of
interest to the EPA.
The chemicals were classified into a
hierarchial scheme based on their phys-
ical and chemical properties. This
scheme first separated inorganic from
organic compounds. Organic chemicals
were then separated according to func-
tional group substituents. Functional
groups that have the greatest effect on a
compound's physical and chemical
properties and/or analytical behavior
are placed highest in the scheme. For
example, carboxylic acids are ranked
above acid esters. The acid moiety is a
stronger functional group with a greater
influence on aqueous solubility, boiling
point, extraction behavior, and chro-
matographic properties. If a compound
contains more than one functional
group, it is placed in the highest chemi-
cal classification. Because this classifi-
cation is based on the physical/chemical
properties, it should reflect analytical
behavior of many of the compounds to
aid in the overall evaluation process.
Information from the data base
"Chemicals Identified in Human Biolog-
ical Media" on (1) literature referenced,
(2) chemicals analyzed, (3) biological
matrix, and (4) analytical technique was
entered and stored on computer files.
These data were retrieved according to
analytical method. Under each analyti-
cal method, citations referring to that
method were listed according to chemi-
cal class, specific chemical, and biologi-
cal matrix. The "Chemical Abstract Data
Base" was searched using the selected
compounds which were cross-
referenced by CAS number with the
human biological matrices of interest.
This information was used for sorting
retrieved literature citations and dis-
seminating articles to members of the
advisory committee who were respon-
sible for the preparation of this review.
This information was also used to
match analytes with biological matrix in
order to determine the feasibility of cor-
relating analytical method with biologi-
cal matrix and with chemical character-
istics.
Relevant articles which report the use
of an analytical technique to measure
any of the target chemicals in the seven
biological matrices of interest were ob-
tained. Only those analytical methods
which had at least three articles cited
v jie included in the review.
During acquisition of literature cita-
tions, more than 95% of all citations
identified as relevant, i.e., those which
reported measuring any of the target
chemicals in the seven biological ma-
trices, were retrieved. Missing citations
were not retrieved for several reasons:
• the article was in a foreign lan-
guage which could not be trans-
lated easily;
• the reference in the data base was
incorrect; or
• a source of the article could not be
located.
The full report was written to evaluate
each analytical method. The evaluation
for each method included sections on
instrumentation and sample prepara-
tion methods. Much of the information
on analytical instrumentation was taken
from review articles, reference texts, or
our working knowledge of the tech-
niques. Information on sample prepara-
tion methods were generally restricted
to the citations in the data bases. The
section on method/analyte correlation
parameters attempted to suggest physi-
cal or chemical properties of analytes
which could be used to predict the ap-
plicability of the given method to the
analysis of that chemical in a specific
biological matrix.
Conclusions
Methods and procedures that were
cited in both data bases for the identifi-
cation and quantitation of the target
chemicals in the seven human biologi-
cal matrices were summarized. Broad
generalizations are difficult to formulate
due to the number of compounds, com-
plexity of matrices, and the variety ol
methods reviewed. A noncritical survey
of the analytes for each method in the
data base with a brief summary of the
advantages and disadvantages of each
of the methods reviewed follows.
Atomic Absorption Spec-
trophotometry
Atomic absorption spectrophotome-
try has been the method of choice foi
many investigators who require c
highly specific, low cost technique foi
elemental analysis with ultratrace de
tection limits. The advantages of this
single-element method have beer
known for the past 15 years, but the use
of modern instrumentation has pro
duced analytical data of greater repro
ducibility and has resulted in increasec
sample throughput. One of the best
documented environmental measure
ments (lead in whole blood) is usualh
performed by atomic absorptior
methods.
The biggest disadvantage of this tech
nique is not the inherent limitations o
the method with respect to analyt
specificity and sensitivity, but problem
with matrix effects. A variety of diges
tion conditions have been developei
which in combination with deuteriur
background correction and/o
chelation-extraction, such as APDC
MIBK, have been successful in reducin
matrix effects and form the basis fc
most atomic absorption procedures.
Neutron Activation Analysis
(NAA)
Neutron activation allows multiel
ment analyses on a single sample wit'
out pretreatment. Under conditions <
high neutron flux, maximum samp
size (approximately 1 g) and no interfe
ences, NAA provides detection limi
which can only be matched by flam
less atomic absorption spectrophot
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metry. Essentially all of the elements of
environmental interest (with the excep-
tion of beryllium and lead) from nitro-
gen to the heavy elements can be ana-
lyzed simultaneously by this technique.
The principal limiting factor in neu-
tron activation analyses is the presence
of interferences that result in the
gamma-ray signal from the various
sources not being resolved. Detection
limits may increase by several orders of
magnitude when interferences are
present. Poorer precision and accuracy
also result.
Accessibility to a neutron source
notwithstanding, NAA can be relatively
simple and inexpensive with the capa-
bility of measuring a large number of
elements simultaneously. When either
chemical methods or extensive time
resolution is required to minimize inter-
ferences; the cost, time, and labor re-
quired for analysis increase signifi-
cantly.
Electrochemical Methods
The facility of ion selective poten-
tiometry in the analysis of inorganic
ions is a distinct advantage of this ana-
lytical technique. Although limits of de-
tection are typically 10~6 M, which is
somewhat higher than competing tech-
niques, fluoride and cyanide selective
electrodes have been quite successfully
used in the analysis of blood and urine.
Their simplicity in this regard makes
them highly recommended.
Anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV)
has been applied to the analysis of
blood, urine, and hair for a large num-
ber of metals including zinc, cadmium,
lead, chromium, and copper. Since ASV
is capable of differentiating between
labile and nonlabile metal species, it is
clearly the method of choice when infor-
mation regarding metal speciation is
desirable. When total metal determina-
tions are needed, ASV is comparable to
other methods with respect to labor re-
quired and accuracy.
Cyclic voltammetry has been applied
to several metal determinations and, in
addition, some organic compounds
such as p-amino-diphenylamine. Cyclic
voltammetry is an easy technique to im-
plement and the analysis is fast; blood
samples have been analyzed without
further treatment. The equipment cost
is relatively inexpensive compared to
other instruments used in the simulta-
neous determination of metals. The
limit of detection (LOD) is higher than
for ASV.
Emission Spectroscopy
A large number of metals may be de-
termined using emission spectroscopy.
The limit of detection for these metals is
adequate for environmental trace analy-
sis, and many published data were
found on the use of either DC or argon
plasma ionization methods. However,
by far, the most widely used technique
is atomic absorption (AA) spectroscopy.
Because of the wealth of data on
method performance and the availabil-
ity of instrumentation, AA would be
considered the method of first choice,
but ICP may be faster, more accurate,
more precise and have lower LOD.
Proton Induced X-Ray Emission
(PIXE)
Proton induced X-ray analysis may be
used for multielement analysis of a
large number of samples. Although bio-
logical samples can be analyzed in a
variety of forms, including untreated
specimens, best results are achieved by
digesting the organic material and plac-
ing the resulting solution on a Mylar
film for irradiation. The elements nor-
mally measured for PIXE range from
phosphorous (2= 15) to lead (2 = 82)
with limits of detection at the sub-
nanogram level.
The method is simple, allows high
sample throughput, and is currently be-
ing performed inexpensively by several
laboratories.
Spectrophotometry (Colorime-
try)
Spectrophotometry has the advan-
tage of being a simple and quick proce-
dure utilizing instrumentation which is
widely available and relatively inexpen-
sive. It is capable of determining com-
pounds and metal complexes at the low
microgram to high nanogram range
with good precision (2-3%). The disad-
vantages of this technique are the labor
intensive sample preparation steps, and
the nonunique nature of the measured
signal (compared to AA/ICP). This
method is suitable for many analytical
measurements, particularly where the
operating laboratory does not have AA/
ICP spectrometers. When available, AA
or ICAP would usually be the methods
of choice.
Gas Chromatography
Gas Chromatography is used for the
separation and determination of volatile
or semivolatile organic compounds. Re-
cent developments in capillary column
Chromatography provide for very high
resolution to give separation of com-
plex samples. The use of specific
column packings allows the determina-
tion of polar and some compounds with
low volatility.
Effluent from the GC column may be
analyzed using a specific (e.g., electron
capture, nitrogen/phosphorus) or a non-
specific (e.g., flame ionization, thermal
conductivity) detector. Limits of detec-
tion range from subpicogram to micro-
gram depending upon the detector
used and the compounds determined.
Gas Chromatography is a simple tech-
nique for the determination of organic
compounds and is used extensively on
human biological extracts. Compounds
which are nonvolatile (B.P. >300°C),
very polar, or heat labile cannot be de-
termined directly by this method. For
these compounds, high performance
liquid Chromatography is generally
used. Some polar and/or nonvolatile
compounds may be derivatized to im-
prove gas chromatographic perform-
ance.
Most biological samples cannot be
analyzed directly. Analytes are usually
extracted and fractionated prior to anal-
ysis. Although GC analysis itself is a
simple rapid procedure, sample prepa-
ration techniques are often complicated
and time-consuming.
Mass Spectrometry
Mass spectrometry is a sensitive,
specific but expensive technique. The
various forms of mass spectrometry
that can be employed complicate the
question of when the technique should
be used. Spark source mass spectrome-
try is extremely valuable in elemental
analysis. Atomic absorption spec-
trophotometers and inductively cou-
pled argon plasma spectrometers are
substantially less expensive for these
analyses; however, for a semiquantita-
tive scan of a broad range of elements,
spark source mass spectrometry could
be the method of choice. Many com-
mercial laboratories offer spark source
mass spectrometric assays as a service,
so purchase would not be necessary for
an occasional need. The main use of
mass spectroscopy is in the identifica-
tion and quantitation of organic com-
pounds.
Isotope ratio mass spectrometry is
the preferred method for accurate de-
termination of isotope ratios. If such an
assay is required, specialized laborato-
ries make effective use of the instru-
mentation.
-------
Although gas chromatography/mass
spectrometry as a combined technique
is one of the most widely used analyti-
cal methods, the decision to use the
technique should be evaluated care-
fully. Gas chromatography is far more
cost-effective and is usually more sensi-
tive. However, the analysis of biological
samples for various organic con-
stituents by gas chromatography pre-
sents various difficulties which may re-
quire the specificity inherent in the
mass spectrometric technique. For ex-
ample, if identification of a pesticide is
desired for forensic or regulatory pur-
poses, the use of gas chromatography/
mass spectrometry with authentic
standards will give the needed informa-
tion. Biological samples often contain
material which coelutes with a com-
pound of interest and only the
specificity of the mass spectrometric
technique will give a successful assay.
When standards for the compounds of
interest are not available, identification
can be carried out with a high degree of
confidence only by the mass spectro-
metric technique.
In summary, mass spectrometry
should be used when its specificity is
required, a less expensive technique is
not adequate, or when certain types of
information are available from no other
source, for example, accurate isotope
ratios or accurate mass measurement.
X-Ray Spectroscopy
X-ray emission spectroscopy can be
used in chemical analysis for both quan-
titative and qualitative studies. X-ray
spectroscopy is applicable to the deter-
mination of most metals in multiele-
ment analysis. The technique is expen-
sive and not widely available.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
(NMR)
Nuclear magnetic resonance spec-
troscopy is applicable to a wide range of
organic compounds, provides informa-
tion on chemical structure, and can be
quantified. The operation of NMR in-
struments is rather complex; however,
no significant sample preparation is re-
quired. The equipment is very expen-
sive and not widely available.
Thin Layer Chromatography
Thin layer chromatography is a sepa-
ration technique based on an adsorp-
tion or partition process and employs a
thin, flat bed of sorbent. Thin layer chro-
matography can be used for the separa-
tion and semi-quantitation of complex
mixtures and has. proven useful as a
cleanup technique for analvtes present
in biological fluid extracts and environ-
mental samples.
With the exception of some macro-
molecules, reactive compounds, and
volatile substances; virtually any or-
ganic compound and many.inorganic
ions can be detected by thin layer chro-
matography. The limit of detection is a
function of the specific .detection sys-
tem utilized. Semi-quantitative thin
layer chromatography is fast, simple
and can be accomplished with a mini-
mum of expensive equipment. Quanti-
tative thin layer chromatography with
modern instrumental detection systems
is both accurate and sensitive but re-
quires rather expensive equipment.
High Performance Liquid Chro-
matography
High performance liquid chromatog-
raphy is a simple and standard separa-
tion technique applicable to virtually
any mixture of organic compounds as
well as certain ionic species. It is usually
applied to complex matrices for which
gas chromatography is not usable, such
as matrices containing high boiling
point chemicals or compounds which
decompose under GC conditions. A
wide variety of detectors can be inter-
faced to a liquid chromatography
column such as ultraviolet detectors, re-
fractive index and fluorimetric detec-
tors.
Miscellaneous Methods
During this survey, two reports were
found dealing with the determination of
compounds of interest using some mis-
cellaneous methods. The scarcity of
publications did not warrant a special
section for these techniques in this re-
view.
One such report describes the evalua-
tion of the permeability of phenolic
compounds through human stratum
corneum using a desorption technique.
In another report, laser microprobe
mass analysis (LAMMA) is used to de-
termine metal ions and organic com-
pounds in solid samples which require
spacial resolution.
Methods for Breath Analysis
Several combinations of sampling,
concentration, and analysis methods
were cited in the reviewed literature for
the identification and quantitation of
target compounds in human breath. A
brief noncritical review of the advan-
tages and disadvantages of each
method follows.
In 1977 an international workshop or
"The Use of Biological Specimens foi
the Assessment of Human Exposure tc
Environmental Pollutants" summarizec
the data on the location or compartmen
talization of xenobiotics and/or thei
metabolites in various biological ma
trices including breath. They concludec
breath is not useful to evaluate expo
sure to arsenic, beryllium, cadmium
chromium, fluorine, lead, mercury
molybdenum, manganese, nickel, vana
dium, zinc, copper, cobalt, platinum
palladium, tin, methyl mercury, DDT
phenoxy herbicides, pentachlorophe
nol, PCB, PBB, PCN, tetrachloro
dibenzo-p-dioxins, benzofuran, azoben
zene, polycyclic hydrocarbons, amini
and nitro derivatives, organophospho
rus esters, cyanides, nitriles, mycotox
ins, antibiotics, and hormonal sub
stances. They concluded breath level:
correlate with body burden in the case:
of chlorinated solvents, plasti
monomers, fluorinated propellants
nonsubstituted aliphatic and aromati
volatile hydrocarbons, alcohols, ethers
ketones, and carbon monoxide. It wa
also concluded selenium breath level
could possibly be useful as an indicate
specimen but further research was re
quired to confirm selenium.
Apnea Direct Injection/Gas
Chromatography
The apnea sampling method con
bined with direct injection of the expire
air into a gas chromatograph is an ei
tremely simple and fast method whic
requires no specialized equipmen
Since no concentration is achieve!
however, the limit of detection is reli
lively high for this method.
Breathing Valve/Direct Injec-
tion/Gas Chromatography
This method, like the apnea/direct it
jection/GC method, is simple and fast.
breathing valve, air tank, and sampl
collection bag are required making
slightly more complicated than the a|
nea method. Again, the sample is ni
concentrated before injection into tr
gas chromatograph, resulting in red
lively high limits of detection. Becaus
very little sample manipulation is pe
formed, recoveries are high. Specific r
covery values were not found in the li
erature reviewed.
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Breathing Valve/Adsorbent
Concentration/Gas Chromatog-
raphy
This method is complicated and ex-
pensive compared to the direct injection
techniques. The concentration
achieved, however, results in very low
detection limits (as low as 1 part per
trillion). This allows a much larger num-
ber of trace components to be identified
and quantitated, but also leads to more
problems with background interfer-
ences. Some reported recoveries are
high, better than 95%, with coefficients
of variation of 3-6%.
Cryogenic Trapping/Gas Chro-
matography
This method concentrates the com-
pounds of interest without concentrat-
ing the oxygen and nitrogen matrix. The
extended sampling period (60 minutes)
results in the equivalent of sub-ppb de-
tection limits although contaminants in
the supply air could increase the limit of
detection for those compounds. The
cryogenic trapping method is sensitive
but also complicated, time-consuming,
and requires a specialized cryogenic
trapping system. No recovery data are
available for this method.
Tenax GC Cartridge/GC/Mass
Spectrometry
This method concentrates the com-
pounds of interest by directly adsorbing
the breath or breath collected in a Ted-
lar bag onto a Tenax cartridge. The
Tenax cartridge is later thermally de-
sorbed and injected into a GC/mass
spectrometer. This method has excel-
lent sensitivity but it is costly and re-
quires elaborate equipment. The per-
cent recovery for laboratory samples
ranges from 77 to 110 percent.
Cascade Impactor Sampling/
Photon Induced X-Ray Emis-
sion (PIXE) Analysis
This is a sensitive but very compli-
cated method for elemental analysis of
breath. Exhaled air (4-6 L) is concen-
trated for PIXE analysis using a cascade
impactor which results in detection lim-
its at the nanogram level. Sample col-
lection efficiency is high (85-99%) which
should lead to high recoveries. The dis-
advantage of this technique is that a
large amount of specialized and expen-
sive equipment is required including
cascade impactors, a computer for
spectral analysis, and a Van de Graff ac-
celerator for PIXE analysis.
Recommendations
The goal of this research program
was to evaluate methodologies for de-
termining chemicals of interest to EPA
in human biological matrices. This re-
view included the citations listed in
"Chemicals Identified in Human Biolog-
ical Matrices, A Data Base" and the
Chemical Abstracts Data Base. Based
on this extensive literature, summary
reviews have been compiled according
to methodology and form the bulk of
the full report.
In addition, based on the chemical
and physical characteristics of the com-
pounds of interest and the method by
which they are determined, some sim-
ple and expected correlations can be
found.
Some general recommendations can
be summarized as follows:
1. Many volatile and semivolatile or-
ganic compounds found in human
biological matrices can be deter-
mined by gas chromatography
coupled with a variety of detectors.
To select a specific detector, the
compound type and the matrix
type being analyzed must be taken
into account.
2. Organic compounds of high boil-
ing point or that decompose under
gas chromatographic conditions
can be determined by liquid chro-
matography coupled with a variety
of detectors. Again the selection of
a specific detector depends on the
compound and matrix type being
analyzed.
3. Adsorption onto Tenax cartridges
is the most widely used breath
sampling method to preconcen-
trate organic compounds, includ-
ing hydrocarbons, chlorinated hy-
drocarbons, alcohols, ketones,
nitrogen-containing compounds
and others.
4. Most metals and metal-containing
compounds can be analyzed by
atomic absorption spectroscopy or
inductively coupled argon plasma.
When the metals are in solid ma-
trices such as hair and tissue, they
can be determined by neutron acti-
vation analysis and proton in-
duced X-ray spectroscopy without
further sample preparation. Some
specific metal matrix combina-
tions may be best analyzed by
electrochemical methods orcolori-
metric methods. Other techniques
applicable to the analysis of metals
and organometallic compounds
were found, however, they do not
appear to be as widespread and
convenient as the ones mentioned
above. With the exception of
lithium and beryllium, most metals
in breath can be determined by
PIXE analytical techniques.
Body Burden
Biological monitoring of humans for
xenobiotic body burden entails the col-
lection and analysis of biological speci-
mens (organs, tissues, blood, etc.).
Biological monitoring is useful for
several reasons. First and foremost, it
provides direct evidence of exposure
and absorption of a xenobiotic. It thus
alerts one to the possibility of a human
health hazard. The data obtained by bio-
logical monitoring can be correlated
with the observed level of pollutants in
the environment and with the incidence
of human diseases, which may be due
in part to the presence of the pollutants.
These correlations can be used to deter-
mine priorities with regard to research
relating to human health and to deter-
mine the necessity of regulation of pol-
lution sources. Biological monitoring
can point out pollutant problems which
are not otherwise noted, such as could
occur due to bioaccumulation of pollu-
tants in humans resulting from long-
term exposure to very low levels of pol-
lutants in the environment.
In 1977 an international workshop
was held in Luxembourg on "The Use of
Biological Specimens for the Assess-
ment of Human Exposure to Environ-
mental Pollutants." The objectives of
the workshop were:
(a) To assess the types of environ-
mental pollutants and human
specimens most suitable for bio-
logical monitoring and to evalu-
ate the probable usefulness of bi-
ological specimen banking.
(b) To examine the state of the art
and technical feasibility of pro-
grams designed to collect human
biological specimens for biologi-
cal monitoring and biological
specimen banking.
(c) To develop guidelines on sam-
pling, sample preparation, stor-
age, and analytical requirements.
(d) To make recommendations for
further research and develop-
ment.
Exposure routes for organic chemi-
cals are usually inhalation, ingestion,
and dermal absorption. Once absorbed,
the chemical may be excreted, (includ-
-------
ing exhalation) stored, or metabolized.
In general, chemicals are metabolized
to a more polar form which leads to
conjugation and excretion in the urine.
The fate of any chemical will depend
upon its volatility, polarity, and chemi-
cal and biological stability. For example,
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) and
polychlorinated terphenyls (PCT) are
nonvolatile, inert, lipophilic compounds
which are stored in the adipose tissue.
More polar compounds such as phenols
and acids are generally excreted in the
urine.
Several reports found in the pub-
lished literature described the simulta-
neous analysis of many elements in hu-
man biological matrices.
Significant differences in the trace
levels of chlorine, potassium, calcium,
titanium, manganese, iron, copper, and
lead in hair from different parts of the
body were found. This suggested that
the trace elemental absorption and ac-
cumulation in hair not only depends on
the particular element, but also on the
location of the hair in the body. The
trace concentrations in white and black
hair was also found different.
Seventeen different elements were
analyzed simultaneously in healthy and
pathological tissue to obtain informa-
tion on the cancerous process. Signifi-
cant differences in the content of vari-
ous elements were found in the normal
and pathological tissue. Potassium,
zinc, and selenium were found in higher
concentration in the cancerous mucosa
of the stomach. No significant differ-
ences appeared in the elemental com-
position of blood, erythrocytes, hair,
and striated muscle taken from the ab-
dominal wall from patients with gall
bladder or stomach cancer when com-
pared with other noncancer diseases.
Human hair root has been analyzed
for the presence of several elements.
Hair root, rather than strand may reflect
the most recent exposure influences
and its analysis is exclusive of exter-
nally acquired constituents. Samples
collected from 23 randomly selected
rural Florida children, three to six years
of age were analyzed. The results
showed differences in the Fe content by
sex and Cu (and possibly others) differ-
ences caused by intake.
Human blood serum was analyzed for
zinc, copper, iron, chromium, man-
ganese, and selenium as part of a sur-
vey to determine whether or not the
Australian aboriginal people received
optimal diet. Special attention was di-
rected to chromium because of the high
incidence of diabetes mellitus in this
population.
Multiple-element analysis of human
cerebrospinal fluid and other tissues
was used to determine diseases of the
nervous system. The distribution of
copper, iron, and zinc in the cere-
brospinal fluid was such that deficien-
cies could not be studied. For the major-
ity of trace elements studied, the normal
values could not be determined much
less the deficiencies. The interpretation
of sporadic high levels was not possi-
ble. High levels of silicon found were
not anticipated. The accumulation of sil-
icon in the body fluids of patients with
renal failure and on dialysis coupled
with the clinical correlations made sili-
con a candidate for an uremic neuro-
toxin. The higher levels of silicon in
cerebrospinal fluid of clinically-
diagnosed and autopsy-proven cases of
Alzeheimer's disease coupled with the
presence of silicon in the neurofibrillary
tissue of these patients suggest a corre-
lation of silicon levels with this poorly
understood disease.
Twenty-four elements were mea-
sured in hair from 20 individuals who
worked in a lead-zinc smelter in Poland.
These same elements were also mea-
sured in hair taken from 20 individuals
considered "normal" or not exposed.
Elements found to be at elevated levels
relative to the controls included As, Se,
Ag, Cd, and Sb.
L. Sheldon, M. Umafia. J. Bursey, W. Gutknecht, R. Handy, P. Hyldburg, L
Michael, A. Moseley, J. Raymer, D. Smith, C. Sparacino, and M. Warner are
with Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
James Bridges is the EPA Project Officer (see below).
The Project Summary covers the following reports:
"Evaluation of Methods for Analysis of Human Fat, Skin Nails, Hair, Blood and
Urine,"(Order No. PB 85-242 790/AS; Cost: $28.95, subject to change)
"Methods for Sampling and Analysis of Breath," (Order No. PB 85-243
277'/AS; Cost: $9.95, subject to change).
The above reports will be available only from:
National Technical Information Service
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, VA 22161
Telephone: 703-487-4650
The EPA Project Officer can be contacted at:
Hazardous Waste Engineering Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, OH 45268
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United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Center for Environmental Research
Information
Cincinnati OH 45268
Official Business
Penalty for Private Use $300
EPA/600/S8-85/020
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