United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Hazardous Waste Engineering
Research Laboratory
Cincinnati OH 45268
Research and Development
EPA/600/S2-87/052 Sept. 1987
&EPA Project Summary
Ecological Recovery After
Reclamation of Toxic Spoils Left by
Coal Surface Mining: Phase II
An Assessment of Environmental
Changes Following Intensive
Remedial Treatments
Thomas G. Zarger, David H. Scanlon, Charles P. Nicholson, Steven R. Brown,
Lynn B. Starnes, and W. Douglas Harned
This study involves a forested water-
shed in which surface mining and un-
successful reclamation efforts in the
early 1970s resulted in adverse environ-
mental impacts. Two years after mining,
only one-quarter of the mine surface
had stabilized. Siltation and acid mine
drainage began to affect receiving
stream quality and accelerate siltation
of a water supply reservoir. Work on
the east Tennessee problem mine sought
to correct reclamation deficiencies by
applying land stabilization treatments
and then to evaluate their effectiveness
by measuring the degree of recovery of
the affected terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems.
Remedial reclamation to establish a
protective ground cover on three-
quarters of the mine surface which had
not stabilized began in the fall of 1974.
Both fall and spring treatments were
applied over 3 years, treating one-third
of the inadequately revegetated area
each year. Also, forest tree and wildlife
shrub seedlings were planted in the
year following ground cover establish-
ment.
A monitoring program conducted
annually from 1975 through 1980 to
document and assess ecological re-
covery included vegetation surveys,
censuses of bird and small mammal
populations, stream water quality sam-
pling and analyses, and sampling for
aquatic macroinvertebrates and fish.
Aquatic systems baseline data were also
collected during the 1970 to 1972
period of mining and conventional
reclamation. Annual sediment surveys
taken from the onset of mining provided
measurements on the rate of sediment
deposition in the reservoir.
Remedial reclamation and invasion
of naturally seeded species have resulted
in a successful vegetative cover on the
overall mine site over the 5 years
increasing from 33 percent in the fall of
1975 when baseline data for measuring
recovery were collected to 78 percent
in the fall of 1980. A reasonably good
mix of vegetation types including a
substantial legume component has
developed and it should contribute to
further stabilize the site during develop-
ment of the forest ecosystem. Bird
censuses showed increases in breeding
and wintering bird populations and these
were correlated with increases in the
kind and amount of vegetative cover.
Stream water quality overall improved
with an increase in pH, and a decrease
in iron, manganese, and sulfate con-
centrations. The number of aquatic
macroinvertebrates and their taxa in-
creased and fish began recolonization
of tributary streams. Measurements on
the rate of sediment deposition in the
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reservoir reflect the adverse conditions
that resulted from the conventional
mining and reclamation and subsequent
improvement from remedial treatment.
This Project Summary was developed
by EPA's Hazardous Waste Engineering
Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH, to
announce key findings of the research
project that Is fully documented In a
separate report of the same title (see
Project Report ordering Information at
back).
Background
This investigation evaluates early ef-
fects of selected remedial land treatments
on ecosystem recovery of a forested
watershed impacted by surface mining.
Some 164 ha (405 ac) within a 28 km2
(11 mi2) watershed in eastern Tennessee
was mined between spring 1970 and
spring 1972. The toxic nature of the spoil
material associated with the coal seam
was unknown to the mine operator. Pyritic
materials (acid-producing shales) in the
parting between the Coal Creek seam
and Coal Creek rider became mixed with
the overburden, leaving a hostile environ-
ment for plant growth and development.
Repeated attempts by the operator to
revegetate the spoil by conventional
measures proved unsuccessful. As a
result of the barren spoil, siltation and
acid mine drainage began to affect re-
ceiving stream quality and accelerate
siltation in a municipal water supply
reservoir. These impacts were noted from
monitoring initiated at the onset of
mining. Equally serious was the nonpro-
ductive state of the mined land area.
A preliminary evaluation of environ-
mental conditions in spring 1974 showed
only 24 percent of the mined land surface
stabilized and led to development and
implementation of an intensive remedial
land treatment plan. By the time baseline
data for measuring vegetative recovery
was collected in fall 1975, vegetative
cover on the mine site had increased to
33 percent (Ecological Recovery After
Reclamation of Toxic Spoils Left by Coal
Surface Mining: Phase I, EPA-600/7-79-
209). Major study emphasis from 1975
through 1980 was on documenting the
rate of recovery of terrestrial and aquatic
life after selected reclamation.
This report describes the status of initial
ecological recovery following intensive
remedial reclamation. Changes in ter-
restrial systems were evaluated in terms
of vegetative development, soil chemistry,
and population distributions of small
mammals and birds. Aquatic systems
were monitored for changes in water
quality and macroinvertebrate and fish
populations. Measurements of reservoir
sedimentation rates provided an indicator
of site stability achieved by reclamation
performed on the mined area.
Project Area
The study area, Ollis Creek watershed,
is located on the eastern edge of the
Cumberland Plateau approximately 8 km
(5 mi) north of Caryville in Campbell
County, Tennessee. Configuration of this
mined area and its proximity to LaFollette
is shown in Figure 1.
Ollis Creek drains into a reservoir
behind a concrete dam constructed in
1964 by the City of LaFollette. Storage
water is released from this reservoir
(Reservoir 2) to a smaller downstream
impoundment (Reservoir 1) from which
the city draws its needs. Upstream from
Reservoir 2 the watershed drainage is 28
km2 (11 mi2). This includes drainage from
several small Ollis Creek tributaries that
enter directly into the reservoir. Water-
shed elevations range from 415 m (1,360
ft) at the spillway crest to 762 m (2,500
ft) in the upper extremes.
The watershed is heavily forested with
oak-hickory being the predominant forest
type. White and red oaks and hickory
comprise the major hardwood sawtimbeH
species. Other types present in the forest
include yellow-poplar and Virginia pine.
While logging has been active for many
years, the forest is still relatively well-
stocked. Previous surface mining dis-
turbed approximately 49 ha (120 ac).
Most of this "orphan" land remains along
the main Ollis Creek drainage and on
Thompson Creek, an arm of Ollis Creek.
Coal reserves underlying the watershed
include the Coal Creek seam that was
mined on the site of this study. The seam
ranges in thickness from 102 to 153 cm
(40 to 60 in.). It usually carries a parting
varying from knife-edge thickness to 10
cm (4 in.) slightly below the middle of the
bed. The overburden is of the Slatestone
group with much of the strata low in pH
and fertility.
Area weather station data recorded at
the LaFollette Water Treatment Plant,
located on Ollis Creek, show the normal
annual precipitation to be 137 cm (54
in.). Yearly precipitation at the water plant
exceeded these totals in most years from
1970, when stripping began, through
1975. Precipitation levels were near
normal from 1976 through 1978. Mass
flow at Ollis Creek Reservoir, based on
actual flow measurements of gaged area
Lafollette, TN
Ollis Creek Watershed Boundary
Orphan Land
Sector 1
^J Sector 2
?'£ Sectors /y
3 Sector 4 -1
3^c Sampling Stations
1 /CM
1000 2000 3000 Feet
Figure 1. Ollis Creek Watershed
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streams with similar characteristics, is
estimated at over 11 4 million kl (3 billion
gal) annually.
Remedial Treatment
A spring 1974 evaluation showed some
39 ha (97 ac) to have adequate vegetative
cover and 125 ha (308 ac) unvegetated
An intensive remedial land treatment
developed for the essentially bare spoils
was initiated in fall 1974 Remedial work
was planned to complete vegetative es-
tablishment over 3 years by treating one-
third of the affected area each year. The
selected revegetation practices included
both fall and spring treatments heavily
liming, disking, and seeding in the fall
and overseeding the same area in the
spring. Additionally, forest tree and wild-
life shrub seedlings were planted the
following season. Emphasis was on re-
establishing an effective cover without
accelerating the rate of reservoir sedi-
mentation, or causing additional water
quality problems.
Specifically, cultural practices to estab-
lish herbaceous ground cover consisted
of both fall and spring treatments. Fall
treatments involved liming at the rate of
22.4 mt/ha (10 t/ac) and disking; fer-
tilizing with a 6-12-12 fertilizer at 224
kg/ha (200 Ib/ac); and seeding a mixture
of half rye, or barley, and half Kentucky-
31 fescue at 67 kg/ha (60 Ib/ac). In the
following spring the same area was
overseeded with a mixture of Kentucky-
31 fescue, sericea lespedeza, and weep-
ing lovegrass at 34, 34, and 2 kg/ha (30,
30, and 2 Ib/ac), respectively. Additionally,
a 6-1 2-12 fertilizer was broadcast at 224
kg/ha (200 Ib/ac).
Ecological recovery analyses were re-
lated to four approximately equal land
sectors (see Figure 1) the mined area
characterized as reclaimed (Sector 1) and
three treatment sectors (Sectors, 2, 3,
and 4) comprising the poorly revegetated
problem sites. Annual vegetation in-
ventories conducted from October 1975
through October 1980 documented plant
establishment and growth. Small mammal
and bird populations were censused twice
annually to measure successional pat-
terns Aquatic systems evaluation in-
volved sampling of the main drainage
(Ollis Creek) and its tributaries for m-
stream water quality conditions and the
rate of recovery of macroinvertebrates
and fish Sampling of water quality,
macroinvertebrates, and fish was con-
ducted monthly, August 1975 through
December 1976, and quarterly, January
1977 through July 1980. Annual surveys
measured rate of silt deposition in the
reservoir.
Results Terrestrial Systems
Vegetation
The approximately 164 ha (405 ac)
comprising the minesite has developed a
much improved total vegetative cover over
the course of the monitoring The 5-year
change in the amount of ground cover is
summarized by sectors in Table 1. The
baseline survey conducted in fall 1975
recorded 62 percent cover on control
Sector 1 previously characterized as
reclaimed, 37 percent cover on treatment
Sector 2 which had received partial
remedial treatment in fall 1974-spring
1975, and an average of 18 percent
cover on treatment Sectors 3 and 4 which
had not yet been treated. Vegetative
ground cover on the overall minesite
averaged 33 percent. Five years later
with all problem areas treated, ground
cover on control Sector 1 reached 89
percent while treatment Sectors 2, 3 and
4 contained 83, 72, and 70 percent,
respectively. Vegetative cover on the
overall minesite averaged 78 percent.
In terms of origin of ground cover,
vegetation on Sectors 1 and 2 had 12
percent from natural seeding while
Sectors 3 and 4 had almost 30 percent
natural vegetation. The establishment of
native pioneer species is attributed in
part to the intensive site amelioration
treatments that included liming and
seedbed preparation.
Over 75 species of herbaceous and
woody plants were noted to be growing
on the mined area during the 5 years. By
1980, 22 species occurring in 1975 were
gone, while 21 not observed in 1975
later became established. The diversity
and change are a positive indication of an
early stage of ecological recovery.
Development of herbaceous ground
cover over 5 years on the four mine
sectors is shown in Table 2. Legumes
produced the largest percentage increase
over the period, although grasses were
the predominant cover in all but one
sector. The extensive seeding of Kobe,
Korean, and sericea lespedeza by the
mine operator and additional sericea in
the remedial treatment resulted in pro-
gressive increases of leguminous cover.
Legumes invading during the 5 years
Table 1.
Five-Year Change in Vegetative Ground Cover on the Minesite
Sector
Source of Vegetation
1975
1980
1975
1980
1975
1980
1975
1980
Percent
Natural
Reclamation
Total
5
57
62
11
78
89
8
29
37
13
70
83
7
8
15
30
42
72
3
19
22
30
40
70
* Control - No remedial treatment; characterized as reclaimed in 1974.
f Ground cover treatments applied fall 1974 - spring 1975.
'"Ground cover treatments applied fall 1975 - spring 1976.
* Ground cover treatments applied fall 1976 - spring 1977.
Table 2. Herbaceous Ground Cover by Species Category and Sector
Sector
Source of Vegetation
1975 1980 1975 1980 1975 1980 1975 1980
Percent
Grasses
Legumes
Composites
Miscellaneous''
Total
52
7
1
2
62
45
36
5
3
89
28
4
1
4
37
32
42
4
5
83
10
1
1
3
15
42
19
1
10
72
20
0
1
1
22
33
20
11
6
70
* Control - No remedial treatment, characterized as reclaimed in 1974.
f Characterized as miscellaneous because of the large number of species involved and their
infrequent occurrence.
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were beggar-lice, bushclover, partridge-
pea, and yellow sweetclover, although
they provided minimal ground cover on
the site. The distribution of legumes over
the four mine sectors was relatively well-
balanced. The advantage of vigorous
legume growth is the fixation of nitrogen
in the soil and improvements in site
amelioration at Ollis Creek should become
evident in the next 10 years.
Results indicated a steady percentage
increase of grass species on the treated
sectors from 1975 to 1980. Four species
not found in 1975, crabgrass, poverty
oatgrass, orchardgrass, and redtop grass
occurred in 1980, while perennial rye-
grass was no longer evident. Kentucky-
31 fescue and weeping lovegrass com-
bined provided from about one-third to
nearly half of total ground cover on the
sectors in 1980. Broomsedge was the
most prevalent native grass occurring
over all mine sectors on Ollis Creek.
Poverty oatgrass also was found to have
invaded the three treatment sectors
between 1975 and 1980. Although pre-
sent, panic grass appeared to be hindered
by competition with reclamation species.
The invasion of native grasses on Ollis
Creek over approximately 5 to 8 years is
probably typical of natural ecosystem
development on a wide range of minesite
types.
Fourteen composite species including
aster and goldenrod have provided diver-
sity and a measure of ecological recovery,
although their occurrence has been rela-
tively limited. The composites appear to
be transitional, invading and dying out
and this trend is likely to continue until a
tree canopy forms to greatly reduce their
occurrence.
Miscellaneous plants included a widely
diverse group of 25 species in many
families that generally occurred infre-
quently and comprised only a small per-
centage of total ground cover. Rapid
ecological change was particularly evident
in this category, where more than half
the species recorded in 1975 were no
longer in evidence in 1980, while others
took their place. Predominate species
were blackberry, nutsedge and greenbrier.
The number and distribution of forest
tree and wildlife shrub seedlings found
growing on the mine in 1975 and 1980,
shown in Table 3, were the result of both
natural invasion and planting.
Planting success for reclamation pur-
poses is sometimes defined as being the
establishment of at least 1,500 woody
stems per ha (600 per ac) occurring on
more than 50 percent of the area (50
percent stocking). Since the number of
4
living stems far exceeded the minimum
1,500 stems on all four sectors, the limit-
ing factor here is the achievement of
balanced distribution. However, the 1980
evaluation revealed persistence of uneven
distribution; seedlings were dense on
some areas, while on others no seedlings
were present. Although stocking per-
centage greatly increased on all sectors,
only Sector 3 reached the success
standard.
Naturally seeded trees and shrubs ac-
counted for 41 percent of the average
stems per ha in 1980, which was an
appreciable increase over the 26 percent
recorded in 1975, considering that
287,000 trees and shrubs were planted
between 1975 and 1978. Red maple was
the predominant native woody species
invading the minesite. Other common
species from the residual forest that
invaded in large numbers were sourwood,
sweetgum, shortleaf pine, yellow-poplar,
and sumac, in that order. Native plant
increases were attributed to the liming
and disking, which improved seedbed
characteristics and to the incorporated
fertilizer treatment, which promoted root
growth reducing seedling losses from
frost heaving.
Remedial reclamation treatments have
resulted in generally successful vegeta-
tion on a difficult site. A reasonably good
mix of vegetative types has developed
over a 5-year period. A substantial legume
component is present on all mine sectors
and it should contribute to further stabilize
and ameliorate the site during develop-
ment of the forest ecosystem.
Bird and Small Mammal
Populations
The Ollis Creek mine provided an op-
portunity to study the response of small
mammals and birds to intensive reclama-
tion treatments. Birds were censused on
permanent plots in the four mine sectors
during the summer breeding season (late
May through June) and during the winter
(late December through February). Bird
censuses were conducted from the sum-
mer of 1976 through the winter of 1981.
Mammals were sampled by snap-trapping
two permanent lines in each sector during
June and October-November from 1976
to 1980.
All four sectors showed increases in
the breeding and winter bird populations
during the course of the study, although
the various sectors did not increase uni-
formly from year to year. The increases in
the bird population were correlated with
increases in the total vegetation cover,
percentage of natural cover, percentage
of forb cover, herbaceous cover height
and volume, and the number of trees and
shrubs The bird population was also
negatively correlated with the percentage
of revegetation cover and graminiferous
cover. The winter bird population had a
preference for naturally occurring
herbaceous vegetation, as opposed to
reclamation plants. The winter bird popu-
lation was also influenced by weather
conditions.
Small mammal populations were
highest during the first years of the study,
when there was an abundance of heavy-
seeded grasses on the area. The control
sector, which had the most vegetation at
the beginning of the study and the highest
diversity of microhabitats, had a more
stable and more diverse small mammal
population than did the other sectors.
Results Aquatic Systems
At the termination of monitoring in
1980, water quality overall had improved
with increased pH, and decreased iron,
manganese, and sulfate concentrations.
Aquatic macroinvertebrate numbers and
taxa increased and fish began recoloniza-
tion of tributary streams from watershed
reservoirs. Recovery of aquatic biota ap-
peared inversely related to extent of
mining and proximity of the mining to the
stream
Of the eight stations monitored during
the course of the investigation. Laurel
Branch, Yellow Branch, Unnamed Tri-
Table 3. Five-Year Change in Density and Stocking of Woody Plants
Sector
Stems per ha*
Stocking percent*
(1975)
(19801
(1975)
(1980)
1
1.307
2,875
21
35
2
1,494
3,727
16
42
3
2,272
5,109
26
57
4
2.601
4,474
23
39
"Planting at 1.8 x 1.8 m (6 x 6 ft) approximated 3.000 seedlings per ha (1,210 per ac).
t Number of plots on which one or more woody plants occurred divided by the total number
sampled times 100.
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butary and Thompson Creek were ana-
lyzed to the greatest detail due to their
proximity to the initial mining and sub-
sequent reclamation.
Laurel Branch
A relatively small portion of this water-
shed was disturbed by mining; however,
poorly constructed access roads in several
parts of the drainage caused problems
similar to mining adding to the total dis-
turbance effect. Samples were taken
approximately 0.5 km (0.3 mi) below the
mine site. In 1975 minimum pH was 4.2
with elevated sulfate (mean 109 mg/l),
manganese (mean 2.16 mg/l) and iron
(mean 0.89 mg/l) concentrations. Laurel
Branch was the only tributary to ap-
parently stabilize within EPA criteria for
termination of environmental monitoring.
Water quality in Laurel Branch ap-
proached premining conditions by 1980.
Levels of pH increased (minimum 5.7)
and average iron (0.23 mg/l) and
manganese (0.46 mg/l) concentrations
reached EPA criteria for domestic water
supply (0.3 mg/l for iron and 0.5 mg/l
for manganese).
Water quality improved by the comple-
tion of terrestrial reclamation in 1978 in
Laurel Branch, but there was minimal
biological change. Number of taxa and
individuals was 28.0 and 7.0/0.1 m2,
respectively, in 1975. In 1980 total taxa
remained at 28.0 but average number of
individuals more than doubled to 13.0/0.1
m2.
Yellow Branch
This watershed was heavily mined.
Samples in Yellow Branch were taken
approximately 200 m (655 ft) downstream
from the nearest tributary draining mined
areas. In 1975, minimum pH was 4.3
with elevated average sulfate (154.0
mg/l), iron (6.92 mg/l) and manganese
(9.48 mg/l) concentrations. Following
every rain the stream was coated with
fresh sediments and turbidity was high.
By 1980, sediments were greatly dimin-
ished. Although lower than any previous
year, average sulfate concentrations re-
mained high (143.3 mg/l). Average iron
concentrations decreased 90 percent and
average manganese concentrations de-
creased 60 percent between 1975 and
1980.
Unnamed Tributary
Mining was extensive in this small
tributary watershed with steep mine out-
slopes reaching stream banks and a
sediment pond was located approximately
100 m (328 ft) upstream on this stream
above the sampling site. In 1975, water
quality parameters at Unnamed Tributary
were poorest of the eight sampled areas
with a minimum pH of 3.5 and average
annual concentrations of sulfate, iron,
and manganese of 610.0, 9.33, and 21.0
mg/l, respectively. Between 1975 and
1980 sulfate decreased by 63 percent,
iron by 75 percent, and manganese by 40
percent. Despite these significant reduc-
tions, water quality parameter levels
remained unacceptable.
Unnamed Tributary and Yellow Branch
showed small water quality changes and
predictably had the least recovery of
aquatic biota. Between 1975 and 1980
total taxa decreased from 12.0 to 10.0 in
Unnamed Tributary while the average
number of individuals doubled from 2.0
to 4.0/0.1 m2. In Yellow Branch, total
taxa increased from 16.0 in 1975 to 24.0
in 1979 but decreased in 1980 to 11.0.
Abundance changed similarly with 9.0
individuals/0.1 m2 in 1975, increasing to
10.0 individuals/0.1 m2 in 1979, and
decreasing to 5.0 individuals/0.1 m2 in
1980.
Thompson Creek
Mining began in 1970 and remedial
reclamation treatments were initiated
here in 1974. Only a small portion of this
tributary watershed was mined. Sampling
was approximately 1.4 km (0.9 mi) down-
stream from the mined area. The pH was
3.8 in the single sample collected in
1975 and by 1980 had apparently stabi-
lized at 4.5. Sulfate, iron, and manganese
concentrations were lowest of all sampled
areas in 1975 and, while decreasing by
1980, remain elevated. For example, al-
though there was a 46 percent decrease
in manganese, the resultant average 1.02
mg/l exceeds EPA criteria for domestic
water supplies.
Thompson Creek, which had a small
portion of the watershed disturbed and
received initial reclamation treatments,
had the best recovery of aquatic inverte-
brate communities from 3.0 individuals/
0.1 m2 in 1975 to 43.0 and 29.0 in-
dividuals/0.1 m2 in 1979 and 1980,
respectively. Aquatic macroinvertebrate
assemblages after reclamation included
Plecoptera (six taxa), Ephemeroptera
(three taxa), Hemiptera (two taxa),
Megaloptera (three taxa), Trichoptera (six
taxa), Diptera (12 taxa), and Coleoptera
(two taxa).
It appears from the interpretation of
data collected in this investigation that
the mine spoils have been stabilized and
acid production has been controlled. This
has resulted in significant improvements
in water quality. Metal concentrations
meet criteria for protection of aquatic life
in several Ollis Creek tributaries and ap-
proach EPA criteria for public water
supplies in at least one tributary (Laurel
Branch). At the termination of monitoring
in 1980, aquatic systems were continuing
to change and recover. At Unnamed
Tributary where water quality was the
farthest from desirable levels, satisfactory
biological and water quality recovery will
likely depend on continued increases in
vegetative cover on mined areas.
Residual stream substrate damage from
sedimentation and precipitates will re-
quire additional time to be removed. Until
floods and other natural weathering pro-
cesses remove these coating materials
from the substrate, colonization by aquatic
communities is precluded. Aquatic bio-
logical communities in areas furthest from
mining (Laurel Branch and Thompson
Creek) have shown the greatest increases
in number of taxa and individuals per
square meter. Aquatic communities at
the other locations sampled in this in-
vestigation would also be expected to
recover, but a 5-year monitoring program
including pre-, during-, and post-reclama-
tion is insufficient to demonstrate full
recovery.
Fish
In 1976 fish were collected at only two
of the eight Ollis Creek stations: down-
stream from Reservoir 1 and lower Laurel
Branch. Fish were present in Reservoir 1
and Reservoir 2 but did not occur more
than 100 m (328 ft) from the reservoirs.
After remedial treatments, fish were col-
lected at five stations. At Laurel Branch,
creek chubs (Semotilus atromaculatus)
were present on 63 percent of the sample
dates. No fish were observed at Unnamed
Tributary or Thompson Creek. None were
present at Yellow Creek because a down-
stream falls precluded recolonization of
the area; however, fish were observed at
the base of this falls in 1980.
The most abundant fish species in Ollis
Creek Reservoir 1 were creek chubs,
white suckers (Catostomus commersoni)
and bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) while
in the tributary streams creek chubs and
white suckers were predominant.
Reservoir Sedimentation
Sediment surveys taken annually in
Reservoir 2 (Figure 1) from October 1970
through February 1981 provide data on
the adverse conditions that resulted from
the conventional mining and reclamation,
and subsequent improvement from
remedial treatment. Original storage
5
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capacity of the 17-m high (55-ft) water
reservoir was 815,013 m3 (661 ac-ft).
From closure of the dam in 1964 until
October 1970, sediment deposition
totaled 14,303 m3 (12 ac-ft), resulting in
a 6-year storage loss of 1.8 percent.
Between October 1970 and October 1974,
the period that encompassed the con-
ventional mining and reclamation effort,
sediment deposition totaled 37,975 m3
(31 ac-ft). Above normal annual rainfall
and some intense storms in the spring of
2 of the 4 years resulted in heavy washing
of logging roads and in washing out of
small sediment traps in drains below
mined areas. Reservoir storage loss for
the 4-year period amounted to 4.6 per-
cent and left a storage capacity of 762,735
m3 (619 ac-ft).
During the 4-year period of remedial
reclamation, sediment deposition was
one-third the amount that entered the
reservoir during the previous 4 years.
Sediment deposition from October 1974
to October 1978 was 12,575 m3 (10 ac-
ft), although rainfall in the 1975 and
1976 survey years averaged 166.1 cm
(65.4 in.) 35.5 cm (14 in.) above normal.
However, rainfall during 1977 and 1978
was near normal. For the 4-year period
reservoir storage loss amounted to 1.6
percent of original capacity.
In the following survey years 1979
and 1980 sediment deposition totaled
9,000 m3 (7 ac-ft), resulting in a reservoir
storage loss of 1.1 percent. Rainfall for
the 1979 survey year was 160.8 cm
(63.3 in.) 30.5 cm (12 in.) above normal.
Rainfall between October 1979 and
February 1981 was below normal,
amounting to only 105.2 cm (41.4 in.).
Aside from the 1970-72 mining, other
activities within the watershed un-
doubtedly contributed to reservoir sedi-
mentation. Improved access to the area
was an invitation to offroad vehicle en-
thusiasts to use portions of the mine,
especially on weekends. Despite efforts
by the private forest land company man-
ager to restrict and concentrate dune
buggy and 4-wheel drive vehicle activity,
control was difficult. Erosion and runoff
from repeated vehicle use of newly
revegetated mine slopes and benches
were visibly striking. Other land distur-
bances in the late 1970s included ex-
tensive clearcutting of timbered areas,
construction of a powerline to an under-
ground mine and the operation, off the
property, of an illegal or "wildcat" surface
mine. While some distance from the main
drainage, the 20 ha (50 ac) unreclaimed
operation had the potential for contri-
buting to sediment buildup. Additionally,
some 49 ha (120 ac) of mostly barren
"orphan" land remained from earlier sur-
face mining.
In summary, the average annual rate
of sediment deposition was 2,384 m3
(1.9 ac-ft) for the 6 years before mining
and increased to 9,494 m3 (7.7 ac-ft)
during the 4 years of conventional mining
and reclamation. In the ensuing 6-year
period, which reflected results of the
remedial treatment, the average annual
rate dropped to 3,585 m3 (2.9 ac-ft). No
increase in sediment deposition was
noted in survey data covering the period
October 1979 through February 1981.
Thomas G. Zarger, David H. Scan/on, Charles P. Nicholson, Steven R. Brown,
Lynn B. Starnes, and W. Douglas Harned are or were with the Tennessee
Valley Authority. Norn's, TN 37828.
Ronald D. Hill is the EPA Project Officer (see below)
The complete report, entitled "Ecological Recovery After Reclamation of Toxic
Spoils Left by Coal Surface Mining: Phase IIAn Assessment of Environmental
Changes Following Intensive Remedial Treatments," (Order No. PB 87-215
372/AS; Cost: $18.95, subject to change) will be available only from:
National Technical Information Service
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, VA 22161
Telephone: 703-487-4650
The EPA Officer can be contacted at:
Hazardous Waste Engineering Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, OH 45268
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United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Official Business
Penalty for Private Use S300
EPA/600/S2-87/052
Center for Environmental Research
Information
Cincinnati OH 45268
0000329 PS
o s
AGENCY
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