Drum Handling Practices at
Hazardous Waste Sites
K. Wagner, R. Wetzel, H. Bryson, C. Furman, A. Wickline, and V. Hodge
The overall goal of this research was
to provide technical guidance for plan-
ning and implementing safe and cost-
effective response actions at hazardous
waste sites containing drums. A manual
has been prepared on methods, pro-
cedures, and equipment suitable for
handling drummed waste. Detailed in-
formation is presented on locating bur-
ied drums; excavating and transferring
drums onsite; staging, opening, and
sampling drums; consolidating wastes;
storing drums; and transporting drums
offsite. Each of these operations is
discussed in terms of equipment and
procecdures used in carrying out specif-
ic activities, field health and safety
procedures used in carrying out specif-
environment and public welfare, and
factors affecting costs. Information is
also included on the applications and
limitations of the following remedial
actions for controlling or containing
migration of wastes from drums: sur-
face capping, surface water controls,
ground-water pumping, subsurface
drains, slurry walls, and in-situ treat-
ment techniques. This manual will be
useful to On-Scene Coordinators; Fed-
eral, state, and local officials; and
private firms that plan and implement
response actions at sites containing
drums.
This Project Summary was developed
by EPA's Hazardous Waste Engineering
Research Laboratory, Cincinnati. OH,
to announce key findings of the research
project that is fully documented in a
separate report of the same title (see
Project Report ordering information at
back).
Introduction
The Comprehensive Environmental Re-
sponse, Compensation, and Liability Act
of 1980 (CERCLA) establishes a nation-
wide program for the cleanup of uncon-
trolled hazardous waste sites. This
program is implemented through the
provisions of the National Contingency
Plan (NCP), 40 CFR Part 300, which sets
forth the process by which response
actions will be selected, evaluated, and
implemented. All CERCLA response
actions must meet the need for protection
of public health, welfare, and the environ-
ment in the most cost-effective manner.
The objective of this Summary is to
provide the technical guidance necessary
to select and implement cost-effective
response actions at hazardous waste
sites with drums. Past experience in
cleaning up these sites indicates that
there are a number of health, safety, and
environmental hazards unique to drum
handling operations. As a result, specific
procedures, protocols, and equipment
types have been developed but have not
necessarily been made generally avail-
able to the user community. The exper-
ience gained from these activities and
presented in this manual will be inval-
uable for future response actions.
The manual describes and evaluates
equipment, procedures, and methods for
planning and implementing cost-effective
response actions applicable to drum
problems requiring one or more of the
three broad response categories outlined
in the NCP: removal, surface cleanup, and
subsurface remedial action. The major
focus of the document, however, is to
provide guidance on procedures and

-------
methods specific to removal of buried or
surface drums  containing  hazardous
wastes. Activities such as locating,  ex-
cavating, staging and opening drums, and
consolidating, storing, and transporting
wastes from drumsare presented in detail
because there  has  been no  previous
guidance published in these areas. Also,
information on the use of source control
measures (e.g., pumping, slurry walls,
drains) to contain or control the migration
of wastes from drums is presented in the
form of summary tables with  lists of
references since considerable guidance
is already available on the design  and
implementation of these technologies.

Results and Discussion
  The manual  identifies, describes,  and
evaluates equipment  and procedures for
activities related to drum handling, in-
cluding:

• Locating buried drums
• Excavation  and onsite handling of
  drums
• Drum staging and opening
• Waste consolidation  and recontainer-
  ization
• Interim storage/transport
• Source controls.

Locating Buried Drums
  Locating and detecting buried drums at
a hazardous waste site involves the use of
historic and background data on the site,
aerial photography, geophysical survey-
ing,  and  sampling.  Background data
should be examined extensively since it
can focus remedial investigation activities
and thereby minimize the cost and max-
imize the level of safety associated with
the drum handling operations.
  Aerial photography invovles the use of
historic aerial  photographs to show
changes in the site  over time such as
filled in trenches or  mounding;  and
current aerial imagery  (usually color or
infrared) to show spills, seepage, or
changes in vegetation that may indicate
the presence of drums.
  Geophysical survey methods include
metal detection, magnetometry, electro-
magnetics, electrical  resistivity, ground-
penetrating radar, and seismic refraction.
Geophysical surveys can be used to locate
buried drums; define the boundaries of
trenches containing drums; approximate
the number of drums  present; determine
plume  boundaries, concentration gradi-
ents, and direction of  ground-water flow;
and  determine subsurface conditions.
Applicability, reliability,  and cost-effec-
tiveness of these methods are highly site-
specific. Magnetometry is generally the
most useful  survey tool for detecting
drums. Metal detectors may be adequate
if drums are close to the surface. Ground-
penetrating radar can be used in plume
delineation and for locating and approx-
imating the number of buried drums; this
method is extremely sensitive  but  is
subject to several  interferences.  Electro-
magnetics and electrical resistivity are
often used  together to determine the
boundaries  of  leachate plumes rather
than  the  location of drums, although
electromagnetics has been used for this
purpose.  Use of  seismic  refraction  at
hazardous waste sites has been limited to
determining depth and thickness of geo-
logic strata. Results of geophysical sur-
veying should be verified by sampling.
  Where drums have been stored above-
ground, a drum inventory  is generally
prepared as part of the remedial investi-
gation. This generally involves estimating
or counting  the drums and randomly
sampling them to allow a gross categor-
ization of the types of wastes onsite. This
information is then used to prepare bid
documents and cost estimates for clean-
up.
  A drum  inventory may be  prepared for
buried drums as  well.  Where  buried
drums are involved, ground water and
soil sampling may be required together
with  geophysical  surveying to locate
drums,  approximate their number, and
obtain a general idea of the types of waste
present. Air monitoring equipment (e.g.,
combustible gas, radiation, and toxic gas
meters) should be used to ensure the
safety of field personnel when working
near drums.

Excavation and Onsite
Handling of Drums
  Buried drum excavation  is generally
accomplished by using a combination of
conventional excavation, lifting, and load-
ing equipment such as backhoes, front-
end loaders, and bobcats, but with special
equipment modifications or accessories
adapted to hazardous waste site applica-
tions. The most valuable piece of equip-
ment for  handling drums is the barrel
grappler,  a  modified  crawler-mounted
backhoe with a rotating grapple head. The
grapple  attachment can rotate  360 de-
grees along a given plane and is hydraul-
ically self-adjusting in grip radius so that
it can grab  and lift various sized con-
tainers,  including  containers that are
slightly dented or bent. Another valuable
piece of equipment  is the  industrial
vacuum loader. This high-strength vacu-
um can convey either solids  or  liquids
from distances up to  150 meters (500
feet) and is particularly useful for remov-
ing soil around drums and cleaning up
spills from  ruptured or leaking drums.
Other attachments include nonsparking
bucket teeth to prevent explosions, mor-
man bars to cover the teeth of backhoes to
avoid puncturing drums, plexiglas safety
shields for vehicle cabs, and drum lifting
attachments such  as  nylon yokes and
metal hoists.
  Equipment used in the excavation and
staging of drums must be suitable for
digging, grabbing,  lifting,  loading,  and
manipulating drums. Complete manage-
ment of a drum-related problem usually
requires a  combination of equipment,
particularly where the grappler  is  not
available.
  There are  a  number of safe handling
practices that should be followed  during
excavation and onsite handling of drums.
Unless buried  drums are being handled
remotely using a grappler, it will generally
be necessary to determine drum integrity
prior to drum  excavation.  This may be
accomplished through  a visual  inspection
of the drum surface for corrosion, leaks,
swelling, or missing bungs. Field person-
nel should rely on air  monitoring equip-
ment (e.g., oxygen meters, combustible
gas  detectors, gas/vapor  analyzers) to
provide an indication of unsafe  conditions
inthe immediate vicinity of drums. Where
certain highly  hazardous or toxic  mater-
ials are suspected, additional precautions
may be required. These precautions in-
clude:

• Immediate overpacking  and isolation
   of radioactive materials
• Minimal contact, prompt isolation, and
   preferably remote handling of explo-
   sive or shock-sensitive materials
• Barricading  overpressurized  drums
   until the  pressure  can be relieved
   remotely
• Cautious handling of gas cylinders to
   avoid dragging or striking them.

Where drums are found to be  leaking or
structurally unsound,  the drums  should
be overpacked or the contents transferred
to a new container promptly in order to
avoid spills or  releases that could jeop-
ardize worker safety.

Drum Staging and Opening
  The next activity involves staging and
opening the drums. This  generally re-

-------
quires that all drums be sampled in order
to determine  potential  treatment  and
disposal options. The procedures used for
staging  and opening depend upon the
number of drums onsite, their relative
hazard, and the space available for  per-
forming these  activities. It is recom-
mended that drums be staged according
to their physical contents (i.e., liquids,
solids, gas cylinders, lab packs) since
procedures for opening and sampling
these containers are unique. Preferably,
the drum  staging and  opening areas
should be physically  separated to mini-
mize the risk of a chain reaction in the
event of fire  or explosion during drum
opening. The  drum opening  area should
be diked and  lined. A combined staging
and opening area may be required at sites
where the work space is too confined or
where the logistics of marshalling thou-
sands of drums from a staging area to a
drum  opening  area  is cost-prohibitive.
Using this combined  approach,  drums
should be staged in  rows of two or in
groups of four  with  sufficient distance
between rows or groups to allow easy
access of remotely operated drum open-
ing equipment.
  There are a variety of tools available for
opening drums. Nonsparking wrenches
and manually operated deheaders should
be used only for drums with good integrity
and where the contents are not suspected
of being explosive.  Remotely  operated
equipment types include  debungers,
plungers, and backhoe-attached spikes.
Further  protection should  be provided
during drum opening by conducting the
operation from behind a plexiglas shield.
Finally, during drum opening, measures
should be taken to contain and mitigate
spills that may occur. In general, remote
drum  opening  is  recommended  where
drum  integrity is poor or the wastes are
highly toxic. However, these methods are
time consuming and  may add consider-
able cost to a drum removal operation.

Waste Consolidation and
Recontainerization
  The specific activities conducted during
the consolidation and recontainerization
phase of the drum handling operation are
intended to prepare the wastes for final
treatment and disposal. The initial step is
to conduct compatibility testing  on all
drums. This involves the use of simple,
rapid, and  cost-effective testing  proce-
dures in order to segregate  wastes into
broad categories (e.g., radioactives, oxi-
dizers, water reactives, etc.) so  that
wastes can be bulked and an appropriate
treatment/disposal option can be identi-
fied. Once compatible waste types have
been identified, composite samples are
generally  subjected  to  more  rigorous
testing before bulking to make certain
they meet specific requirements of the
treatment/disposal facilities. Treatment
and disposal  options that are available
include incineration, aqueous treatment,
resource recovery, secure landfilling, and
solidification/stabilization.
  Compatible liquid wastes are generally
consolidated  onsite  in vacuum tanker
trucks. Some  pretreatment (e.g.,  acid-
base neutralization, oxidation of cyanide
and sulfide) may be  required for some
waste types before they can be bulked.
Such  reactions should  be  carried out
under carefully controlled conditions in a
reaction tank or compatibility chamber.
  Under certain circumstances, it is more
economical or  acceptable to transport
liquid wastes in  drums or overpacks
rather than to bulk them. This is the case
when the number  of drums containing
compatible waste types is too few to make
use of vacuum trucks  economical, or
when there are a few drums containing
highly toxic or incompatible wastes that
cannot  be bulked with  other  wastes
without contaminating the load.
  As is the case with liquid wastes, it is
most cost-effective to consolidate com-
patible solid  waste types. This can be
done using an industrial vacuum loader if
the wastes are sufficiently low in viscosity
or a bulk  solids dump trailer. Contami-
nated soils can be  bulked  with  solid
wastes. This not only provides a  cost-
effective means of disposal but also stabil-
izes the solid wastes. Fly ash, sawdust,
and  commercial sorbents can also be
used to remove any free liquids in the
waste. Drums are a  suitable means for
containerizing small volumes of  solid
wastes or contaminated soils.
  Available procedures for treatment of
gas cylinders include venting of nontoxic,
nonflammable gases; neutralization of
acidic  or  basic gases;  and controlled
detonation of flammable  gases.  Care
should be taken  to  avoid dragging or
striking gas cylinders and to protect them
from temperature extremes.
  Procedures  for  handling  lab packs
involve  manually  separating  the  indi-
vidual bottles and segregating them into
waste  types. Chemically  compatible
wastes other than explosives and shock-
sensitive wastes can then be repackaged
in conformance  with  Department of
Transportation (DOT) regulations. Explo-
sives and shock-sensitive components of
lab packs must be handled with extreme
caution. Typically, these waste types are
either  detonated  or  incinerated under
closely controlled conditions.

Interim Storage/Transport
  Conditions  at hazardous waste sites
frequently require that drums be stored
temporarily onsite until additional funds
become available to transport them offsite
or until a suitable site is located for their
final disposal. Standards for Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
permitted storage facilities (40 CFR Part
264) should  be followed to  the extent
practicable.  DOT  regulations (49  CFR
Parts 171-179) govern the packaging and
transport of hazardous wastes.

Source Controls
  Where buried drums are present, use
of source control options to prevent the
migration of  wastes may be preferred
over  excavation  and  removal. Such
measures are often less costly and min-
imize the exposure of field personnel to
toxic and  hazardous wastes.  Source
control measures for  containing  and
controlling waste migration include: cap-
ping, surface water controls, ground-
water pumping, subsurface drains, slurry
walls,  and in-situ treatment methods. A
full feasibility study is  required under
CERCLA for selecting the most cost-ef-
fective remedial action for controlling or
containing waste migration.

Conclusions and
Recommendations
  A variety of procedures, protocols, and
equipment types  has been  utilized for
handling drums containing  hazardous
wastes. However, safe and cost-effective
drum removal operations should follow
certain general  principles.  Operations
should promote the use of remote drum
handling equipment (e.g., drum grappler,
plexiglas safety  shield, drum opening
equipment) and should  be designed  to
provide a means for segregating incom-
patible wastes and isolating  highly  haz-
ardous wastes (e.g., explosives, radio-
active materials). Equally important, com-
patible waste types  should  be consoli-
dated to develop sufficient quantities for
more cost-effective treatment/disposal
of waste materials.
  Measures  should  also be taken  to
minimize secondary contamination of the
environment. These include prompt clean-
up of spills and provisions for secondary
containment  of spills within different
operating areas (e.g., drum opening area.

-------
equipment decontamination area, interim
storage area).
Field personnel should be provided with
the appropriate monitoring equipment to
enable detection of any. hazards during
drum removal operations. This commonly
includes meters for measuring explosive
levels, toxic materials, radioactivity, and
oxygen levels.
The removal operation should be de-
signed and conducted to adhere to all
safety and environmental regulations and
standards including Occupational Safety
and Health Administration and state
safety regulations for personnel protec-
tion and reporting; DOT regulations for
offsite transport of hazardous wastes;
and RCRA standards for storage, trans-
port, treatment, and disposal of hazardous
wastes.
At some hazardous waste sites with
buried drums, the most cost-effective
response action will require that the
drums be left onsite with long-term
remedial actions (source control meas-
ures) being implemented to control
and/or contain hazardous waste migra-
tion (e.g., pumping, slurry wall, capping).
Regardless of whether the most cost-
effective remedial action involves removal
or source containment measures, the
response action should be designed based
on a full consideration of the following
criteria;

• Engineering feasibility of the method/
equipment types
• Protection of health and safety of field
personnel
• Protection of the environment and
public welfare
• Costs
These criteria are consistent with re-
sponse action requirements under the
National Contingency Plan.
K. Wagner, R. Wetzel, H. Bryson, C. Furman, A. Wickline, and V. Hodge are with
JRB Associates. McLean, VA 22102.
Anthony N. Tafuri is the EPA Project Officer (see below).
The complete report, entitled "Drum Handling Practices at Hazardous Waste
Sites," (Order No. PB 86-165 362/A S; Cost: $ 16.95, subject to change) will be
available only from:
National Technical Information Service
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield. VA 22161
Telephone: 703-487-4650
The EPA Project Officer can be contacted at:
Releases Control Branch
Hazardous Waste Engineering Research Laboratory—Cincinnati
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Edison, NJ 08837
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Center for Environmental Research
Information
Cincinnati OH 45268
BULK RATE
POSTAGE & FEES PA
EPA
PERMIT No. G-35
Official Business
Penalty for Private Use $300

EPA/600/S2-86/013

-------