Final Report A Study Of Hazardous Waste Materials, Hazardous Effects and Disposal Methods Volume 1

W f°' T ! C E ! * ,„., .,, d-tt it has not This dr,umr-r.t r^ ?;••';;• ;;",; u,-,i d nol at b";M' '°rn' "- l"-;"-\''.'1", r,v-,"^L r^ncy policy. U. ' ' ' It L . ? '• '-•;"•' ;:': r-it on as technical isb-.,r c;r-.ir.3ia! -,.;, —• — • • ., uracy a'id poky impiicaUons. FINAL REPORT A STUDY OF HAZARDOUS WASTE MATERIALS, HAZARDOUS EFFECTS AND DISPOSA L MET HODS VOLUME I For Environmental Protection Agency Cincinnati Laboratories 5555 Ridge Avenue Cincinnati, Ohio 45213 Contract No. 68-03-0032 BAARINC Report No. 9075-003-001 June 30, 1972 BOOZ-ALL5N APPLIED RESEARCH INC. WASHINGTON CHICAGO LOS ANGELES ------- IOKA --?. ------- M O T f C F? This dccurrc-n'r Jo 3 ;)":::T,.;i-:iy draft !! has not ba;-r [orn-iiiiv ri-;:v;,-j ' / --', snd sinnc! no! at this cU^c ii'j i-nc r^n :o T^sen; g2ncy policy. It is De.ns circ^r.v.l for c-.Tdi^nt on its technical accuracy and policy implications. TABLE OF CONTENTS VOLUME I Page Number FOREWORD I. SUMMARY 1. Purpose and Scope of the Study 2. Approach to the Study 3. Principal Findings of the Study 4. Conclusions and Recommendations 1-1 1-1 1-3 1-8 1-27 II. IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 1. Introduction and Definitions 2. Approach to Hazardous Materials Identification 3. Occurrence of Hazardous Wastes 4. Analytical Problems 5. Preparation of List of Hazardous Materials 6. The List of Hazardous Compounds and Its Uses III. QUANTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTES 1. Introduction 2. Production Quantities of Hazardous Materials II-1 II-1 II-5 11-19 11-22 II-24 11-27 III-l III-l III-4 -111- ------- Page Number 3. Total Waste Load Estimates III-5 4. Estimates of Commonly Known III-17 Mixed Waste Streams, With Break- downs of Specific Hazardous Materials 5. Hazardous Materials Expected in III-30 Non-Identifiable Waste Streams of Industrial Manufacturers and Users 6. Hazardous Material Waste Quantities III-39 Reported by the Department of Defense and Atomic Energy Commission 7. Mining Industry Wastes 111-39 8. Data Record Descriptions 111-49 IV. SURVEY OF HAZARDOUS EFFECTS AND IV-1 RATING OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 1. Introduction IV-1 2. Analytical Problems in Hazardous Effects IV-2 3. Development of the Rating System IV-4 4. Method of Rating and Results IV-10 V. SURVEY AND INVENTORY OF TREATMENT V-1 AND DISPOSAL METHODS 1. Introduction V-l 2. Current Treatment and Disposal Practices V-2 3. Waste Streams, Hazardous Wastes, and V-16 Disposal Methods 4. A Method for Estimating Waste Stream V-51 Treatment Requirements 5. Rating Current Treatment and Disposal V-60 Methods 6. Disposal of Small Lots of Hazardous V-74 Materials -IV- ------- Page Number VI. MAJOR FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS VI-1 1. Definition of a Hazardous Material VI-1 and Hazardous Effects 2. Selection Rating of Hazardous Materials VI-3 3. Quantification and Distribution VI-5 4. Waste Treatment Processes VI-6 5. National Disposal System VI-8 VII. RECOMMENDATIONS VII-1 1. Hazardous Waste Control System VII-1 2. In-Depth Hazardous Materials Study VII-2 3. Waste Stream Hazard Analysis VII-2 4. Hazardous Effects Research VII-3 BIBLIOGRAPHY -v- ------- VOLUME II APPENDIX A INDUSTRIAL DESCRIPTIONS APPENDIX A-l SIC 10—METAL MINING SIC 11—ANTHRACITE MINING SIC 12—BITUMINOUS COAL AND LIGNITE MINING APPENDIX A-2 SIC 20—FOOD AND KINDRED PRODUCTS APPENDIX A-3 SIC 22—TEXTILE MILL PRODUCTS APPENDIX A-4 SIC 26—PAPER AND ALLIED PRODUCTS APPENDIX A-5 SIC 28—CHEMICALS AND ALLIED PRODUCTS INDUSTRIAL ORGANIC CHEMICALS INDUSTRIAL INORGANIC CHEMICALS SIC 282—PLASTIC MATERIALS AND SYNTHETIC RESINS, SYNTHETIC RUBBER, SYNTHETIC AND OTHER MANMADE FIBERS, EXCEPT GLASS SIC 283—DRUGS SIC 284—SOAP, DETERGENTS, AND CLEANING PREPARATIONS, PERFUMES, COSMETICS, AND OTHER TOILET PREPARATIONS SIC 285—PAINTS, VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ENAMELS, AND ALLIED PRODUCTS SIC 287—AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS SIC 2892—EXPLOSIVES -vi- ------- VOLUME III APPENDIX A INDUSTRIAL DESCRIPTIONS APPENDIX A-6 SIC 29—PETROLEUM REFINING AND RELATED INDUSTRIES APPENDIX A-7 SIC 31—LEATHER AND LEATHER PRODUCTS SIC 311—LEATHER TANNING AND FINISHING APPENDIX A-8 APPENDIX A-9 SIC 32—STONE, CLAY, GLASS, AND CONCRETE PRODUCTS SIC 329—ABRASIVE, ASBESTOS, AND MISCELLANEOUS NONMETTALLIC MINERAL PRODUCTS SIC 33—PRIMARY METAL INDUSTRIES SIC 331—BLAST FURNACES, STEEL WORKS, AND ROLLING AND FINISHING MILLS SIC 333—PRIMARY SMELTING AND REFINING OF NONFERROUS METALS APPENDIX A-10 SIC 34—FABRICATED METAL PRODUCTS, EXCEPT ORDNANCE, MACHINERY, AND TRANSPORTATION EQUIPMENT SIC 347—COATING, ENGRAVING, AND ALLIED SERVICES APPENDIX A-ll SIC 80—MEDICAL AND OTHER HEALTH SERVICES SIC 806—HOSPITALS APPENDIX A-12 RADIOACTIVE WASTE (ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION) APPENDIX A-13 WASTE MANAGEMENT (DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE) -vu- ------- VOLUME III (Continued) APPENDIX A-14 POWER UTILITIES APPENDIX B CURRENT LISTINGS OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS APPENDIX C HAZARDOUS MATERIAL RATINGS (COMPOUNDS FOUND HAZARDOUS BY RATING SYSTEM) APPENDIX D SUPPORTING DATA APPENDIX D-l ACCIDENTS INVOLVING HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES APPENDIX D-2 SIC CODE DISTRIBUTION OF TYPICAL HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS -viii- ------- INDEX OF TABLES AND FIGURES Page Tables Number 1-1 Matrix of Factors for Rating the Level of 1-17 Effects for the List of Hazardous Substances 1-2 Sample Worksheet for Computing Substance 1-20 Hazard Rating II-1 Major Sources of Pollution II-6 II-2 Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Used for II-9 Information Categorization II-3 Trade Associations Contacted 11-15 II-4 Summary of Factors Included in Current Lists 11-26 of Hazardous Materials Developed by Government Agencies and Industrial Associations II-5 Criteria for Reduction of Preliminary List of 11-27 Hazardous Substances II-6 List of Hazardous Materials 11-29 III-l Comparison of Solid Waste Estimates III-6 III-2 Computation of Waste Factors III-9 IE-3 Chemical Industry Waste Factors III-11 III-4 Waste Quantities Produced by Industry by 111-12 Geographic Location—50 States III-5 Waste Quantities Produced by Industry by III-14 Geographic Location—50 Largest Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas -ix- ------- Page Tables - Continued Number III-6 Hazardous Materials Expected in Waste III-19 Streams of Producers and Users III-7 Distribution, Locations, and Volumes of III-29 Explosive Manufacturing Wastes III-8 Hazardous Materials Expected in Waste Streams III-32 of Producers and Users III-9 Hazardous Waste Material Quantities Reported III-40 by the Department of Defense as Awaiting Disposal III- 10(a) Radioactive Waste Quantities Reported by III-50 Atomic Energy Commission, With Projections III-10(b) Solid Waste from Power Reactors to Land III-42 Burial (Curies) III-lO(c) Forecast of the Generation Rates and the Total III-43 Accumulations of Long-Life Fission Products and Actinides in High-Level Wastes from Fuel Reprocessing III-10(d) Generation of Miscellaneous Solid Waste and III-44 Hulls and Hardware at Fuel Reprocessing Plants III-11 Tonnage and Acreage of Accumulated Mineral III-46 Wastes (1968) 111-12 Hazardous Material Production Quantity Codes 111-51 III-13 Codes for Hazardous Material Solubility in Water III-52 111-14 Material Hazard Rating and Industrial Source 111-53 III-15 Industry Data III-55 IV-1 Matrix of Factors for Rating the Level of Effects IV-7 for the List of Hazardous Substances -x- ------- Page Tables - Continued Number IV- 2 Matrix of Factors for Rating the Extent of IV- 9 Hazard for the List of Hazardous Substances IV-3 Rules Used During Rating of Hazardous IV-14 Substances IV-4 Definitions of Terms Used in Criteria IV-15 IV-5 Human Effects Rating Criteria: Toxic Effects IV-16 in Air IV-6 Human Effects Rating Criteria: Toxic Effects IV-17 in Water IV-7 Human Effects Rating Criteria: Toxic Effects IV-18 in Soil IV-8 Human Hazards Rating Criteria: Flame,. IV-18 Explosion, and Reaction in Air IV-9 Human Hazards Rating Criteria: Flame, IV-19 Explosion, and Reaction in Water IV-10 Human Hazards Rating Criteria: Flame, IV-19 Explosion, and Reaction in Soil IV-11 Ecological Effects Rating Criteria: Toxic IV-20 Effects in Air IV-12 Ecological Effects Rating Criteria: Toxic IV-21 Effects in Water IV-13 Ecological Effects Rating Criteria: Toxic IV-22 Effects in Soil IV-14 Hazardous Substances Production (or Consum- IV-22 ption) Rating Criteria IV-15 Hazardous Substances Distribution Rating IV-23 Criteria -xi- ------- Page Tables - Continued Number IV-16 Sample Worksheet for Computing Substance IV-24 Hazard Rating IV-17 Sample Worksheet for Computing Substance IV-25 Hazard Rating IV-18 Compounds Found Hazardous by Rating System IV-26 IV-19 Compounds Found Marginally Hazardous by IV-42 Rating System IV-20 Specific Compounds Used as Warfare Agents IV-44 by the Department of Defense IV-21 Hazardous Wastes Generated by Department of IV-45 Defense Activities (Explosive Materials) IV-22 Toxic Pollutants Involved in Conventional IV-47 Munitions Production IV-23 Typical Department of Defense Waste Compounds IV-48 and Materials V- 1 Status of Current Technology in the Control of V- 8 Emissions to the Atmosphere V-2 Solid Wastes by Type Generated by the Minerals V-13 and Fossil Fuel Industries in 1968 V-3 Solid Wastes Generated by the Mineral and V-14 Fossil Fuel Mining and Processing Industries in 1968 and Accumulated Up to 1968 V-4 Food Industry - SIC 20, Waste Streams and V-20 Treatment Procedures V-5 Textile Mill Products - SIC 22, Waste Streams V-22 and Treatment Procedures V-6 Paper and Allied Products - SIC 26, Waste V-23 Streams and Treatment Procedures -xii- ------- Page Tables - Continued Number V-7 Petroleum Refining and Related Industries - V-24 SIC 29, Waste Streams and Treatment Procedures V-8 Leather Industry - SIC 31, Waste Streams and V-26 Treatment Procedures V-9 Stone, Clay, Glass and Concrete (Asbestos V-28 Products) - SIC 32,. Waste Streams and Treatment Procedures V-10 Medical and Other Health Services - SIC 80, V-29 Waste Streams and Treatment Procedures V-ll Plastic Materials, Synthetic Fibers, Rubber, V-30 Resins - SIC 282, Waste Streams and Treatment Procedures V-12 Drug Industry - SIC 283, Waste Streams and V-31 Treatment Procedures V-13 Soap, Detergents and Cleaning - SIC 284, V-33 Waste Streams and Treatment Procedures V-14 Paints, Varnishes, Lacquers, Enamels- V-34 SIC 285, Waste Streams and Treatment Procedures V-15 Agricultural Chemicals, Fertilizers- SIC 287, V-35 Waste Streams and Treatment Procedures V-16 Agricultural Chemicals, Pesticides - SIC 287, V-36 Waste Streams and Treatment Procedures V-17 Primary Metal Industries - SIC 331, Waste V-37 Streams and Treatment Procedures V-18 Non-Ferrous Metals - SIC 333, Waste Streams V-39 and Treatment Procedures V-19 Coating, Engraving (Plating) - SIC 347, Waste V-41 Streams and Treatment Procedures -xiii- ------- Page Tables - Continued Number V-20 Cyclic Intermediates - SIC 2815, Industrial V-43 Organic Chemicals - SIC 2818, Waste Streams and Treatment Procedures V-21 Industrial Inorganic Chemicals - SIC 2819, V-45 Waste Streams and Treatment Procedures V-22 Explosives - SIC 2892, Waste Streams and V-46 Treatment Procedures V-23 Department of Defense, Waste Streams and V-47 Treatment Procedures V-24 Radioactive Wastes AEG, Waste Streams and V-49 Treatment Procedures V-25 Rating Guideline Sheet V-53 V-26 Rating Worksheet - How to Use Rating System V-54 V-27 Removal Efficiencies of Waste Treatment V-55 Processes V-28 Industrial Water Treatment Practices V-70 V-29 Evaluation of Industrial Treatment Practices V-72 V-30 Approximate Characteristics of Dust and Mist V-73 Collection Equipment V-31 Hazardous Material Use, Production and Wastes V-81 by Type Industry V-32 Quantitative Data on Off-Site Disposal Tonnages V-84 -XIV- ------- Page Figures Number I-1 The Hazardous Materials Waste Quantification 1-22 Problem III- \ The Hazardous Materials Waste Quantification III- 3 Problem III-2 Layout, Card Type 1 III-56 HI-3 Layout, Card Type 2 III-57 III-4 Layout, Card Type 3 III-58 V-1 Candidate Waste Water Treatment Processes - V-4 Substitution and Sequence Diagram V-2 Solids Handling, Treatment and Disposal V-12 V-3 Waste Disposal Procedure Small Spill or Package V-77 Lots -XV- ------- FOREWORD This report presents the results of the study of hazardous waste materials conducted under Contract No. 68-03-0032 for the Solid Waste Research Division of the National Environmental Research Center, Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio. The report consists of three volumes. Volume I describes the purpose and scope of the study, describes the approach followed in conducting the study, provides a summary of the study, and presents the study results. Volume I also provides listings of principal literature references at the end of each chapter and includes a full bibliography. Volumes II and III consist of appendices describing the industries (by Standard Industrial Classification Code) and government operations which are the manufacturers and users of hazardous materials. In the interest of promoting improved understanding of the occurrence of hazardous materials and potentially hazardous wastes on the part of users of this report, the appendices provide descriptions (in a single reference source) of industry size, products, production processes, typical wastes and waste treatment and disposal processes. The study was conducted over a six-month period ending with publication of the draft report on January 12, 1972. This report is the result of integration of the Solid Waste Research Division's draft report review comments, the draft report itself, and a limited amount of additional material incorporated by the contractor. -xvi- ------- I. SUMMARY ------- I. SUMMARY Presented in this Chapter are summary discussions of the background to the study, its objectives, the approach followed in conducting the study, and the principal study findings and recommendations. 1. PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY This study was originated as the first in a series that would assist the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in complying with Section 212 of the Resource Recovery Act of 1970, which requires that a "National Disposal Sites Study" be completed and reported to the Congress within two years after enactment of the Act. For the sake of clarity, the controlling portion of the Act is reproduced below. National Disposal Sites Study Sec. 212. The Secretary shall submit to the Congress no latter than twq years after the date of enactment of the Resource Recovery Act of 1970, a comprehensive report and plan for the creation of a system of national disposal sites for the storage and disposal of hazardous wastes, including radioactive, toxic chemical, biological, and other wastes which may endanger public health or welfare. Such report shall include: (1) a list of materials which should be subject to disposal in any such site; (2) current methods of disposal of such materials; (3) recommended methods of reduction, neutralization, recovery, or disposal of such materials; (4) an inventory of possible sites including existing land or water disposal sites operated or licensed by Federal agencies; (5) an estimate of the cost of developing and maintaining sites including consideration of means for distributing the short- and long-term costs of operating such sites among the users thereof; and (6) such other information as may be appropriate. 1-1 ------- This study was structured to address points (1) and (2) in Section 212 (previous page), and a Scope of Work to be performed was developed and published by the EPA. The study was essentially designed by the EPA as a comprehensive literature search for the information and data of interest. Thus, the extent and depth of the results are directly dependent upon the availability of the desired information and data in the literature. The study had four principal objectives: Provide a list of hazardous materials which should be subject to special disposal techniques Document the harmful effects that we know now and provide a mechanism for revising this information as new data becomes available Develop a rating system for delineating the degree of hazard Provide an inventory of current disposal practices and an evaluation of these practices. The study ends with the conclusion of the fourth objective above. This report provides information which satisfies those objectives, subject to the limitations of information available in the literature, and provides direct inputs to the second study in the hazardous wastes program series. It is recognized that the scope of this first study is very broad, perhaps too broad, but included no preconceptions as to identity of hazardous materials, the form in which they might be encountered, the potential for hazardous effects, or the nature and extent of present treatment and disposal methods. 1-2 ------- 2. APPROACH TO THE STUDY The overall approach to conduct of the study consisted of a general study design and a detailed approach followed within the framework of that design. These two features are described below, (1) Study Design The general study design established the overall guidelines for conduct of the study, and comprised three principal elements: Information available from literature sources Information screening and categorization by Standard Industrial Classifications Exclusion of municipal wastes from detailed consideration. Since no defined subject-matter preconceptions were provided by the EPA, it was necessary to establish guidelines for the literature search in order to identify the potentially useful literature references in the shortest possible time. Therefore, as references were identified, they were initially screened for possible value to the study, the categorized according to Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) and the associated identifier codes. The SIC groups were selected to reflect the major manufacturers and users of potentially hazardous materials, and to aid in geographic location of those materials. The latter is especially important with respect to the occurrence of hazardous materials as—or in—wastes, since the principal thrust of the study was to identify materials whose associated hazards are such that special waste management techniques might be required during disposal operations. Within the context of categorization by industry groups, the federal government agencies most involved with hazardous materials, the Department of Defense and the Atomic Energy Commission, were also treated as industry groups. 1-3 ------- The remaining principal guideline in the study design was the exclusion of municipal wastes from detailed consideration. This was done because domestic and municipal wastes represent so varied a mixture of materials of all types that the study resources could easily have been consumed in investigating that area alone (i.e., this area was considered too broad for this contract). Limited consideration had to be given to these wastes, however, to take into account the practice in some areas of industrial wastes being discharged in municipal waste systems. (2) Detailed Approach The detailed approach to conduct of the study included the following principal elements: Identification of literature sources Identification of industry and government groups for information categorization Collection of information Literature Industry associations Government agencies Plant visits Data recording Rating systems. Identification of Literature Sources. To assure that comprehensive coverage would be obtained in identifying potentially valuable literature sources of information, a review was made of the subject-matter fields of interest of the leading technical abstract services. As a result of this review, and in view of the many topical duplications that exist among these services, the following abstract journals were decided upon as the principal literature reference sources: 1-4 ------- Applied Science and Technology Index (Wilson Co.; New York, New York) British Technology Index (Library Association; London, England) Chemical Abstracts (American Chemical Society; Columbus, Ohio) Engineering Index (Engineering Index, Inc.; New York, New York) U.S. Government Research and Development Reports (U.S. Department of Commerce; Washington, D.C.) These abstract journals were searched beginning with calendar year 1960 and moving up through the 1971 mid-year issues. No limitations were placed on subjects; rather, the search included all subject matter that might, in any way, be considered applicable to the purposes of the study. This search resulted in the identification of some 4, 000 publications (books, papers, articles), and the collection and review of the abstracts of each. The abstracts were subjected to an initial screening for applicability and content, which reduced the number of publications to be reviewed to about 2, 000. The 2, 000 publications were reviewed by the study team members, and final decisions were made as to whether the included information was worthwhile to the study. As a result of these reviews, the number of publications from the above sources deemed to contain information useful to the study, and therefore worthy of detailed study, was reduced to approximately 700. This group was later supplemented by publications from other sources to bring the study bibliography to about 800 publications. Identifications of Industry and Government Groups for Information Categorization. The subject matter of the publications identified and collected through the literature search covers a wide variety of interest in materials and their sources, production processes, uses, environmental pollution, and disposal methods. It became apparent, however, that certain industries constituted the principal manufacturers and users of potentially hazardous materials, and experienced many environmental pollution problems. 1-5 ------- For this reason, it was determined that the collected information could be handled most systematically if it were categorized according to industry groups. To complement the industry group identification indicated by the literature, reference was made to a listing entitled "Major Sources of Pollution", which was developed during 1967-1968 by the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (see Table II-1, page II-6). The list covers the top 50 pollution sources (from the viewpoint of water use), and includes natural and nonindustrial sources as well as the industrial sources. In addition, the list presents a priority ranking indicating the relative severity of the pollution problems created by the sources named. The pollution sources named in the list referenced above, were compared to the industry group identities indicated through the literature search, and a list of industry groups was developed for use in categorizing the study information (see page II-9). A distinct added advantage of this approach is its use in geographically locating the major hazardous material use-points, and consequently the location of potentially hazardous wastes. These industry groups are identified by their Standard Industrial Classification codes. The industry group list has also been supplemented by identities of federal government agencies most concerned with the manufacture and use of potentially hazardous materials. The appendices to this report (Volumes II and III) provide descriptions of the listed groups, products, production processes, wastes, and waste treatment and disposal methods. Collection of Information. The information utilized in this study was collected from: Literature sources Associations (industry and professional) Government agencies Plant visits. As stated previously, the essential information source was the comprehensive literature search, and the latter three sources were used to supplement the literature where possible. 1-6 ------- Contacts were made with 20 industry associations (see page 11-15), in an effort to collect up-to-date information on the hazardous materials production, handling, and disposal problems of their member organizations. Government agencies contacted were those deemed most likely to be concerned with potentially hazardous materials. These were: Atomic Energy Commission Department of Agriculture Department of Commerce Department of Defense (and the military agencies) National Aeronautics and Space Administration. A limited number of plant visits were made for the purpose of confirming or verifying information obtained from the literature. Such visits included industrial plants, hospitals, and private disposal companies, but were limited in number since the project did not envision a major survey effort. Data Recording. As the hazardous materials were identified, pertinent data for each describing material characteristics, toxicity values, production quantities and locations, and disposal procedures were collected, formatted, and reduced to punched cards. At the conclusion of the study, all punched-card data was converted to a computer print-out which was submitted separately from the report. Rating Systems. In accordance with the study objectives rating systems were developed which indicate relative severity of effects of the hazardous materials, and for the associated waste treatment and disposal methods currently in use. The rating system for hazardous effects includes effects on man and on the environment, and takes into account, as weighting factors, the production quantities and the scope of distribution of the materials in the economy. A rating system for treatment and disposal methods was established which is based on the relative efficiencies of the methods used in nullifying the strengths of certain wastes to levels acceptable in sewage treatment plants. 1-7 ------- 3. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS OF THE STUDY The principal findings resulting from this study are discussed below under appropriate topical headings. (1) Adequacy of the Literature The literature search which formed the basis of the study was very broad, covered over ten years' span of publications, and initially included some 4, 000 documents. It was found, however, that the literature is insufficiently definitive to permit full achievement of the objectives of the study, because the literature: Provides no common definition of the term hazardous material; Provides little quantification of specific wastes or waste streams; Contains little information on chronic effects of materials on man or the environment, and is inconclusive with respect to acute effects; Indicates that, as a rule, the nature and extent of technology applications in waste treatment and disposal are based on economics rather than on pollution control considerations; Is very repetitious in that single sources of information and statistical data are used repeatedly by many different interests; Provides considerable research and development engineering information for materials and for waste treatment and disposal processes, but little information on practical applications; and Indicates that proprietary interests preclude disclosure of much information that would be pertinent. 1-8 ------- Each of these findings is briefly discussed below. Many writers have struggled with the term hazardous material, in this country and abroad, but the definition problem has yet to be resolved. In fact, the literature also demonstrates that the same problem exists regarding the term toxic, which is usually regarded as the more specific term. There is, of course, general agreement with respect to labeling certain materials as hazardous (e.g., radioactives, known deadly poisons, explosives), but the list of materials for which such agreement exists is short. The matter of quantification of specific materials in wastes is one which has received very little attention. The literature indicates that, at any one installation, wastes from many processes are routinely collected into single flow paths, or streams, for treatment and disposal. These mixed waste streams may contain several materials that could be classified as hazardous materials, but the waste streams are not analyzed for constituency or to determine the results of possible reactions after mixing. Rather, if analyses are made, the parameters determined are those commonly measured in sewage disposal operations (e.g., BOD, COD, TDS, TSS, and perhaps the heavy metals). The result is that neither the quantity of any one material going into the waste streams, nor the actual make-up of the mixtures, are known. The principal assistance provided by the literature with respect to quantification of wastes is that, in some cases, waste generation factors are given (e.g. , factors indicating the amounts of total process waste produced per pound or per ton of product), but on a generalized basis rather than for wastes from specific plants in specific plants in specific locations. The literature utilized in this study as hazardous effects information sources included many well-known references on human toxicity of materials, similar works with respect to animals, research reports, and listings such as that published by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration. The greatest information gap was found to exist in the area of chronic (long-term) effects. It appears that very little testing has been done, even for determining the long-term effects of materials known to have serious acute (short-term) effects. Further, for materials known to have minor acute effects, or materials that 1-9 ------- have demonstrated no acute effects, research into possible long-term effects is nonexistent. The few exceptions involve materials which have little or no short-term effects, but which are known to be accumulated by the human or animal body. In the area of acute effects, especially with regard to human toxicity, the literature indicates much lack of agreement among medical researchers. The essential reasons for this situation are the wide variations that have been observed in effects of the same materials on different people, and the many problems inherent in translating laboratory animal test results into human toxicity values. With respect to waste treatment and disposal methods, the literature contains considerable information on research and development of specific methods for specific materials, but little definitive information concerning practical applications of the resultant technology. The bulk of the methods currently in use appear to be those applied to treatment of mixed wastes for the general parameters noted above (i.e., parameters of interest in general sewage treatment, with little attention given to specific materials). Business economics determine the nature and extent of Waste treatment technology applications and the choice of final disposal methods, except in cases where the wastes are known to be hazardous. If wastes contain materials whose value makes recycling and reuse economically attractive, the treatment methods (aimed at extraction of the valuable materials) are likely to become sophisticated, and generally beneficial in terms of "detoxification" of the ultimate waste discharge. In situations where the producer feels that the wastes contain nothing worth recovering, the economic choice becomes one of selecting the least costly disposal method. Characteristically, this choice quickly reduces to one of "dumping1 the wasteload—to water if a stream or body is convenient, or to landfill. For solid wastes or heavy, high viscosity liquids (e.g., sludges, filter residues, paints, grease), landfills have long been the preponderant disposal choice, but with little regard for any consideration except getting rid of the wastes. Finally, the literature indicates that in many industrial sectors, waste characteristics and treatment methods employed are not revealed since such information would reveal information about proprietary production processes. 1-10 ------- Study of the literature also demonstrated that, in many areas, a limited number of information and statistical data sources are used repeatedly in different publications and that, in the end, sources of original data are relatively few in number. In some instances, for example, study of publications obtained from industry associations showed that the included data were identical to those given by the Census of Manufactures and extracted from the latter. In other cases, it was found that technical data furnished by certain technical groups (e. g., the Manufacturing Chemists Association), was used by many authors. (2) Information Sources Other Than Open Literature Beyond the open literature, potential information sources in the study were trade and technical associations, government agencies, and individual plants. The industry association contacts met with varying degrees of success in terms of information collection. While some have published reports, etc., which are available in the literature, many of these groups have only recently initiated work with respect to environmental pollution and waste disposal problems of their memberships, or have undertaken no specific technical work at all. Naturally, the more technically oriented of these groups were able to provide some assistance. As a whole, however, while all of these organizations are interested in and concerned about pollution control problems, they were able to provide only limited assistance. The government agencies most directly concerned with hazardous materials are the Department of Defense and the Atomic Energy Commission. Each of these was able to provide considerable information, especially the Atomic Energy Commission, since the radioactive materials are under continuous regulatory control throughout their life cycles. The Department of Defense agencies also have the opportunity for close control but, with the exception of munitions, have only recently initiated widespread control measures with respect to environmental pollu- tion. These agencies find themselves in a situation similar to industry, in that the many installations utilize a wide range of potentially hazardous materials and produce potentially hazardous wastes, yet lack definitive background information and data that would be helpful in understanding pollution problems and alleviating waste treatment and disposal problems. 1-11 ------- Visits to industrial plants generally confirmed the lessons learned from the literature, and are: Industry has not made detailed, comprehensive analyses of its wastes, and cannot provide quanti- tative data, especially with respect to specific materials contained in wastes. Waste treatment in industry is generally limited to treatment of mixed wastes for a limited number of parameters (e.g., oxygen demands, solids content, acidity, alkalinity) rather than for specific materials content. The nature and extent of waste treatment and disposal methods is based on economic factors rather than on pollution control considerations. By far the dominant disposal method is discharging to water with landfilling a close second. Many production processes which emit wastes which are of interest in environmental quality control are considered proprietary processes, for competitive reasons, and industry refuses to disclose process information that would aid in understanding the wastes generated. In many quarters, industry feels it is being unfairly attacked with respect to pollution and therfore is unwilling to discuss waste emissions, even where no proprietary processes are involved, for fear of stringent controls being imposed. A number of industrial firms across the country have been cited by the EPA, and by state and local environmental protection agencies, for violation of air and water quality regulations and, in some instances, these citations have resulted in litigation. In such an atmosphere, industrial firms in general have become extremely wary of disclosing any information about their wastes. 1-12 ------- The findings on the previous page were also borne out through the contacts with industry associations. A final important consideration with respect to industry is that of attitudes and concepts regarding just what constitutes a hazardous material. Many individuals involved in daily handling of acids, caustics, pesticides, etc. , especially as wastes, simply do not consider these as hazardous materials. The lack of agreement on definition of hazardous materials does nothing to help this situation. (3) Definition of Hazardous Materials Initial guidance with respect to definition of hazardous materials was provided by the EPA, as follows: "For the purpose of this study, hazardous wastes materials are defined as those materials or combination of materials which require special management techniques because of their .acute and/or chronic effects on the health or welfare of the public (or those individuals who handle them) when they are disposed of by waste management processes (e. g., storage, transport, incineration, sanitary landfilling, composting, dumping, industrial waste treatment). " While the definition provided was imprecise, it remains a good general definition. Precision in definition must address the question, "Hazardous to what and in what way?". If hazards to humans are under consideration, for example, a distinction needs to be made as to whether toxicity (which implies personal medical problems) is being considered, or whether safety hazards (e. g., explosion) are the subject. Both may be injurious, even lethal, but the nature of the hazards is distinctly different. Similar considerations would apply to the definition of materials hazardous to animal and plant life. For purposes of the analyses and hazardous effects ratings in this study, materials (and to some extent, waste streams) have been defined as hazardous if they have the known inherent ability to produce: Toxic effects on mammalian species (whether lethal or only damaging) Damaging or lethal effects on non-mammalian systems Some significant undesirable change in man, such as carcinogens, teratogens, or mutagens. 1-13 ------- (4) Hazardous Materials List The list of hazardous materials developed in this study (see page 11-29) was assembled in a three-step process. First, as the literature was reviewed, search was made for reference by the various authors to identify: Materials commonly accepted as dangerous to man and the environment Materials which might present difficult disposal problems Materials known or suspected to have the ability to cause environmental damage Materials for which treatment and disposal processes were the subject of research efforts Materials involved in accidents. The identities were recorded for all materials discussed in the literature, so long as it appeared, even superficially at the outset, that they might be hazardous and therefore require special waste management techniques in disposal. From the general literature a list of approximately 175-200 hazardous materials was compiled. In the second step, existing lists of hazardous materials published by various organizations (see page 11-26) were obtained and reviewed. In general, it was found that these lists had been structured to include materials presenting fire or explosion hazards and human toxicity hazards, but from the viewpoint of safety in transportation, i. e., hazards that would result from transportation accidents. It was also found that many of the materials appearing on these lists had been placed there as a result of admitted subjective judgments on the part of the groups responsible. For this reason, it was determined that a basic criteria for including materials from the published lists onto the list developed in this study was that the material should appear on at least two of the published lists. Thus, the final developed list of hazardous materials represents an integration of materials turned up by the literature search and materials lists. 1-14 ------- The final step in developing the hazardous materials list was to screen the materials against toxicity and other effects references to determine whether sufficient hazardous effects information was available to justify inclusion of each material on the final list. (5) Hazardous Effects Determination and Rating The available literature reveals a wide range of effects of various materials that have been observed as a result of planned experiments involving laboratory animal and plant (vegetation) exposures to varying concentration levels and exposure time periods, and observations resulting from acci- dents. Industrial health studies also show a wide range of observed health effects, both acute and chronic, resulting from worker exposures to various materials. Despite the many observations of effects reported by both the practicing medical community and research scientists, it was found that the contributing concentration levels are generally not documented—because they are unknown. This is true of observations made in industrial work places and in investigations of accidents. The problem of effects on humans is an especially difficult area since few human-subject experiments are conducted. and while good data have been obtained in controlled experiments with laboratory animals, the extrapolation of these results to human effects continues to be an area of great uncertainty. Research results from similar experiments frequently differ, and thus cast doubt on the validity of human extrapolation. Further difficulty arises from the fact that observations of toxic effects on humans have been made for a relatively limited number of materials, with emphasis having been given to the metals and some metallic compounds. Very little data has been taken concerning plants and animals in their natural habitat. Plants suffer especially in this regard because, until very recent years, little research has been done to determine effects of materials on plants. Even the research done recently has been limited to a few compounds (e. g., oxides of sulfur, oxides of nitrogen, pesticides, herbicides). In the end, the result is that the body of knowledge of hazardous effects of materials on man and the environment is essentially limited to acute (short-term) effects, much of it 1-15 ------- based on after-the-fact medical observations rather than predictions based on experimental results. An extremely serious gap remains in the knowledge of chronic (long-term) effects of materials on man or the environment. Laboratory-type research into chronic effects has been, for all practical purposes, nonexistent and the research that has been done has taken the form of long years' collection and analysis of case histories by individuals in the medical profession. Pressed with the need to establish reasonable bases for the protection of health and safety, the medical community has promulgated guidelines in the form of data describing concentration exposure limits (threshold limits) for many materials, for both humans and animals. These values are useful in developing a method for rating the hazardous effects of materials. The rating method developed during this study is based on these guidelines (see Chapter IV), but takes additional factors into account as well. It is also a flexible rating system which actually includes several types of ratings: Total Effects Rating (TER), basic rating developed from known effects, with allowance for weighting based on priorities Maximum Potential Effects Rating (MPER), a rating which includes the TER and an allowance for unknown effects Hazard Extent Rating (HER), a rating which repre- sents material pervasiveness as a function of production and distribution Hazard Rating (HR), an overall rating which is the product of TER times HER Maximum Potential Hazard Rating (MPHR), an overall rating which is the product of MPER times HER (produces the highest overall rating score). Principal among the additional factors are the media (air, water, land) wherein the hazardous materials might be transmitted to man and the environment, since the nature of the effects are dependent upon the nature of the contact between 1-16 ------- the material and the "host" (e.g., ingestion, respiration, surface contact). An important aspect of the media viewpoint is that it permits direct correlation with the disposal media when the hazardous materials become wastes requiring disposal. For each hazardous material on the final listing (Chapter II), air disposal, water disposal, and land disposal were considered and for each medium, rating values were assigned which numerically express the level of severity of effects in three classes: Human toxicity effects Flame/explosion effects Ecological effects. Table 1-1 below indicates the nine basic factors assigned rating values. Table 1-1 Matrix of Factors for Rating the Level of Effects for the List of Hazardous Substances Medium For Disposal Air (A) Water (W) Soil (S) Hazard in Terms of Potential Effects Human Populations Eco Populations Toxic Effects ------- The numerical values assigned to each factor above were selected on a scale of 1-3, as follows: 3 - Severely hazardous 2 - Slight to moderate hazard 1 - Minimal hazard U - Effects unknown. The resultant scores for the nine individual factors were weighted, then summed to produce the basic rating score, here termed the Total Effects Rating (TER), which comprises the "known effects" rating. In cases where effects are unknown or where data is not available, a value of three (maximum hazard value) was assigned to each "U" on the assumption that it would be desirable to produce conservative final ratings, especially for materials with a high number of unknowns. Adding these U-scores to the basic Total Effects Rating produces the Maximum Potential Effects Rating. It is recognized that the scale of 1-3 is a narrow band likely to produce ratings that tend to group many materials into clusters in the overall rating scale, and that a wider spread in the relative ratings would be desirable. However, the limitations noted earlier with respect to knowledge of human and ecological effects of materials are such that the rating precision needed for use of a wider scale (e. g. , 1-10), or the precision that would be implied if a wider scale were imposed, are not justified by the data available. A final element that needs to be considered in rating materials according to hazardous effect is the concept of a "Hazard Extent Rating, " which reflects the opportunity for the effects to occur. Many materials exist whose effects are severe and well-known, but which are neither produced in large quantities nor are widely distributed; thus, they present a localized and limited hazard problem, in terms of geographic area and population affected. Many other materials, however, whose effects might be lesser on a pound-for-pound basis, can 1-18 ------- pose a much more pervasive hazard problem Lf they are produced in very large quantities, and see widespread distribution and use throughout the economy. Pursuing this concept, values were assigned to ranges of production quantities (where production data is available) and to distribution, the latter indicating the extent of national distribution. Table 1-2 provides an example of the rating development. Table IV-18 (Chapter IV, page IV-25), shows the hazardous effects ratings for the list of hazardous materials developed in this study. (6) Quantification and Location of Hazardous Materials One of the fundamental purposes of this study was to provide information that would be useful in the overall EPA context of identifying materials that might require special waste management techniques in disposal because of their potential hazardous effects, and in the more specific context of the possible need for a national disposal site system for such materials. Among the desired results was quantification data describing the waste quantities and their geographic locations. The literature search revealed, however, that waste quantification for specific materials does not exist. Among the principal reasons for this situation are: Historically, there has been no interest or objective in quantifying waste amounts of specific materials, with the exception of radioactive wastes, which are subject to a stringent control system For certain materials, such as pesticides and herbicides, the utilization and disposal cycles were one and the same, but geographic location data were not recorded In nearly all waste disposal processes, whether industrial, governmental, or domestic, materials being wasted are thrown together and become streams of mixed wastes 1-19 ------- Table 1-2 Sample Worksheet for Computing Substance Hazard Rating Compound Aluminum Sulfate Air Disposal Water Disposal Soil Disposal Total Effec Human toxic effects Flame / Explosion Ecoeffects Human toxic effects Flame /Explosion Ecoeffects Human toxic effects Flame /Explosion Ecoeffects ts Rating (Sum of above) Initial Rating 3 2 3 3 2 2 3 2 U Weight 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Final Rating 3 3 2 2 3 2 U 20 Number of Unknowns above — L- Maximum Potential Effects Rating Production rating (unknowns x 3 plus total effects rating) Distribution Rating Hazard Extent Rating (Sum of Production & , _ .. (Total Effects Rating x Hazard Rating _, . , . TT , _. e , . . 6 Extent of Hazard Rating) Maximum Potential Hazard Rating Distribution) Max. Potential Effects Rate & Extent of Hazard Rating) 23 _J-5 _JL5 40 46 1-20 ------- Pre-disposal waste treatment, where employed at all, has been applied to a limited number of waste stream characteristics, rather than to character- istics of specific materials. It follows that without waste quantity data for specific materials, geographic location cannot be considered. The impact of the latter two factors above on the hazardous waste quantification problem cannot be overstated. The difficulties imposed can be more succinctly observed when it is noted that mixed waste streams: Can have hazardous materials as inputs, Are not analyzed in detail, if at all, Might be chemically indeterminate, as a result of unknown reactions, Might exhibit some, all, or none of the character- istics of individual input materials, and Might become hazardous in itself through combina- tions of nonhazardous input materials. Investigation of the overall problem of quantifying waste hazardous materials has to consider the problem of disposing of such materials in their pure (or relatively pure) form as well as in waste streams. Many of these materials are created as (or in) marketable products not meant to be wasted, yet for various reasons (shelf-life, contamination, etc. ) at some time become wastes. In such cases, however, someone has to declare them to be no longer needed and thus ready for disposal. This waste quantification problem is graphically compared to the mixed waste problem in Figure 1-1. In addition to the literature search, attempts were made through industry associations, federal government agencies, and individual plants to collect the needed data. Some success was achieved through the government agencies. The industrial sector remains a problem area, for reasons discussed previously in Section (2), yet that sector is the major producer, user, and distributor of hazardous materials. 1-21 ------- FIGURE 1-1 The Hazardous Materials Waste Quantification Problem RAW MATERIALS PRODUCTION PROCESSES MIXED PRODUCTION WASTES (B) FINISHED PRODUCTS DISTRIBUTION QUANTITIES DECLARED WASTE AT ANY ONE TIME OR PLACE (A) RANDOM, NON-QUANTIFIABLE POTENTIALLY QUANTIFIABLE, WITH WASTE STREAM ANALYSIS 1-22 ------- Lacking factual data, then, the alternative is to develop a computation method for estimating waste quantities. This has been done, but is limited to estimating total waste quantities for industry types (by SIC code). These estimates were made by industry types for each of the 50 states and for each of the 50 largest Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSA), and are listed on Tables III-5 and III-6 (Chapter III, pages 111-14 and III-19). To estimate these total waste quantities, a series of "waste factors" were calculated (one for each industry type) which represent the amount of wastes generated per 1, 000 pounds of product (WPPP), Data were then extracted from the Census of Manufactures which show, for regions, SMSAs, and states, the production and value added in production by each industry. These data were reduced to value added per 1, 000 pounds of product (VAP ?). Then: WPPP Ib. waste/1, OOP Ib. product _ pounds waste VAPP = $ value added/I, 000 Ib. product ~ $ and: Pounds waste $ x Total $ value added = Total Ib. waste Early in the study it was determined that of the 231 SMSAs in the country, the 50 largest account for approximately 60 percent of American industry. The remaining 181 would account for no more than 20 percent of industry. Thus, the arbitrary break was made at the top 50. From that point, total wastes estimates were made on a state basis since all industry could be accounted for in that manner. Further, in some states (e. g. , Florida) which have few SMSAs, the bulk of industries of interest would not be included in the SMSAs in any event. With respect to the potential national disposal site system, the value of approaching the quantification problem by studying the 50 largest SMSAs is that it demonstrates where the greatest quantities of wastes are generated which can includs hazardous materials, and therefore indicates the locations that" would most likely need to be served by such disposal sites. The wastes estimates by industries and states can readily be correlated 1-23 ------- with the hazardous materials information indicating which industries use which materials. From that point it is not difficult to identify the locations within the states (but outside of SMSAs) where the more important industries are situated, and therefore to determine other potential disposal site locations. The remaining waste quantification problem regarding hazardous materials is to arrive at some means of determining what portion of the total wasteloads is composed of hazardous materials. The lack of such data, particularly in the critical industrial sectors, however, makes development of any reasonable estimating method highly improbable, if not impossible. This stems from the almost universal waste handling practice of collecting many plant wastes into common streams of mixed wastes. The problem is especially acute with respect to liquid wastes and for many solids which are put into solution for waste handling purposes, since such wastes typically include the chemical compounds that are among the most hazardous of materials. A limited amount of information was obtained, however, which provides rough quantification factors indicating the generation of certain commonly-known (by "trade" names) waste streams as a function of production. In some cases, these quantification factors also show typical amounts of specific hazardous materials contained in those waste streams. Where such data were available, estimates of total waste stream pro- duction and estimates of contained hazardous materials were computed. The results are presented in Table III-7 (Chapter III, page III-29). (7) Hazardous Materials Accident Data In searching the literature for accident data involving hazardous materials, the objective was to identify sources of statistical data for: Accident reports (e.g., frequency, apparent causes, human factors, effects) Materials involved in accidents (e. g. , hazardous material properties, material weights or volumes, container characteristics) 1-24 ------- Disposal problems (e. g. , effects of quantity; characteristics of the environment such as meteoro- logical conditions and terrain features including soil, vegetation, and drainage pattern; details of handling problems such as salvage possibilities and specific handling instructions). While some accident data were discovered with respect to waste materials (and are discussed as part of the industry descriptions in the appendices), such information is extremely scarce, and reports or articles are written only when the accidents are spectacular. Thus, minor accidents or accidents that may have latent effects, because of the materials involved, are not routinely reported. Beyond the literature search, various organizations concerned with safety and accident prevention (e.g., National Safety Council, Navy Safety Center) were contacted, but were unable to shed light on the subject. It appears that there are no organizations, public or private, which make a routine practice of collecting and analyzing accident data involving hazardous materials, with the exception of transportation interests. Hazardous materials accidents involving public trans- portation are reasonably well reported. However, such acci- dents present no surprises, since the materials involved are in pure form (as marketed products), and their effects are known in advance. Therefore, the transportation community seeks to prevent accidents, and new knowledge rarely, if ever, evolves from investigation of these accidents. A full discussion of the situation surrounding hazardous materials is given in Appendix A-6 through D-2 (Volume III). (8) Disposal Practices Disposal practices for hazardous materials are discussed in detail in Chapter V. These practices involve two important considerations, depending upon whether the materials are in pure form or represent some portion of mixed waste streams. 1-25 ------- The only adequate published information describing disposal methods for hazardous materials in pure form is that available from the Manufacturing Chemists Association, and representative listings are presented in Chapter V (see page V-77). In the automatic data processing records developed for this study, the appropriate MCA-recommended disposal technique is given for each of the hazardous materials on the final list (Chapter II). These methods can apply whenever the materials must be disposed of in pure form, in answer to the finished product question discussed previously in Section (6). The real, but undefined, problem which remains, however, is the treatment and disposal of waste streams having hazardous materials as partial inputs. The common practice is to analyze waste streams for only a few characteristics, and to treat the streams based on these results, if the streams are treated at all, prior to disposal. Since the mixed wastes are not analyzed in detail, little or nothing is known about what actually happens, in terms of reactions and the resultant detailed characteristics of the waste streams. It follows that knowledge does not exist which can reveal the possible hazardous nature of the wastes discharged after treatment. The prepon- derant media used to dispose of wastes are landfill and discharge to surface waters (rivers, lakes, oceans), and the medium selected is based on economics rather than on environmental protection. A final objective of the study was to determine the extent to which manufacturers of hazardous materials provide disposal instructions as a part of package labeling. The literature search and discussions with industry sources both revealed that disposal instructions are not made a part of labeling practice. Further, the consensus among manufacturers is that such instructions should not be put on labels, for the reason that many handlers or users are not knowledgeable enough concerning the nature of the materials, can too easily misinterpret the instructions, and cause serious harm to themselves and others. For these reasons, the manufacturers, particularly the chemical companies, prefer that users return hazardous mater- ials for disposal. For many years, these manufacturers have provided the return service with regular points of contact identified to the users. Recently, in a cooperative effort among 1-26 ------- the chemical firms and the Manufacturing Chemists Association, the materials return services have been placed under the jurisdiction of MCA, with a "hot line" established so that quick response can be made to special problems. 4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS (1) Principal Conclusions Key conclusions resulting from this study include: At present a comprehensive body of knowledge which describes the hazardous effects of most substances does not exist. Litlie evidence was obtained to indicate that current disposal methods are creating a human health hazard. Environmental damage is more likely to occur than are health hazards to humans. A review of disposal processes established the existence of a variety of useful technology, and more importantly, the fact that much of the technology is not widely used. The development of a list of hazardous substances is not equivalent to the development of a list of hazardous wastes because of the many unknowns with respect to industrial mixed waste streams. Wastes to be hazardous must contain one or more hazardous substance in sufficient concentration to be detrimental to human health or other elements of the ecological system. Accurate characterization of waste streams is essential to the evaluation of hazard potential and the design of waste treatment to abate such hazards. 1-27 ------- Disposal of hazardous materials is best handled at the point where the hazardous material is produced (process) or released (plant). These conclusions are presented in greater detail in Chapter VII. (2) Recommendations The principal recommendations resulting from this study are: A national control system is needed and should be developed for designated hazardous materials and wastes. The control system should include: Identification of critical waste processes or products Licensing of production and disposal processes Specification of handling and treatment methods Inspection for conformance Prescriptions for labeling of warnings and disposal methods Designation of collection points for specific waste categories requiring special handling Licensing of contractors for disposal or recycling Designation of ultimate disposal methods Development of implementation plan. Special disposal sites should be designated or developed only if needed in the context of a comprehensive hazardous waste control system. 1-28 ------- Packaged hazardous consumer products should be controlled throughout their distribution cycle, and residential containers collected for reuse or approved disposal. Indepth studies should be made of a selected number, say 10 to 15, of hazardous materials based on highest production quantities and widest distri- bution. The recommended studies should include investi- gation of production, distribution, and disposal patterns for the selected materials. A major research effort should be implemented toward the specific task of identifying the hazardous effects of various materials. This research effort should give major consideration to long-term (chronic) effects. An extensive set of criteria needs to be developed for defining hazardous materials, including hazardous wastes. Extensive research is needed for determination of the composition of industrial waste streams. Waste treatment research is needed to establish the feasibility of separating certain hazardous compounds from general waste streams (e.g., heavy metal wastes, phenols). 1-29 ------- II. IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS ------- II. IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 1. INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS Fundamental to the development of a plan which will recommend ways to handle and dispose of wastes involving hazardous materials is the development of an extensive list of materials, compounds, or products which require special handling techniques. A hazardous substance list should take into account all important characteristics of substances which could cause them to be or to become hazardous. The hazard consideration should include not only people but also all ecological subsystems which contribute to environmental balances. The list should include hazards that may develop in all disposal media (i. e., air, water, or soil). From such a list it will be possible to develop insight into the total problem and to recommend preliminary approaches for handling the wide variety of hazardous wastes which are generated. At present, a list of hazardous substances (for waste management purposes) that would be all inclusive cannot be developed because of the state of knowledge limitations in many of the hazardous waste material areas. In particular, the potential range of adverse effects that may be produced by hazardous wastes on a variety of receptors (which include humans, animals and plants) is not fully known. It is imperative, however, that any tentative list be as representative as possible of the real world situation. The analytical approach followed in this study for the development of a hazardous substance list includes: Literature surveys of waste disposal techniques, the associated wastes, and previously published lists of hazardous materials Direct interviews with persons having knowledge of current waste problems and procedures II-1 ------- Identification of hazardous material manufacture and use by industrial sectors. Definition of hazardous materials remains a problem. Initially, for the purposes of this study, hazardous wastes were defined as follows: "Hazardous waste materials are defined as those materials or combinations of materials which require special management techniques because of their acute or chronic effects on the health or welfare of the public (or those individuals who handle them when they are disposed of by waste management processes (e. g., storage, transport, incineration, sanitary landfilling, composting, dumping, industrial waste treatment)). " Although necessarily imprecise, this general definition will serve to outline the complexity of the problem of management of chemical wastes in that these will almost always, by definition, contain some materials which may, as are, or under conditions of waste management, become injurious to public health and public welfare. This can best be understood by examination of the concept "hazardous waste" and of the definition given earlier. The use of the adjective hazardous, defined as "left to chance" implies that there are liabilities, potential problems, or risk probabilities in the operation which is being described; in this case, waste management. All chemical wastes have some hazard (some risk probability) of becoming dangerous on disposal. These may vary from minimal dangers such as salt dumping at sea, which damages osmotic pressure of the microenvironment, with possible liabilities on local life, to such indescribable potential problems as disposal of nitrite dumping which may interact with other chemical species to form nitrosamines (known carcinogenic) which may finally appear in drinking water, to such clearly defined problems as mercury or acid dumping. The problem is the characterization of the "hazard potential" and the subsequent selection of some point below which the potential is so minimal as to be arbitrarily defined as negligible. Then, only those wastes which have hazard potentials above this point could be considered as candidates for special handling, treatment and disposal. Obviously, the characterization of "hazard potential" is based on a. number of factors, which can be arbitrarily assigned some importance. II-2 ------- (1) Route of Disposal Some materials will vary in hazard based on the final disposition. Readily biodegradable toxic or otherwise unwanted materials from which no dangerous species of chemicals can be produced will be nonhazardous if put into an efficient sewage treatment plant, but highly suspect if disposed of at sea or in a watercourse, or by some technique through which the original materials can appear in ground or drinking water. Biodegradable surfactants are examples of this type of material; For the purposes of this report, this factor has been minimized, assuming that the basic unchanged character is the point of focus and not the potential deactivation in special treatment situations. (2) Mammalian Toxicity Obviously, this is a key factor in consideration of hazard potential. Basically toxic materials such as cyanide, heavy metals, fluorides, radioactive wastes, etc., must be considered as hazardous. These can affect all forms of life in the disposal process or in the ultimate disposal media. Again, arbitrary assignments can be made on the basis of current knowledge of toxicity. Those materials which are defined in law (The Federal Hazardous Substances Act, The Hazardous Materials Board of the Department of Transportation) as very toxic (oral toxicity to rats, LD5Q of 50 mg per kg or less) or highly toxic (LDso of 50 to 500 mg per kg) should be considered dangerous. Waste streams which contain such materials, regardless of concentration, should also be labeled "hazardous. " (3) Non-Mammalian Toxicity This is a much less clear concept, since less is known about effects of materials on fish, birds, etc. Nevertheless, some factor such as that given above for the mammals is needed. (4) Chemical and Biochemical Change Prior to this decade, the scientific community did not recognize secondary hazard liability where materials can undergo chemical or free radical changes in the environment, or under II-3 ------- special microenvironmental conditions, to become species which have greater hazard liability. Now these changes are commonly recognized; for example, the mercury conversion to methyl mercury, the photo-oxidation of hydrocarbons, or the anaerobic conversion of nitrilotriacetate to nitrosamines. Where such change can occur, then, the waste must be considered as hazardous and processed to remove the potentially labile species. (5) Imbalances Some materials, phosphates may well be the most readily recognized offender at present, may cause imbalances when added to the microenvironment. These imbalances may result in changes in the food chain of a waterway, the economic value of the ultimate disposal site, or the health value of land or water. For example, disposal of large amounts of sodium ion into a watercourse, resulting in its appearance in a drinking water system, could cause a change in the propensity of the consuming population for cardiovascular disease. Thus, imbalance too should be considered. For the purposes of this study, the tendency has been to ignore this problem, as has the question of route of disposal. Where the material classified as waste is neither inherently toxic nor dangerous, imbalance alone is not a factor in causing assignment of a hazardous rating. (6) Miscellaneous Factors Occasionally, it must be recognized that materials can be offensive because of their non-biological effects. Materials can be visualized which cause structural degradation, offensive but not injurious odors, unsightly accumulation, etc. For the purpose of this analysis, these were also not termed "hazardous" despite the fact that improved disposal practice may benefit the public good. In summary, materials have been defined as hazardous if they have the known inherent ability to produce: II-4 ------- Toxic effects on mammalian species (whether lethal or only damaging) Damaging or lethal effects on non-mammalian systems Some significant undesirable change in man, such as carcinogens, teratogens, or mutagens. 2. APPROACH TO HAZARDOUS MATERIALS IDENTIFICATION The approach outlined in the preceding section was implemented for the study. An extensive literature search was conducted which included both manual and computer screening of pertinent literature sources to identify useful references (see pages 1-4 to I- 7 ). While the literature search covered all aspects of information applicable to the study, simultaneously, emphasis was placed on identification of hazardous materials, since all other aspects (e. g., handling, treat- ment, disposal) had to be related to the materials. It should be noted that no preconceived notions were held as to what materials might be hazardous. Rather, any materials that were identified were initially listed, then cross-checked through references describing hazardous properties of materials to determine whether they should remain on the list. As the literature was reviewed, it became apparent that certain industry types constitute the principal manufacturers and users of potentially hazardous materials, and experienced many environmental pollution problems. Therefore, it was determined that the collected information could be handled most systematically if it were categorized according to industry groups. To complement the industry group identification indicated by the literature, reference was made to a listing entitled "Major Sources of Pollution, " which was developed during 1967-1968 by the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration. That list covers the top 50 pollution sources (from the viewpoint of water use), and includes natural and nonindustrial sources. In addition, the list presents a priority ranking indicating the relative severity of the pollution problems created by the sources named. The list is reproduced in Table II-1. Comparisons were made between the industries listed by Table II-1 and the industry-type identities indicated through the literature search, and a list of industry groups was developed for use in categorizing II-5 ------- Table II-1 Major Sources of Pollution 4 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Source j Priority I Pulp & paper industry Municipal sewered waste Power (thermal) production Agriculture runoff Storm & combined sewers Food processing industry Petrochemical industry Irrigation return flow Petroleum refining industry Feed lots Metal & metal products industry Unsewered domestic waste Marine Dredging Oil pollution & production Organic chemical industry Acid Mines Impoundments Recreation boats Unsewered urban runoff Textile industry Inorganic chemical industry Commercial vessels Construction activities Potato processing 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 14 14 15 16 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 PPBS Category 1204 1101 1203 1302 1102 1103 1206 1202 1303 1205 1304 1201 1105 1501 1507 1402 1202 1401 1504 1501 1104 1209 1202 1502 1503 1206 II-6 ------- Table II-1 (Continued) No. 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 Source Pharmaceutical manufacture Pesticide industry Saltwater intrusion Phosphate mining Logging Milk products & handling Fertilizer manufacture Fish processing industry Lumbering Mining Coal processing Strip mining (coal, sand & gravel) Uranium" mining Meat packing Natural pollution Canning industry Sugar beet industry Cattle industry Brines Copper mining Log storage Agricultural chemical production Tanning & leather industry Nuclear installations Brewery wastes Priority 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 36 37 37 37 38 39 39 40 41 41 42 PPBS Category 1202 1202 1505 1404 1301 1206 1202 1206 1210 1404 1205 1404 1403 1206 1506 1206 1206 1304 1212 1404 1210 1202 1212 1212 1206 Developed 1967-1968 By Federal Water Pollution Control Administration II-7 ------- the study information (Table II-2). These industries are identified by their Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) code numbers. A distinct advantage of this approach is its use of geographically locating (through reference to the Census of Manufactures) the major hazardous material use-points, and consequently the location of potentially hazardous wastes. The industry group list was also supplemented by identity of federal government agencies most concerned with the manufacture and use of hazardous materials, and with the category of power utilities. The SIC code listing of Table II-2 breaks down to the four-digit codes where the industry group identification becomes more specific than is indicated by the two-digit general codes, and it was to the four- digit level that the initial literature search was directed. However, the extent and quality of information available proved to be so limited that, with a few exceptions, the more realistic approach was to utilize the two-digit codes for aggregating and reporting purposes. As the industry groups were identified, the more prominent trade associations representing each industry were also identified. Contacts were made with 20 such associations (Table II-3) to determine whether they were publishing any materials involving wastes, waste disposal, or hazardous materials data. There were a few notable exceptions, but, as a rule, these groups were unable to provide assis- tance. Many have undertaken either no specific technical work or have only recently become involved in technical matters related to the environ- mental pollution problems of their member firms. Those able to provide information were the larger and more technically oriented groups (e. g., American Petroleum Institute). A limited number of visits were made to industrial plants since the study program did not envision an extensive survey effort, but little factual information was gained from these sources. A survey was made among nine hospitals in the New York-New Jersey area, and the results are reported in Appendix A-11 but little worthwhile information was gained with respect to pathological and other potentially hazardous materials as wastes. Key findings of these early discussions and data collections included the following: Detailed information on the composition of industrial waste streams could be located for only a few representative industries or single processes within an industry. II-8 ------- Table II-2 Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Used for Information Categorization SIC Code and Title 10 Metal Mining 11 Anthracite Mining 12 Bituminous Coal and Lignite Mining 20 Food rsandred Products 2011 Meat Packing Plants 2013 Sausages and Other Prepared Meats 2015 Poultry Dressing Plants r.021 Creamery Butter 2022 Cheese, Natural and Processed 2023 Condensed and Evaporated Milk 2024 Ice Cream and Frozen Desserts 2026 Fluid Milk 2031 Canned and Cured Seafoods 2032 Canned Specialties 2033 Canned Fruits and Vegetables 2034 Dehydrated Food Products 2035 Pickles, Sauces and Salad Dressings 2036 Fresh or Frozen Packaged Fish 2037 Frozen Fruits and Vegetables 2041 Flour and Other Grain Mill Products 2042 Prepared Feeds for Animals and Fowl 2043 Cereal Preparations 2044 Rice Milling 2045 Blended and Prepared Flour 2046 Wet Corn Milling 2061 Raw Cane Sugar 2062 Cane Sugar Refining 2063 Beet Sugar 2071 Confectionery Products II-9 ------- Table II-2 (Continued) 2072 Chocolate and Cocoa Products 2073 Chewing Gum 2082 Malt Liquors 2083 Malt 2084 Wines, Brandy and Brandy Spirits 2085 Distilled Liquor, Except Brandy 2086 Bottled and Canned Soft Drinks 2087 Flavoring Extracts and Syrups, N. E. C. * 2091 Cottonseed Oil Mills 2092 Soybean Oil Mills 2093 Vegetable Oil Mills, N. E. C. * 2094 Animal and Marine Fats and Oils 2096 Shortening and Cooking Oils 2095 Roasted Coffee 2097 Manufactured Ice 2098 Macaroni and Spaghetti 2099 Food Preparations, N. E. C. * 22 Textile Mill Products 2211 Weaving Mills, Cotton 2221 Weaving Mills, Synthetics 2231 Weaving and Finishing Mills, Wool 2241 Narrow Fabric Mills 2251 Women's Hosiery, Except Socks 2252 Hosiery, N. E. C. 2253 Knit Outerwear Mills 2254 Knit Underwear Mills 2256 Knit Fabric Mills 2259 Knitting Mills, N. E. C. * 2261 Finishing Plants, Cotton 2262 Finishing Plants, Synthetics * Not Elsewhere Classified 11-10 ------- Table II-2 (Continued) 2269 Finishing Plants, N. E. C. * 2271 Woven Carpets and Rugs 2272 Tufted Carpets and Rugs 2279 Carpets and Rugs, N. E. C. * 2281 Yarn Mills, Except Wool 2282 Throwing and Winding Mills 2283 Wool Yarn Mills 2284 Thread Mills 2291 Felt Goods, N. E. C. * 2292 Lace Goods 2293 Paddings and Upholstery Filling 2294 Processed Textile Waste 2295 Coated Fabrics, Not Rubberized 2296 Tire Cord and Fabric 2297 Scouring and Combing Plants 2298 Cordage and Twine 2299 Textile Goods, N. E. C. * 26 Paper and Allied Products 2611 Pulp Mills 2621 Paper Mills, Except Building Paper 2631 Paperboard Mills 2661 Building Paper and Board Mills 28 Chemicals and Allied Products 2812 Alkalies t»nd Chlorine 2813 Industrial G^es 2815 Cyclic Intermediates and Crudes 2816 Inorganic Pigments Not Elsewhere Classified 11-11 ------- Table II-2 (Continued) 2818 Industrial Organic Chemicals, N. E. C. * 2819 Industrial Inorganic Chemicals, N. E. C. * 2821 Plastics Materials and Resins 2822 Synthetic Rubber 2823 Cellulosic Manmade Fibers 2824 Organic Fibers, Noncellulosic 2831 Biological Products 2833 Medicinals and Botanicals 2834 Pharmaceutical Preparations 2841 Soap and Other Detergents 2842 Polishes and Sanitation Goods 2851 Paints and Allied Products 2861 Gum and Wood Chemicals 2871 Fertilizers 2872 Fertilizers, Mixing Only 2879 Agricultural Chemicals, N. E. C. * 2892 Explosives 2895 Carbon Black 29 Petroleum and Coal Products 2911 Petroleum Refining 2951 Paring Mixtures and Blocks 2952 Asphalt Felts and Coatings 2992 Lubricating Oils and Greases 2999 Petroleum and Coal Products, N. E. C. 31 Leather and Leather Products 3111 Leather Tanning and Finishing 3121 Industrial Leather Belting 3131 Footwear Cut Stock Not Elsewhere Classified 11-12 ------- Table II-2 (Continued) 33 Primary Metal Industries 3312 Blast Furnaces and Steel Mills 3313 Electrometallurgical Products 3315 Steel Wire and Related Products 3316 Cold Finishing of Steel Shapes 3317 Steel Pipe and Tubes 3321 Gray Iron Foundries 3322 Malleable Iron Foundries 3323 Steel Foundries 3331 Primary Copper 3332 Primary Lead 3333 Primary Zinc 3334 Primary Aluminum 3339 Primary Nonferrous Metals, N. E. C. * 3341 Secondary Nonferrous Metals 3351 Copper Rolling and Drawing 3352 Aluminum Rolling and Drawing 3356 Nonferrous Rolling and Drawing, N. E. C. * 3357 Nonferrous Wire Drawing and Insulating 3361 Aluminum Castings 3362 Brass, Bronze and Copper Castings 3369 Nonferrous Castings, N. E. C. * 3391 Iron and Steel Forgings 3392 Nonferrous Forgings 3399 Primary Metal Products, N. E. C. * 34 Fabricated Metal Products 3471 Plating and Polishing 3479 Metal Coating and Allied Services Not Elsewhere Classified 11-13 ------- Table II-2 (Continued) 80 Medical and Other Health Services 806 Hospitals Atomic Energy Commission Department of Defense Power Utilities Source: Standard Industrial Classification Manual, Executive Office of the President, Office of Statistical Standards, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967. 11-14 ------- Table II-3 Trade Associations Contacted 1. Technical Association of Pulp & Paper 1 Dun woody Park Atlanta, Georgia 30341 2. American Electroplaters Society 56 Melmore Gardens East Orange, New Jersey 07017 3. American Association of Textile Chemists & Colorists Box 12215 Research Triangle, North Carolina 27709 4. American Textile Manufacturing Association Charlotte, North Carolina 5. American Paper Institute 260 Madison Avenue New York, New York 10016 6. National Association of Metal Finishers 248 Lorain Avenue Upper Montclair, New Jersey 7. Institute of Makers of Explosives 420 Lexington Avenue New York, New York 10017 8. Manufacturing Chemists Association 1825 Connecticut Avenue, N. W. Washington, D. C. 20009 9. American Petroleum Institute 1801 K Street, N. W. Washington, D. C. 10. National Agricultural Chemicals Association 1155-15th Street, N. W. Washington, D. C. 11-15 ------- Table II-3 (Continued) 11. Fertilizer Institute 1015-18th Street Washington, D. C. 12. Sulfur Institute 1725 K Street Washington, D. C. 13. National Paint, Varnish and Lacquer Association 1500 Rhode Island Avenue, N. W. Washington, D. C. 20005 14. National Petroleum Refiners Association 1725 DeSales Street, N. W. Washington, D. C. 20036 15. American Petroleum Refiners Association 717 Ring Building Washington, D. C. 20036 16. American Chemical Society 1155-16th Street, N. W. Washington, D. C. 17. U.S. Can Sugar Refiners Association 1001 Connecticut Avenue, N. W. Washington, D. C. 20036 18. American Pharmaceutical Association 2215 Constitution Avenue, N. W. Washington, D. C. 19. National Pharmaceutical Council 1030-15th Street, N. W. Washington, D. C. 20005 20. National Solid Waste Management Association 1145 - 19th Street, N. W. Washington, D. C. 11-16 ------- The large masses of data needed to provide definitive information on specific, hazardous constitutents of industrial waste streams and waste piles was not available except as indicated previously. With definitive information on waste hazard characteristics and amounts lacking, the list of potentially hazardous waste materials must rely for definition upon certain limited, commonly-measured properties of waste such as acidity or alkalinity, biological oxygen demand (BOD), odors, radioactivity, etc. A substantial amount of useful information does exist relative to the toxic effects and explosive characteristics of many chemical elements and compounds (i. e., basic data not related directly to industrial products or industrial waste streams). From the above findings, it was concluded that the development of a list of hazardous waste substances snould proceed along two main lines. As originally planned, data relative to a list of waste materials was assembled by industry through detailed analysis of selected industrial sectors P.O defined by the Standard Industrial Classification Code (Reference 1). These lists included not only materials found in waste streams, but also materials believed to be hazardous and found as input materials (materials included in product process cycling), and materials included as products whether they were intermediate products or final products for consumer distribution and use. It was expected (and confirmed) that the lists of potentially h xzardous materials developed from industry references would include the identification of many materials or substances in generic or col;--?ctive terms such as "solvents," "slimes," "oxidizer, ' etc. Specific chemical compounds or elements embraced by the generic categories were defined, to the extent possible, for each industry and/ or by commonly employed industrial processes within each industry. Simultaneously, a more basic list of known hazardous substances was compiled. The basic list evolved from data and information extracted from detailed study. These reports and references include biological data that resulted from experimental or accidental animal and plant exposures to various substances suspected of being toxic, explosive or otherwise hazardous to human and/or other forms of life. 11-17 ------- Among the information assembled were also a number of reports which included lists of materials and compounds deemed hazardous for a variety of reasons, depending upon the purpose of each study (or mission of each group) that developed such a list. Many of the chemical substances included on these individual lists appeared on several of the lists, lending credence to the claims that they comprise a hazard. Substances included on more than one list were identified and became part of a nucleus to which other substances, identified as hazardous elsewhere in the literature, were added to complete the second, more basic, list of hazardous substances. The dual approach, then, for the development of a list of hazardous materials was to assemble lists of hazardous materials based on industry references by specific chemical elements, compounds and substances, and concurrently review existing lists of hazardous materials prepared by major associations and government agencies (see Table II-4, page II-2t>). Relationships needed to be determined among the lists to establish the extent of hazard that prevails as a result of hazardous materials and wastes involved in industrial processes. Such relationships were to be established to the extent possible at available bridging points; that is, those industries and specific industrial processes for which representative or typical composition of product and waste materials have been made available. Accordingly, emphasis was placed on establishing a compre- hensive list of materials which require special handling and disposal, and on establishing techniques which would identify hazardous waste streams and the disposal processes they require. Additional data on disposal practices were gathered in terms of current industrial prac- tices and available guidelines. Data were also collected on industrial production and consumption quantities. These latter data were developed further to provide a measure of the movement and geographical distribution of potentially hazardous materials which may: Be used in the closed production cycle of a single industrial plant Be produced as an intermediate product by one type of industrial plant for use as input material for other industries Be produced as part of a variety of consumer-type products which move freely in commerce on a nationwide (or even global) scale. 11-18 ------- By viewing patterns for the production and flow of materials known to be relatively hazardous (i. e., the basic list), it is possible to make some preliminary estimates of the magnitude and extent of corresponding hazard and disposal problems. The details of the development of the list of hazardous substances are documented in Section 5 (page 11-24). All of the above described data and information became input to the development of a system for rating the individual items included on the list of hazardous substances. The development of this rating system is described in Chapter IV. 3. OCCURRENCE OF HAZARDOUS WASTES Hazardous wastes involve materials discarded because they are either unneeded or unwanted, but which can have toxic effects on man or his environment in adequate controls are not exercised throughout their life-cycles, from initial extraction or production until final disposition. The concept of adequate control (management) of such materials is fundamental to an evaluation of hazardous materials disposal practices. The places and times when control over material passes from one responsible group to another are likely to be danger areas in this control system. Each material which enters the economic system has a 'life style1 of its own. Some are relatively simple; others may be quite complex. Coal, for example,. may be extracted and consumed immediately in a local stove, or, it may be shipped to a major industrial site to initiate the production of a series of complex chemical compounds. At each stage in conversion processes, the possibility of hazardous wastes arises. Typically, control over potential hazards will be greatest when ownership interests are involved, and least when no ownership interest exists. The conversion of the material from one form to another also increases risks and requires close controls. Toxic materials may be produced where formerly no toxicity existed. These materials may be either main products, by-products, or waste materials with potentially significant environmental effects. Hazardous waste materials occur in two general forms: Hazardous materials in the form of finished products, which are declared by the owner to have no further value and thus ready for disposal 11-19 ------- Hazardous materials which are generated as wastes from production or use processes, and immediately enter the disposal process. The first type comprise materials whose characteristics and properties are known, and whose hazardous effects are known to some extent. Since they are originally manufactured as valuable, marketable products, and since they may pass through several ownerships during their lives, the time or place at which they may be declared waste is both unknown and unpredictable. Therefore, to protect man and the environment from adverse effects of careless disposal practice, a system of control is needed through which owners are continuously held accountable for the status of the materials. The more pressing problem of hazardous wastes occurs as a result of production and use processes, since materials are represented which are generated routinely and continuously as wastes, are immediately ready for disposal, and are usually disposed of quickly. Production process wastes, with the exception of off-spec products, very seldom consist of pure materials and since they are wastes, are usually thrown together into mixed wastes. The properties of the input materials to mixed waste streams may be known, but very little is known, as a rule, of the hazardous properties of the waste stream, because detailed analyses of these streams are not made. Thus, the mixed •• aste stream might: Exhibit some or all of the characteristics of certain of its constituents Produce chemical reactions which are unknown and indeterminate Create, in the mixture, hazardous conditions greater than those attributable to any of its constituents Nullify, in the mixture, hazardous properties of any or all of the constitutents. The fact that knowledge of these factors is not available contri- butes the greatest threat to the ecology today, since these mixed wastes are a daily fact-of-life, yet cannot be properly included in a list of hazardous materials since nearly nothing definitive is known about them. 11-20 ------- The most toxic materials can be, and routinely are, safely controlled throughout their life cycles. Industry and government continuously produce, utilize and dispose of extremely toxic materials. Where the dangers are recognized and controls carefully engineered and operated, no hazardous conditions arise. The materials may present hazards if uncontrolled, but the controls applied assure that the occurrence of hazards is minimized. The numbers of existing compounds that can have toxic effects on man or his environment are in the tens of thousands. New compounds are being developed daily. The knowledge we have of the ultimate toxic properties of present compounds is quite limited, and new compounds are likely to be developed more rapidly than are our capabilities to unravel their short- and long-term toxicities. Establish- ment of an ultimate list of compounds for designation as either hazardous materials or hazardous wastes is foredoomed. By the time the hazardous effects of the included compounds can be made known, the list will be outdated. This is particularly true in the consideration of chronic (long-term) effects, where the time required to ascertain the effects is measured in years, and frequently the materials are no longer produced or used by the time the results are known. The economic aspects of this situation have retarded chronic effects research, since even the most concerned parties are unwilling to commit the necessary resources to research in so uncertain a situation. Any selection and listing of hazardous materials, then, must be viewed as a useful sample from the universe of toxic materials, which can be utilized to evaluate existing management techniques (capabilities and limitations), and to assist in the development of management systems which will ensure better control over similar materials. It is in this context that the list of hazardous materials developed in this study should be viewed and utilized. The investigations conducted during this study have explored both the toxic challenges to the environment which exist and the means now in use to control and safely dispose of materials having dangerous properties. As the study progressed and the concept of adequate controls assumed more significance, greater importance came to be attached to the capabilities of treatment and disposal systems to control hazards, than to the capabilities of the materials to create hazards. The best techniques and combinations of techniques now available can provide a means to devise a national control system over hazardous materials which will ensure safe handling throughout their life cycles, and safe disposition when their economic utility has been exhausted. 11-21 ------- An additional problem exists that has significance to the way in which hazardous wastes are treated and disposed of—the problem of attitudes on the part of individuals. As discussions were held with representatives of industry and government, it quickly became apparent that many individuals are daily handling and disposing of hazardous materials (e. g., acids, caustics, pesticides), but who will flatly state that they are not involved with hazardous materials. Part of this prob- lem stems from close familiarity with the materials handled, but the lack of clear-cut definition of hazardous materials contributes signifi- cantly to the problem. 4. ANALYTICAL PROBLEMS Despite the apparent straightforward analytical approach, a number of analytical problems prevail that require attention. The definition provided initially by the EPA implies that the state-of-the- art includes quantitative measures of health or welfare effects caused by human exposures to hazardous wastes. However, relatively few of the many substances considered as potential toxic pollutants of the environment have been studied sufficiently to permit full definition of concentration and effects relationships, which may vary consider- ably as a result of numerous factors. In a limited number of cases, data are adequate to define the full spectrum of effects that may be obtained. In many instances, however, the effects criteria in common use are educated guesses at best. Many of the effluents of industrial society, while not specifically hazardous to humans or other populations, can exert slow but extensive changes to the ecology. Materials which have no discovered effect on man or his environment may impose unrecognized, subtle effects which can irreversibly disturb the genetic patterns of man or other living specie. For such reasons, the identification and quantification of specific hazardous materials should be approached most cautiously. What is not known about material toxicology is immense. The proliferation of organic and inorganic compounds may exceed the capability of man to rigorously identify the hazards associated with each. As stated in the 1969 American Chemical Society Annual Report: "Several problem areas emerge as explicit themes in this report. One such theme is the primitive conditions of our fundamental knowledge of how living things are affected by long-time, low-level exposure to pollutants. Partly related to this theme is a second, 11-22 ------- the even more primitive condition of our knowledge of the effects of pollutants on the ecology, that is on the aggregate of living things as they exist in nature. The relationship of contaminants to the ecology is very nearly a total mystery. A third theme is the analytical methods that are used to monitor, control and study the environment and related phenomena. Those methods generally are not as good as they ought to be. " Not all hazardous effects are toxic. Some materials may cause biological effects (disease or illness), and an area of important consi- deration results from the flammable and explosive potential of some compounds (see References 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 at the end of this chapter). Other materials are capable of violent self-reaction or reaction with other compounds, including moisture or water (References 7, 8). Not all effects resulting from hazardous substances, particularly as wastes, are direct and immediate. The fact that toxic substances may persist and accumulate in several echelons of the food chain leading eventually to humans is an example of the indirect, long-term implica- tions of hazardous materials. There is also a growing concern that certain chemical wastes (e. g., some pesticides) may persist for periods of time that permit them to become entrained in the water cycle to reach surface or subsurface ground water and thus contaminate clean water supplies (References 9, 10, 11). Better understanding and growing concern for all ecological populations comprising the total environment have introduced additional factors that must be considered in developing a list of hazardous sub- stances. For example, substances which would not be directly damaging to particular plant or animal species may nevertheless produce dele- terious effects on related forms of life which comprise their food supply or their preditor/competitor relationships. Thus, the balance of nature, achieved through long-term natural selection processes, can be upset and undesirable consequences result. As substance or material may produce nontoxic effects from acute exposures (i. e., exposures of relatively large concentrations or doses over short time periods), but may produce serious effects from chronic exposures (i. e., exposures involving low concentration or dose levels over extended periods of time) (References 7, 9). Relatively good data have been obtained concerning acute exposures of humans as a result of reconstruction of industrial or other accident situations, but amounts and detail of such data are limited (Reference 12). Chronic 11-23 ------- exposure data on humans is more difficult to obtain because of the longer time periods involved and the difficulty of linking long-term deleterious effects definitively to a specific hazardous compound. Extrapolations from experimental animal data to estimates of human effects have been considered acceptable (with some reservations) for short-term acute or chronic exposures (i. e., days to, perhaps, weeks). But, longer-term animal exposures are not compatible with long-term human exposures and effects (i. e., order of years). The difficulty of identifying hazardous waste substances is aggravated further by the wide spectrum of industrial and commercial activity that occurs. Consequently, waste effluents which may be discharged to the air, water, or the land, vary from municipal sewage and large amounts of ordinary household solid or liquid wastes to complex industrial mixtures containing an array of organic and inorganic compounds and drugs. The composition of these effluents cannot be predicted with certainty because of the variations of industrial produc- tion processes and the great diversity of products that are produced during any given period. Thus, in partial summary, the analytical problems that evolve in developing a list of hazardous substances include the need for: Definitions of exposure concentration or dose levels and corresponding acute and chronic exposure effects Knowledge of subtle effects that occur, such as those caused by persistent toxic compounds Knowledge concerning the complex nature of effluent mix- tures found in waste streams and in waste disposal processes Data on the complex composition and scheduling of industry which produces the wide spectrum of potentially hazardous products as well as by-products. 5. PREPARATION OF LIST OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS The basic list of hazardous substances, which was developed independently of the industrial sector analyses, evolved primarily from seven lists of hazardous materials which have been developed separately by interested government agencies or industrial associations. Pertinent 11-24 ------- information on derivation of each of the seven lists is provided in Table II-4. The reports themselves are included among the list of references (see References 6, 8, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18). Each of the lists summarized in Table II-4 was prepared by a different organization. Each list includes a particular set of criteria which provides a hazard profile for each substance on the list. As evident in the table, the criteria are not consistent from list to list, but a substantial amount of information concerning hazardous effects and/or characteristics is provided for each substance or compound of each list. Where the same substance appears on several lists, the total amount of information made available is quite large and is useful for identification and relative rating of hazardous substances. The preparation of each list of hazardous materials (Table II-4) by its authors could be considered as an effort to select and list those materials of particular impact on the mission of the publishing organization and thus includes some subjective judgments. The development of each list, however, represented a research and analysis effort involving masses of information and data which are worthy of incorporation into the current study. Accordingly, the lists were compared on an item by item basis to draw a basic list of a manageable number of substances. Only compounds found on two or more lists were included in an initial selection (see Appendix B for comparison of current, hazardous compounds lists). A further screening and reduction was desirable to reduce the list for ease of handling. This reduction was accomplished by introducing production amounts as an added criterion of relative hazard to the ecology and to the human population. The matrix shown in Table II-5 presents the production criteria and the rationale for selecting compounds from other lists of hazardous material. These criteria were used for the second screening of the preliminary list of 900 hazardous substances. As a result of this screening, the initial list was reduced to approximately 400 chemical compounds. Subsequently, additions were made to the basic list to bring its total to approximately 500 chemical substances or compounds. These additions were made singly or by small groups. All were derived from study of the texts, reports, bulletins, etc., which were gathered during the information and data search phases of the study. For example, a series of 27 reports summarize 30 basic substances 11-25 ------- Table II-4 Summary of Factors Included in Current Lists Of Hazardous Materials Developed By Government Agencies and Industrial Associations S & Criteria for Classification of Hazards c f> 'a \| o \| - P s I E S J 1. •5 "" o. z < 5 a Title and Agency g» o „ » c 3 .2 C « 'S cr "3 u o C w» Simple "Yes" to any one of 1 involving hazard criteria lead as hazardous substance 1 ['existence "1 Health Effects Ecological Effects 1 Radioactive 1 X 4) «5 1 5- O 0 Wi •a o c q 3 n Q. " E "3 O V) ^ O Ml M 1 1 2 ~ O .-- Crittria for Selection of iilcmcn to be designated as Hazardous P E.P.A. Office of Water Programs I'3 e o o •2 E 1 w tS G ® * rt a. g » § 2 * •2 i g 1 1 3 . •i.' U CQ Si* «• "IS •o t^ SS Final Hazard rating and rank quantities, fractions shipped and historical probabilities o: addition to listed hazard criti & tj '" * O "3 "o ^S = w < X •^ ra 1 § 8 00 u o M iO 3 ' /-^ .5 \| n C> o V- — 1 1 o H Ui bj r^ ex 'c^. * CO — * "c CJ 0 S 0 •- i •a h* <•_• •S t> S 0 T3 U ^ s Profiles only, b^scd on listed cation of hazards plus other \| j explosive Range ir. Air Human Toxicity miscellaneous ^ c < ° W (A _o it, >j £• -n N x 5 n w a s o s Dar.geious Chemicals Code Los Ange'.es Fire Department i .1 1 l_ £ S 1 "S 2 Profile provided based on list of hazards plus other parame r.... _. . . . ^ Heal Ui Effects Fire Hazard Reactivity X ^3 !fl u. ** 3 -3 "O o < a < 1 1 o s o "T3 o\ Llboratory Waste Disposal Man Manufacturin? Chemists Assn. ( 8 Z §. X u 5 n 5 £ i List of threshold limit values L . . Human Health x •" 3 < O1 o o tfl •§ •a c rt c Occupational Safety and Health National Institute of Occupatiu: Safety and Health (1971) 1 § trt ^ t" 3 •g ^ E 3 •• 3 M • a Hazard evaluation system for Not applicable to other trans Explosion, Health Effects, Ecological Effects, Aesthetics X S % a 3 £ CX o o S «. i . ~ . ."•» 0 ° * 'g s Evaluation of the Hazard of Bu! Transportation of Industrial Chi National Academy of Sciences ( e o ts •> Si E J> "a ° if "3 0 » S S O V. •0 O Flexible Format foi presenta list of substances. Cornposit 1 Varied - Health Effects Ecological Effects Explosion & Fire Reactivity T3 X S i 1 o o Chemical Safety References National Safety Council 11-26 ------- Table II-5 Criteria for Reduction of Preliminary List of Hazardous Substances Production Levels Large >1 x 108 Ibs. /yr. Medium >1 x 107 but <1 x 108lbs. /yr. Small >1 x 107 Ibs. /yr. Number of Lists Substance Was Included On 1-2 Include Omit Omit 3-4 Include Include Omit 5-7 Include Include Include and their compounds which have been identified as air pollutant hazards (see Bibliography). A number of metallic, organic and inorganic compounds, shown by experimental and accident data to be very toxic to humans, animals and plants, were added to the basic list of hazardous substances as a result of information contained in these reports. Similarly, several summary type reports have been prepared on pesticides as hazardous substances (References 10, 11, 21), and a number of pesticide compounds were added to the list based on informa- tion contained in these reports. 6. THE LIST OF HAZARDOUS COMPOUNDS AND ITS USES The objective sought in the selection of compounds was to establish a comprehensive list rather than an exhaustive list of potentially hazardous materials. The list is representative of the 11-27 ------- toxic compounds which may require special waste management controls to minimize hazards to people and to the environment. Such a list, then, represents materials which are likely to be hazardous if not properly controlled. Proper control of toxic materials can completely avoid hazardous exposures of people or the environment to such toxic effects. Only when proper management does not exist, or accidents occur in spite of precautions, do the potential hazards become real hazards. The main utility of a comprehensive list of potentially hazardous materials is to identify the type and extent of the present and necessary management systems. Such systems might require development of special facilities to dispose of materials when such facilities are not readily available to consumers. They may also be used to identify the need for management controls in the production, shipment, storage and distribution systems of such materials as well as waste disposal problems. By and large, the producers of such materials maintain excellent controls which preclude hazardous conditions in the production processes. Less-skilled competency is available once these materials most into the commerce and consumer distribution systems. The list of hazardous materials developed in this study is presented in Table II-6 along with the SIC codes identifying the basic producing and using industries, and the annual production figures, where available. The production figures given as "10" indicate less than 10 million pounds total annual production. 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Z u. u O — I i a z u. u _i o z. u. i- > U < ? « X - I •- J »- t- _i i a u. — u. U. li-U.C»Z <-> ZS (JQTCi-U. C <- Z U-CU-VH-lKC. -C. --- T — T 2 fc- _j ?•_;•->-— t-t-cii-u. t— _j«^u,uja>- u- n < a •«•-«« c H- U.U._jaZZ«l/lU.Q.l/1h-CU.'"'22Q:»"« UJ_IZ— b-UjCZa XI KKK»-U.'CUCC sTstst-stsJ-J >} 11-37 ------- LIST OF REFERENCES 1. Standard Industrial Classification Manual, Executive Office of the President, Bureau of the Budget, Office of Statistical Standards, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967. 2. Design of an Overview System for Evaluating the Public Health Hazards of Chemicals in the Environment, G.A. Lutz et al., Battelle Memorial Institute, for the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-194-398, July 1967. 3. Study of Health Effects of Air Pollution Related to Solid Wastes, B. Linsky, Final Report, 1969. 4. 1969 Analysis of Accident Reports Involving Fire, U. S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Motor Carrier Safety, 1970. 5. Hazard Survey of the Chemical and Allied Industries, American Insurance Association, Division of Technical Services Engineering and Safety Department, Technical Survey No, 3, 1968. 6. Dangerous Chemicals Code, Los Angeles Fire Department, Parker & Sons, Inc., 1951. 7. Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, N.I. Sax et al., Reinhold Book Corp., Third Edition, 1968. 8. Laboratory Waste Disposal Manual, Manufacturing Chemists Association, May 1970. 9. Toxicity of Industrial Metals, Dr. E. Browning, Butterworth and Co., Ltd., Second Edition, 1969. 11-38 ------- 10. Ground Disposal of Pesticides: The Problem and Criteria for Guidelines, Working Group on Pesticides, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-197-144, Report WGP-DR-1, March 1970. 11. Air Pollution Aspects of Pesticides, Litton Systems, Inc., for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-091, September 1969. 12. Accident Prevention Manual for Industrial Operations, National Safety Council, Sixth Edition, 1969. 13. Control of Spillage of Hazardous Polluting Substances, G.W. Dawson et al., Pacific Northwest Laboratories, for the U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Quality Administration, November 1, 1970. 14. Criteria for Selection of Elements and Compounds to be Designated as Hazardous Polluting Substances, C.H. Thompson, Environmental Protection Agency, Division of Oil and Hazardous Materials, October 22, 1971. 15. "List of Toxic Substances, " The Bureau of National Affairs, Inc., Occupational Safety and Health Reports, Reference File, 1971. 16. Chemical Safety References, National Safety Council, Chemical Section, 1968. 17. Evaluation of the Hazard of Bulk Water Transportation of Industrial Chemicals - A Tentative Guide, the Committee on Hazardous Materials Advisory to the U. S. Coast Guard, National Research Council, 1970. 18. Occupational Safety and Health Standards, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, 1971. 19. Designation of Hazardous Substances, Notice of Proposed Rule Making, Environmental Protection Agency, Pub. 18CFR, Part 618, May 14, 1971. 11-39 ------- 20. Consolidated Hazardous Item List, U.S. Department of Defense, Navy Fleet Material Support Office, Pub. 4500, COG 1 Stock No. 0588-005-000, October I, 1969. 21. Veterinary Toxicology, R.D. Radeleff, D.V.M., Lea & Febiger, 1964. II-40 ------- III. QUANTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTES ------- III. QUANTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTES 1. INTRODUCTION This chapter presents estimates of the amounts of wastes produced in the various industrial sectors and limited geographic locations. Estimates have been made necessary because of the nearly complete lack of data describing waste quantities in the literature. With the exception of radioactive waste data available from Atomic Energy Commission reports, the literature is silent on the subject of hazardous waste quantities. The reasons for this situation are many, but principal among them are: Historically, there has been no interest or objective in quantifying waste amounts of specific materials, with the exception of radioactive wastes, which are subject to a stringent control system. For certain materials, such as pesticides and herbicides, the utilization and disposal cycles were one and the same, but geographic location data were not recorded. In nearly all waste disposal processes, whether industrial, governmental, or domestic, materials being wasted are thrown together and become streams of mixed wastes. Predisposal treatment, where employed at all, has been applied to a limited number of waste stream characteristics, rather than to characteristics of specific materials. The impact of the latter two factors above on the hazardous waste quantification problem cannot be overstated. The difficulties imposed can be made more apparent when it is noted that mixed waste streams: Can have hazardous materials as inputs Are not analyzed in detail, if at all III-l ------- Might be chemically indeterminate, as a result of unknown reactions Might exhibit some, all, or none of the characteristics of individual input materials Might become hazardous through combinations of non- hazardous input materials. Investigation of the overall problem of quantifying waste hazardous materials has to consider the problem of disposing of such materials in their pure (or relatively pure) form, as well as in waste streams. Many of these materials are created as (or in) marketable products not meant to be wasted, yet for various reasons (shelf-life, contamination, etc.) at some time become wastes. In such cases, someone has to declare them no longer needed and thus ready for disposal. This waste quantification problem is compared to the mixed waste quantification problem in Figure III-l. The result is that in order to present waste quantity estimates, it has also been necessary in this study to develop calculation methods for estimating purposes. Most of the calculations that have been made are based on waste generation as a function of production (e. g. , pounds of waste per thousand pounds of production). In some cases, these general waste quantification factors appeared in the literature. When such factors were not obtainable in literature references, values were calculated from the best available data. Derivation of these factors for industries which are relatively homogenous (e. g. , textiles) provides a reasonable factor estimate for the industry as a whole. Other industries are so diverse that derivation of general quantification factors for the industry is unrealistic. This is especially true of the chemical industry, with its great diversity (many thousands of processes, products, and their combinations). The chemical industry factors were separately derived from results of a 1967 survey conducted by the Manufacturing Chemists Association. The waste quantification data is presented in three ways: Total wasteloads of various industries in each of the 50 largest Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSA) and in each of the 50 states III-2 ------- FIGURE 1-1 The Hazardous Materials Waste Quantification Problem RAW MATERIALS PRODUCTION PROCESSES MIXED PRODUCTION WASTES (B) FINISHED PRODUCTS DISTRIBUTION QUANTITIES DECLARED WASTE AT ANY ONE TIME OR PLACE (A) RANDOM, NON-QUANTIFIABLE POTENTIALLY QUANTIFIABLE, WITH WASTE STREAM ANALYSIS III-3 ------- Estimates of commonly-known mixed, potentially hazardous, waste streams generated by various industries, with breakdowns of specific hazardous materials, where such data is available Reported quantities of hazardous and potentially hazardous wastes from the Department of Defense, Atomic Energy Commission, and the mining industry. It must be borne in mind that these discussions and the quantity estimating methods are generalized, referring to entire industries. In some industries, the production processes and materials used change frequently, so general estimating methods produce results that are only indicators rather than facts, and should be utilized in that light. Further, the methods and results cannot be extrapolated to individual plants, since all plants in an industry do not produce the same products, nor do they all utilize the same processes. This is mitigated to some extent in the relatively homogenous industries, but in any case, caution is the byword in application of these data. 2. PRODUCTION QUANTITIES OF HAZARDOUS'MATERIALS The data which has been developed provides limited information as to the number of pounds of specific hazardous waste compounds which are produced in each geographic area. Such information may be impossible to produce completely, since it involves, at minimum: consideration of great numbers of water waste streams whose toxicity or other hazards might not be related to specific compounds, product wastes from a wide variety of industrial and consumer sources, toxic substances which have become intermingled with solid waste trash and municipal sewage, and finally, no knowledge as to whether threshold concentrations had been reached or if susceptible populations were present. The best estimation of the total amount of any particular compound is, of course, the amount produced. Determinations as to the amounts which will enter waste streams must be made for each compound. Many are converted to nontoxic compounds. Others are neutralized. Still others may remain toxic and be widely distributed intentionally (pesticides), while residual amounts of many compounds may enter few or many municipal waste streams. Only specific life-cycle studies III-4 ------- FIGURE 1-1 The Hazardous Materials Waste Quantification Problem RAW MATERIALS PRODUCTION PROCESSES MIXED PRODUCTION WASTES (B) FINISHED PRODUCTS DISTRIBUTION QUANTITIES DECLARED WASTE AT ANY ONE TIME OR PLACE (A) RANDOM, NON-QUANTIFIABLE POTENTIALLY QUANTIFIABLE, WITH WASTE STREAM ANALYSIS III-3 ------- Estimates of commonly-known mixed, potentially hazardous, waste streams generated by various industries, with breakdowns of specific hazardous materials, where such data is available Reported quantities of hazardous and potentially hazardous wastes from the Department of Defense, Atomic Energy Commission, and the mining industry. It must be borne in mind that these discussions and the quantity estimating methods are generalized, referring to entire industries. In some industries, the production processes and materials used change frequently, so general estimating methods produce results that are only indicators rather than facts, and should be utilized in that light. Further, the methods and results cannot be extrapolated to individual plants, since all plants in an industry do not produce the same products, nor do they all utilize the same processes. This is mitigated to some extent in the relatively homogenous industries, but in any case, caution is the byword in application of these data. 2. PRODUCTION QUANTITIES OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS The data which has been developed provides limited information as to the number of pounds of specific hazardous waste compounds which are produced in each geographic area. Such information may be impossible to produce completely, since it involves, at minimum: consideration of great numbers of water waste streams whose toxicity or other hazards might not be related to specific compounds, product wastes from a wide variety of industrial and consumer sources, toxic substances which have become intermingled with solid waste trash and municipal sewage, and finally, no knowledge as to whether threshold concentrations had been reached or if susceptible populations were present. The best estimation of the total amount of any particular compound is, of course, the amount produced. Determinations as to the amounts which will enter waste streams must be made for each compound. Many are converted to nontoxic compounds. Others are neutralized. Still others may remain toxic and be widely distributed intentionally (pesticides), while residual amounts of many compounds may enter few or many municipal waste streams. Only specific life-cycle studies III-4 ------- which are made compound by compound for, say, 10-15 compounds initially, will provide accurate distribution patterns and reasonable estimates of the geographic distribution of residual quantities. Where production data are available, they have been included in the hazardous material listing in Chapter II (Table II-6, page 11-29), developed from the punched-card data records developed during this study. 3. TOTAL WASTE LOAD ESTIMATES Utilizing the general waste quantification factors, data indicating total wasteloads of various industries have been computed for those industries in the 50 largest SMSAs, accounting for about 60 percent of industrial production, and for the 50 states, accounting for all domestic production. Initially, it was planned to develop the data for each of the nation's 230 SMSAs, but it was discovered that many chemical plants and other production facilities are located outside such metropolitan areas. These conditions apply particularly to the smaller SMSAs. The value added in manufacture was the scaling factor used to convert ratios of pounds of waste to pounds of product, to pounds of waste by industry by SMSA or by state. This was done by first relating the production output to the value added and then by relating the pounds of waste/1000 pounds of product to the production-value- added ratios. The quantity estimates which have been prepared in this manner provide estimates as to the relative amounts of waste which are produced in each geographic area. They are most accurate in depicting the relative amounts produced in each geographic area. They are likely to be most inaccurate if used to predict the waste output from a single facility. The difficulties in arriving at accurate estimates for use in projecting gross quantities are manifold. A graphic display of the results of these difficulties is shown in Table III-l, which compares predictions made by two separate studies, one by Combustion Engineering for the Solid Waste Management Office and the other by the California Department of Public Health. These two studies separately estimated solid waste quantities for all the manufacturing industries. The vast differences between results of the two studies, demonstrate the lack of consistent quantitative data. Ill-5 ------- Table III-l Comparison of Solid Waste Estimates SIC Industry 19 Ordnance and Accessories 20 Food and Kindred Products 21 Tobacco Manufacture 22 Textile Mill Products 23 Apparel and Textile Products 24 Lumber and Wood Products 25 Furniture and Fixtures 26 Paper and Allied Products 27 Printing and Publishing 28 Chemicals and Allied Products 29 Petroleum and Coal Products 30 Rubber and Plastics Products 31 Leather and Leather Products 32 Stone, Clay and Glass Products 33 Primary Metal Industries 34 Fabricated Metal Products 35 Machinery, Except Electrical 36 Electrical Equipment and Supplies 37 Transportation Equipment 38 Instruments and Related Products 39 Miscellaneous Manufacturing (!' Technical-Economic Study of Solid W Volume II, Industrial Inventory, Con U.S. Department of Health, Educatic Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific Report SW-7c, Pub. PB-187-712, 1£ &) California Solid Waste Planning Stud} Health, 1969. Waste in Million Pounds per Year (Total U. S. ) Combustion Engineering Study (1) 711 14,260 813 2, 158 719 76, 107 3,877 10, 189 15,221 6,048 1, 148 4, 927 6, 325 4, 915 3, 503 7, 660 3,047 3,479 1, 665 1, 696 aste Disposal Needs E bustion Engineering, n and Welfare, Public and Technical Inform 69. rt California Departm California Study {2 > NA 43,880 — 340 650 137, 660 430 2, 550 1,030 5,050 5,800 2, 690 2, 830 9,800 3, 300 8,400 4, 640 3, 080 nd Practices, Inc. , for the Health Service, ition, Pub. 1886 ent of Public ; III-6 ------- The area waste generation calculations are augmented by data of various types which relate to specific compounds. These data are contained in the Appendices (Volumes II and III) describing the various industries, which provide a single source of information for useful data compiled from a variety of sources. Two basic parameters were developed to estimate the quantity of waste material produced in each industrial sector. The first is an estimate of pounds of waste produced per thousand pounds of product, or an equivalent ratio. The second is the value added by the manufacture of an equivalent amount of production. (1) Value Added as a Measure of Production Value added by manufacture is derived by subtracting the total cost of materials, (including materials, supplies, fuel, electric energy, cost of resales and miscellaneous receipts), from the value of shipments (including resales) and other receipts, and adjusting the resulting amount by the net change in finished products and work-in-process inventories between the beginning and end of the year. The value of shipment is net selling value, f. o.b. plant, after discounts and allowances and excluding freight charges and excise tax. The value added factor is considered by the Department of Commerce to be the best value measure available for comparing the relative economic importance of manufacturing among industries and geographic areas. The value added figure provides the measure for industrial activity and for indices of industrial production, productivity, and price, all of which are essential for estimating industrial waste production. The other measures, such as number of employees and value shipped, have been used by other studies. These measures have some inherent flaws which make value added the desired factor. The number of employees factor cannot be applied to seasonal industries because the number of employees data is collected for one given period and does not consider changes in employment during the year. The value added figure also avoids duplication in the value of shipments figure, which results from the inclusion of the shipments of establishments producing materials and components, along with the shipments of establishments producing finished products. Ill-7 ------- (2) Waste Production Factors Waste production factors are multipliers which can be applied to production data of a particular industry in a given geographic location for estimating waste quantity. As pointed out earlier, the value added has been considered a good measure of production. Therefore, the waste production factors have been developed such that they can be directly multiplied by the value added figure for any given industry to determine the amount of waste produced by the industry. The major products and the manufacturing processes of the selected industries were studied and are reported in Appendix A. The literature study of these industries resulted in derivation of values indicating amount of waste generated per 1, 000 pounds of product (WPPP). The WPPP values for the selected industries are listed in Column (2) of Table III-2, and their data sources are listed in Column (5). To derive waste factors, the WPPP for each industry was divided by the dollar value added per thousand pounds of product (VAPP) listed in Column (3). Waste factors are given in Column (4). Thus: WPPP _ Ib. waste/1, OOP Ib. product _ pounds waste VAPP ~ $ value added/I, 000 Ib. product $ and: Pounds waste $ x Total $ value added = Total Ib. waste. This method for computing the waste factors was not used for the chemical industry. The waste streams from the various types of chemical plants differ extensively because of the great variety of products which are produced. Instead, data from the 1967 survey of members of the Manufacturing Chemists Asso- ciation (MCA) was used. This survey showed the amount of waste produced by the plants, which were surveyed in each state, and the total employees in these plants. From this information, the total annual waste produced per employee was computed for each state. The data used for this calculation were based on the "estimated amount of waste if no treatment or control measures were in use. " Therefore, the waste quantities are the totals produced by the industry, and are more than the amount of waste discharged to the environment. According to III-8 ------- Table III-2 Computation of Waste Factors SIC Industry Col. (1) 20 Food Industry 201 Meat Products 203 Canned Foods 208 Beverages 2261 Finishing Cotton 2262 Finishing Synthetics 2231 Finishing Wool aeO 265H?ulp, Paper and Paperboard Mills 263] 266J 28 Chemical Industry 2812 Alkalis and Chlorine 282 Plastic Materials and Synthetics 2821 Plastic Materials and Resins 2822 Synthetic Rubber 2823 Cellulosic Manmade Fibers . 2824 Organic Fibers, Noncellulosic 2871 Fertilizers 29 Petroleum and Coal Products 2911 Petroleum Refining 3111 Leather Tanning and Finishing 3292 Asbestos Products 331 Primary Metal Industries 3312 Blast Furnaces and Steel Mills 333 Primary Nonferrous Metals 3331 Primary Copper 3332 Primary Lead 3333 Primary Zinc 3334 Primary Aluminum WPPP Waste (Ibs per 1000 Ibs. of Product Col. (2) NA 52 NA 720 299 1872 975 X" (see Tat 800 143 30 31 36 35 950 3.7 3. 7 650 87000 72. 5 72. 5 1250 3000 159 177. 5 910 VAPP Value ($) Added per 1000 Ibs. of Product Col. (3) NA 58.5 NA 160 180 950 50 le VI- 2) 70 31 102 93 373 260 20. 5 3.95 3.95 278 8 40.3 40. 3 112.5 91. 3 49. 7 55.5 128.5 WPPP/V-APF (#/$) Waste Factor Col. (4) 1.42 0.89 4.20 0.20 4. 50 1.66 1.97 1.95 11.40 0. 22 0.30 0. 33 0. 10 0. 14 46.20 0. 96 0. 96 2. 34 Neg. 1.80 1.80 11. 10 33.00 3.2 3.2 7. 1 Data Source Col. (5) 1,2,3 4 5,6,7,8, 9, 10 11, 12, 13 14, 13 11, 13 15 16 17 18, 19 18, 19 18, 19 18, 19 18, 19 20 21, 22, 23 21, 22, 23 24, 25 26 27, 28 27, 28 29 29 29 29 29, 30 (1) NA—Not applicable. The waste factors shown in Column (5) were not computed, but obtained directly from the literature. \| (2) Neg. —Negligible. The value added factor is so low that the computation of a waste factor on that basis would be misleading. III-9 ------- the MCA, waterborne inorganic and organic effluents were reduced by 27 percent and 57 percent respectively through treat- ment, and the airborne wastes were reduced by 65 percent. Table III-3 shows the total annual waste per employee, the total number of employees, and value added by the chemical industry in each state. Waste factors were developed by multiplying the waste per employee factors by total number of employees, then dividing by the total value added. The range of waste factors shown in the table vary from 0. 65 for Indiana to 63. 9 for Arkansas. The waste factors for the states of Arkansas and Florida are high because they include large amounts of fertilizer, mining and processing wastes. The average waste factor applicable over the whole United States was computed without using the factors for these two states. (3) Computation of Waste Quantities Quantities of wastes were computed by multiplying the value added by the waste factors. Tables III~4 and III-5 show the computed quantities of waste produced by each of the signi- ficant industries in the 50 states and the 50 largest SMSAs, respectively. (4) Sources of Data The two types of data used in quantification of wastes are industry production data and waste production data. 1. Industry Data Value added figures used in the computations were taken from the 1967 Census of Manufactures. Dun and Bradstreet data files were also considered as an alter- native source, but were not used due to the relative difficulty of their direct application compared with that of the Bureau of Census data. 2. Waste Production Data An intensive literature search and interviews with people in industry uncovered few data sources which identified and quantified the waste from different industries. Ill-10 ------- Table III-3 Chemical Industry Waste Factors State Alabama Arizona (also includes Utah Nevada, New Mexico, Oklahoma) Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Idaho (also includes Minnesota, Montana) Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine (also includes New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont) Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Mississippi • Missouri New Jersey New York North Carolina Ohio Oregon Pennsylvania South Carolina Tenne^::ee Texas Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Annual Total Waste Per Employee ton/employee year x 103 0.052 0.074 0.756 0.178 0.013 0.023 0.070 0.69 0.133 0.250 0.253 0.011 0. Ill 0.023 0.118 • 0.367 0.011 0.090 0.017 0.151 0.029 0.091 0.052 0.091 0. 159 0. 141 0.051 0.023 0.009 0.116 0. 105 0. 138 0.023 0.082 0.010 All ir{io)ees (1000) 11.7 3.9 4. 1 42.0 1. 9 11.5 9.4 20.7 11.7 13.1 57.-'. 94.7 5.3 10.1 13.3 19. 1 4.9 17.6 17.0 37.2 5.2 22.3 97.3 63.4 17.7 47. 7 2.0 49. 5 19.9 52.1 47.9 40.9 6.4 22.5 0.5 Value Added (million $) 418.2 77.4 96.9 116.7 61. 1 378.8 263.1 466.1 308.1 435. 1 1565.8 832. 9 243.6 276.3 391.6 679.5 74.3 422.5 367. 1 1039.6 157.5 545.8 2822. 1 1639.7 370.6 1358.6 50.8 1361. 1 474.6 1155.5 2076.7 762.0 166.0 836.3 257.4 Waste (million tons) 0.608 0.289 3.099 7.476 0.025 0.265 0.658 14.283 1.556 3. 275 14.522 0.272 0. 588 0. 232 1.569 7.010 0.054 1.584 2.89 5.617 0. 151 2.029 5.060 5.769 2.814 6. 726 0. 102 1. 139 0. 179 6.044 5.030 5. 644 0. 147 1.85 0.095 108.65 Waste Factor #/$ Value Added 2.91 7.46 63.95 13.39 0.81 1.40 5.00 61.29 10. 10 15.05 18.55 0.65 4.83 1.68 8.02 20.63 1.45 7.50 - 1.57 0.81 1. 91 7.44 3.59 7.04 15. 19 9.90 4.02 1.67 0. 76 10.46 4.84 14.81 1.77 4.41 0. 74 III-11 ------- ------- g ------- 'of Table III-5 Waste Quantities Produced by Industry by Geographic Location 50 Largest Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas (In Million Pounds Per Year) OO m o OOOoo mo o «N * r- >o O O O O O «o O «o o »n SO < —, . O o o >sO 30— —• —" 00 — f-4 OS V 1 w-i _ _- _ gi^l o — (N O O wi «o 2 S ^ "^ § u •a O o £ z: »1 >• z u 1 .= s S -5 « ^"•»3.j' !\|J11; = « 3 ill: i'g Zl iT «-•' O O "" ni>ai "" ' I Z^ c a" .SJ !^ii ^: jii u ^n 2 5 s -2 ^o' 111 Ut 'rf&J l^i ------- Most of the data available were in terms of quantity of waste discharged to aquatic environment. The industrial waste studies sponsored by EPA were heavily used, along with information provided by the trade associations. The references used are listed at the end of this chapter. (5) Assumptions Used in Estimating Waste Some assumptions made during the process of estimating waste quantities are applicable to all the industries, while others apply specifically to a single industry. 1. Overall General Assumptions The two major assumptions generally applicable to all the industries are: Technology within an industry is homogeneous and does not change according to geographic location, therefore a single waste factor can be used to compute amount of waste across the country. Industry production data used are for the year 1967. Therefore, the waste quantities estimated are for that year, but these estimates can be used for the present level of industry, since the changes in production quantity and improvements in waste reduction technology are assumed to offset each other. 2. Specific Assumptions Applicable to Industries Some of the assumptions used to compute waste quantities for specific industries are presented in this section. Food Industry—Canning waste does not include those wastes left in the field from harvesting, which are considered agricultural wastes. Meat processing waste does not include hair and blood which are routinely collected and sold, as by-products. Also, wastes from stockyards and pens are not included in the wastes considered here. Ill-15 ------- Textile Industry—The wastes included in this study are only those from wet finishing oper- ations: the fiberous wastes from dry processing, knitting and weaving, etc., are not included. Pulp, Paper, and Paperboard Industry—The paper and wood chips waste from wood cutting and cleaning are not considered. The wastes from pulp, paper, and paperboard-making are the ones accounted for in this study. Further, the by-products made from the black liquor are not included. Fertilizers—Wastes produced in mining of phosphates are considered as mining waste and therefore do not add to fertilizer industry wastes. Petroleum Products Industry— Brines from the earth are pumped back to earth. Therefore, the brines do not contribute to the potentially hazardous wastes of this industry. Primary Nonferrous Metals—Mining operation wastes are not considered to be waste from this industry, but from the mining industry. (6) Reasons for Presenting Data by 50 States and 50 SMSAs The quantities of waste produced by the industries have been computed for all the 50 states, and for the 50 largest SMSAs. Presenting waste data by the 50 states provides full coverage of the whole United States, while presenting the data by SMSA isolates the waste location to a small geographic area. The SMSA data is computed for only the 50 largest SMSAs for three reasons: first, all 231 SMSAs represent only about 75 percent of the total manufacturing industry; second, the detailed value added figures for the smaller SMSAs are not collected by the Bureau of Census; and third, some states with smaller SMSAs had as little as 15 percent of the value added industries within the SMSA. Ill-16 ------- (7) Other Quantitative Data Other quantitative data helpful to an understanding of the problems associated with waste generation and disposal are interspersed throughout the report. Each of the industrial descriptions contained in Appendix A provides information as to: Relative size of the industrial sector Number of establishments and geographic distribution Economic data as to size of establishments and number of employees Growth patterns. Many of the industrial sector descriptions contain additional data relating to the products made, processes used and wastes produced. Special studies which contain detailed data of signi- ficant value are also referenced in these descriptions. 4. ESTIMATES OF COMMONLY KNOWN MIXED WASTE STREAMS. WITH BREAKDOWNS OF SPECIFIC HAZARDOUS MATERIALS Among the various industries, certain production processes are in use which produce mixed wastes that are also similar throughout these industries. Over the years, many of these mixed waste streams have come to be known by common or "trade" names, which generally refer to their color, appearance, odor, etc. While such waste streams have seldom been analyzed in detail or subjected to continuous analysis, at least parts of their make-up have been identified and reported in the literature. During the course of this study, it was found that some of these commonly-known waste streams do have as inputs, at least some of the materials that have been designated as hazardous. In a few instances, data were obtained which not only gave waste stream quantity generation as a function of production, but also provided some measure of specific materials that might typically be contained. III-17 ------- Where such data were available, they have been extracted and tabulated. The waste stream quantities and the specific hazardous materials contained have been extrapolated to produce estimates, on a regional geographic basis, for certain industries. (1) Methodology for Estimating Waste Streams and Specific Hazardous Material Quantities The literature referencing the industrial sectors within the scope of the study was surveyed to obtain available infor- mation for quantitatively correlating the list of hazardous substances with industrial wastes. These wastes are generally not homogeneous. Rather, in each waste a complex mix of specific components are found. A given chemical, identified as hazardous, is most often to be found in such a situation. The procedure used in accomplishing this task was, in sequence: Identify the waste source by industrial sector Identify the waste stream and the component(s) in the stream that are correlatable to the list of hazardous substances Develop quantity estimates of the production, in industrial waste, of each identifiable hazardous substance, using whatever quantification factors are available in the literature, i.e., percentages or ratios of each substance in the waste stream were used directly from the literature. A set of tables across the various industrial sectors were developed using these procedures (Table III-6). A general comment is that the hazardous waste quantities indicated present boundary, or "ballpark, " figures of production rates of these unwanted substances. A further note of explanation is that often the literature reports a component in simple terms, such as "chromium, " even though the more accurate expression might be "dichromate". In assigning identification numbers from the list of hazardous substances to specific waste components, the following ground rules were used: III-18 ------- CO o -a o ra a oS OJ S-, CO 0) to o5 £ rt CJ ------- a> 3 .3 u I 3 t t : 3 3 i h ! : £ t 1 S" £ £ K SI 2s Is South E Souln W. South Aikntlc cenfftl centnl Tout Divtiion DtvUion DivlUon \| Mi * <3 s j 3 a HI SB «11 «i\| g = z 3 ANTlnCATION TORS 3; i s sl ss s < •< X a D£SCRItTIDN J H 8 I si 521S SI ~ s I =1 I'll SI 1 s I ill fills* -ISiilsg SI 22" S3- * • B~ •"* "'S S I !illsslsllls? ISseSl « / g o X » w ^ w 0- - eJ - S 1 \|\| S\|?°-\| 11 g l§Si I~IS"* « 2 -' " S z z » s i i II 11 isfss-s ss — s s s-" i •n S S g S ^ $ °§ S £ § * S " S 2 S w w -» S 5 »" * - 1 1 SI SS 0 « « »' s 1 1 11 SI 1 = i i II ii 11 118s ilsl I i ~ i ilgs\|s s s "' - « s -' * •' a "' " = - "' s * ~ s I i is i\t\ti \iss\is \t\s 1 1 1 1 1 11 llllll Illllll Illill 33 -' - - _• - 3 - 3 - - 3 - - - 2 - _' 3 - « « 3 - 1 1, i! i'i!iii!iiujuSjuo jooj»o X&...4C..UC fl < u.ft ..A ..a a . . . a . sSs si 2S SS S § SiS sis 55=1 i=5 S , J I 1 « * ' .1 i 1 -s s 11 \|u s ^ s ti is 'i 3\| \|l III • t« ?« u \l '! n \u\ ii 111 ii it 11 il s?i \|\|\|l tl III h If Ii il iff il III-20 ------- CD a T) 0) u O i £ 3 z S P E ^s « i 5 z fe? 2 - J H 9? « 3 "1 S z p " s H J i ASTE SO1 a H u c 2 g S c c S I 5 ™ £ § \| \| 3 i s -£ ™ § I 5 \| * i 3 =25 \| 5 fsf z c ; 3 ^ Q III S£ ^ e i i S 55 S » Q 3 c £ 6 ^ £ - , ? ™ < S 1 f- 1 1 DES( RIPTIl ^ZARDOLS I I X a -£. 2 1 Q S III <<<•§•! - S ^- n « z Z z V S S S S S z z z ill « < i 1 1 S i -•" 22^2 2 2 .<§§§ S S Z Z Z o •" " g\|\| «<§!! S 1 «CJ ZZZ1" " M lls « < i s 1 § 1 Z 2 Z « « •» 11 ,„ , 1 1 i ° 1 1 1 i s 1 -i Z Z !§•«< 1s 1 " I II, < < ss 1 1 I z z z -)• * o> g g g % g « g " " * ^ z °" " »' S 00 ZZ Z 3 " 3 ill mi i ii ;§ i ii § i i , . „. ^^ . ff S£ s ^ * f i * ll\|llllll\|\|-\|\| \| 1 1 1 § , -s--,-~;..^s_;_" -"s -" s - 1 _ ^ § gS-fs.S.?\|s.8. If l,,? g ill !if" i!! si 1 ?i ? S ! I !l i 1 L I l,i,. 2 F" a « S a-sS" 32 SiSa ji^=^ =». "Ill = .^ 4= 1 «: 3 is \|a \| i!§! \|\|\| i\|\| r \|l 11 1 Jl IIj- \|l. \| l-»\|5il 3 1- IKE £ •» S S i 1 ,i X --g y S 1 I l , i i i §1 I Ii i i i 1 I I 1 i \| \| I Hi 111-21 ------- CO (U .3 U Ml Si^S hii = 11 n g g i g g 8 I 1s - 3 £ £ ^:2 31 5 lst£f 3 ,i a . 2 a s M 111-22 ------- T3 0) 3 G O U I.I si IS I ss lil " s * 2 III gas. 3 3 ;« g g g g ; f ur> t- ss , ; 5 a ; \| -S II M g i Illll? 5ll-lli « 6 I la m-23 ------- T3 0> 3 0) 233 \| « "in! i. Oijilii MI i! itt iH U,,.!!! !s .,hJl - 5 g S I = SjSSSSSiSSSSSS83!Sl£:S3; 111-24 ------- il.I Js 5 S a! ll: 111 >!!L ;s\| l 0) T3 0) 3 .3 4-2 « O U sill .? i £££££££ * \| \| S 8 \| S °o °. °. °- °. S ! I 5-^^fc 6 ™o=2 » IP Ills i 'l,^1 g U. « v, - ., s I! t a s 3 II II m-25 ------- a) d H .3 o-» £3 O RE South W. south entral Central ivnion Dlvlllon i tlantic iviiion W Central SCRIP RDOUS 8f g g g"o o'« a" -e S88S --- ill! 8 g S S S g I U " s S - < ="5 . ! i! S 2 S SX III-2 6 ------- CD 0) TJ QJ 1 -4-J a o U a S c i B i {- £ < 91 6 g . REGION . g i? si J i \|z X K I 1 i o i s 2 ^ ! i o S 5? S B tl 1 ° 3 iji e - 8 * f i u S ° III a g Us isl i i § " ss I Jt s 2 * ^ 3 1 = 5 3 ^ Q S? a u 81 o •< z Q "" a t H ! § 1 \| 1 s 3 — e "2 si I Miili1 iiiii i\|l I II J ^ 1 s:.! =.111 il\| 11 ill isl I 11 I.!;!,,* s S . J "2 4! J §• y iiS, j?jfi^i«st ii hi li i i tis^ _gg:«g-l-1KS'5.^U^JU=U'JU c i ^ s ^ ^ . . a. a Q A S3 SSSSS5S ! P SS22! S 2 S 2 is C J J : : ! ! « 8 J If " ! ! 1 S J 3 j! s II i J S 111-27 ------- Cations (such as heavy metals) are referenced to the chloride or sulfate salt, unless a salt is more precisely identified. Example: often "copper" is reported in the literature; "copper sulfate" is referenced. Anions (such as cyanide or sulfide) are referenced to the sodium salt, unless more precisely identified. "Chromium" is referenced to "Chromic sulfate" or "sodium chromate, " depend unless otherwise identified. "sodium chromate, " depending on the process, "Phenols" are referenced to "phenol", unless a specific phenol derivative is noted. "Organic chlorides" are referenced to a prevalent component in the mixture that is indicated on the list of hazardous materials. A continuing problem encountered in accomplishing this task is the scantiness of useful literature data. Even with an extensive survey such as this, lack of information is a limiting factor. In some cases, specific constituent materials have been identified, but no quantification factors were given. So long as the identity was supplied, it has been included in the waste stream constituency listing of Table III-6, to provide a "second level" of hazardous material/waste stream correlation. Table III-7 provides waste quantity data for the commercial explosives industry. (2) Geographic Areas In the preceding tables, the geographic areas have been limited to regions, rather than SMSAs and states. The regions indicated are standard U.S. regions as identified by the Bureau of the Census. The limitation of the waste streams and specific materials estimates to regions rather than smaller areas reflects the confidence place in the quantification factors which serve as the computational base. Again, it must be noted that whole 111-28 ------- Table III-7 Distribution, Locations and Volumes of Explosive Manufacturing Wastes ' Federal Region i 2 •* / 2 j 3 \| 3 4 j 5 j 5 / 7 j 1 8 8 1 10 l~77 / Quantities in pounds per day Waste Material Nitroglycerine &NG Mixtures Cont. Waste Packaging Combined Total Smokeless Powder Cont. Packaging Combined Total Industrial Exp. & Prop. Cont. Packaging Combined Total Primer Materials & Caps Cont. Packaging Combined Total Regional Total r2 - - - - - - - - - i i 2 2 / & - - - 1000 3 2003 20 - 20 220 650 870 3000 / #' - - 830 - - — 125 750 1705 - - 415 2950 1 * 800 800 1600 - - - - - - - - - 1600 f ^ 125 200 325 - - — _ - - 5 2 7 330 1 • / 03 10 - 10 - - - 100 1000 1100 - - - 1110 / o 15 - 15 - - - - - - X - X 15 + / oa JS 200 150 1000 - - - - - 48 - . - 1050 10 - 10 - - - 50 250 300 - - - 310 / - - - - - - - - - - - 5 5 / & , 525 750 1275 - - - - - - - - - 1275 X - Materials detonated; quantity unspecified. Notes: (1) Combined totals exceed sums of specified parts due to variance in reports from firms. (2) This table represents reports from four major firms, only, and is not a complete inventory of rates of generation or locations; 6000 other plant operations are treated in a subsequent section. Institute of Makers of Explosives, 420 Lexington Avenue, New York. ni-29 ------- industries are being considered here, not individual plants, and the credibility limits of the approach taken are such that produc- tion of this type of estimates on a more localized basis is not justified. The results should be viewed as points of departure for future research rather than factual representations. Until reliable waste stream analyses are made at very specific locations, this situation will remain unchanged. For future research purposes, it will be necessary to match the industries, according to SIC code, first to the states included in each region, then to specific plant locations, to determine the actual extent of production of the waste streams and specific materials contained. The data availability problem is also demonstrated by the regional quantity data of Table III-6, in that the breakdown figures do not add up to the totals. The reasons are that: Independent estimates were made for waste streams, compounds, and regional totals, based on Census of Manufactures production data In several cases, production data is not available in the Census of Manufactures Some errors result from data interpretation Some errors result from rounding-off in a series of computations. Since only a limited number of hazardous materials (by name) could be correlated with waste streams, there remains the problem of assisting future research efforts by providing Gome form of correlation that will at least aid in directing those efforts toward the appropriate industry sectors. This is discussed in the following section. 5. HAZARDOUS MATERIALS EXPECTED IN NQNIDENTIFIABLE WASTE STREAMS OF INDUSTRIAL MANUFACTURERS AND USERS The preceding tables have listed, to the extent possible based on literature data, the hazardous materials expected to appear in speci- fically identifiable waste streams where certain manufacturing processes 111-30 ------- and commonly named waste streams are known, and provide waste quantity estimates where waste stream makeup has been reported in literature. The literature data base is severely limited however, and there remain many hazardous materials that can reasonably be expected to be included in industrial waste streams, but where waste streams are not identifiable by common names from the literature. Further, waste generation rates, waste stream constituency and waste concentrations could not be documented, even though the literature data bank developed in this study is considered comprehensive. Direct correlation with specific waste streams, then, cannot be made. Rather, it can only be surmised that since certain industry groups are known principal manufacturers and users of the hazardous materials, the materials will appear in one or more of these industries' general waste streams. It is important as a minimum, therefore, to correlate the remaining hazardous materials with the industry groups as specifically as possible. In this way, useful information is provided which serves as guidance in identification and direction of needed further research related to the occurrence and quantification of hazardous materials in mixed waste streams. Since the locations of specific industry segments (plants) can be identified, research efforts can be directed toward determination of specific materials' manufacture and use, and thus potential point sources of hazardous wastes can be identified. Table III-8 lists the hazardous materials for which neither waste stream data nor quantifiaction data are available, and correlates those materials with SIC codes. Where a substance is heavily used or produced by a particular sector, specific codes, to the four-digit level, are given. Otherwise, two- or three-digit SIC reference is given. The inference is that these materials will be found in the general waste streams from those industry groups, and that further detailed research is needed to determine whether hazardous conditions are generated and the precise nature of such conditions. 111-31 ------- Table III-8 Hazardous Materials Expected in Waste Streams of Producers and Users I. D. Num. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 13 15 16 17 18 20 21 22 23 25 26 27 28 30 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 54 55 56 57 58 59 61 Substance (Common) Name Acetic Anhydride Acetone Acetone Cyanhydrin Acetonitrile (Methyl Cyanide) Acetyl Chloride Acetylene Acridine Acrolein Acrylic Acid Aldrin Allyl Chloride Aluminum Flouride Aluminum Oxide Aluminum Sulfate Ammonium Chloride Ammonium Chromate Ammonium Dichromate Ammonium Flouride Ammonium Perchlorate Ammonium Persulfate Ammonium Picrate (Dry) Ammonium Picrate (Wet) Amyl Acetate (Banana Oil) Aniline Anthracenes Antimony Antimony Pentachloride Antimony Pentafluouride Antimony Pentasulfide Antimony Potassium Tartrate Antimony Sulfate Antimony Sulfide Antimony Triethyl (Triethylstirme) Antimony Trichloride Antimony Trifluouride Antimony Trimethyl (Trimethylstirme) Antimony Trioxide Arsenic Arsenic Chloride Arsenic Diethyl Arsenic Dimethyl Arsenic Pentaselenide Arsenic Trichloride Arsenic Trioxide Barium Carbonate Barium Chloride Barium Cyanide Barium Fluoride Barium Nitrate Barium Sulfide Benzene Hexachloride Standard Industrial Code Significant Manufacturer and/or User Producer 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2813 2818 2818, 291 2818 2818, 291 2818 2819 3291 10, 14, 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2818 2815 2815 3339 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 3339 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2815 User 20, 26, 2818, 282, 36 28, 38 28 28 20, 28 28, 34 28 19, 28 22, 26, 28, 31 28 28 20, 28, 32, 33 28, 32 20, 22, 26, 31, 49 20, 28, 3692 22, 38 27, 28, 32, 38 20, 22, 24, 28, 32 28 20, 28, 34, 38 28 28 20, 22, 28, 39 2815, 2818, 30, 38 28 22, 28, 30, 32, 33 28 28 28, 30, 39 28 28, 39 28, 38, 39 28 28, 32 28, 32 28 28 28, 311 28 28 28 32 28, 32 22, 28, 31, 32 28, 32, 33 28 28, 34 28, 32, 36 28, 36, 39 28, 30 28 111-32 ------- Table III-8 (Continued) I. D. Num. 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 77 79 80 81 82 83 84 86 87 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 101 102 104 105 107 108 110 111 113 115 117 119 120 122 123 127 128 Substance (Common) Name Benzene Sulfonic Acid Benzoic Acid Benzyl Chloride Beryllium Carbonate Beryllium Chloride Beryllium Hydroxide Beryllium Oxide Beryllium Powder Beryllium Selenate Boron Trichloride Boron Trifluouride Bromic Acid Bromine Bromine Pentafluouride Butane Butene - 1 (Ethyl Ethylene) Butylacetate (Butyl Ethanoate) Butylacrylate N-Butylamine Butyl Mercaptan Butyl Phenol Cacodylic Acid (Dimethylarsinic Acid) Cadmium Cadmium Fluoride Cadmium Nitrate Cadmium Oxide Cadmium Phosphate Cadmium Potassium Cyanide Cadmium Sulfate Calcium Arsenate Calcium Arsenide Calcium Carbide Calcium Cyanide Calcium Hydride Calcium Hydrochlorite Carbon Disulfide Carbon Monoxide Carbon Chloride (Phosgene) Chloral Hydrate Chlorine Trifluoride Chloroacetophenone Chlorodene Chlorosulfonic Acid Chromic Fluouride Chromium Cyanide Coal (Particle) Cobaltous Nitrate Copper Acetoarsenite Creosote Cresol (Cresylic Acid) Standard Industrial Code Significant Manufacturer and /or User Producer 2815 2815 2815 2819 2819 2819 2819 33d9 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 3339 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2818 2818 2818 2812 2818 2818 2818 2819 2819 2819 2819 2815,2861 2821 User 28 28, 38 28 33 28 28 28, 32 33, 36 28 28, 33 28, 33 28 28 28 23, 29 28 22, 26, 28 28, 30 28 28 28 28 28, 34 36 28 28, 30, 32, 33 28 28, 347 28, 36 28 28, 33 22, 28 28 28 28 2823 20, 28, 33 28 28 29 28 28 22, 28, 32, 34 28, 3471 29 28, 32 24, 28 24, 28 20, 28, 33 111-33 ------- Table III-8 (Continued) I.D. Num. 129 130 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 no 171 173 174 175 176 177 179 180 181 182 183 Substance (Common) Name Crotonaldehyde Cumene (Isopropylbenzol) Cyanoacetic Acid Cyclohexane (Hexanhydrobenzene) Cyclohexanol (Hexalin) Cyclohexanone Cyclohexylamine Demeton Decyl Alcohol Dibutyl Pathalate-n o-Dichlorobenzene p - D ichlor obenz ene 2, 4-Dichlorophenoxyacetlc Acid (2, 4-D) ODD (Dichloro Diphenyl Dichloro Ethene) DDT (Dichloro Diphonyl- Trichloroethane) Diborane (Boron Hydride) Dichloroethyl Ether 1. 2-Dichloropropane 1. 3-Dichloropropene Dieldrin Diethanolamine Diethylamine Diethyl Ether (Ethyl Ether) Diethylene Dioxide (1, 4-Dioxane) Diethylene Triamine Diethylotilbestrol DHsobutylene Diisobutyl Ketone Dimethylamine Dimethyl Sulfate (Methyl Sulfate) 2. 4-Dinitroaniline o-Dinitrobenzol (1, 2-Dinitrobenzene) 2. 4-Dinitrophenol 2. 4-Dinitrotoluene (Dinltrotoluol) Diphenylamine (Phenylaniline) Dipropylene Glycol Dodecyl Benzene (Crude) Endrin Epichlorohydrin Ethane Ethanolamine (Monoethanolamine) Ethers Ethyl Acetate (Acetic Ether) Ethyl Acrylate Ethylamine (Monoethylamine) Ethyl Chloride (Chloroethane) Ethylene (Ethene) Ethylene Bromide (Ethylene Dibromide) Ethylene Cyanohydrin Ethylene Diamine Standard Industrial Code Significant Manufacturer and/ or UMT Producer 2818 2818 2818 2815 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2842,2879 2842,2879 2842,2879 2819 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2815 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 User 20, 28 28 28 28 28 28 30 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28, 29, 30 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 26, 26, 29 28, 34 28 28, 34 28 28 28 28 28 20, 28 28 22, 28, 29, 31 28 28 22, 26, 28, 31 20, 28 28 28 28, 29 28 28 HI-34 ------- Table III-8 (Continued) I. D. Num. 184 186 187 190 191 193 194 195' 197 198 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 213 214 215 217 219 220 222 223 225 226 227 229 230 231 232 233 236 237 238 239 240 241 243 244 245 246 248 249 250 251 Substance (Common) Name Ethylene Dtapomide. (Dibromethane) Ethylene Glycol (Glycol) Ethylene Glycol Monoethyl Ether Ethylenimine 2-Ethylhexamol (Octyl Alcohol) Ethyl Methyl Ketone (Butanone) Ethyl Phthalate (Diethyl O-Phthalate) 2-Ethyl-3Propyl Acrolein Fluorides ( e. g. , Hydrogen Fluoride, etc. ) Fluorine (Hydrofluoric Acid) Furfural Alcohol Guthion Heptalchor Heptane (Heptyl Hydride) Hexachlorophene (Methylene) Hexaethyltetraphosphate Hexamethylene Diamine Hexane (Hexyl Hydride) Hydrazine (Anhydrous Diamine) Hydrobromic Acid Hydrocyanic Acid (Hydrogen Cyanide) Hydrofluoric Acid (Hydrogen Fluoride) Hydrogen Chloride Anhydrous p-Hydroquinone Iodine Isobutyl Acetate Isophorone Isoprene Isopropyl Acetate Isopropyl Amine Isopropyl Ether Lead Acetate Lead Arsenate Lead Arsenite Lead Carbonate Lead Chlorite Lead Nitrite Lead Oxide Lithium Aluminum Hydride Magnesiumo-arsenite Magnesium Chlorate Magnesium Sulfate Manganese Manganese Arsenate Manganese Chloride Manganese Cyclorentadiehyltricarbonyl Mercuric Cyanide Mercuric Diammonium Chloride Mercuric Nitrate Mercuric Sulfate Standard Industrial Code Significant Manufacturer and /or User Producer 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2819 2819 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2819 2819 2819 2819 2815 2819 2818 2818 2822 2818 2818 2818 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 3339 2819 2819 2818 2819 2819 2819 2819 User 28 28 28 22, 26, 28, 34 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 34. 38 28. 34 28 28 28 28, 33, 34 28, 29, 33. 34 28 28, 34 2834 2821, 34 28 28, 30 28 28 22, 28 28 2879 28 28 18 28 2816, 30, 32 28 28 28 22, 26, 28, 31, 32. 36 28, 3295, 3313, 34 28 22, 28, 35, 36 28 28, 38 28 28 28, 33, 36 111-35 ------- Table III-8 (Continued) I. D. Num. 254 256 257 258 260 261 262 263 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 280 281 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 306 308 310 311 312 313 315 317 318 319 Substance (Common) Name Mesityl Oxide Methyl Acetate Methyl Acrylate (Acrylic Esters) Methylamine (30 Percent Solution) Methyl Bromide (Bromomethane) Methyl Chloride (Chloromethane) Methyl Chloroformate Methyl Formate (Methyl Methanoate) Methyl Methacrylate Monomer Methyl Parathton Monomethylamiline (n-Methylanilins) Morpholine Naphtha (Crude) Naphthalene (Naphthaline) Naphthylamine -beta Nickel Nickel Ammonium Sulfate Nickel Antimonide Nickel Arsenide Nickel Carbonyl Nickel Nitrate Nickel Selenide Nitroamilene (Nitraneline- meta-para) Nitrobenzene (Nitrobenzol) Nitrochlorobenzine (meta or para) Nitroethane Nitroglycerin Nitromethane Nitroparaffins p-Nitrophenol Nitropropane (1 and 2) Nitrous Oxide Oxalic Acid Paraformaldehyde Parathion Pentaropane Pentachlorophenol PETN (Pentafrythritol Tetranitrmte) n-Pentane (Amyl Hydride) Perchloric Acid (72 Percent Solution) Perchloroethylene (Tetrachloroethylene) Perchloryl Fluoride Phenylhydrogine Hydrochlorine Phosphorus (Red) Phosphorus Oxychloride Phosphorus Pentachloride Phosphorus Pehtasulfide Phosphorus Trichloride Picric Acid (Trinetrophenol) Potassium Arsenite Potassium Pinoxalate Potassium Chromate Standard Industrial Code Significant Manufacturer and/ or User Producer 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2911 2815 2815 3339 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2815 2815 2815 2818 2897 2818 2815 2815 2818 2813 2818 2818 2818 2819 2818 2818 2818 2819 2818 2818 2818 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2818 2819 2819 2819 User 28 28 28, 31 28, 30 28 28, 30 28 26 28, 29 28 28 28, 30, 34 2815, 28, 31, 34 28 28, 33, 34 28, 34 28, 34 32 28 28, 32, 34 36 28 28 28, 30 28 19, 28 29 19, 28 2818, 34 28 20, 28 22, 28, 31 28 2879 28 22. 24. 26, 28 19, 28 28, 38 28 22. 38 28 28 22, 28 28, 29 28 28, 29 28, 33 19. 28 28, 32 28. 34 28 IU-36 ------- Table III-8 (Continued) I. D. Num. 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 345 346 347 348 349 351 352 353 355 356 360 361 362 364 367 368 369 370 372 375 378 381 383 384 385 387 Substance (Common) Name Potassium Cyanide (Solid) Potassium Bichromate Potassium Fluoride Potassium Hydroxide (Caustic Potash) Potassium Oxalate Potassium Permanganate Potassium Peroxide Potassium Sulfate Potassium Sulfide Propane (L. P. Gas) Propionaldehyde (Propyl Aldehyde) Propionic Acid n-Propyl Acetate n-Propyl Alcohol Propylamine Propylene Propylene Oxide Propylene Dichloride (Dichloropropane) Pyridine Q uinone Salicylic Acid Selenium Powder Silicon Tetrachloride Sodium Sodium Amide (Sodamide) Sodium Arsenate Sodium Arsenite Sodium Azide Sodium Bisulfite Sodium Borate Sodium Cacodylate Sodium Carbonate Peroxide Sodium Chlorate Sodium Formate Sodium Hydride (Crystals) Sodium Hydrosulfite Sodium Iodide Sodium Oxalate Sodium Oxide Sodium Perchlorate Sodium Peroxide Sodium Potassium Alloy Sodium Thiocyanate (Sodium Sulflcyanide) Strontium Sulfur Trioxide Sulfurous Acid Sulfuryl Fluoride Tantalum Tear Gas (CN) Standard Industrial Code Significant Manufacturer and /or User Producer 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2815 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 • 2818,2815 2818 2818 3339 2819 3339 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2818 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 2819 3339 2819 2819 2819 3339 2819 User 10, 28, 33. 34 22, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31 20, 28, 32 28 28, 34 22, 28, 31, 38 28 28 28, 30, 33, 34, 35, 39 28, 29 28, 30, 32 28 20, 28 28 28 28, 29 28 20, 28 2822, 30 28, 34 2833, 30 19, 30, 32, 33, 36 19, 28 28, 33 28 22, 28 2879 19, 28 20, 26, 28 28, 32, 33 28 26, 28 26, 28 28 28 22, 28 28 28 28 19 28 28 28 28, 29, 32 19, 28 28 28 28, 33 19 m-37 ------- Table III-8 (Continued) I. D. Num. 388 389 390 391 392 393 395 397 398 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 414 415 416 417 420 421 422 423 Substance (Common) Name Tetrachloroethane (Acetylenetetrachloride) Tetraethyl Lead Tetrahydrofuran Tetramethyl Lead Tetranitrom ethane Thallium Titanium Tetrachloride Toluene Disocyanate Toluidine-o (2.4-Methylanilene) Trichloroethylene Trichlorofluoromethane (Freon 11) Triethanolamine Triethylamine Triethylene Glycol Triethylene Tetramine Trimethylamine Tri-o-Cresyl Phosphate Turrentine Vanadium P-entoxide Vanadium Sulfide m-Xylene (Xylox) Xylenol (3, 5-Dimethylphenol) Zinc Arsenate Zinc Arsenite Zinc Nitrate Zinc Oxide Zinc Permanganate Zinc Peroxide Standard Industrial Code Significant Manufacturer and /or User Producer 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 3339 2819 2815 2815 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2818 2861 2819 2819 2815 2815 2819 2819 2819 2819,2816 2819 2819 User 28 29 28 29 19 28, 33, 34 28 28, 29 22, 28 22, 28, 34 28 28, 32 28 28, 29 28 28 28, 29, 35 28 22, 28, 32, 38 28. 32 28 28 28 28 22. 28 20. 22, 28, 30, 32, 34 28 28 III-38 ------- 6. HAZARDOUS MATERIAL WASTE QUANTITIES REPORTED BY DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE AND ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION Both the Department of Defense (DoD) and the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) have long been concerned with control and disposal materials, especially those peculiar to their operations. While neither has solved the disposal problems, each has exercised control systems which generally prevent discharge of hazardous materials to the environment, and the reports included in the control systems allow these agencies to maintain awareness of the magnitude of their problems. The tables which follow present data extracted from those reporting systems. Table III-9 presents quantities of various DoD hazardous waste in inventory. It should be noted that, with respect to pesticides, herbicides, and related items, the materials awaiting disposal are at bases scattered across the nation and throughout the world. However, it is expected that all overseas quantities would be returned to the U.S. for disposal. Additional listings of hazardous chemicals (but without quantity data) associated with DoD activities are provided in Chapter IV (see Tables IV>20, IV~21, IV-22 and IV-23 on pages IV-44 through F/-48). Further information regarding the total DoD waste picture is presented in Appendix A-13. Table III-10(a) summarizes waste quantity data for radioactive materials under the control of the AEC. Tables III-10(b), (c), and (d) provide details of the data summarized in Table III-10(a), and include names of the specific radioactive waste constituent materials, along with energy levels in Curies. These data are supported by descriptive information contained in Appendix A-12. 7. MINING INDUSTRY WASTES Extensive data has been developed on the solid wastes generated by the mining industries. A summary is included to provide an overview of the total solid wastes which are generated in the mining industry, and to provide a brief appraisal of the contributions of these wastes to environmental effects. Additional data are contained in Appendix A-l. 111-39 ------- Table III-9 Hazardous Waste Material Quantities Reported by the Department of Defense as Awaiting Disposal Material 1. Pesticides, Herbicides and Related Items (e.g., insect repellant) 2. Explosive Munitions (projectiles, small arms ammunition, bombs, rockets, etc.) 3. Chemical Munitions: Mustard GB Phosgene 4. Chemical Munitions Manufacturing Wastes: I1? Liquid Waste Stored in Lagoons Contaminated Soil Suspended solids of phosphorus and phosphorous oxides Quantity 2,887,200 Ibs. (in powder form) 1. 736, 800 gal. (Liquid) 80,000 - 12,000 Tons 3,071 tons 2, 085 tons 2, 700 tons 129,000,000 gal. (7.5- 8.0% salts) 12,000,000,000 cu.ft. 200,000,000 gal. POD-Supplied Waste Generation and Disposal Data (Examples) 5. Waste Petroleum Products: Accumulated and disposed of through Defense Supply Agency Accumulated and disposed of by the Air Force (90 bases) Estimated totals for other services (Army, Navy, Marine Corps) 77,500 gal./yr. 9, 600,000 gal. /yr. 10,000,000 gal. /yr. Also reported unknown, but substantial, quantities of sludges containing dyes, sulfur, magnesium, aluminum, etc. m-40 ------- Table III-10(a) Radioactive Waste Quantities Reported by Atomic Energy Commission, With Projections 1. Power Reactor Wastes (in Cubic Feet) Solid Liquid 1970 120 30,000 1975 2,300 170,000 2. Fuel Reprocessing Wastes (Accumulation) 1970 1980 If Solid (cu. ft. ) 170 44, 000 If Liquid (gal.) 17,000 4,400,000 ,3. Fuel Reprocessing Wastes (Generation Rates) If Solid (cu. ft.) If Liquid (gal. ) 1970 170 17,000 1980 9,700 970,000 1980 13,500 330,000 1990 240,000 24,000,000 1990 27,000 2,700,000 4, Miscellaneous Solid Wastes (Generation Rates in Cubic Feet) 1970 1975 1980 51,000 256,000 675,000 5. Cladding, Hulls, and Hardware (Generation Rates In Cubic Feet)' ' 1970 1975 1980 6, 100 11,500 Accumulation expected to be 40, 000 cu. ft. by 1980. Ill-41 ------- CD d CQ 0 •fH SH 3 U SH PQ O ^_» w O o s !H CU O dl CD -1-3 CO d O cn o 00 to T-H m T-H o to T-H ' c 1— 1 0 to 1 o O K U to T3 ^ C 3 d CT c [3 en K 'o r— I p CQ SH --73 ~£H O o K U CO T3 ^ si .S3 ro cu • K o en i — i o en Jh ^ o K U en "c "^ d §< C TJ en 0) .• K o 1 CD D T3 — 1 r— 1 D •— ' a « s LO LO CO ^^ ^3 ^^ -LO t-O C"" ^^ CO ^^ ooo oooo ooooo rH i— . i—t i— f i-H vH rH r-H i— 1 rH i— t i— . X X X ' X ^1 X X ' i i i ' i X X X X X i i i i ^^ tO c^ O^ ^^ ^^ CO ^2 CO -^^ CO ^^ OOCMOO (MOOCOT-H T^T-HCOT-HCO COCO M coocoT-Hi>Lnoi T-HT-IOO CD,_trJ<^HCOT-H Tf T-HTjl> COCO CMCO^D-COOOCD COCO in T— 1 CM O3 CDTj< T-H m CM T— 1 CO CO T-H CMOO C~ cocooooosin^?!^^ 'inCT)cooci)coo5oir5LOOC>o'~(O'~'Z<_H-H2'--1 LnLoininco;ncr5Q055a3Cj)^H^HrHrHr-(r-T^'^^'Y , i C n> ni n O ' ' ' ' t-i_Q:33tUDtUOT3rOl^'^'^ri te§fcfcUuggM(niS1.2;KK< ------- CO d o •»-4 -)_J CQ •3 a 3 O O cfl 40 O H cu o I I—I HH F—I CO rt .33 CQ Q CO -.3 T3 CQ Is O O 0 CQ i — i O 0> 02 T-H o co 02 o oi T-\ 0 cn T-H O CO O3 T-H o o 03 T-H c- co co 000 ^H i~H T— 4 XXX CO t> C- co in CM CD 00 CM 000 X X bd CO CM CO t> T-H r? •<& m 0 0 1— 1 T-H X X o o o en Tf CO CM ,£ en rt ^ CO C- CM 'O o o o ;d XXX C/3 CM O ^ CD cn TF ° 73 3 CT ••^ CO C~ CM i— i O O O T j _^ ) ' - ' ^— 1 ^-1 T— 1 QJ XXX s. ^H CO ,— 1 Qj • • ~1 CM CO ,-1 "— ' -C E Tf in co 00 ^ X X o o o rf CD CM in Q5 CO CM °? sL ^ hp i/i H-l h^H 1~^ oioicoininc— CDOO t> in OOOOOOOO O O XXXXXXXX X X CO LO CO T+^ ^^ CO lO ^* ^* ^t* ^f CD CO C^J Tj^ O3 TH i~H OJ CXI CO Oj ^O ^^ ^^ CO i-O D^ CO ^J^ OOOOOOOO O O XXXXXXXX X X COCOCMOOCOCOO Tf Tt< a5^H»-iCMrfCMCMCO TH TJH CDCDCMt-HCXlcOCMin Tf CM OOOOOOOO O O XXXXXXXX X X OCDOOCMO<-nCO D- O ^mt>03^-i05CMTH r-t T-I OOOOOOOO O O XXXXXXXX X X COCOOOO'cFOCO C~ t> LOCOCMincO^^H^H CM CM co co ^ co co in ^t* CD in co OOOOOOOO O O XXXXXXXX X X CMco^inc^ini— t— 1 en <; rt iJ fe & t+J o ° d 3 0 «-, ° ° -D ^. ° "^ c o .5 CQ CQ CU 0 • a s co 3 3 O5 en CQ »-t CQ CO < < .s x-^ ^-V T3 Cu M r— 1 G o co P H H \|=> g -^^ — & fe § ^ co o " CO '~< 5 >— ' --1 • H g o i ^ "^7 ° 5 — > 2 o j\| § S-i __ o O a 2 o °~ CO ^ O d ^ oo °° S CU rv, 5 a00 © S,e®K M 3 K CQ S o ^ fc 2^§ .J co en en I"H CU CU CU tj) a a a^ 333. W CQ CO --i en en en Q < < < 02 ^^ ^- ^-v 'rt J3 'o m-43 ------- Table III-lQ(d) Generation of Miscellaneous Solid Waste and Hulls and Hardware at Fuel Reprocessing Plants 1970 1975 1980 Purex Miscellaneous Waste - ft - Ci 3 Cladding - ft - Ci Aquafluor Miscellaneous Waste - ft3 - Ci Cladding - ft - Ci 5. 1x10 t 5.2x10 2.2x1 o; 2. 3x10' c 2.4xl0j 6. 5x10 3. 6x10^ 3. 7x10' 3. 1. 0x10 6.3x10; 7.8xlOl c 6.7x10) 1.8x10 4.5x10^ 5. 6x10 4.8x10' 1. 3x10 The total accumulation of cladding hulls and hardware by 1980 is estimated to be 40, 000 cubic feet. 111-44 ------- The amount of solid wastes generated by the mining and smelting industries is great in comparison to the wastes generated by other industrial sectors. These wastes add toxic compounds to the streams and rivers which may be hazardous to aquatic life. Once introduced into water, acids and salts contribute to the general lowering of water quality which results from major waste flows. The residual solid wastes range from slightly radioactive granular wastes from uranium extraction, to the thick slimes which remain when phosphates are extracted. The following paragraphs discuss, in general, the pollutant causes and effects, and the magnitude of accumulated wastes attri- buted to the activities of the Mineral Mining Industry. The pollutants are discussed as to their effects on land, water, and air. (More details are given in Appendix A-l). (1) Land Pollution Solid wastes are generally produced as the rejected material from mining, processing, and smelting operations. It is estimated that accumulated solid wastes from this industry now amount to 23 billion tons, covering an estimated 1. 8 billion acres of land surface. Approximately 95 percent of this waste covered acreage is due to the production of coal, sand and gravel, stone, gold, clay, phosphate and iron. Table III-11 gives a breakdown of the tonnage and surface area covered by accumulated wastes. In addition, it provides a general indication as to areas of concentration of these wastes and the portion contributed by each mineral type. The results of mining solid wastes accumulation is to denude land, change surface and subsurface drainage patterns, abet flooding, clog stream channels, pollute water and air, provide potential waste ban fires, and cause land-use conflicts. (2) Water Pollution Today only about one percent of an estimated 99, 000 billion gallons of water used domestically is required by the mineral industry. However, pollution resulting from decades 111-45 ------- cu T—< J2 Oi H CO CO CD CO cu -i-J CO cu C .03 3 a 3 O U cu be 03 cu SH O rt 0) tuo 03 a d o H c o •iH •TH C O •v-4 "oJ o o cu CO 03 T3 •TH T-H o CO cu J-l O CO 1 c •iH -g o ^ •>• cu ^ - r-H cd O , q q cu H - £ \| o - , S o o < O CM »~ ^ CM CM O CO (M O I-H i-H LO ^^ ^^ CO in T-H co CO T-H CM T-H Antimony Asbestos Barite Bauxite ^ ^ "5 00 00 ^" 00 & "S • p oi - 1— 1 cu „ hjr , T) . tS "S - o oj !§ PL, rf£ ?• < i \| 05 ™. CO Ow (D ••> g - -2 «j Q T-H ,— < 1 o! a) co ^ co U U co T-H O O O £ CD O O 0 g 0 CM CD CD ° CO •^ CM* c m oo o CM r- co CD t— CO CM t- CM C73 CO •* CO T-H ^H T-H e S C cu h ? ^^ o JH £-1 M Oi D. cu o ,2 o o PQ PQ U U U oi o • trjd 53(0 • ^ O 0) - U ,z; m CD CM CM co in m en in en t- Diatomite Feldspar "rt a •iH a •S tl Pj. Q CO - > 7 £-* , r— ' ol U X * S to at £ < - ' t-H M t-H _^_j " +J 0 ^H U tH O CO T-H CO in co 0 CO T-H t> co CM f~ Fluorspar Gold ^: cu . ,_; oi U o ^t "-1 CO 0 CM s 3 CO Q. ^ O CO CO cu cu •4-* -T-* o! rt CO CO co -^ CM T-H CO CM oi m Oi CD •» •» co oo rH CM CO CO CO CO in t— T"H ^^ CM" T-H" J-l 0) 1 t-H •H CO 1— 1 1 Q^ 1 1 CU r* CO "^ t"N C nj O a) A J . cu ^ ft •* cu . -(_>' 0 * T) rt "rt £ ° ^ > .2 cu ^ Jg <1 o m CJ5 O CM CO O O5 O co ^ U CM ^, Tj (^^ m i> in Q£5 «.^H f-H T— 1 TH •* •* T-H m CM in •<* in t- ^ t- 1 T-H CO T-H co -^ •t CM a Molybdenu Misc. Nickel i— i oS a 'o c £ 0! r— i fe l •VI O ^J 4! -2 " CO !3'S CO 00 •<* m T-H CO •t) •> T-H a> co m CO CO CO T-H CM CO Potash Phosphate 111-46 ------- T3 CU 3 fi U c o .,«! -t-> ri O O J 0> 03 ri £> ^ 3 "o OT CO o> S--i o c o w 3 ° 1— 1 rt 0> c •tH CD 15 rf +; a c ••-i O c S •rH ^J •» PH O "~1 rt ri M U ; ,_j r o ^ ri U > PU , , '-<":> " \|o\|> CM ^j ri . O co in T-H D- o o m eo ^H CM CD CD ^ * CO co in o- cvi o CO t— CM Tf CM j—t CM t— T— 1 CO c s ^ « t 'a i OT H H h > 4 t> CD ^ m r— t co co 00 co CM I™-1 ri "o H T3 i—i O O C c« a> o U • 111-47 ------- of mining activity has produced damaging environmental conditions in almost every major freshwater course or lake in the country. Industrial pollutants into water are of three types: (1) physical, (2) chemical, and (3) a combination of both. The following breakdown is given to indicate the extent to which our water resources have been affected by pollution, and the acreage of wildlife habitat that has been degraded as a result of this pollution. Stream—An estimated 12, 989 miles of streams covering approximately 135, 970 acres of land area, have been adversely affected by mineral wastes. The problem affects 40 states, with Pennsylvania, Louisiana, and Ohio, respectively, showing the greatest amount of degradation. Lakes—A total of 281 lakes, covering a land area of approximately 103, 630 acres in seven states, have the bulk of this contamination. These are Louisiana, Minnesota, and Michigan, respectively. Reservoirs and Impoundments—A total of 168 such installations covering 41, 516 surface acres of water throughout 18 states show this contamination, The preponderance of this pollution is found in Alabama, South Dakota, Missouri, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania, in that order. Wildlife Habitat—Approximately 1,617,288 acres of wildlife habitat in 46 states have been adversely affected. Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Texas, Indiana, and Illinois, in that order, show the greatest degree of degradation. (3) Air Pollution The common forms of air pollution are well known to most people. Approximately 86 percent of the total of this type pollution is contributed by the production, processing, use, and disposal of minerals and fossil fuels. Dust and gaseous emissions are the principal elements in its production. The origin and effects of these elements on the environment are briefly discussed below: ni-48 ------- Dust—The causes of dust in the atmosphere include the following: Blasting, loading, hauling, crushing, and processing of ore Drying of settling and tailings ponds, and poor waste bank site selection Failure to properly dispose fine waste material Burning of fossil fuels and combustible waste Failure to use chemical soil stabilizers. The degrading of effects of the emitted dust into the atmosphere results in: hazardous living conditions, respiratory diseases, short equipment life, smothering and poisoning vegetation, pollution of water resources, a general deterioration of the environment. Gas — The causes of gas emission into the atmosphere include: combustion of fossil fuels and other combus- tible wastes, slaking of spoils and oxidation of puritic and carbon wastes, and smelting of ores. The resulting emissions include the oxides of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur, hydrogen sulfide, fluorides, chlorine, and ammonia. Some of these gases react photochemically to produce smog, sulfuric acid, nitric acid mists which create haze, paint and metal corrosion, hazardous living conditions, respiratory diseases. Generally these gases degrade the environment. 8. DATA RECORD DESCRIPTIONS During the course of this study, as hazardous materials were identified, various related -data were collected and have been placed on punched cards for automatic data processing. Three card types were developed and these are described below. 111-49 ------- (1) Card Type 1 These are the basic cards, and provide the following information: Field 1 - Material name (alphabetical listing) Field 2 - Identification number (chronologically, according to alphabetical listing of material names) Field 3 - Quantity of annual material production (coded, see Table III-12 for code description) Field 4 - Waste disposal procedure for small and packaged lots (by MCA procedure number) Field 5 - Threshold limit values (toxicity) as recommended by the American Conference of Government Hygienists. Values are given in parts of vapor or gas per million parts of air by volume Field 6 - Specific gravity (gm. /ml. or density relative to water) Field 7 - Vapor density Field 8 - Flash point, °C Field 9 - Ignition temperature, °C Field 10 - Boiling point, °C Field 11 - Melting point, °C Field 12 - Solubility in water (Table III-13 indicates solubility code used). 111-50 ------- Table III- 12 Hazardous Material Production Quantity Codes Code Production Quantity 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Less than 0. 5 million Ib. /yr. 0.5- 1.0 million Ib. /yr. 1.0- 10 million Ib. /yr. 10-50 million Ib. /yr. 50 - 100 million Ib. /yr. 100 - 500 million Ib. /yr. 500 - 1,000 million Ib. /yr. 1, 000 - 2, 000 million Ib. /yr. 2, 000 - 5, 000 million Ib. /yr. Greater than 5, 000 million Ib. /yr. Ill-51 ------- Table III-13 Codes for Hazardous Material Solubility in Water . Code Description NS Not soluble SL Slightly soluble (5 gm. /100 gm. water) MS Medium solubility (5-50 gm. /100 gm. water) VS Very soluble (50-100 gm. /100 gm. water) IN Infinite solubility (soluble in all proportions) (2) Card Type 2 These cards contain the hazardous effects rating values and the principal industrial producers (SIC codes). Table III-14 describes these data records. (3) Card Type 3 These cards include industry geographic locations, SIC codes (of industries for which waste factors were developed), value added in production data, the number of establishments, and the numbers of employees. Table III-15 describes these cards. Figures III-2, III-3, and III-4 illustrate the field layouts on each of the three data card types. Ill-52 ------- Table III- 14 Material Hazard Rating and Industrial Source Location Field 1 Field 2 Field 3 Field 4 Field 5 Field 6 Field 7 Field 8 Field 9 Field 10 Field 11 Field 12 Field 13 Field 14 Field 15 Field 16 Field 17 Field 18 . Description Substance l4entification Number Air Disposal Humah Effects Explosion Reaction Ecological Effects Water Disposal Huma^i Effects Explosion Reaction Ecological Effects Land Disposal Human Effects Explosion Reaction Ecological Effects Total Knowp Effect Rating Number of Unknowns Maximum Potential Effects Rating Production Rating Distribution Rating Total Production Distribution Rating Final Known Hazards Rating Maximum Potential Hazards Rating III-53 ------- Table III- 14 (Continued) Location Description Field 19 Field 20 Field 21 Field 22 Field 23 Field 24 Field 25 Field 26 Field 27 Field 28 Field 29 Field 30 Field 31 Field 32 Field 33 Field 34 Field 35 Field 36 Metal Mining Industry Ordnance and Accessories Industry Food and Kindred Products Industry Textile Mill Products Industry Lumber and Wood Products Except Furniture Paper and Allied Products Industry Printing Publishing and Allied Industries Chemical and Allied Product Industry Petroleum Refining and Related Industries Rubber and Miscellaneous Plastics Products Leather and Leather Products Industry Stone, Clay, Glass, and Concrete Products Primary Metal Industries Fabricated Metal Products Except Ordnance, Machinery and Transportation Equipment Machinery Except Electrical Electrical Machinery Equipment and Supplies Professional Scientific and Controlling Instruments Photographic and Optical Goods, Watches, and Clocks Miscellaneous Manufacturing Industries III-54 ------- Table III-15 Industry Data Location Description Field 1 Field 2 Field 3 Field 4 Field 5 Field 6 Field 7 Field 8 Field 9 Field 10 Field 11 Field 12 Field 13 Field 14 Field 15 Field 16 Field 17 Field 18 Field 19 Field 20 Geographic Location SIC Code Value Added (millions) Number of Establishments Number of Employees (100) Geographic Location SIC Code Value Added (millions) Number of Establishments Number of Employees (100) Geographic Location SIC Code Value Added (millions) Number of Establishments Number of Employees Geographic Location SIC Code Value Added (millions) Number of Establishments Number of Employees III-55 ------- se- ta FIGURE III-2 Layout Card Type 1 111-56 ------- Si - FIGURE III-3 Layout Card Type 2 o u z o o 0. o ~2 o MARK AND CO ------- •s 1 1 -5. a£ o ^ y— ID ,• >- Q ttT " K " — • «• £ j- /» 3 ~O £ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . - - - ^ -1 1 • - - - - - - • - - - - - • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - : - - - - - - - - - - - - - e t i s s R « * g $ 3 3 S K 3 * g S 5 3 S f. It 5 8 O- S * g £ ^? » »• .r, * o FIGURE III-4 Layout Card Type 3 III-5 8 ------- (4) Use of the Data Records As in any punched card system, a variety of sorts can be made depending upon the specific subject matter of interest. From card to card, the common thread of reference is the identification number assigned to the hazardous materials. Of particular interest in making sorts is the ability to focus on the rating of hazardous effects (i. e. , depending upon whether the subject of interest is hazards to humans, fire and explosion hazards, ecological hazards, or overall hazard ratings). Additionally, as future research generates new or improved data, it can be entered into these data records with minimum difficulty. Ill-59 ------- LIST OF REFERENCES A 1967 Survey of the Members of the Manufacturing Chemists Association, Manufacturing Chemists Association, 1968. "A Pollution Abatement Program for Distillery Wastes", R.G. Paulette, C.S. Boruff, andJ.O. Nack, Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, Vol. 42, No. 7, July 1970, pp. 1368-1394. A Report on Bottled and Canned Soft Drinks and Flavoring Extracts and Syrups, Associated Water and Air Resources Engineers, Inc., for the Environmental Protection Agency, August 1971. A Simplification of Textile Waste Survey and Treatment, J.W. Masselli, N.W. Masselli, M.G. Burford, Wesleyan University, for the New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission, July 1959. California Solid Waste Planning Study, California Department of Public Health, 1969. 1967 Census of Manufactures, Volumes I, II, and III, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, January 1971. Effluent Requirements for the Leather Tanning and Finishing Industry, Stanley Consultants, Inc., September 1971. Industrial Waste Studies Program - Group G Study, Fertilizers, Wellman Lord, Inc., July 1971. Industrial Waste Study of Canned and Frozen Fruits and Vegetables, SCS Engineeris, for the Environmental Protection Agency, July 17, 1971. Industrial Waste Study of the Asbestos Industry, Associated Water and Air Resources Engineers, Inc., for the Environmental Protection Agency, 1971. Industrial Waste Study of the Meat Products Industry, J.P. Pilney, E.E. Erickson, and N.O. Halvorson, North Star Research and Development Institute, for the Environmental Protection Agency, July 8, 1971. 111-60 ------- Industrial Waste Study of the Paper and Allied Products Industries, WAPORA, Inc., for the Environmental Protection Agency, July 1971. Industrial Waste Study of the Plastic Materials and Synthetics Industry, N. Baron and J.W. Gilpin, for the Environmental Protection Agency, 1971. Industrial Waste Survey of Inorganic Chemicals, Alkalines and Chlorine, General Technologies Corp., for the Environmental Protection Agency, May 28, 1971. Industrial Waste Survey of the Aluminum Industry, Gurham & Associates, Inc. , for the Environmental Protection Agency, August 1971. Industrial Waste Survey of the Distilled Spirits Industry, Associated Water and Air Resources Engineers, Inc., for the Environmental Protection Agency, August 1971. Industrial Waste Survey of the Malt Industry, Associated Water and Air Resources Engineers, Inc., for the Environmental Protection Agency, August 1971. Industrial Waste Survey of the Malt Liquor Industry, Associated Water and Air Resources Engineers, Inc., for the Environmental Protection Agency, August 1971. Industrial Waste Surveys of Two New England Cotton Finishing Mills, M. G. Burford et al., for the New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission, June 1953. Industry Profile Study on Blast Furnace and Basic Steel Products, NUS Corp., for the Environmental Protection Agency, June 1971. Petrochemical Effluents Treatment Practices - Summary, Dr. E.F. Gloyna and Dr. D. L. Ford, Engineering-Science, Inc., Project 12020, for the U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Pub. PB-192-310, February 1970. Petroleum Refining Effluent Guidelines for Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Programs, R. F. Weston, Environmental Scientists and Engineers, September 1, 1971. Pollution Sources from Finishing of Synthetic Fibers, J.W. Masselli andM.G. Burford, Wesleyan University, for the New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission, June 1956. Ill-61 ------- Solid Waste Management in the Food Processing Industry, A.M. Katsuyama, N.A. Olson, R.L. Quirk, andW.A. Mercer, National Canners1 Association and Western Research Laboratory, for the Environmental Protection Agency, 1971. Technical-Economic Study of Solid Waste Disposal Needs and Practices, Volume II - Industrial Inventory, Combustion Engineering, Inc., for the US. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service, Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information, Pub. 1886, Report SW-7c Pub. PB-187-712, 1969. The Cost of Clean Water, Vol. Ill - Industrial Waste Profile No. 1 - Blast Furnaces and Steel Mills, U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Pub. I.W.P.-l, September 1967. The Cost of Clean Water, Vol. Ill - Industrial Waste Profile No. 4 - Textile Mill Products, U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Pub. I.W.P.-4, June 30, 1967. The Cost of Clean Water, Vo. Ill - Industrial Waste Profile No. 5- Petroleum Refining, U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, November 1967. The Cost of Clean Water, Vo. Ill - Industrial Waste Profile No. 7- Leather Tanning and Finishing, U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Pub. I.W.P.-7, September 1967. The Cost of Clean Water, Vol. Ill - Industrial Waste Profile No. 8- Meat Products, Wichita State University, Department of Economics, for the U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, September 1967. The Cost of Clean Water, Vol. Ill - Industrial Waste Profile No. 10- Plastics Materials and Resins, Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute, for the U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, October 12, 1967. Unpublished data from the Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of Interior. "Waste Disposal in the Meat Industry, Part I, " A. J. Steffen, Water and Wastes Engineering/Industrial, Vol. 7, No. 3, March 1970, pp. B-20 to B-22. 111-62 ------- "Waste Disposal in the Meat Industry, Part II, " A. J. Steffen, Water and Wastes Engineer ing/Industrial, Vol. 7, No. 5, May 1970, pp. C-l to C-4. Ill-63 ------- IV. SURVEY OF HAZARDOUS EFFECTS AND RATING OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS ------- IV. SURVEY OF HAZARDOUS EFFECTS AND RATING OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 1. INTRODUCTION Hazardous substances can produce measurable adverse effects in a number of environmental areas. Available literature reveals the wide scope of effects that have resulted from accidents, as well as from planned experiments involving laboratory animal and plant exposures to wide ranges of concentration levels and exposure time periods (see the list of references at the end of this chapter). Industrial health records and studies show a wide range of observed health effects due to both acute and chronic exposures of workers to various industrial materials (e. g. , References 1, 2, 3). While the human health effects from industrial workplace exposures may be quite well documented, in many instances from medical records, often the contributing levels of exposure are not documented to provide good cause and effect relation- ships. A material or substance is termed toxic if it can produce damage to a living organism. Its toxicity is a measure of the amount of damage that is caused by a specified amount of the substance. Hazards, on the other hand, are usually thought of in terms of the probabilities of being involved in a situation which can cause damage. Frequently, the terms "toxic" and "hazardous" have been synonymous. This is true to some extent in this study and report, where a list of "hazardous materials" has been developed. Perhaps some justification can be offered in that one criterion used in developing the list was a measure of the production amounts of each substance, and the potential damages included those due to flame and explosion as well as toxic effects. Thus, the list includes substances which are hazardous because relatively large production amounts increase the probability of their causing widespread damage, and they are potentially damaging in more than one way. IV-1 ------- The above connotation is continued in this section with the develop- ment of a rating system and rating of the list of hazardous materials. The indicated approach for the rating of hazardous materials can be concisely outlined as follows: Identify a representative list of hazardous substances Establish criteria for evaluating quantitatively all adverse effects that may result from exposures to the hazardous substances Establish criteria for evaluating the extent of the hazards involved, i. e., the extent in terms of geography and frequency of occurrence Develop algorithm for combining the individual ratings determined on the basis of criteria to arrive at a total rating for each substance Rank substances on basis of ratings.. 2. ANALYTICAL PROBLEMS IN HAZARDOUS EFFECTS Although the above logic for rating of the list of hazardous substances appears relatively simple, there are a great many compli- cations which exist and which operate to limit severely the depth of an analysis that can be applied to development of the ratings. Most of these complications relate to the availability and quality of data needed for each substance to arrive at a defensible rating. Some of these complications are discussed below. (1) Human Effects Data Limitations Data on human effects resulting from severe exposures to hazardous or toxic substances are obtained principally from reconstruction of accident situations. A second major source of human effects information is extrapolation from experimental animal data. Both methods are fraught with uncertainties. IV-2 ------- Accident data is sparse in terms of the detail and amounts needed for a list of nearly 500 substances (see Chapter II). Where accidents have occurred, the recording of information into the facts surrounding the accident has frequently been so unsystematic that the possibility of missing at least one key contributing factor is always present (Reference 4). This makes quantification of causes and effects uncertain, and accidents involving exactly the same set of circumstances do not usually occur with enough frequency to calibrate the measurement or reconstruction errors involved. Furthermore, some facts surrounding accidents are considered proprietary and, even though originally recorded, may not be generally available. Extrapolations from animal data do not generally suffer from lack of data. More often, the problem evolves from several sets of data, one or more of which is anomalous and thereby casts uncertainty on human extrapolations. In addition, animals respond differently to doses of toxic substances administered by different dose injection routes. Thus, the results are dependent upon whether a dose was administered orally, intraperitoneally, intra- muscularly, cutaneously, or via the respiratory route. This represents no unusual difficulty for an experiment designed specifically for use in extrapolating a result to humans. However, if attempt is made to infer human effects from odd bits of animal data which have been reported in many places, the question of dose route frequently arises and cannot be answered. (2) Ecological Impact Much of the ecological data for plants or animals suffers, to some extent, from the same limitations as described previously for human effects data. That is, very little plant or animal data have been taken in plant or animal natural habitat as a result of accidents, and when attempted, all causes and effects are not recorded. Likewise, extrapolations from one species of plant or animal to another are uncertain because of frequent anomalies observed in the available recorded data. Furthermore, the full impact of hazardous substances on ecu logical systems may not be observable in isolated data on tox. , effects to specific species. Important indirect or secondary ?t may occur to co-inhabitants of a habitat as a result of IV-3 ------- exposures to hazardous materials in a natural environment, as opposed to an experimental laboratory. These impacts may involve predator and prey relationships, and the entire process of natural selection. The long-term result could be new and undesirable environmental balances. (3) Time Factors Adverse effects may occur to all ecological populations (which include humans) as a result of repeated exposures to sublethal acute dosage of toxic materials, or of continuous exposures to low-level concentrations of hazardous substances. Such exposures have produced carcinogenesis and mutagenesis in animals after extended periods of time (Reference 5). Similar results have not been observed in humans in equivalent times. Thus, another uncertain measure is added to the problem of animal extrapolations to humans, and the difficulty of obtaining definitive long-term cause-and-effect relationships for humans in industrial or urban environments is obvious. Measures of persistence of hazardous substances become an important adjunct to time factors. The combination of low-level exposures and persistent agents can lead to major hazards in the form of lethal or damaging accumulations of a substance. Asbestos and mercury are perhaps the two most commonly known persistent hazards. Asbestos accumulates in humans and can lead to lung cancer after many years of low-level exposure (References 5, 6). Mercury is known to accumulate in aquatic species and may lead to serious effects in humans through a build-up of concentrations in the food chain (Reference 7). There are many other compounds which persist in nature and/or accumulate in food chains. Some of these are known or suspected; others have been observed occasionally but have not been quantified (References 1, 3). 3. DEVELOPMENT OF THE RATING SYSTEM The rating of hazardous substances must reflect both the intensity or level of hazard and the extent of the hazard. Intensity or level of hazard can be provided in terms of potential effects. Extent of hazard involves production quantity and geographical distribution of a substance, and perhaps the number of ways that a substance can cause adverse effects on the populations that may be placed in jeopardy by its presence. IV-4 ------- The rating of various hazardous substances can be accomplished in a number of ways and by the use of any number of criteria. From a practical point of view and in consideration of the state of knowledge concerning hazardous substances and related effects, it is better to limit the evaluation criteria to those for which appropriate evaluation data are available. The approach taken during this study was to select criteria for evaluation of hazardous substances in such a way that the most impor- tant environmental effects were included for consideration. In this way, enough criteria were defined to provide for an adequate range of values for the rating of substances; at the same time, the criteria did not extend into areas in which little or no firm data could be found. (1) Development of Effects Criteria Waste materials can be disposed of or otherwise released (intentionally or unintentionally) through the following media: Air—by incineration, evaporation, or direct release of effluent as particulate matter, gases, or mists to the atmosphere Water—by chemical and biological treatment (in waste streams or holding ponds) or direct release of effluent to surface streams, ponds, lakes, estuaries; or by transport and deposit in ocean depths Soil-—by direct deposit of sludge, ash, or other solid or semisolid waste forms in open pits, cover landfills or deep well injection. Toxic substances may occur in solid, liquid, or gaseous state in any of the above media. However, a principal route of entry to receptors is commonly associated with each of the above media. In air, the main route of entry is via the respiratory sys- tem of humans, animals and plants. In water, the principal route of entry is by ingestion for humans and most animals, but for fish and aquatic plants the route is through the respiratory systems. In soil, the route is by direct contact for humans, animals and plants. There are, of course, other routes of entry. For example, toxic substances may enter humans by direct contact of air or TV-5 ------- water concentrations on skin areas, and soil organisms or land plants may ingest toxic materials by uptake of soil water or by inhalation of air contained in soil openings. Human health and welfare, as well as animals and vegetation, may be exposed to hazardous situations involving flame and/or explosion caused by some substances. Other adverse effects may occur as a result of rapid or violent chemical reactions of sub- stances. Flame, explosion, or reactions produce heat which may cause many compounds to emit highly toxic fumes or to react more vigorously with oxidizing materials. Some compounds can react rapidly with water or steam to produce toxic or flammable vapors. Acids may be produced by reactions, and heat generated by flame or reaction may, itself, be a serious hazard to many ecopopulations. Thus some substances may be more hazardous than others because they have a potential to cause damage by both toxic effects and by effects from flame, explosion, or reaction. But there are levels of toxicity and degrees of flammability, explosion and reaction, and this provides the basis for the development of useful criteria for evaluation and rating of potentially hazardous substances. For this study, the measurable effects caused by hazardous substances were conveniently grouped into two principal categories: Effects on human health and welfare Effects on other ecological populations. The human health and welfare category includes effects resulting from flame, explosion, or reaction as well as exposure. to toxic substances. The category involving other ecological populations includes both plants and animals as appropriate in land, water, or air habitats. Both categories include exposures to toxic materials in the form of solids, liquids, or gases but in a selective way, as described later, rather than ail-inclusively. The matrix of effects considered for rating the list of hazardous substances took the form shown in Table IV-1. Each row and column combination of the matrix required a set of criteria for use in determining ratings. In light of the human and ecological effects data limitations described earlier, no attempt was made to develop a sophisticated rating scale involving a large number of possible values which would have required highly-precise IV-6 ------- Table IV-1 Matrix of Factors for Rating the Level of Effects for the List of Hazardous Substances Medium For Disposal Air (A) Water (W) Soil (S) Hazard in Terms of Potential Effects Human Populations Toxic Effects	ATH WTH STH Flame / Explosion/ Reaction (Fg) AFH WFH SFH Eco Populations Toxic Effects (TF) ATE WTE STE estimates of effects in order to rate them properly. Instead, a very simple three-valued scale was developed for each element of the matrix. For each element, the ratings were: 3—Severely hazardous 2—Slight to moderate hazard 1—Minimal hazard U—Effects unknown. It is recognized that the scale of 1-3 is a narrow band likely to produce ratings that tend to group many materials into clusters in the overall rating scale, and that a wider spread in the relative ratings would be desirable. However, the limitations noted earlier with respect to knowledge of human and ecological effects of materials are such that the rating precision needed for use of a wider scale (e. g., 1-10) or the precision that would be implied if a wider scale were imposed, are not justified by the data available. For each element of the matrix, an appropriate descriptive statement of each rating criterion was developed. Effects data, available in a number of sources, are not always given in the same units. Sometimes, even though the units are the same, the exposure times are different, which leads to a different implication. IV-7 ------- To improve the consistency of the ratings, sets of guidance values were developed for each criterion. That is, specific numerical values were developed for each criterion. That is, specific numerical values in terms of concentrations or doses for both acute and chronic exposure modes were included wherever the available background data were adequate for such development. It was concluded arbitrarily that where effects were unknown, or at least were not available in the material gathered for this study, a "U" would be inserted in lieu of an estimated or inferred value. The use of the effects rating values in reaching a final hazard rating and the implications of inserting "U" for unknowns are discussed in a later section. All details and definitions concerning the criteria for rating the elements of the matrix of effects are included in Tables IV-3 through IV-13 at the end of this section of the report. (2) Development of Extent of Hazard Criteria Direct quantitative measures of the extent of hazards are difficult to obtain. Ideally, such measures should include the specific amounts of each potentially hazardous material reaching waste status and a measure of their geographical distribution. Hazardous wastes occur in a number of ways as described in the surveys of industrial sections which were included earlier in this report. Because waste materials occur mostly as complex mix- tures in industrial waste streams which are frequently changing in composition, currently available waste inventories have not included the detail necessary to provide the desired quantification of specific compounds. The extent of hazard should also include a measure of the period of time over which substances may be hazardous. However, accurate measures of the persistence of most hazardous substances are not generally available, except for rough estimates for a few pesticide compounds (see References 8, 9). For this study, a search was undertaken to obtain available production information which could serve as a reliable indicator of the extent of hazardous substances. A survey of the list of com- pounds was conducted to obtain production amounts, major manufac- turers, usual shipping mode and major used for each substance. IV-8 ------- Following a rationale that the extent of a hazardous substance is reflected in a combination of its production amounts and subse- quent distribution, the ratings in Table IV-2 were selected for use in rating the list of substances. Table IV-2 Matrix of Factors for Rating the Extent of Hazard for the List of Hazardous Substances Production Criteria (Ibs/year) >108 10? ------- Production amounts and distribution should not impact negatively to reduce total effects ratings; therefore, the smallest factor should be a one (i. e., 1.0). There should be a measure of equivalence between small production levels with wide distribution and large production levels with limited distribution. The total multiplier should be no more than two (to avoid undue bias) and be a measure of the amount produced and its source of distribution. The criteria used to establish the ratings shown in Table IV-2 are contained in Tables IV-14 and IV-15 (presented at the end of this chapter). 4. METHOD OF RATING AND RESULTS The methods described in the preceding two sections for rating the level of effects and the extent of hazard were combined to provide the complete methodology for rating each substance of the hazardous substance list. Using the criteria of Tables IV-5 through IV-13 (presented at the end of this chapter) and effects information available in a number of sources, coded effects ratings were developed for each element of the effects rating matrix of Table IV-1 for each substance. In reaching a coded rating value, no single reference provided the rating, although heavy reliance was placed on Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials (Reference 1). The basic procedure used to obtain final hazard ratings was to obtain initial estimates of effects ratings from Reference 1 and then compare these estimates with other available sources which included, but was not limited to, References 1, 2, 3, and 10 through 19. If the other sources confirmed the estimate taken from Reference 1, the rating was accepted; but if other sources differed, an average of all available information became the basis for the rating. No attempt was made to rate each substance for both acute and chronic exposures because of paucity of data, particularly on chronic exposures. Data corresponding to either acute or chronic exposure was used to produce a rating. If both were available, the one producing the larger hazard rating was used. IV-10 ------- A final weighted total effects rating (TER) was computed using the following expression: TER = (ATfjjWj + (AFH)W2 + (ATE)W3 + (WTH)W4 + (WFH)W5 + (WTE)W6 + (STH)W7 + (SFH)W8 + (STE)W9 where the parenthetical terms refer to the appropriate row and column entries of the matrix in Table IV- 1, and Wj refers to a specific weight for each matrix entry. In developing the ratings for this study, no really good justification could be found for adjusting the weights from term to term (of the above equation) and a weight of one was, therefore, assumed at all times. It is suggested that the use of weighting values, in developing the TER, be applied to reflect priorities. Priorities can be established that are indicative of the interest of the user, (e. g. , whether hazards to humans are given greater significance than hazards to other species, and weighting values should then be assigned accordingly. Thus, in future work (particularly as priorities are defined) it may be desirable to introduce specific term weights and recalculate ratings. This will, of course, be a routine adjustment once a punched card deck or tape is prepared for the basic effects data. The second step to a final hazard rating involved the use of production/ distribution data, and the criteria of Tables IV- 14 and IV- 15 to obtain a hazard extent rating (HER) from Table IV-2. The hazard rating for each substance is then the product of the total effects rating (TER) (previously discussed), and the hazard extent rating (HER): Hazard rating (HR) = (TER) x (HER) In computing the hazard ratings, there were many substances for which data were not complete and rating values could not be provided for all components of the system. At these points, a decision was made to insert the letter "u" to signify unknown or unavailable information. The number of unknown pieces of data was totaled and recorded, and based on the assumption that it would be desirable to produce conservative hazard ratings, the concept of "potential hazard ratings" was introduced, through which specific values can be assigned to the "unknowns. " This concept results in two additional rating scores for the materials listed. The first of these is termed the maximum potential effects rating (MPER), which is computed by assigning a value of three (maximum hazard value) to each unknown, summing those and adding the result to the total effect rating: IV-11 ------- MPER = 3U + TER The second "potential" rating is termed the maximum potential hazard rating (MPHR), which is computed by multiplying the maximum potential effects rating by the hazard extent rating: MPHR = MPER x HER, to produce the highest overall hazard rating. Thus, the rating system developed actually includes five ratings (TER, HER, MPER, HR and MPHR), and is a flexible system that can accommodate data that may be developed in the future. The system is also readily amenable to altered weighting factors and the incorporation of a wider spread in the scale of individual values that may be justified by future research. A simple worksheet was prepared for computing the hazard rating of each substance. A sample copy is included in Table IV-16 and a completed sample is given in Table IV-17. The hazard ratings for each substance were computed and the results are included in Table IV-18. While Table IV-18 gives ratings for the hazardous materials listed in Chapter II (Table II-6, page 11-29), Table IV-19 provides examples of additional potentially hazardous materials, with rating scores. (These four tables are presented at the end of this chapter. ) This latter group typifies materials for which a great number of unknowns exist with respect to the hazards they might present. They have been included here to illustrate that various cutoff points need to be established and observed in order to differentiate among the meanings of ratings for potentially hazardous compounds. Such compounds show known effects ratings that are low, but high potential effects ratings. In the total hazard rating columns of the latter two tables, two final rating columns are given. The first provides a rating based on known data, while the second provides a potential rating based on the known ratings plus maximum possible com- ponent ratings for each unknown. Used together, the two columns provide a range of values within which the actual rating will fall when all data become known. Table IV-20 lists certain hazardous materials used as warfare agents, with hazard ratings where possible. Further, three additional lists of hazardous wastes resulting from Department of Defense activities are presented in Tables IV-21, IV-22 and IV-23. These three lists include IV-12 ------- explosive materials and compounds; typical air and water pollutants involved in conventional munitions production, and a list of typical hazardous waste compounds subcategorized by maintenance, supply and weapons systems support operations. Some of these compounds are included on the list of hazardous materials developed in this study because they have other industrial or commercial uses. Where a rating has been developed, it is included in parentheses following the compound. Where two numbers are given, the second refers to the partial rating appropriate to the main list, e. g., air exposure or water exposure only. IV-13 ------- Table IV-3 Rules Used During Rating of Hazardous Substances 1. Chronic exposures are arbitrarily assumed to be 1/20 to 1/100 of acute exposures. 2. If effects measurements could not be found in the available data and effects could not be clearly established based on descriptive statements of effects, the letter, U, signifying unknown or unavailable was inserted in place of a rating value. 3. The simple sum of component effects provides a total effects rating, and no justification could be provided for implementing separate weightings on each com- ponent rating. 4. If production amounts could not be determined from available sources, it was assumed that the produc- tion amount was low and an arbitrary value of 1. 0 was assigned. 5. The simple sum of production rating and distribution rating provides an extent of hazard rating, and no justification could be provided for implementing separate weightings on each component rating. 6. The product of the effects rating and the extent of hazard rating gives the final hazard rating. IV-14 ------- Table IV-4 Definitions of Terms Used in Criteria LC 50 LD 50 TLV Toxic Substance Lethal concentration fifty: concentration which adminis- tered by the respiratory route would be lethal to fifty percent of the exposed population. Lethal dose fifty: dose in terms of milligrams per kilogram of body weight which if ingested by the oral route would cause death to fifty percent of the exposed population. 3 Threshold limit value: the concentration (mg/m ) or dose (mg/kg body weight) to which receptors (humans, animals, or plants) may be exposed repeatedly or continuously day after day without suffering adverse effects. An element, compound, or material which can produce damage to a living organism. Acute Exposure Short time (less than one hour) exposures to relatively large concentrations or doses of toxic substances. Acute doses are generally ingested as a single dose. Chronic Exposure Guidance Values Long-term (order of days to years) exposures to relatively small concentration or doses of toxic substances. Chronic doses are generally small doses repeated over periods of days to years. Values of concentrations, dose, etc., provided as guidelines for use in rating hazardous substances. Any one of the several provided can serve as the basis for a rating (i. e., not intended that all criteria be met for a rating). IV-15 ------- Table IV-5 Human Effects Rating Criteria: Toxic Effects in Air Severely hazardous. Very highly toxic causing death or residual injuries to persons exposed to relatively low concentrations. Has potential to be carcinogenic. Guidance values: ;1, O LCj-0 - X 5000 mg/m (acute * exposure) o \j 3 LCj-n - X 250 mg/m (chronic * exposure) DU * 3 TLV - ^ 500 mg/m (acute exposure) 3 TLV - ^25 mg/m (chronic exposure) Slight to moderate hazard. Short intense exposures or con- tinued exposures at lower concentration levels may cause serious temporary or minor residual injury. Guidance Values: 3 LC - 5000 to 50000 mg/m (acute) 50 3 LC - 250 to 2500 mg/m (chronic) 0 U 3 TLV - 500 to 5000 mg/m (acute) 3 TLV - 25 to 250 mg/m (chronic) Minimal Hazard. Lethal at concentrations which are not likely to occur at all, or at most over very limited areas. Effects generally confined to minor symptoms and injuries of temporary nature. Guidance values: 3 LC - >50000 mg/m (acute) o u 3 LC - >2500 mg/m (chronic) D U 3 TLV - >5000 mg/m (acute) 3 TLV - >250 mg/m (chronic) U Unknown * See Table IV-4 for list of definitions. IV-16 ------- Table IV-6 Human Effects Rating Criteria: Toxic Effects in Water* Severely hazardous. Very highly toxic causing lethalities or severe residual injuries to persons acquiring relatively small doses. Has potential to be carcinogenic. Guidance values: LC^n - ^ 3500 mg/lifcer of water (acute ingestion) 0 \) LC n - >^35 mg/liter of water (chronic ingestion) D w TLV - ^350 mg/liter of water (acute ingestion) TLV - ^3. 5 mg/liter of water (chronic ingestion) Slight to moderate hazard. Lethal only at moderate concentra- tions. In general causes serious temporary injury or minor residual damages. Guidance values: LC n - 3500 to 35000 mg/liter of water (acute) ou LC_n - 35 to 350 mg/liter of water (chronic) o u TLV - 350 to 3500 mg/liter of water (acute) TLV - 3. 5 to 35 mg/liter of water (chronic) Minimal hazard. Effects generally confined to minor symptoms and injury of a temporary nature. Guidance values: LC n - > 35000 mg/liter of water (acute) o u LCj.ft - y 350 mg/liter of water (chronic) D U TLV - y 3500 mg/liter of water (acute) TLV - ) 35 mg/liter of water (chronic) U Unknown * Values based on milligrams of toxic substance per liter of water (i. e., water concentration). Lethal concentration assumes ingestion of one liter of water containing one lethal dose (LD ) of substance by 70 kilograms man for an acute exposure. IV-17 ------- Table IV-7 Human Effects Rating Criteria: Toxic Effects in Soil Severely hazardous percutaneously on direct contact. May re- lease lethal secondary compounds in the form of vapors or mists to the atmosphere, or in liquid or particulate form to surface or ground waters. May be only moderately toxic (as described under 2 below) but is highly persistent. In contact with skin, causes second- and third-degree burns and is very injurious to the eyes on short direct contact. Extended periods of con- tact could cause death. Has potential to be carcinogenic. Moderately severe skin irritant. Causes severe smarting of skin and first-degree burns on short direct contact exposure. Causes severe pain and second degree burns after prolonged contact. Minimal hazard. No hazard for short time contact exposure. Mild irritation and smarting of skin in contact for prolonged period. U Unknown. Table IV-8 Human Hazards Rating Criteria: Flame, Explosion, and Reaction in Air 3 Severe hazard. Vaporizes quickly at atmospheric pressures and normal ambient temperatures. Readily dispersible and burnable in air. High liklihood of spontaneous combustion and/or explosive reaction. Exposure to flame or violent reaction may produce lethal gases, vapor, fumes, or mist. Liquid and vapor flash points below 100°F. 2 Moderate hazard. Generally must be heated or exposed to unusually high ambient temperatures to ignite. Under certain limited conditions can ignite spontaneously and burn rapidly but no explosion or violent reactions. Exposure to flame or violent reaction vapors, gases, fumes, etc. which may be toxic, but not lethal. Includes liquids and vapors with flash point over 100°F, and solids emitting highly flammable vapors. 1 Minimal hazard. Must be preheated to ignite. Includes liquids, solids, semi-solids with very high flash points. No generation of toxic mists, fumes, etc. occurs. U Unknown. _____ IV-18 ------- Table IV-9 Human Hazards Rating Criteria: Flame, Explosion, and Reaction in Water } Severe hazard. Will react explosively with water without re- quiring heat or confinement. Violent reactions may produce lethal or highly toxic vapors and/or acids that may cause serious and permanent injury. I Moderate hazard. May react violently with water, but only under certain very limited circumstances. May form potentially explosive mixtures with water, but requires catalyst to ignite. Reactions may release harmful, but not lethal or residual injuries. In general, effects are temporary with no residual damages. 1 Minimal hazard. Limited or no reaction in water. Any release of energy is non-violent. No generation of toxic vapors occurs. U Unknown Table IV-10 Human Hazards Rating Criteria: Flame, Explosion, and Reaction in Soil 3 Severe Hazard. Readily capable of detonation and explosive de- composition or reaction at normal ambient temperatures and pressures. Will detonate as result of mechanical shock or local thermal shock. Reacts readily with own oxides or with other oxidizing materials. Can ignite spontaneously and/or react violently if exposed to moisture in soil. Ignition or reaction can produce lethal vapors, fumes, etc. 2 Moderate hazard. Can readily undergo violent chemical change with rapid release of energy, but will not detonate explosively or react violently except under very special circumstances such as heating under confinement. Can ignite and burn rapidly or react to produce harmful, though not lethal, vapors and fumes if exposed to modest increase of temperature or if moisture is encountered. 1 Minimal hazard. General stable substances. Very limited potential for reaction or combustion. No toxic fumes or vapors associated with any reactions or combustion that may occur. U Unknown. IV-19~' ------- Table IV-11 Ecological Effects Rating Criteria: Toxic Effects in Air Severe hazard. Highly toxic, causing death or residual damage to animals and/or plants exposed to atmospheres contaminated at relatively low concentration levels, or to animals accumulat- ing small doses of the toxic substance. Guidance values: & 3~ O.. .X. -I* -I- LCj-n - <^2UUU mg/m or -^100 mg/kg (acute exposure) o LC(-n - -^20 mg/m or -^1.0 mg/kg (chronic exposure) 2 TLV - ^200 mg/m or 410 ™g/kg (acute exposure) o TLV - ^2 mg/m or ^0. 1 mg/kg (chronic exposure) 50 50 •^ < Slight to moderate hazard. Causes temporary damage to most species and is lethal to only a few extra sensitive species at moderate concentrations. Guidance values: 3 LC n - 2000 to 20000 mg/m or 100 to 1000 mg/kg (acute) DU 3 LC.,. - 20 to 200 mg/m or 0. 1 to 10 mg/kg (chronic) 0 U 3 TLV - 200 to 2000 mg/m or 10 to 100 mg/kg (acute) 3 TLV - 2 to 20 mg/m or 0. 1 to 1.0 mg/kg (chronic) Minimal hazard. Lethal only at concentrations which are not likely to occur at all, or at most over very limited areas. Causes only minor injury of temporary nature. Guidance values: 3 LCRn - > 20000 mg/m or > 1000 mg/kg (acute) 0 U LC „ - > 200 mg/m or > 10 mg/kg (chronic) 50 TLV - > 2000 mg/m3 or > 100 mg/kg (acute) 3 TLV - > 20 mg/m or > 1.0 mg/keg (chronic) U Unknown. ^Concentration of toxic substance per cubic meter of air *Loss of toxic substance (mg) per kilogram of animal body weight IV-20 ------- Table IV-12 Ecological Effects Rating Criteria: Toxic Effects in Water Severe hazard. Lethal to fish and/or other aquatic life in general in low concentrations. Guidance values: LC 50 LC ^100 mg/liter water ^1 mg/liter water ^10 mg/liter water TLV - <(0. 1 mg/liter water 50 TLV (acute exposure) (chronic exposure) (acute exposure) (chronic exposure) Slight to moderate hazard. Lethal to only a few sensitive species of fish on other aquatic life at moderate concentrations. Guidance values: LC50 50 TLV TLV 100 to 1000 mg/liter water 1 to 10 mg/liter water 10 to 100 mg/liter water 0. 1 to 1.0 mg/liter water (acute) (chronic) (acute) (chronic) Minimal hazard. Requires very high concentrations for exposures that would cause lethalities. Not likely to occur over large volumes of water. Guidance Values: u LC50 " LC50 - TLV - TLV - Unknown. > 1000 mg/liter water > 10 mg/liter water > 100 mg/liter water > 1. 0 mg/liter water (acute) (chronic) (acute) (chronic) IV-21 ------- Table IV-13 Ecological Effects Rating Criteria: Toxic Effects in Soil 3 Severe Hazard. Highly lethal on contact to most vegetation and/or earth organisms. May be soluble in water and can flow with surface or ground waters to affect vegetation and/or aquatic life in remote streams, ponds, lakes, etc. Potential hazard to public or private fresh water supplies because of persistence. 2 Moderate hazard. Lethal on contact to only sensitive species of plants and/or earth organisms. General damage to vegetation and earth organisms may be substantial but is reversible. May affect remote vegetation or aquatic life only under unusual circumstances of surface drainage or ground water penetration. 1 Minimal hazard. Minimal damage to plants and or organisms, all reversible. No potential for damage to remote aquatic life or vegetation. No threat to public or private fresh water supplies. U Unknown. Table IV-14 Hazardous Substances Production (or Consumation) Rating Criteria 1. 5 Large production (or consumption); amounts exceeding 10 pounds (50, 000 short tons) annually. 1. 25 Moderate production (or consumption); amounts at least 10 pounds (5000 short tons) but less than 10 pounds annually. 1. 0 Low production (or consumption); amounts less than 10 ' pounds annually. U Unknown ^Production or consumption amount, whichever was larger, was used to determine code rating. IV-22 ------- Table IV-15 Hazardous Substances Distribution Rating Criteria 0.5 0. 25 0.0 Wide distribution-based on more than 10 major producers; shipments in less than tank car containers for distribution to many consumers; and used as both intermediate industrial and consumer product. Moderate distribution-based on 5 to 10 major producers; shipments mostly in bulk or tank cars to limited number of consumers; and used as either intermediate industrial product or consumer product, but not both. Limited distribution - based on less than 5 major producers; used mostly or entirely by manufacturer. ------- Table IV-16 Sample Worksheet for Computing Substance Hazard Rating Compound Initial Rating Weight Final Rating Air Disposal Water Disposal Soil Disposal Human toxic effects Flame / Explos ion Ecoeffects Human toxic effects Flame / Explos ion Ecoeffects Human toxic effects Flame/ Explosion Ecoeffects Total Effects Rating (Sum of above) Number of Unknowns above Maximum Potential Effects Rating (unknowns x 3 + total effects rating) Production Rating Distribution Rating Hazard Extent Rating (Sum of Production & Distribution) Hazard Rating (Total Effects Rating x Hazard Extent Rating) (Maximum Potential Effects Maximum Potential Hazard Rating nxor-.x4.fTT ^ 6 Rate & Extent of Hazard Rating) IV-24 ------- Table IV-17 Sample Worksheet for Computing Hazard Rating Compound Cadmium Oxide Substance Initial Rating Weight Human toxic effects 3 1 Air . . Flame /Explosion 2 1 Ecoeffects 2 1 Human toxic effects 3 1 „.. , Flame /Explosion 1 1 Disposal ^ Ecoeffects U 1 Human toxic effects 1 1 „.. , Flame /Explosion 2 1 Disposal Ecoeffects U 1 Total Effects Rating (Sum of above) Number of Unknowns above „ ^ . . , „„. . _, . . (unknowns x 3 + total Maximum Potential Effects Rating .„ . effects rating) Production Rating Distribution Rating Hazard Extent Rating (Sum of Production & Distribution) Hazard Rating (Total Effects Rating x Hazard Extent Rating) (Maximum Potential Effects Maximum Potential Hazard Rating Rate & Extent of Hazard Rating) Final Rating 3 _2 1 1 1 U 1 2 U 14 2 2Q 1.0 0. 5 1. 5 21 30 IV-25 ------- s QJ -M W tuO fl •I-l -l-> ri K oo rt M S O in OJ N a T3 C S o O j] !'J 5 ll i i 1 il j z AND OISPOSA i £ < ! u II 5 ^ r ai f If J ' !i II y h h Si ... J Is Si II ! I i! CO CO o o ^ CT> N CM c. CO 0, QJ T3 j:' rt V ** S CM m m CM in CO CM P CM CO o, •2 OJ * CO CO CO in CM in CM CM ~ CM . 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CM „ CM CO um Cyanide -D - K m m CM CM CM ~ co „ ~ m CM CO um Fluoride •o o CO CM « m O CM CM - - C, CM - m - CO um Fo'rmate * TI O S in m CM ,„ CO CM ro - CM CM ^ CM co CM CO um Hydride (Crystals) I o CO S m CM m o CM CM » CM - CO CM o, CM CM um Hydrosulflte •a & O T Tf CO m m O - p CM CO c. CM fM CM CM um Hydroxide (Caustic Soda) T) in CM o m t- - * - - CO - CM CM CM 4t TJ -3 O 6 •o o CO S m S m - - - CM - ~ - 0, Ol CM um Nitrate (Solid) •6 cc s in « CM » - P - „ P c. p CO I u z E TJ CO O m « CO - p - CO - - ro CM " um Oxalate TJ O Cfl t- co CO r s in CM - P CM CO CO CM CO - CM OJ TJ 5 E 3 I CO CO CO m m CM ,„ 0) - p CM CM CO - CM CM CM um Perchlorate I o o m m m CO CM CM P CM CM CO CM r. CM CO um Peroxide T) O CM « m o CO p - CM a - ro CM P um Phosphate I r- 03 m m CM m O CM CO p CM CM = - CM CM CM urn-Potassium Alloy I 5 00 in « CM CM - - CO CM CO CM CO CM - um Sulfide I to o CO tn m CO - - CM - CM CM CM CM CM um Sulfite I o CO cr. « m CM in t- CM P - - P - CO CM - um Thlocyanate (Sodium Sulflcyanlde I CT> CM r- m m CM o CO CM CO p CM CO p CM « - CO) inic Chloride S CM CC m m CM O 03 CM P - CM P - CM CM CM inous Chloride I CO CO in CM m CM CM CO p CM CM P CM CM CM CM i K IV-39 ------- OO T-H > III r— 1 0 H -a 0) s •H & o U ll ,\| " s ; ll \ I » ll i z » 1 0 _, 1 Eu X 5 a !r .'S ir i 1 r ar K f 1 II .1 3 - T "' Is li ll h si h ii M i S « j\| I! f 5 H s OC o CM lO ^ - ~" - c. CM C C £ c a/ a, tL C (U L, W O o £ S. m N CM CM -, CM Sulfur Dioxide 0 CO a: m CM CM 0 CM ~ c. C, CM 0- y O H (C O 0 m m £ CM CM co CM [Sulfurir Acid t- (C m m CM O CM - co CM 1 Sulfurous And Cvj Oi m CM in CM o CM CM CM CM t, (/: CM CM CO •". m O CO ~ CM CM \| Tantalum ? (£ 0 •°. « CM - co CM CT U h- CM m m S 0 - CM CO CM O en nJ rt H CM O m CM m CM O CM CM CM CM 1 Tetrachloroethane (Acetvlene Tetrachlori 0 o m m m £ CM c. CM -a j: c _ m m o CM CM ^ CM \| Tetrah\drofuran CO CO m m CM m r-i CM CM CM '•O CM 1 Tetrameth\l Lead o • m CM o CM co ~, r" 1 1 etranitromethane o _ •". •°. o 0 CM - - c. 1 Thallium CM * m in 0 OJ - - CM j Thallium Sulfate « „ m CM m CM 0 CM CM CO N \| Titanium Tetrachloride s 0 o * .r oc CM c, CM "o "o H 0; c iL "o f- s t- m in CM O o CM - CO CM rt d o Q CL L: cu h- S O in in 0 o> - CM CM V c Cf c rt > -C OJ £ 0 (L C TJ 3 "o H CM CO m in CM m m - - - \| Trichlorobenzene CO ,0 m m m CO CM - CM \| Tnchloroethane (a or p ) z iC m c- m CM m CO 01 CM CM \| Tnchloroeth\lene CO CM ^ « CM « CO "" CM - N j Trichlorofluoromethane (Freon 11) CM to ,, in CM in = " - - CM j Tnethanolamme CO CO in m o CM CM CO c. 1 Triethvlarmne s en t- „ in CM = - - c. j Trieth>lene GKrol IV-40 ------- CO (U 3 c 0) u ii ll ,; ! 4 \| I If 4i ] 1 1 jj _y 1 a z i s $ c u 1 ir a s 1 C fr IS s ir -- 5 ? s n t I C 5 t ; s Ml C °i jr I « »l Is !i 5l II il l & U 5 5 \|\| if II 15 ^0 CM Ol iO CM m CM O ^_ eg us -> cr; CO » - e5 \| Triethylene Tetramine •r CM m 1/5 in CM in CM to CM 0 p - CM D CM CM \| Trimethylamme o CO to 1/5 m CM m CM 0 « ^ p CM D D CM 04 \| Tri-o-Cresyl Phosphate r (M Cl O in in i-- CM U ~ m D CM -» a/ c r. 4> G- U, ^» H CM CM O) in CM m CM O CO - (O - D CO CM CO 1 Yar.adium Pentoxide CJ -r tn M m CM o t- w ^ - D eo CM CM 1 Vanadium Sulfide cc CM CO CM n r- m CM m to - - « CO CM - 0) s 0 u < »"« >^ c u* ? r.) m i~ C) m 00 CM CM ^ D CM CM I Vinvl Chloride r CJ IT l- ir C' ifj CM - cn - CM - X O x' u c 4) K e o c~ 10 c m 'O 10 C4 O « 00 CO CM ^ CO 0 c o -C a '>, JC -• OJ 6 a m C"- o u > y. r vT ir c o _ n CM D P CM CO L C' t- < C N' CJ m m r tn CM 0 „, CO CM D D CM n CM CO (D •o C rt U u c N c ct CM m in o _ , N ^> ~ f~ - CO CM (U ttf u c N i~i CJ o m m cc - -•) - (Tl CO - CM (U ~o y, O rt i: . t u L nj t' L, a.' (X o c N •v CM to in CM m CM O ro CM ID -. CO ^P CM CM \| Zinc Peroxide r Cl Cl m Cl m CM O ffi CO o - D D CM CM I Zinc Sulfide IV-41 ------- i-H ^ 1 — [ UJ I— 1 o rt H tn be C •1-1 ni PH J3 to 0 T3 ni ed ffi 3 rt C •r-i be ni § 3 o co C Compou i! L i ?! J i 5 j 1] jl ] i! i i j c i 1 5 E i! f? " S ii I r { •1 !I 1. ji fi ii if 1 II M ii ,„ H is !J . u ? O in m m - CO "" S. •r. o CM 0> m m OJ o 00 - " Ammoethv lethanolamine OJ o m Oj O « CO 7 CO CO ^ m m - r- "D •r c, O OJ 0 m m Ol m ~ - -o 1 "rt CC O ". « CO m [ Calcium Phosphite - „. " OJ O - ^ o .c Q. £ OJ CO m m OJ in - en u c CO CO « OJ « ,, n \ Copper (Pust) S CD m in in -.* =» c o L, U ft' 6 O o o Q Ol OJ m OJ in I Dichlorotetranuorcethane (Freon 114) C"* 01 if) m 1 Dicyclopentadiene Cl * m Ol «, •X "c 0- c Oi 6 CD OJ •* « S 0 CO ] Dibopropanolamint 1- 01 IT « IT- OJ o CD [ Eth>lpheriol 2 „ in m OJ in - "o V c i- 11 13 CO 01 in s. 0, „ c a X o c a a o Oj r S 10 ^D in c O r- O " OJ tn ^ ~D \| Isopentane CO OJ m IT- m OJ - - rt 3 in in 6 c ------- 3 G • r-4 -M § u fl ]J !l :4 i* & 1 * h il 1 i! i Q _, f c I ¥ i i II ll i ff ll f • f i ' r il 4 n li Is \l " h Is l! u \l \1 It II fj il eg ^> CM O 1. 1 lO .-. - CM - CM Oxygen eg O tf; eg m CM O - en cc u - rt u w CM CJ tr t- 1/5 O) .- - cv, t~ ^ - Sodium Silicate r- iT. if? C~ lO M t^ m CN 1C - - QO ^J - Tripropylene (Nonene) CM •v o m o - w - D - 0) 0 J- -J c^ o m w m CM O - m 00 ^J . 1 Zinc Chlorate CVJ r-i Lf- C1 in eg o ~ CO O LJ c^ \| 0) 5 O C N >, £ U o C M [ IV-43 ------- Table IV-20 Specific Compounds Used as Warfare Agents by the Department of Defense Below Is a list of hazardous chemical compounds generally associated with DoD activities in development of warfare agents. Some of these compounds are also included among the list of hazardous com- pounds (Table IV-18, page IV-26), because they are also used in industrial processes which lead directly or indirectly to consumer products. Where appropriate (for the above reason), the ratings as developed have been included following the compounds named on the list below. HD - Mustard L - Lewisite CG - Phosgene (30) AC - Hydrocyanic Acid (50)* NH - Nitrogen Mustard CN - Tear Gas (26) CS - Irritant Tear Gas BM - Irritant Agent WD - White Phosphorus (47)* GB - Nonpersistent Nerve Gas VX - Persistent Nerve Gas Chloropicnic IV-44 ------- Table IV-21 Hazardous Wastes Generated by Department of Defense Activities (Explosive Materials) Acetylene (24) Acetyl Peroxide Amatol Ammonium Nitrate (34) Ammonium Perchlorate (44) Ammonium Pirate (wet 36, dry 40) Anfo Aromatic Nitro Compounds, n. o. i. Azides, n. o. i. Benzol Peroxide Black Power Blasting Caps Blasting Gelatin Butyl Hydroperoxide tert-Butyl Perbenzoate Butyl Peroxypivalate Cellulose Nitrate Chloric Acid 1 Chloro-2, 4-Dinitrobenzene 1 Chloro-1-Nitropropane Cumene Hydroperoxide Cyclonite (RDX) Cyclotol Dibutyl Peroxide 1, 1-Dichloro-l-Nitroethane Diisopropylperoxydicarbonate 2, 4-Dinitroaniline (40) M-Dinitrobenzene O-Dinitrobenzene (31) P-Dinitrobenzene 2, 4-Dinitrophenol (36) 2, 4-Dinitrotoluene (40) Double-base Propellants Dynamite Ethylene (25) Ethylene Oxide (28) Ethyl Nitrite IV-45 ------- Table IV-21 (Continued) Fulminates, n. o. i. Guanidine Nitrate Guanidine Perchlorate Guncotton HMX Hydrazine (30) Hydrogen Peroxide (42) Lauroyl Peroxide Mannitol Hexanitrate Mercury Fulminate Methyl Parathion (34) Nitroethane (25) Nitroguanidine Nitromethane (26) Nitroparaffin, n. o. i. (22) 1-Nitropropane (24) 2-Nitropropane (24) Nitrostarch p-Nitrotoluene (25) Octol Organic Nitrates, n. o. i. Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate (PETN) (27) Pentolite Peracetic Acid Perchloryl Fluoride (25) Picric Acid (29) Primacord Propargyl Alcohol Propargyl Bromide Propyl Nitrate Pyrotechnics (Flares, Fireworks) Pyrooxilin (Nitrocellulose) RDX (Cyclonite) Safety Fuse Smokeless Powder Sporting Powder Styphnates, n. o. i. Tetryl 1, 3, 5-Trinitrobenzene 2, 4, 6-Trinitrotoluene IV-46 ------- Table IV-22 Toxic Pollutants Involved in Conventional Munitions Production 1. Air Exposure Acetic Acid (31) (5) Acetic Anhydride (38) (6) Ammonia (37) (4 + 1 unknown) Butyl Alcohol Cyclohexanone (26) (4) Formic Acid (24) (7) Iso-Butyl Acetate (21) (4) Methylacetate (21) (4) Methyl Ethylacetone Nitric Acid (37) (7) Oxides of Nitrogen Toluene (36) (5) Other Organics SO4 2. Water Exposure Acetic Acid (31) (6) Hexamine Ammonia (37) (7) Sodium Nitrate (30) (4) Sodium Sulfate Phenols (44) (7) Iso-Butyl Acetate (21) (6) Ammonium Nitrate (34) (4) Nitric Acid (37) (8) Oils Explosives Red Water (Stellite) Sulfuric Acid (46) (8) IV-47 ------- Table IV-23 Typical Department of Defense Waste Compounds and Materials 1. Maintenance Operations Cleaning Solvents Paints and Lacquers Plating Wastes Oily Wastes Surfactants 2. Supply Operations Toxic Munitions Explosive Munitions Propellants Oxidizing Agents Flammable Liquids Explosives Pyrotechnics Pesticides and Herbicides Drugs and Medicinals Corrosive Liquids Nuclear Weapon Components Laboratory Chemicals 3. Weapon Systems Support Operations Hydrazine (30) Monomethylhydrazine Borane Analines (35) Hydrocarbon Fuels Liquid Oxygen Solid Propellants Warheads—Nuclear, Non-Nuclear Fluorine (40) IV-48 ------- LIST OF REFERENCES 1. Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, I. N. Sax et al., Reinhold Book Corp., Third Edition, 1968. 2. Toxicity of Industrial Metals, Dr. E. Browning, Butterworth and Co., Ltd., Second Edition, 1969. 3. Clinical Toxicology of Commercial Products. M. N. Gleason et al., The Williams and Wilkins Co., Third Edition, 1969. 4. An Appraisal of the Problem of the Handling, Transportation, and Disposal of Toxic and Other Hazardous Materials, H. D. Messer et al., Booz, Allen and Hamilton, Inc., January 30, 1970. 5. Air Pollution Aspects of Organic Carcinogens, Dr. D. A. Olsen and J. L. Haynes, Litton Systems, Inc., for the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-090, September 1969. 6. Air Pollution Aspects of Asbestos, R.J. Sullivan and Y. C. Athanassiadis, Litton Systems, Inc., for the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-080, September 1969. 7. Design of an Overview System for Evaluating the Public Health Hazards of Chemicals in the Environment, Volumes I and II. G.A. Lutz et al., Battelle Memorial Institute, for the U.S. Depart- ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Services, National Technical Information Service, PB-194-398, July 1967. 8. Ground Disposal of Pesticides: The Problem and Criteria for Guidelines, Working Group on Pesticides, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-197-144, Report WGP-DR-1, March 1970. IV-49 ------- LIST OF REFERENCES (Continued) 9. Air Pollution Aspects of Pesticides. Litton Systems, Inc., for the U. S. Department of Health Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-091, September 1969. 10. The Merck Index of Chemicals and Drugs, P. G. Stecher et al., Merck and Co., Inc., Seventh Edition, 1960. 11. "List of Toxic Substances, " The Bureau of National Affairs, Inc., Occupational Safety and Health Reporter, Reference File, 1971. 12. Criteria for Selection of Elements and Compounds to be Designated as Hazardous Polluting Substances, C. H. Thompson, Environmental Protection Agency, Division of Oil and Hazardous Materials, October 22, 1971. 13. Control of Spillage of Hazardous Polluting Substances, G. W. Dawson et al., Pacific Northwest Laboratories, for the U. S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Quality Administration, November 1, 1970. 14. Evaluation of the Hazard of Bulk Water Transportation of Industrial Chemicals - A Tentative Guide, the Committee on Hazardous Materials Advisory to the U. S. Coast Guard, National Research Council, 1970. 15. Laboratory Waste Disposal Manual, Manufacturing Chemists Association, May 1970. 16. Chemical Safety References, National Safety Council, Chemical Section, 1968. 17. Dangerous Chemicals Code, Los Angeles Fire Department, Parker & Sons, Inc., 1951. 18. Veterinary Toxicology. R. D. Radeleff, D. V. M., Lea & Febiger, 1964. 19. Hazard Survey of the Chemical and Allied Industries, American Insurance Association, Division of Technical Services Engineering and Safety Department, Technical Survey No. 3, 1968. IV-50 ------- V. SURVEY AND INVENTORY OF TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL METHODS ------- V. SURVEY AND INVENTORY OF TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL METHODS 1. INTRODUCTION The analysis of treatment and disposal methods can be divided into four general categories of waste materials: Waterborne wastes Solid wastes Airborne wastes Thermal wastes. Water is by far the largest disposal media. Municipal treatment systems and industrial treatment systems are based on the use of water to dilute, move, and process wastes. The treatment of wastes in water is the basis for much of the waste treatment methodology currently in use. The collection, reduction, and disposition of solid wastes (and many liquid wastes) in landfills is a close second in the volume of waste handled. The garbage and trash collection processes typify this system of waste disposal. The disposition of airborne wastes has received increasing attention recently. In past years, the disposition of airborne wastes was largely a process of releasing gases, fumes or particulates above the level of those immediately adjacent to the release site. Once airborne, such wastes were considered as adequately disposed. Only in recent years has attention been given to the problems created by thermal wastes. The accelerating demands for power have focused attention on the hazards which result from massive releases of thermal energy. V-l ------- When the tolerance level of man, other creatures, or vegetation is exceeded by one or more pollutants, a hazardous condition is created. If the tolerance level is not exceeded, the level of pollution is considered nonhazardous. The dependence of the definition of hazardous wastes on the tolerance threshold of the threatened specie makes it difficult to specify the pollutants and conditions which add up to a hazardous condition, i. e. , a threat to health. The insidiousness of health effects makes it difficult to establish the levels at which pollutants become acute threats to the various specie of the environment, and make it even more difficult to define the levels at which the chronic effects may be created. The methods now used to dispose of unwanted materials (wastes) can be described, but the effectiveness with which they safely dispose of potentially hazardous materials is much more difficult to describe. The paragraphs that follow describe the current practices which are used to dispose of unwanted materials, review the extent to which they are used, and make appraisals as to their probable effectiveness in reducing hazardous waste conditions. 2. CURRENT TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL PRACTICES The discussion of these practices will cover the methods now in use to handle water wastes, solid wastes, air wastes, and thermal wastes. The hazards that may result from improper disposal of waste materials vary widely. The effect of the release of highly toxic materials may range from an innocuous effect on the receiving air or water to an effect that endangers a substantial number of people. The toxicity, corrosiveness, explosiveness, etc. , of the compound released are only some of the factors involved in establishing its effect. The others are the concentration developed and the presence of a susceptible population. If steps are taken to ensure that the amounts released do not exceed the threshold of any part of the susceptible population, however, no harm can result. The presence of a dangerous material is a warning that disposal methods must be capable of safely releasing such materials if no harm is to result. V-2 ------- While technical means exist to safely handle all dangerous materials, no controls exist to ensure that essential technical treatment steps are taken. At present, disposal controls do not provide a means to identify all potentially hazardous materials or the means to control their safe disposition. The technology currently in use may, in most cases, reduce the hazardous effects to the level of water and air pollutants. However, if the effects are chronic in nature, even those pollutants may in time produce broad-scale harmful effects on the susceptible population. The absence of an immediate acute effect on the exposed population is no assurance that chronic effects are absent. (1) Wastewater Treatment Methods The wastewater treatment methods used in industry are comparable to municipal sewage treatment methods. The wastewater streams are processed to screen out, neutralize, or reduce contaminants contained in the stream. The treatment that can be provided is summarized in the chart (Figure V-l) on the following page. In practice, the treatments shown are not widely applied, especially on a system basis that includes secondary and tertiary processes. Rather, they are treatments which are used in experimental or occasional applications, and should not be considered as typical system practices. If the full operation of potential treatments is applied, all contaminants can be removed and water can be restored to a drinkable state. The practical limiting factor is the costs which must be incurred to achieve full decontamination. Such costs are proportional to the volume of wastes to be treated, the level of contamination that must be removed, and the difficulties encountered in removing the particular contaminants. The processes shown are based on the biological reduction of contaminants aided by chemical and physical treatments. Since many organic compounds are resistant to biodegradation, such waste streams should be isolated from other wastewater streams, when feasible, and separately treated or disposed of (i. e. , thermal oxidation or deep-well disposal). V-3 ------- FIGURE V-l Candidate Wastewater Treatment Processes- Substitution and Sequence Diagram HiiiiiiuiiiiMiniiiiiiHiiNiiuiiimiiiiiiiiRiiiitiiiiiiiiiiz i I nniiHwiiuiHiuninuiiuiB (f,,,M§ Snil m"'"l = S = HHIIUIIIimillMlllllllllllllinilliTllllllllinillllllHIIIIIIU onliHiiHiHiini3uiiiiiHinii V-4 ------- Conceptually, waste treatment can be divided into three phases: primary, secondary, and tertiary. In the primary phase, the waterborne constituents are separated from the water stream by simple actions such as: Screening Equalization, neutralization of pH adjustment Oil separation Flotation, flocculation or clarification. These actions substantially increase the sedimentation of dissolved or particulate waterborne wastes. Secondary treatments such as: Activated sludge Extended aeration Trickling filters Aerated lagoons Waste stabilization ponds Chemical oxidation are used to biologically or chemically convert organic wastes to inactive sediments and water streams which are innocuous. Tertiary treatment is applied to remove residual contami- nants that are not affected by biological treatment. Such processes include: Ammonia stripping Coagulation and precipitation Filtration and microscreening ------- Carbon adsorption Disinfection Electrodialysis Ion exchange Reverse osmosis Evaporation. The latter four processes may be used to extract materials for later use or disposal. The final effluent from tertiary treatment is generally acceptable for return to the waters initially used to assist in the disposal process. The sludges that are created as the water treatment proceeds can be handled in a variety of ways. As part of the water stream, they are subject to the same pretreatments applied to the water streams, i.e. , pretreatments, thickening, and separations. Such treatments may include: Aerobic stabilization Anerobic digestion Lagooning Heat treatment as well as dewatering by means of filter processes, or vacuum filters, centrifuges, or sand-drying beds. Sludges may be transported by pipe, truck, rail or barge to land reclamation, landfill or ocean disposal sites or may be incinerated and the residual solids disposed of on landfills. Lime used in chemical treatment may be recalcified and reused, while carbon used in adsorption towers may be regenerated for reuse. Carefully designed water treatment methods can remove most hazardous compounds from effluent streams. If treatment systems are not designed and operated properly, hazardous V-6 ------- waste streams survive water treatment and pollute the receiving waters. In many cases, however, little or no treatment is given to industrial wastes. (2) Air Pollution Controls Thousands of different types of combustible organic compounds are released to the atmosphere from many different manufacturing operations. Examples include industrial dryers, ovens and furnaces used for the baking of paints and enamels; processes used in the manufacture of organic chemicals, inorganic chemicals, and paints and varnishes. Organic and inorganic materials released by refining processes, steel mill operations, nonferrous metal production, power production plants and automotive traffic also add to the pollution levels. There is no simple way to overcome the pollution problems. Each manufacturing area has unique problems which may require differing treatment methods. Unlike water treatment methods, there is no basic set of treatments whose sound application can ensure clean air. Because of the wide variety of toxic compounds which may be emitted, each control system must consider the explosive and fire hazard effects which are related to the gases and particulates in each set of emissions, and adapt available technology to adequately deal with the total effects that are to be controlled. The status of current technology in the control of emissions to the atmosphere was presented in hearings before the Subcom- mittee on Air and Water Pollution of the Committee on Public Works, March 15-18, 1967, and is contained in Table V-l, which is presented on the following pages. As Table V-l indicates, adequate control technology generally existed even in 1967, but the need for its application has not been fully accepted by industry and the means to enforce its use have not been available to all enforcement authorities. The particular technology applications best suited to pollution control are heavily dependent on the technology and economics of the process to be controlled. Recently built plants and new V-7 ------- Table V-l Status of Current Technology in the Control of Emissions to the Atmosphere- Source Domestic and commercial heating plants: Coal fires (not hand fired) Oil fired Gas died Industrial heating plants: Coal fired Oil fired Gas lired Electric generating plants: Coal fired Oil filed (;L fired Hanikfned coal burning furnaces Incineiators. Domestic; commercial; industrial: Single chamber Multiple clumber Municipal Aiitn body and scrap wire Mineral industry: Cement Insulation Cla« manufacturing Krit Phosphate fenilizer Asphalt concrete hatching Concrete batching ('.arlxin black: HII na iron cu\|K>la: Production Jobbing Ferroalloys Aluminum: Reduction Secondary operations Smelting Lead ores Zinc ores Copper ores Sulfur Pankulates oxides C NC C NC <•) x ft x X X ft x X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X ft X X X X X X X X X X X X X X () X ft X X X X X X X X X Carbon monoxide Others C NC C NC X Smoke NO, X Smoke NO, X NO, X Smoke NO, X Smoke NO, X NO, X Smoke NO, X Smoke NO, X NO, X Smoke ' NO, X Smoke; organks X Smoke; organks X Smoke; organks X Smoke; organks NO, NO,: odors uncon- trolled in some glass wool plants Fluorides NO, NO, Fluorides; ammonia Odors: NO, NO, NO, Organks; smoke Fluorides; NO, NO,: fluorides, if in raw material NHt. benzol, toluol. Odors nrganicx Orgaincs: odors X NO, Fluorides NO, Fluorides NO, NO, X NO, NO, NO, X Organks NO, X Organks NO, NO, Fluorides Carbonaceous matter Chlorine NO, NO, NO, Remarks CO not of majir concern. Control of SO, "Mily by switching to low sulfur fuel. Control of CO by good combustion. Control of par iculate during soot blowing needed. Partial control c r NO, is possible. Partial control of NO, is possible. Control of partkulale during soot blowing needed. Partial control of NO, is possible. Partial control of NO, is possible. Controlled by elimination of hand firing of coal whkh may be a hardship on low-income households. Can be controlled by eliminating single-chamber incinerators. }More effective control of paniculate emissions is needed. Paniculate control difficult for old plant. Can control fluoride and visible emissions by raw material control. Fluoride control dtmctilt on older plants ami icitain processes. Fugitive dust control difficult at older plants. SO, may be a problem and cannot be controlled. Older plants often difficult to control. Fluorides from decomposition of certain clays. Fugitive dust difficult to control. Emissions from charging and discharging ovens. Old plains are \ery difficult lit (omiol. • Completely noncontrollcd. CO used as fuel. Control difficult on older plains. Being phased out. Replacing basic o\|icn dearth. Emissions not controlled during tilling and charging. Fluoride control poor in Soderberg furnaces. NOTt. See footnotes at end of table, p. 354. ttv C—Control technology generally available: NC—Control technology not generally available; CO—Carbon monoxide: HC— Hydrocarbons; SO,—Sulfur oxides; NO,—Nitrogen oxides. V-8 ------- Table V-l (Continued) Source Refining. /int Brass Tatomte plants Petroleum industry Petroleum refining: Separation (crude distilla- tion, etc.) Conversion. Catalytic cracking Reforming Treating Blending Petroleum production Petroleum marketing: Bulk plants Service stations Solvent evaporation- Dryi leaning Paint spraying Industrial storage Degreasing Bake oven Kr.ifi pulpmills: Digesters Smell tank 1 .11 PL- kiln Recovery furnace Eva porators Oxidation towers Chemical industry: Sulfuric .nid Nit uc acid Hydtochloric acid Phosphoric acid Hydrofluoric acid Chlorine Ammonia (synthetic) 1 in ic- Soda ash. Ammonia soda Tiona Caustic soda: Lime-soda Electrolytic Polvcthylcne Polwmyl chlonde Alum Paint and varnish Synthetic rubber Rublicr it re manufacturing Oil bodying operation Formaldehyde Meihanol (synthetic) Pht-nol (syniheuc) Ravon Particulates C NC X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Sulfur Carbon oxides monoxide Others C NC C NC C HC, HjS X H,S H£ Odors HC HC HC Solvents Solvents Solvents Sulfur compounds Sulfur compounds Sulfur compounds X X Sulfides, odors X Sulfuric acid mist NO, HO, solvents Fluondcs, phosphoric acid mist. HF Clf NHj organic bases NHS Cl, HC MCI, vinyl chloride. vi ny It dene chloride, vinyl acetate. Mists Odors, solvents HC, solvents, odors Odors X Meihanol, formalde- hyde, HC X Ben/enc, toluene. odors Sul fides, carbon disulnde odors. NC NO, NO, NO, NO, HC Solvents^) Solvent^) NO, Water vapor NO, Sulfur compounds; NO, Sulfur compounds and odors. NO,, (chamber process) NO, NO, Odors Remat ks Pamcula e control at small scrap reclaiming operations is economically burdensome Odon otten noticeable. Partial control possible. Recovered. Generally uncontrolled. Breathing losses usually uncontrolled. Water vapor controlled in Europe. Some odors detectable 'at < 1 ppb. Control of odorous sulfur com\|>outuU usually not ------- Table V-l (Continued) Source Insecticides: Chlorinated I'ltosphoi us type (irbamatcs Soap ami dcleigrnt I'hmgcnc Phllialic anhydride Food processing and agriculture: (U>tion ginning Alfalfa dehydrating Feep and grain mills flosr mills , Mi-fe smoking Starch nunulat.luring Fish processing Coflee roasting Rendering Agncultuial liurning: Fields Forest Crop splaying Sulfur Carbon Paniculate* oxides monoxide C NC C NC C NC X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Oners C N<: O,: HC1 Odors Odors Odors Os and phosgene Odors Pesticides Odors: NO, Odors; sitlnle Odors Odors NO, Odors Organic, odors Organics, odors Drill Many insecticides Mid herbicides. RemarU Some are supenoiic. Some are highly loiic. Nonpersisleitt. Partial control of odor pott;JJc. Iliglily toxic. Ti; 'it system, mainly captive use. Some gins haw con problems. Incineration of conon trash of concern in regard u arsenic. Often unsatisfactory. Cl\| scrubbers. Partial control of odors possible. Fume burners. Complete odor control difficult. Haxjrdous to life unless carefully done. ' Reference (6), pp. 2274-2277 (J. H. Ludwig) * Emission control is possible bul coil n unacceptably great compared to capital investment of plant or as a factor in COM of finished products or in relationship to the ability of persons rChponsiliU' foi control to hear the costs. NOI».—Nitrogen oxidi-s (NO,) aie always lornied in high-leinpenlure combusiiiHi. Amounts vary wild coiiilitions. Feusiule incaiu for atlequatc control ol tn>i«ioiis are not available. Ktv C—Cxintiol iechnok>gy generally available: NC—Control technology not geiteralh avjittble; CO—Carlx.n monoxide; Hi'.—Hydrocarbons; SO,—Sullur oxides; NO^-Nitrogcn oxides V-10 ------- processes generally incorporate effective pollution reduction measures. However, the costs of retro-fitting existing processes may make it uneconomic to continue the current production methods. The degrees of control that are acceptable to local authorities will influence heavily the techniques that are adopted. In some cases, the control technology which has been developed is inadequate to the control needs. (3) Solid Waste Disposition As the methods used to control wastewater and air pollution find increased application and improvement, the disposal of solid wastes from industrial operations will become a greater problem. Wastes extracted from the water and air will become part of the solid waste disposal process. Figure V-2 illustrates how solid industrial wastes arise and the typical treatments involved in their processing as industrial plant wastes. The processing of industrial solid wastes will become a larger task as the water and air standards are tightened. Should pollution standards be established to control leaching from existing sludge piles and lagoons, for example, an enormous effort will be required to process such accumulations and remove or contain those compounds polluting ground and runoff waters. If concern extends to the mineral industry solid wastes, such as mine and mineral processing wastes, solid waste processing and disposal will become the largest of all waste management efforts. To illustrate the potential magnitude of this problem, Tables V-2 and V-3 present sources and magnitudes of solid wastes generated by the minerals and fossil fuel industries, and the pollutants that result from mining operations are summarized in the following paragraphs. Physical Pollutants—Solid particulate material, either mineral or organic, which enters a stream or pond may react chemically with water or other substances to form even more harmful compounds. An estimated total of 2, 000 abandoned mine and mill waste dumps are contributing to water pollution. Stabilization of these dumps by planting vegetation V-ll ------- Uf -J 53 FIGURE V-2 Solids Handling. Treatment and Disposal 1 £2 4 CO 0-5 g a. in cr il n to Z il s; 11 0 Z Z S I ac •- UJ * G i Iff V-12 ------- 1-4 .r-l CO CO 0 ft TJ 0$ OQ •a (^ S « 5 «» ~ S ra ^ _• f- r- s 5 5 "* f1 \| ,. CO -M > £.2 S 40 CO TJ •l-t •s CO r-l cd JJ 0 H CO 00 Q) C -» •H CO m C i-i S >^ }»i jj CO 3 C M fi %^ o ^o vo i^ in oo OO vO CD -#>•«•.«> M n.» cvj co vO CO «^ O4 in in <}" in r-i CT» m co co oo cr. r^ r-l tf vO 1 CM rH in r-l ^f O ^sT rH •< z oo f^^ r^ O 0 -H O f^ rH fiZi rH oo r^» CM m in 0* r^ oo co r» r^» in vo m CM m oo O rx fo rH cr •-I rH in co -j- -d- rH CM r-l rH ^i T-I n) •<-) C3 to rjrtjCtsJC EM< cu a. i -H .. 3 j^ tj O. C "I "O Gr-lJJjJr-IO d.OO<03rt-r-ic >j- p^ m CO OO r-l ON ON oo o" m O"N CO rH m m oo i-i rx. O CM CO « CO CO CO rH CM ao O •-H t T -^ H O H 0) CQ /-v Clj fe T3 0) T3 0 C rt frj i— M £X CO 01 fll >H •r-l T.3 • H gj ^ , ~> tj SH aS 3 W-g j-H M 'J-H t> •S o S w cu 2 3 Cu i— H JH kH r-j r» •"^ QJ CO bjO M (-H U^ -* (1) b .S CQ rS P £ TJ ft o 13 TJ +i 3 SH O O 0) g SU ft K fcU) O rH 5-1 . CO ^J £\| '^j - jH (1) " r3 C ^.4 ! s s 5 CO O — ' OS t> SH ^ r ,_ CJ ^ CO ^ ^ •a > cj >^ f-j O cd •3 s t: « 5 2 g < ^ rS V-13 ------- Table V-3 Solid Wastes Generated by the Mineral and Fossil Fuel Mining and Processing Industries in 1968 and Accumulated Up to 1968 (1, 000 Short Tons) Industry Copper Iron and Steel Phosphate Rock Lead -Zinc Alumina Bituminous Coal Coal Ash Other Total 1968 669,683 310,764 411,700 22,246 7,976 97,107 29,735 234,538 1,783,749 Accumulated up to 1968 9,078,544 4,687,858 1,945,144 492,525 61,521 1,849,145 Qin ooo 455,773 4,576,281 24,055,791 is hindered by the high acidity of alkalinity of the material. Studies indicate that sediment yield from strip mines in 1, 000 times that derived from forested areas, and that half of the 4. 2 million gallons of waste processing water is released untreated to adjacent streams. This sediment may also include valuable mineral resources. Chemical Pollutants—Acids, alkaline solutions, mineral salts drained from mines, and waste heaps accrued from the minimg and processing of mineral sulfide ores are examples of a type of pollutant that is more difficult to treat than other solids. V-14 ------- The mineral sulfides treat chemically with air and water to form sulfuric acid, which reacts with other minerals to cause other ions, such as aluminum, manganese, lead, zinc and arsenic. These enter water by draining from spoil material or by ground water percolation through spoil material on its way to nearby streams. When the concentration of these pollutants is sufficiently great, "dead water" which is toxic to living organisms results. Another effect of acid drainage from these wastes is the formation called "yellow boy, " a rust-colored precipitate of ferric hydroxide that accumulates in stream beds. Due to its coating action it smothers aquatic life (coast gil structures), and may seal stream bottoms to the extent that water can no longer percolate through the bed to oxygenate the breeding areas for aquatic species. Physical and Chemical Pollutants—Compounds used in cleaning, milling and beneficiation processes for the recovery of mineral values may be inadvertently lost, and reach streams by spills, direct flushing, or from overflows of natural leaching of tailing ponds. Normally they are impounded in the settling areas, but seepage through or breaks in the dam permit these compounds to contaminate ground waters and streams. Most of these effluents are foul smelling and discolor the water. In some instances they are toxic. Phosphates in water may stimulate abnormal growth of algae and other aquatic flora which consume oxygen and thereby sufficate other forms of stream life. V-15 ------- Physical and chemical pollutants from mining have adversely affected 18, 000 miles of streams in the United States. Mine sources contribute large volumes of sediment, and more than 4 million tons of sulfuric acid, to the streams. Surface mining alone has adversely affected 8,700 miles of streams. Underground mining is responsible for degrading approximately 9, 300 miles of stream and 22, 000 acres of lakes and other water bodies in 31 states (Appendix A-1, Table A-1-5). (4) Thermal Pollution As demand grows for energy, greater recognition must be given to the effects of increased use of energy. Thermal pollution is an unwanted by-product of power generation. The debate as to the virtues of fossil fuels in comparison to nuclear fuels centers around the issue of thermal pollution. Disposal of the heat contained in discharges from powerplants without adverse effect in the environment is one of the problems of all steam-electric plants, nuclear as well as fossil fueled. Because of its relatively low steam temperature (500°F versus 1,000°F), a water-cooled nuclear plant achieves a thermal efficiency of only 32. 5 percent compared with over 40 percent for a fossil- fuel plant. Until the more advanced fast-breeder reactors are in use, the use of nuclear powerplants will tend to increase thermal pollution. Unless the rate of increase of power demand can be slowed, new power sources will rapidly increase the thermal load on the water streams of our nation. 3. WASTE STREAMS. HAZARDOUS WASTES. AND DISPOSAL METHODS There are a variety of substances that can create hazardous conditions. The hazardous condition is the result of a dangerous property of a compound or a group of compounds. The extent of the V-16 ------- danger is dependent upon the amounts of the dangerous compound present, its dilution by inert substances, and the proximity of persons or things that may be harmed by the condition created by the compound. Hazardous conditions may be created by compounds that are Radioactive Explosive Corrosive Toxic Flammable Pathogenic Carcinogenic Mutagenic or have other more exotic long-range effects when their tolerance levels are exceeded. The safe handling of such compounds is dependent on the degree of control that can be exercised to (1) isolate the susceptible population, (2) remove the condition that triggers the danger (fire-explosion), or (3) attenuate the effect below the threshold of susceptibility. Waste treatment and disposal techniques use all of these approaches. Historically, the approach has been to attenuate the effects (through simple dilution) below the level that makes the effects unacceptable. Tolerance on the part of the public for polluted air and water made this technique effective. As air and water standards become more stringent, simple attenuation of effects will be less acceptable as a disposal method. The identification of hazardous waste streams is not simple: the existence of a dangerous substance must be shown; the concen- tration of this substance above the level of normal susceptibility must be provable; and actual damage to a susceptible population must have occurred. In the absence of these proofs, the violation of a specific standard must be shown. V-17 ------- The variety of waste streams with potential hazardous effects is nearly infinite. The producers of a single product may use materials or processes that may create hazardous conditions when their product and/or process wastes are added to those of others. If the variety of products and processes increases, the probability of creating hazardous waste effects is likely to increase. If the production process is close to population centers, the acceptance of hazardous effects is likely to decrease. In the presentation that follows, the typical waste streams of various industries are reviewed. The typical treatment given these waste streams are noted, and an evaluation made of the sufficiency of such treatments to render such waste streams nonhazardous. Since there is a wide variation in the treatment that can be given within an industry, it is not possible to do more than rate the general level of treatment that typifies the industry. Only a plant-by-plant evaluation that has the full cooperation and technical participation of the operators can establish the actual hazards that exist in all waste streams. The following industries have been analyzed and their practices in treating wastes evaluated. SIC INDUSTRY 20 Food 22 Textiles 26 Paper and Allied Products 28 Chemicals 2812 Alkali and Chlorine 2815 Cyclic Intermediates 2818 Organic Chemicals 2819 Inorganic Chemicals 282 Plastic Materials and Synthetics 283 Drugs 284 Soaps and Cleaners 285 Paints V-18 ------- SIC INDUSTRY 287 Agricultural Chemicals 289 Explosives 291 Petroleum Refining 311 Leather 329 Asbestos 331 Blast Furnaces and Basic Steel 333 Primary Nonferrous 347 Plating and Polishing The following tables illustrate typical waste streams that occur in each industry and the treatment procedures that are used. Some industries are relatively homogeneous in processes and products (e. g. , the textile industry), while others such as the chemical industry are quite diverse as to products made and processes used. In the latter type industries, the wastes shown are examples only. The particular wastes and treatment accorded these wastes are unique to each production facility, and specific identifications will demand a research effort far beyond the scope of this study. V-19 ------- i ^> 0) cS H 0 CM U i— i en i ^"5 £^ -4^ CO 3 T3 d 1— 1 -o O O fe 01 (H •a 0) 0 0 SH CU "c QJ fi ^-> rt 0) t. H ri reams ^j CO ^j CO 03 1 $ I2 J u to •0 v 3 "5 w 3 S 1 In t! d &HO Potential Hazard 1 L Quant ificati actors L. 1 0> 3 « (0 7 2 -o U -" a " O ^ O 0) J T3 H o> K rt •a o> "rt ca a CO Q "• t; Gener Treatmi c o> E Typical Pre-Treat 1 M a. n i 0) rt in co 0 J V ;j ed O £'„ a i. ^ f ga •3^0 MX* — O °° fc ? Q t-> g O 0) SDH o o Z Z V V c c o o Z Z u •i § £ & i1 rt X c: r III! •0 £ g g. c« a; U co C &ti E S 4, T3 cn O c u ** £ £ f « w 41 5! « < * o •V IJ I o I Q. O Q. 2=3 1 C o P o Z 0) c o Z c « ° G £ O M 3i o S u 1 \|l < H rt O i E 6 £ M s, i in CQ CD Illi ^ IX X J T3 \| O U a o m O Z V § Z 01 i 00 3 § \l \|5 i Screening 1 &! p 04 s 3 o m S ? c 1 1 ^ - ~> 3 ~ -- O1 CO 3 4) 1> 2-^ a o a \| Q.5 m ^ O Z 0) 3 D ^ 5 E •* U) C O o be cfl tSi! g«0» ! By-product ! Recovery "O - W 0> ^ V "« ii 'w \|l» s c 3 o <» CO Water Pollutant Q S r- o Z en S § -i u c yi 5 2 £ S 30: fc.0 w I M s c O Sedimenta Aeration Screening i [f] 0> I-5 LI 1 c m Water Pollutant 1 equiv / buahe' OD/bushel g-2 «S O o> o Z w § o \x 3 C O Sedimenta Aeration 1 By-product Recovery 1 0) ft) m to c o 'c ------- SIC INDUSTRY 287 Agricultural Chemicals 289 Explosives 291 Petroleum Refining 311 Leather 329 Asbestos 331 Blast Furnaces and Basic Steel 333 Primary Nonferrous 347 Plating and Polishing The following tables illustrate typical waste streams that occur in each industry and the treatment procedures that are used. Some industries are relatively homogeneous in processes and products (e. g. , the textile industry), while others such as the chemical industry are quite diverse as to products made and processes used. In the latter type industries, the wastes shown are examples only. The particular wastes and treatment accorded these wastes are unique to each production facility, and specific identifications will demand a research effort far beyond the scope of this study. V-19 ------- O CM 0} 0) (H 3 T3 0) O O S-i •* > en i J2 ns H OJ (1) ^j CD 03 •o M Jj <3 ° 3t CJ CO S •D 0) £ "5 OT S « * fe HO Potential Hazard c u •M = £ rt o 3 j Qf u •3 £ u 1 V 3 «i S 'i .2 0) o O V % § § z z z S c CO SS o a § So rt >^ cd ** J CD J M C r \|\| -1 \| \|c \|\| \| g. \| \|5 M < O « < h a = » I £ -5 * a> e t. W5 O O 00 c n ** * u to •» f 1 II Z « a. h H SI Q CO OU ffi J T3 O «2 "3 (0 s — S IT m 3 — U 0) •^3 rt rt o 55 ^ g 5 S 5 5 00 Water Pollutant o 2 W 53 E2 A m O ------- \|TJ OJ 0) Oil C O •o 0> tJD . t< J 32\| 01 < S •0 0) >>£ S rf 01 M 3 V 1 es •3TJ r; Li o " S £* 1 rt £ t; «> S £ ! rt &• 2 V c s 5 i! s s 0 06 o u § •S 3 o » LH a) h B 2 •o 1 "3 U) o a. « 5 -. c (0 If Gener Treatm c Typical Pre-Treatm IL «! A ? Q. H1 rj •3 s « * < < < 0 0 z z z z z c c = = 1 \|\|I I I •& S C 6 5 a a 5 a 3 « 0» a o i ? .s 3 g g < 0- < 0, < 0, Z Z * rt LI : : ; \| o l' ii «> v 's 'S " III J" I « 1 rt rt Q) JH r-J (U QJ § s\| i\| g § Z <^ <^ Z Z w •s- t- 4) C * r- _ * E • 2 S s fe n o» J - - M H o-S S fc « c •n §• «• & -oE« t, !> i Si££ SaS < < «>; JuiJ-cO M i" 1 SM las Si s §£ 1 Sf\| "\| C ™jf* Hfcj ^* M fiP o i«ii; u«* So z « ^ < j &, o V § Z i i i i " M 5 « « c & " -3 s i „" 3 3 f g ei « 0 o = h S S > > 5! H c -, s 9s! ? c c E - S c (B C /^ i 5 S 2 S Q « S K u o &. j S 0 < . . . 8 . 0 z c gg 5 4> \| I 1 W S o Z •^ U) I I By-product Recovery -1 -0 « 01 ll V •• s£ — • s e <4 O ------- 0) T) (U O O In CS1 Ps] U CO ^ ' 4) s a Si5 •^ en cd I „ 0 * « & 3 Fully Treated On-Site Potential Hazard B General Quantifies Factors « Is o "2 J£ » 3°= •o » K a S.s S S Q c 4) General Tr « ? B E H £ H V 3 a <* a> * M « ij •g 50-60* chemicals 1000* grease, sui and dirt/ 1000* clean wool o v z :» S Water Pollutant , S. 7201 starch, surf tants chemicals i 10001 cotton o Z g ^ I o eo Water Pollutant §J 3001/1000* syn(A o Z Water Pollutant Unknown 0 z o Z o Z \|! a! 1 < ts o c c o 1 o S 1 1 ? u a m 0 0 « z z >• = 83 55 i,i« "c !«= S 2 H 3 « hS .£ "Si Ego •£ S °° >, 0) I» is ^ M S 1 1 m B t. O II Equalization Holding Activated Slu , 1 . .SP Cotton Destting Scouring and Dyei 0} C u o II c Sedimentatio Lagooning c £ £ Synthetic Textile Wastes L. CO o u V Cyclone Coll , •a Carbonize Wool t. i, i* < < < no 1 s S 2 g °> » i s "S ^ * B fc 1 1 1 m en Q si -g il * (5 !?« s K O J CE U S S •2 S. S 2 rt 13 3 s w O < z 4) 4> •D TJ a a o V-22 ------- CO JO rt H 0} CO 3 CO W Q •a Q, >> S .! S rt W H 0 £ 4> 4 o" K a. c o rt U B w at £ s 2 ^ rt rt fc L. 01 S ^ -Q 4> rt 3 7; "H 41 CO ^J (D o cc U a S x "2 o w 2 •5 0) s rt tfi tn Q General Treatmeni c 4) if Q_ J\| I i \ j Type Waste •5 S M rt * ? ? ? 05 A fel Is a § o oO I O o b L, a> rt * Filtration Settling « i Oj L, « Preparation Wastes U I & ^ 00 CO J 1 en 01 J J 1 \| I «l 5 «> S 3 5 3 1 ? ££. •- 1 -5 •- ? SB, S°- << a. , £ * i i Is I I 1 S la S « o) (fl S; nj rt , £ s » a a. .a \|f- u^-S -g ll\| iai ^i-Jl-i ^l!^ , i cnOv) wJQ wSKOtnSlE5^'5\|5 Z t, L. O 4) TJ a s b t h § * * < < < -§•8 £ « ^ sij£ Isbl Si I ^ sra " JS 2 K. «£»!)- CM-^C rtoc'-C ^r" &gi! «, &ln\| ills uis \|" t 5 P 'o § 2 S § g 0 -3 a ii g S^ia ^ -fc.w— /•. WinWa: Qsa. uee P~ § j. 3 S •- ! c h S 5 I ?. as Sis. _. " §• r o SsS fe -' . 1 i-fS S^ « s J 1 ^a.S Sj « 13 ? I U cfl W C2 CC c/) s Si Q V-23 ------- I 0) d I U K n (!) IH 3 CO 73 a} a> T1 O ^ O Sfln T) ^ C c ~ S 13 i D fj 3 S 0) £H T3 13 C C d d tuO co .s a fi d d « cu J2 P5 co g OJ 3 "w S1" a> y - * 01 en s ll 3 2 1. fc£8 Potential Hazard CQ O 5 11 «£ L, 0) 0 in « ,3 flj in 2 0 05 U V 3 T3 U] O> DC y 8 2 0 "O p2 s Q M c: a; £ rt QJ t- (4 01 O "c 1 "rt « Is L, a. cu rt 8. H a> a » "3 rt 4> 7 Water Pollutant o 1 "d M "S- •2 U •! 7 i. 0 7. 1 rt "3 0. cU £ "rt 0 1 6 c o oc £ C U !•; l « > U 0) A I IE U H < 1 8 t. rt g! ill "j- 3 O O 0 U 0 L O 5 O i, U O --• O \| i S 5 i S 2 7 S -' a. ? ii •? o ^H . , m -H m Z 2 £ o > > z 2 a g ,, S i ° S 1 \|\| as M fc ,51 w t! ^» to b U 5 £"33 3 M "O ° " "-« «5K^ \| j L, •n 0 ^ T? ^ = £,6 c -a Bfffc 5S "° M • -o 0! 1 3 S •* H ^ o " fc E Sj-g „ i ?f T ?ll 1 2 o fc ------- (U 3 0) S Fully Treated On-Site Potential Hazard General Quantification Factors 3 Collectable Residue Toxic Residue a -3 u General Treatment2 Typical Pre-Treatment Type Waste 0) A s-s a a IS 5 £ " . ' " « £ 3 5 S S \| a 6 j.\| 5 „ E 8 ? * <; H E 61 •38 \|sl I \| (0 00 » 0) V 0) 5 S i s i i * i 21 5l ss d _w §0. .5 .0 OH So OH OKU 1 1 Hi sl iS a ? s O g Jc w £ U ^ «j 30)^ "rtS'o i &S c™2 9-2 S -5 x £c «og sl2S a > o -8 £ U a'Eu « ^ S £ S £ £ O O z z 2 1 S . S8 12 ,1 I! s ! I ? 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S 0 £ n f* •" o 1— ' rH -H 1>J to O O 4J O 2 2 >* 2 CO CO rt rt i W CO £ 0 0 £ 1 § s- CU M M S g i 1 - 2 5 5 OH L, L, L, rt rt 5 rt > > J ^ §c A < 2 2 o N j J '^ JH m rt rt a) CO 13 c - «- -2 c 2 0 O 0) 30 •-* O Q. C t»0 0 3 bo ed 7! rt bo z 2 &s Q3 'S c c 3 3 Ji o o o B. fl, , L, LH ^ < < < C C i 1 C C O O O O 0 22 22 2 fli aj M C 10 C CO ty O 4) O 4> >H 2 >- 2 tn 13 TJ fa S i S ^ < J < J < CO C O £ rt £ slal ssl s -3QJU ^413 +- Ss5£ g* § S >tofaa. >faw > it i i it ii i i it s I ..! -Sell W S <" 4* "S W 4) to o - C tO 4>rt - 22^"S C^^JS^^ >?S« 4 0) £ C °* ti • rt&O-S3rt • I asoogga \|gS,!5M °tio P»25j'SrS ? MB « ? 6 as ggufaSzt? SfSsSI x 2 i a f " 5 i . w u S X » H < a y v M 2 3 s fc 2 « jtuot 2 - s'gS.co - >>g ;;<» c o w t* ;; D.o.32c/iCU o»2coIE 4>^-5l>2cy3D-t X >; PQ i i i fill D -J > i i i i w w o t. V-47 ------- CO (N U ntia ard Qu jj 3 1 7 o S CO ri ? o 3 -5 a rt t; -H Li X (4 o a> CM >> O O z z O V z > O O O Z Z Z 0 C Z P £ B t, £ -1 rt < C/3 'o 0. U \| >> § > < Z o 5 i s Q aj a ^ 3 •" c 5 sl 3 I a I 3 M 3.« Chem Mun u Q O K V-48 ------- CQ (D SH (U O O Tt< CM > 0) r—I rt H rt g 03 CQ f-t S rt « j_) CO 0) 0-9 CQ rt "rt -o ^ 5 " rt 0 x n 0> C ^ £ O 3 a 1 H c o "ri O i a IH fc 4) £ 4> O 41 -> "O £ » 0 U 4) -o en 4* K o X o —. to rt o -3 a, 41 2 S Q "c 4i rt 4) t- rt Gener c QJ ~ £ « rt - 1" Q. £ F-^ 1 41 IX Type Waste a "O 2 41 in rt * i O Z pg •a V S S SI a. 41 ^ CO to >- 4) ^ m ^ J "2 u 1 t-. ri tm 41 rt ^ S CC •o c 0 a) ll •o c a rt t- C c S 4i -" §3 U 00 « i s 2 •J Jj o X a - O K in S X "E o £ w g"2 s r j o Z CO 4> Jx 4> ^ w -H J « CJ \| t. 0 g'S •3 Js ai J g EC rt C T3 3 [/} = 0 TJ W 4) I > - 41 C 13 to O C C r^ rt o rt ~H £ 1- 41 0 rt > rt a ^ i en "O 2 u x IcT -C o a ^ C o £72 O s 1 0 Z Oi C 0 z 41 £ m £ 3 "2 O c j to J S cc (D t 'rt 3 tO a •o w oj 4» Q — CO rt a S rt QJ Q i 1 o -"Is •s ^^ a u, O ^ I? ! o Z 4i § Z 11 <2i w S J 2 U 1 [^ rt to S OS sl 3 £ OJ w L, 4i a. 01 Q 4) a Q c 0 1 o a. ^ U tn £ S CL £ c - „ _ 41 \| « ^e ! o o z Oi c o z 4) rt c -5 c o a, 00 c D CJ en a; ^ i - " £ ri oj -a 3 a \|S 1 g i 2 2 i b h D u -1 £, 2 o CO ^ r^ ^ o r- O) o o O 0 O ift O i>l CO O O o o 0 L, O ffl CC s- O a, o o 0 O 0 0 0* r-" O CM t- • 0 0 o o o r- 0 CD CD O 0 0 t- 0 — r- ^H _ ^ ^ +: rt ™ HO 3 "~ U IT — ' 3 "H CT ^-i -, o <« u- CO 41 Ul (Tj ^ M cn tn O) O u 0, 4> 3 0 0 0 m" CD o o 0 to ID CM 0 o o m ^ d o -a .^ t/i « o c CJ i 4) t, er cu O U < X ? cu o C rt TJ O U Ci ns C T5 O C cd C O CJ "D C rt T3 OJ 01 OJ o a. •a OJ CJ OJ o •a CD O eft T3 OJ QC n! Jtf O cO a. V-49 ------- (M I t3 (U 3 (U ^-t rt H C O U Z rt O X 0, Dis M J 2 - J 2 5 J 2 u C -592 rt ^ 2 E 15: K S « 55 d Charcoa Scrubbing Columns Filte Activ Caus Pack Con C Separation into F (Hi-Level) and W (Low -Level) 2 E ^ 5 ^ Radioactive Particulate (Laboratori Fue P Low Level HA HA2 Mining V astes Mill Wastes Q J o o 01 o « CO O O tT) O O - £ N o o 0 O N (- O ~" X. o CO T „ «£ d "" 3 3 3 "° O" ^ •3« 1) "tn rt L. o o u a L, s. 0 O o o 0 0 0 t-" O ------- 4. A METHOD FOR ESTIMATING WASTE STREAM TREATMENT REQUIREMENTS There is an indeterminate number of waste streams that may result from industrial production operations. Some are relatively pollution-free while others introduce major pollutants into the environment. A method is suggested here through which the extent of treatment needed to reduce pollutants to acceptable levels can be established by a comparison of their characteristics with those that can be successfully treated in municipal sewage plants. To make this approach workable, a means is needed to readily and accurately define the hazards associated with particular waste streams and to establish their disposal treatment requirements. The following paragraphs describe methods which can be used to rapidly evaluate the effluent data obtained by the Corps of Engineers (through the Refuse Act of 1899) and to identify and quantify the disposal tasks and costs indicated by evaluation of each waste stream. This approach is based on a comparison of the waste stream characteristics against a standard criteria, i. e. , acceptability of such wastes by a typical municipal system. More rigid criteria can be applied, of course, but the likelihood of increased use of municipal- type treatment systems by industry indicates that municipal acceptance standards may be practical criteria. Additional rationale for the use of municipal sewage acceptance standards include: Wastes treated in municipal sewage treatment plants show similar characteristics from one locale to another. A standard, and national, technology has been developed for this type of waste. The technology is particularly well established for primary and secondary treatment. Municipal sewage treatment plants are demonstratively capable of producing effluents that, to date, appear to satisfy ecological preservation requirements. V-51 ------- If industrial wastes can be treated so that they are acceptable for further treatment in municipal facilities, they too should be non-damaging to the ecology when processed through the municipal plant. Pretreatment of the waste stream to make it eligible for municipal plant treatment may not be needed, may require minimum treatment, may require extensive treatment, or some components may be so toxic that only their removal will permit successful pretreatment. The rating system which is outlined in the following tables and text is based on establishing the treatment level required to meet each of the key criterion. The more treatment necessary, the higher the numerical rating for that criterion. When all criteria are rated, the ratings for each characteristic provide a weighted profile of the special treatments necessary to qualify the waste for municipal treatment. Table V-25 outlines a means for establishing the level of treat- ments needed to qualify an industrial effluent stream for final disposal through a municipal treatment plant. Table V-26 provides an example as to how the rating system works. The expected reductions that can be achieved by the various treatments are shown in Table V-27. Table V-25 indicates the acceptance criteria for each key waste characteristic and defines the percentage of removal efficiencies which must be achieved in order to meet the criteria. For example, if BOD had to be lowered by 85 percent to reach acceptable level, a minimum of secondary treatment would be required and a score of 3 would be assigned. If 99 percent of the phenol had to be removed, tertiary treatment to achieve this level would be required, and a rating of 4 would be given for this characteristic. When all characteristics are rated, a profile emerges which indicates the extent of treatment necessary and serves as a rating as to the extent and type of hazard contained in the wastes. The rating system identifies treatment requirements as a function of the concentration of key waste characteristics and/or problem contaminants. The higher the concentration of a given waste parameter, the more intensive will be the abatement effort required, and, similarly, the higher the concentration of a given waste parameter, the greater is the hazard potential of the stream. Hence, the system combines hazard potential with treatment complexity. V-52 ------- m a) 2 '3 o tic K \| i Other Par; o II S j\| §l B. 09 E 09 g "OE e s H V I "3, O 10 Wl O ~ >o o o ON o c ******** 1\| i ^ O C ^" 3 o 2 -i s § S See Note 3 « 'S z S co S 8 >o o\ 1O o 8 fastewater •& ia Crt 3 1 1> 1 8 < 1 \|i\| I ! pj g a- § s •« 1 o^ 1 S ff HZ u » 1 S * Jf rf 1 8 3 aP 1 1 o Q \| \| flfl 5 S 111 ONj vj ds oo Ox f 1 o 5 03 >o E^ 3 •5" NO OO ON ON O "0 10 V> r^ ^~ oo ON Iff J'g 0 - „ « „ c eo ^ S "3 IB § s i !s S ^S B I & £ WH§ a&g^& ts z £ >s c5j (S H : to exceed 300 ppm. B e 8 a o OQ e & o ! V 1 0, 1 0 to 2,000 ppm phenol. r Parameters - Limits on ed activated sludge can biodegrade up ts on Heavy Metals and Selected Othei g" 42 •** £• S » 1 e v 1 B o <: U 3 2 & H ts o, 3 Q M C O U 6 M O 73 3 !2 (5 e" N z 00 T^ S s •4-* U a. u. o "0 8 o o" - . r. 8 * exity and cost of treatm loped in the order of increasing compl U > (U •a 1 1 o CO m Reference F. k,LUND, 1971. ital, maintenance and operation. Froi Industrial Pollution Control Handboo & s < V . . "§ s 1 1 o w ^ « 0 3 O, "3 r Mississippi River Board "Standards for Sewage Works." Uppei U New York City Administrative Code. D t- VO ON "" 0. CO < a. f o ft * 3 Industrial Waste Profile, The Cost of Clean Water, Volume HI, U o m ~o _. Water Pollution Contro AlCh E, Industrial Process Design for U. V-53 ------- CO (U 3 nj H System tuO c ..-4 -t-« OS K (1) CO p o --» > > o ffi 1 •(-> >rkshee u £ be g '•-> rt K \| a i ce thei Parameter ppm O 1 « ll « ft 1 T! B E » p. £ a S^ ° ft 0. si Q E 20. ft » 2 Si & 1 m o> O z 8 £ on u 1 ^Q O 8 co 8 § "> cr, vt •' 0 «•> m 8 f> 5 CO £ w tfl (H > ^ 1 3 •a B u 1 a 8 U < C V E 1 «s 5 - 1 sl •- § u B e\| O -3 a^ 2 8 S c Is H t; i I 0 ppm CN 2 10 1 1 1 1 1' ll a-\|c< or 6\| • g •n O "0 VO •0 8 •* 8 "V " « a o 1* a, 13 o M ft. C 4> n a H 0 5 i B •s « 2! 3S ^a v i IS M en CU «rt S4J V 2 C 1 is H w> i » - •si gj U* °! si i i om m • 0 - >o o -. •! 1 V a o \|H ft. 4) •• 4> v> — ed [TJ ^2 « fc a 1 S-E 5 M x £ W H " 1 - » H 5 « ff s •§ 1 •o a to S •« - s 3 i * •S 1 2 \| . 5 i i ! u * 3 ^ 2 ^ - S « ° 5 ts B f a 8 1 -1 •s 11^ s •§ * ° I --S^ 2 S°.^ » •§ t ° I fi! CO <• 9 B 01 - 1 1 2 c - c \| \| § 8 .S - "5 B 2 § .2 « g 3 5> j s g s g. 2 SIS Jj « « « I5 & " 1^ > <»H J-> CO » ^ — B M ao2 8 ° Q -S » 8 £ aiisj; « ~* j C C o oo .2 _ a P ^ Iritis » s §• S? ° E js S ? S j S «> t -I 2 3 3 c .2 So « S 'd 5 •«-• t ^ ^ §•§!! i! a • S a -2 ex t, * ^ a > * .8 § St * u a S s S o IP 1-8S » B « S 3 P 1 •a 5 ^, w . B c u O M tt S 3 S ., C S S1 M " -3 ^ O SlSgs; 5 u H«3i8. 33 B " -S " S S ° 0 3 -H" w 2 T3 S O ^ ° S" 2 - « ° •- a 5 S s s ill1!* 59 .§ -S x a ft 2 o 5 c « § S S a .a % § ilesll — 4 tA H U CJ X < ffl U = u ^ CO Ofi c •^ « OH S D 2 1 V-54 ------- CO 0> m CO CO o O •- C! 1 cfl Q) SH C- Table H *> n s «-! O CO (U •r-1 O I o o S 0) K fa W ^H O z EXAMPLES OF EFFICIE JH U U 3. fa c Cu 0> CJ PH c. 1> ^ CU P§ W ^^ M O H ^ W 2 CO £5 Q j DM SPECIFIC APPLICAT1 Q O U 2 OH CO OT Q O PQ WASTEWATER TREAT METHOD CO Oi CO c o rt C Tanning: BOD- 5%; SS-5 to 10% 90% Grease Removal Some BOD removal Tanning: Chromium- 5 to 10% Some Self- Neutralization Sedime and BOD Reduction o 1-1 i m o i-H 1 ?— 1 d > ... PRETREATMENT Screening Degritting Comminuting Grease and Scum Remc Pre -Aeration Equalization/ Dump Rat< Control CO •-1 „ CO O> • - ° t£ o^ •- o~- fe"- O -1 £ 50% Organic Chemicals and Pesticide Cresols-99% Cyanide Removal with pH Adjust Chlorination: >99% in 0) i CO CO m O) i o m 00 O> m o m in m en t— in m o H ^ Z c W § -B C rn [H cd 0 2, w -j 2 ,^ BJ c1 -2 ^ "g "S .c -2 SCOQ -DUUQ o in o in 02 m H ^ _ 2 C C W « o «- C -Q 2 « ^ H rt * INTERMEDIATE TREA (Including Primary Tre Flotation Filtration (Rapid Sand) Adsorption (Activated C Chemical Treatment - Clarification (Chlorination) V-55 ------- c- CM J2 H TD 0) C O fa tf ^ U 2 W TIONS EXAMPLES OF EFFIC] IN SPECIFIC APPLICA U £-4 W 1— 1 u fa c [L, CD ^ ^H J (X tf w ^H w o EH 2 W § EH Q 0 U <3 (X CO CO S WASTEWATER TREA METHODS O3 « _,o 2 'r! • .5 ^ o> gto H" O •"-> a; , O , g D "uy-sco £m in.h t; < .S co o (N! £ (X < co U (j in oo O3 O3 1 1 oo m 00 03 o CD 1 O 00 o CO o t- • 03 -~ 3 • JH \| 2 ffi o -g r 1 5 p. +j (p yu , 3 S (_ C T3 "S S< • 2 c ^ S «' • h M g\| \| 1 5 g § u u u b o O3 1 O co o 1 o o t^ 03 1 m co t . W^C >* -a c SECONDARY TREAT? (Including Primary an Intermediate Treatme ^ CO 1 01 •D ••H rt U CD CD O m CO "o JH ^o •S 01 If a co m o co co i i o in CO CO Trickling Filters Standard High Rate 00 r-t «-« 8 igh strength polymer wastes: 95%; COD- 75%; SS-97% S3 o 00 1 CO 0 03 t in 00 Activated Sludge CO t-H O [•» >-^ CO CO anning: BOD- 70%; SS- 80% apid sand filtration: BOD-(80C EH tf O 03 0 CD ^ QJ --> Lagooning (aerobic) (With Filtration or C t t-i •o o (X o !H rt . 00 C 00 O i 2 CO r-H p ^ « S 84 \|8 to 0) 1—4 •fH bJO C •rH r-H O •rH •H y^ •H r-1 bb C •I-I «— 1 ith Aerated Lagoon, Corn Mil BOD- 90%; COD- 86%; SS-33% £ o 03 o 03 t^ 03 O 03 Activated Sludge V-56 ------- I> CM I 3 fl •f_i •«-> fl O 03 AMPLES OF EFFICIENCY SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS X w u 2 W HH U t—t fr i "-? C Wo . M J * tf w jr f-t w o H >^ K-l Q O U r— i PH CO Q fi (S WASTEWATER TREATMEI METHODS in CO in 05 in O5 O5 in 05 05 O5 1 m 05 TERTIARY TREATMENT (Including Secondary or Intermediate) m ^ 1-1 recovery: )95% o> •4-i rt fi O F-i J5 U CM 05 1 O CO oo en i CO CO 1 Ion Exchange in m oo , 00 w T— 1 a U •i-t 0 ol i ° n ^ ^ g SJ 5 m Q X en « CO o m m 05 i i o m CO CD o m m 05 o m CO CO Membrane Processes Dialysis Electrodialysis Reverse Osmosis »"H OJ carbon treatment of sewag plant secondary effluent: >); COD- (80%); SS-(25%); );ABS-(97%) "g g « o 6 — '•' a « Q '« o « O O ^^ CM 00 0 en ^ m o oo o en ^ m O CO o en 05 ^•^ i in o OO O5 C o Adsorption (Activated Garb ^1 8\| ^s 5 o --> e§ £^ O -a y c a?, S^ ^§ « 0 ^1 CD A K a, 1 Ozonation t— < o 05 in waste (after biological ): BOD- 94%; COD- 85%; SS- itment of sewage treatment indary effluent: BOD- (74%) P04-(95%); ABS-(18%) •-• ^J n) u W C 4) O -^ h g •" m o 1—4 -C QJ -4-» 00 b cd d C ^ " CU " Co ' > i J aco -—V CO CM ^.^ 0 0 OD o O3 ^-^ m ^ Chemical Treatment Lime Clarification »— < — ( ^ ~. — "^ m o o to oo CM CO O] ^ ^•^ c~~ ^ — c- oo o o co — ^00 ° O O5 O5 0 05 0 °? t^ 05 05 2i ^-^ .— ^ ^-^ ^^ o o m ^ m CD in O-1 C O Combined Systems Microscreening and Rapid Sand Filtration Lime Clarification plus Multimedia Filtration Lime Clarification plus Ammonia Stripping Lime Clarification plus Ammonia Stripping plus Granular Carbon Adsorpti V-57 ------- c- CM 1 > CD i — i ,0 cd H T3 CD rH) C • i-l +J C o u h cd ^ 0 cd — i T3 T3 C C CO o --1 u en : v % -3 en en .r (U ^ en is ^£ c o •£ « !H C !U £ 4> cd n 30. 0 ._. r i — •-* ^ •S g c « -§ .2 11 I -i-> en O S?& "3 1 ses indicate efficiency relati atment) . Efficiency percent? ste. Reference Materi ial Process Design for Wate: CU « Cd rH •g-o £ i * s c § S >>? .g § a s .5 a £ QQ !"J. c c - « £ W cu f en — ' _ rC £& :s * £ ° y X >> ro en ^ cu C > ° O en w ao £ •- rH CU -O Cd 3 ri cd-^-^-cu •£ C! -2 •In1 3 2 £ "a £ S cu 4, S> '? a & £ 8 « • o ° £ W 0 « rH <- >, C >— n-, -, S-i W* fl 1 C f \ U^ S^^^S aS^ " ^ •rH ^- pin .rH 3 ^-^ ^ 1- ... CU wuixzco xScu c:^ 0 ~ '3 01 g rH C 2 ^H « 3 -2 h -S a, 2 oT r-H •i-( "o c . M fa cu -4-> en cd is i-H cd •iH j_> an Water, Volume III, Indus cu rH U <«-< o en 0 U ° cu £ £ rH H CN3 r- co O) rH € .4-J OH CU CO CO cd m »-H Number oT l-H rH "o J_, fa 0) -4-» cn cd £ IH 'iH -_> CO 3 T3 rH rH CU S ,3 0 > rn" CU -.-» cd ts c cd cu l-H U t+-l O ->-> en O U cu £ H C<" ^ CO a> i-H -i-> OH CU CO FWPCA, bic C cn • rH C • rH fa •a c cd txo C •fH d cd H fH 0) fC "cd cu fj t— Number > cu rH fH 'o ^ fa cu 4-1 CO cd •5 "rt "C -4-> en 3 T3 f-H t-H f— I f— I CU 1 l-H 0 > SH" CU -4-) cd 15 c cd cu l-H U C4-I o -i-» en O U cu rC H •^t t~ CO 0) rl O •oleum Refining, FWPCA, N H 0) fa m Number rH C- a> rH Q" tion Control Handbook, LUN l-H t— H O fa I-H cd Indus tri in r-j c- o> rH A O rH cd rS SH" CU a cd fa 1 -l-> fH o a CU 05 f-H O C 3 O U i 3 rn NIPCC J co cu" r—4 ^_, O s_, fa cu •4-J CO cd £ rH OJ •r-t SH >-> an Water, Volume III, Indus cu r-H U CO Oi rH -«-» a cu CO :ile Mill Products, FWPCA, X CU H V Number -4-^ c cd r—4 CU C o fH 4«» iH 3 S fH O ment Engineering Program f cu ^-> cd ^ C Pollutio cc rH t~ CT> rl . -I_J Army Research Office, Sep ization, Modern: M r* 0 M cd rH CU § 4-J a X uction for Sewage Treatment rH -^J CO r-H	en cd fe •* . cu •a cd HS' ~ CO < o _g Z cu 0 03 CU CU Tj t! rC •- .2 H .« CO r PQ o' t— t Q. 3 H D rH cu /3 >i rH •4pJ co \| l-H •* (M< •l-l •rH cd ^ O I 4-> rH 0 a cu 05 ^ T3 3 -4-> CO 01 -»-> en cd £5 r-H cd Indus tri f-H 1-H p»4 Associates, Inc. , Aug. 197. •a c cd 'cu o rH cd fa T3 C cd Q Q O O ' PQ U fa co •a c cu tu> 0) en cu u c cu rH t2 01 tf V-58 ------- The rating system can find practical application in the following areas: Serve as a basis for defining a hazardous industrial effluent. Identify particularly hazardous wastes. Serve as a logic basis for computerized evaluation of the massive data accumulated regarding the 1899 Refuse Act. This can be done as a function of: Region Industry group(s) Water usage ranges Treatment level (none, primary, secondary, tertiary or special) Treatment economics Specific waste characteristics Combinations of the above. Provide fundamental information for policy making; Should a plant or a group of plants treat effluents onsite or combine with municipal systems? Should private industry band together to build a cooperative treatment complex? Should government provide incentives or hardware for cooperative waste treatment and residue handling arrangements ? Hazardous wastes can be defined and rated based on this system, i.e., a hazardous industrial effluent is one that does not satisfy the criteria for acceptance into municipal sewage treatment plants. If this system were established, each plant would be required to treat its wastes to a level which will qualify for acceptance into a ------- municipal system, if avaiable, or to treat it onsite (or in some cooperative arrangement) to a level that assures compliance with regulations regarding discharge into public water bodies. In other words, the amount of treatment needed to make any waste acceptable to a municipal sewage treatment plant can be assigned specific values, and these values used to establish an index of the toxicity of that waste, at the particular location for which it is being rated. The system proposed is a more thorough system for defining hazardous waste streams than is any list of potentially hazardous materials or waste streams. This system deals with an actual condition, measures it against the environmental acceptability, and defines the corrective action necessary. Because it is designed to deal with specific waste streams, it avoids the generalities of designating certain substances as potentially hazardous and assuming that they will be hazardous when- ever present. "Hazardous waste materials" are hazardous only when in sufficient concentration to exceed the threshold effects of susceptible life forms. Until disposal systems planning is based on specific situations and locations, it cannot control the release of hazardous wastes. The practical value of this evaluation method is that it establishes the level of treatment which is required to make the waste stream a nonpolluting effluent. The identification of treatment needs does not reduce the amount of hazardous wastes that are discharged, however. The identification of treatment requirements is relatively meaningless, unless a means exists to enforce legal restraints on hazardous waste releases. 5. RATING CURRENT TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL METHODS The waste treatment methods which are used most widely are general in nature, can be applied to a variety of processes and waste compounds, and are concerned with water waste streams. Histori- cally, water has been used to remove contaminants from production facilities either by its use as a wash or by its use directly or indirectly (costing) in the production process. As a diluent it is a means to reduce the concentration of hazardous wastes and lessen its impact on the environment. V-60 ------- Because water plays such a large part of our current treatment methods, the volume which is involved is substantial. Any attempt to transport such water streams over long distances for treatment will involve substantial expense. Therefore, the tendency will be to treat water waste streams on the site where the wastes are created or within a relatively few miles of such sites. However, if wastes must be transported over long distances for disposal (sea disposal, lagoons), pipelines are an economical movement system in comparison to rail, truck or barge transportation. Once introduced into water waste streams, hazardous materials are difficult to remove. If the introduction of such wastes creates significant treatment problems, they can be segregated and treated separately. Frequently, such wastes are organic compounds which are difficult to biodegrade but which are readily incinerated. Deep- well disposal is also used for such wastes. Many of the toxic materials are organic solvents and are readily destroyed by inciner- ation. Although the various basic types of treatment and their appli- cations are widely known, there are substantial differences in the design features that best fit them to specific applications. It is this adjustment and fitting process that determines the general types of treatment that will be applied, and the specific features and the design specifications which best adapt these general types of treatment to the specific technical and cost requirements of individual facilities and locations. The effectiveness of alternative treatment methods cannot be assessed realistically unless evaluated against a specific requirement. Relative efficiencies of different treatments are a preliminary indi- cation of their utility in a specific situation, but the actual require- ments and system peculiarities are the only valid basis for selection between alternative methods. (1) Evaluation Elements The basic elements in a systematic evaluation of the adequacy of treatment methods for hazardous waste streams are; Identification of the specific compounds which compose the waste stream V-R1 ------- Characterization of the waste stream (pH, BOD, SS, phenols, etc.) in quantitative terms Identification of the acceptable effluent standards based on the materials contained in the waste stream Selection of the alternative treatments which will satisfy the requirements Evaluation of the treatment requirements Trade-off analysis to identify the most cost-effective treatment sequence Feasibility of financing such treatment systems based on the economic realities of the production costs involved. This general methodology can be applied to a single waste stream, combined waste streams, and to single or multiple disposal sites. If wastes are to be brought to a distant site, the first two factors must be evaluated for each waste stream, the transportation costs to the process site established for each waste stream, and then the last two factors evaluated for the combined waste streams. Although systematic methodology can be devised to measure, rate, and evaluate the effectiveness of alternative disposal systems in removing hazardous materials from waste streams, such methodology cannot be used to evaluate current practices since the data necessary to operate the evaluation system is not available. In the absence of detailed data on waste stream charac- teristics and their treatment needs, only crude evaluations can be made as to the effectiveness of current practices and future treatment requirements. Little information is published concerning the hazardous waste streams which are produced. Conjecture as to their composition and characteristics is based on the hazardous characteristics of "pure" compounds produced and used in industry and in the commercial and household sectors. V-62 ------- (2) Evaluation Problems An evaluation system that rates the effectiveness of current hazardous waste treatment and disposal practices must cope with several interrelated problems: Does a-hazardous waste condition exist? What is the condition and how serious? What steps have been taken to minimize the hazards? How effective are these actions? What additional steps are necessary? If answers to these questions can be obtained, the rating system will be able to identify and evaluate the actions needed to adequately control the disposal of hazardous wastes. The identification of wastes which create hazardous conditions is a complex task. The hazardous condition may be caused by a radioactive, explosive, corrosive, pathogenic or toxic material and its effect is dependent on the suscepti- bility of the material or living organism exposed to the hazard. Since a hazardous condition exists only when a material is present which exceeds the threshold tolerance of a susceptible material or population, three data elements are needed to define the hazardous condition: the magnitude of the hazardous effect, the susceptibility of the material or population, and the dilution effect of the media that contains the hazard. The constant factor is the material that creates the hazardous effect. The location where the waste occurs will determine who or what is threatened and the mitigating effects of fortuitous neutralization or dilution. The key to the identi- fication of a hazardous waste condition is the determination that a potentially hazardous material is present in the waste stream in amounts that exceed the tolerance levels of the threatened population or materials. V-63 ------- Analysis of the waste stream to establish its hazardous properties is rather easy for radioactive, corrosive or flammable materials, but is more difficult if the significant hazard is pathogenic or toxic. An alternative to qnsite analysis is knowledge of the characteristics of the chemical components that compose the waste stream or that may enter the waste stream. When toxic materials are present, the possibility that hazardous waste conditions exist must be assumed. Evaluation of the raw materials used in the production process, the production processes used and the by-product materials expected, can establish a list of potential constituents of the waste streams. Comparison of such compounds with a comprehensive list of toxic materials will identify the hazardous potential of the waste stream and aid in selecting the analytical techniques which can best verify initial assumptions as to hazard potential. (3) Characterization of Hazardous Conditions The type waste streams which result from processing operations are dependent on the chemical characteristics of the reactants and the physical conditions under which the reactions take place. Since the combination of reacting compounds and the reaction conditions may vary greatly, the waste products from chemical industry vary greatly. However, when the reactants and the production process are known, the waste product possibilities are greatly narrowed. Without specific raw material and process information, the probable content of the waste stream is indeterminate. When the processes, raw materials and output quantities are known, useful approximations can be made as to the probable toxic hazards associated with waste streams. Such information has been developed for some industries. Unfortunately, however, the waste streams from such industries frequently are inter- mingled with those from plants about which little is known, and the combined waste streams become an enigma as to potential toxic effects. Such intermingled waste streams, when they are part of river systems, are no longer the treatment responsibility V-64 ------- of specific community or plant, and corrective treatment is no longer feasible. The waste streams which result from chemical processing are dependent on the chemical characteristics of the reactants and the physical conditions under which the reaction takes place. Process conditions of temperature and pressure modify the physical characteristics of chemical compounds and may convert solids into liquids and gases, liquids into gases, or mixtures of liquids into solids. Side-reactions of compounds may produce unwanted waste by-products. Unless the specific conditions and reactants are known, the content and condition of the waste stream is indeterminate. Compounds which are individually inert, corrosive, flammable, explosive, or toxic under normal conditions, may react with other components and become relatively less dangerous or may be converted from a nonhaz- ardous state to one of substantial hazard. Knowledge of the chemical compounds involved in or produced by the production process helps identify potentially hazardous wastes. When physical properties of commercial chemicals are known, the hazards associated with each are reasonably predictable. When all the reactants, processes and products are identified, the key hazards and the alternative treatments needed to avoid the release of hazardous wastes are readily identified. The most cost-effective treatment will be dependent on the mix of materials to be treated, quantities to be treated, enforcement standards, and other variables. Unless there is information as to the raw materials, production processes, and final products, no sensible judgment can be made regarding the most cost-effective treatment processes. The minimum information necessary to define the possi- bility that hazardous waste conditions exist is (1) an analysis of the effluent stream, and (2) knowledge of the input and output products. Armed with such data, a judgment can be made as to the pollution potential of the waste streams. (The method for evaluating the treatment requirements, based on the effluent analysis, has been described in the previous section. ) Specific knowledge of the entire product line, production processes and waste stream is needed for such decisions in order to define the most cost-effective treatment processes. V-65 ------- (4) Treatment Variations A variety of methods are available to treat waste streams and remove contaminants. The treatment of choice is dependent on the characteristics of the waste stream and those of the material or materials to be removed. If the hazardous compound can be isolated and treated as a single compound, the treatment method will be substantially different than the methods used if the compound is part of a water waste stream. If several contaminants are to be treated while in the same waste stream, the quantity and characteristics of the major contaminants may affect the choice of treatments. An analogy can be drawn between the decision process involved in diagnosing and treating a sick patient and in diagnosing and treating a hazardous waste stream. In each case, a diagnosis must be made, based on a specific situation, as to the problem to be solved and the most suitable treatment. A variety of treatments are available and must be fitted to the particular needs of the specific situation. The "best" treatment for a specific patient may not be the "best" for all patients. The list of hazardous materials that have been developed can be used to illustrate how different conditions may effect the selection of the appropriate disposal process. Each of the compounds on this list may require safe disposal under a variety of different disposal conditions, i. e. : As part of the disposal process related to its production Asa major raw material component in the production of other chemical compounds As a minor component in a production or commercial treatment process As a retail consumer product which enters the municipal disposal system. Few compounds are used for only one purpose. The use to which the compound is put and its relation to other compounds in the disposal process, will influence the selection of the best waste disposal treatment process. V-66 ------- Examples of the waste treatment methods for sulfuric acid under various conditions may help illustrate this point. During the production process, every effort is made to minimize the loss of sulfuric acid; recovery and recycling of inadvertent wastes is the treatment of choice. In an oil refinery, sulfuric acid is recovered, restrengthened and reused. When used to acidulate phosphate rock to produce super phosphate, every effort is made to insure the complete reaction of the acid with the phosphate rock. A variety of treatments is used to neutralize, recover, or safely dispose of residual acid mixes used to pickle steel. When used as a laboratory chemical, its safe disposal may consist only of careful dilution to acceptable municipal levels. The treatment methods which apply under specific condi- tions are dependent not only on the chemical characteristics of the materials involved, but on their relative importance in the disposal process. The disposal means for a specific chemical is tailored to their individual characteristics, i. e. , incineration of flammable materials or neutralization of corrosive materials. When they are a component of a generalized waste stream, the treatment methods are less specific and are designed to safely handle a variety of chemicals. Under certain production conditions, individual compounds may be separated from the remaining waste streams and disposed of by separate action, i. e. , solvents may be burned, acids may be piped to a deep well. Separate disposal processes are also used if the incorporation of one waste with another would make the disposal of the combined waste stream more difficult. In general, when a large number of different waste mater- ials exist, the treatment process of choice is the conventional screening, settling and biological conversion process. Incin- eration processes are the method of choice for toxic organic wastes which are isolated for separate disposal. Recovery and recycling are used in the production processes to ensure the optimum practical yield from the input materials. ------- (5) Evaluation of Current Practices Although a variety of treatment methods have been developed that can treat any identified waste successfully, the use of these methods is not widespread. Full treatment to remove all waste hazards is rare. The costs that are incurred in treating wastes from major production plants are substantial. The Deepwater Pilot Plant Treatability Study conducted by the Delaware River Basin Commission, illustrates the costs involved. This project had the following objectives: To determine the treatability characteristics of the component industrial and municipal wastes (nine plants, four communities) To develop design criteria for the facility to achieve 90-95 percent BOD reduction as well as to meet other effluent quality requirements To test methods of secondary and advanced waste treatment of combined municipal and industrial wastes To estimate cost of construction and operation of the facility To provide data on which to base an equitable appointment of cost among the industries and municipalities to be served To demonstrate the expeditious and timely resolution of the technical and economic difficulties of achieving a regional solution to a complex multi-industrial and multi-waste disposal problem. The project has operated for over two years at a cost of over one million dollars. The costs involved in developing this detailed design data are indicative of the level of expenditure needed if treatment requirements are to be established. The wastes produced in the nine production plants involved in the Deepwater Pilot Plant Treatability Study are typical of the water wastes of chemical industry. The costs to construct V-68 ------- a treatment facility to adequately treat 105 million gallons of wastes per day produced in these plants is estimated as approxi- mately $60, 000, 000. Based on these cost estimates, the cost to upgrade all chemical industry treatment facilities will be several billion dollars. These projections of costs based on the Deepwater Pilot Plant Study are unlikely to be accurate but are indicative of the magnitude of the treatment costs which must be incurred to signficantly reduce overall water pollution levels. The fact that hazardous waste streams are inadequately treated can be established by reviewing data as to the extent of water waste treatment. The tables which follow titled "Industrial Water Treatment Practices" and "Evaluation of Industry Treatment Processes" have been developed from data contained in Water Use in Manufacturing, Bureau of the Census, published in 1971. The value shown under the title "Required Waste Water Treatment, " in the second table, is 200 if secondary treatment is required or 300 if tertiary treatments are necessary to remove hazardous materials from the water waste streams of each particular industry. The other columns in this table show the percent of the industry that uses primary, secondary and tertiary treatments. Adding these percentages and dividing by the required rating provides the values shown in the rating column. Note that only the Petroleum Refining industry provides primary and secondary treatment. The percentage of industries providing tertiary treatment is based on estimated values rather than published data. V-69 ------- CO (M I OJ i—I rt H CO S-, 0) TO .g o 6 1"S 03 -" In O PLn g "S TO S 2 EC rt t> SH W H§ . i—M SH t-H CU OJ rt O .2 S &H O -l_) -—I CO Z \|w rt D Percentage Secondary Treatment Secondary Treatment 5 « £+- rt ^ u C C £ ft. H Primary Treatment Percentage of Process Water Treated2 T) 0) rt « Percentage Discharged to Sewer* Discharged to Sewer Discharged Industry Title U CO m •* CO 0) o co in 0 CM lO 1 CO i in ^r CM r- 01 o to "' CM O O r- in a) CO - CO CM co m co CO CO O CM -< TC s t- CD CO "• to •* in co -H •H CO =0^0 £££ 1 (D 1 •V 0 t Tf CO CN lO o co in I * «n m -H CD tO OO fO CO CM CO CM CO CN C- CO CO ~* •«- v t- ro co o COOS ^ 0 CO -H « CO CO O CM CM o co m r- o 53 £ 5 S gg en -H m CO ^ ^H Tj- CO CM -H (O 0 O O CO O O CO 03 M O O en CM CO 0 o CO CM CM o oa rH CO O CM CM CM CM 0 0 CO O O ~ 0 o _, 03 0 o c-m,-.t-ocM«3cnTf_ t- m co o> co CM c- o r- CM «• mm^oot- in Cj m C'. cv m 8 m m co (D tn co «o^ CO CO Tf en m -H Meat Dairy Products Canned, Cured and Frozen o o o CM CM CM r- m co r- CM in CM en en co eo M Grain Mill Products Bakery Sugar o o o CM CM CM r- -* - ^H Confectionary r- o - CO -I in co m co "" en to Beverages Miscellaneous co ------- CO 0) •—i _Q O U Percentage Secondary Treatment6 m O cd cd o 01 Q Industry Title y S3 00 oo CO •* CO i-i CO rt in •* CO •-< CM t- « CO to oo in CO CO 10 CO co r~ cn m Tf co r- o eo co Drugs Soaps, Cleaners and Toilet Preparations co eo CM. CM ' 1 •V t- C-J „ -< CO t. o t- CO a CO Paints and Allied Products CO CO CO CO m O OJ o o OS en CM CO oo CO en 0) CO en cd o 4> 6 3 3 OD CO m m m o in CO CC 00 -' o CO 1 N ^ ^ Explosives O) CO o i 00 r- o O o CO CO CO o 0 ^ s t- cn ". m O o Petroleum Refining en C3 »-t M CM O CO co O t- m en m -• CO •* en o ^ Leather Tanning and Finishing £ 9 co' ^ 0 CO CO en O •* CM O i CO * CO Asbestos Products en CM CO CM CO m* oo* CM CM 0 0 <* CO CM CO ri en CO O O) t- CO CO o o o o 0 0 en CM O m co in CN CM r- CD 0 '* CM O CO ^H CO t- co r- irt oo en CM Primary Metal Industry Blast Furnaces, Basic Steel Production CO CO to i t i m .-< i i i ,-* CD 00 CO CO CM \| 1 T T co m m co i i o CM 1 \| ^ co eo o 0 oo -i «r O m t- r- en CM en co CO f* CM CO CO cn co in .-H y^ CO ------- 03 CM J ^ CU IQ £ 02 CU CJ --» o cfl --i PH "5 cu a cfl -H H rH CO 3 CJ r— ( <<-l O c 0 •rH "cfl i-H Cfl w w y H o < £ rH fn ^ H r^ i Tj >•_ "oJ --> O EH co (U tuo cfl G cu o -H cu PH , — , CM QJ tO) ^3 cl 0 rH (U PH ^ £i cu tfl -f-> o cu PH fcrl CU TJ -t-» CU cfl 3 ^ S* to ^5 cfl ^ t« c 4-* cfl IS 3 i-H Cfl > >> rH •r— 1 "c cu EH ^ ^ cfl "B 0 o 0) en K^ rH Cfl a -H PH •v •4 ^ -- cu a rt Q^ r_^ " Industry CO^rH T-l »-\| CN\| lO CD i-H t* CM CO ^4* ^f O I—I 1 CM \| I v CO OO O5 CM O rH CO O co co co o T-H o o o o O O 0 0 CM CO CM CM Food Textile Paper Alkali-Chlorine CM rH O CM CO CO CM CM CM CM CM in r- lO . o rH V t~ "* 0 0 0 o CO CO Cyclic Intermediate in rH CO CM O rH O oo m V O3 CO rH O 0 CO Organic Chemicals oo rH CO CM mcOrHrHCMCMCMI>CMCOOOrHCM CM-H^OSrHrHCDinCOCOairHrH rH 03 in rH c~ c~ in CM co co co oo co rH CM I in in \| \| CM CM m \| ICMCMCXJ vv VVCM vvv v CM CO CM \| \| CO CO O rH 00 in CM CO rH CM «-< O CM CM C^ OO t^™ O^ rH c{^ ^^ (— ^ £•!• CO CM t"™ ff^ c^i in co rH c^— ^ o in <— ^ co oo f f^ CM c~^ rH rH ooooooooooooo ooooooooooooo CMCOCOCMCOCOCOCOCOCMCOCOCO CQ i-H Cfl CO O l—t CQ -rH r>> OS rH § ^ 1 sis S a* n ;d (U 0) ^ CD r{ <— * ^^ r^ Cfl H _, ^ ^ _j C . O. L j ^ O Cfl C^ _ OCu CO * CT^ t^ "^^ "T« -* ^ " M<4 t«4 f\ TO OJQ rS ^ » " CO O ^H a> rH CM CO ^ in C~ C33 rH OO t* OOCOCOCOCOOOOOCJJrHCMCOCO'* CMCMCMCMCMCMCMCXIOOCOCOOOCO o o co tn" Cfl cu +J •t o 0 CM L Cfl CS o CJ CO ., T3 a 3 a o CJ Cfl remove all hazardou o H Cfl Cfl CQ £4 CU " O 0 CO rcentage of water wa cu PH o 0 co t, o o o S3 •g cu a cfl 0) rH CU 1 cfl cu -j._a CO cfl (U •rH CT 0) rH .a5 TJ CU •a timates. tal value column divi CO O W H rH CM CO Tj* V-72 ------- The limited data on the extent of treatment of air waste streams precludes any general assessment of the extent of air waste treatment. The data that is published relates to the removal effectiveness of various air treatment processes, when applied, rather than to how widely such methods are used. The removal efficiencies which can be expected from various methods are shown in the following table. Table V-30 Approximate Characteristics of Dust and Mist Collection Equipment (8) A. B. C. n. E. r. Equipment type Settling chambers 1. Simple 2. Multiple tray Inerlial separators 1. Bailie chamber 2. Oritice impaction 3. I.ouver i\pe 4. (i.is re\ci sal 5. Rotating impeller Cyclones 1. Single 2. Multiple Filteis 1. '1 ulnilat 2. Reverse jet 3. !• 'n elope Flec'rical precipilatois 1. One-stage 2. 1 wo-siage Scrubbeis I Spr.iv umci 2. J,-t 3. Venturi 4. Cyclonic 5. Inertiul 6 I'.ic ked 7. Rotating impellei Relative cost" 1 2-6 1 1-3 1-3 1 2-6 1-2 3-6 3-20 7-12 3-20 6-30 2-6 1-2 4-10 4-12 3-10 4-10 3-6 4-12 Smallest panicle collet ted (M)* 40 10 20 2 10 40 5 15 5 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.l <0.l 10 2 1 5 2 5 2 Pressure chop (inches !!.,(>) 0.1-0 5 0.1-0.5 0.5-1.5 1-3 0.3-1 0.1-0.4 — 0.5-3 2-10 2-6 2-6 2-6 0.1-0.5 0.1-0.3 •0.1-0..") — 10-15 2-8 2-15 0.5- 1 0 — Power used1' \1000 ll:'/min/ O.I 0.1 0.1-0.5 0.2-0.6 0.1-0.2 O.I 0.5-2 0.1-0.6 0.5-2 05-1.5 0.7-1.5 05- 1.5 0.2-0.6 (1. 2-0/1 0 1-0.2 2-10 2-10 0.6-2 0.8-8 0.6-2 2-10 Remarks Large, low piessmc (hop, prec leaner DilliLult to t lean, wai page problem Power plants, loiary kilns, acid mists At id mists Fly ash, abtasion pioblem 1'iec leaner Compact Simple, inexpensive, most widely used Abiasion and plugging problems High clliciciuv, leinpeiatuic and Imiivchu hums Moic compact, t oils', nit How 1. muled t.ipatily, const. ml How possible High elhciency, heavy duty, expensive Compact, an conditioning servic c Common, low vv.Ut'i use I'lcssuie gam, Ingli \clociiv liquidjft lligli velocity gas stream Modified city collector Abiasion pioblem Chaimcling pioblc'in Abrasion ptoblem " liiiluding necessarv auxiliaries. * Wiili !K)-'.).ri% elluieniv by weight. '' hu hides picssuie loss, watei pumping, eleitntal en V-73 ------- Realistic evaluation of the treatments given to waste streams by industry, indicates that many hazardous materials are being released into the water streams and air streams. Fortun- ately, dilution reduces the hazards below the threshold levels of the human population, or the general pollution level is such that people refrain from exposing themselves to such air or water waste streams. The continuous increase in the amounts of wastes released and the variety of hazardous substances produced, indicates that the threshold safety levels may be exceeded in the future. Since the chronic effects of chemical substances are difficult to measure, the threshold levels of some substances may have been exceeded already. The substances listed as hazardous compounds are examples of the types of toxic compounds which should be excluded from waste streams. If steps are taken to minimize their release, such actions will eliminate, concurrently, other compounds of comparable hazard. 6. DISPOSAL OF SMALL LOTS OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS The disposal of small amounts of hazardous materials is quite different from the treatment methods used to remove contaminants from water or air waste streams or from the disposal techniques which might be used to dispose of large amounts of a single compound. The objective when disposing of small amounts is to render the material harmless while ensuring the safety of the persons involved in the disposal and in the vicinity of the disposal action. The disposal of relatively small amounts of hazardous materials poses unique problems. Such disposal problems arise in commercial operations which use a small amount of a variety of materials, or when such materials are used in retail establishments or households. The disposal means used most frequently are the conventional municipal services, trash collection and sewage systems. The disposal process normally consists of using the material fully and then discar- ding the container, or discarding the container with a small residue, or emptying the residual chemicals into a drain and then discarding V-74 ------- the container. Problems arise when the containers are damaged or leak, or when the user is not familiar with safe handling and disposal practices. Various techniques have been developed by the chemical industry to ensure safe disposal practices. When hazardous materials are in their pure form (e. g. , as products), they are frequently transported and used in large quantities. On occasion, due to accidents, contami- nation, etc. , it becomes necessary for the transporter or user to dispose of the otherwise valuable materials. The chemical industry has historically refrained from including disposal instructions on package labels, for two reasons. First, detailed disposal instructions would, in many cases, require inclusion of the product formulation, and such information is proprietary with the producers. The second, and very practical reason, is that the manufacturers have no way of knowing many of the ultimate users, particularly in terms of the users' technical knowledge and ability to understand fully any instructions that might be included on labels. For these reasons, the chemical manufacturers have preferred to provide the service of taking back hazardous materials and disposing of the materials themselves. This is particularly true of the larger chemical manufacturing firms. Recently, however, the manufacturers have entered into a cooperative arrangement which provides a central point of contact for materials' users who encounter disposal problems, especially with respect to large spills. The central point is now the Manufacturing Chemists Association, and a common telephone number, termed the "hot line, " is available to all users. This does not mean that the manufacturers no longer provide the disposal service, only that the necessary arrangements can be made through a single point of contact. Each occurrence is handled on its own characteristics, and the manufacturers feel that disposal instructions on labels will not become necessary. A series of publications have been prepared by various organizations as guides to the safe handling and disposal of hazardous compounds. Among these publications are: Industrial Data Sheets—National Safety Council. Information is provided on properties, uses, containers, shipping regulations, storage, hazards, handling, first aid, toxicity and waste disposal practices. Data Sheets and Chem-Cards—Manufacturing Chemists Association. Information is given on the properties, hazards, handling, storage, safety, waste disposal and first aid related to specific hazardous materials. V-75 ------- Chemical Hazards Bulletins—American Insurance Asso- ciation. Information given is similar to that in the previous publications. Hygiene Guide—American Industrial Hygiene Association. Information is provided on hygienic standards, toxic levels, and medical information on hazardous materials. A large number of other publications provide data as to the safe handling of dangerous materials. A comprehensive list is contained in Chemical Safety References published by the National Safety Council. The key reference to the safe disposal of hazardous materials is titled Laboratory Waste Disposal Manual published by the Manu- facturing Chemists Association. This manual provides recommen- dations for the treatment and disposal of hazardous chemical wastes. The manual stresses safe procedures for onsite waste disposal from small laboratories,especially those in small communities not possessing sophisticated equipment. The compounds that are included in the list of hazardous compounds have been identified with a disposal method listed in this manual. This was accomplished by listing in the data re- cords the disposal technique which is applicable. These disposal methods also assist in identifying the physical properties of the compound such as its flammability, explosive characteristics, and toxicity. Figure V-3 lists excerpts from the MCA Manual. 7. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Review of the data and information available on hazardous materials contained in industry waste streams indicates that sufficient data is not available to specifically identify and quantify the hazardous waste streams. While individual industrial production facilities may have detailed data, few have published such data. Where detailed studies of waste treatment processes have been made (the Deepwater Pilot Plan Treatability Study), the identification of waste streams to production facilities has been avoided. Historically, industry has not analyzed waste streams with the same level of interest and in the detail that is devoted to process output streams. The lack of data may also be due to a reluctance to identify materials that may create community-relation problems. V-76 ------- FIGURE V-3 Waste Disposal Procedure Small Spills or Package Lots 0) rt SH QJ • r-l O «S > QJ CO O CO CO • r-l SH 0 CO QJ +-> i-H Q 0 N r-l rt Jo 2; QJ • r-l CO T3 0 r. r~^ O-i Co sd E QJ in £ azardous Wastes ffi X x X x -C x x n X XX X x^ \| X X rS «»^ rN ^^^ -^^ ?S ~^^ ?S X X •w S^ v K\|4 PS W ?s >s S^* ^ v « « "i rS rS rS rS ij i XXX X X ^ g ?N rS rS rN X X X XXXXX X X X XXXXX • • • +•> CO % O QJ ™ S-i •3 H 3 Organic Acid Hali Inorganic Halides Aldehydes Alkali & Alkaline Metals Alkyls & Alkoxides Chlorohydrins, Ni rt X2 rt i-H t-H CM CO • W CO 2 § « CO "^ 0 0 CO 'S u t3 " ."tJ mS" ^"J ooC'^c E utio litiii.i^n 4is ^O^^rH^-SpO^^S rf ^3 mrifj-C3<;rtlc;• d rt ^ 51 "S -^ CQ fi ." 0 G -rj -S g- T3 SS^^SS-SB.SsSo^ggi.aogc h P1"1 «lS S SOr3 CO^,Qa3 J^ cT3 S , r-n nj uD QJ o O O c r ^ ^^ «JO ^ SH 3 H »rn ''O ,3 (iiJ-(K'3t(S-'«SUr^tHNrtrti;OXQJ^c/! O w ------- FIGURE V-3 Continued 0) "rt LI s "M d HH ^j cu C > cu r-H [> o £ CO O co C/3 •rH .rH Ll o to ,£2 < CU ^ • rH Q co • rH L, 5 £ CO • i— i CO T3 i— i Li Q, OS X N pq «i ^ EC co Ll e Hazardous Wastes xgxxg xxx ^ii(i^ "-^ x x rS HH rS ivl >y< V LJ V V rN 11 rS ^ rS rS $ X X X XX XXX xxx x xx xx • CO "o co o to CO O o CU rn """ CO 'rH CU ^ CO 'r« O O o °r* O °rj O '2 CO P co LI LI Li H_> y^ Co LI p y* Cu r^ Cu - ,Q CtJ fH O T3 T3 CO tyD CU O tUO t^O ^ Li CO pO CtJ ^O ^^ LO CO C-* CO O^ CO '-^ CM CM C^D ^t* ^^ lO ^H^lr-l,-!^! ^HCMCM CMCMCMCMCMCM CO CU +J <& Li -\|J ^4 CU 1— 1 3 o co o .jj co rn ^ CO Q) Ll -r-l CO >— 1 J3 A "o §" -M m ^ O CU 4-^ 5.& r9 S U OT ' ' C co >^ h •^ LI 3 s , • On CO -M d T3 nS P .r-i JH . . i~~l O M CO m d Qj i-< r~< II-H rT SH i ^n rft QJ ^ SH QJ Li Li CO -y t \| \|5 O Oj -^H CO \| ' ^ r" H ... K .,_( > t^ ^P 'o •^ ^ T3 P [Q O CU S -5 .2 2 £ J w Q di U en -a Selected Gases Soli Scrap Metals Mercury Recovery Phosphorus rt ^Q o CO t- C- C- <>J CM CM CM X X Arsenic, Antimony Bismuth T3 C— CM "r< CO >> m •+•• Li ro nS -0 CL % t? '5 a> ° 2 S . a ^ fil ** • ^H r^ ^ O te rQ O ,_( .2- co K? m "S M* O ^ ^ O TJ S fEl Li ' p] 73 a? § ^ L? "3 ^ ri 5 ^ H ^ 0 M ^ S « 0 <," E5 ^ 5n 0 > 4^ r\| 0 £ CO P .M r3 ^ L? .2 a 3 "O cu C o. ra 'rl i3 ° 3 < rf S S m 30 « OH S 2 •-s x J s rt s w 'S ffi ^ 3 T3 -C r! * ^ « "S3 T5 5 5 t»^ $> IH fe fe ~- _W ^ j^ « r— 1 O O r} >^ **t rt __\| !t3 ^rt !tj 5^ 2 CU r— 1 T) "O T3 ^ _ ^3 £ 'o 'o '3 ^ t3 53 .2 -V- p w p •-> Selenium, Telluriu Lead & Cadmium Beryllium Strontium-Barium Vanadium Halogenated Solven 0 CM tUO ,£ .,_, .p- t- c- t- r- r- c- (M CM CM CM CM CM x • Cellulose Nitrate co CM V-78 ------- In view of these difficulties, assumptions must be made as to the probability of hazardous materials being present in conventional waste streams. Some information as to the type of materials in air, water and solid waste streams may provide an indication as to the control methods which may be needed and the type waste stream which must be considered for special disposal treatment. In the absence of knowledge as to specific materials in the waste streams, the following reasoning can be used to establish the possibility of a signficant hazardous waste stream. It is essential to identify potentially hazardous disposal conditions. If hazardous materials are present in a waste stream, a hazardous waste condition may exist. The materials that are considered to contribute most to the creation of hazardous wastes are those that are the most toxic, corrosive, radioactive, explosive, flammable, etc. , of those which are used or produced in commercial amounts. If hazardous materials are part of the raw material input or output stream (i. e. , used or produced in the manu- facturing facility), some fraction of the amount used will appear in the air, water or solid waste streams. The continuous use of a number of hazardous materials increases the probability that hazardous wastes are created. The use of deep-well disposal systems, disposal contractors, deep-sea disposal, or other special disposal methods may indicate the existence of hazardous waste streams. The presence of hazardous materials does not indicate that a hazardous condition exists. Many industrial processes involve hazardous materials that are controlled safely. When hazardous materials are distributed in small containers, such materials will appear in municipal waste streams. V-79 ------- The presence of organic compounds in waste streams may indicate a hazardous waste. Little is known as to the chronic effects of most organic compounds. Relative hazardous effects are based largely on observed acute effects. Carcinogenic or similar chronic effects of many compounds are unknown. The probability that a hazardous waste stream is produced at an industrial site can be estimated based on a set of material production-consumption characteristics. Table V-31, on the following page, indicates these characteristics and the evaluation of such characteristics for different segments of the industrial community. Some industries produce waste streams that are typical of the industry, i. e. , textile, pulp and paper, leather tanning, and plating wastes. The characteristics of these waste streams are similar. Other industries have highly variable waste streams. The chemical industry produces thousands of different materials by a wide variety of processes and may produce over a thousand different products at a single facility. The quantities of wastes produced are dependent on the materials processed. The extractive industries produce large quantities of spoil from which the valuable ores have been extracted; for example, an average of seven barrels of brine is produced for each barrel of oil. Some industrial operations produce little waste; for example, the electrolysis of brine to produce chlorine and caustic, but such waste (mercury) may be significant although small in quantity. The list of hazardous wastes that has been prepared identifies those substances which are significant wastes, even in relatively small amounts, because of their toxicity or other hazardous properties. It is not, of course, an exhaustive list of hazardous material, but does represent the type materials that create conditions which are potentially hazardous. This list provides a means to evaluate the potential hazards involved in a specific waste stream. If these compounds are present, it is presumptive evidence that a hazard exists which requires control. The list can be used in several ways: to identify the producers of particularly hazardous materials, to identify the industrial consumers mers of such materials, and to identify the extent to which these materials enter the municipal waste streams. V-80 ------- CO 1 CD 2 rt H >} >-t ^^ CO 3 •5 a H ^^ n CO -fcJ CO 08 T3 a G o -u 3 T3 0 £ rt CO 3 T3 ai N a! ffi U 0 E- tn I "S S a m a (0 Q •o CJ 3 O U H a, o • H rt L> 4) rt S 4) 5 u x ~ H S rt T3 co rt 5 2 8-1 £l p, £ Cu ID T3 C -> QJ «] \|\| £ <>• O X w U H c u CO en P ~ O o K tfl o o M OS b H ° PH OS u. H (J u Indust x X x xxx xxx XXX XXX XXXX M X x XXXX XX XXX X X X XXXX X X xx xxxxxxx XXX XX X X X XX MX x xxxxxxxxxx xxx xxx xxxx xxxxxxx x x * x x xXxxxx xxx xx x X XXXXXXXXXXX XX XX X X XX XXX* XXXX Xx xxx* xxx xx XXXX X X * x x x x x XXX XXXMXXXX xX XX XX x xxx xx x X MX XXXXXX XXXX XXXXXXX CA w "£ i « i i 1M ! J a £^•521^ 2 "• ! n \| • S liiioi 1 1 , . 2 n 2 1 § 3^=^23 o^lst50"^- S 2o\|«o J^SSl^Sgj^ g S^lsltlM \|\|1 ilgll»c\|Qu^ \| SU,^P.NinTOffl«DHj 2NNSNCN™"MNc5MNNNM«CO('OCO « en 11 a 8. •c Q Q > o ,-j n ^ ^! " £"23 1 s^ll CO Q W Q ,l " S H O W D ai u < (n y W 0 - c « a S S HI n fl; (8 nn > 2 01 Otjf •S 1 EOO\| O ° ° - - u S ° ° H ^ ° in X O O _ 455i!l O " co P o> bo 5 Sill! "P o X 43 rt to Jj O W fc OS OK (B £ U W fc tf P- V-81 ------- Constraints on interviews and the mailing of questionaires prevented a detailed analysis as to the specific locations that produce and use the materials on this list. A detailed analysis of a few major SMSAs should be made to identify the industrial use and commercial distribution of these materials. Such information should establish the practical relationships between these compounds and the hazard potential of air, water and solid waste streams. Then control measures based on these compounds, which insure their safe handling and disposal, will adequately protect against other compounds with similar properties. The concept of controls over hazardous wastes must recognize the realities of waste production. Most wastes are created at the time a material is made or consumed. Most chemical compounds are produced and consumed within the chemical industry. Some are produced for retail use, while many compounds are used to a minor degree for small commercial, retail or household purposes. The major waste quantities are related to industrial production. The industrial producers and consumers of hazardous materials operate extensive facilities which most frequently produce or consume a variety of chemicals. The waste treatment methods they use are designed to cope with a variety of materials to the degree needed to satisfy the legal requirements of local authorities. The waste treatment process is designed to produce wastes which are acceptable to the community. Such treatment facilities are not designed to completely remove hazardous effects. They reduce harmful effects to an acceptable level. Typically such treatment methods involve dilution of waste materials with water and the treatment of such wastes as part of a water stream. Once introduced into water, compounds are not readily separated and the dilution factors insure that thousands and/or millions of gallons of water per day must be treated. The large quantities of water involved make it uneconomic to ship such waste streams. Local treatment is most practical. The shipment of conentrated waste streams are more economic than the shipment of dilute waste streams. Because of this truism, concentrated waste streams are more likely to be considered as candidates for movement to disposal sites other than those at the site where the waste originates. V-82 ------- Those waste streams which are now transported to offsite disposal plants or dumps provide an indication as to the type of waste streams which may be the initial candidates for national disposal sites. These collectable hazardous waste streams include: Ocean disposal of barge delivered liquid and solid wastes Deep-well injection streams Contract disposal wastes Munition disposal operations Radioactive wastes Industrial chemical containers. The economics of waste disposal will determine, ultimately, the amounts and types of wastes that will be moved to distant disposal sites. It is unlikely that industry will move wastes if they can be treated satisfactorily and more economically at the point of origin. The data in the table on the following page illustrates the type and quantities of materials now moved to offsite disposal locations. Should deep-well disposal and deep-sea disposal be restricted, a substantial improvement in onsite capabilities for tertiary treatment will be required. Most wastes now deep-welled will require tertiary treatment to remove toxic contaminants. V-83 ------- Table V-32 Quantitative Data on Offsite Disposal Tonnages Marine Disposal Operations - 1968 Waste Type Amount (tons per year) Dredge Spoils 52,200,000 Industrial Wastes 4, 690, 500^ Sewage 4,477,000 Construction and Demolition 574, 000 Explosive 15,200 Radioactive 4 Garbage 26,000 Miscellaneous 200 61, 982,904 (3) Deep-Well Injection Streams - 1968y Oil Field Brines 10, 000, 000 barrels/day Chemical Wastes >1, 000, 000 barrels/day a. Inorganic Salt Solutions b. Mineral and Organic Acids c. Basic Solutions . , , ..... , „ j _,, , . , , , „. , , approximately 175 deep wells d. Chlorinated and Oxygenated Hydrocarbons e. Municipal Sewage Contract Disposal Wastes 30-40, 000 tons annually Munitions Disposal - 1970 80-120, 000 tons Explosive Munitions 8, 000 tons Chemical Munitions Radioactive Wastes - 1963 70, 000, 000 gallons High Level Wastes Stored 7, 000, 000 cubic feet Solid Waste Buried at Atomic Energy Commission Sites 400, 000, 000 gallons Low Activity Waste Processed V-84 ------- Table V-32 (Continued) Industrial Chemical Containers - 1971 !75 percent < 33 ounces 5 percent 33 to 127 ounces 20 percent > 127 ounces Ocean Disposal of Barge Delivered Liquid and Solid Wastes from U.S. Coastal Cities, Environmental Protection Agency, Report No. SW-19c, 1971. (2) Industrial Wastes Include Waste Acid 58 percent 2,720,000 tons Refinery Wastes 12 562,000 Pesticide Wastes 7 328,000 Paper Mill Wastes 3 142, 500 Other 20 938,000 (3) Injection Wells and Operations Today, E.G. Donaldson, U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Bartlesville, Oklahoma. V-85 ------- ------- VI. MAJOR FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS ------- VI. MAJOR FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS The following sections summarize the major findings and conclusions which were developed as the study progressed. They have been grouped under the following headings: Definition of Hazardous Wastes and Identification of Hazardous Effects Selection and Rating of Hazardous Materials Quantification and Distribution Waste Treatment Processes National Disposal Systems. Many of the conclusions presented may overlap these categories and relate to two or more general areas, but this is only indicative of the complex, integral nature of the hazardous waste and hazardous effects problem. I. DEFINITION OF A HAZARDOUS MATERIAL AND HAZARDOUS EFFECTS It is difficult to give a simple explanation of what is meant by the term hazardous. The term implies a substance, or mixture of substances, which has (have) an inherent potential of being harmful to man or to the environment. In this context, the term also tends to describe a condition or situation rather than a material. The situation could involve a toxic substance, a flammable or explosive substance, or a highly reactive substance. A reactive substance, in turn, could cause fire, explosion, or the formation of toxic substances. All substances in these latter categories, as well as others not speci- fically mentioned here, have a potential to produce harmful effects to humans, plants, animals, etc. They could, therefore, by classed VI-1 ------- as hazardous substances. The term "potential" is significant, since a great many materials are suspected of being hazardous to various life forms, but too little is known factually about their hazardous effects to permit including them in the hazardous category. It is the effort to hold to facts that has resulted in the relatively short list of materials identified as hazardous in this study. The term hazardous also connotes an element of change or uncertainty. In the context of waste materials and their potential dangers, chance or uncertainty derive from the various ways that humans or the environment can be exposed to harmful amounts of a waste substance. Harmful amounts vary and are dependent upon factors such as the type of receptor (i.e. , humans, plants, animals, etc. ), the type and amount of exposure (i. e. , levels of concentration, magnitude of dose necessary for damage to occur, magnitude of explosion, violence of reaction, etc. ), and the duration of exposure. To appraise one hazardous substance relative to another, comparison must be made on the basis of criteria which serve as standards for rating each appropriate factor, as described above. When the nature of hazardous wastes is thus understood, the difficulty of defining and listing hazardous wastes becomes more apparent. The process of creating the toxic materials and the methods used to treat such materials when they become waste can be better described. Evidence as to the deleterious effects of such materials is more elusive. The following conclusions have been reached concerning the definition of hazardous materials and hazardous effects: (1) Knowledge of the long-range effects of chemical components is quite limited. Severe knowledge gaps, concerning both ecological systems interrelationships and the total effects of hazardous substances on all receptors, limit under- standing as to which factors are pertinent and most important to the identification of hazardous compounds. (2) By using an extensive set of criteria to define hazardous substances, a list of substances which possess a high potential for creating hazardous conditions as uncontrolled wastes can be developed. This list is valuable for defining the relative dangers which may develop if hazardous substances are not controlled throughout their life cycle. VI-2 ------- (3) The development of a list of hazardous substances is not equivalent to the development of a list of hazardous wastes, largely because of the unknown nature of effects possible from mixed waste streams, especially synergistic effects of a variety of input materials. (4) Wastes to be hazardous must contain one or more hazardous substances in sufficient concentration to be detrimental to human health or other elements of the ecological system. 2. SELECTION AND RATING OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS As part of the current study, a list of "hazardous compounds" was developed and each compound was later rated, relative to the others listed, on the basis of a defined set of criteria. Knowledge gaps have a critical impact on the list of hazardous substances. In particular, knowledge of the long-range effects of chemical compounds on man or the environment are quite limited. In many instances it may take years for the effects of new compounds, or even compounds now in use, to be noticed and be traced directly to a particular chemical compound. Quantitative cause and effect relationships will take additional time to establish. Because of this, it is likely that many compounds or materials with highly deleterious long-range effects are not on the list developed during this study. Conclusions reached relative to the selection and rating of hazardous materials include: (1) The list of 424 hazardous compounds which has been developed is representative of a larger unidentified set or list of hazardous compounds. (2) The list of hazardous compounds can be useful for future research in tracing the flow of identified hazardous compounds from their points of manufacture to points of use, and to categorize their status at any given time as: Intermediate in manufacturing processes Consumables in manufacturing processes VI-3 ------- Hazardous end products Nonhazardous end products Others. (3) Knowledge concerning the presence of particularly toxic compounds in complex waste streams provides useful indication of the amount of waste control or treatment required. (4) Continual industrial process and product changes produce a continuous stream of new compounds, some of which are hazardous. Data deficiencies relative to this stream introduce the possibility of omissions of some hazardous materials from the list. However, the development of a meaningful program to deal with hazardous wastes is not dependent upon a complete or totally comprehensive list and rating of hazardous substances. (5) The rating procedure developed includes ratings on the basis of known effects to ecological populations and the effects of flame, explosion, and reaction in addition to human toxic effects. Also, the rating system is modular in design providing a flexible capability to: Develop and examine alternative ratings on the basis of adjusted weightings of the various modules Develop specific hazard ratings for human effects, other ecological effects, or flame/ explosion/reaction effects either individually or by any combination Develop specific hazard ratings for air, water, or land disposal either individually or by any combination. VI-4 ------- 3. QUANTIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION Initial waste streams of production plants include process, storage, and package product wastes. Each customer also develops wastes either as process waste streams or as packaged wastes. Estimates of probable waste quantities are frequently made based on fractions of the total production. Such estimates provide a general indication as to disposal needs. Several conclusions have been reached with respect to quantifi- cation and distribution of hazardous materials: (1) Gross quantification data (i. e. , number of pounds of waste material produced in different areas by type industry), is useful as a general indicator of the magnitude and pervasiveness of industrial waste streams. Such data assists in defining the scope of the problem and gives some indication as to disposal needs. (2) While gross quantification data are useful and valid, as described above, their use to estimate the quantities of wastes in a particular geographical area with an implied degree of accuracy is probably not valid and may lead to erroneous conclusions, because of the great number of variables in production processes within small segments of any one industry. (3) The amount of waste produced does not indicate the hazards which may be produced by such wastes. Hazardous wastes must produce toxic concentration effects greater than can be tolerated by the threatened life system. The existence of such concentrations must be established on a continuing plant-by-plant basis by analysis of waste generated. VI-5 ------- 4. WASTE TREATMENT PROCESSES Any waste stream may be hazardous under certain conditions. That is, the toxicity of the materials, the susceptibility of the environ- ment, and the concentration in the air, soil, or water may exceed the tolerable levels. The disposal treatment required and the facilities needed to cope with hazardous wastes are specifically related to the products made, the processes involved, waste stream characteristics, and local geographic, demographic, and environmental conditions. Each industrial facility will find it necessary to tailor disposal facilities to its individual needs, i. e. , methods cannot apply in common even across single industries. In general, disposal processes at individual plants treat only the waste streams originating in the production process. That is, they do not contribute materially in disposing of packaged products which frequently create additional hazardous disposal conditions. Municipal disposal systems, for example, are not designed to deal with potentially hazardous materials. In general, dilution with other materials is the only operational safeguard currently in use. Means to control the hazards associated with the disposal of toxic explosive materials used in business and households need to be developed. The studies which have been made for pesticides indicate some of the actions which are needed. Current regulations covering drugs and other carefully controlled products such as rodenticides and alcohol may provide insights into the means to control the movement and disposal of such materials. The following specific conclusions were reached in the above study areas: (1) Accurate characterization of waste streams is essential to the evaluation of hazard potentials and to the design of waste treatment to abate such hazards, yet these charac- terizations have not been made in the majority of indus- trial situations. VI-6 ------- (2) Waste characterization data should be used to identify the specific treatments which are required and the removal or corrective efficiencies which must be achieved once criteria for waste is established. The most useful approach appears to be the development of disposal processes which can be used to dispose of a wide variety of compounds by a single treatment sequence. (3) Following conclusion 2 above, indepth studies of specific industrial processes are needed in several areas in order to: Determine the composition of associated waste streams in detail Establish the feasibility of separating certain hazardous compounds from general waste streams (e. g. , heavy metals, phenols) Develop alternative ways of categorizing and rating treatment requirements of composite waste streams. (4) The selection of waste treatment systems and disposal sites is highly influenced by external conditions such as data concerning geology, topography, meteorology, population density, industry concentrations, and political boundaries. Indepth studies into these external conditions are needed to avoid costly long-term miscalculations. (5) Data on waste characteristics for individual plants obtained by the Corps of Engineers, through enforcement of the Refuse Act of 1899, should be used for conversion into estimates of disposal treatment needs and costs by means of relatively simple automated calculations. Such estimates can be accumulated into data specific to plants, localities, and regions and be the basis for national disposal planning and control. VI-7 ------- 5. NA TIONA L DISPOSA L SYSTEM While it is intuitively acceptable to expand the operational practices of the AEC for radioactive wastes to other materials which tend to create hazardous conditions, these practices may not be applicable to the wide range of industrial wastes. Radioactive wastes by and large are inevitable by-products of other operations. With few exceptions little use has been found for them. On the other hand, most hazard creating chemical compounds are produced for specific purposes and needs. The wastes involved in their production process may or may not create conditions which are hazardous. Generally speaking, the chemical industry has dealt successfully with toxic/ flammable/explosive compounds and possess the technology to dispose of all waste safely. Specific conclusions with respect to the development of a national disposal system or systems are: (1) A national disposal system can minimize toxic wastes by: Improving plant treatment practices Improving controls over materials in distribution channels Defining subsystems for collecting specific toxic residues Developing improved packages which will assist in the safety and completeness of disposition. (2) National disposal sites should be developed only if needed as part of a comprehensive hazardous material system. VI-8 ------- VII. RECOMMENDATIONS ------- VII. RECOMMENDA TIONS 1. HAZARDOUS WASTE CONTROL SYSTEM Develop a national hazardous waste control, collection and disposal system which might include as a component, as needed, hazardous waste disposal sites and processes. The system concept should consider all steps necessary to control designated hazardous substances from their initial production through intermediate stages of use to final disposal. Control system development should incorporate the following major tasks: Identification of critical waste processes or products Licensing of production and disposal processes Specification of handling and treatment methods Inspection for conformance Prescriptions for labeling, warnings and disposal methods Designation of collection points for specific waste categories requiring special handling Licensing of contractors for disposal or recycling Designation of ultimate disposal methods Development of implementation plan. VII-1 ------- 2. INDEPTH HAZARDOUS MATERIAL STUDY Conduct an indepth study of a limited number of hazardous materials in order to establish the quantities, distribution and disposal possibilities. In essence this study would serve as a feasibility study for a national hazardous waste control system. Tasks would include: Selection of about 10 to 15 hazardous materials based on highest production quantities and widest distribution Investigation of production, distribution, and disposal patterns for selected materials Determine possibilities and problems with a national disposal system Preparation of a national profile to illustrate the findings Develop projections for a national system for a large number of hazardous wastes. 3. WASTE STREAM HAZARD ANALYSIS Conduct a study of plant waste streams to establish waste characteristic profiles, identify the hazardous parameters of a given waste content and recommend treatment profiles. Treatment processes will be directed toward the processing required to achieve the minimum acceptable standard for introduction to a municipal treatment system. Major tasks would include: Identification of municipal acceptance standards Collection of typical waste characteristic profiles from Corps of Engineers Identification of treatment level (by characteristic) for various wastes which is necessary to meet standard Establishment of automated program to read-in waste profile and read-out treatment profile VII-2 ------- Provide routine to Estimate cost of adequate treatment facilities by type and quantity of waste Estimate sludge and other residue production in industrial and municipal treatment Sort data—profile, treatment requirements, costs, effluent quantity, SIC, geographical location Preparation of computer program for above Provide for analysis of inplant processes by these methods, 4. HAZARDOUS EFFECTS RESEARCH Launch a research effort directed toward the specific task of identifying the hazardous effects of various materials. The result of this effort should be combined with a program to require firms to file data on new compounds (similar to FDA Requirements), Criteria for such industry data should also be established. Major tasks in this effort would include: Analysis of new chemical substances and other potentially harmful substances Early identification and characterization of substances which may produce hazardous effects due to long-term persistence and toxic effects of accumulation Determination of persistency of toxic substances in soil, water, etc. Determination of mutagenic and carcinogenic effects. A specific laboratory should be tasked to monitor and direct this research program and to assemble, correlate, and distribute data acquired through this research effort. VI-3 ------- ------- BIBLIOGRAPHY ------- TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Number INTRODUCTION 1 1. STANDARD INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATION (SIC) CODES 3 SIC 01 - Agricultural Production 4 SIC 10 - 14 Mining 5 SIC 20 - Food and Kindred Products 9 SIC 22 - Textile Mill Products 12 SIC 26 - Paper and Allied Products 15 SIC 28 - Chemicals and Allied Products 17 SIC 2834 - Pharmaceutical Preparations 23 SIC 2879 - Agricultural Pesticides, and Other Agricultural Chemicals, Not Elsewhere Classified 24 SIC 2892 - Explosives 25 SIC 29 - Petroleum Refining and Related Industries 27 SIC 30 - Rubber and Miscellaneous Plastics Products 31 SIC 311 - Leather Tanning and Finishing 32 SIC 33 - Primary Metal Industries 34 SIC 333 - Primary Smelting and Refining of Nonferrous Metals 38 SIC 347 - Coating, Engraving, and Allied Services 39 Radioactive Wastes - U.S. Atomic Energy Commission 42 Waste Management in the Department of Defense 46 ------- Page Number 2. DISPOSAL PRACTICES AND TECHNIQUES, AND TYPES OF POLLUTION 47 Air Pollution 48 Biological Treatment 60 Corps of Engineers 61 Deep Well 62 Economic Data 63 Federal Regulations 64 Fluidized-Bed 66 General Disposal Techniques 67 Hazardous Spills 73 Health Hazards 74 Hospital Wastes 76 Identification of Hazardous Materials 77 Incineration 79 Ion Exchange . 81 Lagooning 82 Literature Lists - General 83 Math Modelling and Cost Techniques 85 Oxidation Reduction 86 Pesticide Collection and Disposal Systems 87 Sludge Disposal 88 Solid Waste - General 89 Toxicity 97 Utilities 105 3. SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCE MATERIAL 106 ------- INTRODUCTION The fundamental effort in conduct of the Hazardous Materials Study was a literature survey. The principal objective of this analytical survey was a systematic screening of available literature data. Several thousand abstracts were obtained, perused by the study team, and assessed according to their relevance within the context of the study. Requests were then submitted for those documents felt to be most propitious. Additional documents were identified and acquired as a result of personal interviews conducted with representatives of industry, trade associations, and Governmental agencies. In all, approximately 800 documents were accepted as containing information worthwhile to the purposes of the study. In accordance with the major thrust of this study and the contents of the acceptable documents, three separate categories were established for cataloging the incoming material. These major categories are: Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Codes Disposal Practices and Techniques, and Types of Pollution Supplementary Reference Material. Within each category, further subjective differentiation was made, and is reflected in the table of contents to this bibliography as an aid to the user in locating references of interest among the very large number included. Consequently, as each document was received, the required bibliographical information was recorded, a control number was given, and the document was filed by subject within the appropriate category. The bibliographical information was also filed categorically for easy reference and for later transcription. Distinction was made between articles, magazines, reports, and books. All literature was identified by title, since this seemed to be most conducive for easy access of the documents. Both the study team and EPA personnel referred to material by title, and, in most cases, the title implied the subject -1- ------- content of the document. In addition, the company, association, Governmental agency, etc., with which the author was associated at the time of publication, proved to be beneficial in analyzing the literature data, and this information was included in the bibli- ographical material. This bibliography contains all information discussed above for those documents considered to be acceptable. This information is separated into the three categories and a brief description of each category precedes the literature listing. -2- ------- 1. STANDARD INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATION (SIC) CODES Thirteen major SIC codes were selected in this category. The last two sections are not SIC codes but represent major agencies, within the government, that must be considered in a study of this nature: the Atomic Energy Commission and the Department of Defense. Several major SIC codes are further classified by the finer SIC code breakdown. Within each section, all documents are listed alphabetically by title according to the type of material: article, magazine, report, and book. -3- ------- SIC 01 - AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION REPORTS A Study of Farm Waste, Farm Animal Waste; Characterization, Handling, Utilization, S.A. Witzel, O.J. Attoe, E. McCoy, L. B. Polkowsky, and K. Crabtree, University of Wisconsin, Project OSW UI-00556-01 to -04, for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Solid Waste, 1970. The Pollution Potential of the Confined Livestock Feeding Industry. Midwest Research Institute, Project 3481-C, for the Environmental Protection Agency, June 1971. -4- ------- SIC 10 - 14 MINING ARTICLES "A Long-Range Look at Acid Mine Drainage, " based on Paper by E. P. Hall (of Consolidation Coal Co.), Mining Engineering, January 1966, pp. 61-62. "An Operator's Approach to Mine Water Drainage Problems and Stream Pollution, " H. E. Steinman (of Vesta-Shannopin Coal Division, Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp.), Mining Congress Journal, July 1960, pp. 70-73. "Acid Mine-Drainage: Control Case Histories, " Coal Age, June 1964, pp. 72-77. "Acid Mine-Drainage Control: Principles and Practices Guide, " Coal Age, June 1964, pp. 81-86. "Acid Mine Drainage Pollution Control - Approach to Solution, " S. Krickovic (of U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines), Mining Congress Journal, December 1966, pp. 64-68. "Acid Mine Drainage Research Potentialities, " G. P. Hanna, Jr., J. R. Lucas, C. I. Randies, E. E. Smith, andR. A. Brant (of Ohio State University), Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, Vol. 35, No. 3, March 1963, pp. 275-296. "Bibliography on Solid Wastes and Recycling Research, " U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines. "Clear, Alkaline Run-Off is J&L's Goal in Water-Treatment Plan, " Coal Age, August 1967, pp. 70-74. "Lime Slurry System at Pursglove No. 15 Mine, " V. H. Ream (of Christopher Coal Co. ), Mining Congress Journal, January 1970, pp. 55-59. "Neutralization of Acid Mine Drainage, " D. W. Hill, Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, Vol. 41, No. 10, October 1969, pp. 1702-1715. "New Technology of Leaching Waste Dumps, " E. E. Malouf and J. D. Prater (of Kennecott Copper Corp.), Mining Congress Journal, November 1962, pp. 82-85. -5- ------- "Pelletizing Fine Coal Recovered from Pumped Refuse, " H. N. Egan, Mining Engineering, November 1967, pp. 73-75. "Pollution Control in Mining and Processing of Indiana Coal, " R. A. Woodley (of Commercial Solvents Corp. ), and S. L. Moore (of Industrial Waste Section, Indiana State Board of Health), Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, January 1967, pp. 41-49. "Stabilizing Mine Dumps, " Mining Magazine, Vol. 119, No. 4, October 1968, pp. 296-299. "This Month in Mining - Symposium Sees Hard Times Ahead for Industry in Clean-Up of Tailing and Milling Wastes, " Engineering/ Mining Journal, May 1970, pp. 102-104. "Treatment of an Old Sands Dump at the Luipaards Vlei Estate and Gold Mining Co., Ltd. " P. B. Weehuizen (of Venter Post Gold Mining Co. , Ltd.), Mining Magazine, Vol. 115, No. 6, December 1966, pp. 464-471. MAGAZINES Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 4, No. 7, July 1970. REPORTS Burning Coal Refuse Banks and the Associated Environmental Problems, L. M. McNay, U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Information Circular, 1970. Case Studies of Municipal Waste Disposal Systems, H. W. Sheffer, E. C. Baker, and G. C. Evans, U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Pub. 8498, 1971. Chemical and Vegetative Stabilization of a Nevada Copper Porphyry Mill Tailing, K. C. Dean, R. Havens, and K. T. Harper, U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Pub. 7261, May 1969. Chemical Stabilization of the Uranium Tailings at Tuba City, Arizona, R. Havens and K. C. Dean, U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Pub. 7288, August 1969. -6- ------- Coal Refuse Fires, an Environmental Hazard. L. M. McNay, U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Pub. 8515, 1971. Design of Dams for Mill Tailings, C. D. Kealy and R. L. Soderberg, U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Pub. 8410, 1969. Dewatering Florida Phosphate Pebble Rock Slime by Freezing Techniques, M. H. Stanczyk, I. L. Feld, andE.W. Collins, U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Pub. 7520, June 1971. Disposal of Solid Wastes from Coal Mining in Washington, Oregon, Montana, M. R. Geer, U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Pub. 8430, 1969. Distribution of Sulfide and Oxide Copper in Copper Mill Tailings, J. C. White and A. R. Rule, U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Pub. 7498, April 1971. Fly Ash Utilization - A Summary of Applications and Technology, J. P. Capp and J. D. Spencer, U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Pub. 8483, 1970. Ignition and Control of Burning of Coal Mine Refuse, J.W. Myers, J. J. Pfeiffer, E. M. Murphy, and F. E. Griffith, U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Pub. 6758, 1966. Industrial Waste Study of the Flat Glass, Cement, Lime, Gypsum, and Asbestos Industries, Sverdrup & Parcel and Associates, Inc. , July 1971. Mineral Facts and Problems, U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines Staff, Bulletin 630, 1965 Edition. Mineral Facts and Problems, U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Bulletin 650. Mineral Industry Solid Wastes and Our Environment, U, S, Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, c. 1971. National Inventory of Sources and Emissions, Cadmium, Nickel, and Asbestos; Section II: Nickel, W. E. Davis & Associates, for the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, February 1970. -7- ------- Pennsylvania Anthracite Refuse - A Survey of Solid Waste from Mining and Preparation, J. C. MacCartney, R. H. Whaite, U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Pub. 8409, 1969. Proceedings of the First Mineral Waste Utilization Symposium, Chicago, Illinois, March 27-28, 1968, Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute, 1968. Proceedings of the Second Mineral Waste Utilization Symposium, Chicago, Illinois, March 18-19, 1970, Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute, 1970. Reclamation of Acidic Coal-Mine Spoil with Fly Ash, L. M. Adams, J. P. Capp, and E. Eisentrout, U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Pub. 7504, April 1971. Recovery of Phosphates and Metals from Waste Phosphate Sludge by Reduction-Sinter Processes, R.F. Waters, H. E. Powell, and A. A. Cochran, U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Pub. 7533, July 1971. Surface Mining and Our Environment, U. S. Department of Interior, U.S. Government Printing Office, Staff Report, 1967. Utilization of Waste Fluosilicic Acid: Section 1 — Laboratory Investigations; Section 2 - Cost Evaluation, H. E. Blake, Jr. , W.S. Thomas, K.W. Moser, J. L. Reuss, and H. Dolezal, U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Pub. 7502, April 1971. Waste Disposal Costs at Two Coal Mines in Kentucky and Alabama, V. A. Danielson and D. H. White, Jr. , U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Pub. 8406, 1969. Waste Disposal Costs of a Florida Phosphate Operation, J. R. Boyle, U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Pub. 8404, 1969. -8- ------- SIC 20 - FOOD AND KINDRED PRODUCTS ARTICLES "A Pollution Abatement Program for Distillery Wastes, " R. G. Paulette, C. S. Boruff, and J. O. Nack, Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, Vol. 42, No. 7, July 1970, pp. 1387- 1394. "Baffled Biological Basins for Treating Poultry Plant Wastes, " N. L. Nemerow, Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, September, 1969, pp. 1602-1612. "The Treatment of Effluents from the Milk Industry, " A. B. Wheatland, (of Water Pollution Research Laboratory, England), Chemistry and Industry, September 16, 1967, pp. 1547-1548. "Waste Disposal in the Meat Industry, Part I, " A. J. Steffen, Water and Wastes Engineering/Industrial, Vol. 7, No. 3, March 1970, pp. B-20 to B-22. "Waste Disposal in the Meat Industry, Part II, " A. J. Steffen, Water and Wastes Engineering/Industrial, Vol. 7, No. 5, May 1970, pp. C-l to C-4. "Wastewater Treatment from Potato Processing, " O. Sproul, K. Keshavan, M.W. Hall, and B. B. Barnes, Water and Sewage Works, February 1968. REPORTS A Report on Bottled and Canned Soft Drinks and Flavoring Extracts and Syrups, Associated Water and Air Resources Engineers, Inc. , for the Environmental Protection Agency, August 1971. Aerated Lagoon Treatment of Food Processing Wastes, K.A. Dostal, Pacific Northwest Water Laboratory, Project 12060, for the Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality Office, March 1968. Aerobic Secondary Treatment of Potato Processing Wastes, The R.T. French Co., Project 12060 EHV, for the Environmental Protection Agency (Grant WPRD 15-01-68), December 1970. -9- ------- Cannery Waste Treatment, Kehr Activated Sludge, FMC Corp. , for the U. S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Quality Administration (Grant 12060 EZP), September 1970. Current Practice in Potato Processing Waste Treatment, K. Guttormsen and D. A. Carlson, University of Washington, for the U. S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (Grant WP-01486-01), October 1969. Final Report Industrial Waste Study of the Meat Products Industry, J.P. Pilney, E. E. Erickson, and N. O. Halvorson, North Star .Research and Development Institute, for the Environmental Protection Agency, July 8, 1971. Industrial Waste Study of Canned and Frozen Fruits and Vegetables. SCS Engineers, for the Environmental Protection Agency, July 17, 1971. Industrial Waste Study of the Grain Mill Industry, Sverdrup & Parcel and Associates, Inc. , for the Environmental Protection Agency, August 1971. Industrial Waste Survey of the Distilled Spirits Industry. Associated Water and Air Resources Engineers, Inc. , for the Environmental Protection Agency, August 1971. Industrial Waste Survey of the Malt Industry, Associated Water and Air Resources Engineers, Inc. , for the Environmental Protection Agency, August 1971. Industrial Waste Survey of the Malt Liquor Industry. Associated Water and Air Resources Engineers, Inc., for the Environmental Protection Agency, August 1971. Proceedings: First National Symposium of Food Processing Wastes, April 6-8. 1970. Portland, Oregon. U. S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Quality Administration, Research Series 12060, April 1970. Secondary Treatment of Potato Processing Wastes. K.A. Dostal, Pacific Northwest Water Laboratory, Project 12060, for the Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality Office, July 1969. -10- ------- Solid Waste Management in the Food Processing Industry, A.M. Katsuyama, N. A. Olson, R. L. Quirk, andW.A. Mercer, National Canners' Association and Western Research Laboratory, for the Environmental Protection Agency, 1971. Study of Wastes and Effluent Requirements of the Dairy Industry, A.T. Kearney & Co., Inc., Report ATK-ENV-71-02-1, May 1971. The Cost of Clean Water. Volume III: Industrial Waste Profile No. 6 - Canned and Frozen Fruits and Vegetables, U. S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, September 1967. The Cost of Clean Water, Volume III: Industrial Waste Profile No. 8 - Meat Products, Wichita State University, Department of Economics, for the U. S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, September 1967. The Cost of Clean Water, Volume III: Industrial Waste Profile No. 9 - Dairies, U. S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, September 1967. Treatment of Citrus Processing Wastes, The Coca Cola Co., Foods Division, Project 12060, for the Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality Office (Grant WPRD 38-01-67), October 1970. Waste Reduction in Food Canning Operations, National Canners' Association Research Foundation, Western Research Laboratory, for the U. S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Quality Administration (Grant WPRD 151-01-68), August 1970. -11- ------- SIC 22 - TEXTILE MILL PRODUCTS ARTICLES "Aerated Stabilization of Synthetic Organic Chemical Wastes, " F. D. Bess and R. A. Conway (of Union Carbide Corp.), Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, Vol. 38, No. 6, June 1966, pp. 939-955. "Aerobic Treatment of Textile Mill Waste, " E. L. Jones. T. A. Alspaugh, and H. B. Stokes (of Cone Mills Corp.), Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, Vol. 34, No. 5, May 1962, pp. 495-512. "Biological Treatment of Textile Effluents, " A. I. Biggs (of the Confederation of British Industry), Chemistry and Industry, September 16, 1967, pp. 1536-1538. "Disposal of Dye and Finishing House Wastes and Similar Materials, " E. C. Oden, Sr., Water and Sewage Works, September 1967, pp. 367-368. "Energy-Induced Changes in an AZO Dyestuff Waste, " A. I. Mytelka (of AeroChem Research Laboratories, Inc. ) and R. Manganelli (of Rutgers University), Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, February 1968, pp. 260-268. "Orion Manufacturing Wastes Treatment, " E. F. Taylor, F.T. Bodurtha, Jr., R. F. Rocheleau, and G. C. Gross (of E. I. duPont de Nemeurs & Co. ), Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, Vol. 33, No. 10, October 1961, pp. 1076-1089. "Pollution Factors and Treatment of Textile Waste Waters, " P.W. Sherwood, The Textile Manufacturer, June 1965, pp. 235-238. "Sodium Hydroxide Recovery in the Textile Industry, " C. S. Carrique and L. U. Jauregui (of University of Buenos Aires), Purdue University - Engineering Extension Series 121, 1966, pp. 861-868. "Some Differences Between British, American and Continental Practice, " Dr. L. Klein (of Mercey River Board, England), pp. 3-32. -12- ------- "Stream Pollution and Effluent Treatment, with Special Reference to Textile and Paper Mill Effluents, " Dr. L. Klein, Chemistry and Industry, May 23, 1964, pp. 866-873. "Tannery, Textile and Wool Scouring Wastes, " reviewed by T. A. Alspaugh, Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, 1967 Literature Review. Vol. 40, No. 6, June 1968, pp. 1165-1171. "The Disposal and Recovery of Textile Wastes, Part I - The Problem; Preliminary Studies; Experimental Work; Disposal by Chemical Precipitation, " M.S. Campbell (of The Textile Foundation), Textile Research, pp. 490-504. "The Treatment and Control of Bleaching and Dyeing Wastes, " A. H. Little (of The Cotton, Silk and Man-Made Fibres Research Association), Water Pollution Control, 1969, pp. 178-189. "Trade Effluent Control in the Carpet Industry, " D. Evers (of the Trent River Board), Textile Institute and Industry, September 1965, pp. 237-240. "Waste Treatment Studies at Cluett, Peabody and Company Finishing Plant, " R. H. Souther (of The Arrow Company Division), American Dyestuff Reporter, July 28, 1969, pp. 13-16. "Zeroing in on Five Top Trouble Spots, " Textile World. October 1971, pp. 41-46. REPORTS A Simplification of Textile Waste Survey and Treatment, J.W. Masselli, N.W. Masselli, and M. G. Burford, Wesleyan University, for the New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission, July 1959. Industrial Waste Studies Program - Textile Mill Products, Arthur D. Little, Inc. , for the Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality Office, May 28, 1971. -13- ------- Industrial Waste Surveys of Two New England Cotton Finishing Mills, M.G. Burford and J.W. Masselli (of Wesleyan University), W. J. Snow (of Connecticut State Water Commission), and H. Campbell and F. J. DeLuise (of University of Rhode Island), for the New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission, June 1953. Pollution Sources from Finishing of Synthetic Fibers, J.W. Masselli and M. G. Burford, Wesleyan University, for the New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission, June 1956. Reuse of Chemical Fiber Plant Wastewater and Cooling Water Slowdown, Fiber Industries, Inc. and Davis & Floyd Engineers, Inc., Project 12090 EUX, for the Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality Office (Grant WPRD-100-01-68), October 1970. The Cost of Clean Water, Volume III: Industrial Waste Profile No. 4 - Textile Mill Products. U. S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Pub. IWP-4, June 30, 1967. -14- ------- SIC 26 - PAPER AND ALLIED PRODUCTS ARTICLES "Development and Research into Pulp and Paper Waste Treatment in France," J. Bebin, Technical Paper T215, Pulp and Paper, Vol. 71, No. 10, May 5, 1970, pp. 53-56. "Disposal System for Mixed Primary and Secondary Sludges, " O. B. Burns, Jr. (of West Virginia Pulp and Paper) and J. L. Mancini (of Hydroscience, Inc. ), Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry Journal, Vol. 50, No. 1, January 1967, pp. 99A to 104A. "Economic Aspect of Industrial Effluent Treatment, " A. L. Caron (of National Council for Stream Improvement), Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry Journal, Vol. 47, No. 9, September 1964, pp. 62A to 72A. "Paper Mill Sludge Dewatering, " G. H. Koenitzer (of Beloit Corp. ), Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry Journal, Vol. 51, No. 12, December 1968, pp. 53A to 56A. "Spent Liquor Disposal Via Fluo-Solids Combustion at an NSSC Mill, " H. Mills (of Dorr-Oliver, Inc. ), Paper Trade Journal, Vol. 154, No. 33, August 17, 1970, pp. 26-31. "Stock Preparation for Sorted Waste Paper, " W. Musselmann and J.M. Voith, Paper Technology, Vol. 8, No. 3, June 1967, pp. 270-277. "The Effects of Industrial Wastes from Charmin Paper Products Company on Fish of the Cheboygen River Drainage System, " P.M. Thomas ( of The University of Michigan), and R. O. Legault ( of The University of Ottawa), July 16, 1966, Water Research, Vol. 1, 1967, pp. 217-229. REPORTS A Paper Industry Environmental Control Technical Program, National Council of the Paper Industry for Air and Stream Improvement, Inc., (NCASI). -15- ------- Aerial Photographic Tracing of Pulp Mill Effluent in Marine Waters, F. J. Burgess and W. P. James, Oregon State University, Project 12040 EBY, for the U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Quality Administration (Grant WP-00524), August 1970. C-E Recovery, Bark and Power Boiler, C-E Combustion Engineering, Pub. SP-1014 0106610. Dilute Spent Kraft Liquor Filtration Through Wood Chips, North Carolina State University, Project 12040 EUG, for the U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (Grant WPRD 115-01-68), National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-191-873, April 1970. Foam Separation of Kraft Pulping Wastes, Georgia Kraft Co., Project 12040 EUG, for the U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (Grant WPRD 117-01-68), Pub. PB-189-160, October 1969. Industrial Waste Study of the Paper and Allied Products Industriest WAPORA, Inc., for the Environmental Protection Agency, July 1971. NCASI Report to Members, National Council of the Paper Industry for Air and Stream Improvement, Inc., 1970. NCASI Technical Review, National Council of the Paper Industry for Air and Stream Improvement, Inc., Bulletin 16, June 1, 1971 The Cost of Clean Water, Volume III: Industrial Waste Profile No. 3 Paper Mills, Except Building, U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, November 1967. -16- ------- SIC 28 - CHEMICALS AND ALLIED PRODUCTS ARTICLES "A Comprehensive Survey of Industrial Waste Pollution in South Carolina," R.W. Hann, Jr. (of Texas A&M University) and F. D. Callcott (of The Harwood Beebe Co. ), Proceedings of the Twentieth Industrial Waste Conference. 1965, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 538-550. "Ability of Activated Sludge Microorganisms to Oxidize Aromatic Organic Compounds,1' C. V. Marion and G. W. Malaney (of Ohio State University), Proceedings of the Eighteenth Industrial Waste Conference, 1963, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 297-308. "Chemical and Allied Products, " reviewed by A. I. Mytelka, Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, 1967 Literature Review, Vol. 40, No. 6, June 1968, pp. 1198-1199. "Chemical Plant Waste Treatment by Ten Methods, " A. C. Hyde (of E. I. duPont de Nemeurs and Co. ), Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, Vol. 37, No. 11, November 1965, pp. 1486- 1494. "Contract Disposal Catches On, " Chemical Engineering, November 17, 1969, pp. 138-140. "Effect of Boron on Aerobic Biological Waste Treatment, " S. K. Banerji, B. D. Bracken, and B. M. Garg (of the University of Delaware), Proceedings of the Twenty-Third Industrial Waste Conference, 1968, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 956-965. "Effluent Treatment at a Fine Chemicals Factory, " D. H. BeH (of B. D. H. Laboratory Chemicals Works, England), Manufacturing Chemist, May 1960, pp. 194-197. "New Chemical Precipitation Plant Designed for 'Secondary' Removals," T. M. Riddick (of Thomas M. Riddick & Associates), Wastes Engineering, December 1963, pp. 652-653, 666. -17- ------- "Oxidation of Selected Carcinogenic Compounds by Activated Sludge, " P. A. Lutin, J. J. Cibulka, and G. W. Malaney (of Vanderbilt University), Proceedings of the Twentieth Industrial Waste Conference, 1965, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 131-145. "Phenol Plant Safeguards Against Pollution, " J. A. Turcotte and V. T. Burns, Jr. (of Gibbs and Hill, Inc. )andJ.W. Schluter (of Brookhaven National Laboratory), Water and Wastes Engineering, June 1967, pp. 69-70. "Phosphate-Plant Waste Looms as Hydrofluoric-Acid Source, " Chemical Engineering, May 4, 1970, pp. 46-48. "Pollution Problem Caused by Elemental Phosphorus in Aqueous Effluents Was Eliminated by Reusing Treated Waste in the Process, " J. C. Barber (of Tennessee Valley Authority), Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol. 65, No. 6, June 1969, pp. 70-73. "Preventive Measures Get Results in a Chemical Processing Waste Abatement Program," W. L. Leucht, P. T. McNally and F. B. Kay lor (of Allied Chemical Corp. ) and I. Grossman (of New York State Department of Health), Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, Vol. 34, No. 10, October 1962, pp. 999-1009. "Screening for Chemical Process Hazards, " L. Silver (of Merck, Sharp, and Dohme Research Laboratories, Division of Merck & Co. , Inc. ), Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol. 63, No. 8, August 1967, pp. 43-49. "The Treatment of Fluoride Wastes, " W. Zabban (of The Chester Engineers) and H.W. Jewett (of Corning Glass Works), Water and Sewage Works, November 1967, pp. 415-419. "Treating Parathion Wastes", C. N. Stutz (of Monsanto Co. ), Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol. 62, No. 10, October 1966, pp. 82-85. "Treatment of Parathion Wastes and Other Organics, " G. Coley and C. N. Stutz (of Monsanto Chemical Co. ), Water Pollution Control Federation Journal. Vol. 38, No. 8, August 1966, pp. 1345-1349. -18- ------- "Treatment of Tetraethyl Lead Manufacturing Wastes, " M. Nozaki and H. Hatotani (of Japan Organo Co., Ltd. , Japan), Water Research, Vol. 1, 1967, pp. 167-177. "Waste Disposal at a Phosphoric Acid and Ammonium Phosphate Fertilizer Plant, " W.E. Jones and R. L. Olmsted (of Northwest Cooperative Mills), Proceedings of the Seventeenth Industrial Waste Conference, 1962, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 148-202. "Water Reclamation with Activated Carbon, " J. C. Cooper and D. G. Hager (of Pittsburgh Activated Carbon Co. ), Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol. 62, No. 10, October 1966, pp. 85-90. MAGAZINES American Paint Journal, April 21, 1958. REPORTS A 1967 Survey of the Members of the Manufacturing Chemists Association, Manufacturing Chemists Association, 1968. A.V. Phosphoric Acid, Volume 1, Part 2, K. K. Huffstuter, Slack, Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1968. Air Pollution Aspects of Emission Sources: Nitric Acid Manufac- turing (A Bibliography with Abstracts), Environmental Protection Agency, Air~Pollution Control Office, Pub. AP-93, May 1971. An Action Plan for Controlling Hazardous Chemicals in the Environment. D. L. Worf, R. B. Medz, ORD Consumer Protection and Environmental Health Service, 1968. Atmospheric Emissions from Sulfuric Acid Manufacturing Processes, Manufacturing Chemists' Association and Public Health Service, for the U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, 1965. -19- ------- Chemistry and Technology of Fertilizers, A.V. Slack (of Tennessee Valley Authority), Interscience Publishers (a division of John Wiley and Sons), 1967. Cleaning Our Environment, The Chemical Basis for Action, American Chemical Society, Subcommittee on Environmental Improvement, Committee on Chemistry and Public Affairs, 1969. Current Industrial Reports, Inorganic Chemicals, U. S. Department of Commerce, 1969. Evaluation of the Hazard of Bulk Water Transportation of Industrial Chemicals - A Tentative Guide, the Committee on Hazardous Materials Advisory to the U. S. Coast Guard, National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, 1970. Handbook for Sulfuric Acid Piping Systems, The Dow Chemical Co., 1971. Hazard Survey of the Chemical and Allied Industries, American Insurance Association, Division of Technical Services Engineering and Safety Department, Technical Survey No. 3, 1968. Industrial Oily Waste Control. W. H. Barcus (of Sun Oil Co. ), J. S. Baum (of Cities Service Oil), C. F. Gurnham and Dr. H. C. Bramer (of Gurnham, Bramer and Associates, Inc.), Dr. A. J. Freedman and R. S. Robertson (of Nalco Chemical Co.), D. L. Hill (of Rockwell-Standard Co. ), B. V. Prather (of Consulting Chemist), S. L. McDoniel (of Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago), R. D. Ross (of Thermal Research & Engineering Corp.), J.K. Sargent (of Dravo Corp. ), J.W. Swain, Jr. (of Swain Corp. ), for the American Petroleum Institute and American Society of Lubrication Engineers, c 1969. Industrial Waste Survey of Inorganic Chemicals. Alkalines and Chlorine. General Technologies Corp., for the Environmental Protection Agency, May 28, 1971. Industrial Waste Study of the Asbestos Industry. Associated Water and Air Resources Engineers, Inc., for the Environmental Protec- tion Agency, 1971. -20- ------- Industrial Waste Study of the Plastic Materials and Synthetics Industry, N. Barson and J. W. Gilpin (of Celanese Research Co. , for the Environmental Protection Agency, 1971. National Industrial Solid Waste Management Study of the Industrial Chemical Industry, The Research Corporation of New England, for the Environmental Protection Agency, Bureau of Solid Waste Management, January 1971. New Market for Tomorrow's Sulphur, The Sulphur Institute. Recovery of Oxidizer from Rocket Propellants, U.S. 3,451,789, To F. Graf To Thiokal Chemical Corp., 1969. Safety in Handling Hazardous Chemicals, Matheson Coleman & Bell, 1969. Study Report - Industrial Waste Studies Program; Group 6: Fertilizers, Wellman Lord, Inc., for the Environmental Protection Agency, July 1971. Synthetic Organic Chemicals, U. S. Tariff Commission Report, Pub. 412, 1969. Synthetic Organic Chemicals - United States Production and Sales, 1968, U. S. Tariff Commission, U. S. Government Printing Office, Pub. 327, 1970. The Cost of Clean Water, Volume III: Industrial Waste Profile No. 10 - Plastics Materials and Resins, Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute, for to U. S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, October 12, 1967. The Economics of Clean Water, Volume III; Inorganic Chemicals Industry Profile, U. S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, March 1970. The Manufacturing Chemists' Association - What Is It, What It Does, Manufacturing Chemists' Association, August 1965. Toward a Clean Environment, Manufacturing Chemists Association, 1967. -21- ------- BOOKS Reigel's Industrial Chemistry, ed. by J. A. Kent, Reinhold Publishing Co. -22- ------- SIC 2834 - PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATIONS REPORTS National Industrial Solid Waste Management - The Drug Industry, D. M. Shilesky, K.W. Krause, and R. J. Sullivan, Litton Systems, Inc., for the Environmental Protection Agency, Solid Wastes Management Office, 1971. Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association Year Book 1969-1970, Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association, 1970. BOOKS The Merck Index of Chemicals and Drugs, P. G. Stecher, Dr. M. J. Finkel, Dr. O. H. Siegmund, and B. M. Szafkanski, Merck and Co. , Inc. , Seventh Edition, 1960. -23- ------- SIC 2879 - AGRICULTURAL PESTICIDES. AND OTHER AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS, NOT ELSEWHERE CLASSIFIED ARTICLES "Biological Treatment of Organic Phosphorus Pesticide Waste- Waters, " C. Lue-Hing (of Ryckman, Edgerley, Tomlinson and Associates, Inc. ) and S. D. Brady (of Chemagro Corp. ), Proceedings of the Twenty-Third Industrial Waste Conference, 1968, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 1166-1177. "Biological Treatment of Pesticide Waste Water Containing Collodial Sulphur, " P. Fitter and J. Chudoba (of the Institute of Chemical Technology, Czechoslovakia), Chemistry and Industry, December 28, 1968, pp. 1846-1848. "Farm Resources, Income, and Expenses, 1966, " Agricultural Statistics, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, 1966, pp. 494-497. "Pesticides Bill Hit as Wiping Out Gains, " Elsie Carper, The Washington Post, Thursday, October 14, 1971, p. A8. "Safety Aspects in the Design of an Organic Insecticide Plant, " K.M. Cukwen (for Albright & Wilson (Mfg. ) Ltd. , England), Chemistry and Industry, August 23, 1958, pp. 1096-1101. "Treatment of Effluents from the Manufacture of Weedkillers and Pesticides," A. E. Lambden and Dr. D. H. Sharp (of Fisons Pest Control Ltd. , England). Manufacturing Chemist, May 1960, pp. 198-201. REPORTS Description and Location(s) of Pesticides, Herbicides, and Related Hazardous Substances on Department of Defense Properties, Compilation of Tables. Tentative Guidelines for the Safe Handling and Disposal of Used Pesticide Containers in California, Dr. L. F. Saylor, Dr. S. M. Heslep, R.F. Peters, P. A. Rogers, J. Cornelius, Dr. J.B. Bailey and Dr. T.H. Milby, California State Department of Public Health in cooperation with the California State Department of Agriculture and the Agricultural Extension Service of the University of California, June 1970. -24- ------- SIC 2892 - EXPLOSIVES ARTICLES "Hazards of Potentially Explosive Materials, " W. G. Sykes (of Arthur D. Little, Inc.), Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol. 62, No. 12, December 1966, pp. 49-53. REPORTS Comparison of Plant Water Quality to Proposed Water Quality Standard, H. A. Jacob, Jr., Hercules, Inc., July 22, 1971. Control of Pollution at Army Ammunition Plants, U. S. Army MUCOM, paper presented at Conference on Identification of R&D Needs in Pollution Control, Dover, New Jersey, November, 1970. Detailed Statements Concerning Deep Water Dumping of Ammunitions Pursuant to Section 102(2)C of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969. U.S. Navy. Detailed Statement Concerning Local Deep Water Disposal of Conventional Ammunition Pursuant to Section 102(2)C of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, U. S. Navy. Engineering Design Handbook - Explosives Series - Properties of Explosives of Military Interest, Headquarters, U. S. Army Materiel Command, Pub. AMCP 706-177, January 1971. Environmental Statement for Maritime Administration Hulks Numbered Deep Water Dumps Submitted Pursuant to Section 102(2)C of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, U. S. Navy. Environmental Statement for Small Scale Deep Water Dumps Submitted Pursuant to Section 102(2)C of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, U.S. Navy. -25- ------- Explosive Ordnance Disposal Service, Headquarters, U. S. Depart- ment of the Army, Field Manual 9-14, April 1971. Fire and Explosion Hazards Evaluation, Hazards Research Corp. , Vol. 1, No. 1, October 1970. Handling Hazardous Materials, National Aeronautics and Space Administration Technical Survey, Pub. NASA-SP-5032, Washington, B.C., 1965. Hazardous Chemicals Handling and Disposal, Institute of Advanced Sanitation Research, Noyes Data Corp., New Jersey, 1970. Industrial Wastes: Their Disposal and Treatment, ed. by Willem Rudolfs (of American Chemical Society Monograph), Reinhold Publishing, New York, 1953. Pollution Abatement Engineering Program for Munition Plant Modernization, Second Briefing for Senior Scientist Steering Group (SSSG), U. S. Army Research Office (ARO), September 14-15, 1971, Ammunition Engineering Directorate, Picatinny Arsenal, 1971. Properties of Explosives of Military Interest, U. S. Army Materiel Command, AMCP 706-177, Washington, D. C., 1967. Safety and Environmental Considerations in Ammunition Disposal, presented at Armed Services Explosives Safety Board Seminar, J.R. Roach, ORD04M/BX1, August 31, 1971. Technical and Administrative Problems of Nitrogen Oxide Control Faced by MUCQM. R.O. Matthern, U. S. Army MUCOM, Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N. J. Technical and Administrative Problems of Water Pollution Control Faced by MUCOM, R. O. Matthern and H. S. Stethers, paper presented at Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality Office, September 1971. Water Pollution Problems Arising from TNT Manufacture, A Survey. D. H. Rosenblatt, G. E. Lauterbach, and G. T. Davis, Edgewood Arsenal, Special Pub. EASP 100-94, March 1971. -26- ------- SIC 29 - PETROLEUM REFINING AND RELATED INDUSTRIES ARTICLES "A Disposal Well for Spent Sulphuric Acid from Alkylating Iso- Butylenes, " H. R. Holland (of Imperial Oil Enterprises, Ltd. ) and F. R. Clark (of Calgary Refinery), Proceedings of the Nineteenth Industrial Waste Conference, 1964, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 195-199. "A Technique for Evaluating the Biological Treatability of Industrial Wastes, " J. C. Lamb, W. C. Westgarth, J. L. Rogers, and A. P. Vernimmen, presented at the Thirteenth Southern Municipal and Industrial Waste Conference at Duke University, April 16-17, 1964, Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, Vol. 36, No. 10, October 1964. "Compact Activated-Sludge Treatment of Combined Petrochemical- Municipal Waste, " G. W. Kumke and R. A. Conway (of Union Carbide Corp. ) and Dr. J. P. Creagh (of South Charleston Waste Treatment Works), presented at the Twenty-Third Purdue Industrial Waste Conference, 1968, Water and Wastes Engineering/Industrial, pp. C-l to C-6. "Effluent Pretreatment and Biological Effluent Treatment in the Oil Industry, " H. Fassbender (of BP Benzin und Petroleum Aktiengesellschaft, Germany), presented to the Industrial Water and Effluent Group of the Society of Chemical Industry, London, February 23, 1967, Chemistry and Industry, September 16, 1967, pp. 1539-1546. "Environmental Management at a Major Petrochemical Facility, " R. N. Rickles (of Resource Engineering Associates, Inc. ), Proceedings of the Twenty-Third Industrial Waste Conference 1968, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 1074-1088. "How Monsanto Handles its Petrochemical Wastes, " R. D. Sadow (of Monsanto Chemical Co. ), Wastes Engineering, December 1963, pp. 640-644. -27- ------- "Minimizing Wastes in the Petrochemical Industry, " S. K. Mencher (ofM.W. Kellogg Co.), Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol. 63. No. 10, October 1967, p. 80. "Oil Refinery Effluent Treatment in Ponds, " T. C. Dorris, D. Patterson and B. J. Copeland, presented at the Thirty-Fifth Annual Meeting of the Water Pollution Control Federation in Toronto, Ontario, October 7-11, 1962, Water Pollution Control Federation Journal. Vol. 35, No. 7, July 1963, pp. 932-939. "Petrochemical Wastes Effects on Water, " E. F. Gloyna and J.F. Malina, Jr., Water and Solid Waste. Ref. No. 1963, pp. R-262 to R-285. "Petroleum Processing Wastes, " reviewed by F. Mulik, Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, 1967 Literature Review, Vol. 40, No. 6, June 1968, pp. 1179-1180. "The First Large Scale Industrial Waste Treatment Plant on the Missouri River, " P.W. Stroud, L. V. Sorg, and J. C. Lamkin (of American Oil Co. ), Proceedings of the Eighteenth Industrial Waste Conference 1963, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 460-475. "Waste Treatment at a Large Petrochemical Plant," R. D. Sadow (of Monsanto Co. ), presented at the Thirty-Eighth Annual Conference of the Water Pollution Control Federation, Atlantic City, New Jersey, October 10-14, 1965, Water Pollution Control Federation Journal. March 1966, Vol. 38, No. 3, pp. 428-441. REPORTS Disposal of Polymer Solid Wastes by Primary Polymer Producers and Plastics Fabricators, C.W. Marynowski, Stanford Research Institute, 1970. 1967 Domestic Refinery Effluent Profile, Committee for Air and Water Conservation, American Petroleum Institute, Crossley, S-D Surveys, Inc. , September 1968. Federal Water Pollution Control Act - Oil Pollution Act, U. S. Department of Interior, 1966. -28- ------- Final Report of the Task Force on Used Oil Disposal, American Petroleum Institute, Pub. 4036. Fluid Bed Incineration of Petroleum Refinery Wastes, American Oil Co., Manden Refinery, Project 12050 EKT, for the Environ- mental Protection Agency, Water Quality Office Grant WPRD 215-01-68), March 1971. Manual on Disposal of Refinery Wastes, Volume IV - Sampling and Analysis of Waste Water, American Petroleum Institute, 1957. Manual on Disposal of Refinery Wastes, Volume VI - Solid Wastes, American Petroleum Institute, First Edition, 1963. Oil Versus Other Hazardous Substances, C. H. Thompson (of the Environmental Protection Agency), presented at the American Petroleum Institute—Environmental Protection Agency—U.S. Coast Guard Conference on Oil Pollution, March 23, 1971. Petrochemical Effluents Treatment Practices - Summary, Dr. E. F. Gloyna and Dr. D. L. Ford, Engineering-Science, Inc., Project 12020, for U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Pub. PB-192-310, February 1970. Petroleum Refining Effluent Guidelines for Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Programs, R. F. Weston, Environmental Scientists and Engineers, September 1, 1971. Polymeric Materials for Treatment and Recovery of Petrochemical Wastes, Gulf South Research Institute, for the Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality Office (Grant 12020 DQC), March 1971. Report on Air and Water Conservation Expenditures of the Petroleum Industry in the United States, Crossley, S-D Surveys, Inc., August 1968. The Characteristics and Pollutional Problems Associated with Petrochemical Wastes - Summary Report, Dr. E. F. Gloyna and Dr. D. L. Ford, Engineering Science, Inc. /Texas, Project 12020, for the Environmental Protection Agency, February 1970. -29- ------- The Control of Solvent Vapor Emissions, J. D. Lauber, New York State Department of Health, Pub. 69-42, January 1, 1969. The Cost of Clean Water, Volume III; Industrial Waste Profile No. 5 - Petroleum Refining, U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, November 1967. -30- ------- SIC 30 - RUBBER AND MISCELLANEOUS PLASTICS PRODUCTS REPORTS Rubber Reuse and Solid Waste Management, Part I - Solid Waste Management in the Fabricated Rubber Products Industry, 1968, R. J. Pettigrew, F. H. Roninger (of Uniroyal, Inc. ), for the Environmental Protection Agency, 1971. -31- ------- SIC 311 - LEATHER TANNING AND FINISHING ARTICLES "Disposal of Tannery Wastes, " R. R. Parker (of Reid Crowther and Partners, Ltd., Canada), Proceedings of the Twenty-Second Industrial Waste Conference. 1967, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 36-43. "Survey of Waste Management Practices in the Tanning Industry, " D. J. Eye, Proceedings of the Fifty-Second Annual Meeting, Tanners' Council of America, October 1968. "Tannery Waste Treatment, Barrie, Ontario, " M. Yatable (of Gore & Storrie, Ltd.), Industrial Worker, July/August 1971, pp. IW/14 to IW/16. "The Application of Biological Processes to the Treatment of Liquid Tannery Effluent," G. H. Green, Waste Treatment - Proceedings of the Second Symposium on the Treatment of Waste-waters, Pergamon Press, 1960, pp. 397-410. "Treatment of Chrome-Tanning Wastes for Acceptance by an Activated Sludge Plant," F. J. Wims (of Collis Leather Co. , Ltd. , Canada), Proceedings of the Eighteenth Industrial Waste Conference, 1963, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 534-549. REPORTS Anaerobic-Aerobic Lagoon Treatment for Vegetable Tanning Wastes. C. E. Parker, University of Virginia, Project 12120 DIK, for the U. S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Quality Administration (Grant WPD-199-01-67), December 1970. Effluent Requirements for the Leather Tanning and Finishing Industry. Stanley Consultants, Inc., September 1971. -32- ------- The Cost of Clean Water, Volume III; Industrial Waste Profile No. 7 - Leather Tanning and Finishing, U. S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Pub. IWP-7, September 1967. Treatment of Sole Leather Vegetable Tannery Wastes, Dr. J. D. Eye, University of Cincinnati, Project 12120, for the U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Quality Administration (Grant WPD-185), September 1970. -33- ------- SIC 33 - PRIMARY METAL INDUSTRIES ARTICLES "Bethlehem Steel's Burns Harbor Wastewater Treatment Plant," Water and Sewage Works. December 1966, pp. 468-470. "Comparative Study of Recovery of Zinc and Nickel by Ion Exchange Media and Chemical Precipitation," D. Kantawala and H. D. Tomlinson (of Washington University, St. Louis), Water and Sewage Works, Ref. No. 1964, pp. R-280 to R-286. "Complete Waste Treatment System Designed for New Foundry," A. J. Bader (of Caterpillar Tractor Co. ), Plant Engineering, April 18, 1968, pp. 118-120. "Deep-Well Disposal of Steel-Mill Wastes, " C. D. Hartman (of National Steel Corp.), presented at the Thirty-Ninth Annual Conference of the Water Pollution Control Federation, Kansas City, Missouri, September 25-30, 1966, Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, Vol., 40, No. 1, January 1968, pp. 95-100. "Deep-Well Waste Disposal at Midwest Steel, " C. D. Hartman (of National Steel Corp. ), Iron and Steel Engineer, December 1966, pp. 118-121. "Disposal of Metallurgical Wastes, " F. H. Day (of The Anaconda Co.), Mining Congress Journal, November 1961, pp. 52-56. "Fluid Bed Regenerates Hydrochloric Pickle Liquor," Chemical Engineering, August 29, 1966, pp. 32-33. "Handling and Treating Petrochemical Plant Wastes: A Case History," E.S. Shannon (of Dow Bay City Plants), Water and Sewage Works. Ref. No. 1964, pp. R-292 to R-298. "Hydrochloric Waste Pickle Liquor Disposal - A New Process," F. G. Krikau (of Interlake Steel Corp. ), Iron and Steel Engineer, January 1969, pp. 71-74. -•34- ------- "Industrial Waste Control - Mill Scale," D. Y. Wallace (of the Youngstown Sheet and Tube Co. ), Iron and Steel Engineer, July 1960, pp. 75-77. "Industrial Waste Treatment - Steel Plants," M. Morgan (of U.S. Steel Corp.), Iron and Steel Engineer, July 1960, pp. 67-74. "Liquor Regeneration Slashes Cost of Steel Pickling," J. A. Buckley, Chemical Engineering, January 2, 1967, pp. 56-58. "Metal Finishing Waste Disposal, " M. Ceresa and Dr. L. E. Lancy (of Lancy Laboratories, Inc.), Metal Finishing, April 1968, pp. 56-62. "Polyelectrolytes in Industrial Waste Treatment, " R. B. Schaffer (of Dow Chemical Co. ), Water and Sewage Works, Ref. No. 1964, pp. R-300 to R-305. "Recovery and Production of Alumina from Waste Solutions by Solvent Extraction, " D. R. George, K. E. Tame, S. R. Crane, and K. B. Higbie (of the U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines) Journal of Metals, September 1968, pp. 59-63. "Recycled Water Systems for Steel Mills, " G. A. Bowman (of Dravo- Doyle Co. ) and R. B. Houston (of Dravo Corp. ), Iron and Steel Engineer, November 1966, pp. 139-148. "Solvent Extraction of Phenolic Compounds from Weak Ammonia Liquor, " A. C. Elliott and A. J. Lafreniere (of The Steel Co. of Canada, Ltd. ), Water and Sewage Works, Ref. No. 1964, pp. R-325 to R-332. "Stabilization Lagoons Successfully Treat Steel Mill Wastes, " D. F. Cairns (of Granite City Steel Company), presented at the Thirty-Eighth Annual Conference of the Water Pollution Control Federation, Atlantic City, New Jersey, October 1965, Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, Vol. 38, No. 10, October 1966, pp. 1645-1955. "Steel Mill Treats Waste Acids, " Paul Harsha (of Dow Chemical Co. ), Water and Sewage Works, Ref. No. 1963, pp. R-286 to R-288. -35- ------- "Steel Pickling and Pollution, " D. Krofchak (of KSF Chemical Processes, Ltd., Canada), WIRE, October 1966, pp. 1603-1608. "Treatment of Wastes from the Steel Industry, " reviewed by S. E. Smith, Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, 1967 Literature Review, Vol. 40, No. 6, June 1968, pp. 1173-1174. "Waste Disposal Well Completion and Maintenance, " W. H. Baker (of Halli Burton Co.), Water and Sewage Works, Ref. No. 1964, pp. R-287 to R-291. "Waste Pickle Liquor Disposal, " G. A. Howell (of U.S. Steel Corp.), presented at the 1957 Annual Meeting, Central States Sewage and Industrial Wastes Association, June 26-28, 1957, Sewage and Industrial Wastes, November 1957, pp. 1278-1281. "Waste Treatment and Metal Recovery in Copper and Copper Alloy Pickling Plant, "Dr. L. E. Lancy and R. Pinner (of Lancy Laboratories, Inc.), Metallurgia, March 1966, pp. 119-122. "Wire Mill Liquid Waste Disposal, " J. W. DePoy (of EF&I Steel Corp.), WIRE, October 1966, pp. 1614-1619. REPORTS Air Pollution Aspects of the Iron and Steel Industry. J. I. Schueneman, M. D. High and W. E. Bye, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Environ- mental Health Service Series No. 999. C-E Products for the Primary Metals Industries, C-E Industrial Boiler Operations, SP-1063 0507008. Industry Profile Study on Blast Furnace and Basic Steel Products, NUS Corp., for the Environmental Protection Agency, June 1971. Limestone Treatment of Rinse Waters from Hydrochloric Acid Pickling of Steel, Armco Steel Corp., Project 12010 DUL., for the Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality Office, February 1971. -36- ------- The Cost of Clean Water, Volume III: Industrial Waste Profile No. 1 - Blast Furnaces and Steel Mills, U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Pub. IWP-1, Septermber 1967. Treatment of Waste Water-- Waste Oil Mixtures, Armco Steel Corp., Project 12010 EXV, for the U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (Grant WPRD- 169-01-68), May 1970. -37- ------- SIC 333 - PRIMARY SMELTING AND REFINING OF NONFERROUS METALS ARTICLES "Neutralization of Acid Mine Drainage, " D. W. Hill, Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, Vol. 41, No. 10, October 1969, pp. 1702-1715. "Occurrence of Beryllium as a Trace Element in Environmental Materials," W.R. Meehan and L. E. Smythe (of the Australian Atomic Energy Commission), Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 1, No. 10, October 1967, pp. 839-844. REPORTS Industrial Waste Survey of the Aluminum Industry, Gurham & Associates, Inc., for the Environmental Protection Agency, August 1971. Mineral Industry Solid Wastes and Our Environment, U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Staff Report. Other Metals, Socorro, New Mexico Office of Mineral Resources, Field Office Report, 1969. -38- ------- SIC 347 - COATING, ENGRAVING, AND ALLIED SERVICES ARTICLES "Air Force Industrial Waste Treatment and Disposal," Lt. Col. F.A. Sanders (of the U. S. Air Force, Regional Civil Engineer Office), Proceedings of the Fifteenth Industrial Waste Conference, I960. Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 302-307. "Biological Treatability of Various Air Force Industrial Wastes, " Lt. J.A. Mueller and Col. W.W. Melvin, Jr. (of the U.S. Air Force, Regional Environmental Health Laboratory), Proceedings of the Twenty-Third Industrial Waste Conference, 1968, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 398-427. "Electrolysis Speeds Up Waste Treatment, " Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 4, No. 3, March 1970, p. 201. "General Problems of the Metal Plating Industry, " reviewed by W.N. Grune, Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, 1967 Literature Review, Vol. 40, No. 6, June 1968, pp. 1180-1198. "Industrial Waste Treatment at Trans World Airlines Overhaul Base, " G. C. Higgins (of Burns and McDonnell Engineering Co. ), Proceedings of the Industrial Waste Conference, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 194-202. "Metal Finishing Waste Disposal - Part 1, " M. Ceresa and Dr. L. E. Lancy (of Lancy Laboratories, Inc. ), Metal Finishing, Vol. 66, No. 4, April, pp. 56-62. "Metal Finishing Waste Disposal - Part 2," M. Ceresa and Dr. L. E. Lancy (of Lancy Laboratories, Inc. ), Metal Finishing, Vol. 66, No. 5, May, pp. 60-65. "Metal Finishing Waste Disposal - Part 3," M. Ceresa and Dr. L. E. Lancy (of Lancy Laboratories, Inc. ), Metal Finishing, Vol. 66, No. 6, June, pp. 112-118. "Metals Focus Shifts to Cadmium, " Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 5, No. 9, September 1971, pp. 754-755. -39- ------- "Nuclear Garbage Disposal: A Buried Problem" Thomas O'Toole, The Washington Post, Sunday, September 19, 1971, p. D5. "Operating Costs of Waste Treatment in General Motors, " R. J. Brink (of Buick Motor Division, General Motors Corp.), Proceedings of the Nineteenth Industrial Waste Conference^ 1964, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 12-144. "Plating Waste - Continuous or Batch Treatment, " J. S. Delos (of General Motors Corp.), Proceedings of the Industrial Waste Conference, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 138-144. "Slug of Chromic Acid Passes Through a Municipal Treatment Plant," J. N. English, E. F. Barth, B. V. Salotto, and M. B. Ettinger (of Taft Sanitary Engineering Center), Proceedings of the Nineteenth Industrial Waste Conference»1964, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 493-507. "The Lancy Integrated System for Treatment of Cyanide and Chromium Wastes in Electroplating Plants," N. Schreur (of Shakespeare Co.), Proceedings of the Industrial Waste Conference, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 310-316. "Treatment of Photographic Laboratory Wastes at Norton Air Force Base, California," P.V. Hennessy, D. G. Rosenberg, andR.G. Zehnpfennig (of Montgomery Research, Inc. ), Proceedings of the Industrial Waste Conference, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 740-751. "Water Pollutant or Reusable Resource?" Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 4, No. 5, May 1970, pp. 380-382. REPORTS A State-of-the-Art Review of Metal Finishing Waste Treatment, Battelle Memorial Institute, Project 12010 EIE 11/68, for the Environmental Protection Agency (Grant WPRD 201-01-68), November 1968. -40- ------- Recovery of Metals from Electroplating Wastes by the Waste- Plus-Waste Method, L. C. George and A. A. Cochran, Technical Progress Report 27, August 1970. Symposium on the Surface Treatment of Metals, Twenty-Second Annual Convention of the American Society for Metals, October 21-25, 1940, Cleveland, Ohio, c. 1941. The Electrolytic and Chemical Polishing of Metals in Research and Industry, Dr. W. J. McGitecart, Pergamon Press, 1959. ABSTRACTS Complete Study of A. F. Geneated Industrial Wastes, G. Reid (of the University of Oklahoma Research Institute), April 1, 1963 to May 31, 1964. BOOKS Theories and Practices of Industrial Waste Treatment, N. L. Nemeron, Addison Wesley Publishing Co., Inc. -41- ------- RADIOACTIVE WASTES - U. S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION ARTICLES "Development of a Process for Incorporation of Radioactive Waste Solutions and Slurries in Emulsified Asphalt," H.W. Godbee, J.H. Goode, andR.E. Blanco (of the Chemical Technology Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory), Environmental Science and Tech- nology, Vol. 2, No. 11, November 1968, pp. 1034-1040. "Disposal of Low-Level Radioactive Wastes from Pilot Plants, " M.W. Boback, J. O. Davis, K. N. Ross, and J. B. Stevenson (of National Lead Co. of Ohio), Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol. 67, No. 4, April 1971, pp. 81-86. "Disposing of Nuclear Plant Solid Wastes, " P. T. Tuite (of Hittman Nuclear and Development Corp. ), Power, November 1970, reprint. "Ground Rules Laid for Burying Radioactive Wastes," G.W. Siebert (of the Western Electric Engineering Research Center), Journal of Environmental Health, Vol. 32, No. 6, May/June 1970, pp. 656-662. "Nuclear Power and the Environment - A Perspective, " remarks by Dr. G. T. Seaborg, Chairman, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, presented at a Conference on Nuclear Power, Burlington, Virginia, September 11, 1969. "Solid Waste Disposal, " (A Report on Solid Waste Disposal Operation Carried Out by the European Nuclear Energy in the Atlantic), Nuclear Engineering, October 1968, pp. 845-847. "Storage of Radioactive Materials" and "Disposal of Radioactive Materials," DSAM 4145.8, AR 700-64, NAVSUPPUB 5012, AFM 67-8, MCO P4400. 105. "The Nuclear Industry and Air Pollution," A. Rivera-Cordero (of Drexel University), Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 4, No. 5, May 1970, pp. 392-395. "Thermal Pollution in Uncharted Wastes, " Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 5, No. 12, December 1971. -42- ------- REPORTS A Survey of Alpha Waste Generation and Disposal as Solids in the U. S. Nuclear Fuel Industry, Pub. BNWL-B-34, December 1970. A Survey of Spent Fuel Shipments in the 1970's, A. E. Aikens, Jr. (of the Division of Materials Licensing, Irradiated Fuels Branch, Chief), CAPINTEC, Inc., April 26, 1967. A Survey of Spent Fuel Shipments in the 1970's. A. E. Aikens, Jr., PRS Systems, Inc., January 1970. Current Status and Future Technical and Economic Potential of Light Water Reactors, Wash-1082. Data for Preliminary Demonstration Phase of the 'Environmental Quality Information and Planning System' (EQUIPS), Pub. BNWL-B- 141, December 1971. Design and Analysis, Midwest Fuel Recovery Plant, General Electric Co., for the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Docket 50 (in U. S. AEC Document Room). Environmental Monitoring and Disposal of Radioactive Wastes from U.S. Naval Nuclear-Powered Ships and Their Support Facilities, M. E. Miles, J. J. Mangeno, and R. D. Burke, Naval Ship Systems Command, Nuclear Power Directorate, Report NT-71-1, February 1971. Environmental Statement Radioactive Waste Repository, Lyons. Kansas, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, National Technical Information Service, June 1971. Land Burial of Solid Radioactive Wastes: A Study of Commercial Operations and Facilities, Wash-1143. Phosphate Glass Solidification Performance During Final Radioactive Tests in Waste Solidification Engineering Prototypes (WSEP), J. L. McElroy et al., Pub. BNWL 1541, January 1971. Pollution Control in the Atomic Energy Industry, Part II - Solidification of Highly Radioactive Liquid Wastes - The Status of Technology in the U. S. A., K. J. Schneider (of the Pacific Northwest Laboratory), American Institute of Chemical Engineers, for the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, 1969. -43- ------- Pollution Control In the Atomic Energy Industry, Part III - Disposal of Liquid Radioactive Wastes to Coastal Waters by the Atomic Energy Industry - A Preview of the Future of Pollution Control, W. L. Templeton (of the Pacific Northwest Laboratory), American Institute of Chemical Engineers, for the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, 1969. Pollution Control in the Atomic Energy Industry, Part IV - Treatment of Radioactive Wastes by Ion Exhange, B.W. Mercer (of the Pacific Northwest Laboratory), American Institute of Chemical Engineers, for the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, 1969. Pollution Control in the Atomic Energy Industry, Part I - The Sorption of Radioactive Wastes on Soil, R. C. Routson (of the Pacific Northwest Laboratory), American Institute of Chemical Engineers, for the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, 1969. Pot Solidification Performance During Final Radioactive Tests in WSEP, J. L. McElroy et al., BNWL 1628, January 1972. Proposal for a Study of Radioactive Waste Management Practices. Hittman Associates, Inc., Pub. HA-773P, September 22, 1971. Radioactivity from Fossil Fuel and Nuclear Power Plants, J.E. Martin et al., U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, United Nations Headquarters, SM-146/19, August 10, 1970. Radiological Surveillance Studies at a Boiling Water Nuclear Power Reactor, B. Kahn et al., Radiological Engineering Laboratory, Cincinnati, Pub. PB-191-091, BRH/DER 70-1, March 1970. Report on the May 11. 1969. Fire at the Rocky Flats Plant Near Boulder, Colorado, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Pub. M-257, November 18, 1969. Report on the Nuclear Industry - 1970. U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, for Atomic Industrial Forum's Annual Conference, Washington, D. C. , November 18, 1970. Role of Nuclear Power in the United States, T. J. Thompson, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, United Nations Headquarters, IAEA- SM-146/4, August 10, 1970. -44- ------- Safety Series No. 7, Notes on Certain Aspects of the Regulations, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 1961. Siting of Fuel Reprocessing Plants and Waste Management Facilities, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, July 1970. Spray Solidification Performance During Final Radioactive Test in WSEP, W. R. Bond et al., BNWL 1583, June 1971. Statement on the Sources of Radioactive Material in Effluents from Light-Water Cooled Nuclear Power Reactors and State of Technology of Waste Treatment Equipment to Minimize Releases, H. R. Denton, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, January 10, 1972. Statistical Data on the Uranium Industry. U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Grand Junction Office, January 1, 1971. Thermal Pollution - 1968 (Part 3, Hearings Before the Subcom- mittee on Air and Water Pollution of the Committee on Public Works), U. S. Senate, Ninetieth Congress, Second Session, Appendix 1, U.S. Government Printing Office, Pub. 93-370, 1968. U. S. A. Standard Proposed Definition of Radioactive Waste Categories, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, June 7, 1967. U. S. Regulations for the Control of Release of Radioactivity to the Environment in Effluents for Nuclear Facilities, L. Rogers, C. C. Gramertsfelder, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, United Nations Headquarters, IAEA-SM-146/8, August 10, 1970. BOOKS Management of Nuclear Materials, ed. by R. F. Lumb (of Western New York Nuclear Research Center), D. Van Nostrand Co. , Inc., 1960. Reactor Handbook, Volume IV, Engineering, ed. by S. Me Lain and J. H. Martens (of Argonne National Laboratory), Interscience Publishers, 1964. -45- ------- WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE ARTICLES "DOD Hazardous Materials Transported by Railroad 1968-1969 (1st Quarter), " U.S. Department of Defense, 1969. "instructions Regarding Disposal of Ammunition, Explosives and Chemicals by Dumping at Sea, " Chief of Naval Operations, OPNAVINST 8026.1, April 12, 1963. REPORTS An Introduction to the Defense Supply Agency, Defense Supply Agency, January 1971. Classes of Surplus Personal Property, Defense Supply Agency, August 1970. Phase I Final Report on Naval Ship Waste Disposal Study. Booz, Allen Applied Research, Inc., for the U. S. Coast Guard, January 20, 1969. -46- ------- 2. DISPOSAL PRACTICES AND TECHNIQUES, AND TYPES OF POLLUTION Twenty-three major sections were selected within this category. For the most part, these sections represent standard disposal practices and/or techniques (e. g. , fluidized-bed, ion exchange), and specific types of pollution (e. g. , air pollution, solid waste). In addition, material considered essential to the study of disposal and pollution were included in this category (e.g., math modeling and cost techniques, Federal regulations). As in Category 1, all documents are listed alphabetically by title according to the type of material: article, magazine, report, and book. -47- ------- AIR POLLUTION ARTICLES "Air," Pollution Equipment News, April 1969. "Air Pollution and the Automotive Industry," Dr. F. W. Bowditch (of Automobile Manufacturers Association), Professional Engineer, February 1969, pp. 36-39. "Air Pollution Control Activities Are Noted for 23 Industry Areas, " A. Schildhammer, Air Engineering, June 1967, pp. 28-35. "Air Pollution Control Meteorological Service - Description of Service, " pp. 4-6. "Controlling the Oxides of Sulfur, " R. P. Hangebrauck, P. W. Spaite (of the National Center for Air Pollution Control), Air Pollution Control Association Journal, Vol. 18, No. 1, January 1968, pp. 5-8. "Detroit Pushes Search for Answer to Problem of Pollution by Autos. " C. B. Camp (of The Wall Street Journal, Staff Reporter), The Wall Street Journal, Tuesday, March 31, 1970. "Diseased Estuaries. " The New Republic, March 1, 1969, p. 7. "Does the Smaller City Have a Future?" Changing Times, The Kiplinger Magazine, June 1970, pp. 25-28. "Evaporative Coolers in Air Pollution Control Systems, " S. A. Reigel and C. D. Doyle (of Standard Havens Systems, Inc.), Iron and Steel Engineer, January 1971, pp. 81-83. "industry Action to Combat Pollution, " J. J. Hanks and H. D. Kube, Harvard Business Review, September /October 1966, pp. 49-52. "Nation's Cost/Benefit Ratio Weighs Heavily on Auto Emissions, " P. S. Myers (of the Society of American Engineers, 1969 President), Society of American Engineers Journal, Vol. 78, No. 3, March 1970, pp. 20-27. -48- ------- "News Release on Besser-Wasteco Corp., " Porter Advertising Agency, Inc. "Noise, " Pollution Equipment News, February 1969. "Ozone and Electric Air Cleaners, " F. J. Versagi, Air Conditioning, Heating and Refrigeration News, April 1970, pp. 3-11. "Pollution, " B. B. Berger (of the University of Massachusetts, Director of the Water Resources Research Center), The Americana Annual, 1967, pp. 551-553. "Priorities in Pollution: The SST and the Smogless Car, " J. Stein (Washington Free Lance), The Washington Monthly, Vol. 1, No. 1, February 1969, pp. 34-43. "Process Chemistry and Kinetics,1I Air Engineering, April 1968, pp. 23-27. "Reactivity of Selected Limestones and Dolomites with Sulfur Dioxide, " R. E. Harrington, R. H. Borgwardt, and A. E. Potter (of the National Center for Air Pollution Control), American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal, March/April 1968, pp. 152-158. "Sulfur Oxides Must Be Controlled, " J. T. Middleton (of the National Air Pollution Control Administration, Commissioner), Environ- mental Science and Technology, Vol. 4, February 1970, p. 89. "Technical Information Resources in the Air Pollution Field, " V. C. Searle (of the Consumer Protection and Environmental Health Service), Air Pollution Control Association Journal, Vol. 19, No. 3, March 1969, pp. 137-141. "The Elusive Polluter, " J. Bockel, Science News, Vol. 96, November 22, 1969, pp. 480-481. "The Environment: ACS Report is Practical Anti-Pollution Guide, " P. M. Boffey, Science, Vol. 165, pp. 1104-1107. "The Massive Effort of the Motor Industry, The Petroleum Industry, and Government to Control Automobile Emissions, " C. Cady (of the Highway User, Managing Editor), Highway User, November 1967, pp. 14-17. -49- ------- "Thermal Pollution and Aquatic Life, " J. R. Clark, Scientific American, Vol. 220, No. 3, March 1969, pp. 19-27. "Vehicle Traverse Profiles, " Environmental Measurements, Inc. Air Note, January 1970. "Waste," Pollution Equipment News, December 1969. "Waste," Pollution Equipment News, October 1969. "Who's Kidding Who?" Motor Trend, June 1970, pp. 22-24. MAGAZINES Science and Technology, "Pollution Control" Issue, International Communications, Inc., No. 90, June 1969. REPORTS A Primer on Air Pollution, Mobil Oil Corporation, Second Edition, 1970. A Progress Report on Inter-Industry Emission Control, Inter- Industry Emission Control. A Report on Commonwealth Edison Company's Air Pollution Control Program to the City of Chicago's Department of Air Pollution Control, Commonwealth Edison Co. , January 17, 1967. Air Pollution (A Survey of Existing Legislation), World Health Organization, 1963. Air Pollution Aspects of Aeroallergens (Pollens), Dr. H. Finkelstein, Litton Systems, Inc. , for the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, Clearing- house for Federal Scientific and Technical Information, Pub. PB-188-076, September 1969. Air Pollution Aspects of Aldehydes, Dr. Q. R. Stahl, Litton Systems, Inc. , for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-081, September 1969. -50- ------- Air Pollution Aspects of Ammonia, S. Miner, Litton Systems, Inc. , for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-082, September 1969. Air Pollution Aspects of Arsenic and Its Compounds, R. J. Sullivan, Litton Systems, Inc. , for the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-071, September 1969. Air Pollution Aspects of Asbestos, R. J. Sullivan and Y. C. Athanassiadis, Litton Systems, Inc. , for the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-080, September 1969. Air Pollution Aspects of Barium and Its Compounds, S. Miner, Litton Systems, Inc. for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-083, September 1969. Air Pollution Aspects of Beryllium and Its Compounds, N. L. Durocher, Litton Systems, Inc. , for the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-078, September 1969. Air Pollution Aspects of Biological Aerosols (Microorganisms), Dr. H. Finkelstein, Litton Systems, Inc. , for the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188- 084, September 1969. Air Pollution Aspects of Boron and Its Compounds, N. L. Durocher, Litton Systems, Inc. , for the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-085, September 1969. Air Pollution Aspects of Cadmium and Its Compounds, Y. C. Athanassiadis, Litton Systems, Inc. , for the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-086, September 1969. -51- ------- Air Pollution Aspects of Chlorine Gas, Dr. Q. R. Stahl, Litton Systems, Inc., for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-087, September 1969. Air Pollution Aspects of Chromium and Its Compounds, R. J. Sullivan, Litton Systems, Inc. , for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-075, September 1969. Air Pollution Aspects of Ethylene, Dr. Q. R. Stahl, Litton Systems, Inc., for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-069, September 1969. Air Pollution Aspects of Hydrochloric Acid, Dr. Q. R. Stahl, Litton Systems, Inc., for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-067, September 1969. Air Pollution Aspects of Hydrogen Sulfide, S. Miner, Litton Systems, Inc. , for the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-068, September 1969. Air Pollution Aspects of Iron and Its Compounds, R. J. Sullivan, Litton Systems, Inc. , for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-088, September 1969. Air Pollution Aspects of Manganese and Its Compounds, A. J. Sullivan, Litton Systems, Inc. , for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-079, September 1969. Air Pollution Aspects of Nickel and Its Compounds, R. J. Sullivan, Litton Systems, Inc. , for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-070, September 1969. -52- ------- Air Pollution Aspects of Odorous Compounds, R. J. Sullivan, Litton Systems, Inc. , for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-089, September 1969. Air Pollution Aspects of Organic Carcinogens, Dr. D. A. Olsen and J. L. Haynes, Litton Systems, Inc., for the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-090, September 1969. Air Pollution Aspects of Pesticides, Litton Systems, Inc., for the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-091, September 1969. Air Pollution Aspects of Phosphorus and Its Compounds, Y. C. Athanassiadis, Litton Systems, Inc. , for the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-073, September 1969. Air Pollution Aspects of Radioactive Substances, S. Miner, Litton Systems, Inc., for the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-092, September 1969. Air Pollution Aspects of Selenium and Its Compounds, Dr. Q. R. Stahl, Litton Systems, Inc. , for the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-077, September 1969. Air Pollution Aspects of Vanadium and Its Compounds, Y. C. Athanassiadis, Litton Systems, Inc. , for the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-093, September 1969. Air Pollution Aspects of Zinc and Its Compounds, Y. C. Athanassiadis, Litton Systems, Inc., for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-072, September 1969. -53- ------- Air Pollution Injury to Vegetation, I. J. Hindawi, for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, National Air Pollution Control Administration, Pub. AP-71, 1970. Air Pollution Literature List, The Engineering Index, 1966. Air Pollution Literature List, The Engineering Index, 1967. Air Pollution Literature List, The Engineering Index, 1968. Air Quality Criteria for Sulfur Oxides, U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, Pub. AP-50, January 1969. Air Quality Criteria for Photochemical Oxidants, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, Pub. AP-63, March 1970. Analysis and Modeling of Air Pollution Measurements, A. Eschenroeder and J. R. Martinez, General Research Corp. Analysis of Alternative Solutions to the Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Problem Study Design Phase, Booz, Allen Applied Research, Inc. , for the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, November 15, 1970. Analysis of Alternative Solutions to the Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Problem Study Design Phase. Booz, Allen Applied Research, Inc., for the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, January 15, 1971. Atmospheric Diffusion of Beryllium (Project ADOBE), Major G. L. Tucker, H. E. Malone, Captain R. W. Smith, U.S. Air Force, Air Force Rocket Propulsion Laboratory, Pub. AFRPL-TR-70-65, Vol. I, July 1971. Atmospheric Pollutants, World Health Organization, Pub. 271, 1964. Atomization and Acceleration of Liquid in a Venturi Scrubber, A. J. Engels and S. Calvert, Pennsylvania State University, for the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service (Special Fellowship Grant No. F3-AP-35-097). -54- ------- Bulletin of Air Pollution Training Courses, July 1970 through June 1971, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Manpower Development, July 1970. Bulletin - Project 70: Clean Air, Standard Oil Company of California, Pub. Vol. XLVII, No. 2, Spring 1970. Clean Air Research and Inter-Industry Emission Control, Inter-Industry Emission Control Program. Control Techniques for Carbon Monoxide, Nitrogen Oxide, and Hydrocarbon Emissions from Mobile Sources, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, Pub. AP-66, March 1970. Control Techniques for Sulfur Oxide Air Pollutants, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, Pub. AP-52, January 1969. Controlling Sulfur Dioxide Emissions From Coal Burning by the Use of Additives, G. W. Land (of Republic Coal and Coke Co. ), E. W. Linna (of the Chicago Department of Air Pollution Control), and W. T. Earley (of the Chicago Department of Public Works), for the City of Chicago Department of Air Pollution Control, Air Pollution Control Association, Pub. 69-143. Diffusion Forces and Particulate Scrubber Efficiencies, L. E. Sparks and M. J. Pilat, University of Washington, for the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, National Air Pollution Control Administration (Training Grant AP-29), Pub. 69-82. Economic Factors in Recovery of Sulfur Dioxide from Power Plant Stack Gas, A. V. Slack, G. G. McGlamery, and H. L. Falkenberry (of the Tennessee Valley Authority), presented at the Sixty-Second Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association in New York, New York, June 22-26, 1969, Pub. 69-142, 1969. Engelhard PTX Exhaust Purifiers Bulletins, Exhaust Controls, Inc. , Pub. EM-6366, Rev 4/71, Pub. EM-8958, Pub. EM-8778, 1968-1971. -55- ------- Exciting New Pollution Control Systems from Besser-Wasteco, Besser-Wasteco Corp. Final Report on Phase I Atmospheric Reaction Studies in the Los Angeles Basin. Volume I, Scott Research Laboratories, Inc. , Project 1116, for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, July 28, 1969. Forecasting Air Pollution Potential, Advisory Service of the Weather Bureau, U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, 1968. Governmental Organization for an Air Resource Management and Control System in the Penjerdel Region - A Research Inquiry in Environmental Control Administration for the Regional Conference of Elected Officials, C. P. Cella, Jr. , R. P. Lane, B. H. Renshaw, III, R, Pfannenstiel, M. A. Satinsky, and M. W. Verano (of the FELS Institute of Local and State Government, University of Pennsylvania), F. P. Grad (of the Columbia University Law School), Dr. R. J. Hickey and D. C. Wagner (of the University of Pennsylvania), Dr. A. Teller and Dr. J. R. Norsworthy (of Temple University), Government Studies Center, 1968. K-B Dust and Fume Control Systems, The Kirk and Blum Manufacturing Co. , Catalog 5712. National Air Pollution Control Administration Alkali Scrubbing Test Facility Proposal, Bechtel Corp. , Pub. 6955. National Inventory of Sources and Emissions Cadmium, Nickel, and Asbestos, W. E. Davis & Associates, for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-192- 252, February 1970. Operating Experience with Wet-Dolomite Scrubbing, J. F. McLaughlin (of the Union Electric Co. ) and J. Jonakin (of Combustion Engineering, Inc. ) for the Air Pollution Control Association, Pub. 69-139, 1969. Operating Plan - Fiscal Years 1969 and 1970 - Of the National Air Pollution Control Administration, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Consumer Protection and Environmental Health Service, CPEHS Tactical Plan Series, February 1969. -56- ------- Participate and Total Gaseous Hydrocarbon Emissions From a Gas-Heated Veneer Dryer, R. T. Shigehara (of the Institute for Air Pollution Training) and Dr. R. W. Boubel (of the Oregon State University), for the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, Pub. 69-163. Present Applications of Mechanical Collectors to Boilers, J. L. Burdock, UOP Air Correction Division, 1969. Proceedings Digest. Sixty-Second Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control Association, New York, New York, June 22-26, 1969, Air Pollution Control Association, 1969. Proctor TRAPS System, Proctor and Schwartz, Inc., Bulletin 533 - 1/71, 1971. Recognition of Air Pollution Injury to Vegetation: A Pictorial Atlas, J. S. Jacobson (of Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research) and A. C. Hill (of the University of Utah), for the Air Pollution Control Association, Agricultural Committee, Pub. 1, TR-7, 1970. Report for Consultation on the Metropolitan Cincinnati Interstate Air Quality Control Region, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, January 1969. Report to United States Rubber Company on Air Pollution at Kankakee Unit - Joliet Arsenal, Foster D. Snell, Inc., March 20, 1953. Scrubbing Coal Dryer Exhaust Gases, F. Ekman, National Dust Collector Corp. , Pub. 69-85. Some Aspects of Air Pollution: Odors, Visibility, and Art, B. W. Peckham, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, National Air Pollution Control Administration. Storage and Retrieval of Air Quality Data (SAROAD) System Descrip- tion and Data Coding Manual, D. H. Fair, G. B. Morgan, and C. E. Zimmer, U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, Air Quality and Emission Data Program, Pub. APTD 68-8, August 1968. -57- ------- Studies on the Removal _of Sulphur Dioxide From Hot Flue Gases as a Measure to Prevent Air Pollution, IV; Recovery of Flue Gas Sulphur as Ammonium Phosphate, R. Kiyoura, M. Munidasa, H. Hayashi, and C. Nakamoto, Tokyo Institute of Technology (Japan), for the Air Pollution Control Association, Pub. 69-140, 1969. Sulfur Oxide Removal From Power Plant Stack Gas (Use of Lime- stone in Wet-Scrubbing Process), Tennessee Valley Authority, for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, Conceptual Design and Cost Study Series, Study No. 2, 1969. The Dry-Limestone Process for Sulfur Dioxide Control: A Field Study of the Role of Overburning. R. H. Borgwardt and T.-A. Kittleman, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Division of Process Control Engineering, Pub. 69-141. The Effect of Common Variables on Cyclone Performance, J. W. Schindeler, Air Pollution Control Association, Pub. 69-162. The Federal Plan for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research Fiscal Year 1970, U. S. Department of Commerce, Office of Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research, 1969. The Mountain Iron Diffusion Program: Phase I South Vandenburg: Volume I. W. T. Hinds and P. W. Nickola (of Battelle Memorial Laboratory), National Technical Information Service, Pub. AD-721- 858, AFWTR-TR-67-1, BNWL-572, Vol. 1, UC-53, November 1967. The Philosophy of Air Pollution Control. Your Car and Clean Air, Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc. ABSTRACTS Air Pollution Abstracts, Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Programs, Vol. 2, No. 6, Pub. 5503-0017, June 1971. National Air Pollution Control Administration Abstract Bulletin, Air Pollution Technical Information Center, Office of Technical Information and Publications, Vol. 1, No. 8, Abstracts 1779-2285. -58- ------- National Air Pollution Control Administration Abstract Bulletin, Air Pollution Technical Information Center, Office of Technical Information and Publications, Vol. 1, No. 9, Supplement 1, Abstracts 3565-4548. National Air Pollution Control Administration Abstract Bulletin, Air Pollution Technical Information Center, Office of Technical Information and Publications, Vol. 1, No. 9, Supplement 2, Abstracts 4549-4917. National Air Pollution Control Administration Abstract Bulletin, Air Pollution Technical Information Center, Office of Technical Information and Publications, Vol. 1, No. 9, Supplement 3, Abstracts 4918-6272. National Air Pollution Control Administration Abstract Bulletin, Air Pollution Technical Information Center, Office of Technical Information and Publications, Vol. 1, No. 9, Supplement 4, Abstracts 6273-7327. -59- ------- BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT ARTICLES "Disposal Effects of Citrus By-Products Wastes, " R. G. Ludwig and R. V. Stone, Water and Sewage Works, November 1962, pp. 410-415. REPORTS Conversion of Organic Solid Wastes Into Yeast . . . An Economic Evaluation, F. H. Meller, Ionics, Inc., for the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Bureau of Solid Waste Management, 1969. -60- ------- CORPS OF ENGINEERS ARTICLES "Proposed Rule Making - Permits for Discharges or Deposits Into Navigable Waters," U.S. Department of Defense, Army Corps of Engineers, Pub. 33 CFR Part 209, Federal Register. Vol. 36, No. 14, Thursday, January 21, 1971. REPORTS Errata/Permits for Work and Structures In, and For, Discharges or Deposits Into Navigable Waters, U. S. Department of Defense, Army Corps of Engineers, 1971 Preliminary Edition, 1971. Permits for Work and Structures In, and For, Discharges or Deposits Into Navigable Waters, U. S. Department of Defense, Army Corps of Engineers, 1971 Preliminary Edition, 1971. -61- ------- DEEP WELL ARTICLES "Deep-Well Disposal of Industrial Wastes, " D. L. Warner (of the Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center), Chemical Engineering, January 4, 1965, pp. 73-78. "Deep-Well Disposal of Problem Wastes, " Factory, Vol. 126, No. 4, April 1968, pp. 148-150. "Deep-Well Injection of Liquid Waste, " Review and Evaluation, Pub. GPO 820-193-4, pp. 1-43. "Subsurface Disposal of Industrial Wastes in the United States, " E. C. Donaldson, for the U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, pp. 1-33. REPORTS Waste Disposal in Deep Wells, National Industrial Pollution Control Council (NIPCC), Sub-Council Report, February 1971, -62- ------- ECONOMIC DATA REPORTS A Study of Pollution Control Practices in Manufacturing Industries, Part 1: Water Pollution_Contrql. Dun & Bradstreet, Inc. , Pub. 71-1-11, June 1971. A Study of Pollution Control Practices in Manufacturing Industries, Part 2: Air Pollution Control, Dun & Bradstreet, Inc. , Pub. 71-1-11, June 1971. A Study of Pollution Control Practices in Manufacturing Industries, Part 3: Solid Waste Disposal, Dun & Bradstreet, Inc. , Pub. 71-1-11, June 1971. Bulletin 26: Economics of Air and Water Pollution, W. R. Walker Water Resources Research Center, for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-195-424, 1969. Dun's Market Identifiers, Dun & Bradstreet. Inc., 1969. Dun's Market Identifiers, Dun & Bradstreet, Inc., 1971. Economic Aspects of Ocean Activities, Volume III: Economic Aspects of Solid Waste Disposal at Sea, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-195-225, September 1970. Multi-Client Study: The Industrial Market for Pollution Products, Dun & Bradstreet, Inc. Pollution Control - Putting It Back Together Becomes An Industry, Dun & Bradstreet, Inc., March 1971. -63- ------- FEDERAL REGULATIONS ARTICLES "Certain Bulk Dangerous Cargoes on Unmanned Tank Barges, " U. S. Department of Transportation, Coast Guard, Federal Register, Vol. 35, No. 38, Part II, Wednesday, February 25, 1970. REPORTS A Bill to Amend the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, Senator Muskie, 92nd Congress, 1st Session, Pub. 92-414, (Calendar, No. 411, S. 2770), October 28, 1971 Code of Federal Regulations - Title 49-Transportation Parts 0-190, U.S. Department of Transportation, General Services Administration, Office of the Federal Register, January 1, 1968. Federal Hazardous Substances Act, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Food and Drug Administration, June 1967. H. R. 4148 - An Act to Amend the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as Amended, and for Qther^ Purposes, 91st Congress, 1st Session, April 18, 1969. Report of the Committee on Public Works United States Senate Together with Supplemental Views to Accompany S. 2770, 92nd Congress, 1st Session, October 28, 1971. Report of the Committee on Public Works, United States Senate to Accompany S. 3201 - Solid Waste Disposal Act Amendment of 1968, 90th Congress, 2nd Session, Pub. 1447, (Calendar No. 1427), July 22, 1968. Rules of the Texas Water Quality Board, Texas Water Quality Board, November 28, 1967. " S. 7 - A Bill to Amend the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, As Amended, and for Other Purposes, 91st Congress, 1st Session, January 15, 1969. -64- ------- State of Wisconsin - State Laws, Policies and Programs Pertaining to Water and Related Land Resources, Water Subcommittee of the National Resources Committee of State Agencies, September 1967. Suggested State Water Pollution jTontrol Act, Revised, U. S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, November 1965, Reprinted May 1966. The Solid Waste Disposal Act, Title II of Public Law 89-272 - 89th Congress, S. 306 - October 30, 1965, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, February 1966. -65- ------- FLUIDIZED-BED ARTICLES "Fluidized-Bed Processes - A Solution for Industrial Waste Problems, " J.E. Hanway, Jr. (of Copeland Process Corp. ), Proceedings of the Twenty-Second Industrial Waste Conference, 1967. Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 183-193. -66- ------- GENERAL DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES ARTICLES "Bureau Attacks Nation's Solid Waste," R. D. Vaughan (of the U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Bureau of Solid Waste Management, Director), Environmental Science and Technology. Vol. 3, No. 8, August 1969, pp. 705-707. "Conversion to Activated Sludge at Union Carbide's Institute Plant, " G. W. Kumke, J. F. Hall, and R. W. Deben (of the Union Carbide Corporation), Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, Vol. 40, No. 8, Part 1, August 1968, pp. 1408-1422. "Cyanide Control Experience - Indiana Stream Pollution Control Board, " R. A. Woodley (of the Indiana State Board of Health), Proceedings of the Nineteenth Industrial Waste Conference, 1964, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 264-271. "Deep-Sea Disposal of Liquid and Solid Wastes, " D. D. Smith and R. P. Brown (of the Dillingham Environmental Co. ), Industrial Water Engineering, September 1970, pp. 20-24. "Disposal of Solid and Semi-Solid Toxic Wastes, " J. L. Stringer (of Hertfordshire County Health Inspector, England), Water Pollution Control, Vol. 69, 1970, pp. 321-333. "Disposing of Halogenated Hydrocarbon Waste, " J. H. S. Haggin, Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, pp. 10-12. "Economic Aspects of Recovery of Minerals from Effluents, " Dr. I. W. Teworte, Chemistry and Industry, May 3, 1969, pp. 565-574. "Effects of a Mixture of Heavy Metals on Sewage Treatment Processes, " E. F. Earth, B. V. Salotto, G. N. McDermott, J. N. English, and M. B. Ettinger (of the Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center), Proceedings of the Eighteenth Industrial Waste Conference, 1963, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 606-635. -67- ------- "Industrial Hygiene News Report - Index to Volume 13, " January through December 1970. "industrial Solid Wastes and Garbage Composting, " Reviewed by L. W. Lefke, Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, 1967 Literature Review. Vol. 40, No. 6, June 1968, pp. 1163-1165. "Industrial Water Reuse: Future Pollution Solution, " G. Rey, W. J. Lacy, and A. Cywin (of the Environmental Protection Agency), Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 5, No. 9, September 1971, pp. 760-765. "New Conversion Plant, Sewer Separation System Boast 'Firsts', " Water and Wastes Engineering, July 1971. "On-Site Incineration of Special Industrial Wastes, " R.B. Engdahl (of Battelle Memorial Institute), Principles and Practices of Incineration, pp. 210-226. "Process Waste Burner Destroys Liquid Organic Chemical Wastes Safely, " R.E. Mills (of the Naugatuck Chemicals, Canada), Water Sewage Works, July 1964, pp. 337-340. "Recent Advance in Cyanide Waste Reduction Practice, " R.H. L. Howe (of Eli Lilly & Co. ), Proceedings of the Eighteenth Industrial Waste Conference, 1963, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 690-705. "Solid Waste Disposal in Chemical Plants, " R. J. Bender (of Power, Consulting Editor), Power, March 1967, p. 65. "Spray Irrigation of Organic Chemical Wastes, " R. A. Woodley (of Commercial Solvents Corporation), Proceedings of the Twenty-Third Industrial Waste Conference, 1968, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 251-261. "The Present and Future of Industrial Waste Treatment, " Dr. G. E. Symos (a Consultant and Technical Editor, Larchmont, New York), Proceedings of the Seventeenth Industrial Waste Conference, 1962, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 717-732. "The Use of Activated Charcoal in the Treatment of Trade Wastes, " D.H. Sharp (of Fisons Ltd., England), British Chemical Engineering, February 1961, pp. 107-110. "Toxic Wastes Degradation and Disposal, " Dr. R.H. L. Howe (of Eli Lilly & Co.), Process Biochemistry, April 1969, pp. 25-28, 37. -68- ------- "Waste Farm Takes Care of Phenolic Waste Disposal, " S. B. Hettig (of General Electric Co.), Chemical Engineering, December 24, 1962, pp. 96-97. REPORTS Bulk Transport of Waste Slurries to Inland and Ocean Disposal Sites, Volume I: The Waste Management Concept - Inland and Ocean Disposal of Selected Wastes, Bechtel Corporation, for the U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Admin- istration, Pub. PB-189-757, September 1969. Bulk Transport of Waste Slurries to Inland and Ocean Disposal Sites, Volume II: Criteria for Waste Management, P. E. Snoek, Bechtel Corporation, for the U. S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Pub. PB-189-758, September 1969. Bulk Transport of Waste Slurries to Inland and Ocean Disposal Sites, Volume III: Technical Aspects of Pipelining of Waste Materials. J. P. Kenny, Bechtel Corporation, for the U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Pub. PB-189-759, September 1969. Bulk Transport of Waste Slurries to Inland and Ocean Disposal Sites - Summary Report, Bechtel Corporation, for the U. S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Pub. PB-189-756, September 1969. C-E Products for Municipal Service, C-F Industrial Boiler Opera- tions, Pub. SP-1064 OSO 7008. Combustion Engineering, Inc. , Progress Number Three, Combustion Engineering, Inc. , 1970. Control of Water Pollution (A Survey of Existing Legislation), World Health Organization, 1967. . Cost of Wastewater Treatment Processes, D. DiGregorio (of the Robert A. Taft Water Research Center), Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information, Pub. PB-187-760, December 1968. Disposal of Wastes from Water Treatment Plants, American Water Works Association, Program 12120 ERC, Project WP 1535-01-69, for the U. S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Pub. PB-186-157, August 1969. -69- ------- Electrophoretic Clarification of Water, E. A. Hiler and W. M. Lyle, of Texas A&M University, Project A-009-TEX, for the U.S. Department of Interior, Office of Water Resources Research, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-194-566, August 31, 1970. Floor -to- Roof Corrosion Protection (and) The Corrosion Consultant, Ceilcote Company, Vol. VI, No. 1, Bulletin 1-2, May 1971. Industrial Process Design for Water Pollution Control, Volume 3, Proceedings of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers Water Committee Workshop, San Francisco, California, March 31 - April 2, 1970. Instream Aeration of Polluted Rivers, W. Whipple, Jr., J. V. Hunter, B. Davidson, F. Dittman, and S. Yu (of Rutgers University), National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-192- 637, August 1969. International Research Group on Refuse Disposal (IRGRD), U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Office of Solid Wastes, Pub. 1-12, November 1956 - September 1961. Laboratory Waste Disposal Manual, Manufacturing Chemists Association, May 1970. Nalgene Industrial Division (Standard Molded Tanks Plus Custom Molding), Nalge Co. , 1971. Ocean Disposal of Barge-Delivrered Liquid and Solid Wastes from U. S. Coastal Cities, D. D. Smith and R. P. Brown, Dillingham Corporation, Applied Oceanography Division, for the Environmental Protection Agency, Solid Waste Management Office, Pub. SW-19c, 1971. Process Design Manual for Carbon Adsorption, Swindell-Dressier Co. , Program 17020 GNR, for the Environmental Protection Agency - Technology Transfer, October 1971. Process Design Manual for Phosphorus Removal, Black & Veatch Consulting Engineers, Program 17010 GNP, for th* Environmental Protection Agency, October 1971. ------- Process Design Manual for Upgrading Existing Wastewater Treat- ment Plants, Roy F. Weston, Inc., Program 17090 GNQ, for the Environmental Protection Agency, October 1971. Purification of Sewage Waters Carrying Toxic Chemicals, B. Y. Libman et al. (of the USSR), National Technical Information Service, Pub. JPRS 44, 488, February 26, 1968. Recovery. Separation, and Identification of Phenolic Compounds from Polluted Waters, S. D. Faust, H. Stutz, and O. M. Aly (of Rutgers University), and P. W. Anderson (of the U. S. Geological Survey), for the U. S. Department of Interior, Office of Water Resources Research, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-198-030, January 1971. State-of-the-Art Review on Product Recovery, Resource Engineering Associates, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-192- 634, November 1969. Storage of Wastes from Watercraft and Disposal at Shore Facilities, General Dynamics, Program 15020DHB03/70, for the Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality Office, April 1970. Subsurface Disposal, Subsurface Disposal Corporation, 1972. Survey of Hazardous Waste Disposal in California, California Department of Public Health, 1971. Technical Survey - A World Report on Advances in Technology, Gaylor Technical Survey Corporation, Vol. 27, No. 3, January 16, 1971. The Cost of Clean Water, Summary Volume, U. S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, January 10, 1968. Theories of Practices of IAD Waste Treatment, Burford and Masselli. Ultimate Disposal of Phosphate from Waste Water by Recovery as Fertilizer, M. G. Dunseth, M. L. Salutsky, K. M. Ries, and J. J. Shapiro, Dearborn Chemical Division, Project 17070 ESJ, for the U. S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, U.S. Government Printing Office, January 1970. -71- ------- Vane-Flo Solids Handling Centrifugal Pumps, Marlow Pumps ITT, VF-625, Water and Waste Treatment Buyers Guide, Permutit Sybron Corporation, Bulletin 5391. Water Pollution Control, World Health Organization, Technical Report Series No. 318, 1966. BOOKS Industrial Pollution Control Handbook, H. F. Lund (of Leadership Plus, Inc., President), McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1971. Industrial Waste: Their Disposal and Treatment, W. Rudolfs (of ACS Monograph), Reinhold Publishing Co. , 1953. -72- ------- HAZARDOUS SPILLS ARTICLES "Safe Highway Transportation of Bulk Liquids, " L. A. Botkin (of Fruehauf Corp), Society of Automotive Engineers, No. 700872. REPORTS Control of Spillage of Hazardous Polluting Substances, G. W. Dawson, A.J. Shuckrow, and W. H. Swift, Pacific Northwest Laboratories, for the U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Quality Administration, November 1, 1970. Hazardous Material Spills Research Newsletter, Edison Water Quality Laboratory, for the Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality Office, Vol. I, May 1971. Spill Prevention Techniques for Hazardous Polluting Substances, Oil and Hazardous Materials Program Series, J.L. Goodier, J.I. Stevens, S.V. Margolin, W.V. Keary, and J. R. McMahan Arthur D. Little, Inc. , for the Environmental Protection Agency, February 1971. The West Falmouth Oil Spill, M. Blumer, J. Sass, H.L. Sanders, J. F. Grassle, and G. R. Hampson (of Woods Hold Oceanographic Institution), and G. Souza (of Falmouth Shellfish Warden), National Technical Information Service, Pub. AD-713-947, Ref. No. 70-44, September 1970. -73- ------- HEALTH HAZARDS ARTICLES "infectious Hepatitis Epidemic at Posen, Michigan, " J.E. Vogt (of Michigan State Department of Health, Director of the Division of Engineering), American Water Works Association Journal, October 1961, pp. 1238-1242. "Physiologic and Health Aspects of Water Quality - Task Group Report," H.O. Hartung, H.A. Faber, H.E. Hudson, P.W. Kabler, W.W. Sanderson, D. Williams, andR.L. Woodward (of Task Group 2760P, St. Louis County Water Co. ), American Water Works Association Journal, November 1961, pp. 1354-1360. REPORTS Accident Facts. National Safety Council, Pub. 021.69, 1969 Edition. Accident Facts, National Safety Council, Pub. 021.70, 1970 Edition. Accident Prevention Manual for Industrial Operations, National Safety Council, Sixth Edition, 1969. American National Standards Applicable to Occupational Safety and Health, Safety of Household and Industrial Products, Highway and Traffic Safety, Recreational Safety - Publication List, American National Standards Institute, February 1971. 1969 Analysis of Accident Reports Involving Fire, U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Motor Carrier Safety, 1970. Analysis and Summary of Accident Investigations 1969, U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau ot" Motor Carrier Safety, November 30, 1970. Design of an Overview System for Evaluating the Public Health^ Hazards of Chemicals in the Environment, Volume I: Test-Case Studies, G.A. Lutz, S.B. Gross, J.B. Boatman, P.J. Moore, R.L. Darby, W. H. Veazie, and F.A. Butrica, Battelle Memorial Institute, for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-194-398, July 1967. -74- ------- Design of an Overview System for Evaluating the Public Health Hazards of Chemicals in the Environment, Volume II: The Overview System, G.A. Lutz, S. B. Gross, J.B. Boatman, P.J. Moore, R. L. Darby, W. H. Veazie, andF.A. Butrica, Battelle Memorial Institute, for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Services, National Technical Information Service, PB-194-398, July 1967. Ecological Effects of Weather^ Modification: A Problem Analysis, C. F. Cooper and W. C. Jolly, University of Michigan (Ann Arbor), for the U.S. Department of Interior, Office of Atmospheric Water Resources, May 1969. Environmental Lead and Public Health, R. E. Engel, D.I. Hammer, R.J.M. Horton, N. M. Lane, andL.A. Plumlee, Environmental Protection Agency, Air Pollution Control Office, Pub. AP-90. Morbidity and Mortality, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Communicable Disease Center, Weekly Report, Vol. 18, No. 35, Week Ending August 30, 1969. Morbidity and Morality, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Communicable Disease Center, Weekly Report, Vol. 18, No. 37, Week Ending September 13, 1969. Occupational Safety and Health Standards, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, 1971. Special Course Announcement - Occupational Health Hazards for Trade Union Representatives, The City University of New York, Mt. Sinai School of Medicine, April 19-23, 1971. United States Metropolitan Mortaility 1959-1961, E.A. Duffy and Dr. R. E. Carroll, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Center for Air Pollution Control, Health Effects Research Program, Pub. 999-AP-39, 1967. World Health Organization Publications - Catalogue 1947-1971, World Health Organization (Switzerland), 1971. -75- ------- HOSPITAL WASTES ARTICLES "Management of Solid Wastes From Hospitals - Problems and Technology, " R. D. Vaughan, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Solid Wastes Programs, Chief, pp. 41-46. -76- ------- IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS ARTICLES "List of Toxic Substances, " Occupational Safety and Health Reporter. The Bureau of National Affairs, Inc., 1971. REPORTS A Procedure for Evaluating Environmental Impact, L. B. Leopold, F.E. Clarke, B.B. Hanshaw, and J. R. Balsley, U.S. Department of Interior, Geological Survey, Pub. 645, 1971. A Study of Transportation of Hazardous Material, Highway Research Board and the Committee on Hazardous Materials, National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council, National Technical Information Service, Pub. AD-692-182, 1969. An Appraisal of the Problem of the Handling, Transportation, and Disposal of Toxic and Other Hazardous Materials, H. D. Messer, L. Crevoiserat, L. Richardson, A. Christodoulou, J. Hain, and L. Bush, Booz, Allen and Hamilton, Inc., January 30, 1970. Chemical Safety References, National Safety Council, 1968. Consolidated Hazardous Item List, U.S. Department of Defense, Navy Fleet Material Support Office, Pub. 4500, COG 1 Stock No. 0588-005-000, October 1, 1969. Control of Hazardous Polluting Substances, Volume I: Report to the President, U.S. Department of Transportation, Coast Guard, October 20, 1970. Criteria for Selection of Elements and Compounds to be Designated as Hazardous Polluting Substances, C.H. Thompson, Environmental Protection Agency, Division^ of Oil and Hazardous Materials, October 22, 1971. Designation of Hazardous Substances, Notice of Proposed Rule Making, Environmental Protection Agency, Pub. 18 CFR, Part 618, May 14, 1971. -77- ------- Distribution of Selected Metals in Bottom Sediments, B. J. Mathis and T. F. Cummings (of Bradley University), Project A-034-I11, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-199-713, March 1971. National Inventory of Sources and Emissions Cadmium, Nickel, and Asbestos - Cadmium Section I, W. E. Davis and Associates, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB -192-250, February 1970. Predicting Future Growth of Organic Pollution in Metropolitan Area Rivers, M. Marcus and W. Whipple, Jr. (of Rutgers University, New Jersey Water Resources Research Institute), Project B-002-N. J. , Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information, Pub. PB-191-128, February 1970. BOOKS Dangerous Chemicals Code, Los Angeles Fire Department, Parker & Son, Inc., 1951. Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, N. I. Sax (of the New York State Health Department Radiological Sciences Laboratory, Director), et al., Reinhold Book Corp, Third Edition, 1968. Research Chemicals Catalog, Dfaltz & Bauer, Inc. -78- ------- INCINERATION ARTICLES "incineration of Process Wastes, " J. I. Frankel, Chemical Engineering, August 29, 1966, pp. 91-96. "~ REPORTS Air Pollution Aspects of Emission Sources: Municipal Incineration - A Bibliography with Abstracts, Environmental Protection Agency, Pub. AP-92, May 1971. An Accounting System for Incinerator Operations, E. R. Zausner, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Pub. 2032, Report SW-17 ts, 1970. C-E Boilers for Catalytic Regenerator Waste Gas, C-E Combustion Engineering, Inc., Pub. CD-I, P-452-7-58-3500, 1958. C-E Combustopak Waste Disposal System, C-E Combustion Engineering, Inc., SP-1047 (0406905). C-E Refuse Incinerator Systems, C-E Industrial Boiler Operations, SP-1090 (0507103). Combustall Waste Incinerator by Air Preheater, The Air Preheater Co., Inc., Pub. WA-45-685A. COR-PAK Direct-Flame Fume Incineration With Heat Recovery, The Air Preheater Co. , Inc. , Pub. WA-36-669, 1966. Direct Gas Flame Oxidation of Hydrocarbons for Smoke, Gaseous Hydrocarbons and Odor Control by Thermal Incineration. D. E, Waid (of Maxon Premix Burner Co. , Inc. ), presented at the Sixty-Second Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, Pub. 69-45, June 22-26, 1969. Evaluation of the Melt-Zit High -Temperature Incinerator Operation Test Report, E. R. Kaiser, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, (Grant DOT-UI-00076), August 1968. -79- ------- Feasibility Analysis of Incinerator Systems for Restoration of Oil Contaminated Beaches, Envirogenics Co., Project 15080DXE, for Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality Office, November 1970. Flue Gas Desulfurization in a Limestone Fluidized Bed, R.K. Bertrand and J. T. Sears, presented at the Sixty-Second Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, Pub. 69-47, June 22-26, 1967. Incineration Bibliography, Combustion Engineering, Inc., Pub. VS-1024 (0016803). Incineration of Industrial Liquid Waste, E.S. Monroe, Jr., E. I. duPont de Nemeurs and Co., Pub. 70-109. Incinerator Guidelines 1969, J. DeMarco, D. J. Keller, J. J. Leckman and J. L. Newton, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Pub. 2012, 1969. Oxy-Catalyst Pre-Engineered Oxidation Units for Control of Gaseous Air Pollutants, Oxy-Catalyst, Inc. The Good Earth, MaxonCorp., Bulletin PC-1000, September 1970. -80- ------- ION EXCHANGE REPORTS Electrodialysis in Advanced Waste Treatment, J.D. Smith and J.L. Eisenmann, Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center, for the U. S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Pub. WP-20-AWTR-18, February 1967. Feasibility of Hydrolysis of Sludge Using Low Pressure Steam With SO2 as a Hydrolytic Adjust and Utilization of the jlesulting Hydrolysate, Foster D. Snell, Inc., for the U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, December 1969. Parametric Economic and Engineering Evaluation Study of the Electrodialysis Process for Water Desalination, C. M. Wong, W. F. Savage, andK.C. Channabasappa (of the U. S. Department of Interior, Office of Saline Water), A.P. Christodoulou, G.R. Olsson, andH.J. Monnik (of Booz, Allen Applied Research, Inc. ), for the U.S. Department of Interior, Office of Saline Water, Pub. 488. 1968 Saline Water Conversion Report, U.S. Department of Interior, Office of Saline Water, 1968. Summary Report - The Advanced Waste Treatment Research Program - June 1960-December 1961, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Research Branch, Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control, Pub. SEC TR W62-9, May 1962. -81- ------- LAGOON ING ARTICLES "Combined Industrial and Domestic Waste Treatment in Waste Stabilization Lagoons," O.O. Olson, W. Van Heuvelen and J. W. Vennes (of North Dakota State Department of Health), Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, February 1967, pp. 214-222. "Experimental Operation of Industrial Waste Stabilization Ponds, " G.H. Dunstan (of Washington University), andL.L. Smith (of State Department of Health, Salt City), Public Works, April 1960, pp. 93-95. "Stabilization Ponds for Treatment of Industrial Wastes, " pp. 1-7. -82- ------- LITERATURE LISTS - GENERAL REPORTS Abstracts of Proceedings - Hazardous Polluting Substances Symposium, September 14-16, 1970 - Annex I to Study On Control of Hazardous Polluting Substances, U^S. Department of Transportation, Coast Guard, 1970. Annual Literature Review, Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, June 1970. Applied Science Technology Index, March-August 1971. NASA Literature Search Number - Hazardous Waste Disposal, Pub. 16721, October 20, 1971. NASA Literature Search Number - Part II (Limited Distribution References) Hazardous Waste Disposal, Pub. 16721, October 20, ___ Selected United States Government Publications, U.S. Government Printing Office, Pub. 18, Septembers, 1971. Solid Waste/Disease Relationships - A Literature Survey, Dr. T.G. Hanks, Aerojet-General Corp. , for the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Pub. 999-UIH-6, 1967. Ulrich's International Periodicals Directory - Volume One: Classified List of Periodicals, Ulrich's Abstracting and Indexing Services, pp. 1-34. Water: Purification and Decontamination - A DDC Bibliography, (July 1952-August 1969), U.S. Department of Defense, Defense Documentation Center, National Technical Information Service, Pub. AD-725-610, June 1971. -83- ------- MATH MODELLING AND COST TECHNIQUES REPORTS Fellowship and Research Opportunities In the Mathematical Sciences 1971-1972, National Research Council, Division of Mathematical Sciences, September 1971. Mathematical Analysis Of Solid Waste Collection, D. H. Marks and J.C. Liebman, Johns Hopkins University, for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Bureau of Solid Waste Management (Grant EC-00309), Report SW-5rg, Pub. 21D4, 1970. Mathematical Modeling of Solid Waste Collection Policies, Volumes 1 and 2, M. M. Truitt, J.C. Liebman, andC.W Kruse, Johns Hopkins University, for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Bureau of Solid Waste Management (Grant UI-00539), Report SW-1 rg, Pub. 2030, 1970. Use of Mathematical Models In Water Quality Control Studies, A.S. Goodman and R. J. Tucker, Northeastern University, Program 16090, for the U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, (Grant WP-01090), National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-494, July 1967. -84- ------- OXIDATION REDUCTION ARTICLES "Destructive Oxidation of Sodium Dibutylanphthalene-Sulfonate At Elevated Temperatures and Pressures, " V.P. Sokolov, Pub. UDC 628. 543, Journal of Applied Chemistry of USSR, Vol. 39 No. 9, September 1966, pp. 1931-1934. REPORTS An Investigation of Light-Catalyzed Chlorine Oxidation for Treatment of Wastewater, A.F. Meiners, E.A. Lawler, M.E. Whitehead, and J. I. Morrison, Robert A. Taft Water Research Center, for the U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Report TWPC-3, December 1968. Ozone Treatment of Secondary Effluents from Wastewater Treatment Plants. Dr. T.A. Huibers,R. McNabney, and A. Half on, Robert A. Taft Water Research Center, for the U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Report TWRC-4, April 9, 1969. Partial Oxidation of Solid Organic Wastes, W. W. Shuster, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Bureau of Solid Waste Manage- ment, Grant EC-00263, Pub. 52133, Report SW-7 rg, 1970. -85- ------- PESTICIDE COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL SYSTEMS REPORTS Ground Disposal of Pesticides: The Problem and Criteria for Guidelines, Working Group on Pesticides, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-197-144, Report WGP-DR-1, March 1970. Summary of Interim Guidelines for Disposal of Surplus or Waste Pesticides and Pesticides Containers, Working Group on Pesticides, Report WGP-DS-1, December 1970. The Handling and Disposal of "Empty" Agricultural Pesticide Containers in California, J. Cornelius, P. E. (of California State Department of Public Health), presented to California's County Agricultural Commissioners, Sacramento, California, December 9, 1969. -86- ------- SLUDGE DISPOSAL ARTICLES "Land Disposal of Industrial Wastes, " R. H. Scott (of the State of Wisconsin), pp. 261-277. "Land Disposal of Sewage and Industrial Wastes, " R. Stone (of the Los Angeles Sanitary Engineers), Sewage and Industrial Wastes, Vol. 25, No. 4, April 1953, pp. 408-418. "Underground Disposal of Process Waste Water, " L.K. Cecil (of Infilco, Inc. ), Industrial and Engineering, April 1950, pp. 594- 599. REPORTS Composting Dewatered Sewage Sludge, G.L. Shell and J.L. Boyd, EMCO Corp., for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Pub. 1936, Report SW-12c, 1967. -87- ------- SOLID WASTE - GENERAL ARTICLES "industrial Solid Waste Production and Disposal in California, " J. Cornelius, California Vector Views, Vol. 16, No. 5, May 1969, PP. 35-56. "Let DARE Make Your Solid-Waste Decisions, " A. K. Klee (of the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Bureau of Solid Waste Management), The American City, February 1970. "Reclaiming Municipal Garbage,11 Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 5, No. 10, October 1971, pp. 998-1002. Reuse of Solid Wastes: A Major Solution to a Major National Problem, " R. O. Vaughan (of the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Bureau of Solid Waste Management, Director), Waste Age, April, 1970, pp. 10, 14-15. "Solid Waste Transfer and Disposal for Rural Areas, " D. R. Andres (of the California Bureau of Vector Control and Solid Waste Manage- ment), and F. W. Cope (of the Humboldt County Department of Public Works), California Vector News, Vol. 17, No. 7, July 1970, pp. 67-78. "The Solid Waste Field Has Special Problems," P. A. Witt (of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers), Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol. 67, No. 9, September 1971. REPORTS A Systems Study of Solid Waste Management in the Fresno Area - Final Report on A Solid Waste Management Demonstration, Aerojet-General Corp. and Engineering-Science, Inc., for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Bureau of Solid Waste Management, Pub. 1959, Report SW-5d, 1969. -88- ------- An Accounting System for Sanitary Landfill Operations, E. R. Zausner, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service, Bureau of Solid Waste Management, Pub. 2007, Report SW-15ts, 1969. An Accounting System for Solid Waste Collection, E. R. Zausner, U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Bureau of Solid Waste Management, Pub. 2033, Report SW-27ts, 1970. An Interim Report - 1968 National Survey of Community Solid Waste Practices, R. J. Black, A. J. Muhich, A. J. KLee, H. L. Hickman, jr., and R. D. Vaughn, U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Bureau of Solid Waste Management, 1968. A Review of Industrial Solid Wastes, R. L. Cummins, U. S. Depart- ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, Bureau of Solid Waste Management, 1970. A Study of Solid Waste Collection Systems Comparing One-Man With Multi-Man Crews, Ralph Stone and Company, Inc., for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Pub. 1892, Report SW-9c, 1969. Background Papers on Coastal Wastes Management, Volume I, National Academy of Engineering and National Academy of Sciences, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-198-032, 1969. California Solid Waste Planning Study, California Department of Public Health, 1969. Closing Open Dumps, D. R. Brunner, S. J. Hubbard, D. J. Keller, and J. L. Newton, Environmental Protection Agency, Report SW-61ts, 1971. Comprehensive Study of Solid Waste Disposal in Cascade County, Montana, Thomas, Dean & Hoskins, Inc., for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Bureau of Solid Waste Management (Grant l-DOI-UI-00095-01), Pub. 2002, Report SW-6d, 1970. Comprehensive Studies of Solid-Waste Management, First and Second Annual Reports, C. G. Golueke and P. H. McGauhey, University of California, for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service (Grant EC-0026 ), Pub. 2039, Report SW-3rg, 1970. -89- ------- Concept and Design of the Joint U. S. Public Health Service. Tennessee Valley Authority Composting Project, Johnson City, Tennessee. J. S. Wiley (Tennessee Office of Solid Wastes), and F. E. Gartrell and H. G. Smith (of the Tennessee Valley Authority), for the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Environr mental Control Administration, 1968. Developing a State Solid Waste Management Plan. R. O. Toftner, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Bureau of Solid Waste Management, Pub. 2031, Report SW-42ts, 1970. Grants for Solid Waste Disposal Projects, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Federal Register, Vol. 31, No. 61, Part III, Wednesday, March 30, 1966. Industrial Wastes, W. Rudolphs, Library of Engineering Classics. Intergovernmental Approaches to Solid Waste Management, R. O. Toftner andR. M. Clark, Environmental Protection Agency, Solid Waste Manage- ment Office, Report SW-47ts, 1971. Kenilworth Model Sanitary Landfill - Interim Report On A Solid Waste Demonstration Project (December 1967 - January 1969), District of Columbia, Department of Sanitary Engineering, for the U.S. Depart- ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, Bureau of Solid Waste Management (Grant l-DOI-UI-00143), 1969. Master Plan for Solid Waste Collection and Disposal - Tri-Parish Metropolitan Area of New Orleans, Albert Switzer & Associates, Inc. and Greenleaf/Telesca, for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Bureau of Solid Waste Management (Grant DO1-UI-00063), Pub. 1932, Report SW-4d, 1969. Municipal Waste Facilities in the United States - Statistical Summary - 1963 Inventory, K. H. Jenkins and J. L. Lewis, U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Quality Administration, Data and Information Services Section, Pub. CWT-6. National Industrial Solid Waste Management Study, Industrial Chemical Society, for the Environmental Protection Agency, Research Corp. of New England, January 1971. New Water Quality Report, Environmental Protection Agency, Announcement 15, February 8, 1971. -90- ------- New Water Quality Report, Environmental Protection Agency, Announcement 16, February 15, 1971. New Water Quality Report, Environmental Protection Agency, Announcement 17, March 8, 1971. New Water Quality Report, Environmental Protection Agency, Announcement 19, April 9, 1971. New Water Quality Report, Environmental Protection Agency, Announcement 21, May 28, 1971. Observations of Continental European Solid Waste Management Practices, M. E. Jensen, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Bureau of Solid Waste Management, 1969. Policies for Solid Waste Management, Ad Hoc Committee on Solid Waste Management of the Division of Engineering Committees on Pollution Abatement and Control, for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Report SW-llc, 1970. Pollution Control and Management, Charles River Associates, Inc., National Technical Information Service, October 1969. Process Design Manual for Suspended Solids Removal, Burns and Roe, Inc., Project 17030GNO, for the Environmental Protection Agency, October 1971. Proposals for a Refuse Disposal System in Oakland County, Michigan, Final Report on A Solid Waste Demonstration Grant Project, Jones & Henry Engineers Limited, for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Bureau of Solid Waste Management (Grant DOI-UI-00068), Pub. 1960, Report SW-7d, 1970. Recovery and Utilization of Municipal Solid Waste, N. L. Drobny, H. E. Hull and R. F. Testin, Battelle Memorial Institute, for the Environmental Protection Agency, Solid Waste Management Office, Report SW-lOc, 1971. Refuse Collection and Disposal, An Annotated Bibliography, 1960- 1961, R. J. Black and P. L. Davis, Bureau of Disease Prevention and Environmental Control, Cincinnati, for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Pub. 91, Supplement E. -91- ------- Sanitary Landfill Facts. T. J. Sorg and H. L. Hickman, Jr., U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Pub. 1792, Report SW-4ts, Second Edition, 1970. Selected Problems of Hazardous Waste Management in California, F. R. Dansby et al. ..(of the Governor's Task Force on Solid Waste Management, California), National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-192-026, January 1970. Solid Waste/Disease Relationships - A Literature Survey, Dr. T. G. Hanks, Aerojet-General Corp. for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Report SW-lc, 999-UIH-6, 1967. Solid Waste Practices in the United States Air Force, Maj. T. Rothman, P. E., and Lt. J. J. Beres, U.S. Air Force, Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Report AFWL-TR-71-119, October 1971. Solid Waste Processing - A State-of-the-Art Report on Unit Operations and Processes, R. B. Engdahl, Battelle Memorial Institute, for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Pub. 1856, Report SW-40, 1969. Solid Waste Study for Metropolitan Atlanta, Atlanta Region Metro- politan Planning Commission, Project GA P-144, June 1970. Solid Waste Management: A List of Available Literature, U. S. Depart- ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, December 1969. Solid Waste Management: A List of Available Literature, U.S. Depart- ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, June 1970. Solid Waste Management: A List of Available Literature, T. B. Bayless, E. H. Cox, M. S. Hackettt and B. A. Johnson, U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Report SW-58.8, September 1970. Solid Waste Management: A List of Available Literature, Environmental Protection Agency, Report SW-58. 9, January 1971. Solid Waste Management: A List of Available Literature, Environmental Protection Agency, Report SW-58. 10, April 1971. -92- ------- Solid Waste Management: A List of Available Literature, Environ- mental Protection Agency, Report SW-58. 11, July 1971. Solid Waste Management: Abstracts and Excerpts from the Litera- ture, Volumes 1 and 2, C. G. Golueke and Staff of the College of Engineering, University of California, for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service (Grant EC-00260), Pub. 2038, Report SW-2rg, 1970. Solid Waste Management and the Packaging Industry, R. D. Vaughan, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Bureau of Solid Waste Management, Director, 1969. Solid Waste Management Plan - Oregon Status Report 1969, Oregon State Board of Health, for the Environmental Protection Agency, Public Health Service, Pub. 2115, 1971. Solid Wastes: A List of Available Literature, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, October- December 1968, with January-April 1969 Supplement. Solid Wastes Demonstration Grant Abstracts. C. E. Sponagle, Cincinn. a Sanitary Engineer, Director, for the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Environmental Control Admin- istration, 1968. Solid Wastes Demonstration Grant Abstracts - Grants Awarded January 1-June 30, 1969, C. E. Sponagle (Sanitary Engineer Director) for the U. S. Department of Plealth, Education, and Welfare, Bureau of Solid Waste Management, 1969. Study of the Health Effects of Air Pollution Related to Solid Wastes, B. Linsky, Final Report, 1969. Sub-Council Reports - February 1971, National Industrial Pollution Control Council Acid Mine Drainage Air Pollution by Sulfur Oxides Animal Slaughtering and Processing Animal Wastes The Chemical Industry and Pollution Control Council Report Deep Ocean Dumping of Bailed Refuse Detergents -93- ------- The Engineer's Responsibility in Environmental Pollution Control Fertilizers and Agricultural Chemicals Mathematical Models for Air Pollution Control Policy Decision- Making Mercury Pape r Plastics in Solid Waste Pollution Problems in Selected Food Industries Regionally Consolidated Industrial Wastewater Treatment Rubber The Use and Disposal of Electrical Insulating Liquids Waste Disposal in Deep Wells Wastewater Reclamation Wood Products Summaries - Solid Wastes Demonstration Grant Projects, 1968, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Solid Waste Program, Pub. 1821, 1968. Summaries - Solid Wastes Demonstration Grant Projects, 1969, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Bureau of Solid Waste Management, Pub. 1821, 1969. Summaries of Solid Wastes Program Contracts - June 1, 1965 to June 30, 1968, C. A. demons and R. J. Black, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Bureau of Solid Waste Management, Pub. 1897, 1969. Summaries of Solid Wastes Research and Training Grants - 1968, L. W. Lefke, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Solid Wastes Program, Pub. 1596, 1968. Systems Analysis of Regional Solid Waste Handling, N. Morse and E. W. Roth, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Bureau of Solid Waste Management, 1970. Technical-Economic Study of Solid Waste Disposal Needs and Practices, Volumes I. II, and IV, Combustion Engineering, Inc., for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information, Pub. 1886, Pub. PB-187-712, Report SW-7c, 1969. -94- ------- The Federal Solid Waste Demonstration Program, D. M. Keagy (of Region IX Solid Wastes Program, Chief), for the II. S. Depart- ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, 1968. The National Solid Wastes Survey - An Interim Report, R. J. Black, A. J. Muhich, A. J. Klee, H. L. Hickman, Jr., and R. D. Vaughan, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Bureau of Solid Waste Management, Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Tech- nical Information, Pub. PB-187-296, 1968. The Role of Packaging in Solid Waste Management - 1966 to 1976, A Darney and W. E. Franklin (of the Midwest Research Institute), for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Pub. 1855, 1969. Wastes Management Concepts for the Coastal Zone, Requirements for Research and Investigation, National Academy of Sciences and National Academy of Engineering, Pub. ISBN 0-309-01855-2, 1970. BOOKS Solid Wastes (An Environmental Science and Technology Reprint Book), American Chemical Society, 1970. -95- ------- TOXICITY ARTICLES "A Factory Inspector's Views on Chemical Plant Design for Personal Safety Against Toxic Hazards,11 S. G. Luxon, Chemistry and Industry, May 20, 1967, pp. 816-818. "A Polychlorinated Biphenyl (Aroclor 1254^y)In the Water, Sediment, and Biota of Escambia Bay, Florida/' T. W. Duke, J. I. Lowe, and A. J. Wilson, Jr. (of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Gulf Breeze, Florida), Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, Vol. 5, No. 2, 1970. "A Quantitative Method for Assessing the Toxic Effects of Some Water Soluble Substances, Based on Changes in Periphyton Com- munity Structure," M. Dickman (of the University of Ottawa), Water Research, Vol. 3, 1969, pp. 963-972. "A Suggested Measure of Toxicity Due to Metals in Industrial Effluents, Sewage and River Water, " R. Lamb (of the Simon- Carves Ltd., of England), Air and Water Pollution, Vol. 8, 1964, pp. 243-249. "Acute Toxicity of Some Important Petrochemicals to Fish, " A. H. Pickering and C. Henderson (of the Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center), Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, Vol. 38, No. 9, September 1966, pp. 1419-1429. "Antimony and Its Compounds, " National Safety Council, Stock 123-04-408, Data Sheet 408. "Availability of Sediment-Sorbid Materials to Marine Biota, " T. W. Duke, E. R. Ibert, and K. M. Rae (of the Texas A&M University), Proceedings of the First National Symposium on Radioecology, 1961, pp. 171-174. "Rioassays Determine Pesticide Toxicity to Aquatic Invertebrates," A. R. Gaufin, L. Jensen, and T. Nelson (of the University of Utah), Water and Sewage Works, 1962, pp. R-227-R-231. -96- ------- "Chemical Interactions of Wastewater in a Soil Environment, " B. F. Hajek (of Battelle Memorial Institute), Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, Vol. 41, No. 10, October 1969, pp. 1775-1786. "Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in Livers of Fishes From the Northeastern Pacific Ocean, " T. W. Duke and A. J. Wilson, Jr. (of the Gulf Breeze Laboratory), Pesticides Monitoring Journal, Vol. 5, No. 2, September 1971, pp. 228-232. "Chronic Exposure of Blue Crabs, Callinectes Sapidus, To Sub- lethal Concentrations of DDT. 11 J. I. Lowe (of the U. S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory), Ecology, Vol. 46, No. 6, Autumn 1965, pp. 899-900. "Chronic Exposure of Oysters to DDT, Toxaphene and Parathion, " J. I. Lowe, P. D. Wilson, A. J. Rick and A. J. Wilson, Jr. (of the Gulf. Breeze Laboratory), Proceedings of the National Shellfisheries Association, Vol. 61, June 1961, pp. 71-79. "Chronic Toxicity, Uptake, and Retention of Aroclor© 1254 In Two Estuarine Fishes, " D. J. Hansen, P. R. Parrish, J. I. Lowe, A. J. Wilson, Jr. and P. D. Wilson (of the Gulf Breeze Laboratory), Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, Vol. 6, No. 2, 1971, pp. 113-119. "Controlling Health Hazards in Pilot Plant Operations, "A. R. Jones and D. J. Hopkins (of Esso Research and Engineering), Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol 67, No. 12, December 1966, pp. 59-67. "Development of Water Quality Criteria for Aquatic Life, " C. M. Tarzwell (of the Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center), Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, Vol. 34, No. 11, November 1962, pp. 1178-1185. "Effect of Suspended Solids, Organic Matter and Toxic Materials On Aquatic Life in Rivers, " Dr. R. Patrick (of the Academy of Natural Sciences), Water and Sewage Works, February 1968, pp. 89-92. "Effects of Copper-Zinc Mining Pollution On a Spawning Migration of Atlantic Salmon, " R. L. Saunders and J. B. Sprague (of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada), Water Research, Vol. 1, 1967, pp. 419-432. -97- ------- "Effects of Pollutants on Marine Organisms: Improving Methodology of Evaluation - A Review of the Literature, " M. Waldichuk (of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada), Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, Vol. 41, No. 9, September 1969, pp. 1586-1601. "Estuarine Pesticide Research - Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, " T. W. Duke (of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Gulf Breeze, Florida), Proceedings of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, Twenty-Second Annual Session, November 1969, pp. 146-153. "Field Toxicity Studies and Juvenile Salmon Distribution in Port Angeles Harbor, Washington, " C. D. Ziebell, R. E. Pine, A. D. Mills, and R. K. Cunningham (of the Washington Water Pollution Control Commission), Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, Vol. 42, No. 2, Part 1, February 1970, pp. 229-236. "Fluid-Carbon Columns for Sorption of Persistent Organic Pollutants," W. J. Weber, Jr. (of the University of Michigan), Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, Vol. 38, No. 3, March 1966, pp. 331-332. "How Much Pollution Can Fish Tolerate?" W. L. Nelson (a Technical Editor and Petroleum Consultant), The Oil and Gas Journal, November 30, 1959, p. 72 "influence of Chronic Exposure to Anionic Detergents on Toxicity of Pesticides to Goldfish, " P. R. Dugan (of the Ohio State University), Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, January 1967, pp. 63-71. "List of Toxic Substances, " The Bureau of National Affairs, Inc. , Occupational Safety and Health Reporter, Reference File, 1971. "Localization of DDT In the Body Organs of Pink and White Shrimp, " D. R. Nimmo, A. J. Wilson, Jr., and R. K. Blackman (of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Center for Estuarine and Menhaden Research), Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, Vol. 5, No. 4, 1970, pp. 333-341. "Measurements of Organic Contaminants in the Nation's Rivers, " F. M. Middleton and J. J. Lichtenberg (of the Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center), Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 52, No. 6, June 1960, pp. 99A-102A. "New Techniques for The Evaluation of Organic Pollutants, " D. W. Ryckman, N. C. Burbank, Jr., and E. Edgerley, Jr. (of the Washington University), American Water Works Association Journal, August 1964, pp. 975-983. -98- ------- "Organochlorine Pesticides in Fur Seals, " R. E. Anas (of the Marine Mammal Biological Laboratory - Seattle), and A. J. Wilson, Jr. (of the Biological Field Station, Gulf Breeze, Florida), Pesticides Monitoring Journal, Vol. 3, No. 4, March 1970, pp. 198-200. "Persistence Of Four Herbicides in Pond Water, " A. R. Grzenda, H. P. Nicholson and W. S. Cox (of the U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Southeast Water Laboratory), American Water Works Association Journal, March 1966, pp. 326-332. "Poisoning with DDT: Effect on Reproductive Performance of Artemia, " D. S. Grosch (of the North Carolina State University), Science, Vol. 155, February 3, 1967, pp. 592-593. "Polychlorinated Biphenyl Absorbed From Sediments by Fiber Crabs and Pink Shrimp, " D. R. Nimmo, P. D. Wilson, R. R. Blackman, and A. J. Wilson, Jr. (of the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency), NATURE, Vol. 231, No. 5297, May 7, 1971, pp. 50-52. "Possible Toxic Effects of Photographic Laboratory Wastes Dis- charged to Surface Water, " R. G. Zehnpfenning (of the Montgomery Research, Inc.) Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 115, No. 3, March 1968, pp. 136-138. "Proposed Toxicity Screening Procedure for Use in Protecting Drinking-Water Quality, " M. B. Ettinger (of the Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center), American Water Works Association Journal, Vol. 52, No. 6, June 1960, pp. 689-694. "Relative Resistance of Fish Species to Petroleum Refinery Wastes," N. H. Douglas and W, H. Irwin (of the Oklahoma State University), Water and Sewage Works, October 31, 1963, pp. R-246-R-261. "Significance of Chemical Limits in USPHS Drinking-Water Standards," G. B. Welsh (of the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service), and J. F. Thomas (of the University of Cali- fornia, Berkeley), American Water Works Association Journal, Vol. 52, No. 3, March 1960, pp. 289-300. "Significance of DDT Residues From the Estuary Near Pensacola, Florida, " D. J. Hansen and A. J. Wilson, Jr. (of the Bureau of Com- mercial Fisheries Center for Estuarine and Menhaden Research), Pesticides Monitoring Journal, Vol. 4, No. 2, September 1970, pp. 51-56. "Significance of Pesticides in Water Supplies, " R. L. Woodward, American Water Works Association Journal, November 1960, pp. 1367-1372. ------- "Significant Physiological Characteristics of Organic Pollutants, " O. J. Sproul (of the University of Maine), and D. W. Ryckman (of Washington University), Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, Vol. 35, No. 9, September 1963, pp. 1136-1145. "Some Effects of Detergents in the Marine Environment, " Dr. E. J. Perkins (of the University of Strathclyde, England), Chemistry and Industry, January 3, 1970, pp. 14-22. "Studies On the Toxicity and Decomposition of Fluosilicic Acid, " R. S. Ingols (of the Georgia Institute of Technology), American Water Works Association Journal, July 1960, pp. 927-929. "The Acute Toxicity of Some Heavy Metals to Different Species of Warm Water Fishes, " A. H. Pickering (of the Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center), and C. Henderson (of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service), Air and Water Pollution, Vol. 10, No. 6-7, June-July 1966, pp. 453-463. "The Effect of Temperature on the Acute Toxicity of Phenol to Rainbow Trout in Hard Water,11 V. M. Brown and D. H. M. Jordan (of the Water Pollution Research Laboratory, England), and B. A. Tiller (of the University of Bath, England), Water Research, Vol. 1, No. 8-9, August-September 1967, pp. 587-594. "The 'Red' Herrings of Placentia Bay, " Fishing News International, November 1970, pp. 28-33. "Threshold Limit Values, " American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 1966. "Toxic Effects of Odorous Trace Organics, " J. W. Smith and S. G. Grigoropoulos (of the University of Missouri, Rolla), American Water Works Association Journal, August 1968, pp. 969-979. "Toxic Inorganic Materials and Their Emergency Detection By the Polarographic Method," H. G. Offner and E. F. Witucki, American Water Works Association Journal, August 1968, pp. 947-952. "Toxicity Changes of Stored Oil Refinery Effluents, " W. R. Gould and T. C. Dorris (of Oklahoma State University), Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, Vol. 33, No. 10, October 1961, pp. 1107-1111. -100- ------- "Toxicity Evaluation of a Technique for Introducing Diedrin Into Water" G. C. Chadwick and U. Kilgemagi, Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, January 1968, pp. 76-82. "Toxicity Measurements In Activated Sludge,1I L. Hartman and G. Laubenberger (of the Laboratory of Bioengineering, Technical University, West Germany), Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division - Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, April 1968, Paper 5894, pp. 247-256. "Toxicity of Elemental Phosphorous,1t B. G. Isom (of the Tennessee Department of Public Health), Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, Vol. 33, No. 12, December 1960, pp. 1312-1316. "Toxicity of Nitrogen Dioxide,11 Stanford Research Institute Journal, No. 11, September 1966. "Toxicity of Petrochemicals in the Aquatic Environment, " J. F. Malina, Jr. (of the University of Texas), Water and Sewage Works, October 1964, pp. 456-460. "Toxicologic Evaluation of Gibberellic Acid, " H. M. Peck, S. E. McKinney, A. Tytell, and B. B. Byham (of Merck, Sharpe & Dohme Research Laboratory), Science, Vol. 126, November 22, 1957, pp. 1064-1065. " "Toxins in Plant Disease: Structure and Mode of Action, " L. D. Owens (of the U.S. Soils Laboratory), Science, Vol. 165, July 4, 1969, pp. 18-25. "Uptake and Effects of Dichlobenil In a Small Pond, " G. E. Walsh, C. W. Miller, and P. T. Heitmuller (of the Gulf Breeze Laboratory), Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, Vol. 6, No. 3, 1971, pp. 279-288. REPORTS Control of Domestic Rats and Mice - Training Guide, Rodent Control Series, B. F. Bjornson, H. D. Pratt, and K. S. Littig, U. S. Depart- ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Consumer Protection and Environmental Health Service, Pub. 563, 1970. -101- ------- Diborane Handbook, M. T. Constantine, K. T. Youel and J. Q. Weber (of the Rocketdyne Research Division), for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, National Technical Information Service, Pub. N70-78384. Estimating Population Exposure to Selected Metals - Manganese, W. K. Poole and O. R. Johnston, of Research Triangle Institute, Project AU-229, for the National Institute of Health, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-195-834, October 1969. Estimating Population Exposure to Selected Metals - Titanium, W. K. Poole and D. R. Johnston, of Research Triangle Institute, Project AU-229, for the National Institute of Health, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-195-819, March 1969. 1969 Fish Kills Caused by Pollution, U. S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Quality Administration, Report 0-410-884, Report CWA-7, 1970. Hexavelent Chromium: Toxicological Effects and Means for Removal From Aqueous Solution, C. M. Sheperd and R. L. Jones, U.S. Navy Naval Research Laboratory, National Technical Information Service, Pub. AD-717-348, January 4, 1971. Progress Report of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Center for Estuarine and Menhaden Research, Pesticide Field Station Gulf Breeze, Florida, T. R. Rice (Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Center for Estuarine and Menhaden Research, Director), and C. W. Duke (Pesticide Field Station, Station Chief), U. S. Department of Interior Circular 335, August 1970. Statement by Mr. Charles L. Poor Before the Subcommittee on International Organizations and Movements - Foreign Affairs Committee, C. L. Poor (Acting Assistant Secretary of the Army, Research and Development), Ninety-First Congress, First Session. Stream Pollution in the "New Lead Belt" of Southeast Missouri, B. G. Wixson and H. W. Chen, University of Missouri, Rolla, Project A-021-MO, for the U.S. Department of Interior, Office of Water Resources Research, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-195-285, August 1970. -102- ------- Toxic Hazards Research Unit Annual Technical Report: 1967, E. J. Fairchlld, II, Aerojet-General Corp. , for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration/U. S. Air Force, National Technical Information Center, Pub. AD-834-723, December 1967. Toxic Hazards Research Unit Annual Technical Report: 1970, J. D. MacEwen and E. H. Vernot, SysteMed Corp., for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration/U. S. Air Force, National Technical Information Service, Pub. AD-714-694, August 1970. Toxic Substances, Council On Environmental Quality, April 1971. BOOKS Clinical Toxicology of Commercial Products, M. N. Gleason Dr. R. E. Gosselin, Dr. H. C. Hodge, Dr. R. P. Smith, The Williams and Wilkins Co., Third Edition, 1969. Clinical Toxicology of Commercial Products Acute Posioning, M. N. Gleason and Dr. H. C. Hodge (of the University of Rochester) and Dr. R. E. Gosselin and Dr. R. P. Smith (of Dartmouth Medical School), The Williams and Wilkins Co., 1969. Handbook of Emergency Toxicology - A Guide for the Identification Diagnosis, and Treatment of Poisoning, Dr. S. Kaye and Charles C. Thomas, Third Edition, 1970. Handbook of Toxicology - Volume I: Acute Toxicities of Solids, Liquids and Gases to Laboratory Animals, ed. by W. S. Spector, W. B. Saunders Company, 1956. Handbook of Toxicology - Volume III: Insecticides, A. Compendium, W. O. Negherbon, W. B. Saunders Company, 1956. Handbook of Toxicology - Volume IV: Tranquilizers, M. Gordon, R. F. J. McCandless, S. W. Lipsman, R. M. Grebe, W. B. Saunders Company, 1959. Toxicity of Industrial Metals, Dr. E. Browning (Advisor on Toxicology to the Courtauld Organization), Butterworth and Co. Ltd., Second Edition, 1969. -103- ------- Toxicology of Drugs and Chemicals, Dr. W. B. Deichmann, Dr. H. W. Gerarde, Academic Press, 1969. Veterinary Toxicology, R. D. Radeleff and D. V. M. (of the Toxicological Investigations Laboratory), Lea & Febiger, 1964. -104- ------- UTILITIES ARTICLES "Electric Power From Nuclear Fission, " M. Benedict, Technology Review, October /November 1971. "Energy, The Economy And The Environment," B.C. White, Technology Review, October/November 1971. "Geothermal - Earth's Primordial Energy, " R.G. Bowan, E.A. Groh, Technology Review, October/November 1971. "Human Energy Production As A Process In The Biosphere, " S.F. Singer, Scientific American, September 1970. "Must Fossil Fuels Pollute?, " H. Perry, H. Berkson, Technology Review, December 1971. REPORTS Design of an Overview System for Evaluating the Public Health Hazards of Chemicals in the Environment, Volume II: The Overview System, G.A. Lutz, S.B. Gross, J.B. Boatman, P.J. Moore, R.L. Darby, W. H. Veazie, andF.A. Butrico, Battelle Memorial Institute, for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, National Technical Information Service, July 18, 1967. Industrial Waste Studies: Steam Generating Plants, E. Aynsley and M. R. Jackson, Freeman Laboratories, Inc., Project 70-1005, for the Environmental Protection Agency, May 1971. New Techniques for Energy Conversion, S. N. Levine, Dover Publications. BOOKS Resources In America's Future, Landsbury, Fischman, and Fisher, The Johns Hopkins Press. -105- ------- 3. SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCE MATERIAL Several books selected for this study contained information relevant to many subjects within the previous two categories. For this reason, they are considered to supplement previous information and are therefore included in this category. An example would be the Census of Manufactures books which tabulate information concerning all industries by SIC code. Books such as these are found in this supplementary category. All books are listed alphabetically by title. -106- ------- SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCE MATERIAL MAGAZINES Chemical Engineering (Pollution Issue), McGraw-Hill, Inc., September 9, 1968. Nation's Cities (Pollution Issue), National League of Cities, September 1969. Technology Review - Energy Technology to the Year 2000, edited at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Northern Research and Engineering Corp., October/November 1971. BOOKS 1963 Census of Manufactures: Location of Manufacturing Plants By Industry, County and Employment Size, Part 6: Stone, Clay, and Glass Products; Miscellaneous Manufacturers; Ordnance and Accessories, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Report MC 63(s)-3.6, June 1966. 1963 Census of Manufactures: Location of Manufacturing Plants by Industry, County, and Employment Size, Part 7: West South Central Division, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Report MC 63(s)-4.7, August 1966. 1967 Census of Manufactures - Volume I: Summary and Subject Statistics, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, January 1971. 1967 Census of Manufactures - Volume II: Industry Statistics. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, January 1971, 1967 Census of Manufactures - Volume III: Area Statistics, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, January 1971, 1967 Census of Manufactures - Water Use in Manufacturing, U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Pub. MC67(l)-7, April 1971. -107- ------- Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University - Proceedings of the Twenty-First Industrial Waste Conference, May 3-5, 1966, Part Two, sponsored by Purdue University and Indiana State Board of Health, Pub. 121, Vol. L, No. 2, March 1966. Environmental Quality - The Second Annual Report of the Council On Environmental Quality, August 1971, Executive Office of the President, Council On Environmental Quality, August 1971. Environmental Reporter, Volume: Federal Laws, The Bureau of National Affairs, Inc., 1970. Environmental Reporter, Volumes I and 2: State Air Laws, The Bureau of National Affairs, Inc., 1970. Environmental Reporter, Volumes 1 and 2: State Water Laws, The Bureau of National Affairs, Inc. , 1970. Environmental Reporter, Volume: State Solid Waste-Land Use, The Bureau of National Affairs, Inc. , 1970. Environmental Reporter, Volume: Monographs, The Bureau of National Affairs, Inc. , 1970. Environmental Reporter, Volume: Decisions, The Bureau of National Affairs, Inc. , 1970. Federal Water Resources Research Program for Fiscal Year 1970, Executive Office of the President, Office of Science and Technology, Federal Council for Science and Technology, December 1969. Geographical Location Codes, General Services Administration, Office of Finance, Federal Supply Service, October 1966. Index of 1962-1964 Research Grant Publications and Reports. Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Research and Training Grant Program. Projects of the Industrial Pollution Control Branch, W.J. Lacy, U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Division Chief of Applied Science and Technology, National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-189-766, January 1970. -108- ------- Projects of the Industrial Pollution Control Branch, A. Cywin, U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Quality Administration, Division Director of Applied Science and Technology, Pub. 1200--07/70, July 1970. Resources for the Future Annual Report for the Year Ending September 30, 1964, Resources for the Future, Inc., December _____ Resources for the Future Annual Report for the Year Ending September 30, 1965, Resources for the Future, Inc. , December ___ Resources In America's Future - Patterns of Requirements and Availabilities, 1960-2000, H.H. Landsberg, L.L. Fischman, and J.L. Fisher (of Resources for the Future, Inc. ), The Johns Hopkins Press, 1963. Standard Industrial Classification Manual, Executive Office of the President, Bureau of the Budget, Office of Statistical Standards, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967. Summaries of USAEC Environmental Research and Development, Atomic Energy Commission, Division of Biology and Medicine, Division of Technical Information Extension, September 1970. 1970 Technical Highlights of the National Bureau of Standards (Annual Report, Fiscal Year 1970), U.S. Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, Pub. 340, February 1971. -109- ------- -------

          W f°' T ! C E
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              FINAL REPORT

    A STUDY OF HAZARDOUS WASTE
MATERIALS,  HAZARDOUS EFFECTS AND
           DISPOSA L MET HODS

                 VOLUME I
                    For

     Environmental Protection Agency
          Cincinnati Laboratories
            5555 Ridge Avenue
          Cincinnati, Ohio 45213
         Contract No.  68-03-0032

    BAARINC Report No. 9075-003-001


                      June 30, 1972
                  BOOZ-ALL5N APPLIED RESEARCH INC.


                                       WASHINGTON

                                          CHICAGO

                                      LOS ANGELES

-------
IOKA
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                                      M O T f C F?
                            This dccurrc-n'r Jo 3 ;)":::T,.;i-:iy draft  !! has not
                            ba;-r [orn-iiiiv ri-;:v;,-j ' / --', snd sinnc! no! at
                            this cU^c ii'j i-nc r^n :o T^sen; g2ncy policy.
                            It is De.ns circ^r.v.l for c-.Tdi^nt on its technical
                            accuracy and policy implications.
            TABLE    OF    CONTENTS
                            VOLUME I
                                                            Page
                                                           Number
      FOREWORD
 I.   SUMMARY

      1.    Purpose and Scope of the Study
      2.    Approach to the Study
      3.    Principal Findings of the Study
      4.    Conclusions and Recommendations
 1-1

 1-1
 1-3
 1-8
 1-27
 II.   IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS
      MATERIALS

      1.    Introduction and Definitions
      2.    Approach to Hazardous Materials
            Identification
      3.    Occurrence of Hazardous Wastes
      4.    Analytical Problems
      5.    Preparation of List of Hazardous
            Materials
      6.    The List of Hazardous Compounds and
            Its Uses

III.   QUANTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTES

      1.    Introduction
      2.    Production Quantities of Hazardous
            Materials
 II-1
 II-1
 II-5

 11-19
 11-22
 II-24

 11-27
III-l

III-l
III-4
                               -111-

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                                                        Page
                                                      Number
      3.    Total Waste Load Estimates                   III-5
      4.    Estimates of Commonly Known                 III-17
           Mixed Waste Streams,  With Break-
           downs of Specific Hazardous Materials
      5.    Hazardous Materials Expected in               III-30
           Non-Identifiable  Waste  Streams of
           Industrial Manufacturers and Users
      6.    Hazardous Material Waste Quantities           III-39
           Reported by the Department of Defense
           and Atomic Energy Commission
      7.    Mining Industry Wastes                       111-39
      8.    Data Record Descriptions                     111-49
IV.    SURVEY OF HAZARDOUS EFFECTS AND            IV-1
      RATING OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS

      1.    Introduction                                  IV-1
      2.    Analytical Problems in Hazardous Effects      IV-2
      3.    Development of the Rating System              IV-4
      4.    Method of Rating and Results                  IV-10
 V.   SURVEY AND INVENTORY OF TREATMENT          V-1
      AND DISPOSAL METHODS

      1.    Introduction                                   V-l
      2.    Current Treatment and Disposal Practices       V-2
      3.    Waste Streams, Hazardous Wastes, and         V-16
           Disposal Methods
      4.    A Method for Estimating Waste Stream          V-51
           Treatment Requirements
      5.    Rating Current Treatment and Disposal          V-60
           Methods
      6.    Disposal of Small Lots of Hazardous             V-74
           Materials
                             -IV-

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                                                         Page
                                                       Number
 VI.   MAJOR FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS                VI-1

      1.    Definition of a Hazardous Material              VI-1
            and Hazardous Effects
      2.    Selection Rating of Hazardous Materials         VI-3
      3.    Quantification and Distribution                  VI-5
      4.    Waste Treatment Processes                    VI-6
      5.    National Disposal System                       VI-8
VII.   RECOMMENDATIONS                              VII-1

      1.    Hazardous Waste Control System              VII-1
      2.    In-Depth Hazardous Materials Study            VII-2
      3.    Waste Stream Hazard Analysis                VII-2
      4.    Hazardous Effects Research                   VII-3
      BIBLIOGRAPHY
                               -v-

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                         VOLUME II

          APPENDIX A  INDUSTRIAL DESCRIPTIONS


APPENDIX A-l   SIC 10—METAL MINING
                SIC 11—ANTHRACITE MINING
                SIC 12—BITUMINOUS COAL AND LIGNITE
                       MINING

APPENDIX A-2   SIC 20—FOOD AND KINDRED PRODUCTS

APPENDIX A-3   SIC 22—TEXTILE MILL PRODUCTS

APPENDIX A-4   SIC 26—PAPER AND ALLIED PRODUCTS

APPENDIX A-5   SIC 28—CHEMICALS AND ALLIED PRODUCTS
                     INDUSTRIAL ORGANIC CHEMICALS
                     INDUSTRIAL INORGANIC CHEMICALS
                SIC 282—PLASTIC MATERIALS AND SYNTHETIC
                        RESINS, SYNTHETIC RUBBER,
                        SYNTHETIC AND OTHER MANMADE
                        FIBERS,  EXCEPT GLASS
                SIC 283—DRUGS
                SIC 284—SOAP, DETERGENTS, AND
                        CLEANING PREPARATIONS,
                        PERFUMES, COSMETICS, AND
                        OTHER TOILET PREPARATIONS
                SIC 285—PAINTS,  VARNISHES, LACQUERS,
                        ENAMELS, AND ALLIED PRODUCTS
                SIC 287—AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS
                SIC 2892—EXPLOSIVES
                            -vi-

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                        VOLUME III
           APPENDIX A  INDUSTRIAL DESCRIPTIONS
APPENDIX A-6    SIC 29—PETROLEUM REFINING AND RELATED
                        INDUSTRIES

APPENDIX A-7    SIC 31—LEATHER AND LEATHER PRODUCTS
                 SIC 311—LEATHER TANNING AND FINISHING
APPENDIX A-8
APPENDIX A-9
SIC 32—STONE, CLAY, GLASS, AND
       CONCRETE PRODUCTS
SIC 329—ABRASIVE, ASBESTOS, AND
        MISCELLANEOUS NONMETTALLIC
        MINERAL PRODUCTS

SIC 33—PRIMARY METAL INDUSTRIES
SIC 331—BLAST FURNACES,  STEEL WORKS,
        AND ROLLING AND  FINISHING MILLS
SIC 333—PRIMARY SMELTING AND REFINING
        OF NONFERROUS METALS
APPENDIX A-10   SIC 34—FABRICATED METAL PRODUCTS,
                        EXCEPT ORDNANCE,  MACHINERY,
                        AND TRANSPORTATION EQUIPMENT
                 SIC 347—COATING, ENGRAVING, AND
                         ALLIED SERVICES

APPENDIX A-ll   SIC 80—MEDICAL AND OTHER HEALTH
                        SERVICES
                 SIC 806—HOSPITALS

APPENDIX A-12   RADIOACTIVE WASTE (ATOMIC ENERGY
                 COMMISSION)

APPENDIX A-13   WASTE MANAGEMENT (DEPARTMENT OF
                 DEFENSE)
                            -vu-

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                    VOLUME III (Continued)


APPENDIX A-14  POWER UTILITIES
APPENDIX B    CURRENT LISTINGS OF HAZARDOUS
                MATERIALS
APPENDIX C    HAZARDOUS MATERIAL RATINGS
                (COMPOUNDS FOUND HAZARDOUS BY
                RATING SYSTEM)
              APPENDIX D  SUPPORTING DATA
APPENDIX D-l    ACCIDENTS INVOLVING HAZARDOUS
                 SUBSTANCES

APPENDIX D-2    SIC CODE DISTRIBUTION OF TYPICAL
                 HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS
                            -viii-

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   INDEX   OF   TABLES    AND   FIGURES
                                                                Page
Tables                                                         Number

 1-1     Matrix of Factors for Rating the Level of                1-17
         Effects for the List of Hazardous Substances

 1-2     Sample Worksheet for Computing Substance              1-20
         Hazard Rating

 II-1     Major Sources of Pollution                             II-6

 II-2     Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Used for        II-9
         Information Categorization

 II-3     Trade Associations Contacted                          11-15

 II-4     Summary of Factors Included in Current Lists          11-26
         of Hazardous Materials Developed by Government
         Agencies and Industrial Associations

 II-5     Criteria for Reduction of Preliminary List of           11-27
         Hazardous  Substances

 II-6     List of Hazardous Materials                           11-29

III-l     Comparison of Solid Waste Estimates                   III-6

III-2     Computation of Waste Factors                          III-9

IE-3     Chemical Industry Waste Factors                       III-11

III-4     Waste Quantities Produced by Industry by               111-12
         Geographic Location—50 States

III-5     Waste Quantities  Produced by Industry by               III-14
         Geographic Location—50 Largest Standard
         Metropolitan Statistical Areas
                               -ix-

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                                                               Page
Tables - Continued                                            Number

III-6    Hazardous Materials Expected in Waste                III-19
        Streams of Producers and Users

III-7    Distribution,  Locations, and Volumes of               III-29
        Explosive Manufacturing Wastes

III-8    Hazardous Materials Expected in Waste Streams       III-32
        of Producers and Users

III-9    Hazardous Waste Material Quantities Reported         III-40
        by the Department  of Defense as Awaiting
        Disposal

III- 10(a) Radioactive Waste  Quantities Reported by              III-50
        Atomic Energy Commission, With Projections

III-10(b) Solid Waste from Power Reactors to Land              III-42
        Burial (Curies)

III-lO(c) Forecast of the Generation Rates and the Total         III-43
        Accumulations of Long-Life Fission Products and
        Actinides in High-Level Wastes from Fuel
        Reprocessing

III-10(d) Generation of Miscellaneous Solid Waste and           III-44
        Hulls and Hardware at Fuel Reprocessing Plants

III-11   Tonnage and Acreage  of Accumulated Mineral          III-46
        Wastes (1968)

111-12   Hazardous Material Production Quantity Codes         111-51

III-13   Codes for Hazardous Material Solubility in Water      III-52

111-14   Material Hazard Rating and Industrial Source          111-53

III-15   Industry Data                                         III-55

IV-1    Matrix of Factors  for Rating the Level of Effects       IV-7
        for the List of Hazardous Substances
                               -x-

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                                                              Page
Tables - Continued                                           Number

IV- 2     Matrix of Factors for Rating the Extent of              IV- 9
         Hazard for the List of Hazardous Substances

IV-3     Rules Used During Rating of Hazardous                IV-14
         Substances

IV-4     Definitions of Terms Used in Criteria                  IV-15

IV-5     Human Effects Rating Criteria:  Toxic  Effects          IV-16
         in Air

IV-6     Human Effects Rating Criteria:  Toxic  Effects          IV-17
         in Water

IV-7     Human Effects Rating Criteria:  Toxic  Effects          IV-18
         in Soil

IV-8     Human Hazards Rating Criteria:  Flame,.              IV-18
         Explosion, and Reaction in Air

IV-9     Human Hazards Rating Criteria:  Flame,               IV-19
         Explosion, and Reaction in Water

IV-10    Human Hazards Rating Criteria:  Flame,               IV-19
         Explosion, and Reaction in Soil

IV-11    Ecological Effects Rating Criteria:  Toxic              IV-20
         Effects in Air

IV-12    Ecological Effects Rating Criteria:  Toxic              IV-21
         Effects in Water

IV-13    Ecological Effects Rating Criteria:  Toxic              IV-22
         Effects in Soil

IV-14    Hazardous Substances Production (or Consum-          IV-22
         ption) Rating Criteria

IV-15    Hazardous Substances Distribution Rating              IV-23
         Criteria
                               -xi-

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                                                            Page
Tables -  Continued                                          Number

IV-16    Sample Worksheet for Computing Substance            IV-24
         Hazard Rating

IV-17    Sample Worksheet for Computing Substance            IV-25
         Hazard Rating

IV-18    Compounds Found Hazardous by Rating System         IV-26

IV-19    Compounds Found Marginally Hazardous by            IV-42
         Rating System

IV-20    Specific Compounds Used as Warfare Agents           IV-44
         by the Department of Defense

IV-21    Hazardous Wastes Generated by Department of         IV-45
         Defense Activities (Explosive Materials)

IV-22    Toxic Pollutants Involved in Conventional              IV-47
         Munitions Production

IV-23    Typical Department of Defense Waste Compounds      IV-48
         and Materials

 V- 1     Status of Current Technology in the Control of          V- 8
         Emissions to the Atmosphere

 V-2     Solid Wastes by Type  Generated by the Minerals        V-13
         and Fossil Fuel Industries in 1968

 V-3     Solid Wastes Generated  by the Mineral and             V-14
         Fossil Fuel Mining and Processing Industries in
         1968 and Accumulated Up to 1968

 V-4     Food Industry -  SIC 20,  Waste Streams and             V-20
         Treatment Procedures

 V-5     Textile Mill Products -  SIC 22, Waste Streams          V-22
         and Treatment Procedures

 V-6     Paper and Allied Products - SIC 26,  Waste             V-23
         Streams  and Treatment  Procedures
                               -xii-

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                                                             Page
Tables -  Continued                                          Number

 V-7     Petroleum Refining and Related Industries -             V-24
         SIC 29,  Waste Streams and Treatment Procedures

 V-8     Leather Industry - SIC 31,  Waste Streams and          V-26
         Treatment Procedures

 V-9     Stone, Clay,  Glass and Concrete (Asbestos             V-28
         Products) - SIC  32,. Waste Streams and
         Treatment Procedures

 V-10    Medical and Other Health Services - SIC 80,             V-29
         Waste Streams and Treatment Procedures

 V-ll    Plastic Materials, Synthetic Fibers,  Rubber,           V-30
         Resins - SIC  282, Waste Streams and Treatment
         Procedures

 V-12    Drug Industry -  SIC 283,  Waste Streams and            V-31
         Treatment Procedures

 V-13    Soap, Detergents and Cleaning -  SIC 284,               V-33
         Waste Streams and Treatment Procedures

 V-14    Paints,  Varnishes,  Lacquers, Enamels-               V-34
         SIC 285,  Waste Streams and Treatment
         Procedures

 V-15    Agricultural Chemicals, Fertilizers- SIC 287,          V-35
         Waste Streams and Treatment Procedures

 V-16    Agricultural Chemicals, Pesticides - SIC 287,          V-36
         Waste Streams and Treatment Procedures

 V-17    Primary Metal Industries - SIC 331,  Waste             V-37
         Streams and Treatment Procedures

 V-18    Non-Ferrous Metals - SIC 333, Waste Streams          V-39
         and Treatment Procedures

 V-19    Coating,  Engraving (Plating) - SIC 347, Waste          V-41
         Streams and Treatment Procedures
                              -xiii-

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                                                             Page
Tables -  Continued                                          Number

 V-20   Cyclic Intermediates -  SIC 2815, Industrial             V-43
        Organic Chemicals - SIC 2818, Waste Streams
        and Treatment Procedures

 V-21   Industrial Inorganic Chemicals - SIC 2819,              V-45
        Waste Streams and Treatment Procedures

 V-22   Explosives - SIC 2892,  Waste Streams and              V-46
        Treatment Procedures

 V-23   Department of Defense, Waste Streams and             V-47
        Treatment Procedures

 V-24   Radioactive Wastes  AEG, Waste Streams and           V-49
        Treatment Procedures

 V-25   Rating Guideline Sheet                                 V-53

 V-26   Rating Worksheet -  How to Use Rating System           V-54

 V-27   Removal Efficiencies of Waste Treatment               V-55
        Processes

 V-28   Industrial Water Treatment Practices                  V-70

 V-29   Evaluation of Industrial Treatment Practices            V-72

 V-30   Approximate Characteristics of Dust and Mist           V-73
        Collection Equipment

 V-31   Hazardous Material Use, Production and Wastes        V-81
        by Type Industry

 V-32   Quantitative Data on Off-Site Disposal Tonnages         V-84
                               -XIV-

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                                                              Page
Figures                                                     Number

 I-1    The Hazardous Materials Waste Quantification           1-22
        Problem

III- \    The Hazardous Materials Waste Quantification          III- 3
        Problem

III-2    Layout, Card Type 1                                  III-56

HI-3    Layout, Card Type 2                                  III-57

III-4    Layout, Card Type 3                                  III-58

 V-1    Candidate Waste Water Treatment Processes -          V-4
        Substitution and Sequence Diagram

 V-2    Solids Handling, Treatment and Disposal                V-12

V-3    Waste Disposal Procedure Small Spill or Package       V-77
        Lots
                               -XV-

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                             FOREWORD
      This report presents the results of the study of hazardous waste
materials conducted under Contract No.  68-03-0032 for the Solid Waste
Research Division of the National Environmental Research Center,
Environmental Protection Agency,  Cincinnati, Ohio.

      The report consists of three volumes.   Volume I describes the
purpose and scope of the study, describes the approach followed in
conducting the study, provides a summary of the study, and presents the
study results.  Volume I also provides listings of principal literature
references at the end of each chapter and includes a full bibliography.

      Volumes II and III consist of appendices describing the industries
(by Standard  Industrial Classification Code) and government operations
which are the manufacturers and users of hazardous  materials.   In the
interest of promoting improved understanding of the occurrence of
hazardous materials and potentially hazardous wastes on the part of
users of this report, the appendices provide descriptions (in a single
reference source) of industry size, products, production processes,
typical wastes and waste treatment and disposal processes.

      The study was conducted over a six-month period ending with
publication of the draft report on January 12, 1972.  This report is the
result of integration of the Solid Waste Research Division's draft
report review comments, the draft report itself,  and a limited amount
of additional  material  incorporated by the contractor.
                                 -xvi-

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I.   SUMMARY

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                         I.   SUMMARY
      Presented in this Chapter are summary discussions of the
background to the  study, its objectives,  the approach followed in
conducting the study, and the  principal study  findings and
recommendations.
1.    PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY

      This study was originated as the first in a series that would
assist the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in complying with
Section 212  of the Resource Recovery Act of 1970, which requires
that a "National Disposal Sites Study" be completed and reported to
the Congress within two years  after enactment of the Act.  For the
sake of clarity,  the controlling portion of the Act is reproduced  below.

                    National Disposal Sites Study

            Sec. 212.  The Secretary shall submit to the Congress
      no latter than twq years  after the date of enactment of the
      Resource Recovery Act of 1970, a comprehensive report
      and plan for the creation of a system of national disposal
      sites for the storage and disposal  of hazardous wastes,
      including radioactive,  toxic  chemical, biological, and
      other  wastes which may  endanger  public health or welfare.
      Such report shall include: (1) a list of materials which
      should be  subject to disposal in any such site; (2) current
      methods of disposal of such materials;  (3) recommended
      methods of reduction,  neutralization, recovery,  or
      disposal of such materials;  (4) an inventory of possible
      sites including existing land or water disposal sites
      operated or licensed by Federal agencies; (5) an estimate
      of the cost of developing  and maintaining sites including
      consideration of means for distributing the  short- and
      long-term costs of operating such sites among the users
      thereof; and (6) such other information as may be
      appropriate.
                                1-1

-------
      This study was structured to address points (1) and (2) in Section
212 (previous page), and a Scope of Work to be performed was developed
and published by the EPA.

      The study was essentially designed by the EPA as a comprehensive
literature search for the information and data of interest.  Thus, the
extent and depth of the results are directly dependent upon the availability
of the desired information and data in the literature.

      The study had four principal objectives:

            Provide a list of hazardous materials which should be
            subject to special disposal techniques

            Document the harmful effects that we know now and provide
            a mechanism for revising this information as new data
            becomes available

            Develop a rating system for delineating the degree of
            hazard

            Provide an inventory of current disposal practices and an
            evaluation of these practices.

      The study ends with the conclusion of the fourth objective above.
This report provides information  which satisfies  those objectives,
subject  to the limitations of information available in the literature,
and provides direct  inputs to the second study in the hazardous wastes
program series.

      It is recognized that the scope of this first study is  very broad,
perhaps too broad, but included no preconceptions as to identity of
hazardous materials, the form in which they might be encountered,
the potential for hazardous effects, or the nature and extent of present
treatment and disposal methods.
                                 1-2

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2.    APPROACH TO THE STUDY
      The overall approach to conduct of the study consisted of a
general study design and a detailed approach followed within the
framework of that design.   These two features are described below,
      (1)   Study Design

           The general study design established the overall guidelines
      for conduct of the study,  and comprised three principal elements:

                 Information available from literature sources

                 Information screening and categorization by
                 Standard Industrial Classifications

                 Exclusion of municipal wastes from detailed
                 consideration.

           Since no defined subject-matter preconceptions were
      provided by the  EPA,  it was necessary to establish guidelines
      for the literature search in order to identify the potentially
      useful literature references in the shortest possible time.
      Therefore, as references were identified, they were initially
      screened for possible value to the study, the categorized
      according to Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) and the
      associated identifier codes.   The SIC groups were selected to
      reflect the major manufacturers and users of potentially hazardous
      materials, and to aid in geographic location of those materials.
      The latter is especially important with respect to the occurrence
      of hazardous materials as—or in—wastes, since the principal
      thrust of the study was to identify materials whose associated
      hazards are such that special waste management techniques
      might be  required during disposal operations.  Within the context
      of categorization by industry groups,  the federal government
      agencies most involved with hazardous materials,  the
      Department of Defense and the Atomic Energy Commission,
      were also treated as industry groups.
                                  1-3

-------
      The remaining principal guideline in the study design was
the exclusion of municipal wastes from detailed consideration.
This was done because domestic and municipal wastes represent
so varied a mixture of materials of all types that the study
resources  could easily have been consumed  in investigating that
area alone (i.e., this area was considered too  broad for this
contract).  Limited consideration had to be given to these wastes,
however,  to take into account the practice in some  areas of
industrial wastes being discharged in municipal waste systems.
(2)    Detailed Approach

      The detailed approach to conduct of the study included the
following principal elements:

           Identification of literature sources

           Identification of industry and government groups
           for information categorization

           Collection of information

                 Literature

                 Industry associations

                 Government agencies

                 Plant visits

           Data recording

           Rating systems.

      Identification of Literature Sources.  To assure that
comprehensive coverage would be obtained in identifying
potentially valuable literature sources of information, a
review was made of the  subject-matter fields of interest of
the  leading technical  abstract services.   As a result of this
review, and in view of the many topical  duplications that exist
among these  services, the following abstract journals were
decided upon as the principal literature  reference sources:
                           1-4

-------
           Applied Science and Technology Index (Wilson Co.;
           New York, New York)

           British Technology Index (Library Association;
           London,  England)

           Chemical Abstracts (American Chemical Society;
           Columbus, Ohio)

           Engineering Index (Engineering Index, Inc.; New
           York,  New York)

           U.S. Government Research and Development Reports
           (U.S. Department of Commerce;  Washington, D.C.)

      These abstract journals were  searched beginning with
calendar year 1960 and moving up through the 1971 mid-year
issues.  No limitations were placed on subjects; rather, the
search included all subject matter that might, in any way, be
considered applicable to the  purposes of the  study.

      This search resulted in the identification of some  4, 000
publications (books,  papers,  articles), and the collection and
review of the abstracts of each.  The abstracts were subjected
to an initial screening for applicability and content,  which
reduced the number  of publications to be reviewed to about
2, 000.  The 2, 000 publications were reviewed by the study
team members, and final decisions  were made as to whether
the included information was worthwhile to the study.  As a
result of these reviews, the number of publications  from the
above  sources deemed to contain information useful to the
study, and therefore worthy of detailed study, was reduced to
approximately 700.  This group was later  supplemented by
publications from other sources to bring the study bibliography
to about 800 publications.

      Identifications of Industry and Government Groups for
Information Categorization.  The subject matter of the
publications identified and collected through the literature
search covers a wide variety of interest in materials and their
sources, production processes, uses, environmental pollution,
and disposal methods. It became apparent, however, that
certain industries  constituted the principal manufacturers and
users of potentially hazardous materials,  and experienced many
environmental pollution problems.
                           1-5

-------
      For this reason,  it was determined that the collected
information could be handled most systematically if it were
categorized according to industry groups.  To complement the
industry group identification indicated by the literature,
reference was made to a listing entitled  "Major Sources of
Pollution", which was developed during 1967-1968 by the
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (see Table II-1,
page II-6).  The list covers the top 50 pollution sources (from
the viewpoint of water use), and  includes natural and nonindustrial
sources as well as the industrial sources.  In addition, the list
presents a priority ranking indicating the relative  severity of the
pollution problems created by the sources named.

      The pollution sources named in the list referenced above,
were compared to the  industry group identities indicated through
the literature search,  and a list  of industry groups was
developed for use in categorizing the study information (see
page II-9).  A distinct added advantage of this approach is its
use in geographically locating the major  hazardous material
use-points,  and consequently the location of potentially
hazardous wastes.  These industry groups  are identified by
their Standard Industrial Classification codes.  The industry
group list has also been supplemented by identities of federal
government agencies most concerned with the manufacture and
use of potentially hazardous materials.   The appendices to
this report (Volumes II and III) provide descriptions of the
listed groups, products,  production processes,  wastes,  and
waste treatment and disposal methods.

      Collection of Information.  The information utilized  in
this study was collected from:

           Literature sources

           Associations (industry and professional)

           Government agencies

           Plant visits.

      As stated previously, the essential information source
was the comprehensive literature search, and the  latter three
sources were used to supplement the literature where possible.
                           1-6

-------
      Contacts were made with 20 industry associations (see
page 11-15), in an effort to collect up-to-date information on the
hazardous materials production, handling,  and disposal problems
of their member organizations.

      Government agencies contacted were those deemed most
likely to be  concerned with potentially hazardous materials.
These were:

            Atomic Energy Commission

            Department of Agriculture

            Department of Commerce

            Department of Defense (and the military agencies)

            National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

      A limited number of plant visits were made for the purpose
of confirming or verifying information  obtained from the
literature.  Such visits included industrial  plants,  hospitals,
and private  disposal companies,  but were limited in number
since the project did not envision a major survey effort.

      Data Recording.  As the hazardous materials were
identified, pertinent data for each describing material
characteristics,  toxicity values, production quantities and
locations, and disposal procedures were  collected, formatted,
and reduced to punched cards. At the conclusion of the study,
all punched-card data  was converted to a computer print-out
which was submitted separately from the report.

      Rating Systems.  In accordance with the study objectives
rating systems were developed which indicate relative severity
of effects of the hazardous materials, and for the associated
waste treatment and disposal methods currently in use.  The
rating system for hazardous effects includes  effects on man
and on the environment, and takes into  account, as weighting
factors,  the production quantities and the scope of distribution
of the materials in the economy. A rating  system for treatment
and disposal methods was established which is based on the
relative  efficiencies of the methods used  in nullifying the strengths
of certain wastes to levels acceptable in  sewage treatment plants.
                           1-7

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3.    PRINCIPAL FINDINGS OF THE STUDY

      The principal findings resulting from this study are discussed
below under appropriate topical headings.
      (1)    Adequacy of the Literature

            The literature search which formed the basis of the study
      was very broad, covered over ten years' span of publications,
      and initially included some 4, 000 documents.  It was  found,
      however, that the  literature is insufficiently definitive to  permit
      full achievement of the objectives of the study,  because the
      literature:

                 Provides no  common definition of the term
                 hazardous material;

                 Provides little quantification of specific wastes
                 or waste streams;

                 Contains little information on chronic effects  of
                 materials on man or the environment, and is
                 inconclusive with respect to acute  effects;

                 Indicates that, as a rule, the nature and extent
                 of technology applications in waste  treatment
                 and disposal are based on economics rather than
                 on pollution control considerations;

                 Is very repetitious in that single sources  of
                 information and statistical data are used
                 repeatedly by many different interests;

                 Provides considerable research and development
                 engineering information for materials and for
                 waste  treatment  and disposal processes,  but  little
                 information on practical applications;  and

                 Indicates that proprietary interests preclude
                 disclosure of much information that would be
                 pertinent.
                                 1-8

-------
      Each of these findings is briefly discussed below.

      Many writers have struggled with the term hazardous
material, in this country and abroad, but the definition problem
has yet to be resolved.  In fact,  the literature also demonstrates
that the same problem exists regarding the term toxic, which
is usually regarded as the more specific term.  There is, of
course, general agreement with respect to labeling certain
materials as hazardous  (e.g., radioactives, known deadly
poisons, explosives),  but the list of materials for  which such
agreement exists is short.

      The matter of quantification of specific materials in wastes
is one which has received very little attention.   The literature
indicates that, at any  one installation,  wastes from many
processes are routinely collected into single flow  paths, or
streams,  for treatment  and  disposal.  These mixed waste
streams may contain several materials that could  be classified
as hazardous materials,  but the waste streams are not analyzed
for constituency or to determine the  results of possible reactions
after  mixing.  Rather, if analyses are made, the parameters
determined are those  commonly measured in sewage disposal
operations (e.g., BOD,  COD, TDS,  TSS, and perhaps the
heavy metals).  The result  is that neither the quantity of any
one material going into the  waste streams, nor the actual
make-up of the mixtures, are known.  The principal assistance
provided by the literature with respect to quantification of wastes
is that, in some cases,  waste generation factors are given
(e.g.  , factors indicating the amounts of total process waste
produced per pound or per ton of product), but on  a generalized
basis rather than for  wastes from specific plants  in specific
plants in specific locations.

      The literature utilized in this study as hazardous effects
information sources included many well-known references on
human toxicity of materials,  similar works with respect to
animals, research reports,  and listings such as that published
by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration.  The
greatest information gap was found to exist in the  area of chronic
(long-term) effects.  It appears that  very little testing has been
done, even for determining the  long-term effects of materials
known to have  serious acute (short-term) effects.  Further,  for
materials known to have minor  acute effects, or materials that
                           1-9

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have demonstrated no acute effects, research into possible
long-term effects is nonexistent.  The few exceptions involve
materials which have little or no short-term effects, but which
are known to be accumulated by the human or animal body.

      In the area of acute effects, especially with regard to
human toxicity,  the literature indicates much lack of agreement
among medical researchers.  The essential reasons for this
situation are the wide variations that have been observed in
effects of the same materials on different people,  and the many
problems inherent in translating laboratory animal test results
into human toxicity values.

      With respect to waste treatment and disposal methods,
the literature contains considerable information on research
and development of specific methods for specific materials,  but
little  definitive information concerning practical applications
of the resultant technology.  The bulk of the methods currently
in use appear to be those applied to treatment of mixed wastes
for the general parameters noted above (i.e., parameters of
interest in general sewage treatment, with little attention given
to specific materials).  Business economics determine the
nature and extent of Waste treatment technology applications
and the choice of final disposal methods, except in cases where
the wastes are  known to be hazardous.  If wastes contain
materials whose value makes recycling and reuse  economically
attractive, the  treatment methods (aimed at extraction of the
valuable  materials) are likely to become sophisticated, and
generally beneficial in terms of "detoxification" of the ultimate
waste discharge.  In situations where the producer feels that
the wastes contain nothing worth recovering, the economic
choice becomes one of selecting the least costly disposal method.
Characteristically, this choice quickly reduces  to  one of "dumping1
the wasteload—to water if a stream or body is convenient, or
to landfill.  For  solid wastes or heavy,  high viscosity liquids
(e.g., sludges,  filter residues, paints, grease), landfills have
long been the preponderant disposal choice, but with little regard
for any consideration except getting rid of the wastes.  Finally,
the literature indicates that in many industrial sectors,  waste
characteristics  and treatment methods employed are not
revealed since  such information would reveal information about
proprietary production processes.
                           1-10

-------
      Study of the literature also demonstrated that,  in many
areas,  a limited number of information and statistical data
sources are used repeatedly in different publications and that,
in the end,  sources of original data are relatively few in number.
In some instances,  for example,  study of publications obtained
from industry associations showed that the included data were
identical to those given by the Census of Manufactures and
extracted from the latter.  In  other cases, it was found that
technical data furnished by certain technical groups (e. g.,  the
Manufacturing Chemists Association),  was used by many authors.
 (2)   Information Sources Other Than Open Literature

      Beyond the open literature, potential information sources
 in the study were trade and technical associations, government
 agencies, and individual plants.

      The industry association contacts met with varying degrees
 of success in terms of information collection.  While some have
 published reports,  etc.,  which are  available in the literature,
 many of these groups have only recently initiated work with
 respect to environmental pollution and waste disposal  problems
 of their memberships,  or have undertaken no specific technical
 work at all.   Naturally,  the more technically oriented of these
 groups were able to provide some assistance.  As a whole,
 however, while all of these organizations are interested in and
 concerned about pollution control problems, they were able to
 provide only limited  assistance.

      The government agencies most directly concerned with
 hazardous materials are the Department of Defense and the
 Atomic Energy  Commission.   Each of these was able to provide
 considerable information,  especially the Atomic Energy
 Commission,  since the radioactive  materials  are under continuous
 regulatory control throughout their  life cycles.  The Department
 of Defense agencies also have  the opportunity for close control
 but,  with the exception of munitions,  have only recently initiated
 widespread control measures with respect to environmental pollu-
tion.  These  agencies find themselves in a situation similar to
 industry, in that the many installations utilize a wide range of
 potentially hazardous materials and produce potentially
hazardous wastes, yet lack definitive background information and
 data that would  be helpful in understanding pollution problems
 and alleviating waste treatment and disposal problems.
                            1-11

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      Visits to industrial plants generally confirmed the lessons
learned from the literature,  and are:

           Industry has not  made detailed, comprehensive
           analyses of its wastes, and cannot provide quanti-
           tative data, especially with respect to specific
           materials  contained in wastes.

           Waste treatment in industry is generally limited to
           treatment  of mixed wastes for a limited number of
           parameters (e.g., oxygen demands, solids content,
           acidity, alkalinity) rather than for specific materials
           content.

           The nature and extent of waste treatment and disposal
           methods is based on  economic factors rather than
           on pollution control considerations.

           By far the dominant disposal method is
           discharging to water with landfilling a close
           second.

           Many production processes which emit wastes which
           are of interest in environmental quality control  are
           considered proprietary processes,  for competitive
           reasons, and industry refuses to disclose process
           information that  would aid in understanding the
           wastes generated.

           In many quarters, industry feels it is being unfairly
           attacked with respect to pollution and therfore is
           unwilling to discuss waste emissions,  even where
           no proprietary processes are involved, for fear of
           stringent controls being imposed.

           A number  of industrial firms across the country
           have been  cited by the EPA,  and by state and local
           environmental protection agencies, for violation of
           air and water quality regulations and,  in some instances,
           these citations have resulted in litigation.  In such
           an atmosphere,  industrial firms in general have
           become extremely wary of disclosing any information
           about their wastes.
                           1-12

-------
      The findings on the previous page were also borne out
through the contacts with industry associations.  A final important
consideration with respect to industry is that of attitudes and
concepts regarding just what constitutes a hazardous material.
Many individuals involved in daily handling of acids,  caustics,
pesticides,  etc. , especially as wastes, simply do not consider
these as hazardous materials.  The lack of agreement on definition
of hazardous materials does nothing to help this situation.
(3)    Definition of Hazardous Materials
      Initial guidance with respect to definition of hazardous
materials was provided by the EPA, as follows:

      "For the purpose of this study, hazardous wastes materials
      are defined as those materials or combination of materials
      which require special management techniques because of
      their .acute and/or chronic effects on the health or welfare of
      the public (or those individuals who handle them) when they
      are disposed of by waste management processes (e. g.,
      storage, transport, incineration, sanitary landfilling,
      composting,  dumping, industrial waste treatment). "

While the definition provided was imprecise, it remains a good
general definition.  Precision in definition must address the
question, "Hazardous  to what and in what way?".   If hazards
to humans are under consideration,  for example,  a distinction
needs to be made as to whether toxicity (which implies personal
medical problems) is being considered, or whether safety hazards
(e. g., explosion) are the subject.  Both may be injurious, even
lethal, but the nature of the hazards is distinctly different.
Similar considerations would apply to the definition of materials
hazardous to animal and plant life.
      For purposes of the analyses  and hazardous effects ratings
 in this  study, materials (and to some  extent,  waste streams)
 have been defined  as hazardous if they have the known inherent
 ability  to produce:

            Toxic  effects on mammalian species (whether lethal
            or only damaging)

            Damaging or lethal effects on non-mammalian systems

            Some significant undesirable change in man, such
            as carcinogens, teratogens, or mutagens.

                            1-13

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(4)    Hazardous Materials List

      The list of hazardous materials developed in this study
(see page 11-29) was assembled in a three-step process.  First,
as the literature was reviewed, search was made for reference
by the various authors to identify:

            Materials commonly accepted as dangerous to  man
            and the environment

            Materials which might present difficult disposal
            problems

            Materials known or suspected to have the ability
            to cause  environmental damage

            Materials for which treatment and disposal
            processes were the subject of research efforts

            Materials involved in accidents.

      The identities were recorded for all materials discussed
in the literature,  so  long as it appeared, even superficially at
the outset, that they  might be hazardous and therefore require
special waste management techniques in disposal.  From the
general literature a list of approximately 175-200 hazardous
materials was compiled.

      In the second step, existing lists of hazardous materials
published by various organizations  (see page 11-26) were
obtained and reviewed.  In general, it was found that these lists
had been structured to include materials presenting fire or
explosion hazards and human toxicity hazards,  but from the
viewpoint of safety in transportation,  i. e., hazards that would
result from transportation accidents. It was also found that
many of the materials appearing on these lists had been placed
there as a result of admitted  subjective judgments on the part
of the groups responsible.  For this reason,  it was determined
that a basic criteria  for including materials from the published
lists  onto the list  developed in this  study was that the material
should appear on at least two of the published lists.  Thus, the
final  developed list of hazardous materials represents an
integration of materials turned up by the literature search and
materials lists.
                         1-14

-------
      The final step in developing the hazardous materials list
was to screen the materials against toxicity and other effects
references to determine whether sufficient hazardous effects
information was available to justify inclusion of each material
on the final list.
(5)    Hazardous Effects Determination and Rating

      The available literature reveals a wide range of effects
of various materials that have been observed as a result  of
planned experiments involving laboratory animal and plant
(vegetation) exposures to varying concentration levels and
exposure time periods, and observations resulting from acci-
dents.  Industrial health studies also show a wide range of
observed health effects, both acute  and chronic,  resulting
from worker exposures to various materials.

      Despite the many observations of effects reported by both
the practicing medical community and research scientists,  it
was found that the contributing concentration levels are generally
not documented—because they are unknown.  This is true of
observations made in industrial work places and  in investigations
of accidents.  The problem of effects on humans  is an especially
difficult area since few human-subject experiments are conducted.
and while good data have been obtained in controlled experiments
with laboratory  animals,  the  extrapolation of these results to
human effects continues to be an area of great uncertainty.
Research results from similar  experiments frequently differ,
and thus cast doubt on the validity of human extrapolation.

      Further difficulty arises from the fact that observations
of toxic effects on humans have been made for a relatively
limited number  of materials, with emphasis having been  given
to the metals and some metallic compounds.   Very little  data
has been taken concerning plants  and animals  in their natural
habitat.  Plants suffer especially in this regard  because,  until
very recent years, little research has  been done to determine
effects of materials on plants.  Even the  research done recently
has been limited to a few  compounds (e. g., oxides of sulfur,
oxides of nitrogen, pesticides, herbicides).

      In the end, the result is that the body of knowledge  of
hazardous effects of materials on man and the environment is
essentially limited to acute (short-term) effects, much of it
                          1-15

-------
based on after-the-fact medical observations rather than
predictions based on experimental results.  An extremely serious
gap remains in the  knowledge of chronic (long-term) effects of
materials on man or the environment.  Laboratory-type
research into chronic  effects has  been, for all practical purposes,
nonexistent and the research that  has been done has taken the
form of long years'  collection and analysis of case histories
by individuals in the medical profession.

      Pressed with the need to establish reasonable bases for
the protection of health and safety, the medical community
has promulgated guidelines in the form of data describing
concentration exposure limits (threshold limits) for many
materials, for both  humans and animals.  These values are
useful in developing a  method for  rating the hazardous effects
of materials.  The  rating method  developed during this study
is based on these guidelines (see  Chapter IV),  but takes
additional factors into account as  well.

      It is  also a flexible rating system which actually includes
several types of  ratings:

            Total Effects Rating (TER),  basic rating developed
            from known effects, with allowance for weighting
            based on priorities

            Maximum  Potential  Effects Rating (MPER), a rating
            which includes the TER and an allowance for
            unknown effects

            Hazard Extent Rating  (HER),  a rating which repre-
            sents material pervasiveness as a function of
            production and distribution

            Hazard Rating (HR), an overall rating which is the
            product  of TER times HER

            Maximum  Potential  Hazard Rating (MPHR), an
            overall rating which is the product of MPER
            times HER (produces  the highest overall rating score).

      Principal among the additional factors are the media
(air, water,  land) wherein the hazardous materials might be
transmitted to man and the environment,  since the nature of
the effects are dependent upon the nature of the contact between
                          1-16

-------
the material and the "host" (e.g.,  ingestion, respiration,
surface contact).  An important aspect of the media viewpoint
is that it permits direct correlation with the disposal media when
the hazardous materials become wastes requiring disposal.

      For each hazardous material on the final listing (Chapter
II), air disposal, water disposal, and land  disposal were
considered and for each medium, rating values were  assigned
which numerically  express  the level of severity of effects in
three classes:

            Human toxicity  effects

            Flame/explosion effects

            Ecological effects.

      Table 1-1 below indicates the nine basic factors assigned
rating values.
                        Table 1-1
    Matrix of Factors for Rating the Level of Effects
           for the List of Hazardous Substances

Medium
For
Disposal


Air (A)
Water (W)

Soil (S)

Hazard in Terms of Potential Effects


Human Populations Eco Populations
Toxic Effects
-------
      The numerical values assigned to each factor above were
selected on a scale of 1-3, as follows:

      3 - Severely hazardous

      2 - Slight to moderate hazard

      1 - Minimal hazard

      U  - Effects unknown.

      The resultant scores for the nine individual factors were
weighted, then summed to produce the basic rating score, here
termed the Total Effects Rating (TER), which comprises the
"known effects" rating.

      In cases where effects are unknown or where data is not
available, a value of three (maximum hazard value) was
assigned to each "U" on the assumption that it would be
desirable to produce conservative final ratings, especially for
materials with a high number of unknowns.  Adding these
U-scores to the basic Total Effects Rating produces  the
Maximum Potential Effects  Rating.

      It is recognized that the scale of 1-3 is a narrow band
likely to produce ratings that tend to group  many materials
into clusters in the overall rating scale, and that a wider
spread  in the relative ratings would be desirable.   However,
the limitations noted earlier with respect to knowledge of human
and ecological effects of materials are such that the  rating
precision needed for use of a wider scale (e. g. ,  1-10), or the
precision that would be  implied if a wider scale were imposed,
are not justified by the data available.

      A final element that needs  to be considered in rating
materials according to hazardous effect is the concept of a
"Hazard Extent Rating, " which reflects the opportunity for the
effects  to occur.   Many materials exist whose effects are
severe  and well-known, but which are neither produced in
large quantities nor are widely distributed; thus, they present
a localized and limited hazard problem,  in  terms  of geographic
area and population affected.  Many other materials,  however,
whose effects  might be lesser on a pound-for-pound basis, can
                          1-18
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pose a much more pervasive hazard problem Lf they are produced
in very large quantities, and see widespread distribution and
use throughout the economy.  Pursuing this  concept, values
were assigned to ranges of production quantities (where production
data is available) and to distribution, the latter indicating the
extent  of national distribution.

      Table 1-2 provides an example of the rating development.
Table IV-18 (Chapter IV, page IV-25),  shows the hazardous
effects ratings for the list of hazardous materials developed in
this study.
(6)    Quantification and Location of Hazardous Materials

      One of the fundamental purposes of this study was  to
provide information that would be useful in the overall EPA
context of identifying materials that might require special
waste management techniques in disposal because of their
potential hazardous  effects, and in the more specific context
of the possible need for a national disposal site system for such
materials.  Among the desired  results was quantification data
describing the waste quantities  and their geographic locations.

      The literature search revealed, however,  that waste
quantification for specific materials does not exist.  Among
the  principal reasons for this situation are:

            Historically,  there  has been no interest or objective
            in quantifying waste amounts of specific materials,
            with the exception of radioactive wastes, which are
            subject to  a stringent control system

            For certain materials, such as pesticides and
            herbicides, the utilization and disposal cycles
            were one and the same,  but geographic location
            data were  not recorded

            In nearly all waste disposal processes, whether
            industrial, governmental, or domestic, materials
            being wasted are thrown together and become
            streams of mixed wastes
                          1-19
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                Table 1-2
Sample Worksheet for Computing Substance
             Hazard Rating
Compound Aluminum Sulfate


Air
Disposal

Water
Disposal
Soil
Disposal
Total Effec


Human toxic effects
Flame / Explosion
Ecoeffects
Human toxic effects
Flame /Explosion
Ecoeffects
Human toxic effects
Flame /Explosion
Ecoeffects
ts Rating (Sum of above)
Initial
Rating
3
2
3
3
2
2
3
2
U

Weight
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Final
Rating
3
3
2
2
3
2
U
20
Number of Unknowns above — L-
Maximum Potential Effects Rating
Production
rating
(unknowns x 3 plus
total effects rating)


Distribution Rating
Hazard Extent Rating (Sum of Production &
, _ .. (Total Effects Rating x
Hazard Rating _, . , . TT , _. e , . .
6 Extent of Hazard Rating)
Maximum Potential Hazard Rating


Distribution)
Max. Potential Effects
Rate & Extent of Hazard
Rating)

23

_J-5
_JL5
40

46

                    1-20
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           Pre-disposal waste treatment,  where employed at
           all,  has been applied to a limited number of waste
           stream characteristics, rather than to character-
           istics of specific materials.

      It follows  that without waste quantity data for specific
materials, geographic location cannot be considered.  The
impact of the latter two factors above on the hazardous waste
quantification problem cannot be overstated.  The difficulties
imposed can be  more succinctly observed when it is  noted that
mixed waste streams:

           Can have hazardous materials as inputs,

           Are not analyzed in detail,  if at all,

           Might be  chemically indeterminate, as a result
           of unknown reactions,

           Might exhibit some, all, or none  of the character-
           istics of individual input materials, and

           Might become hazardous  in itself through combina-
           tions of nonhazardous input materials.

      Investigation  of the overall problem of quantifying waste
hazardous materials  has to consider  the problem of disposing
of such  materials in their pure (or relatively pure) form as
well as  in waste streams.  Many of these materials are created
as (or in) marketable products not meant to be wasted, yet for
various reasons (shelf-life, contamination, etc. ) at some time
become wastes. In such cases, however, someone has to
declare them to be  no longer needed and thus ready for disposal.
This waste quantification problem is  graphically compared to
the mixed waste problem in Figure 1-1.

      In addition to the literature search, attempts were made
through industry associations, federal  government agencies,
and individual plants  to collect the needed data.  Some  success
was achieved through the government agencies.  The industrial
sector remains  a problem  area, for reasons  discussed
previously in Section (2), yet  that sector is the major producer,
user, and distributor of hazardous materials.
                          1-21
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                                          FIGURE 1-1
                                    The Hazardous Materials
                                  Waste Quantification Problem
                            RAW
                        MATERIALS
                        PRODUCTION
                         PROCESSES
                                                 MIXED
                                              PRODUCTION
                                                 WASTES
                                                   (B)
FINISHED
PRODUCTS
 DISTRIBUTION
  QUANTITIES
DECLARED WASTE
  AT ANY ONE
 TIME OR PLACE
      (A)
                                      RANDOM, NON-QUANTIFIABLE
                                      POTENTIALLY QUANTIFIABLE,
                                      WITH WASTE STREAM ANALYSIS
                            1-22
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      Lacking factual data, then,  the alternative is to develop
a computation method for estimating waste quantities.   This has
been done, but is limited to estimating total waste quantities
for industry  types (by SIC  code).  These estimates were made
by industry types for each of  the 50 states and for each of the
50 largest Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSA), and
are  listed on Tables III-5 and III-6 (Chapter III,  pages 111-14
and  III-19).

      To estimate these total waste quantities, a series of
"waste  factors" were calculated (one for each industry type)
which represent the amount of wastes generated  per 1, 000
pounds  of product (WPPP), Data  were then extracted from the
Census of Manufactures which show, for regions, SMSAs, and
states,  the production and value added in production by each
industry.   These data were reduced to value added per 1, 000
pounds  of product (VAP ?).  Then:

WPPP     Ib.  waste/1, OOP Ib. product      _  pounds waste
VAPP  =  $  value added/I, 000 Ib. product   ~        $
and:
      Pounds waste
            $
                      x Total $ value added  = Total Ib. waste
      Early in the study it was determined that of the 231
SMSAs in the  country, the 50 largest account for approximately
60 percent of  American industry.  The remaining 181 would
account for no more than 20 percent of industry.  Thus, the
arbitrary break was made at the top 50.  From that point,
total wastes estimates were made on a state basis  since all
industry could be accounted for in that manner.  Further,  in
some states (e. g. ,  Florida) which have few SMSAs,  the bulk
of industries of  interest would not be included in the SMSAs
in any event.

      With respect  to the potential national disposal site system,
the value of approaching the quantification problem by studying
the 50 largest SMSAs is that it demonstrates where the greatest
quantities of wastes are generated which can includs  hazardous
materials, and therefore  indicates  the locations that"  would most
likely need to  be served by such disposal sites.  The wastes
estimates by industries and states can readily be correlated
                          1-23
-------
with the hazardous materials information indicating which
industries use which materials.  From that point it is not
difficult to identify the locations  within the states (but outside
of SMSAs) where the more important industries are situated,
and therefore to determine other potential disposal site locations.

      The remaining waste quantification problem regarding
hazardous materials is to arrive at some means of determining
what portion of the total wasteloads is composed of hazardous
materials.  The lack of such data, particularly in the critical
industrial sectors, however, makes development of any
reasonable estimating method highly improbable,  if not impossible.
This stems  from the almost universal waste handling practice
of collecting many plant wastes into common streams of mixed
wastes.  The problem is especially acute with respect to liquid
wastes and for many solids which are put into solution for
waste handling purposes, since such wastes typically include
the  chemical compounds that are among the most hazardous  of
materials.  A limited amount of information was obtained,
however,  which provides rough quantification factors indicating
the  generation of certain commonly-known (by "trade" names)
waste streams as a function of production.  In some cases,
these quantification factors also  show typical amounts of specific
hazardous materials contained in those waste streams.  Where
such data were available,  estimates of total waste stream pro-
duction and  estimates of contained hazardous materials were
computed.   The results  are  presented in Table III-7 (Chapter
III,  page III-29).
(7)    Hazardous Materials Accident Data

      In searching the literature for accident data involving
hazardous materials,  the objective was to identify sources of
statistical data for:

            Accident reports  (e.g., frequency, apparent causes,
            human factors, effects)

            Materials  involved in accidents (e. g. , hazardous
            material properties, material weights or volumes,
            container characteristics)
                          1-24
-------
           Disposal problems (e. g. ,  effects of quantity;
           characteristics of the environment such as meteoro-
           logical conditions and terrain features including
           soil, vegetation, and drainage pattern; details of
           handling problems such as salvage possibilities
           and specific handling instructions).

      While some accident data  were discovered with respect
to waste materials (and are discussed as part of the  industry
descriptions  in the appendices), such  information is  extremely
scarce, and reports or articles are written only when the
accidents are spectacular.  Thus,  minor accidents or accidents
that may have latent effects, because  of the materials involved,
are not routinely reported.  Beyond the literature search,
various organizations  concerned with  safety and accident
prevention (e.g.,  National Safety Council,  Navy Safety Center)
were  contacted, but were unable to shed light on the  subject.
It appears that there are no organizations,  public or private,
which make a routine practice of collecting and analyzing
accident data  involving hazardous materials,  with the exception
of transportation interests.

      Hazardous materials accidents involving public trans-
portation are  reasonably well reported.  However, such acci-
dents  present no surprises, since  the materials involved are
in pure form (as marketed products),  and  their effects are
known in advance.  Therefore, the transportation community
seeks to prevent accidents, and new knowledge  rarely,  if ever,
evolves from  investigation of these accidents.

      A full discussion of the  situation surrounding hazardous
materials is  given in Appendix A-6 through D-2 (Volume III).
(8)    Disposal Practices

      Disposal practices for hazardous materials are discussed
in detail in Chapter V.  These practices involve two important
considerations, depending upon whether the materials are in
pure form or represent some portion of mixed waste streams.
                          1-25
-------
      The only adequate published information describing
disposal methods for hazardous materials in pure form is that
available from the Manufacturing Chemists Association, and
representative listings  are presented in Chapter V (see page
V-77).  In the automatic data processing records developed
for this study,  the appropriate MCA-recommended disposal
technique is given for each of the hazardous materials  on the
final list (Chapter II).  These methods can apply whenever  the
materials must be disposed of in pure form, in answer to the
finished product question discussed previously in Section (6).

      The real, but undefined,  problem  which remains,
however, is the treatment and  disposal of waste streams having
hazardous materials  as partial inputs.   The common practice
is to analyze waste streams  for only a few characteristics,
and to treat the streams based on these  results, if the  streams
are treated at all, prior to disposal.  Since the mixed wastes
are not analyzed in detail, little or nothing is known about
what actually happens,  in terms of reactions and the resultant
detailed characteristics of the  waste streams.   It follows that
knowledge does not exist which can reveal the possible hazardous
nature of the wastes discharged after treatment.  The prepon-
derant media used to dispose of wastes are landfill and discharge
to surface waters (rivers, lakes, oceans),  and  the medium
selected  is based on economics rather than on environmental
protection.

      A final objective of the study was to determine the extent
to which  manufacturers of hazardous materials provide disposal
instructions as a part of package labeling.  The  literature
search and discussions with  industry sources both revealed that
disposal  instructions are not made a part of labeling practice.
Further, the consensus among manufacturers is that such
instructions should not  be put on labels, for the  reason that
many handlers or users are  not knowledgeable enough concerning
the nature of the materials,  can too easily misinterpret the
instructions, and cause serious harm to themselves and others.

      For these reasons, the manufacturers,  particularly the
chemical companies, prefer that users return hazardous mater-
ials for disposal.  For  many years,  these manufacturers have
provided the return service with regular points of contact
identified to the users.   Recently, in a  cooperative effort among
                          1-26
-------
      the chemical firms and the Manufacturing Chemists Association,
      the materials return services have been placed under the
      jurisdiction of MCA, with a "hot line" established so that quick
      response can be made to  special problems.
4.     CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS


      (1)   Principal  Conclusions

           Key conclusions resulting from this study include:

                 At present a comprehensive body of knowledge
                 which describes the hazardous effects of most
                 substances does not exist.

                 Litlie evidence was obtained  to indicate that current
                 disposal methods are creating a human health
                 hazard.  Environmental damage is  more likely to
                 occur than are health hazards to humans.

                 A review of disposal processes established the
                 existence  of a variety of useful technology, and
                 more importantly, the fact that much of the
                 technology is not widely used.

                 The development of a list of hazardous substances
                 is not equivalent to the development of a list of
                 hazardous wastes because of the many unknowns
                 with respect to industrial mixed waste streams.

                 Wastes to be hazardous must contain one or more
                 hazardous substance in sufficient concentration
                 to be detrimental to human health or other elements
                 of the ecological system.

                 Accurate characterization of waste streams is
                 essential to the evaluation of hazard potential  and
                 the design of waste treatment to abate such hazards.
                              1-27
-------
           Disposal of hazardous materials is best handled
           at the point where the hazardous material is
           produced  (process) or released (plant).

These conclusions are presented in greater detail in Chapter VII.
(2)    Recommendations

      The principal recommendations resulting from this study
are:
           A national control  system is needed and should be
           developed for designated hazardous materials and
           wastes.  The  control system should include:

                 Identification of critical waste processes
                 or products

                 Licensing of production and disposal processes

                 Specification of handling and treatment methods

                 Inspection for conformance

                 Prescriptions for labeling of warnings and
                 disposal methods

                 Designation of collection points for specific
                 waste categories requiring special handling

                 Licensing of contractors for disposal or
                 recycling

                 Designation of ultimate disposal methods

                 Development of implementation plan.

           Special disposal sites should be designated or
           developed only if needed in the context of a
           comprehensive hazardous waste control system.
                          1-28
-------
Packaged hazardous consumer products should be
controlled throughout their distribution cycle, and
residential containers collected for reuse or
approved disposal.

Indepth studies should be made of a selected
number, say 10 to 15, of hazardous materials based
on highest production quantities and widest distri-
bution.

The recommended studies should include investi-
gation of production,  distribution,  and disposal
patterns for the selected materials.

A major research effort should be implemented
toward  the specific task of identifying the hazardous
effects  of various materials.  This research effort
should give major consideration to long-term
(chronic) effects.

An  extensive set of criteria needs  to be developed
for defining hazardous materials,  including
hazardous wastes.

Extensive research is needed for determination of
the composition of industrial waste streams.

Waste treatment research is needed  to establish
the feasibility of separating certain hazardous
compounds from general waste streams (e.g.,
heavy metal wastes, phenols).
              1-29
-------
II.   IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
-------
      II.    IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
1.    INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS
      Fundamental to the development of a plan which will recommend
ways to handle and dispose of wastes involving hazardous materials is
the development of an extensive list of materials, compounds, or
products which require special handling techniques.  A hazardous
substance list should take into account all important characteristics
of substances which  could cause them to be or to become hazardous.
The hazard consideration should include not only people but also all
ecological subsystems which contribute to environmental balances.
The list should include hazards that may develop in all disposal media
(i. e.,  air, water, or soil).   From such a list it will be possible to
develop insight into the total problem and to recommend preliminary
approaches for handling the wide variety of hazardous wastes which
are generated.

      At present,  a list of hazardous substances (for waste management
purposes) that would be all inclusive cannot be developed because of the
state of knowledge limitations in many of the hazardous waste material
areas.  In particular, the potential range of adverse effects that may
be produced by hazardous wastes on a variety of receptors (which include
humans,  animals and plants) is not fully known.  It is  imperative,
however,  that any tentative list be as representative as possible of
the real world situation.

      The analytical approach followed in this study for the development
of a hazardous substance list includes:

            Literature surveys of waste  disposal techniques,  the
            associated wastes, and previously published lists of
            hazardous materials

            Direct interviews with persons having knowledge of current
            waste problems  and procedures
                                 II-1
-------
            Identification of hazardous material manufacture and use
            by industrial sectors.

      Definition of hazardous materials remains a problem.  Initially,
for the purposes of this study,  hazardous wastes were defined as
follows:

      "Hazardous waste  materials are defined as those materials or
      combinations of materials which require special management
      techniques because of their acute or chronic effects on the health
      or welfare of the public (or those individuals who handle them
      when they are disposed of by waste management processes
      (e. g.,  storage, transport, incineration, sanitary landfilling,
      composting, dumping,  industrial waste treatment)). "

Although necessarily imprecise, this general definition will serve to
outline the complexity of the problem of management  of chemical
wastes in that these will almost always,  by definition, contain some
materials which may, as are,  or under conditions of  waste management,
become injurious to public health and public welfare.   This can best
be understood by examination of the concept "hazardous waste" and
of the definition given earlier.

      The use of the adjective hazardous,  defined as "left to  chance"
implies that there are liabilities, potential problems,  or risk
probabilities in the operation which  is being described; in this case,
waste management.   All chemical wastes have some hazard (some
risk probability) of becoming dangerous  on disposal.  These may vary
from minimal dangers such as salt dumping at sea, which damages
osmotic pressure of the  microenvironment,  with possible liabilities
on local life, to such indescribable potential problems as  disposal of
nitrite dumping which may interact with other chemical species to
form nitrosamines  (known carcinogenic) which may finally appear in
drinking water,  to such clearly defined problems as mercury or acid
dumping.  The problem is the characterization of the "hazard potential"
and the subsequent  selection of some point below which the potential
is so minimal as to be arbitrarily defined as negligible.  Then,  only
those wastes which have hazard potentials above this  point could be
considered as candidates for special handling, treatment and disposal.

      Obviously, the characterization of "hazard potential" is based
on a. number of factors,  which can be arbitrarily assigned some
importance.
                               II-2
-------
(1)    Route of Disposal

      Some materials will vary in hazard based on the final
disposition.  Readily biodegradable toxic or otherwise unwanted
materials from which no dangerous species of chemicals can be
produced will be nonhazardous if put  into an efficient sewage
treatment plant, but highly suspect if disposed of at sea or in a
watercourse,  or by some technique through which the original
materials can appear in ground or  drinking water.  Biodegradable
surfactants are examples of this type of material;  For the
purposes of this report,  this factor has been minimized, assuming
that the basic unchanged character is the point of focus and not
the potential deactivation in special treatment situations.
(2)    Mammalian Toxicity

      Obviously,  this is a key factor in consideration of hazard
potential.  Basically toxic materials such as cyanide, heavy
metals, fluorides,  radioactive wastes, etc., must be considered
as hazardous.  These can affect all forms of life in the disposal
process or in the ultimate disposal media.  Again,  arbitrary
assignments  can be made on the basis of current knowledge of
toxicity.   Those materials which are defined in law (The Federal
Hazardous Substances Act,  The Hazardous Materials Board of
the Department of Transportation) as very toxic (oral toxicity to
rats,  LD5Q of 50 mg per kg or less)  or highly toxic (LDso of 50
to 500 mg per kg) should be considered dangerous.  Waste  streams
which contain such materials,  regardless of concentration,
should also be labeled "hazardous. "
(3)    Non-Mammalian Toxicity

      This is a much less clear concept,  since less is known
about effects of materials on fish, birds, etc.  Nevertheless,
some factor such as that given above for the mammals is needed.
(4)    Chemical and Biochemical Change

      Prior to this decade,  the scientific community did not
recognize secondary hazard liability where materials can undergo
chemical or free radical changes in the environment, or under
                           II-3
-------
      special microenvironmental conditions, to become species which
      have greater hazard liability.  Now these  changes are commonly
      recognized; for example, the mercury conversion to methyl
      mercury, the photo-oxidation of hydrocarbons, or the anaerobic
      conversion of nitrilotriacetate to nitrosamines.  Where such
      change can occur,  then, the waste must be considered as
      hazardous and processed to remove the potentially labile species.
      (5)   Imbalances

           Some materials,  phosphates may well be the most readily
      recognized offender at  present, may cause imbalances when
      added to the microenvironment.  These  imbalances may result
      in changes in the food chain of a waterway, the economic value
      of the ultimate disposal site,  or the health value of land or water.
      For example, disposal of large amounts of sodium ion into a
      watercourse,  resulting in its appearance in a drinking water
      system, could cause a  change in the propensity of the consuming
      population for cardiovascular disease.  Thus,  imbalance too
      should be considered.

           For the purposes of this study,  the tendency has been to
      ignore this problem, as has the question of route of disposal.
      Where the material classified as waste  is neither inherently
      toxic nor dangerous, imbalance alone is not a  factor in causing
      assignment of  a hazardous  rating.
      (6)   Miscellaneous Factors
           Occasionally, it must be recognized that materials can be
      offensive because of their non-biological effects.   Materials
      can be visualized which cause structural degradation, offensive
      but not injurious odors, unsightly accumulation, etc.  For the
      purpose of this analysis, these were also not termed "hazardous"
      despite the fact that improved disposal practice may benefit the
      public good.

      In summary,  materials have  been defined as hazardous if they
have the known inherent ability to produce:
                                II-4
-------
           Toxic effects on mammalian species (whether lethal or
           only damaging)

           Damaging or lethal effects on non-mammalian systems

           Some significant undesirable change in man, such as
           carcinogens, teratogens,  or mutagens.
2.    APPROACH TO HAZARDOUS MATERIALS IDENTIFICATION

      The approach outlined in the preceding section was implemented
for the study.  An extensive literature search was conducted which
included both manual and computer screening of pertinent literature
sources to identify useful references (see pages 1-4 to I- 7 ).  While
the literature search covered all aspects of information applicable to
the study, simultaneously,  emphasis was placed on identification of
hazardous materials,  since all other aspects (e. g.,  handling, treat-
ment, disposal) had to be related  to the materials.  It should be noted
that no preconceived notions were held as to what materials might be
hazardous.  Rather, any materials that were identified were initially
listed, then cross-checked through references describing hazardous
properties of materials to determine whether they should remain on
the list.

      As the literature was reviewed, it became apparent that certain
industry types  constitute the principal manufacturers and users of
potentially hazardous materials, and experienced many environmental
pollution problems.  Therefore, it was determined that the collected
information could be handled most systematically if it were categorized
according to industry groups. To complement the industry group
identification indicated by the literature,  reference was made to a
listing entitled "Major Sources of Pollution, " which was developed
during 1967-1968 by the  Federal Water Pollution Control Administration.
That list covers the top  50 pollution sources (from the viewpoint of water
use),  and includes natural and nonindustrial sources. In addition, the
list presents a priority ranking indicating the relative severity of the
pollution problems created by the sources named. The list is
reproduced  in Table II-1.

      Comparisons were made between the industries listed by Table II-1
and the industry-type identities  indicated through the literature  search,
and a list of industry groups was developed for use in categorizing
                                 II-5
-------
       Table II-1
Major Sources of Pollution 4
No.
1
2
3
4
5

6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Source j Priority
I
Pulp & paper industry
Municipal sewered waste
Power (thermal) production
Agriculture runoff
Storm & combined sewers

Food processing industry
Petrochemical industry
Irrigation return flow
Petroleum refining industry
Feed lots
Metal & metal products industry
Unsewered domestic waste
Marine
Dredging
Oil pollution & production
Organic chemical industry
Acid Mines
Impoundments
Recreation boats
Unsewered urban runoff
Textile industry
Inorganic chemical industry
Commercial vessels
Construction activities
Potato processing
1
2
3
4
5

6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
14
14
15
16
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
PPBS Category
1204
1101
1203
1302
1102
1103
1206
1202
1303
1205
1304
1201
1105
1501
1507
1402
1202
1401
1504
1501
1104
1209
1202
1502
1503
1206
           II-6
-------
                           Table II-1
                          (Continued)
No.
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
Source
Pharmaceutical manufacture
Pesticide industry
Saltwater intrusion
Phosphate mining
Logging
Milk products & handling
Fertilizer manufacture
Fish processing industry
Lumbering
Mining
Coal processing
Strip mining (coal, sand & gravel)
Uranium" mining
Meat packing
Natural pollution
Canning industry
Sugar beet industry
Cattle industry
Brines
Copper mining
Log storage
Agricultural chemical production
Tanning & leather industry
Nuclear installations
Brewery wastes
Priority
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
36
37
37
37
38
39
39
40
41
41
42
PPBS Category
1202
1202
1505
1404
1301
1206
1202
1206
1210
1404
1205
1404
1403
1206
1506
1206
1206
1304
1212
1404
1210
1202
1212
1212
1206
Developed 1967-1968 By Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
                              II-7
-------
the study information (Table II-2).  These industries are identified by
their Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) code numbers.  A distinct
advantage of this approach is its use of geographically locating (through
reference to the Census of Manufactures) the major hazardous material
use-points, and consequently the location of potentially hazardous
wastes.  The industry group list was also supplemented by identity of
federal government agencies most concerned with the manufacture and
use of hazardous materials, and with the category of power utilities.

      The SIC code listing of Table II-2 breaks down to the four-digit
codes where the industry group identification becomes more specific
than is indicated by the two-digit general codes, and it was to the four-
digit level that the  initial literature search was directed. However,  the
extent and quality of information available proved to be so limited that,
with a few exceptions, the more realistic approach was to utilize the
two-digit codes for aggregating and reporting purposes.

      As the industry groups were identified, the more prominent
trade associations  representing each industry were also identified.
Contacts were made with 20 such associations (Table II-3) to determine
whether they were  publishing any materials involving wastes, waste
disposal, or hazardous materials data. There were a few notable
exceptions, but, as a rule, these groups were unable to provide  assis-
tance.   Many have  undertaken either no specific technical work or have
only recently become involved in technical matters related to the environ-
mental pollution problems of their member firms.  Those able to provide
information were the larger and more  technically oriented groups
(e. g.,  American Petroleum Institute).  A limited number of visits
were made to industrial plants since the study program did not envision
an extensive survey effort, but little factual information was gained
from these sources.  A  survey was made among nine hospitals in the
New York-New Jersey area, and the results are reported in Appendix A-11
but little worthwhile information was gained with respect to
pathological and other potentially hazardous materials as wastes.

      Key findings  of these early  discussions and data collections
included the following:

            Detailed information on the composition of industrial
            waste streams  could be located for only a few representative
            industries or single processes within an industry.
                                  II-8
-------
                          Table II-2
          Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Used
                 for Information Categorization

                      SIC Code and Title
10
Metal Mining
11
Anthracite Mining
12
Bituminous Coal and Lignite Mining
20
Food
                   rsandred Products
     2011 Meat Packing Plants
     2013 Sausages and Other Prepared Meats
     2015 Poultry Dressing Plants
     r.021 Creamery Butter
     2022 Cheese, Natural and Processed
     2023 Condensed and Evaporated Milk
     2024 Ice Cream and Frozen Desserts
     2026 Fluid Milk
     2031 Canned and Cured Seafoods
     2032 Canned Specialties
     2033 Canned Fruits and Vegetables
     2034 Dehydrated Food  Products
     2035 Pickles,  Sauces and Salad Dressings
     2036 Fresh  or Frozen  Packaged Fish
     2037 Frozen Fruits and Vegetables
     2041 Flour and Other Grain Mill Products
     2042 Prepared Feeds for Animals and Fowl
     2043 Cereal Preparations
     2044 Rice Milling
     2045 Blended and Prepared Flour
     2046 Wet Corn Milling
     2061 Raw Cane Sugar
     2062 Cane Sugar Refining
     2063 Beet Sugar
     2071 Confectionery Products
                               II-9
-------
                           Table II-2
                          (Continued)
     2072  Chocolate and Cocoa Products
     2073  Chewing Gum
     2082  Malt Liquors
     2083  Malt
     2084  Wines, Brandy and Brandy Spirits
     2085  Distilled Liquor,  Except Brandy
     2086  Bottled and Canned Soft Drinks
     2087  Flavoring Extracts and Syrups, N. E. C. *
     2091  Cottonseed Oil Mills
     2092  Soybean Oil Mills
     2093  Vegetable Oil Mills,  N. E. C. *
     2094  Animal and Marine Fats and Oils
     2096  Shortening and Cooking Oils
     2095  Roasted Coffee
     2097  Manufactured Ice
     2098  Macaroni and Spaghetti
     2099  Food Preparations, N. E. C. *
 22         Textile Mill Products

     2211  Weaving Mills, Cotton
     2221  Weaving Mills, Synthetics
     2231  Weaving and Finishing Mills, Wool
     2241  Narrow Fabric Mills
     2251  Women's Hosiery, Except Socks
     2252  Hosiery,  N. E. C.
     2253  Knit Outerwear Mills
     2254  Knit Underwear Mills
     2256  Knit Fabric Mills
     2259  Knitting Mills,  N. E. C. *
     2261  Finishing Plants, Cotton
     2262  Finishing Plants, Synthetics
*
 Not Elsewhere Classified
                              11-10
-------
                          Table II-2
                          (Continued)
     2269 Finishing Plants, N. E. C. *
     2271 Woven Carpets and Rugs
     2272 Tufted Carpets and Rugs
     2279 Carpets and Rugs, N. E. C. *
     2281 Yarn Mills, Except Wool
     2282 Throwing and Winding Mills
     2283 Wool Yarn Mills
     2284 Thread Mills
     2291 Felt Goods, N. E. C. *
     2292 Lace Goods
     2293 Paddings and Upholstery Filling
     2294 Processed Textile Waste
     2295 Coated Fabrics, Not Rubberized
     2296 Tire Cord and Fabric
     2297 Scouring and Combing Plants
     2298 Cordage and Twine
     2299 Textile Goods,  N. E. C. *
26        Paper and Allied Products

     2611 Pulp Mills
     2621 Paper Mills, Except Building Paper
     2631 Paperboard Mills
     2661 Building Paper and Board Mills
28        Chemicals and Allied Products

     2812 Alkalies t»nd Chlorine
     2813 Industrial G^es
     2815 Cyclic Intermediates and Crudes
     2816 Inorganic  Pigments
Not Elsewhere Classified
                            11-11
-------
                          Table II-2
                         (Continued)
     2818 Industrial Organic Chemicals, N. E. C. *
     2819 Industrial Inorganic Chemicals,  N. E. C. *
     2821 Plastics Materials and Resins
     2822 Synthetic Rubber
     2823 Cellulosic Manmade Fibers
     2824 Organic Fibers, Noncellulosic
     2831 Biological Products
     2833 Medicinals and Botanicals
     2834 Pharmaceutical Preparations
     2841 Soap and Other Detergents
     2842 Polishes and Sanitation Goods
     2851 Paints and Allied Products
     2861 Gum and Wood Chemicals
     2871 Fertilizers
     2872 Fertilizers, Mixing Only
     2879 Agricultural Chemicals,  N. E. C. *
     2892 Explosives
     2895 Carbon Black
29
Petroleum and Coal Products
     2911  Petroleum Refining
     2951  Paring Mixtures and Blocks
     2952  Asphalt Felts and Coatings
     2992  Lubricating Oils and Greases
     2999  Petroleum and Coal Products, N. E. C.
31
Leather and Leather Products
     3111  Leather Tanning and Finishing
     3121  Industrial Leather Belting
     3131  Footwear Cut Stock
Not Elsewhere Classified
                               11-12
-------
                          Table II-2
                         (Continued)
33        Primary Metal Industries

     3312  Blast Furnaces and Steel Mills
     3313  Electrometallurgical Products
     3315  Steel Wire and Related Products
     3316  Cold Finishing of Steel Shapes
     3317  Steel Pipe and Tubes
     3321  Gray Iron Foundries
     3322  Malleable Iron Foundries
     3323  Steel Foundries
     3331  Primary Copper
     3332  Primary Lead
     3333  Primary Zinc
     3334  Primary Aluminum
     3339  Primary Nonferrous Metals,  N. E. C. *
     3341  Secondary Nonferrous Metals
     3351  Copper Rolling and Drawing
     3352  Aluminum Rolling and Drawing
     3356  Nonferrous Rolling and Drawing, N. E. C. *
     3357  Nonferrous Wire Drawing and Insulating
     3361  Aluminum Castings
     3362  Brass, Bronze  and Copper  Castings
     3369  Nonferrous Castings,  N. E. C. *
     3391  Iron and Steel Forgings
     3392  Nonferrous Forgings
     3399  Primary Metal  Products, N. E. C. *
34        Fabricated Metal Products

    3471  Plating and Polishing
    3479  Metal Coating and Allied Services
 Not Elsewhere Classified
                             11-13
-------
                            Table II-2
                           (Continued)
 80        Medical and Other Health Services


806        Hospitals


Atomic Energy Commission


Department of Defense


Power Utilities
  Source:     Standard Industrial Classification Manual, Executive
              Office of the President, Office of Statistical Standards,
              U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967.
                               11-14
-------
                             Table II-3
                     Trade Associations Contacted
 1.    Technical Association of Pulp & Paper
       1 Dun woody Park
       Atlanta, Georgia  30341

 2.    American Electroplaters Society
       56 Melmore Gardens
       East Orange,  New Jersey 07017

 3.    American Association of Textile Chemists & Colorists
       Box 12215
       Research Triangle,  North Carolina 27709

 4.    American Textile Manufacturing Association
       Charlotte, North Carolina

 5.    American Paper Institute
       260 Madison Avenue
       New York, New York 10016

 6.    National Association of Metal Finishers
       248 Lorain Avenue
       Upper Montclair, New Jersey

 7.    Institute of Makers of Explosives
       420 Lexington Avenue
       New York, New York 10017

 8.    Manufacturing Chemists Association
       1825 Connecticut Avenue, N. W.
       Washington,  D.  C.  20009

 9.    American Petroleum Institute
       1801 K Street, N. W.
       Washington,  D.  C.

10.     National Agricultural Chemicals Association
       1155-15th Street, N.  W.
       Washington,  D.  C.
                              11-15
-------
                             Table II-3
                             (Continued)
11.     Fertilizer Institute
       1015-18th Street
       Washington, D. C.

12.     Sulfur Institute
       1725 K  Street
       Washington, D. C.

13.     National Paint, Varnish and Lacquer Association
       1500 Rhode Island Avenue,  N. W.
       Washington, D. C.  20005

14.     National Petroleum Refiners Association
       1725 DeSales Street, N. W.
       Washington, D. C.  20036

15.     American Petroleum Refiners Association
       717 Ring Building
       Washington, D. C.  20036

16.     American Chemical Society
       1155-16th Street, N. W.
       Washington, D. C.

17.     U.S. Can Sugar Refiners Association
       1001 Connecticut Avenue, N. W.
       Washington, D. C.  20036

18.     American Pharmaceutical Association
       2215 Constitution Avenue, N. W.
       Washington, D. C.

19.     National Pharmaceutical Council
       1030-15th Street, N. W.
       Washington, D. C.  20005

20.     National Solid Waste Management Association
       1145 -  19th Street, N.  W.
       Washington, D. C.
                                11-16
-------
            The large masses of data needed to provide definitive
            information on specific,  hazardous constitutents of industrial
            waste streams and waste piles was not available except
            as indicated previously.

            With definitive information on waste hazard characteristics
            and amounts lacking,  the list of potentially hazardous waste
            materials must rely for  definition upon certain limited,
            commonly-measured properties of waste such as acidity
            or alkalinity,  biological  oxygen demand (BOD), odors,
            radioactivity,  etc.

            A substantial amount of useful  information does exist
            relative to the toxic effects and explosive  characteristics
            of many chemical elements and compounds (i. e., basic
            data not related directly to industrial products  or industrial
            waste streams).

      From the above findings, it was concluded that the  development
of a list of hazardous waste substances snould proceed along two main
lines.  As originally planned, data relative to a list of waste materials
was assembled by industry through detailed analysis of selected
industrial sectors P.O defined  by the Standard Industrial Classification
Code  (Reference 1).  These lists included not only materials found in
waste streams, but also materials believed to be hazardous and found
as input materials  (materials included in product process cycling),
and materials included as products whether they were intermediate
products or final products for consumer  distribution and  use.

      It was expected (and confirmed) that  the lists of potentially
h xzardous materials developed from industry references would include
the identification of many  materials  or substances in generic or
col;--?ctive terms such as "solvents," "slimes," "oxidizer*, ' etc.
Specific chemical compounds or  elements embraced by the generic
categories were defined, to the extent possible, for each industry  and/
or by commonly employed industrial processes within each industry.

      Simultaneously, a more basic list of known hazardous substances
was compiled.  The basic list evolved from data and information
extracted from detailed study.  These reports and references  include
biological data that resulted from experimental or accidental animal and
plant exposures to various substances suspected of being toxic,
explosive or otherwise hazardous to  human and/or other  forms of  life.
                                  11-17
-------
      Among the information assembled were also a number of reports
which included lists of materials and compounds deemed hazardous for
a variety of reasons, depending upon the purpose of each study (or
mission of each group) that developed such a list.  Many of the chemical
substances included on these individual lists appeared on several of
the lists, lending credence to the claims that they comprise a hazard.
Substances included on more than one list were identified and became
part of a nucleus to which other substances,  identified as hazardous
elsewhere in the literature, were added to complete the second, more
basic,  list of hazardous substances.

      The dual approach,  then,  for the  development of a list of
hazardous materials was to assemble lists of hazardous materials
based on industry references by specific chemical elements,  compounds
and substances, and concurrently review existing lists of hazardous
materials prepared by major associations  and government agencies
(see Table II-4, page II-2t>).  Relationships needed to be determined
among the lists to establish the extent of hazard that prevails as a
result of hazardous materials and wastes involved in industrial
processes.  Such relationships were  to be  established to the extent
possible at available bridging points;  that is, those industries and
specific industrial processes for which representative or typical
composition of product and waste materials have been made available.

      Accordingly,  emphasis was placed on establishing a compre-
hensive list of materials which require special handling and disposal,
and on establishing techniques which  would identify hazardous waste
streams and the disposal processes they require.  Additional data on
disposal practices were gathered in terms of current industrial prac-
tices and available guidelines.   Data  were  also collected on industrial
production and consumption quantities.   These latter data were
developed further to provide a measure  of  the movement and
geographical distribution of potentially hazardous materials which may:

           Be used in the closed production cycle of a single industrial
           plant

           Be produced as  an intermediate product by one type of
           industrial plant  for use as input material for other industries

           Be produced as  part of  a  variety of consumer-type products
           which move freely in commerce on a nationwide (or even
           global) scale.
                                 11-18
-------
      By viewing patterns for the production and flow of materials
known to be relatively hazardous (i. e., the basic list), it is possible
to make some preliminary estimates of the magnitude and extent of
corresponding hazard and disposal problems.  The details of the
development of the list of hazardous substances are documented in
Section 5 (page 11-24).  All of the above described data and information
became input to the development of a system for rating the individual
items included on the list of hazardous substances.  The development
of this rating system is described in Chapter IV.
3.    OCCURRENCE OF HAZARDOUS WASTES

      Hazardous wastes involve materials discarded because they are
either unneeded or unwanted,  but which can have toxic effects on man
or his environment in adequate controls are not exercised throughout
their  life-cycles,  from initial extraction or production until final
disposition.  The concept of adequate control  (management) of such
materials is  fundamental to an evaluation of hazardous materials
disposal practices.  The places and times when control over material
passes from  one responsible group to another are likely to be danger
areas in this control system.

      Each material which enters the economic system has a 'life
style1 of its own.   Some are relatively simple; others may be quite
complex.  Coal, for example,. may be extracted and consumed
immediately  in a local stove,  or, it may be shipped to a major industrial
site to initiate the  production of a series of complex chemical compounds.
At each stage in conversion processes, the possibility of hazardous
wastes arises.  Typically, control over potential hazards will be
greatest when ownership interests are involved, and least when no
ownership interest exists.  The conversion of the material from one
form  to another also increases risks and requires close controls.
Toxic materials may be produced where formerly no toxicity existed.
These materials may be either main products, by-products, or waste
materials with potentially significant environmental effects.

      Hazardous waste materials occur in two general forms:

           Hazardous materials in the form of finished products,
           which  are declared by the owner to have no further value
           and thus ready for disposal
                                 11-19
-------
            Hazardous materials which are generated as wastes from
            production or use processes, and immediately enter the
            disposal process.

      The first type comprise materials whose characteristics and
properties are known, and whose hazardous effects are known to some
extent.  Since they are originally manufactured as valuable, marketable
products, and since they may pass through several ownerships during
their lives, the time or place at which they may be declared waste is
both unknown and unpredictable.  Therefore, to protect man and the
environment from adverse effects of careless  disposal practice, a
system of control is needed through which owners are continuously held
accountable for the status of the materials.

      The more pressing problem of hazardous wastes occurs as a
result of production and use  processes,  since  materials are represented
which are generated routinely and continuously as wastes, are
immediately ready for disposal, and are usually disposed of quickly.
Production process wastes,  with the exception of off-spec products,
very seldom consist of pure  materials and since they are wastes, are
usually thrown together into  mixed wastes.   The properties of the input
materials to mixed waste streams may be known, but very little is
known,  as a rule,  of the hazardous properties  of the waste stream,
because detailed analyses of these streams are not made.  Thus, the
mixed •• aste stream might:

            Exhibit some or  all of the characteristics of certain of its
            constituents

            Produce chemical reactions which  are  unknown and
            indeterminate

            Create,  in the mixture,  hazardous conditions greater than
            those attributable to any of its constituents

            Nullify,  in the mixture,  hazardous properties  of any or all
            of the  constitutents.

      The fact that knowledge of these factors  is not available contri-
butes the greatest threat to the ecology today,  since these mixed wastes
are a daily fact-of-life, yet cannot be properly included in a list of
hazardous materials since nearly nothing definitive is known about
them.
                                11-20
-------
      The most toxic materials can be, and routinely are,  safely
controlled throughout their life cycles.  Industry and government
continuously produce, utilize and dispose of extremely toxic materials.
Where the dangers are recognized and controls carefully engineered
and operated, no hazardous conditions arise.  The materials may
present hazards if uncontrolled, but the controls applied assure that
the occurrence of hazards is minimized.

      The numbers of existing compounds that can have toxic effects
on man or his environment are in the  tens of thousands.  New
compounds are being developed daily.   The knowledge we have of the
ultimate toxic properties of present compounds is quite limited, and
new compounds are likely to be developed more  rapidly than are our
capabilities to unravel their  short- and long-term toxicities.   Establish-
ment  of an ultimate list of compounds  for designation as either
hazardous materials  or hazardous wastes is foredoomed.  By the time
the hazardous effects of the included compounds  can be  made known,
the list will be outdated.  This is particularly true in the consideration
of chronic (long-term) effects,  where  the time required to  ascertain
the effects is measured in years, and  frequently the materials are no
longer produced or used by the time the results  are known.  The
economic aspects of this  situation have retarded chronic effects
research, since even the most concerned parties are unwilling to
commit the necessary resources to research in  so uncertain a situation.
Any selection and listing  of hazardous materials, then,  must be
viewed as a useful sample from the universe of toxic materials, which
can be utilized to  evaluate existing management techniques  (capabilities
and limitations),  and to assist in the development of management
systems which will ensure better control over similar materials.  It
is in this context that the list of hazardous materials developed in this
study should be viewed and utilized.

      The investigations conducted during this study have explored
both the toxic challenges  to the environment which exist and the means
now in use to control and safely dispose of materials having dangerous
properties.   As the study progressed  and the concept of adequate
controls assumed more significance,  greater importance came to be
attached to the capabilities of treatment and disposal systems to control
hazards, than to the capabilities of the materials to create  hazards.
The best techniques and combinations  of techniques now available can
provide a means to devise a national control system over hazardous
materials which will ensure safe handling throughout their  life cycles,
and safe disposition when their economic utility has been exhausted.
                                11-21
-------
      An additional problem exists that has significance to the way in
which hazardous wastes are treated and disposed of—the problem of
attitudes on the part of individuals.  As discussions were held with
representatives of industry and government,  it quickly became apparent
that many individuals are daily handling and disposing of hazardous
materials (e. g., acids, caustics, pesticides), but who will flatly state
that they are not involved with hazardous materials.  Part of this prob-
lem stems from close familiarity with the materials handled,  but the
lack of clear-cut definition of hazardous materials  contributes signifi-
cantly to the problem.
4.    ANALYTICAL PROBLEMS

      Despite the apparent straightforward analytical approach,  a
number of analytical problems prevail that require attention.  The
definition provided initially by the EPA implies that the state-of-the-
art includes quantitative measures of health or welfare effects caused
by human exposures to hazardous wastes.  However, relatively few
of the many substances considered as potential toxic pollutants of
the environment have been studied sufficiently to permit full definition
of concentration and effects relationships, which may vary consider-
ably as a result of numerous factors.  In a limited number of cases,
data are adequate to define the full spectrum of effects  that may  be
obtained. In many instances, however, the effects criteria in common
use are educated guesses at best.   Many of the  effluents of industrial
society,  while not specifically hazardous to humans or  other populations,
can exert slow but extensive changes to the ecology.  Materials which
have no discovered effect on man or his environment may impose
unrecognized, subtle effects which can irreversibly disturb the genetic
patterns of man or other living specie.

      For such reasons, the identification and quantification of specific
hazardous materials should be approached most cautiously.  What is
not known about material toxicology  is immense.  The proliferation  of
organic and inorganic  compounds  may exceed the capability of man to
rigorously identify the hazards associated with each. As stated  in the
1969 American Chemical Society Annual Report:

      "Several problem areas emerge as explicit themes  in this  report.
      One such theme  is the primitive conditions of our fundamental
      knowledge of how living things are affected by long-time, low-level
      exposure to pollutants.  Partly related to this theme  is a second,
                                 11-22
-------
      the even more primitive condition of our knowledge of the effects
      of pollutants on the ecology, that is  on the aggregate of living
      things as they exist in nature.  The  relationship of contaminants
      to the ecology is very nearly a total mystery.  A third theme is
      the analytical methods that are used to monitor,  control and study
      the environment and related phenomena.  Those methods generally
      are not as good as they ought to be. "

      Not all hazardous effects are toxic.  Some materials may cause
biological effects (disease or illness),  and an area of important consi-
deration results from the flammable and explosive potential of some
compounds (see References 2, 3,  4,  5,  6  at the end of this chapter).
Other materials are capable of violent self-reaction or reaction with
other compounds,  including moisture or water (References 7, 8).

      Not all effects resulting from hazardous substances, particularly
as wastes, are direct and immediate.  The fact that toxic substances
may persist and accumulate in several echelons of the  food chain leading
eventually to humans is an example of the indirect,  long-term implica-
tions of hazardous materials.  There is also a growing concern that
certain chemical wastes (e. g., some pesticides) may persist for periods
of time that permit them to become entrained in the water cycle to
reach surface or subsurface ground water and thus contaminate clean
water supplies (References 9, 10,  11).

      Better understanding and growing concern for all ecological
populations  comprising the total environment have introduced additional
factors that must be considered in developing a list of hazardous sub-
stances.  For example, substances which would not be directly damaging
to particular plant or animal  species may nevertheless produce dele-
terious effects on related forms of life which comprise their food
supply or their preditor/competitor relationships.  Thus, the balance
of nature, achieved through long-term natural selection processes,
can be upset and undesirable  consequences result.

      As substance or material may produce nontoxic effects from
acute exposures (i. e., exposures of relatively large concentrations or
doses over short time periods),  but may produce serious effects from
chronic exposures (i. e.,  exposures involving low concentration or
dose levels over extended periods of time) (References 7, 9).   Relatively
good data have been obtained  concerning acute exposures of humans as
a result of reconstruction of industrial or  other accident situations,
but amounts and detail of such data are limited (Reference 12).  Chronic
                                 11-23
-------
exposure data on humans is more difficult to obtain because of the
longer time periods involved and the difficulty of linking long-term
deleterious effects definitively to a specific hazardous compound.
Extrapolations from experimental animal data to estimates of human
effects have been considered acceptable (with some reservations) for
short-term acute or chronic exposures (i. e., days to, perhaps, weeks).
But, longer-term animal exposures are not compatible with long-term
human exposures and effects (i. e.,  order of years).

      The difficulty of identifying hazardous waste substances is
aggravated further by the wide spectrum of industrial and commercial
activity that occurs.  Consequently, waste effluents which may  be
discharged to the air,  water,  or  the land,  vary from municipal sewage
and large amounts of ordinary household solid or  liquid wastes  to
complex industrial mixtures containing an array of organic and inorganic
compounds and drugs.   The composition of these effluents cannot be
predicted with certainty because  of the variations  of industrial produc-
tion processes and the great diversity of products that are produced
during any given period.

      Thus, in partial summary, the analytical problems that evolve
in developing a list of hazardous  substances include the need for:

            Definitions of exposure concentration  or dose levels
            and corresponding acute and chronic exposure effects

            Knowledge of subtle effects that occur, such as those
            caused by persistent  toxic compounds

            Knowledge concerning the  complex nature of effluent mix-
            tures found in waste  streams and in waste disposal  processes

            Data on the complex  composition and scheduling of industry
            which produces the wide spectrum of potentially hazardous
            products as well as by-products.
5.    PREPARATION OF LIST OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS

      The basic list of hazardous substances, which was developed
independently of the industrial sector analyses, evolved primarily from
seven lists of hazardous materials which have been developed separately
by interested government agencies or industrial associations.  Pertinent
                                 11-24
-------
information on derivation of each of the seven lists is provided in
Table II-4.  The reports themselves are  included among the list of
references (see References 6, 8, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18).

      Each of the lists summarized in Table II-4 was prepared by a
different organization.  Each list includes a particular set of criteria
which provides a hazard profile for each  substance on the list.  As
evident in the table, the criteria are not  consistent from list to list,
but a substantial amount of information concerning hazardous  effects
and/or  characteristics  is provided for  each substance or compound of
each list. Where the same substance appears on several lists, the
total amount of information made available is quite large and is
useful for identification and relative  rating of hazardous  substances.

      The preparation of each list of hazardous materials (Table  II-4)
by its authors could be  considered as an  effort to select and list those
materials of particular impact on the mission of the  publishing
organization and thus includes some  subjective  judgments.  The
development of each list,  however,  represented a research  and analysis
effort involving masses of information  and data which are worthy of
incorporation into the current study. Accordingly, the lists were
compared on an item by item basis to draw a basic list of a  manageable
number of substances.  Only compounds  found on two or  more lists
were included in an initial selection (see  Appendix B for  comparison of
current, hazardous compounds lists).  A further screening and reduction
was desirable to reduce the list for ease  of handling.  This reduction
was accomplished by introducing production amounts as an added
criterion of relative hazard to the ecology and to the human  population.

      The matrix shown in Table II-5 presents the production criteria
and the  rationale for selecting compounds from other lists of hazardous
material. These criteria were used for the second screening of the
preliminary list of 900  hazardous substances.  As a  result of this
screening,  the initial list was reduced to approximately 400  chemical
compounds.

      Subsequently, additions were made to the basic list to bring its
total to  approximately 500 chemical substances  or compounds.

      These additions were made singly or by small  groups.  All were
derived from study of the texts, reports,  bulletins, etc., which were
gathered during the information and data  search phases of the  study.
For example, a series  of 27 reports summarize 30 basic substances
                                11-25
-------
                 Table  II-4
  Summary of Factors Included in Current Lists
       Of Hazardous Materials Developed
By Government Agencies and Industrial Associations








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                      11-26
-------
                             Table II-5
              Criteria for Reduction of Preliminary List
                       of Hazardous Substances
Production
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Large
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Medium
>1 x 107 but
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Number of Lists Substance Was
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Include
Omit
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Include
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Include
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Include
and their compounds which have been identified as air pollutant hazards
(see Bibliography).  A number of metallic,  organic and inorganic
compounds, shown by experimental and accident data to be very toxic
to humans, animals and plants, were added to the basic list  of hazardous
substances as a result of information contained in these reports.
Similarly,  several summary type reports have been prepared on
pesticides as hazardous substances (References  10, 11, 21), and a
number of pesticide compounds were added to the list based  on  informa-
tion contained in these reports.
6.     THE LIST OF HAZARDOUS COMPOUNDS AND ITS USES

      The objective sought in the selection of compounds was to
establish a comprehensive list rather than an exhaustive list of
potentially hazardous materials.   The list is representative of the
                                11-27
-------
toxic compounds which may require special waste management controls
to minimize hazards to people and to the environment.

      Such a list, then, represents materials which are likely to be
hazardous if not properly controlled.  Proper control of toxic materials
can completely avoid hazardous exposures of people or the environment
to such toxic effects.  Only when proper management  does not exist,
or accidents occur in spite of precautions,  do the potential hazards
become real hazards.

      The main utility of a comprehensive list of potentially hazardous
materials is to identify the type and extent of the present and necessary
management systems.   Such systems might require development of
special facilities to dispose of materials when such facilities are not
readily available to consumers.  They may also be used to identify the
need for management controls in the production, shipment, storage and
distribution systems of such materials as well as waste disposal
problems.  By and large, the producers of such materials maintain
excellent controls which preclude hazardous conditions  in the production
processes.  Less-skilled competency is available once these materials
most into the commerce and consumer distribution systems.


      The list of hazardous materials developed in this  study is
presented in Table  II-6 along with the SIC codes identifying the basic
producing and using industries, and the annual production figures,
where available.  The production figures given as "*10" indicate less
than 10 million pounds total annual production.  Certain hazardous
materials of interest in Department of Defense and Atomic Energy
Commission controlled activities are indicated in Chapter III-(page III-41
and Chapter IV (page IV-44 to IV-48).
                                 11-28
-------
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                                                                    11-37
-------
                     LIST OF REFERENCES
1.    Standard Industrial Classification Manual, Executive Office of
      the President, Bureau of the Budget, Office of Statistical
      Standards,  U.S.  Government Printing Office,  1967.

2.    Design of an Overview System for Evaluating the Public Health
      Hazards of Chemicals in the Environment,  G.A. Lutz et al.,
      Battelle Memorial Institute, for the U. S. Department of Health,
      Education,  and Welfare,  Public Health Service, National
      Technical  Information Service, Pub. PB-194-398, July 1967.

3.    Study of Health Effects of Air Pollution Related to Solid Wastes,
      B. Linsky, Final Report,  1969.

4.    1969 Analysis of Accident Reports Involving Fire,  U. S.
      Department of Transportation, Bureau of Motor Carrier
      Safety, 1970.

5.    Hazard Survey of the Chemical and Allied Industries,  American
      Insurance  Association, Division of Technical Services
      Engineering and  Safety Department, Technical Survey No,  3,
      1968.

6.    Dangerous Chemicals Code, Los Angeles Fire Department,
      Parker & Sons,  Inc.,  1951.

7.    Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, N.I. Sax et al.,
      Reinhold Book Corp., Third Edition, 1968.

8.    Laboratory Waste Disposal Manual, Manufacturing Chemists
      Association,  May 1970.

9.    Toxicity of Industrial Metals, Dr. E. Browning, Butterworth
      and Co., Ltd., Second Edition,  1969.
                               11-38
-------
10.   Ground Disposal of Pesticides:  The Problem and Criteria for
     Guidelines, Working Group on Pesticides, National Technical
     Information Service, Pub. PB-197-144, Report WGP-DR-1,
     March 1970.

11.   Air Pollution Aspects of Pesticides,  Litton Systems, Inc.,  for
     the U.S. Department of Health,  Education, and Welfare,
     National Air Pollution Control Administration, National
     Technical Information Service,  Pub.  PB-188-091, September
     1969.

12.   Accident Prevention Manual for Industrial Operations,  National
     Safety Council,  Sixth Edition, 1969.

13.   Control of Spillage of Hazardous Polluting Substances,  G.W.
     Dawson et al., Pacific Northwest Laboratories,  for the U.S.
     Department of Interior, Federal Water Quality Administration,
     November 1,  1970.

14.   Criteria for Selection of Elements and Compounds to be
     Designated as Hazardous Polluting Substances, C.H. Thompson,
     Environmental Protection Agency,  Division of Oil and Hazardous
     Materials, October  22, 1971.

15.   "List of Toxic Substances, " The Bureau of National Affairs,
     Inc.,  Occupational Safety and Health  Reports,  Reference File,
     1971.

16.   Chemical Safety References,  National Safety Council,  Chemical
     Section,  1968.

17.   Evaluation of the Hazard of Bulk Water Transportation of
     Industrial Chemicals - A Tentative Guide, the Committee on
     Hazardous Materials Advisory to the U. S. Coast Guard,
     National Research Council,  1970.

18.   Occupational Safety and Health Standards,  National Institute of
     Occupational Safety  and Health,  1971.

19.   Designation of Hazardous Substances, Notice  of Proposed Rule
     Making,  Environmental Protection Agency, Pub.  18CFR,
     Part 618, May 14, 1971.
                              11-39
-------
20.  Consolidated Hazardous Item List, U.S. Department of Defense,
     Navy Fleet Material Support Office, Pub. 4500, COG 1 Stock
     No.  0588-005-000,  October I, 1969.

21.  Veterinary Toxicology, R.D.  Radeleff, D.V.M., Lea & Febiger,
     1964.
                              II-40
-------
III.   QUANTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTES
-------
     III.   QUANTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTES
1.    INTRODUCTION
      This chapter presents estimates of the amounts of wastes
produced  in the various industrial sectors and limited geographic
locations.  Estimates have been made necessary because of the nearly
complete  lack of data describing waste quantities in the literature.
With the exception of radioactive waste data available from Atomic
Energy Commission reports,  the literature is silent on the subject
of hazardous waste quantities.   The reasons for this situation are
many, but principal among them are:

           Historically,  there has been no interest or objective in
           quantifying waste amounts of specific materials,  with the
           exception of radioactive wastes, which are subject to a
           stringent control system.

           For certain materials, such as pesticides and herbicides,
           the utilization and disposal cycles were one and the same,
           but geographic location data  were not recorded.

           In nearly all waste disposal processes,  whether industrial,
           governmental, or domestic,  materials  being wasted are
           thrown together and become  streams of mixed wastes.

           Predisposal treatment, where employed at all, has been
           applied to a limited number of waste stream characteristics,
           rather than to characteristics of specific materials.

      The impact of the latter two factors above on  the hazardous waste
quantification problem cannot be overstated.  The difficulties  imposed
can be made more apparent when  it is noted that mixed waste streams:

           Can have hazardous materials as  inputs

           Are not analyzed in detail, if at all
                              III-l
-------
            Might be chemically indeterminate, as a result of unknown
            reactions

            Might exhibit some,  all,  or none of the characteristics of
            individual  input materials

            Might become hazardous through combinations of non-
            hazardous input materials.

      Investigation of the overall problem of quantifying waste
hazardous materials has to consider the problem of disposing of such
materials in their pure (or relatively pure) form,  as well as in waste
streams.  Many of these materials are  created as (or  in) marketable
products not meant to  be wasted, yet for various  reasons (shelf-life,
contamination, etc.) at some time become wastes.  In such cases,
someone has to declare  them no longer  needed and thus ready for
disposal.  This waste  quantification problem is compared to  the
mixed waste quantification problem  in Figure III-l.

      The result  is that  in order to present waste quantity estimates,
it has also been necessary in this study to develop calculation methods
for estimating purposes. Most of the calculations that have been made
are based on waste generation as a function  of production (e. g. , pounds
of waste per thousand  pounds of production).  In some  cases,  these
general waste quantification factors appeared in the literature.  When
such factors were not  obtainable in literature references, values
were  calculated from the best available data.  Derivation of these
factors for  industries  which are relatively homogenous (e. g. ,  textiles)
provides a reasonable factor  estimate for the industry as a whole.
Other industries  are so  diverse that derivation of general quantification
factors for  the industry  is unrealistic.  This is especially true of the
chemical industry, with its  great diversity (many thousands of
processes,  products,  and their combinations).  The chemical industry
factors were separately derived from results of a 1967 survey
conducted by the  Manufacturing Chemists Association.

      The waste quantification data is presented in three ways:

            Total wasteloads  of various industries in each of the 50
            largest Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSA)
            and in each of the 50 states
                              III-2
-------
                                         FIGURE 1-1
                                   The Hazardous Materials
                                 Waste Quantification Problem
                            RAW
                         MATERIALS
                         PRODUCTION
                         PROCESSES
                                                 MIXED
                                               PRODUCTION
                                                 WASTES
                                                   (B)
 FINISHED
PRODUCTS
 DISTRIBUTION
   QUANTITIES
DECLARED WASTE
  AT ANY ONE
 TIME OR PLACE
      (A)
                                      RANDOM, NON-QUANTIFIABLE
                                      POTENTIALLY QUANTIFIABLE,
                                      WITH WASTE STREAM ANALYSIS
                           III-3
-------
           Estimates of commonly-known mixed, potentially hazardous,
           waste streams generated by various industries, with
           breakdowns of specific hazardous materials,  where such
           data is available

           Reported quantities of hazardous and potentially hazardous
           wastes from the Department of Defense, Atomic Energy
           Commission,  and the mining industry.

      It must be borne in mind that these discussions and the quantity
estimating methods are generalized,  referring to entire industries.
In some industries,  the production processes and materials used
change frequently, so general estimating methods produce results
that are only indicators rather than facts,  and should be utilized in
that light.  Further,  the methods and results cannot be extrapolated
to individual plants,  since  all plants in an industry do not produce the
same products,  nor  do they all utilize the same processes.  This
is mitigated to some extent in the  relatively homogenous  industries,
but in any case,  caution is the byword in application of these data.
2.    PRODUCTION QUANTITIES OF HAZARDOUS'MATERIALS
      The data which has been developed provides limited information
as to  the number of pounds of specific hazardous waste compounds
which are produced in each geographic area.  Such information may
be impossible to produce completely,  since it involves,  at minimum:
consideration of great numbers of water waste streams whose toxicity
or other hazards might not be related to specific compounds, product
wastes from a wide variety of industrial and consumer sources,
toxic  substances  which have become intermingled with solid waste
trash and municipal sewage, and finally, no knowledge as to whether
threshold concentrations had been reached or if susceptible populations
were  present.

      The best estimation of the total amount of any particular compound
is,  of course, the amount produced.  Determinations as to the amounts
which will enter waste streams must be made for each compound.
Many are converted to nontoxic compounds.  Others are neutralized.
Still others  may remain toxic and be widely distributed intentionally
(pesticides), while residual amounts of many compounds  may enter
few or many municipal waste streams. Only specific life-cycle studies
                              III-4
-------
                                          FIGURE 1-1
                                    The Hazardous Materials
                                  Waste Quantification Problem
                            RAW
                         MATERIALS
                         PRODUCTION
                          PROCESSES
                                                 MIXED
                                               PRODUCTION
                                                 WASTES
                                                   (B)
FINISHED
PRODUCTS
  DISTRIBUTION
   QUANTITIES
DECLARED WASTE
  AT ANY ONE
 TIME OR PLACE
      (A)
                                      RANDOM, NON-QUANTIFIABLE
                                      POTENTIALLY QUANTIFIABLE,
                                      WITH WASTE STREAM ANALYSIS
                           III-3
-------
           Estimates of commonly-known mixed, potentially hazardous,
           waste streams generated by various industries,  with
           breakdowns of specific hazardous materials,  where such
           data is available

           Reported quantities of hazardous and potentially hazardous
           wastes from the Department of Defense, Atomic Energy
           Commission,  and the mining industry.

      It must be borne in mind that these discussions and the quantity
estimating methods are generalized,  referring to entire industries.
In some industries,  the production processes and materials used
change frequently, so general estimating methods produce results
that are only indicators rather than facts,  and should be utilized in
that light.  Further,  the methods and results  cannot be extrapolated
to individual plants,  since all plants in an industry do not produce the
same products,  nor  do they all utilize the same processes.  This
is mitigated to some extent in the  relatively homogenous  industries,
but in any case,  caution is the byword in application of these data.
2.    PRODUCTION QUANTITIES OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
      The data which has been developed provides limited information
as to the number of pounds of specific hazardous waste compounds
which are produced in each geographic area.  Such information may
be impossible to produce completely,  since it involves,  at minimum:
consideration of great numbers of water waste streams whose toxicity
or other hazards might not be related  to specific compounds, product
wastes from a wide variety of industrial and consumer sources,
toxic substances which have become intermingled with solid waste
trash and municipal sewage, and finally, no knowledge as to whether
threshold concentrations had been reached or if susceptible populations
were present.

      The best estimation of the total amount of any particular compound
is,  of course,  the amount produced.  Determinations  as  to the amounts
which will enter waste streams must be made for each compound.
Many are converted to nontoxic compounds.  Others are  neutralized.
Still others  may remain toxic and be widely distributed intentionally
(pesticides), while residual amounts of many compounds  may enter
few or many municipal waste streams. Only specific life-cycle studies
                              III-4
-------
which are made compound by compound for, say, 10-15 compounds
initially, will provide accurate distribution patterns and reasonable
estimates of the geographic distribution of residual quantities.  Where
production data are available,  they have been included in the hazardous
material listing in Chapter II (Table II-6,  page 11-29), developed from
the punched-card data records developed during this study.
3.    TOTAL WASTE LOAD ESTIMATES
      Utilizing the general waste quantification factors, data indicating
total wasteloads of various  industries have been computed for those
industries  in the  50 largest SMSAs, accounting for about 60 percent
of industrial production, and for the 50 states,  accounting for all
domestic production.  Initially, it was planned  to develop the data for
each of the nation's 230 SMSAs, but it was discovered that many
chemical plants and other production facilities  are located outside
such metropolitan areas.  These conditions apply particularly to the
smaller SMSAs.

      The value added in manufacture was the scaling factor used  to
convert ratios of pounds of waste to pounds of product,  to pounds of
waste by industry by SMSA  or by state.  This was done by first
relating the production output to the value added and then by relating
the pounds of waste/1000 pounds of product to the production-value-
added ratios.

      The quantity estimates which have been prepared in this manner
provide estimates as to  the relative amounts of waste which are
produced in each geographic area.   They are most accurate in depicting
the relative amounts produced in each geographic area.  They are
likely to be most inaccurate if used to predict the waste output from
a single facility.

      The difficulties in arriving at accurate estimates for use in
projecting gross  quantities  are  manifold.  A graphic display of the
results  of these difficulties is shown in Table III-l, which compares
predictions made by two separate studies, one  by Combustion
Engineering for the Solid Waste Management Office and the  other by
the California Department of Public Health.  These two studies
separately estimated solid waste quantities for all the manufacturing
industries.  The  vast differences between results of the two studies,
demonstrate the lack of  consistent  quantitative  data.
                               Ill-5
-------
             Table III-l
Comparison of Solid Waste Estimates


SIC Industry


19 Ordnance and Accessories
20 Food and Kindred Products
21 Tobacco Manufacture
22 Textile Mill Products
23 Apparel and Textile Products
24 Lumber and Wood Products
25 Furniture and Fixtures
26 Paper and Allied Products
27 Printing and Publishing
28 Chemicals and Allied Products
29 Petroleum and Coal Products
30 Rubber and Plastics Products
31 Leather and Leather Products
32 Stone, Clay and Glass Products
33 Primary Metal Industries
34 Fabricated Metal Products
35 Machinery, Except Electrical
36 Electrical Equipment and Supplies
37 Transportation Equipment
38 Instruments and Related Products
39 Miscellaneous Manufacturing
(!' Technical-Economic Study of Solid W
Volume II, Industrial Inventory, Con
U.S. Department of Health, Educatic
Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific
Report SW-7c, Pub. PB-187-712, 1£
&) California Solid Waste Planning Stud}
Health, 1969.
Waste in Million Pounds per Year
(Total U. S. )
Combustion
Engineering
Study (1)
711
14,260
813
2, 158
719
76, 107
3,877
10, 189
15,221
6,048
1, 148
4, 927
6, 325
4, 915
3, 503
7, 660

3,047
3,479
1, 665
1, 696
aste Disposal Needs E
bustion Engineering,
n and Welfare, Public
and Technical Inform
69.
rt California Departm

California
Study {2 >

NA
43,880
—
340
650
137, 660
430
2, 550
1,030
5,050
5,800
2, 690
	
2, 830
9,800
3, 300
8,400
4, 640
3, 080
	

nd Practices,
Inc. , for the
Health Service,
ition, Pub. 1886

ent of Public ;

                III-6
-------
      The area waste generation calculations are augmented by data
of various types which relate to specific compounds.  These data are
contained in the Appendices (Volumes II and III) describing the various
industries, which provide a single source of information for useful
data compiled from a variety of sources.

      Two basic parameters were developed to estimate the quantity
of waste material produced in each industrial sector.  The first is
an estimate of pounds of waste produced per thousand pounds of
product, or an equivalent ratio.  The second is the value added by the
manufacture of an equivalent amount of production.

      (1)   Value Added as a Measure of Production

           Value added by manufacture is derived by subtracting
      the total cost of materials, (including materials, supplies, fuel,
      electric energy,  cost of resales and miscellaneous receipts),
      from the value of shipments (including resales)  and other
      receipts, and adjusting the resulting amount by  the net change
      in finished  products and work-in-process inventories between
      the beginning and end of the year.  The value of shipment is net
      selling value, f. o.b. plant, after discounts and  allowances and
      excluding freight  charges and  excise tax.

           The value added factor is considered by the  Department
      of Commerce to be the best value measure available for
      comparing the relative economic importance of manufacturing
      among industries  and geographic areas. The value added figure
      provides the measure for industrial activity and for indices of
      industrial production, productivity, and price, all of which are
      essential for estimating industrial waste production.

           The other measures, such as number of employees and
      value shipped, have been used  by other studies.  These measures
      have some  inherent flaws which make value added the desired
      factor.  The number of employees factor cannot be applied to
      seasonal industries because the number of employees data is
      collected for one  given period and does not consider changes  in
      employment during the year.   The value added figure also avoids
      duplication in the value of shipments figure, which results from
      the inclusion of the shipments of establishments producing
      materials and components, along with the  shipments of
      establishments producing finished products.
                              Ill-7
-------
(2)    Waste Production Factors

      Waste production factors are multipliers which can be
applied to production data of a particular industry in a given
geographic location for estimating waste quantity.  As pointed
out earlier, the value added has been considered a good measure
of production.  Therefore, the waste production factors have
been developed such that they can be directly multiplied by the
value added figure for any given industry to determine the
amount of waste produced by the  industry.

      The major products and the manufacturing processes of
the selected industries were studied and are reported in
Appendix A.  The literature study of these industries resulted
in derivation of values indicating amount of waste generated per
1, 000 pounds of product (WPPP).  The WPPP values for the
selected industries are listed in Column (2) of Table III-2,  and
their data sources are listed in Column (5).  To derive waste
factors, the WPPP for each industry was divided by the dollar
value added per thousand  pounds  of product (VAPP) listed  in
Column (3).  Waste factors  are given in Column (4).  Thus:

      WPPP  _  Ib. waste/1, OOP Ib. product       _  pounds waste
      VAPP   ~  $ value added/I, 000 Ib. product           $
and:

      Pounds waste
           $
x Total $ value added =  Total Ib. waste.
      This method for computing the waste factors was not used
for the chemical industry.  The waste streams from the  various
types of chemical plants differ extensively because of the great
variety of products which are produced.  Instead, data from the
1967 survey of members of the Manufacturing Chemists Asso-
ciation (MCA) was used.  This survey showed the amount of
waste produced by the plants, which were surveyed in each
state, and the total employees in these plants.  From this
information, the total annual waste  produced per employee was
computed for each state.  The data  used for this calculation were
based on the "estimated amount of waste if no treatment  or
control measures were in use. "  Therefore,  the waste quantities
are the totals produced by the industry, and are more than the
amount of waste discharged to the environment. According to
                        III-8
-------
                                      Table III-2
                            Computation of Waste Factors
SIC Industry Col. (1)
20 Food Industry
201 Meat Products
203 Canned Foods
208 Beverages

2261 Finishing Cotton
2262 Finishing Synthetics
2231 Finishing Wool
aeO
265H?ulp, Paper and Paperboard Mills
263]
266J
28 Chemical Industry
2812 Alkalis and Chlorine
282 Plastic Materials and Synthetics
2821 Plastic Materials and Resins
2822 Synthetic Rubber
2823 Cellulosic Manmade Fibers .
2824 Organic Fibers, Noncellulosic
2871 Fertilizers
29 Petroleum and Coal Products
2911 Petroleum Refining
3111 Leather Tanning and Finishing
3292 Asbestos Products
331 Primary Metal Industries
3312 Blast Furnaces and Steel Mills
333 Primary Nonferrous Metals
3331 Primary Copper
3332 Primary Lead
3333 Primary Zinc
3334 Primary Aluminum
WPPP
Waste (Ibs
per 1000
Ibs. of
Product
Col. (2)
NA
52

NA

720
299
1872

975

X"
(see Tat
800
143
30
31
36
35
950
3.7
3. 7
650
87000
72. 5
72. 5
1250
3000
159
177. 5
910
VAPP
Value ($)
Added per
1000 Ibs. of
Product
Col. (3)
NA
58.5

NA

160
180
950

50


le VI- 2)
70
31
102
93
373
260
20. 5
3.95
3.95
278
8
40.3
40. 3
112.5
91. 3
49. 7
55.5
128.5
WPPP/V-APF
(#/$)
Waste
Factor
Col. (4)
1.42
0.89
4.20
0.20

4. 50
1.66
1.97

1.95



11.40
0. 22
0.30
0. 33
0. 10
0. 14
46.20
0. 96
0. 96
2. 34
Neg.
1.80
1.80
11. 10
33.00
3.2
3.2
7. 1
Data
Source
Col. (5)

1,2,3
4
5,6,7,8,
9, 10
11, 12, 13
14, 13
11, 13

15


16
17
18, 19
18, 19
18, 19
18, 19
18, 19
20
21, 22, 23
21, 22, 23
24, 25
26
27, 28
27, 28
29
29
29
29
29, 30
 (1) NA—Not applicable.  The waste factors shown in Column (5) were not
    computed,  but obtained directly from the literature.                    |
(2)  Neg. —Negligible.  The value added factor is so low that the computation of a waste
    factor on that basis would be misleading.                               	
                                         III-9
-------
the MCA, waterborne inorganic and organic effluents were
reduced by 27 percent and 57 percent respectively through treat-
ment, and the airborne wastes were reduced by 65 percent.

      Table III-3 shows the total annual waste per employee, the
total number of employees, and value  added by the chemical
industry in each state.  Waste  factors were  developed by
multiplying  the waste per employee factors by total number  of
employees,  then  dividing by the total value added.  The range
of waste factors shown  in the table vary from 0. 65 for  Indiana
to 63. 9 for Arkansas.   The waste factors for the states of Arkansas
and Florida are high because they include  large amounts of
fertilizer, mining and processing wastes.   The average waste
factor applicable over the whole United States was computed
without using the factors for these two states.

(3)   Computation of Waste Quantities

      Quantities of wastes were computed  by multiplying the
value added by the waste factors.  Tables  III~4 and III-5 show
the computed quantities of waste produced by each of the signi-
ficant industries  in the  50 states and the 50 largest SMSAs,
respectively.

(4)   Sources of  Data

      The two types of data used in quantification of wastes are
industry  production data and waste production data.

      1.     Industry Data

            Value added figures used in the computations were
      taken  from the 1967 Census of Manufactures.  Dun and
      Bradstreet data files were also considered as an alter-
      native source, but were not used due to the  relative difficulty
      of their  direct application compared with that of  the Bureau
      of Census data.

      2.     Waste Production Data

            An intensive literature search and interviews with
      people in industry uncovered few data  sources which
      identified and quantified the waste from different industries.
                         Ill-10
-------
       Table III-3
Chemical Industry Waste Factors
State
Alabama
Arizona (also includes Utah
Nevada, New Mexico,
Oklahoma)
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Idaho (also includes
Minnesota, Montana)
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine (also includes New
Hampshire, Rhode Island,
Vermont)
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Mississippi
• Missouri
New Jersey
New York
North Carolina
Ohio
Oregon
Pennsylvania
South Carolina
Tenne^::ee
Texas
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin

Annual Total
Waste Per
Employee
ton/employee
year
x 103
0.052


0.074
0.756
0.178
0.013
0.023
0.070
0.69
0.133

0.250
0.253
0.011
0. Ill
0.023
0.118
• 0.367


0.011
0.090
0.017
0.151
0.029
0.091
0.052
0.091
0. 159
0. 141
0.051
0.023
0.009
0.116
0. 105
0. 138
0.023
0.082
0.010

All
ir{io)ees
(1000)
11.7


3.9
4. 1
42.0
1. 9
11.5
9.4
20.7
11.7

13.1
57.-'.
94.7
5.3
10.1
13.3
19. 1


4.9
17.6
17.0
37.2
5.2
22.3
97.3
63.4
17.7
47. 7
2.0
49. 5
19.9
52.1
47.9
40.9
6.4
22.5
0.5

Value
Added
(million $)
418.2


77.4
96.9
116.7
61. 1
378.8
263.1
466.1
308.1

435. 1
1565.8
832. 9
243.6
276.3
391.6
679.5


74.3
422.5
367. 1
1039.6
157.5
545.8
2822. 1
1639.7
370.6
1358.6
50.8
1361. 1
474.6
1155.5
2076.7
762.0
166.0
836.3
257.4

Waste
(million
tons)
0.608


0.289
3.099
7.476
0.025
0.265
0.658
14.283
1.556

3. 275
14.522
0.272
0. 588
0. 232
1.569
7.010


0.054
1.584
2.89
5.617
0. 151
2.029
5.060
5.769
2.814
6. 726
0. 102
1. 139
0. 179
6.044
5.030
5. 644
0. 147
1.85
0.095
108.65
Waste
Factor
#/$ Value
Added
2.91


7.46
63.95
13.39
0.81
1.40
5.00
61.29
10. 10

15.05
18.55
0.65
4.83
1.68
8.02
20.63


1.45
7.50 -
1.57
0.81
1. 91
7.44
3.59
7.04
15. 19
9.90
4.02
1.67
0. 76
10.46
4.84
14.81
1.77
4.41
0. 74

          III-11
-------
-------
g
-------
'of
                     Table III-5
       Waste Quantities  Produced by Industry
              by Geographic  Location
                 50 Largest Standard
            Metropolitan Statistical Areas
            (In Million Pounds Per Year)
         OO
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                   111
                                 Ut
                                   'rf&J
                                   l^i
-------
      Most of the data available were in terms of quantity of
      waste discharged to aquatic environment.  The industrial
      waste studies sponsored by EPA were heavily used, along
      with information provided by the trade associations.  The
      references used are listed at the end of this chapter.
(5)    Assumptions Used in Estimating Waste

      Some assumptions made during  the process of estimating
waste quantities are applicable to all the industries, while others
apply specifically to a single industry.

      1.    Overall General Assumptions

           The two major assumptions  generally applicable to
      all the  industries are:

                 Technology  within an industry is homogeneous
                 and does not change according to geographic
                 location, therefore a single waste factor can
                 be used to compute amount of waste across
                 the country.

                 Industry production  data used are for the year
                 1967.  Therefore, the waste quantities estimated
                 are for that year, but  these estimates can be
                 used for the  present level  of industry, since
                 the changes  in  production quantity and
                 improvements  in waste reduction technology
                 are assumed to offset  each other.

      2.    Specific Assumptions Applicable to Industries

           Some of the assumptions used to compute waste
      quantities for specific industries are presented in this
      section.

                 Food Industry—Canning waste does not include
                 those wastes left in  the field from harvesting,
                 which are considered agricultural wastes.
                 Meat processing  waste does not include  hair
                 and blood which are  routinely collected and
                 sold, as by-products.  Also, wastes from
                 stockyards and pens are not included in  the
                 wastes considered here.
                         Ill-15
-------
                 Textile Industry—The wastes included in this
                 study are only those from wet finishing oper-
                 ations:  the fiberous wastes from dry
                 processing, knitting and weaving, etc.,  are
                 not included.

                 Pulp, Paper, and Paperboard Industry—The
                 paper and wood chips waste from wood cutting
                 and cleaning are not considered. The wastes
                 from pulp, paper, and paperboard-making are
                 the ones accounted for in this study.  Further,
                 the by-products made from the black liquor
                 are not included.

                 Fertilizers—Wastes produced in mining of
                 phosphates are considered as mining waste
                 and therefore do not add to fertilizer industry
                 wastes.

                 Petroleum Products Industry— Brines from the
                 earth are pumped back to earth.  Therefore,
                 the brines  do not  contribute to the potentially
                 hazardous  wastes of this industry.

                 Primary Nonferrous Metals—Mining operation
                 wastes are not considered to be  waste from this
                 industry,  but from the mining industry.

(6)    Reasons for Presenting Data  by  50 States and 50  SMSAs

      The quantities of waste produced by  the industries have
been computed for all the 50 states, and for  the 50 largest SMSAs.
Presenting waste data by the 50 states provides full coverage  of
the  whole United States,  while presenting the data by SMSA isolates
the  waste location to a small geographic area. The SMSA data
is computed for  only the 50 largest SMSAs for three reasons:
first, all 231 SMSAs represent only about  75 percent of the
total manufacturing  industry; second,  the detailed value added
figures  for the smaller SMSAs are  not collected by the Bureau
of Census; and third, some states with smaller SMSAs had as
little  as 15 percent of the value added  industries within the
SMSA.
                         Ill-16
-------
      (7)   Other Quantitative Data

           Other quantitative data helpful to an understanding of the
      problems associated with waste generation and disposal are
      interspersed  throughout the report.  Each of the industrial
      descriptions contained in Appendix A provides information as
      to:

                 Relative size of the industrial sector

                 Number of establishments and geographic distribution

                 Economic data as to size of establishments and
                 number of employees

                 Growth patterns.

           Many of the industrial sector descriptions contain additional
      data relating  to the products  made, processes used and wastes
      produced.   Special  studies which contain detailed data of signi-
      ficant value are also referenced in these descriptions.
4.    ESTIMATES OF COMMONLY KNOWN MIXED WASTE STREAMS.
      WITH BREAKDOWNS OF SPECIFIC HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
      Among the various industries,  certain production processes are
in use which produce mixed wastes that are also similar throughout
these industries.  Over the years,  many of these mixed waste streams
have come to be known by common or "trade" names, which generally
refer to their color,  appearance,  odor, etc.  While such waste
streams have seldom been analyzed in detail  or subjected to continuous
analysis,  at least  parts of their make-up have been identified and
reported in the literature. During the course of this study,  it was
found that some of these commonly-known waste streams do have as
inputs, at least some of the materials that have been designated as
hazardous.  In a few instances, data were obtained which not only gave
waste stream quantity generation as  a function of production, but
also provided some  measure of specific materials that might typically
be contained.
                              III-17
-------
      Where such data were available,  they have been extracted and
tabulated.  The waste stream quantities and the specific hazardous
materials contained have been extrapolated to produce estimates,  on
a regional geographic basis, for certain industries.

      (1)    Methodology for Estimating Waste Streams  and Specific
            Hazardous Material Quantities

            The literature referencing  the industrial sectors within
      the  scope of the study was  surveyed to obtain available infor-
      mation for quantitatively correlating  the list of hazardous
      substances with industrial  wastes.  These wastes are generally
      not homogeneous.   Rather,  in each waste a complex  mix of
      specific components are found.  A given chemical, identified
      as hazardous, is most often to be found in such a  situation.

            The procedure used in accomplishing this task was, in
      sequence:

                 Identify the waste source by industrial sector

                 Identify the waste  stream and the component(s) in
                 the stream that are correlatable to the list of
                 hazardous substances

                 Develop quantity estimates of the production, in
                 industrial waste, of each identifiable hazardous
                 substance,  using whatever quantification factors
                 are available in the literature,  i.e., percentages
                 or ratios of each substance in the waste stream
                 were used directly from the literature.

            A set of tables across the various industrial sectors were
      developed using these procedures (Table III-6). A general
      comment is that the hazardous waste quantities indicated present
      boundary, or "ballpark, " figures of production rates of these
      unwanted substances.  A further  note of explanation  is that often
      the  literature reports a component in simple terms,  such as
      "chromium, " even though the  more accurate expression might
      be "dichromate".   In assigning identification numbers from the
      list of hazardous substances to specific waste  components, the
      following ground rules were used:
                              III-18
-------
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                                               111-27
-------
            Cations (such as heavy metals) are referenced to
            the chloride or sulfate salt,  unless a salt is more
            precisely identified.  Example:  often  "copper" is
            reported in the literature; "copper sulfate" is
            referenced.

            Anions (such as cyanide or sulfide) are referenced
            to the sodium salt,  unless more precisely identified.
            "Chromium" is referenced to "Chromic sulfate" or
            "sodium chromate, " depend
            unless otherwise identified.
"sodium chromate, " depending on the process,
            "Phenols" are referenced to  "phenol", unless a
            specific phenol derivative is  noted.

            "Organic chlorides" are referenced to a prevalent
            component in the mixture  that is indicated on the
            list of hazardous materials.

      A continuing problem encountered in accomplishing this
task is the scantiness of useful literature data.  Even with an
extensive survey such as this, lack of information is a limiting
factor.

      In  some cases, specific  constituent materials  have been
identified, but no quantification factors were given.  So long as
the identity was supplied,  it has been  included in the waste
stream constituency listing of  Table III-6,  to provide a "second
level" of hazardous material/waste stream correlation.

      Table III-7 provides waste quantity data for the commercial
explosives industry.

(2)   Geographic Areas

      In the preceding tables,  the geographic areas have been
limited to regions,  rather than SMSAs and states. The regions
indicated are standard U.S. regions as identified by the  Bureau
of the Census.  The limitation of the waste streams  and  specific
materials estimates to regions rather than smaller areas reflects
the confidence place in the quantification factors which serve
as the computational base.  Again,  it  must be  noted  that whole
                         111-28
-------
                                    Table III-7
                        Distribution, Locations and Volumes
                         of Explosive Manufacturing Wastes '
Federal Region
i
2
•* /
2
j
3 | 3

4
j
5
j
5
/
7
j
	 1
8
8
1
10
l~77 /
  Quantities in
 pounds per day
Waste Material
Nitroglycerine &NG Mixtures
Cont. Waste Packaging
Combined Total
Smokeless Powder
Cont. Packaging
Combined Total
Industrial Exp. & Prop.
Cont. Packaging
Combined Total
Primer Materials & Caps
Cont. Packaging
Combined Total
Regional Total
r2
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
i
i
2
2
/ &
-
-
-
1000
3
2003
20
-
20
220
650
870
3000
/ #'
-
-
830
-
-
—
125
750
1705
-
-
415
2950
1 *
800
800
1600
-
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1600
f ^
125
200
325
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2
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10
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100
1000
1100
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/ o
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-
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15 +
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200
150
1000
-
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-
48
-
.
-
1050
10
-
10
-
-
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50
250
300
-
-
-
310
/
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-
-
-
-
-
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5
5
/ & ,
525
750
1275
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1275
X  -  Materials detonated; quantity unspecified.

Notes:  (1)  Combined totals exceed sums of specified parts due to variance in
            reports from firms.

        (2)  This table represents reports from four major firms,  only, and
            is not  a complete inventory of rates  of generation or locations;
            6000 other plant operations are treated in a subsequent section.
      Institute of Makers of Explosives,  420 Lexington Avenue, New York.
                                      ni-29
-------
      industries are being considered here, not individual plants, and
      the credibility limits of the approach taken are such that produc-
      tion of this type of estimates on a more localized basis is not
      justified.  The  results should be viewed as points of departure
      for future research rather than factual representations.  Until
      reliable waste stream analyses are made at very specific
      locations, this  situation will remain unchanged.

            For future research purposes,  it will be necessary to
      match the industries, according to SIC code,  first to the states
      included in each region,  then to specific plant locations, to
      determine the actual extent of production of the waste streams
      and specific materials contained.

            The data  availability problem is also demonstrated by the
      regional quantity data of Table III-6,  in that the breakdown
      figures do not add  up to the totals. The reasons are that:

                 Independent estimates were made for waste streams,
                 compounds, and regional totals, based on Census
                 of Manufactures production data

                 In several cases,  production data is not available
                 in the Census of Manufactures

                 Some errors result from data interpretation

                 Some errors result from rounding-off in a series of
                 computations.

            Since only a  limited number of hazardous materials (by
      name) could be correlated with waste streams,  there remains
      the problem of  assisting future research efforts by providing
      Gome form of correlation that will at least aid in directing those
      efforts toward the  appropriate industry sectors.  This is discussed
      in the following section.
5.    HAZARDOUS MATERIALS EXPECTED IN NQNIDENTIFIABLE
      WASTE STREAMS OF INDUSTRIAL MANUFACTURERS AND USERS
      The preceding tables have listed,  to the extent possible based on
literature data,  the hazardous materials expected to appear in speci-
fically identifiable waste streams where certain manufacturing processes
                               111-30
-------
and commonly named waste streams are known, and provide waste
quantity estimates where waste stream makeup has been reported in
literature.

      The literature data base is severely limited however, and there
remain many hazardous materials that can reasonably be expected to
be included in industrial waste streams,  but where  waste streams are
not identifiable by common names from  the literature.  Further,
waste generation rates,  waste stream constituency  and waste
concentrations could not be documented,  even though  the literature
data bank developed in this study is considered comprehensive.
Direct correlation with specific waste streams,  then, cannot be made.
Rather, it can only be surmised that since certain industry groups
are known principal manufacturers  and users of the hazardous
materials, the materials will appear in  one or more of these
industries' general waste streams.

      It is important as a minimum, therefore,  to correlate  the
remaining hazardous materials with the industry groups  as specifically
as possible.  In this way,  useful information is provided which serves
as guidance in identification and direction of needed further research
related to the occurrence and quantification of hazardous materials
in mixed waste streams.   Since the locations of  specific  industry
segments (plants) can be identified, research efforts  can be directed
toward  determination of specific materials' manufacture and use,
and thus potential point sources of hazardous wastes can be identified.

      Table III-8 lists the hazardous materials for which neither
waste stream data nor quantifiaction data are available, and correlates
those materials with SIC codes.  Where  a substance is heavily used
or produced by a particular sector,  specific codes,  to the four-digit
level, are  given. Otherwise,  two- or three-digit SIC reference is
given.   The inference is that these materials will be found in the
general waste streams from those  industry groups,  and that further
detailed research is needed to determine whether hazardous
conditions  are generated and the precise nature of such conditions.
                              111-31
-------
                            Table III-8
Hazardous Materials Expected in Waste Streams of Producers and Users
I. D.
Num.

3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
13
15
16
17
18
20
21
22
23
25
26
27
28
30
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
54
55
56
57
58
59
61
Substance (Common) Name

Acetic Anhydride
Acetone
Acetone Cyanhydrin
Acetonitrile (Methyl Cyanide)
Acetyl Chloride
Acetylene
Acridine
Acrolein
Acrylic Acid
Aldrin
Allyl Chloride
Aluminum Flouride
Aluminum Oxide
Aluminum Sulfate
Ammonium Chloride
Ammonium Chromate
Ammonium Dichromate
Ammonium Flouride
Ammonium Perchlorate
Ammonium Persulfate
Ammonium Picrate (Dry)
Ammonium Picrate (Wet)
Amyl Acetate (Banana Oil)
Aniline
Anthracenes
Antimony
Antimony Pentachloride
Antimony Pentafluouride
Antimony Pentasulfide
Antimony Potassium Tartrate
Antimony Sulfate
Antimony Sulfide
Antimony Triethyl (Triethylstirme)
Antimony Trichloride
Antimony Trifluouride
Antimony Trimethyl (Trimethylstirme)
Antimony Trioxide
Arsenic
Arsenic Chloride
Arsenic Diethyl
Arsenic Dimethyl
Arsenic Pentaselenide
Arsenic Trichloride
Arsenic Trioxide
Barium Carbonate
Barium Chloride
Barium Cyanide
Barium Fluoride
Barium Nitrate
Barium Sulfide
Benzene Hexachloride
Standard Industrial Code
Significant Manufacturer and/or User
Producer

2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2813
2818
2818, 291
2818
2818, 291
2818
2819
3291
10, 14, 2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2818
2815
2815
3339
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
3339
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2815
User

20, 26, 2818, 282, 36
28, 38
28
28
20, 28
28, 34
28
19, 28
22, 26, 28, 31
28
28
20, 28, 32, 33
28, 32
20, 22, 26, 31, 49
20, 28, 3692
22, 38
27, 28, 32, 38
20, 22, 24, 28, 32
28
20, 28, 34, 38
28
28
20, 22, 28, 39
2815, 2818, 30, 38
28
22, 28, 30, 32, 33
28
28
28, 30, 39
28
28, 39
28, 38, 39
28
28, 32
28, 32
28
28
28, 311
28
28
28
32
28, 32
22, 28, 31, 32
28, 32, 33
28
28, 34
28, 32, 36
28, 36, 39
28, 30
28
                              111-32
-------
Table III-8
(Continued)
I. D.
Num.

62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
77
79
80
81
82
83
84
86
87
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
101
102
104
105
107
108
110
111
113
115
117
119
120
122
123
127
128
Substance (Common) Name

Benzene Sulfonic Acid
Benzoic Acid
Benzyl Chloride
Beryllium Carbonate
Beryllium Chloride
Beryllium Hydroxide
Beryllium Oxide
Beryllium Powder
Beryllium Selenate
Boron Trichloride
Boron Trifluouride
Bromic Acid
Bromine
Bromine Pentafluouride
Butane
Butene - 1 (Ethyl Ethylene)
Butylacetate (Butyl Ethanoate)
Butylacrylate
N-Butylamine
Butyl Mercaptan
Butyl Phenol
Cacodylic Acid (Dimethylarsinic Acid)
Cadmium
Cadmium Fluoride
Cadmium Nitrate
Cadmium Oxide
Cadmium Phosphate
Cadmium Potassium Cyanide
Cadmium Sulfate
Calcium Arsenate
Calcium Arsenide
Calcium Carbide
Calcium Cyanide
Calcium Hydride
Calcium Hydrochlorite
Carbon Disulfide
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon Chloride (Phosgene)
Chloral Hydrate
Chlorine Trifluoride
Chloroacetophenone
Chlorodene
Chlorosulfonic Acid
Chromic Fluouride
Chromium Cyanide
Coal (Particle)
Cobaltous Nitrate
Copper Acetoarsenite
Creosote
Cresol (Cresylic Acid)
Standard Industrial Code
Significant Manufacturer and /or User
Producer

2815
2815
2815
2819
2819
2819
2819
33d9
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
3339
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2818

2818
2818
2812
2818
2818
2818
2819
2819

2819
2819
2815,2861
2821
User

28
28, 38
28
33
28
28
28, 32
33, 36
28
28, 33
28, 33
28
28
28
23, 29
28
22, 26, 28
28, 30
28
28
28
28
28, 34
36
28
28, 30, 32, 33
28
28, 347
28, 36
28
28, 33
22, 28
28
28
28
2823
20, 28, 33

28
28
29
28
28
22, 28, 32, 34
28, 3471
29
28, 32
24, 28
24, 28
20, 28, 33
   111-33
-------
Table III-8
(Continued)
I.D.
Num.

129
130
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
no
171
173
174
175
176
177
179
180
181
182
183
Substance (Common) Name

Crotonaldehyde
Cumene (Isopropylbenzol)
Cyanoacetic Acid
Cyclohexane (Hexanhydrobenzene)
Cyclohexanol (Hexalin)
Cyclohexanone
Cyclohexylamine
Demeton
Decyl Alcohol
Dibutyl Pathalate-n
o-Dichlorobenzene
p - D ichlor obenz ene
2, 4-Dichlorophenoxyacetlc Acid (2, 4-D)
ODD (Dichloro Diphenyl Dichloro Ethene)
DDT (Dichloro Diphonyl- Trichloroethane)
Diborane (Boron Hydride)
Dichloroethyl Ether
1. 2-Dichloropropane
1. 3-Dichloropropene
Dieldrin
Diethanolamine
Diethylamine
Diethyl Ether (Ethyl Ether)
Diethylene Dioxide (1, 4-Dioxane)
Diethylene Triamine
Diethylotilbestrol
DHsobutylene
Diisobutyl Ketone
Dimethylamine
Dimethyl Sulfate (Methyl Sulfate)
2. 4-Dinitroaniline
o-Dinitrobenzol (1, 2-Dinitrobenzene)
2. 4-Dinitrophenol
2. 4-Dinitrotoluene (Dinltrotoluol)
Diphenylamine (Phenylaniline)
Dipropylene Glycol
Dodecyl Benzene (Crude)
Endrin
Epichlorohydrin
Ethane
Ethanolamine (Monoethanolamine)
Ethers
Ethyl Acetate (Acetic Ether)
Ethyl Acrylate
Ethylamine (Monoethylamine)
Ethyl Chloride (Chloroethane)
Ethylene (Ethene)
Ethylene Bromide (Ethylene Dibromide)
Ethylene Cyanohydrin
Ethylene Diamine
Standard Industrial Code
Significant Manufacturer and/ or UMT
Producer

2818
2818
2818
2815
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2842,2879
2842,2879
2842,2879
2819
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2815
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
User

20, 28
28
28
28
28
28
30
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28, 29, 30
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
26, 26, 29
28, 34
28
28, 34
28
28
28
28
28
20, 28
28
22, 28, 29, 31
28
28
22, 26, 28, 31
20, 28
28
28
28, 29
28
28
   HI-34
-------
Table III-8
(Continued)
I. D.
Num.

184
186
187
190
191
193
194
195'
197
198
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
213
214
215
217
219
220
222
223
225
226
227
229
230
231
232
233
236
237
238
239
240
241
243
244
245
246
248
249
250
251
Substance (Common) Name

Ethylene Dtapomide. (Dibromethane)
Ethylene Glycol (Glycol)
Ethylene Glycol Monoethyl Ether
Ethylenimine
2-Ethylhexamol (Octyl Alcohol)
Ethyl Methyl Ketone (Butanone)
Ethyl Phthalate (Diethyl O-Phthalate)
2-Ethyl-3Propyl Acrolein
Fluorides ( e. g. , Hydrogen Fluoride, etc. )
Fluorine (Hydrofluoric Acid)
Furfural Alcohol
Guthion
Heptalchor
Heptane (Heptyl Hydride)
Hexachlorophene (Methylene)
Hexaethyltetraphosphate
Hexamethylene Diamine
Hexane (Hexyl Hydride)
Hydrazine (Anhydrous Diamine)
Hydrobromic Acid
Hydrocyanic Acid (Hydrogen Cyanide)
Hydrofluoric Acid (Hydrogen Fluoride)
Hydrogen Chloride Anhydrous
p-Hydroquinone
Iodine
Isobutyl Acetate
Isophorone
Isoprene
Isopropyl Acetate
Isopropyl Amine
Isopropyl Ether
Lead Acetate
Lead Arsenate
Lead Arsenite
Lead Carbonate
Lead Chlorite
Lead Nitrite
Lead Oxide
Lithium Aluminum Hydride
Magnesiumo-arsenite
Magnesium Chlorate
Magnesium Sulfate
Manganese
Manganese Arsenate
Manganese Chloride
Manganese Cyclorentadiehyltricarbonyl
Mercuric Cyanide
Mercuric Diammonium Chloride
Mercuric Nitrate
Mercuric Sulfate
Standard Industrial Code
Significant Manufacturer and /or User
Producer

2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2819
2819
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2819
2819
2819
2819
2815
2819
2818
2818
2822
2818
2818
2818
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
3339
2819
2819
2818
2819
2819
2819
2819
User

28
28
28
22, 26, 28, 34
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
34. 38
28. 34
28
28
28
28, 33, 34
28, 29, 33. 34
28
28, 34
2834
2821, 34
28
28, 30
28
28
22, 28
28
2879
28
28
18
28
2816, 30, 32
28
28
28
22, 26, 28, 31, 32. 36
28, 3295, 3313, 34
28
22, 28, 35, 36
28
28, 38
28
28
28, 33, 36
  111-35
-------
Table III-8
(Continued)
I. D.
Num.

254
256
257
258
260
261
262
263
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
280
281
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
306
308
310
311
312
313
315
317
318
319
Substance (Common) Name

Mesityl Oxide
Methyl Acetate
Methyl Acrylate (Acrylic Esters)
Methylamine (30 Percent Solution)
Methyl Bromide (Bromomethane)
Methyl Chloride (Chloromethane)
Methyl Chloroformate
Methyl Formate (Methyl Methanoate)
Methyl Methacrylate Monomer
Methyl Parathton
Monomethylamiline (n-Methylanilins)
Morpholine
Naphtha (Crude)
Naphthalene (Naphthaline)
Naphthylamine -beta
Nickel
Nickel Ammonium Sulfate
Nickel Antimonide
Nickel Arsenide
Nickel Carbonyl
Nickel Nitrate
Nickel Selenide
Nitroamilene (Nitraneline- meta-para)
Nitrobenzene (Nitrobenzol)
Nitrochlorobenzine (meta or para)
Nitroethane
Nitroglycerin
Nitromethane
Nitroparaffins
p-Nitrophenol
Nitropropane (1 and 2)
Nitrous Oxide
Oxalic Acid
Paraformaldehyde
Parathion
Pentaropane
Pentachlorophenol
PETN (Pentafrythritol Tetranitrmte)
n-Pentane (Amyl Hydride)
Perchloric Acid (72 Percent Solution)
Perchloroethylene (Tetrachloroethylene)
Perchloryl Fluoride
Phenylhydrogine Hydrochlorine
Phosphorus (Red)
Phosphorus Oxychloride
Phosphorus Pentachloride
Phosphorus Pehtasulfide
Phosphorus Trichloride
Picric Acid (Trinetrophenol)
Potassium Arsenite
Potassium Pinoxalate
Potassium Chromate
Standard Industrial Code
Significant Manufacturer and/ or User
Producer

2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2911
2815
2815
3339
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2815
2815
2815
2818
2897
2818
2815
2815
2818
2813
2818
2818
2818
2819
2818
2818
2818
2819
2818
2818
2818
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2818
2819
2819
2819
User

28
28
28, 31
28, 30
28
28, 30
28
26
28, 29
28
28
28, 30, 34
2815,
28, 31, 34
28
28, 33, 34
28, 34
28, 34
32
28
28, 32, 34
36
28
28
28, 30
28
19, 28
29
19, 28
2818, 34
28
20, 28
22, 28, 31
28
2879
28
22. 24. 26, 28
19, 28
28, 38
28
22. 38
28
28
22, 28
28, 29
28
28, 29
28, 33
19. 28
28, 32
28. 34
28
  IU-36
-------
Table III-8
(Continued)
I. D.
Num.

320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
345
346
347
348
349
351
352
353
355
356
360
361
362
364
367
368
369
370
372
375
378
381
383
384
385
387
Substance (Common) Name

Potassium Cyanide (Solid)
Potassium Bichromate
Potassium Fluoride
Potassium Hydroxide (Caustic Potash)
Potassium Oxalate
Potassium Permanganate
Potassium Peroxide
Potassium Sulfate
Potassium Sulfide
Propane (L. P. Gas)
Propionaldehyde (Propyl Aldehyde)
Propionic Acid
n-Propyl Acetate
n-Propyl Alcohol
Propylamine
Propylene
Propylene Oxide
Propylene Dichloride (Dichloropropane)
Pyridine
Q uinone
Salicylic Acid
Selenium Powder
Silicon Tetrachloride
Sodium
Sodium Amide (Sodamide)
Sodium Arsenate
Sodium Arsenite
Sodium Azide
Sodium Bisulfite
Sodium Borate
Sodium Cacodylate
Sodium Carbonate Peroxide
Sodium Chlorate
Sodium Formate
Sodium Hydride (Crystals)
Sodium Hydrosulfite
Sodium Iodide
Sodium Oxalate
Sodium Oxide
Sodium Perchlorate
Sodium Peroxide
Sodium Potassium Alloy
Sodium Thiocyanate (Sodium Sulflcyanide)
Strontium
Sulfur Trioxide
Sulfurous Acid
Sulfuryl Fluoride
Tantalum
Tear Gas (CN)
Standard Industrial Code
Significant Manufacturer and /or User
Producer

2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2815
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818 •
2818,2815
2818
2818
3339
2819
3339
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2818
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
2819
3339
2819
2819
2819
3339
2819
User

10, 28, 33. 34
22, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31
20, 28, 32
28
28, 34
22, 28, 31, 38
28
28
28, 30, 33, 34, 35, 39
28, 29
28, 30, 32
28
20, 28
28
28
28, 29
28
20, 28
2822, 30
28, 34
2833, 30
19, 30, 32, 33, 36
19, 28
28, 33
28
22, 28
2879
19, 28
20, 26, 28
28, 32, 33
28
26, 28
26, 28
28
28
22, 28
28
28
28
19
28
28
28
28, 29, 32
19, 28
28
28
28, 33
19
  m-37
-------
Table III-8
(Continued)
I. D.
Num.
388
389
390
391
392
393
395
397
398
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
414
415
416
417
420
421
422
423
Substance (Common) Name
Tetrachloroethane (Acetylenetetrachloride)
Tetraethyl Lead
Tetrahydrofuran
Tetramethyl Lead
Tetranitrom ethane
Thallium
Titanium Tetrachloride
Toluene Disocyanate
Toluidine-o (2.4-Methylanilene)
Trichloroethylene
Trichlorofluoromethane (Freon 11)
Triethanolamine
Triethylamine
Triethylene Glycol
Triethylene Tetramine
Trimethylamine
Tri-o-Cresyl Phosphate
Turrentine
Vanadium P-entoxide
Vanadium Sulfide
m-Xylene (Xylox)
Xylenol (3, 5-Dimethylphenol)
Zinc Arsenate
Zinc Arsenite
Zinc Nitrate
Zinc Oxide
Zinc Permanganate
Zinc Peroxide
Standard Industrial Code
Significant Manufacturer and /or User
Producer
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
3339
2819
2815
2815
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2818
2861
2819
2819
2815
2815
2819
2819
2819
2819,2816
2819
2819
User
28
29
28
29
19
28, 33, 34
28
28, 29
22, 28
22, 28, 34
28
28, 32
28
28, 29
28
28
28, 29, 35
28
22, 28, 32, 38
28. 32
28
28
28
28
22. 28
20. 22, 28, 30, 32, 34
28
28
  III-38
-------
6.    HAZARDOUS MATERIAL WASTE QUANTITIES REPORTED
      BY DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE AND ATOMIC ENERGY
      COMMISSION
      Both the Department of Defense (DoD) and the Atomic Energy
Commission (AEC) have long been concerned with control and disposal
materials, especially those peculiar to their operations.  While
neither has solved the disposal problems, each has exercised control
systems which generally prevent discharge of hazardous materials
to the environment,  and the reports included in the control systems
allow these agencies to maintain awareness  of the magnitude of
their problems.

      The tables which follow present data extracted from those
reporting systems.  Table III-9 presents quantities of various  DoD
hazardous waste  in inventory.  It should be noted that,  with respect
to pesticides, herbicides,  and related items, the materials awaiting
disposal are at bases scattered across the nation and throughout the
world.  However, it is expected that all overseas quantities would
be returned to the U.S. for disposal.  Additional listings of
hazardous chemicals (but without quantity data) associated with DoD
activities are provided in Chapter IV (see Tables IV>20, IV~21,
IV-22 and IV-23 on pages IV-44 through F/-48).  Further information
regarding the total DoD waste picture is presented in Appendix A-13.
Table III-10(a) summarizes waste quantity data for radioactive
materials under the  control of the AEC.  Tables III-10(b),  (c),  and
(d) provide details of the data summarized in Table III-10(a), and
include names of the specific  radioactive waste constituent materials,
along with energy levels in Curies.  These data are supported by
descriptive  information contained in Appendix A-12.
7.    MINING INDUSTRY WASTES
      Extensive data has been developed on the solid wastes generated
by the mining industries.  A summary is included to provide an
overview of the total solid wastes which are generated in the mining
industry,  and to provide a brief appraisal of the contributions of
these wastes to environmental effects. Additional data are contained
in Appendix A-l.
                              111-39
-------
                               Table III-9
             Hazardous Waste Material Quantities Reported by
              the Department of Defense as Awaiting Disposal
          Material

1.  Pesticides,  Herbicides and
    Related Items (e.g., insect repellant)

2.  Explosive Munitions (projectiles,
    small arms ammunition, bombs,
    rockets, etc.)

3.  Chemical Munitions:
       Mustard
       GB
       Phosgene

4.  Chemical Munitions Manufacturing
    Wastes: I1?
       Liquid Waste Stored in Lagoons
       Contaminated Soil

       Suspended solids of
       phosphorus and phosphorous
       oxides
         Quantity

     2,887,200 Ibs. (in
               powder form)
     1. 736, 800 gal. (Liquid)
     80,000 - 12,000 Tons
         3,071 tons
         2, 085 tons
         2, 700 tons
   129,000,000 gal. (7.5-
               8.0% salts)

12,000,000,000 cu.ft.

   200,000,000 gal.
                 POD-Supplied Waste Generation and
                      Disposal Data (Examples)
5.  Waste Petroleum Products:
       Accumulated and disposed of
       through Defense Supply Agency

       Accumulated and disposed of by
       the Air Force  (90 bases)

       Estimated totals for other services
       (Army, Navy,  Marine Corps)
        77,500 gal./yr.
     9, 600,000 gal. /yr.
    10,000,000 gal. /yr.
    Also reported unknown, but substantial, quantities of sludges
    containing dyes, sulfur, magnesium,  aluminum, etc.
                                  m-40
-------
                           Table III-10(a)
               Radioactive Waste Quantities Reported by
            Atomic Energy Commission, With Projections
1.  Power Reactor Wastes (in Cubic Feet)
    Solid
    Liquid
                          1970

                            120
                         30,000
                                          1975
  2,300
170,000
2.   Fuel Reprocessing Wastes (Accumulation)

                           1970           1980

     If Solid (cu. ft. )          170         44, 000
     If Liquid (gal.)       17,000      4,400,000

,3.   Fuel Reprocessing Wastes (Generation Rates)
    If Solid (cu. ft.)
    If Liquid (gal. )
                           1970

                            170
                         17,000
   1980

  9,700
970,000
     1980

   13,500
  330,000
                                                          1990

                                                       240,000
                                                    24,000,000
     1990

   27,000
2,700,000
4,   Miscellaneous Solid Wastes  (Generation Rates in Cubic Feet)

                          1970            1975             1980

                        51,000        256,000          675,000

5.   Cladding,  Hulls, and Hardware (Generation Rates In Cubic Feet)' '

                          1970            1975             1980
                                        6, 100
                                                        11,500
    Accumulation expected to be 40, 000 cu. ft. by 1980.
                               Ill-41
-------
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-------
                   Table III-lQ(d)
     Generation of Miscellaneous Solid Waste and
    Hulls and Hardware at Fuel Reprocessing Plants
                    1970
              1975
              1980
Purex
  Miscellaneous
    Waste - ft
          - Ci
              3
  Cladding - ft
           - Ci

Aquafluor
  Miscellaneous
   Waste - ft3
         - Ci
  Cladding  - ft
           - Ci
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The total accumulation of cladding hulls and hardware
by 1980 is estimated to be 40, 000 cubic feet.
                        111-44
-------
      The amount of solid wastes  generated by the mining and smelting
industries is great  in comparison to the wastes generated by other
industrial sectors.   These wastes add toxic compounds  to the streams
and rivers which may be hazardous to aquatic life.  Once introduced
into water, acids and salts contribute to the general lowering of
water quality which results from major waste flows.

      The residual  solid wastes range from slightly radioactive
granular wastes from uranium extraction, to the thick slimes which
remain when phosphates are extracted.

      The following paragraphs discuss,  in general, the pollutant
causes and effects, and the magnitude of accumulated wastes attri-
buted to the activities of the  Mineral Mining Industry.  The  pollutants
are discussed as to their effects on land, water,  and air.  (More
details are given in Appendix A-l).
      (1)   Land Pollution

           Solid wastes are generally produced as the rejected
      material from mining, processing, and smelting operations.
      It is estimated  that accumulated solid wastes from this industry
      now amount to 23 billion tons, covering an estimated 1. 8
      billion acres of land surface.  Approximately 95 percent of this
      waste covered acreage is due to the production of coal,  sand
      and gravel,  stone,  gold, clay,  phosphate and iron.  Table III-11
      gives a breakdown of the tonnage and surface area covered by
      accumulated wastes.  In addition, it provides a general  indication
      as to areas of concentration of these  wastes  and the portion
      contributed by each mineral type.

           The results of mining solid wastes accumulation is to
      denude land,  change surface and subsurface  drainage patterns,
      abet flooding,  clog  stream channels,  pollute water and air,
      provide  potential waste  ban fires, and cause land-use conflicts.
      (2)   Water Pollution

           Today only about one percent of an estimated 99, 000
      billion gallons of water used domestically  is required by the
      mineral industry.  However, pollution resulting from decades
                              111-45
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                                                    111-46
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                                      111-47
-------
of mining activity has produced damaging environmental conditions
in almost every major freshwater course or lake in the country.
Industrial pollutants into water are of three types: (1) physical,
(2) chemical, and (3) a combination of both.  The following
breakdown is given to indicate the extent to which our water
resources have been affected by pollution, and the acreage of
wildlife habitat that has been degraded as a result of this
pollution.

           Stream—An estimated  12, 989 miles  of streams
           covering approximately 135, 970 acres of land area,
           have been adversely affected by mineral wastes.  The
           problem affects 40 states, with Pennsylvania,
           Louisiana, and Ohio, respectively,  showing the
           greatest amount of degradation.

           Lakes—A total of 281 lakes, covering a land  area
           of approximately  103, 630 acres in seven states,
           have the bulk of this contamination.  These are
           Louisiana, Minnesota,  and Michigan, respectively.

           Reservoirs and Impoundments—A total of 168 such
           installations covering 41, 516 surface acres of water
           throughout 18 states show this contamination,   The
           preponderance of this pollution is found in Alabama,
           South Dakota, Missouri,  West Virginia, and
           Pennsylvania,  in  that order.

           Wildlife Habitat—Approximately 1,617,288 acres of
           wildlife habitat in 46 states have been adversely
           affected. Pennsylvania,  West Virginia, Texas,
           Indiana, and Illinois, in that order,  show  the  greatest
           degree  of degradation.
(3)   Air Pollution

      The common forms of air pollution are well known to most
people.  Approximately 86 percent of the total of this type
pollution is  contributed by the production, processing, use, and
disposal of minerals and fossil fuels. Dust and  gaseous  emissions
are the principal elements in its production.  The origin and
effects of these elements on the environment  are briefly discussed
below:
                         ni-48
-------
                 Dust—The causes of dust in the atmosphere include
                 the following:

                       Blasting,  loading, hauling,  crushing, and
                       processing of ore

                       Drying of settling and tailings ponds, and
                       poor waste bank site selection

                       Failure to properly dispose fine waste material

                       Burning of fossil fuels and combustible waste

                       Failure to use chemical soil stabilizers.

                 The degrading of effects of the emitted dust into the
                 atmosphere results in: hazardous living conditions,
                 respiratory diseases,  short equipment life, smothering
                 and poisoning vegetation, pollution of water resources,
                 a general deterioration of the environment.

                 Gas — The causes of gas emission into the atmosphere
                 include:  combustion of fossil fuels and other combus-
                 tible wastes, slaking of spoils and oxidation of
                 puritic and carbon  wastes,  and smelting of ores.
                 The resulting emissions include  the oxides of carbon,
                 nitrogen,  and sulfur, hydrogen sulfide, fluorides,
                 chlorine,  and ammonia.  Some of these gases react
                 photochemically to produce smog,  sulfuric acid,
                 nitric acid mists which create haze,  paint and metal
                 corrosion, hazardous  living conditions, respiratory
                 diseases.  Generally these gases degrade the
                 environment.
8.    DATA RECORD DESCRIPTIONS
      During the course of this study, as hazardous materials were
identified,  various related -data were collected and have been placed
on punched cards for automatic data processing.  Three card  types
were developed  and these are described below.
                              111-49
-------
(1)    Card Type 1

      These are the basic cards,  and provide the following
information:

           Field 1  -  Material name (alphabetical listing)

           Field 2  -  Identification number (chronologically,
           according to alphabetical listing of material names)

           Field 3  -  Quantity of annual material production
           (coded,  see Table III-12 for  code description)

           Field 4  -  Waste disposal procedure for small and
           packaged lots (by MCA procedure number)

           Field 5  -  Threshold limit values (toxicity) as
           recommended by the American Conference of
           Government Hygienists.   Values  are  given  in parts
           of vapor or gas per million  parts of air  by  volume

           Field 6  -  Specific gravity (gm. /ml.  or  density
           relative to water)

           Field 7  -  Vapor density

           Field 8  -  Flash point, °C

           Field 9  -  Ignition temperature, °C

           Field 10 - Boiling point, °C

           Field 11 - Melting point, °C

           Field 12 - Solubility  in water (Table III-13 indicates
           solubility  code used).
                          111-50
-------
                       Table III- 12
      Hazardous Material Production Quantity Codes
Code
Production Quantity
 0

 1

 2

 3

 4

 5

 6

 7

 8

 9
Less than 0. 5 million Ib. /yr.

0.5- 1.0 million Ib. /yr.

1.0- 10 million Ib. /yr.

10-50 million Ib. /yr.

50 - 100 million Ib. /yr.

100 - 500 million Ib. /yr.

500 - 1,000 million Ib. /yr.

1, 000 - 2, 000 million Ib. /yr.

2, 000 - 5, 000 million Ib. /yr.

Greater than 5, 000 million Ib. /yr.
                        Ill-51
-------
                        Table III-13
     Codes for Hazardous Material Solubility in Water .

 Code                        Description

  NS                        Not soluble
  SL                        Slightly soluble (5 gm. /100 gm.  water)
  MS                        Medium solubility (5-50 gm. /100 gm.  water)
  VS                        Very soluble (50-100 gm. /100 gm. water)
  IN                        Infinite solubility (soluble  in all proportions)
      (2)   Card Type 2

           These cards contain the hazardous effects rating values and
      the principal industrial producers (SIC codes).  Table III-14
      describes  these data records.
      (3)   Card Type 3

           These cards include industry geographic locations, SIC
      codes (of industries for which waste factors were developed),
      value added in production data, the number of establishments,
      and the numbers of employees.  Table III-15 describes these
      cards.
      Figures III-2, III-3, and III-4 illustrate the field layouts on
each of the three data card types.
                              Ill-52
-------
               Table III- 14
Material Hazard Rating and Industrial Source
Location
Field 1
Field 2
Field 3
Field 4
Field 5
Field 6
Field 7
Field 8
Field 9
Field 10
Field 11
Field 12
Field 13
Field 14
Field 15
Field 16
Field 17
Field 18
.
Description
Substance l4entification Number
Air Disposal
Humah Effects
Explosion Reaction
Ecological Effects
Water Disposal
Huma^i Effects
Explosion Reaction
Ecological Effects
Land Disposal
Human Effects
Explosion Reaction
Ecological Effects
Total Knowp Effect Rating
Number of Unknowns










Maximum Potential Effects Rating
Production Rating
Distribution Rating


Total Production Distribution Rating
Final Known Hazards Rating
Maximum Potential Hazards

Rating
                 III-53
-------
                            Table III- 14
                             (Continued)
Location
Description
Field 19

Field 20

Field 21

Field 22

Field 23

Field 24

Field 25

Field 26

Field 27

Field 28

Field 29

Field 30

Field 31

Field 32


Field 33

Field 34

Field 35


Field 36
Metal Mining Industry

Ordnance and Accessories Industry

Food and Kindred Products Industry

Textile Mill Products Industry

Lumber and Wood Products Except Furniture

Paper and Allied Products Industry

Printing Publishing and Allied Industries

Chemical and Allied Product Industry

Petroleum Refining and Related Industries

Rubber and Miscellaneous Plastics Products

Leather and Leather Products Industry

Stone, Clay, Glass,  and Concrete Products

Primary Metal Industries

Fabricated Metal Products Except Ordnance,
Machinery and  Transportation Equipment

Machinery Except Electrical

Electrical Machinery Equipment and Supplies

Professional Scientific and Controlling Instruments
Photographic and Optical Goods,  Watches, and Clocks

Miscellaneous Manufacturing Industries
                              III-54
-------
                            Table III-15
                            Industry Data
Location
Description
Field 1

Field 2

Field 3

Field 4

Field 5

Field 6

Field 7

Field 8

Field 9

Field 10

Field 11

Field 12

Field 13

Field 14

Field 15

Field 16

Field 17

Field 18

Field 19

Field 20
Geographic Location

SIC Code

Value Added  (millions)

Number of Establishments

Number of Employees (100)

Geographic Location

SIC Code

Value Added  (millions)

Number of Establishments

Number of Employees (100)

Geographic Location

SIC Code

Value Added  (millions)

Number of Establishments

Number of Employees

Geographic Location

SIC Code

Value Added  (millions)

Number of Establishments

Number of Employees



           III-55
-------
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                                        111-56
-------
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III-5 8
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(4)    Use of the Data Records

      As in any punched card system, a variety of sorts can be
made depending upon the specific subject matter of interest.
From card to card,  the  common thread of reference is the
identification number assigned to the hazardous materials.  Of
particular  interest in making sorts is the ability to focus on the
rating of hazardous effects (i. e. , depending upon whether the
subject  of interest is hazards to humans, fire and explosion
hazards, ecological  hazards, or overall hazard ratings).
Additionally, as future  research generates new or improved
data,  it can be entered  into these data records with minimum
difficulty.
                         Ill-59
-------
                LIST OF REFERENCES
A 1967 Survey of the Members of the Manufacturing Chemists Association,
Manufacturing Chemists Association,  1968.

"A Pollution Abatement Program for Distillery Wastes", R.G.  Paulette,
C.S. Boruff,  andJ.O. Nack, Water Pollution Control Federation Journal,
Vol.  42,  No.  7,  July  1970, pp.  1368-1394.

A Report on Bottled and Canned Soft Drinks and Flavoring Extracts and
Syrups, Associated Water and Air Resources Engineers, Inc.,  for the
Environmental Protection Agency, August 1971.

A Simplification of Textile Waste Survey and  Treatment, J.W.  Masselli,
N.W. Masselli,  M.G. Burford,  Wesleyan University, for the New England
Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission, July 1959.

California Solid Waste Planning Study,  California Department of Public
Health,  1969.

1967 Census of Manufactures, Volumes I, II,  and III, U.S. Department
of Commerce, Bureau of the Census,  January 1971.

Effluent Requirements for the Leather Tanning and Finishing Industry,
Stanley Consultants,  Inc., September 1971.

Industrial Waste Studies Program - Group G  Study, Fertilizers, Wellman
Lord, Inc.,  July 1971.

Industrial Waste Study of Canned and Frozen  Fruits and Vegetables, SCS
Engineeris,  for the Environmental Protection Agency,  July 17, 1971.

Industrial Waste Study of the Asbestos Industry, Associated Water and
Air Resources Engineers, Inc.,  for the Environmental Protection Agency,
1971.

Industrial Waste Study of the Meat Products Industry, J.P.  Pilney, E.E.
Erickson, and N.O. Halvorson,  North Star Research and Development
Institute,  for the Environmental Protection Agency,  July 8, 1971.
                        111-60
-------
Industrial Waste Study of the Paper and Allied Products Industries,
WAPORA,  Inc., for the Environmental Protection Agency, July 1971.

Industrial Waste Study of the Plastic Materials and Synthetics Industry,
N. Baron and J.W. Gilpin,  for the Environmental Protection Agency,
1971.

Industrial Waste Survey of Inorganic Chemicals, Alkalines and Chlorine,
General Technologies Corp.,  for the Environmental Protection Agency,
May 28, 1971.

Industrial Waste Survey of the Aluminum Industry, Gurham & Associates,
Inc. ,  for the Environmental Protection Agency, August 1971.

Industrial Waste Survey of the Distilled Spirits Industry, Associated
Water and Air Resources Engineers, Inc., for the Environmental
Protection Agency, August  1971.

Industrial Waste Survey of the Malt Industry, Associated Water and
Air Resources Engineers, Inc.,  for the Environmental Protection
Agency, August 1971.

Industrial Waste Survey of the Malt Liquor Industry,  Associated
Water and Air Resources Engineers, Inc., for the Environmental
Protection Agency, August  1971.

Industrial Waste Surveys of Two New England Cotton Finishing Mills,
M. G. Burford et al., for the  New England  Interstate Water Pollution
Control Commission, June  1953.

Industry Profile Study on Blast Furnace and Basic Steel Products,
NUS Corp., for the Environmental Protection Agency, June 1971.

Petrochemical Effluents Treatment Practices - Summary,  Dr. E.F.
Gloyna and Dr. D. L. Ford, Engineering-Science,  Inc., Project
12020, for the U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration, Pub.  PB-192-310, February 1970.

Petroleum Refining Effluent Guidelines for Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Water Programs, R. F. Weston, Environmental
Scientists and Engineers, September 1, 1971.

Pollution Sources from  Finishing of Synthetic Fibers, J.W. Masselli
andM.G.  Burford, Wesleyan  University, for the  New England
Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission, June 1956.
                      Ill-61
-------
 Solid Waste Management in the Food Processing Industry,  A.M.
 Katsuyama, N.A. Olson, R.L. Quirk, andW.A.  Mercer,  National
 Canners1 Association and Western Research Laboratory,  for the
 Environmental Protection Agency, 1971.

 Technical-Economic Study of Solid Waste Disposal Needs and Practices,
 Volume II - Industrial Inventory,  Combustion Engineering,  Inc., for
 the US. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health
 Service,  Clearinghouse  for Federal Scientific and Technical Information,
 Pub. 1886, Report SW-7c Pub. PB-187-712, 1969.

 The Cost of Clean Water, Vol.  Ill - Industrial Waste Profile No. 1  -
 Blast Furnaces and Steel Mills, U.S. Department of Interior,  Federal
 Water Pollution Control Administration, Pub. I.W.P.-l, September
 1967.

 The Cost of Clean Water, Vol.  Ill - Industrial Waste Profile No. 4 -
 Textile Mill Products, U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water
 Pollution Control Administration, Pub.  I.W.P.-4, June 30,  1967.

 The Cost of Clean Water, Vo. Ill - Industrial Waste Profile No.  5-
 Petroleum Refining, U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water
 Pollution Control Administration, November 1967.

 The Cost of Clean Water, Vo. Ill - Industrial Waste Profile No.  7-
 Leather Tanning and Finishing, U.S.  Department  of Interior, Federal
 Water Pollution Control Administration, Pub. I.W.P.-7, September
 1967.

 The Cost of Clean Water, Vol. Ill - Industrial Waste Profile No.  8-
 Meat Products, Wichita State University, Department  of Economics,
 for the U.S.  Department of Interior,  Federal Water Pollution Control
 Administration, September 1967.

 The Cost of Clean Water, Vol.  Ill - Industrial Waste Profile No. 10-
 Plastics Materials and Resins, Illinois  Institute of Technology Research
 Institute,  for the U.S. Department of Interior,  Federal Water Pollution
 Control Administration,  October  12,  1967.

 Unpublished data from the Bureau of Mines, U.S.  Department of Interior.

"Waste Disposal in the Meat Industry,  Part I, " A. J.  Steffen, Water and
 Wastes Engineering/Industrial, Vol.  7,  No. 3,  March 1970, pp.  B-20
 to B-22.
                      111-62
-------
"Waste Disposal in the Meat Industry, Part II, " A. J. Steffen,
 Water and Wastes Engineer ing/Industrial, Vol. 7, No. 5, May
1970, pp. C-l to C-4.
                      Ill-63
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IV.   SURVEY OF HAZARDOUS EFFECTS AND RATING
              OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
-------
    IV.    SURVEY OF HAZARDOUS EFFECTS AND RATING
                    OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
1.     INTRODUCTION

      Hazardous substances can produce measurable adverse effects
in  a number of environmental areas.  Available literature reveals the
wide scope of effects that have resulted from accidents, as well as
from planned experiments involving laboratory animal and plant
exposures to wide ranges of concentration levels and exposure time
periods (see the list of references at the end of this chapter).  Industrial
health records and studies show a wide range of observed health effects
due to both acute and chronic  exposures of workers to various industrial
materials (e. g. ,  References 1, 2, 3).  While the human health effects
from industrial workplace exposures may be quite  well documented,  in
many instances from medical records, often the contributing levels of
exposure are not documented  to provide good cause and effect relation-
ships.

      A material or substance is termed toxic if it can produce damage
to  a living organism.  Its toxicity is a measure of the amount of damage
that is caused by a specified amount of the substance.

      Hazards, on the other hand, are usually thought of in terms of the
probabilities of being involved in a situation which  can cause damage.
Frequently, the terms  "toxic" and "hazardous" have been synonymous.
This is true to some extent in this study and report,  where a list of
"hazardous materials"  has been developed.  Perhaps some justification
can be offered in that one criterion used in developing the list was a
measure of the production amounts of each substance,  and the potential
damages included those due to flame and explosion as well as toxic
effects.  Thus, the list includes substances which are hazardous  because
relatively large production amounts increase the probability of their
causing widespread damage,  and they are potentially damaging in more
than one way.
                                 IV-1
-------
      The above connotation is continued in this section with the develop-
ment of a rating system and rating of the list of hazardous materials.
The  indicated approach for the rating of hazardous materials can be
concisely outlined as follows:

            Identify a representative list of hazardous substances

            Establish criteria for evaluating quantitatively all adverse
            effects that may result from exposures to the hazardous
            substances

            Establish criteria for evaluating the extent of the hazards
            involved, i. e., the extent in terms of geography and
            frequency of occurrence

            Develop algorithm for combining the individual ratings
            determined on the basis of criteria to arrive at a total
            rating for each substance

            Rank substances on basis of ratings..


2.    ANALYTICAL PROBLEMS IN HAZARDOUS EFFECTS

      Although the above logic for rating of the list of hazardous
substances appears relatively simple, there are a great many compli-
cations which exist and which operate to limit severely the depth of an
analysis that can be applied to development of the ratings.  Most of
these complications relate  to the availability and quality of data needed
for each substance to arrive at a defensible rating.  Some of these
complications are discussed below.


      (1)    Human Effects  Data Limitations
            Data on human effects resulting from severe exposures to
      hazardous or toxic substances are obtained principally from
      reconstruction of accident situations.  A second major source of
      human effects information is extrapolation from experimental
      animal data.  Both methods are fraught  with uncertainties.
                                 IV-2
-------
      Accident data is sparse in terms of the detail and amounts
needed for a list of nearly 500 substances (see Chapter II).  Where
accidents have occurred, the recording of information into the
facts surrounding the accident has frequently been so unsystematic
that the possibility of missing at least one key contributing factor
is always present (Reference 4).  This makes quantification of
causes and effects uncertain, and accidents involving exactly  the
same set of circumstances do not usually occur with enough
frequency to calibrate the measurement or reconstruction errors
involved. Furthermore, some facts surrounding accidents are
considered proprietary and, even though originally recorded, may
not be generally available.

      Extrapolations from animal data do not generally suffer
from lack of data.  More often, the problem evolves from several
sets of data, one or more of which is anomalous and thereby  casts
uncertainty on human extrapolations.  In addition, animals respond
differently to doses of toxic substances administered by different
dose injection routes.   Thus, the results  are dependent upon
whether  a dose was administered orally,  intraperitoneally,  intra-
muscularly,  cutaneously,  or via the respiratory route.  This
represents no unusual difficulty for an experiment designed
specifically for use in extrapolating a result to humans.   However,
if attempt is made to infer human effects  from odd bits of animal
data which have been reported in many places,  the question of
dose route frequently arises and cannot be answered.
(2)    Ecological Impact

      Much of the ecological data for plants or animals suffers,
to some extent,  from the same limitations as described previously
for  human effects data.  That is,  very little plant or animal data
have been taken in plant or animal natural habitat as a result of
accidents,  and when attempted, all causes and effects are not
recorded.   Likewise,  extrapolations from one species of plant or
animal to another are  uncertain because of frequent anomalies
observed in the  available recorded data.

      Furthermore, the full impact of hazardous substances on
ecu  logical systems may not be observable in isolated data on
tox. , effects to specific species.  Important indirect or secondary
     ?t may occur to co-inhabitants of a habitat as a result of
                           IV-3
-------
      exposures to hazardous materials in a natural environment,  as
      opposed to an experimental laboratory.  These impacts may
      involve predator and prey relationships,  and the entire process of
      natural selection.  The long-term result could be new and
      undesirable environmental balances.
      (3)   Time Factors

           Adverse effects may occur to all ecological populations
      (which include humans) as a result of repeated exposures to
      sublethal acute dosage of toxic materials, or of continuous
      exposures to low-level concentrations of hazardous substances.
      Such exposures have produced carcinogenesis and mutagenesis in
      animals after extended periods of time (Reference 5).  Similar
      results have not been observed in humans in equivalent times.
      Thus, another uncertain measure is added to the problem of
      animal extrapolations to humans,  and the difficulty of obtaining
      definitive long-term cause-and-effect relationships for humans
      in industrial or urban environments  is obvious.

           Measures of persistence of hazardous substances become an
      important adjunct to time factors.   The  combination of low-level
      exposures and persistent agents can lead to major hazards in the
      form of lethal or damaging accumulations of a substance.  Asbestos
      and mercury are perhaps the two most commonly known persistent
      hazards.   Asbestos accumulates in humans and can lead to lung
      cancer after many years of low-level exposure (References 5,  6).
      Mercury is known to accumulate in aquatic species and may lead
      to serious effects in humans through a build-up of concentrations
      in the food chain (Reference 7).  There are many other compounds
      which persist in nature and/or accumulate in food chains.  Some
      of these are known or suspected; others have been observed
      occasionally but have not been quantified (References 1,  3).
3.     DEVELOPMENT OF THE RATING SYSTEM

      The rating of hazardous substances must reflect both the intensity
or level of hazard and the extent of the hazard.  Intensity or level of
hazard can be provided  in terms of potential effects.  Extent of hazard
involves production quantity and geographical distribution of a substance,
and perhaps the number of ways that a substance can cause adverse effects
on the populations that may be placed in jeopardy by its presence.
                                 IV-4
-------
      The rating of various hazardous substances can be accomplished
in a number of ways and by the use of any number of criteria.  From a
practical point of view and in consideration of the state of knowledge
concerning hazardous substances and related effects, it is better to
limit  the evaluation criteria to those for which appropriate evaluation
data are available.

      The approach taken during this study was to select criteria for
evaluation of hazardous substances in such a way that the most impor-
tant environmental effects were included for consideration.   In this way,
enough criteria were defined to provide for an  adequate range  of values
for the rating of substances; at the same time,  the criteria did not
extend into areas in which little or no firm data could be found.
      (1)    Development of Effects Criteria

            Waste materials can be disposed of or otherwise released
      (intentionally or unintentionally) through the following media:

                 Air—by  incineration,  evaporation,  or direct release
                 of effluent as particulate matter,  gases, or mists to
                 the atmosphere

                 Water—by chemical and biological treatment (in
                 waste streams or holding ponds) or direct release of
                 effluent to surface streams, ponds, lakes, estuaries;
                 or by transport and deposit in ocean depths

                 Soil-—by direct deposit of sludge, ash, or other solid
                 or semisolid waste forms in open pits,  cover landfills
                 or deep well injection.

            Toxic substances may occur  in solid, liquid,  or gaseous
      state in any of the above media.  However, a principal route of
      entry to receptors is commonly associated with each of the above
      media.  In air, the main route of entry is via the respiratory sys-
      tem of humans, animals and plants.  In water,  the principal route
      of entry is by ingestion for humans and most animals, but  for
      fish and aquatic plants the route is through the respiratory systems.
      In soil,  the route is  by direct contact for humans, animals and
      plants.  There are,  of course, other routes of entry. For example,
      toxic substances may enter humans by direct contact of air or
                                 TV-5
-------
water concentrations on skin areas,  and soil organisms or land
plants may ingest toxic materials by uptake of soil water  or by
inhalation of air contained in soil openings.

      Human health and welfare, as well as animals and vegetation,
may be  exposed to hazardous situations involving flame and/or
explosion caused by some substances.   Other adverse effects may
occur as a result of rapid or violent  chemical reactions of sub-
stances.  Flame,  explosion, or reactions produce heat which may
cause many compounds to emit highly toxic fumes or to react more
vigorously with oxidizing materials.   Some compounds can react
rapidly  with water or steam to produce toxic or flammable vapors.
Acids may be produced by reactions,  and heat generated by flame
or reaction may, itself, be a serious hazard to many ecopopulations.
Thus some substances may be more  hazardous than others because
they have a potential to cause damage by both toxic effects and by
effects from flame,  explosion, or reaction.  But there are levels
of toxicity and degrees  of flammability, explosion and reaction, and
this  provides the basis  for the development of useful criteria for
evaluation and rating of potentially hazardous substances.

      For this study, the measurable effects caused by hazardous
substances were  conveniently grouped into two principal categories:

           Effects on human health and welfare

           Effects on other ecological populations.

      The human health and welfare category includes effects
resulting from flame, explosion,  or  reaction as well as exposure.
to toxic substances.  The category involving other ecological
populations includes both plants and animals as appropriate in land,
water, or air habitats.   Both categories include exposures to
toxic materials in the form of solids, liquids, or gases but in a
selective way, as described later, rather than ail-inclusively.

      The matrix of effects considered for rating the list  of
hazardous substances took the form shown in Table IV-1.  Each
row  and column combination of the matrix required a set  of
criteria for use in determining ratings.  In light of the human and
ecological effects data limitations described earlier, no attempt
was  made to  develop  a sophisticated  rating scale involving a large
number of possible values which would have required highly-precise
                           IV-6
-------
                        Table IV-1
     Matrix of Factors for Rating the Level of Effects
           for the List of Hazardous Substances
Medium
For
Disposal
Air (A)
Water (W)
Soil (S)
Hazard in Terms of Potential Effects
Human Populations
Toxic Effects

ATH WTH STH Flame / Explosion/ Reaction (Fg) AFH WFH SFH Eco Populations Toxic Effects (TF) ATE WTE STE estimates of effects in order to rate them properly. Instead, a very simple three-valued scale was developed for each element of the matrix. For each element, the ratings were: 3—Severely hazardous 2—Slight to moderate hazard 1—Minimal hazard U—Effects unknown. It is recognized that the scale of 1-3 is a narrow band likely to produce ratings that tend to group many materials into clusters in the overall rating scale, and that a wider spread in the relative ratings would be desirable. However, the limitations noted earlier with respect to knowledge of human and ecological effects of materials are such that the rating precision needed for use of a wider scale (e. g., 1-10) or the precision that would be implied if a wider scale were imposed, are not justified by the data available. For each element of the matrix, an appropriate descriptive statement of each rating criterion was developed. Effects data, available in a number of sources, are not always given in the same units. Sometimes, even though the units are the same, the exposure times are different, which leads to a different implication. IV-7

-------
To improve the consistency of the ratings,  sets of guidance values
were developed for each criterion.  That is, specific numerical
values were developed for each criterion.  That is, specific
numerical values in terms of concentrations or doses for both
acute and chronic exposure modes were included wherever the
available  background data were adequate for such development.

      It was concluded arbitrarily that where effects were unknown,
or at least were not available in the material gathered for this study,
a "U" would be inserted in lieu of an estimated or  inferred value.
The  use of the effects rating values  in reaching a final hazard
rating and the implications of inserting "U" for unknowns are
discussed in a later section.   All details and definitions concerning
the criteria for rating the elements  of the matrix of effects  are
included in Tables IV-3 through IV-13 at the end of this section
of the report.
(2)    Development of Extent of Hazard Criteria

      Direct quantitative measures of the extent of hazards are
difficult to obtain.  Ideally, such measures should include the
specific amounts of each potentially hazardous material reaching
waste status and a measure of their geographical distribution.
Hazardous wastes occur in a number of ways as described in the
surveys of industrial sections which were included earlier in this
report.   Because waste materials occur mostly as complex mix-
tures in industrial waste streams which are frequently changing in
composition, currently available waste inventories have not
included the detail necessary to provide the desired quantification
of specific compounds.

      The extent of hazard should also include a measure of the
period of time over which substances may be hazardous.  However,
accurate measures of the persistence of most hazardous substances
are not generally available, except for rough estimates for a few
pesticide compounds  (see References 8, 9).

      For this study, a search was undertaken to obtain available
production information which could serve as a reliable indicator of
the  extent of hazardous substances.   A survey of the list of com-
pounds was conducted to obtain production amounts,  major manufac-
turers,  usual shipping mode and major used for each substance.
                           IV-8

-------
      Following a rationale that the extent of a hazardous substance
is reflected in a combination of its production amounts and subse-
quent distribution, the ratings in Table IV-2 were selected for use
in rating the list of substances.
                       Table IV-2
  Matrix of Factors for Rating the Extent of Hazard for
            the List of Hazardous Substances
Production
Criteria
(Ibs/year)
>108


 10?
-------
                 Production amounts and distribution should not impact
                 negatively to reduce total effects ratings; therefore, the
                 smallest factor should be a one (i. e., 1.0).

                 There should be a measure of equivalence between
                 small production levels with wide distribution and
                 large production  levels with limited distribution.

                 The total multiplier should be no more than two (to
                 avoid undue bias) and be a measure of the amount
                 produced and its  source of distribution.

            The criteria used to establish the ratings shown in Table IV-2
      are contained in Tables IV-14 and IV-15 (presented at the end of
      this chapter).
4.    METHOD OF RATING AND RESULTS
      The methods described in the preceding two sections for rating
the level of effects and the extent of hazard were  combined to provide
the complete methodology for rating each substance of the hazardous
substance list.  Using the criteria  of Tables IV-5 through IV-13
(presented at the end of this  chapter) and effects information available
in a number of sources,  coded effects ratings were developed for each
element of the effects rating matrix of Table  IV-1 for each substance.

      In reaching a coded rating value, no single  reference provided the
rating, although heavy reliance was placed on Dangerous Properties of
Industrial Materials (Reference 1).  The basic procedure used to obtain
final hazard ratings was to obtain initial estimates of effects ratings
from  Reference 1  and then compare these  estimates with other available
sources which included,  but  was  not limited to, References 1,  2, 3, and
10 through 19.  If the other sources confirmed the estimate taken from
Reference  1, the rating was  accepted; but  if other sources  differed, an
average of all available information became the basis for the rating.
No attempt was made to  rate each substance for both acute and chronic
exposures because of paucity of data,  particularly on chronic exposures.
Data corresponding to either acute  or chronic exposure was used to
produce a rating.  If both were available,  the one producing the larger
hazard rating was used.
                                 IV-10
-------
      A final weighted total effects rating (TER) was computed using
the following expression:
      TER = (ATfjjWj + (AFH)W2 + (ATE)W3 + (WTH)W4 + (WFH)W5 +


             (WTE)W6 + (STH)W7 + (SFH)W8 + (STE)W9

where the parenthetical terms refer to the appropriate row and column
entries  of the matrix in Table IV- 1, and Wj refers to a specific weight
for each matrix entry.  In developing the ratings for this study, no
really good justification could be found for adjusting the  weights from
term to term (of the above equation) and a weight of one  was,  therefore,
assumed at all times. It is suggested that the use of weighting values,
in developing the TER, be applied to reflect priorities.   Priorities can
be established that are indicative of the interest of the user,  (e. g. ,
whether hazards to humans are given greater significance than hazards
to other species, and weighting values  should then be assigned accordingly.
Thus, in future  work (particularly as priorities are defined)  it may be
desirable to introduce specific term weights  and recalculate  ratings.
This will,  of course, be a routine adjustment once a punched card
deck or tape is prepared for the basic effects data.

      The second step to a final hazard rating involved the use of
production/ distribution data,  and the criteria of Tables IV- 14 and IV- 15
to obtain a hazard extent rating (HER) from Table IV-2.  The hazard
rating for each substance is then the product of the total effects rating
(TER) (previously discussed),  and the hazard extent rating (HER):

      Hazard rating (HR) =  (TER) x (HER)

      In computing the hazard ratings,  there were many substances for
which data were not complete and rating values could not be provided for
all components of the system.   At these points,  a decision was made to
insert the letter "u" to signify unknown or unavailable information.  The
number of unknown pieces of data was totaled and recorded,  and based on
the assumption that it would be  desirable to produce conservative hazard
ratings, the concept of "potential hazard  ratings" was introduced,
through which specific values can be assigned to the "unknowns. "  This
concept results  in two additional rating scores for the materials listed.
The first of these is termed the maximum potential effects rating (MPER),
which is computed by assigning a value of three (maximum hazard value)
to each  unknown, summing those and adding the result to the total effect
rating:
                                 IV-11
-------
      MPER = 3U + TER

      The second "potential" rating is termed the maximum potential
hazard rating (MPHR), which is computed by multiplying the maximum
potential effects rating by the hazard extent rating:

      MPHR = MPER x HER,

to produce the highest overall hazard rating.

      Thus, the rating system developed actually includes five ratings
(TER, HER, MPER,  HR  and MPHR),  and is a flexible system that can
accommodate data that may be developed in the future.  The  system is
also readily amenable to  altered weighting factors and the incorporation
of a wider spread in the scale of individual values that may be justified
by future  research.

      A simple worksheet was prepared for computing the hazard rating
of each substance.  A sample copy is included in Table IV-16 and a
completed sample is  given in  Table IV-17.  The hazard ratings for each
substance were computed and the  results are included in Table IV-18.
While Table IV-18 gives ratings for the hazardous materials listed in
Chapter II (Table II-6,  page 11-29),  Table IV-19 provides examples of
additional potentially hazardous materials, with rating scores.  (These
four tables  are presented at the end of this chapter. )  This latter group
typifies materials for which a great number of unknowns exist with
respect to the hazards they might present.  They have been included here
to illustrate that various  cutoff points need to be established  and observed
in order to  differentiate among the meanings of ratings for potentially
hazardous compounds.  Such compounds show known effects ratings that
are low, but high potential effects ratings.  In the total hazard rating
columns of the latter two tables, two final rating columns are given.   The
first  provides a rating based on known data, while the second provides a
potential rating based on the known ratings plus maximum possible com-
ponent ratings for each unknown.  Used together, the two columns  provide
a range of values within which the actual rating will fall when all data
become known.

      Table IV-20 lists certain hazardous materials used as warfare  agents,
with hazard ratings where possible.  Further, three additional lists of
hazardous wastes resulting from Department of Defense activities are
presented in Tables IV-21, IV-22  and  IV-23.  These three lists include
                                 IV-12
-------
explosive materials and compounds; typical air and water pollutants
involved in conventional munitions production, and a list of typical
hazardous waste compounds subcategorized by maintenance, supply
and weapons  systems support operations.  Some of these compounds
are included  on the list of hazardous materials developed in this study
because they have other industrial or commercial uses.  Where a
rating has been developed, it  is included in parentheses following the
compound. Where two numbers are given,  the second refers to the
partial rating appropriate to the main list, e. g., air exposure or
water exposure only.
                                 IV-13
-------
                      Table IV-3
              Rules Used During Rating
               of Hazardous Substances
1.    Chronic exposures are arbitrarily assumed to be
      1/20 to 1/100 of acute exposures.

2.    If effects measurements could not be found in the
      available data and effects could not be clearly
      established based on descriptive  statements of
      effects,  the  letter, U, signifying unknown or
      unavailable was  inserted in place of a rating value.

3.    The simple sum of component effects provides a total
      effects rating, and no justification could be provided
      for implementing separate weightings on  each com-
      ponent rating.
4.    If production amounts could not be determined from
      available sources, it  was assumed that the produc-
      tion amount  was low and an arbitrary value of 1. 0 was
      assigned.

5.    The simple sum of production rating and  distribution
      rating provides an extent of hazard rating,  and no
      justification could be  provided for implementing
      separate weightings on each component rating.

6.    The product of the effects rating and the extent of
      hazard rating gives the final hazard  rating.
                         IV-14
-------
                            Table IV-4
              Definitions of Terms Used in Criteria
LC
   50
LD
   50
TLV
Toxic
Substance
Lethal concentration fifty: concentration which adminis-
tered by the respiratory route would be lethal to fifty
percent of the exposed population.

Lethal dose fifty:  dose in terms of milligrams per
kilogram of body weight which if ingested by the  oral
route would cause death to fifty  percent of the exposed
population.
                                             3
Threshold limit value: the concentration (mg/m  ) or
dose (mg/kg body weight) to which receptors  (humans,
animals, or plants) may be exposed repeatedly or
continuously day after day without suffering adverse
effects.
An element,  compound, or material which can produce
damage to a living organism.
Acute
Exposure  Short time (less than one hour) exposures to relatively
           large concentrations or doses  of toxic substances.  Acute
           doses are generally ingested as a single dose.
Chronic
Exposure
Guidance
Values
Long-term (order of days to years) exposures to relatively
small concentration or doses of toxic substances.  Chronic
doses are generally small doses repeated over periods of
days to years.
Values of concentrations, dose, etc.,  provided as guidelines
for use in rating hazardous substances.  Any one of the
several provided can serve as  the basis for a rating (i. e.,
not intended that all criteria be met for a rating).
                               IV-15
-------
                            Table IV-5
    Human Effects Rating Criteria: Toxic Effects in Air
     Severely hazardous.  Very highly toxic causing death or residual
     injuries to persons exposed to relatively low concentrations.
     Has potential to be carcinogenic.  Guidance  values:
              ;1,                    O
           LCj-0 -     X 5000 mg/m          (acute * exposure)
              o \j
                                   3
           LCj-n -     X  250 mg/m           (chronic  * exposure)
              DU
               *                   3
           TLV  -     ^  500 mg/m           (acute exposure)
                                 3
           TLV  -     ^25 mg/m            (chronic  exposure)


     Slight to moderate hazard.  Short intense exposures  or  con-
     tinued exposures at lower  concentration levels may cause serious
     temporary or minor residual injury.  Guidance Values:

                                          3
           LC    -     5000  to 50000 mg/m    (acute)
              50
                                        3
           LC    -     250 to 2500 mg/m      (chronic)
              0 U
                                        3
           TLV  -     500 to 5000 mg/m      (acute)
                                     3
           TLV  -     25 to 250 mg/m        (chronic)


     Minimal Hazard.  Lethal at concentrations which are not likely
     to occur at all,  or at most over very limited areas.  Effects
     generally confined to minor symptoms and injuries of temporary
     nature.  Guidance values:

                                     3
           LC   -       >50000 mg/m        (acute)
              o u
                                    3
           LC   -       >2500 mg/m         (chronic)
              D U
                                    3
           TLV -       >5000 mg/m         (acute)
                                   3
           TLV -       >250 mg/m          (chronic)


U    Unknown
 * See Table IV-4 for list of definitions.
                               IV-16
-------
                             Table IV-6
      Human Effects Rating Criteria: Toxic Effects in Water*
      Severely hazardous.  Very highly toxic causing lethalities or
      severe residual injuries to persons acquiring relatively small
      doses.  Has potential to be carcinogenic.  Guidance values:

            LC^n -     ^ 3500 mg/lifcer of water      (acute ingestion)
               0 \)

            LC n -     >^35 mg/liter of water        (chronic ingestion)
               D w
            TLV  -     ^350 mg/liter of water       (acute ingestion)

            TLV  -     ^3. 5 mg/liter of water       (chronic ingestion)

      Slight to moderate hazard.  Lethal only at moderate concentra-
      tions.  In general causes  serious temporary  injury or minor
      residual damages.  Guidance values:

            LC n -     3500 to  35000 mg/liter of water   (acute)
               ou

            LC_n -     35 to  350 mg/liter of water      (chronic)
               o u
            TLV  -     350 to 3500 mg/liter of water     (acute)
            TLV  -     3. 5 to 35 mg/liter of water      (chronic)

      Minimal hazard. Effects generally confined  to minor symptoms
      and injury of a temporary nature.  Guidance  values:

            LC n -     > 35000 mg/liter of water        (acute)
               o u
            LCj.ft -     y 350 mg/liter of water          (chronic)
               D U
            TLV  -     y 3500 mg/liter of water         (acute)
            TLV  -     ) 35 mg/liter of water           (chronic)
U     Unknown
* Values based on milligrams of toxic substance per liter of water
(i. e., water concentration).  Lethal concentration assumes ingestion
of one liter of water containing one lethal dose (LD  ) of substance  by
70 kilograms man for an acute exposure.
                                IV-17
-------
                             Table IV-7
         Human Effects Rating Criteria: Toxic Effects in Soil
      Severely hazardous percutaneously on direct contact.  May re-
      lease lethal secondary compounds  in the form of vapors or mists
      to the atmosphere, or in liquid or  particulate form to surface
      or ground waters.  May be only moderately toxic (as described
      under 2 below) but is highly persistent. In contact with skin,
      causes second-  and third-degree burns and is very injurious
      to the eyes on short direct contact. Extended periods of con-
      tact could cause death.   Has potential to be carcinogenic.

      Moderately severe skin  irritant.  Causes severe  smarting of
      skin and first-degree burns on short direct contact exposure.
      Causes severe pain and  second degree burns after prolonged
      contact.

      Minimal hazard.   No hazard for  short time contact exposure.
      Mild irritation and smarting of skin in contact for prolonged
      period.
 U    Unknown.
                           Table IV-8
       Human Hazards Rating Criteria:  Flame,  Explosion,
                       and Reaction in Air
3     Severe hazard.  Vaporizes quickly at atmospheric pressures and
      normal ambient temperatures.  Readily dispersible and burnable
      in air.  High liklihood of spontaneous combustion and/or explosive
      reaction. Exposure to flame or violent reaction may produce
      lethal gases, vapor, fumes, or mist. Liquid and vapor flash points
      below 100°F.

2     Moderate hazard. Generally must be heated or exposed to unusually
      high ambient temperatures to ignite. Under certain limited conditions
      can ignite spontaneously and burn rapidly but no explosion or violent
      reactions.  Exposure to flame or violent reaction vapors,  gases,
      fumes, etc.  which may be toxic,  but not lethal.  Includes liquids
      and vapors with flash point over 100°F, and solids  emitting highly
      flammable vapors.

1     Minimal hazard. Must be preheated  to ignite. Includes liquids,
      solids, semi-solids with very high flash points. No generation of
      toxic mists,  fumes,  etc.  occurs.

U     Unknown.	_____

                                IV-18
-------
                            Table IV-9
        Human Hazards Rating  Criteria:  Flame, Explosion,
                       and Reaction in Water
}     Severe hazard.  Will react explosively with water without re-
      quiring heat or confinement.   Violent reactions may produce
      lethal or highly toxic vapors and/or acids that may cause
      serious  and permanent injury.

I     Moderate hazard.  May react  violently with water, but only
      under certain very limited circumstances.  May  form potentially
      explosive mixtures with water, but requires catalyst to ignite.
      Reactions may release harmful, but not lethal or residual
      injuries. In general,  effects are temporary with no residual
      damages.

1     Minimal hazard.  Limited or no reaction in water.  Any release
      of energy is non-violent.  No generation of toxic  vapors occurs.

U     Unknown
                            Table IV-10
       Human Hazards Rating Criteria:  Flame,  Explosion,  and
                         Reaction in Soil
3     Severe Hazard.  Readily capable of detonation and explosive de-
      composition or reaction at normal ambient temperatures and
      pressures.  Will detonate as result of mechanical shock or local
      thermal shock.  Reacts readily with own oxides or with other
      oxidizing materials.  Can ignite spontaneously and/or react
      violently if exposed to moisture in soil.  Ignition or reaction can
      produce lethal vapors, fumes,  etc.

2     Moderate hazard.  Can readily undergo violent chemical  change
      with rapid release of energy, but will not detonate explosively
      or react violently except under very special  circumstances such
      as heating under confinement.  Can ignite  and burn rapidly or
      react to produce harmful, though not lethal,  vapors and fumes
      if exposed to modest increase of temperature or if moisture is
      encountered.

1     Minimal hazard.  General stable substances.  Very limited potential
      for reaction or combustion. No toxic fumes or vapors associated
      with any reactions or combustion that may occur.

U     Unknown.	
                                IV-19~'
-------
                            Table IV-11
      Ecological Effects Rating Criteria:  Toxic Effects in Air
      Severe hazard.   Highly toxic,  causing death or residual damage
      to animals and/or plants exposed to atmospheres contaminated
      at relatively low concentration levels, or to animals accumulat-
      ing small doses of the toxic substance.  Guidance values:
                               &
                               3~                O.. .X.
                                               -I* -I-
       LCj-n -    <^2UUU mg/m   or -^100 mg/kg    (acute exposure)
                           o
       LC(-n -    -^20 mg/m  or -^1.0 mg/kg        (chronic  exposure)
                             2
       TLV  -    ^200 mg/m  or  410 ™g/kg       (acute exposure)
                          o
       TLV  -    ^2 mg/m  or  ^0. 1 mg/kg       (chronic  exposure)
    50

    50

            •^

            <

Slight to moderate hazard.  Causes temporary damage to most
species and is lethal to only a few extra sensitive species at
moderate concentrations.  Guidance values:
                                 3
  LC n  -     2000 to 20000 mg/m  or 100 to 1000 mg/kg  (acute)
    DU
                            3
  LC.,.  -     20 to 200 mg/m  or 0. 1 to 10 mg/kg        (chronic)
    0 U
                              3
  TLV   -     200 to 2000 mg/m  or 10  to 100 mg/kg      (acute)
                          3
  TLV   -     2 to 20 mg/m  or 0. 1 to 1.0 mg/kg          (chronic)

Minimal hazard.  Lethal only at concentrations which are not
likely to occur at all, or at most  over very limited areas.   Causes
only minor injury of temporary nature.  Guidance values:
                         3
  LCRn  -   > 20000 mg/m  or  > 1000 mg/kg             (acute)
    0 U

  LC „  -    > 200 mg/m  or > 10 mg/kg                 (chronic)
    50
  TLV   -   > 2000 mg/m3 or   > 100 mg/kg              (acute)
                      3
  TLV  -   > 20 mg/m  or  > 1.0 mg/keg               (chronic)
U     Unknown.
 ^Concentration of toxic substance per cubic meter of air
**Loss of toxic substance (mg) per kilogram of animal body weight

                               IV-20
-------
                        Table IV-12
Ecological Effects Rating Criteria: Toxic Effects in Water
 Severe hazard.  Lethal to fish and/or other aquatic life in general
 in low concentrations.  Guidance values:
   LC
     50
   LC
          ^100 mg/liter water

          ^1 mg/liter water

          ^10 mg/liter water

TLV  -    <(0. 1 mg/liter water
     50

   TLV
                                  (acute exposure)

                                  (chronic exposure)

                                  (acute exposure)

                                  (chronic exposure)
 Slight to moderate hazard.  Lethal to only a few sensitive species
 of fish on other aquatic life at moderate concentrations.  Guidance
 values:
  LC50

     50

  TLV

  TLV
100 to  1000 mg/liter water

1 to 10  mg/liter water

10 to 100 mg/liter water

0. 1 to  1.0 mg/liter water
                                             (acute)

                                             (chronic)

                                             (acute)

                                             (chronic)
 Minimal hazard.  Requires very high concentrations for exposures
 that would cause lethalities.  Not likely to occur over large volumes
 of water. Guidance Values:




u
LC50 "
LC50 -
TLV -
TLV -
Unknown.
> 1000 mg/liter water
> 10 mg/liter water
> 100 mg/liter water
> 1. 0 mg/liter water

(acute)
(chronic)
(acute)
(chronic)

                            IV-21
-------
                            Table IV-13
        Ecological Effects Rating Criteria: Toxic Effects in Soil

 3     Severe Hazard.  Highly lethal on contact to most vegetation
      and/or earth organisms.  May be soluble in water and  can  flow
      with surface or ground waters  to affect vegetation and/or
      aquatic life in remote  streams, ponds, lakes,  etc.  Potential
      hazard to public or private fresh water supplies because of
      persistence.

 2     Moderate hazard.   Lethal on contact to only sensitive species
      of plants and/or earth organisms.  General damage to  vegetation
      and earth organisms may be substantial but is reversible.  May
      affect remote vegetation or aquatic life only under unusual
      circumstances of surface drainage or  ground water penetration.

 1     Minimal hazard.  Minimal damage to plants and or organisms,
      all reversible.   No potential for damage to remote aquatic  life
      or vegetation.  No threat to public or private fresh water
      supplies.

 U    Unknown.
                            Table IV-14
        Hazardous Substances Production  (or Consumation)*
                          Rating Criteria
1. 5        Large production (or consumption); amounts exceeding
           10  pounds (50, 000 short tons) annually.

1. 25       Moderate production (or consumption); amounts at least
           10  pounds (5000 short tons) but less than 10  pounds
           annually.

1. 0        Low production (or consumption); amounts less than
           10 ' pounds annually.

U          Unknown
^Production or consumption amount, whichever was larger, was used
 to determine  code rating.
                               IV-22
-------
                             Table IV-15
         Hazardous Substances Distribution Rating Criteria
0.5
0. 25
0.0
Wide distribution-based on more than 10 major producers;
shipments in less than tank car containers for distribution
to many consumers; and used as both intermediate industrial
and consumer product.

Moderate distribution-based on 5 to 10 major producers;
shipments mostly in bulk or tank cars to limited number of
consumers; and used as either intermediate industrial
product or consumer product,  but not both.

Limited distribution - based on less than 5 major producers;
used mostly or entirely by manufacturer.
-------
                            Table IV-16
             Sample Worksheet for Computing Substance
                           Hazard Rating
         Compound
                                     Initial
                                    Rating
                                      Weight
Final
Rating
Air
 Disposal
Water
 Disposal
Soil
 Disposal
Human toxic effects
Flame / Explos ion
Ecoeffects
Human toxic effects
Flame / Explos ion
Ecoeffects
Human toxic effects
Flame/ Explosion
Ecoeffects
Total Effects Rating (Sum of above)
Number of Unknowns above
Maximum Potential Effects Rating
                     (unknowns x 3 + total
                                  effects rating)
Production Rating
Distribution Rating
Hazard Extent Rating (Sum of Production & Distribution)
Hazard Rating (Total Effects Rating x Hazard Extent Rating)
                                  (Maximum Potential Effects
Maximum Potential Hazard Rating nxor-.x4.fTT     ^
                                6 Rate & Extent of Hazard
                                  Rating)
                                 IV-24
-------
Table IV-17
Sample Worksheet for Computing
Hazard Rating
Compound Cadmium Oxide
Substance

Initial
Rating Weight
Human toxic effects 3 1
Air
. . Flame /Explosion 2 1
Ecoeffects 2 1
Human toxic effects 3 1
„.. , Flame /Explosion 1 1
Disposal ^
Ecoeffects U 1
Human toxic effects 1 1
„.. , Flame /Explosion 2 1
Disposal
Ecoeffects U 1
Total Effects Rating (Sum of above)
Number of Unknowns above
„ ^ . . , „„. . _, . . (unknowns x 3 + total
Maximum Potential Effects Rating .„ .
effects rating)
Production Rating
Distribution Rating
Hazard Extent Rating (Sum of Production & Distribution)
Hazard Rating (Total Effects Rating x Hazard Extent Rating)
(Maximum Potential Effects
Maximum Potential Hazard Rating Rate & Extent of Hazard
Rating)

Final
Rating
3
_2 	
1
1
1
U
1
2
U
14
2
2Q
1.0
0. 5
1. 5
21
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                              IV-43
-------
                            Table IV-20
            Specific Compounds Used as Warfare Agents
                   by the Department of Defense

      Below Is a list of hazardous chemical compounds generally
associated with DoD activities in development of warfare agents.  Some
of these compounds are  also included among the list of hazardous com-
pounds (Table IV-18, page IV-26), because they are also used in
industrial processes which lead directly or indirectly to consumer
products.  Where appropriate (for the above reason),  the ratings as
developed have been included following the compounds named on the
list below.

      HD - Mustard
       L - Lewisite
      CG - Phosgene (30)
      AC - Hydrocyanic Acid (50)*
      NH - Nitrogen Mustard
      CN - Tear Gas (26)
      CS - Irritant Tear Gas
      BM  - Irritant Agent
      WD  - White Phosphorus (47)*
      GB  - Nonpersistent Nerve Gas
      VX  - Persistent Nerve Gas
           Chloropicnic
                               IV-44
-------
                 Table IV-21
        Hazardous Wastes Generated by
       Department of Defense Activities
             (Explosive Materials)
Acetylene (24)
Acetyl Peroxide
Amatol
Ammonium Nitrate (34)
Ammonium Perchlorate  (44)
Ammonium Pirate (wet 36,  dry 40)
Anfo
Aromatic Nitro Compounds,  n. o. i.
Azides, n. o. i.
Benzol Peroxide
Black  Power
Blasting Caps
Blasting Gelatin
Butyl Hydroperoxide
tert-Butyl Perbenzoate
Butyl Peroxypivalate
Cellulose Nitrate
Chloric Acid
1 Chloro-2, 4-Dinitrobenzene
1 Chloro-1-Nitropropane
Cumene Hydroperoxide
Cyclonite (RDX)
Cyclotol
Dibutyl Peroxide
1, 1-Dichloro-l-Nitroethane
Diisopropylperoxydicarbonate
2, 4-Dinitroaniline (40)
M-Dinitrobenzene
O-Dinitrobenzene (31)
P-Dinitrobenzene
2, 4-Dinitrophenol (36)
2, 4-Dinitrotoluene (40)
Double-base  Propellants
Dynamite
Ethylene (25)
Ethylene Oxide (28)
Ethyl Nitrite
                     IV-45
-------
                  Table IV-21
                  (Continued)

Fulminates, n. o. i.
Guanidine Nitrate
Guanidine Perchlorate
Guncotton
HMX
Hydrazine (30)
Hydrogen Peroxide (42)
Lauroyl Peroxide
Mannitol Hexanitrate
Mercury Fulminate
Methyl Parathion (34)
Nitroethane (25)
Nitroguanidine
Nitromethane  (26)
Nitroparaffin, n. o. i. (22)
1-Nitropropane  (24)
2-Nitropropane  (24)
Nitrostarch
p-Nitrotoluene (25)
Octol
Organic Nitrates, n. o. i.
Pentaerythritol  Tetranitrate (PETN) (27)
Pentolite
Peracetic Acid
Perchloryl Fluoride (25)
Picric Acid (29)
Primacord
Propargyl Alcohol
Propargyl Bromide
Propyl Nitrate
Pyrotechnics  (Flares, Fireworks)
Pyrooxilin (Nitrocellulose)
RDX (Cyclonite)
Safety Fuse
Smokeless Powder
Sporting Powder
Styphnates,  n. o. i.
Tetryl
1, 3, 5-Trinitrobenzene
2, 4, 6-Trinitrotoluene
                     IV-46
-------
                              Table IV-22
               Toxic Pollutants Involved in Conventional
                         Munitions Production
1.    Air Exposure

      Acetic Acid (31) (5)
      Acetic Anhydride (38) (6)
      Ammonia (37) (4 + 1 unknown)
      Butyl Alcohol
      Cyclohexanone (26) (4)
      Formic Acid (24) (7)
      Iso-Butyl Acetate (21) (4)
      Methylacetate (21) (4)
      Methyl Ethylacetone
      Nitric Acid (37) (7)
      Oxides of Nitrogen
      Toluene (36) (5)
      Other Organics
      SO4
2.     Water Exposure

      Acetic Acid (31) (6)
      Hexamine
      Ammonia (37) (7)
      Sodium Nitrate (30) (4)
      Sodium Sulfate
      Phenols (44)  (7)
      Iso-Butyl Acetate  (21) (6)
      Ammonium Nitrate (34) (4)
      Nitric Acid (37) (8)
      Oils
      Explosives
      Red Water (Stellite)
      Sulfuric Acid (46)  (8)
                                   IV-47
-------
                            Table IV-23
                   Typical Department of Defense
                  Waste Compounds and Materials
1.     Maintenance Operations

      Cleaning Solvents
      Paints and Lacquers
      Plating Wastes
      Oily Wastes
      Surfactants
2.     Supply Operations

      Toxic Munitions
      Explosive Munitions
      Propellants
      Oxidizing Agents
      Flammable Liquids
      Explosives
      Pyrotechnics
      Pesticides and Herbicides
      Drugs and Medicinals
      Corrosive Liquids
      Nuclear Weapon Components
      Laboratory Chemicals
3.     Weapon Systems Support Operations

      Hydrazine (30)
      Monomethylhydrazine
      Borane
      Analines  (35)
      Hydrocarbon Fuels
      Liquid Oxygen
      Solid Propellants
      Warheads—Nuclear, Non-Nuclear
      Fluorine  (40)
                                IV-48
-------
             LIST   OF   REFERENCES
1.    Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials,  I. N.  Sax et al.,
     Reinhold Book Corp., Third Edition,  1968.

2.    Toxicity of Industrial Metals,  Dr. E.  Browning, Butterworth and
     Co., Ltd., Second Edition, 1969.

3.    Clinical Toxicology of Commercial Products. M. N. Gleason et al.,
     The Williams and Wilkins Co., Third Edition,  1969.

4.    An Appraisal of the Problem  of the Handling, Transportation,  and
     Disposal of Toxic and Other Hazardous Materials,  H. D. Messer
     et al.,  Booz, Allen and Hamilton, Inc.,  January 30,  1970.

5.    Air Pollution Aspects of Organic Carcinogens,  Dr. D. A. Olsen and
     J. L. Haynes,  Litton Systems, Inc., for the U. S. Department of
     Health, Education, and Welfare,  National Air Pollution Control
     Administration,  National Technical Information Service, Pub.
     PB-188-090, September 1969.

6.    Air Pollution Aspects of Asbestos, R.J. Sullivan and Y. C.
     Athanassiadis, Litton Systems,  Inc.,  for the U. S.  Department of
     Health, Education, and Welfare,  National Air Pollution Control
     Administration,  National Technical Information Service,
     Pub. PB-188-080, September 1969.

7.    Design of an Overview System for Evaluating the Public Health
     Hazards of Chemicals in the Environment, Volumes I and II.
     G.A. Lutz et al., Battelle Memorial Institute,  for  the U.S. Depart-
     ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Services,
     National Technical Information Service,  PB-194-398,  July 1967.

8.    Ground Disposal of Pesticides: The Problem and Criteria for
     Guidelines,  Working Group on Pesticides,  National Technical
     Information  Service, Pub. PB-197-144,  Report WGP-DR-1,
     March 1970.
                                IV-49
-------
              LIST   OF   REFERENCES
                            (Continued)
 9.   Air Pollution Aspects of Pesticides.  Litton Systems,  Inc., for
     the U. S. Department of Health Education, and Welfare, National
     Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical
     Information Service, Pub. PB-188-091, September 1969.

10.   The Merck Index of Chemicals and Drugs, P. G. Stecher et al.,
     Merck and Co., Inc., Seventh Edition, 1960.

11.   "List  of Toxic  Substances, "  The Bureau of National Affairs,  Inc.,
     Occupational Safety and Health Reporter, Reference  File, 1971.

12.   Criteria for Selection of Elements and Compounds to be
     Designated as Hazardous Polluting Substances, C. H.  Thompson,
     Environmental Protection Agency, Division of Oil and Hazardous
     Materials, October 22, 1971.

13.   Control of Spillage of Hazardous Polluting Substances, G. W. Dawson
     et al., Pacific Northwest Laboratories, for the U. S.  Department of
     Interior,  Federal Water Quality Administration,  November 1,  1970.

14.   Evaluation of the Hazard of Bulk Water Transportation of Industrial
     Chemicals - A Tentative Guide,  the Committee on Hazardous
     Materials Advisory to the U. S.  Coast Guard, National Research
     Council, 1970.

15.   Laboratory Waste Disposal Manual, Manufacturing Chemists
     Association, May 1970.

16.   Chemical Safety References, National Safety Council, Chemical
     Section,  1968.

17.   Dangerous Chemicals Code,  Los Angeles Fire  Department,
     Parker & Sons, Inc.,  1951.

18.   Veterinary Toxicology. R. D. Radeleff, D. V. M., Lea &  Febiger, 1964.

19.   Hazard Survey of the Chemical and Allied Industries, American
     Insurance Association, Division of Technical Services Engineering
     and Safety Department, Technical Survey No.  3,  1968.
                               IV-50
-------
V.   SURVEY AND INVENTORY OF TREATMENT
            AND DISPOSAL METHODS
-------
      V.   SURVEY AND INVENTORY OF TREATMENT
                    AND DISPOSAL METHODS
1.    INTRODUCTION
      The analysis of treatment and disposal methods can be divided
into four general categories of waste materials:

           Waterborne wastes

           Solid wastes

           Airborne wastes

           Thermal wastes.

      Water is by far the largest disposal media.   Municipal treatment
systems and  industrial treatment systems are based on the use of water
to dilute,  move,  and process wastes.  The treatment of wastes in
water is the basis for much of the waste treatment methodology
currently in use.

      The collection, reduction, and disposition of solid wastes (and
many liquid wastes) in landfills is a close second  in the volume of
waste handled.  The garbage and trash collection  processes typify
this system of waste disposal.

      The disposition of  airborne wastes has received increasing
attention recently.  In past years, the disposition of airborne wastes
was largely a process of releasing gases,  fumes or particulates
above the level of those immediately adjacent to the release site.
Once airborne, such wastes were  considered as adequately disposed.

     Only in recent years has attention been given to the problems
created by thermal wastes.  The accelerating demands for power
have focused  attention on the hazards which result from massive
releases of thermal energy.
                               V-l
-------
      When the tolerance level of man, other creatures,  or vegetation
is exceeded by one or more pollutants, a hazardous condition is
created.  If the tolerance level is not exceeded,  the level of pollution
is considered nonhazardous.  The dependence of the definition of
hazardous wastes on the tolerance threshold of the threatened specie
makes it difficult to  specify the pollutants and conditions which add
up to a hazardous condition,  i. e. , a threat to health.

      The insidiousness of health effects  makes it difficult  to establish
the levels at which pollutants become acute threats to the various
specie of the environment, and make it even more difficult to define
the levels at which the chronic effects may be created.

      The methods now used to dispose of unwanted materials (wastes)
can be described, but the effectiveness with which they safely dispose
of potentially hazardous materials is much more difficult to describe.

      The paragraphs that follow describe the current  practices which
are used to dispose  of unwanted materials, review the  extent to which
they are used, and make appraisals as to their probable  effectiveness
in reducing hazardous waste conditions.
2.    CURRENT TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL PRACTICES
      The discussion of these practices will cover the methods now in
use to handle water wastes,  solid wastes, air wastes,  and thermal
wastes.

      The hazards that may result from improper disposal of waste
materials vary widely. The effect of the release of highly toxic
materials may range from an innocuous effect on the receiving air
or water to an effect that  endangers a substantial number of people.
The toxicity, corrosiveness,  explosiveness,  etc. , of the  compound
released are only some of the factors involved in establishing its
effect.  The others are the concentration developed and the presence
of a susceptible population.  If steps are taken to ensure that the
amounts released do not exceed the threshold of any part  of the
susceptible population, however,  no harm can result.  The presence
of a dangerous material is a warning that disposal methods must be
capable of safely releasing such materials  if no harm is  to result.
                               V-2
-------
      While technical means exist to safely handle all dangerous
materials, no controls exist to ensure that essential technical
treatment steps are taken.  At present,  disposal controls do not
provide a means to identify all potentially hazardous materials or
the means  to control their safe disposition.  The technology currently
in use may, in most cases, reduce the hazardous effects to the level
of water and air pollutants.  However, if the effects are  chronic in
nature,  even those pollutants may in time produce broad-scale
harmful effects on the susceptible population.  The absence of an
immediate acute effect on the exposed population is no assurance that
chronic effects are absent.
      (1)   Wastewater Treatment Methods

           The wastewater treatment methods used in industry are
      comparable to municipal sewage treatment methods.   The
      wastewater streams are processed to screen out, neutralize,
      or reduce contaminants contained  in the stream.  The treatment
      that can be provided is summarized in the chart (Figure V-l)
      on the following page.

           In practice, the treatments shown are not widely applied,
      especially on a system basis that includes secondary and tertiary
      processes.  Rather, they are treatments which are used in
      experimental or occasional applications, and should not be
      considered as typical system practices. If the full operation
      of potential treatments is applied, all contaminants can be
      removed and water  can be restored to a drinkable state.  The
      practical limiting factor is the costs which must be incurred to
      achieve full decontamination.  Such costs are proportional to the
      volume of wastes  to be treated, the level of contamination that
      must be removed, and the difficulties encountered in removing
      the particular contaminants.

           The processes shown are based on the biological reduction
      of contaminants aided by chemical and physical treatments.
      Since many organic compounds are resistant to biodegradation,
      such waste streams should be isolated from other wastewater
      streams, when feasible, and separately treated or disposed of
      (i. e. ,  thermal oxidation or deep-well disposal).
                               V-3
-------
                             FIGURE V-l

      Candidate Wastewater Treatment Processes-

               Substitution and Sequence Diagram
HiiiiiiuiiiiMiniiiiiiHiiNiiuiiimiiiiiiiiRiiiitiiiiiiiiiiz

                   i      I
      nniiHwiiuiHiuninuiiuiB
      (f,,,M§  Snil  m"'"l    =   S      =

         HHIIUIIIimillMlllllllllllllinilliTllllllllinillllllHIIIIIIU
      onliHiiHiHiini3uiiiiiHinii
                V-4
-------
      Conceptually,  waste treatment can be divided into three
phases:  primary, secondary,  and tertiary.

      In the primary phase,  the waterborne constituents are
separated from the water stream by simple actions such as:

           Screening

           Equalization, neutralization of pH adjustment

           Oil separation

           Flotation,  flocculation or clarification.

These actions substantially increase the sedimentation of
dissolved or  particulate waterborne wastes.

      Secondary treatments such as:

           Activated sludge

           Extended aeration

           Trickling filters

           Aerated lagoons

           Waste stabilization ponds

           Chemical oxidation

are used to biologically or chemically convert organic wastes
to inactive sediments and water streams which are innocuous.

      Tertiary treatment is applied to remove residual contami-
nants that are not affected by biological treatment.  Such
processes  include:

           Ammonia stripping

           Coagulation and precipitation

           Filtration and microscreening
-------
           Carbon adsorption

           Disinfection

           Electrodialysis

           Ion exchange

           Reverse osmosis

           Evaporation.

The latter four processes may be used to extract materials for
later use or disposal.  The final effluent from tertiary treatment
is generally acceptable for return to the waters initially used to
assist in the disposal process.

     The sludges that are created as the water treatment
proceeds can be handled  in a variety of ways.  As part of the
water stream,  they are subject to the same pretreatments
applied  to the water streams, i.e. , pretreatments,  thickening,
and separations.  Such treatments may include:

           Aerobic stabilization

           Anerobic digestion

           Lagooning

           Heat treatment

as well  as dewatering by means of filter processes, or vacuum
filters,  centrifuges, or sand-drying beds.

     Sludges may be transported by pipe, truck,  rail or barge
to land reclamation, landfill or ocean disposal sites or may be
incinerated and the residual solids disposed of on landfills.  Lime
used in  chemical treatment may be recalcified and reused, while
carbon used in  adsorption towers may be regenerated for reuse.

     Carefully designed water treatment methods can remove
most hazardous compounds from effluent streams.  If treatment
systems are not designed and operated properly, hazardous
                          V-6
-------
waste streams survive water treatment and pollute the receiving
waters.  In many cases, however,  little or no treatment is
given to industrial wastes.
(2)    Air Pollution Controls

      Thousands of different types of combustible organic
compounds are released to the atmosphere from many different
manufacturing operations.  Examples include industrial dryers,
ovens and furnaces used for the baking of paints and enamels;
processes used in the manufacture of organic chemicals,
inorganic chemicals, and paints and varnishes.  Organic and
inorganic materials released by refining processes, steel
mill operations, nonferrous metal production, power production
plants and automotive traffic also add to  the pollution levels.

      There is no  simple way to overcome  the pollution problems.
Each manufacturing area has unique problems which may require
differing treatment methods. Unlike water treatment methods,
there is no basic set of treatments  whose sound application can
ensure clean air.

      Because of the wide variety of toxic compounds which may
be emitted,  each control system must consider the explosive
and fire hazard effects which are related to the gases and
particulates in each set of emissions, and adapt available
technology to  adequately deal with the total effects that are to
be controlled.

      The status of current technology in the control of emissions
to the atmosphere was presented in hearings before the Subcom-
mittee on Air and  Water Pollution of the Committee on Public
Works,  March 15-18,  1967, and is contained in Table V-l,
which is presented on the following pages.

      As Table V-l  indicates, adequate control technology
generally existed even in 1967, but the need for its application
has not been fully  accepted by industry and the means to  enforce
its use have not been available to all enforcement authorities.
The  particular technology applications  best suited to pollution
control are heavily dependent on the technology and economics
of the process to be controlled.   Recently built plants and new
                         V-7
-------
                                           Table V-l
  Status of Current Technology  in the  Control of Emissions to the Atmosphere-
Source
Domestic and commercial heating
plants:
Coal fires (not hand fired)
Oil fired
Gas died
Industrial heating plants:
Coal fired
Oil fired
Gas lired
Electric generating plants:
Coal fired
Oil filed
(;L fired
Hanikfned coal burning furnaces

Incineiators.
Domestic; commercial; industrial:
Single chamber

Multiple clumber
Municipal
Aiitn body and scrap wire
Mineral industry:
Cement
Insulation


Cla« manufacturing

Krit
Phosphate fenilizer

Asphalt concrete hatching
Concrete batching
('.arlxin black:
HII na iron cu|K>la:
Production
Jobbing
Ferroalloys
Aluminum:
Reduction
Secondary operations
Smelting
Lead ores
Zinc ores
Copper ores
Sulfur
Pankulates oxides
C NC C NC


<•) x
ft x


X X
ft x


X X
X X

X



X

X
X
X

X
X


X

X
X

X
X

X
X
X
ft
X
X

X



X X

X X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
(*)

X
ft
X

X
X

X X
X X
X X
Carbon
monoxide Others
C NC C NC


X Smoke NO,
X Smoke NO,
X NO,

X Smoke NO,
X Smoke NO,
X NO,

X Smoke NO,
X Smoke NO,
X NO,
X Smoke ' NO,



X Smoke; organks

X Smoke; organks
X Smoke; organks
X Smoke; organks

NO,
NO,: odors uncon-
trolled in some
glass wool plants
Fluorides NO,

NO,
Fluorides; ammonia

Odors: NO,


NO,
NO,
Organks; smoke
Fluorides; NO,
NO,: fluorides, if in
raw material




NHt. benzol, toluol. Odors
nrganicx
Orgaincs: odors
X NO,
Fluorides NO,
Fluorides NO,
NO,
X NO,
NO,
NO,

X Organks NO,
X Organks NO,
NO,

Fluorides Carbonaceous matter
Chlorine

NO,
NO,
NO,
Remarks


CO not of majir concern.
Control of SO, "Mily by switching to low sulfur fuel.
Control of CO by good combustion.

Control of par iculate during soot blowing needed.
Partial control c r NO, is possible.
Partial control of NO, is possible.

Control of partkulale during soot blowing needed.
Partial control of NO, is possible.
Partial control of NO, is possible.
Controlled by elimination of hand firing of coal
whkh may be a hardship on low-income
households.


Can be controlled by eliminating single-chamber
incinerators.
}More effective control of paniculate emissions is
needed.

Paniculate control difficult for old plant.



Can control fluoride and visible emissions by raw
material control.

Fluoride control dtmctilt on older plants ami
icitain processes.
Fugitive dust control difficult at older plants.


SO, may be a problem and cannot be controlled.

Older plants often difficult to control.
Fluorides from decomposition of certain clays.

Fugitive dust difficult to control.



Emissions from charging and discharging ovens.
Old plains are \ery difficult lit (omiol. •
Completely noncontrollcd.
CO used as fuel.
Control difficult on older plains.
Being phased out.
Replacing basic o|icn dearth.
Emissions not controlled during tilling and charging.






Fluoride control poor in Soderberg furnaces.





 NOTt. See footnotes at end of table, p. 354.

 ttv C—Control technology generally available: NC—Control technology not generally available; CO—Carbon monoxide: HC— Hydrocarbons; SO,—Sulfur oxides; NO,—Nitrogen
oxides.
                                          V-8
-------
                                                 Table   V-l
                                                 (Continued)
Source
Refining.
/int
Brass
Tatomte plants
Petroleum industry
Petroleum refining:
Separation (crude distilla-
tion, etc.)
Conversion.
Catalytic cracking
Reforming
Treating
Blending
Petroleum production
Petroleum marketing:
Bulk plants
Service stations
Solvent evaporation-
Dryi leaning
Paint spraying
Industrial storage
Degreasing
Bake oven


Kr.ifi pulpmills:
Digesters
Smell tank
1 .11 PL- kiln
Recovery furnace

Eva porators

Oxidation towers
Chemical industry:
Sulfuric .nid

Nit uc acid
Hydtochloric acid
Phosphoric acid

Hydrofluoric acid
Chlorine
Ammonia (synthetic)

1 in ic-
Soda ash.
Ammonia soda
Tiona
Caustic soda:
Lime-soda
Electrolytic
Polvcthylcne
Polwmyl chlonde


Alum
Paint and varnish
Synthetic rubber
Rublicr it re manufacturing
Oil bodying operation
Formaldehyde

Meihanol (synthetic)
Pht-nol (syniheuc)

Ravon

Particulates
C NC

X
X
X





X









X







X
X
X















X

X
X


X




X
X

X
X







Sulfur Carbon
oxides monoxide Others
C NC C NC C






HC, HjS

X H,S
H£
Odors
HC
HC

HC


Solvents


Solvents
Solvents



Sulfur compounds
Sulfur compounds
Sulfur compounds
X X



Sulfides, odors

X Sulfuric acid mist

NO,
HO, solvents
Fluondcs, phosphoric
acid mist.
HF
Clf
NHj organic bases



NHS



Cl,
HC
MCI, vinyl chloride.
vi ny It dene chloride,
vinyl acetate.
Mists
Odors, solvents
HC, solvents, odors

Odors
X Meihanol, formalde-
hyde, HC
X
Ben/enc, toluene.
odors
Sul fides, carbon
disulnde odors.
NC

NO,
NO,
NO,





NO,






HC


Solvents^)
Solvent^*)

NO,
Water vapor




NO,
Sulfur compounds;
NO,
Sulfur compounds
and odors.


NO,, (chamber
process)








NO,











NO,

Odors








Remat ks


Pamcula e control at small scrap reclaiming
operations is economically burdensome







Odon otten noticeable.




Partial control possible.

Recovered.
Generally uncontrolled.
Breathing losses usually uncontrolled.


Water vapor controlled in Europe. Some odors
detectable 'at < 1 ppb.




Control of odorous sulfur com|>outuU usually not
-------
                                                         Table  V-l
                                                         (Continued)
Source
Insecticides:
Chlorinated
I'ltosphoi us type
(*irbamatcs
Soap ami dcleigrnt
I'hmgcnc
Phllialic anhydride
Food processing and agriculture:
(U>tion ginning

Alfalfa dehydrating
Feep and grain mills
flosr mills
, Mi-fe smoking
Starch nunulat.luring
Fish processing
Coflee roasting
Rendering
Agncultuial liurning:
Fields
Forest*
Crop splaying

Sulfur Carbon
Paniculate* oxides monoxide
C NC C NC C NC

X
X
X
X

X

X

X
X
X
X
X

X


X
X


Oners
C N<:

O,: HC1 Odors
Odors

Odors
Os and phosgene
Odors

Pesticides

Odors: NO,


Odors; sitlnle

Odors
Odors NO,
Odors

Organic*, odors
Organics, odors
Drill Many insecticides Mid
herbicides.
RemarU


Some are supenoiic.
Some are highly loiic. Nonpersisleitt.
Partial control of odor pott;JJc.
Iliglily toxic. Ti; 'it system, mainly captive use.


Some gins haw con problems. Incineration of conon
trash of concern in regard u* arsenic.
Often unsatisfactory.




Cl| scrubbers. Partial control of odors possible.
Fume burners.
Complete odor control difficult.



Haxjrdous to life unless carefully done.

  ' Reference (6), pp. 2274-2277 (J. H. Ludwig)
  * Emission control is possible bul coil n unacceptably great compared to capital investment of plant or as a factor in COM of finished products or in relationship to the ability of persons
rChponsiliU' foi control to hear the costs.
  NOI».—Nitrogen oxidi-s (NO,) aie always lornied in high-leinpenlure combusiiiHi. Amounts vary wild coiiilitions.  Feusiule incaiu for atlequatc control ol tn>i«ioiis are not available.
  Ktv C—Cxintiol iechnok>gy generally available: NC—Control technology not geiteralh avjittble; CO—Carlx.n monoxide; Hi'.—Hydrocarbons; SO,—Sullur oxides; NO^-Nitrogcn
oxides
                                                              V-10
-------
processes generally incorporate effective pollution reduction
measures.  However,  the costs of retro-fitting existing processes
may make it uneconomic to continue the current production
methods.  The degrees of control that are acceptable to local
authorities will influence heavily the techniques that are adopted.
In some cases, the control technology which has been developed
is inadequate to the control needs.
(3)    Solid Waste Disposition

      As the methods used to control wastewater and air pollution
find increased application and improvement, the disposal of
solid  wastes from industrial operations will become a greater
problem.  Wastes extracted  from the water and air will become
part of the solid waste disposal process.   Figure V-2 illustrates
how solid industrial wastes arise and the typical treatments
involved in their processing  as industrial plant wastes.

      The processing of industrial solid wastes will become a
larger task as the water and air standards are tightened.  Should
pollution standards be established to control leaching from
existing sludge piles and lagoons, for example, an enormous
effort will be required to process such  accumulations and remove
or contain those compounds polluting ground and runoff waters.
If concern extends to the mineral industry solid wastes,  such
as mine and mineral processing wastes, solid waste processing
and disposal will become the largest of all waste management
efforts.

      To illustrate the potential magnitude of this problem,
Tables V-2  and V-3 present  sources and magnitudes of solid
wastes generated by the minerals and fossil fuel industries, and
the pollutants that result from  mining operations are summarized
in the following paragraphs.

            Physical Pollutants—Solid particulate material,
            either mineral or organic,  which enters a stream
            or pond may react  chemically with water or other
            substances  to form even more harmful compounds.
            An estimated total  of 2, 000 abandoned mine  and mill
            waste dumps are contributing to water pollution.
            Stabilization of these dumps by planting vegetation
                          V-ll
-------
Uf -J
53
                             FIGURE V-2

                Solids Handling. Treatment and Disposal
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                   V-12
-------













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V-13
-------
                          Table V-3
Solid Wastes Generated by the Mineral and Fossil Fuel Mining
and Processing Industries in 1968 and Accumulated Up to 1968
                    (1, 000 Short Tons)
Industry
Copper
Iron and Steel
Phosphate Rock
Lead -Zinc
Alumina
Bituminous Coal
Coal Ash
Other
Total
1968
669,683
310,764
411,700
22,246
7,976
97,107
29,735
234,538
1,783,749
Accumulated up to 1968
9,078,544
4,687,858
1,945,144
492,525
61,521
1,849,145
Qin ooo
455,773
4,576,281
24,055,791
              is hindered by the high acidity of alkalinity of the
              material.  Studies  indicate that sediment yield
              from strip mines in 1, 000 times that derived from
              forested areas, and that half of the 4. 2 million
              gallons of waste processing water  is released
              untreated to adjacent streams.   This sediment may
              also include valuable mineral resources.

              Chemical Pollutants—Acids, alkaline solutions,
              mineral salts drained from mines, and waste
              heaps accrued from the minimg  and processing of
              mineral sulfide ores are examples of a type of
              pollutant that is more difficult to treat than other
              solids.
                            V-14
-------
The mineral sulfides treat chemically with air
and water to form sulfuric acid,  which reacts with
other minerals to cause other ions, such as
aluminum, manganese, lead, zinc and  arsenic.  These
enter water by draining from spoil material or by
ground water percolation through spoil material on its
way to nearby streams.  When the concentration of
these pollutants is sufficiently great, "dead water"
which is toxic to living organisms results.

Another effect of acid drainage from these wastes  is
the formation called  "yellow boy, " a rust-colored
precipitate of ferric hydroxide that accumulates in
stream beds.  Due to its coating action it smothers
aquatic life (coast gil structures), and  may seal
stream bottoms to the extent that water can no longer
percolate through the bed to oxygenate  the breeding
areas for aquatic species.

Physical and Chemical Pollutants—Compounds used
in cleaning,  milling and beneficiation processes for
the recovery of mineral values may be inadvertently
lost,  and reach streams by spills, direct flushing,
or from overflows of natural leaching of tailing
ponds.  Normally they are impounded in  the settling
areas, but seepage through or breaks in  the dam
permit  these compounds to contaminate ground
waters and streams.   Most of  these effluents are
foul smelling and discolor the water.  In some
instances they are toxic.  Phosphates in  water may
stimulate abnormal growth of algae and other aquatic
flora which consume oxygen and thereby sufficate
other forms of stream life.
                V-15
-------
                 Physical and  chemical pollutants  from mining have
                 adversely affected 18, 000 miles of streams in the
                 United States. Mine sources contribute large
                 volumes of sediment, and more than 4 million tons
                 of sulfuric acid,  to the streams.  Surface mining
                 alone has adversely affected 8,700 miles of streams.
                 Underground  mining  is responsible for degrading
                 approximately 9, 300 miles of stream and 22, 000
                 acres of lakes and other water bodies in 31 states
                 (Appendix A-1, Table A-1-5).
      (4)   Thermal Pollution

           As demand grows for energy,  greater recognition must
      be given to the effects of increased use of energy.  Thermal
      pollution is an unwanted by-product of power generation.  The
      debate as to the virtues of fossil fuels in  comparison to nuclear
      fuels centers  around the issue of thermal pollution.  Disposal
      of the heat contained in discharges from powerplants without
      adverse effect in the environment is one of  the problems of all
      steam-electric plants,  nuclear as well as fossil fueled. Because
      of its relatively low steam temperature (500°F  versus 1,000°F),  a
      water-cooled  nuclear plant achieves a thermal efficiency of
      only 32. 5 percent compared with over 40 percent for a fossil-
      fuel plant. Until the more advanced fast-breeder reactors are
      in use,  the use of nuclear powerplants  will  tend to  increase
      thermal pollution.  Unless the rate of increase  of power demand
      can be slowed, new power sources will rapidly  increase the
      thermal load on the water streams of our nation.
3.     WASTE STREAMS. HAZARDOUS WASTES. AND DISPOSAL
      METHODS
      There are a variety of substances that can create hazardous
conditions.  The hazardous condition is the result of a dangerous
property of a compound or a group of compounds.  The extent of the
                               V-16
-------
danger is dependent upon the amounts of the dangerous compound
present, its dilution by inert substances, and the proximity of persons
or things that may be harmed by the condition created by the compound.

      Hazardous conditions may be  created by compounds that are

           Radioactive

           Explosive

           Corrosive

           Toxic

           Flammable

           Pathogenic

           Carcinogenic

           Mutagenic

or have other more exotic long-range effects when their tolerance
levels are exceeded.

      The safe handling of such compounds is dependent on the degree
of control that can be exercised to (1) isolate the susceptible population,
(2) remove the condition that triggers the danger (fire-explosion), or
(3) attenuate  the effect below the threshold of susceptibility.

      Waste treatment and disposal techniques use all of these
approaches.   Historically,  the approach has been to attenuate the
effects (through simple dilution) below the level  that makes  the effects
unacceptable.  Tolerance on the part of the public for polluted air and
water made this technique effective. As air and water standards
become more stringent,  simple attenuation of effects will be less
acceptable as a disposal method.

      The identification of hazardous waste streams is not simple:
the existence  of a dangerous substance must be shown; the concen-
tration of this substance above the level of normal susceptibility
must be provable; and actual damage to a susceptible population must
have  occurred.  In the absence of these proofs,  the violation of a
specific standard must be shown.
                               V-17
-------
      The variety of waste streams with potential hazardous effects
is nearly infinite. The producers of a single product may use materials
or processes that may create hazardous conditions when their product
and/or process wastes are added to those of others.  If the variety of
products and processes increases, the  probability of creating hazardous
waste effects is likely to increase.  If the production process is close
to population centers,  the acceptance of hazardous effects is  likely
to decrease.

      In the presentation that follows,  the typical waste streams of
various industries are reviewed.  The typical treatment given these
waste streams are noted, and an evaluation made of the sufficiency
of such treatments to render such waste streams nonhazardous.
Since there is a wide variation in the treatment that can be given
within an industry, it is not possible to do more than rate the general
level of treatment that typifies the industry.  Only a plant-by-plant
evaluation  that has the full cooperation and technical participation
of the operators can establish the actual hazards  that exist in all
waste streams.

      The following industries have been analyzed and their practices
in treating wastes evaluated.
           SIC                  INDUSTRY
           20          Food
           22          Textiles
           26          Paper and Allied Products
           28          Chemicals
           2812        Alkali and Chlorine
           2815        Cyclic Intermediates
           2818        Organic Chemicals
           2819        Inorganic Chemicals
           282         Plastic Materials and Synthetics
           283         Drugs
           284         Soaps and Cleaners
           285         Paints
                               V-18
-------
          SIC              INDUSTRY

          287        Agricultural Chemicals
          289        Explosives
          291        Petroleum Refining
          311        Leather
          329        Asbestos
          331        Blast  Furnaces and Basic Steel
          333        Primary Nonferrous
          347        Plating and Polishing
The following tables illustrate typical waste streams that occur in each
industry and the treatment procedures that are used.  Some industries
are relatively homogeneous in processes and products (e. g. , the
textile industry), while others such as the chemical industry are
quite diverse as to products made and  processes used.  In the latter
type industries, the  wastes shown are  examples only.  The particular
wastes and treatment accorded these wastes are unique  to each
production facility, and specific identifications will demand a research
effort far  beyond the scope of this study.
                              V-19
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          311        Leather
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          331        Blast  Furnaces and Basic Steel
          333        Primary Nonferrous
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                              V-19
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      REQUIREMENTS
      There is an indeterminate number of waste streams that may
result from industrial production operations.  Some are relatively
pollution-free while others introduce major pollutants into the
environment.  A  method is suggested here  through which the extent
of treatment needed to reduce pollutants to acceptable levels can
be established by a comparison of their characteristics with those
that can be successfully treated in municipal sewage plants.

      To make this approach workable, a means is  needed to readily
and accurately define the hazards associated with particular waste
streams and to establish their disposal treatment requirements.  The
following paragraphs describe methods which can be used to rapidly
evaluate the effluent data obtained by the Corps of Engineers (through
the Refuse Act of 1899) and to identify and quantify the disposal tasks
and costs  indicated by evaluation of each waste stream.

      This approach is  based on a comparison of the waste stream
characteristics against a standard criteria, i. e. , acceptability of
such wastes by a typical municipal system.  More rigid criteria can
be applied,  of course, but the likelihood of increased use of municipal-
type treatment systems by industry indicates that municipal acceptance
standards may be practical criteria.

      Additional rationale for the use of municipal sewage acceptance
standards include:

           Wastes treated in municipal sewage treatment plants show
           similar characteristics  from one locale to another.

           A standard,  and national, technology has been developed
           for this type of waste.  The technology is  particularly
           well established for primary and secondary treatment.

           Municipal sewage treatment plants are demonstratively
           capable of producing effluents  that, to date, appear to
           satisfy ecological preservation requirements.
                               V-51
-------
                 If industrial wastes can be treated so that they are
                 acceptable for further treatment in municipal
                 facilities,  they too should be non-damaging to the
                 ecology when processed through the municipal plant.

      Pretreatment of the waste stream to make it eligible for municipal
plant treatment may not be needed,  may require minimum treatment,
may require extensive treatment, or some components may be so
toxic that only their removal will permit successful pretreatment.

      The rating system which is outlined in the following tables and
text is based on establishing the treatment level required to meet
each of the key criterion.  The more treatment necessary, the higher
the numerical rating for that criterion.  When all criteria are rated,
the ratings for each characteristic provide a weighted profile of the
special treatments necessary to qualify the waste for municipal
treatment.

      Table V-25 outlines a means for  establishing the level of treat-
ments needed to qualify an industrial effluent stream for final disposal
through a municipal treatment plant. Table V-26 provides an example
as to how the rating system works.  The expected reductions that can
be achieved by the various treatments are shown in Table V-27.

      Table V-25 indicates the acceptance criteria for each key waste
characteristic and defines the percentage of removal efficiencies which
must be achieved in order to meet the  criteria.  For example, if BOD
had to be lowered by 85 percent to reach acceptable level, a minimum of
secondary treatment would be required and a score of 3 would be
assigned.  If 99 percent of the phenol had to be removed,  tertiary
treatment to achieve this  level would be required, and a  rating of 4
would be given for this characteristic.  When all characteristics  are
rated, a profile emerges  which indicates the extent of treatment
necessary and serves as a rating as to  the extent and type  of hazard
contained in the wastes.

      The rating system identifies  treatment requirements as a
function of the concentration of key waste characteristics and/or
problem contaminants.  The higher the concentration of a given waste
parameter,  the more intensive will be  the abatement effort required,
and, similarly, the higher the concentration of a given waste parameter,
the greater is the hazard  potential of the stream.  Hence,  the system
combines hazard  potential with treatment complexity.
                               V-52
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      The rating system can find practical application in the following
areas:

           Serve as a basis for defining a hazardous industrial effluent.

           Identify particularly hazardous wastes.

           Serve as a logic basis for computerized evaluation of the
           massive data accumulated regarding the  1899 Refuse
           Act.  This can be done as a  function of:

                 Region

                 Industry group(s)

                 Water usage ranges

                 Treatment level (none, primary, secondary,
                 tertiary or special)

                 Treatment economics

                 Specific waste characteristics

                 Combinations of the above.

           Provide  fundamental information for policy making;

                 Should a plant or a group of plants  treat effluents
                 onsite or combine with municipal systems?

                 Should private industry band together to build a
                 cooperative treatment complex?

                 Should government provide incentives  or hardware
                 for cooperative waste  treatment and residue
                 handling arrangements ?

Hazardous wastes can be defined and rated based on  this system,
i.e.,  a hazardous industrial effluent is one that does not satisfy the
criteria for acceptance into municipal sewage  treatment plants.
If this system were established,  each plant would be required to
treat  its wastes to a level which will qualify for acceptance into a

-------
municipal system,  if avaiable, or to treat it onsite (or in some
cooperative arrangement) to a level that assures compliance with
regulations regarding discharge into public water bodies.  In other words,
the amount of treatment needed to make any waste acceptable to a
municipal sewage treatment plant can be assigned  specific values,  and
these values used to establish an index of the toxicity of that waste,  at
the particular location for which it is being rated.

      The system proposed is a more thorough system for defining
hazardous waste streams than is any list of potentially hazardous
materials or waste streams.  This system deals with an actual condition,
measures it against the environmental acceptability, and defines the
corrective action necessary.  Because it is designed to deal with specific
waste streams,  it avoids the generalities of designating certain substances
as potentially hazardous and assuming that they will be hazardous when-
ever present.  "Hazardous  waste materials"  are hazardous only when in
sufficient concentration to exceed the threshold effects of susceptible
life forms.  Until disposal systems planning is based on specific situations
and locations, it cannot control the release of hazardous wastes.

      The practical value of this evaluation method is that it establishes
the level of treatment which is required to make the waste stream a
nonpolluting effluent.  The identification of treatment needs does not
reduce the amount  of hazardous wastes that are discharged, however.
The identification of treatment requirements  is relatively meaningless,
unless a means  exists to enforce legal restraints on hazardous waste
releases.
5.    RATING CURRENT TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL METHODS
      The waste treatment methods which are used most widely are
general in nature, can be applied to a variety of processes and waste
compounds, and are concerned with water waste streams.  Histori-
cally,  water has been used  to remove contaminants from production
facilities  either by its use as a wash or by its use  directly or
indirectly (costing) in the production process.  As a diluent it is a
means to  reduce the concentration of hazardous wastes and lessen
its  impact on  the environment.
                               V-60

-------
      Because water plays such a large part of our current treatment
methods,  the volume which is involved is substantial.  Any attempt
to transport such water streams over long distances for treatment
will involve substantial expense.  Therefore, the tendency will be to
treat  water waste  streams on the site where the wastes are created
or within a relatively few miles of such sites.  However, if wastes
must  be transported over long distances for disposal (sea disposal,
lagoons),  pipelines are an economical movement system in comparison
to rail, truck or barge transportation.

      Once introduced into water waste streams, hazardous materials
are difficult to  remove.  If the introduction of such wastes creates
significant treatment problems,  they can be segregated and treated
separately.  Frequently,  such wastes are organic compounds which
are difficult to  biodegrade but which are readily incinerated.  Deep-
well disposal is also used for such wastes.  Many of the toxic
materials are organic solvents and are readily destroyed by inciner-
ation.

      Although  the various basic types of treatment and their appli-
cations are widely known,  there  are substantial differences in the
design features  that best fit them to specific applications.  It is
this adjustment  and  fitting process  that determines the general types of
treatment that will be applied,  and  the specific features and  the
design specifications which best  adapt these general types of treatment to
the specific technical and cost requirements of individual facilities
and locations.

      The effectiveness of alternative treatment methods cannot be
assessed realistically unless evaluated against a specific requirement.
Relative efficiencies of different treatments are a preliminary indi-
cation of their utility in a specific situation, but the actual require-
ments and  system peculiarities are the only valid basis for selection
between alternative  methods.
      (1)   Evaluation Elements

           The basic elements in a systematic evaluation of the
      adequacy of treatment methods for hazardous waste streams
      are;

                 Identification of the specific compounds which
                 compose the waste stream
                               V-R1

-------
           Characterization of the waste stream (pH,  BOD,
           SS, phenols, etc.)  in quantitative terms

           Identification of the acceptable effluent standards
           based on the materials contained in the waste stream

           Selection of the alternative treatments which will
           satisfy the requirements

           Evaluation of the treatment requirements

           Trade-off analysis to  identify the most cost-effective
           treatment sequence

           Feasibility  of financing such treatment systems
           based on the economic realities  of the production
           costs involved.

      This general methodology can be applied to a single waste
stream,  combined waste streams, and to single or multiple
disposal sites.  If wastes are to be brought to a distant site,  the
first two factors must be evaluated for each waste stream, the
transportation costs to  the process site established for each
waste stream, and then the last two factors  evaluated for the
combined waste  streams.

      Although systematic  methodology can be devised to
measure, rate,  and evaluate the effectiveness of alternative
disposal systems in removing hazardous materials from waste
streams, such methodology cannot be used to evaluate current
practices since  the data necessary to operate the evaluation
system is not available.

      In  the absence of  detailed data on waste stream charac-
teristics and their treatment needs, only crude evaluations
can be made  as  to the effectiveness  of current practices  and
future treatment requirements.  Little information is published
concerning the hazardous waste streams which are produced.
Conjecture as to their composition and characteristics is based
on the hazardous characteristics of "pure" compounds produced
and used in industry and in the commercial and household
sectors.
                         V-62

-------
(2)   Evaluation Problems

      An evaluation system that rates the effectiveness of current
hazardous  waste treatment and disposal practices must cope
with several interrelated problems:

            Does a-hazardous waste condition exist?

            What is the condition and how serious?

            What steps have been taken to minimize the hazards?

            How effective are these actions?

            What additional steps  are necessary?

      If answers to these questions can be obtained, the rating
system will be able to identify and evaluate  the actions needed
to adequately control the disposal of hazardous wastes.

      The identification of wastes which create hazardous
conditions  is a complex task.  The hazardous condition may be
caused by a radioactive, explosive, corrosive, pathogenic
or toxic material and its effect is dependent on the suscepti-
bility of the material or living organism  exposed to the hazard.
Since a hazardous condition exists only when a  material is
present which exceeds the threshold tolerance of a susceptible
material or population, three data elements are needed to define
the hazardous condition:  the magnitude of the hazardous effect,
the susceptibility of the material or population,  and the dilution
effect of the media that contains the hazard.

      The constant factor is the material that creates the
hazardous  effect.   The location where the waste occurs will
determine  who or what is threatened and  the mitigating effects
of fortuitous neutralization or dilution.  The key to the  identi-
fication of  a hazardous waste condition is the determination that
a potentially hazardous material is present  in the waste stream
in amounts  that exceed the tolerance levels of the  threatened
population  or materials.
                         V-63

-------
      Analysis of the waste stream to establish its hazardous
properties is rather easy for radioactive, corrosive or
flammable materials, but is more difficult if the significant
hazard is pathogenic  or toxic.

      An alternative to qnsite analysis is knowledge of the
characteristics of the chemical components that compose the
waste stream or that may enter the waste stream.  When toxic
materials are present, the  possibility that hazardous waste
conditions exist must be assumed.

      Evaluation of the raw materials used in the production
process,  the production processes used and the by-product
materials expected, can establish a list of potential constituents
of the waste streams. Comparison of such compounds with a
comprehensive list of toxic materials will identify the hazardous
potential of the waste stream and aid  in selecting the  analytical
techniques which can best verify initial assumptions as  to
hazard potential.
(3)   Characterization of Hazardous Conditions

      The type waste streams which result from processing
operations are dependent on the chemical characteristics of
the reactants and the physical conditions under which the
reactions take  place.  Since the combination of reacting compounds
and the reaction conditions may vary greatly,  the waste products
from chemical industry vary greatly.  However, when the
reactants and the production process are known,  the waste
product possibilities are greatly narrowed.  Without specific
raw material and process  information,  the probable content of
the waste stream is indeterminate.

      When the processes,  raw materials and output quantities
are known,  useful approximations can  be made as to the probable
toxic hazards associated with waste  streams.   Such information
has been developed for some industries.  Unfortunately, however,
the waste streams from such industries frequently are  inter-
mingled with those from plants about which  little is known,  and
the combined waste  streams become an enigma as  to  potential
toxic effects.   Such  intermingled waste streams, when  they are
part of river systems, are no longer the treatment responsibility
                         V-64

-------
of specific community or plant, and corrective treatment is
no longer feasible.

      The waste streams which result from chemical processing
are dependent on the chemical characteristics of the reactants
and the physical conditions under which the reaction takes place.
Process conditions of temperature and pressure modify the
physical characteristics of chemical compounds and may convert
solids into liquids and gases,  liquids into gases, or mixtures of
liquids into solids. Side-reactions of compounds may produce
unwanted waste by-products.  Unless the specific conditions and
reactants are known,  the content and condition of the waste
stream is indeterminate. Compounds which are individually
inert,  corrosive,  flammable, explosive,  or toxic under normal
conditions, may react with other components and become
relatively less dangerous or may be  converted from a nonhaz-
ardous state  to one of substantial hazard.

      Knowledge of the chemical compounds involved in or
produced by the  production process helps identify potentially
hazardous wastes.  When physical properties of commercial
chemicals are known,  the hazards  associated with  each are
reasonably predictable.  When all  the reactants, processes
and products are identified, the key hazards and the alternative
treatments needed to  avoid the release of hazardous wastes
are readily identified.  The most cost-effective treatment will
be dependent on  the mix of materials to be treated,  quantities
to be  treated, enforcement standards,  and other variables.
Unless there is information as to the raw materials, production
processes, and final products, no sensible judgment can be
made regarding  the most cost-effective treatment processes.

      The minimum information necessary to define the possi-
bility that hazardous waste conditions exist is  (1) an analysis of
the effluent stream, and (2) knowledge  of the input  and  output
products.  Armed with such data, a judgment can be made  as
to the pollution potential of the waste streams.  (The method
for evaluating the  treatment requirements, based on the  effluent
analysis, has been described  in the previous section. )  Specific
knowledge of the entire product line, production processes and
waste stream is needed for such decisions in order to define
the most cost-effective treatment processes.
                         V-65

-------
(4)    Treatment Variations

      A variety of methods are available to treat waste streams
and remove contaminants.  The treatment of choice is dependent
on the characteristics of the waste stream and those of the
material or materials to be removed.   If the hazardous compound
can be isolated and treated as a single  compound, the treatment
method will be substantially different than the methods used if
the compound is part of a water waste stream.  If several
contaminants are to be treated while in the same waste stream,
the quantity and characteristics of the major contaminants may
affect the choice of treatments.

      An analogy can be drawn between the decision process
involved in diagnosing and treating a sick patient and in diagnosing
and treating a hazardous waste stream. In each case, a diagnosis
must be made, based on a specific situation, as to the problem
to be solved and the most suitable treatment.   A variety of
treatments are available and must be fitted to the particular
needs of the specific situation.  The "best" treatment for a
specific patient may not be  the "best"  for all patients.

      The list of hazardous materials  that have been developed
can be used to illustrate how different conditions may effect the
selection of the appropriate disposal process.  Each of the
compounds on this list may require safe disposal under a
variety of different disposal conditions, i. e. :

            As part  of the disposal process related to its
            production

            Asa major raw material component in the production
            of other chemical compounds

            As a minor component in a production or commercial
            treatment process

            As a retail consumer product which enters the
            municipal disposal system.

      Few compounds are used for only one purpose.  The use
to which the compound is put and its relation to other compounds
in the disposal process,  will influence  the selection of the best
waste disposal treatment process.
                         V-66

-------
      Examples of the waste treatment methods for sulfuric
acid under various conditions may help illustrate this point.
During the production process,  every effort is made to minimize
the loss of sulfuric acid; recovery and recycling of inadvertent
wastes is the treatment of choice.  In an oil refinery,  sulfuric
acid is recovered, restrengthened and reused.  When used to
acidulate phosphate rock to produce super phosphate, every
effort is  made  to insure the complete  reaction of the acid with
the phosphate rock.  A variety of treatments is used to neutralize,
recover, or safely dispose of residual acid mixes used to pickle
steel.  When used as a laboratory chemical,  its safe disposal
may consist only of careful dilution  to acceptable municipal
levels.

      The treatment methods  which  apply under specific  condi-
tions are dependent not only on  the chemical characteristics
of the materials involved,  but on their relative importance in
the disposal process.  The disposal means for a specific  chemical
is tailored to their individual characteristics, i. e. ,  incineration
of flammable materials or neutralization of corrosive  materials.
When they  are  a component of a generalized waste stream, the
treatment methods are less specific and are designed to  safely
handle a  variety of chemicals.

      Under certain production  conditions,  individual compounds
may be separated from the remaining waste streams and  disposed
of by separate  action, i. e. , solvents may be burned, acids may
be piped  to a deep well.  Separate disposal processes are also
used if the incorporation of one waste with another would  make
the disposal of the combined waste stream more difficult.

      In general, when a large number of different waste  mater-
ials exist,  the  treatment process of choice is the conventional
screening, settling and biological conversion process.  Incin-
eration processes are the  method of choice for toxic organic
wastes which are  isolated  for separate disposal.  Recovery and
recycling are used in the  production processes to ensure  the
optimum practical yield from the input materials.

-------
(5)    Evaluation of Current Practices

      Although a variety of treatment methods have been
developed that can treat any identified waste successfully,  the
use of these methods is not widespread.  Full treatment to
remove all waste hazards  is  rare.   The costs that are incurred
in treating wastes from major production plants are substantial.

      The Deepwater Pilot Plant Treatability Study conducted by
the  Delaware River Basin  Commission, illustrates the costs
involved.  This project had the following objectives:

           To determine the  treatability characteristics of the
           component industrial and municipal wastes (nine
           plants,  four communities)

           To develop design criteria  for the facility to achieve
           90-95 percent  BOD reduction as well as  to meet other
           effluent quality requirements

           To test methods of secondary and advanced waste
           treatment of combined municipal and industrial
           wastes

           To estimate cost of construction and operation of
           the facility

           To provide data on which to base an equitable
           appointment of cost among  the industries and
           municipalities  to be served

           To demonstrate the expeditious and timely resolution
           of the technical and economic difficulties of achieving
           a regional solution to a complex multi-industrial
           and multi-waste disposal problem.

      The project has operated for over two years at a cost of
over one million dollars.  The costs involved  in developing
this detailed design data are indicative of the level of expenditure
needed if treatment requirements are to be established.

      The wastes produced in the nine  production plants involved
in the Deepwater Pilot Plant Treatability Study are typical of
the  water wastes of chemical  industry.  The costs to construct
                         V-68

-------
a treatment facility to adequately treat 105 million gallons of
wastes per day produced in these plants is estimated as approxi-
mately $60, 000, 000.  Based on these cost estimates, the  cost
to upgrade all chemical industry treatment facilities will be
several billion dollars.  These projections of costs based on
the Deepwater Pilot Plant Study are unlikely to be accurate but
are indicative of the magnitude of the treatment costs which
must be incurred to signficantly reduce overall water pollution
levels.

      The fact that hazardous waste streams are inadequately
treated can be established by reviewing data as to the extent
of water waste treatment. The tables which follow  titled
"Industrial Water Treatment Practices" and "Evaluation of
Industry Treatment Processes" have been developed from data
contained in Water Use in Manufacturing,  Bureau of the Census,
published in 1971.  The value shown under the title  "Required
Waste Water Treatment, " in the second table, is 200 if
secondary treatment is required or 300 if tertiary treatments
are necessary to remove hazardous materials from  the water
waste streams of each particular industry.  The other columns
in this table show the percent of the industry that uses primary,
secondary and tertiary treatments.  Adding these percentages
and dividing by the required  rating provides the values shown
in the rating column.  Note that only the Petroleum Refining
industry provides primary and secondary  treatment.  The
percentage of industries providing tertiary treatment is based
on estimated values rather than published  data.
                         V-69

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V-72
-------
             The limited data on the extent of treatment of air waste
       streams precludes any general assessment of the extent of air
       waste treatment.  The data that is published relates to the
       removal effectiveness of various air treatment processes,
       when applied, rather than to how widely such methods are used.
       The  removal efficiencies which can be expected from various
       methods are shown in the following table.
                                   Table V-30
     Approximate Characteristics of Dust and Mist Collection Equipment  (8)

A.


B.





C.


n.



E.


r.







Equipment type
Settling chambers
1. Simple
2. Multiple tray
Inerlial separators
1. Bailie chamber
2. Oritice impaction
3. I.ouver i\pe
4. (i.is re\ci sal
5. Rotating impeller
Cyclones
1. Single
2. Multiple
Filteis
1. '1 ulnilat
2. Reverse jet
3. !• 'n elope
Flec'rical precipilatois
1. One-stage
2. 1 wo-siage
Scrubbeis
I Spr.iv umci
2. J,-t
3. Venturi
4. Cyclonic
5. Inertiul
6 I'.ic ked
7. Rotating impellei
Relative
cost"

1
2-6

1
1-3
1-3
1
2-6

1-2
3-6

3-20
7-12
3-20

6-30
2-6

1-2
4-10
4-12
3-10
4-10
3-6
4-12
Smallest
panicle
collet ted
(M)*

40
10

20
2
10
40
5

15
5

<0.1
<0.1
<0.1

<0.l
<0.l

10
2
1
5
2
5
2
Pressure
chop
(inches !!.,(>)

0.1-0 5
0.1-0.5

0.5-1.5
1-3
0.3-1
0.1-0.4
—

0.5-3
2-10

2-6
2-6
2-6

0.1-0.5
0.1-0.3

•0.1-0..")
—
10-15
2-8
2-15
0.5- 1 0
—
Power used1'
\1000 ll:'/min/

O.I
0.1

0.1-0.5
0.2-0.6
0.1-0.2
O.I
0.5-2

0.1-0.6
0.5-2

05-1.5
0.7-1.5
05- 1.5

0.2-0.6
(1. 2-0/1

0 1-0.2
2-10
2-10
0.6-2
0.8-8
0.6-2
2-10
Remarks

Large, low piessmc (hop, prec leaner
DilliLult to t lean, wai page problem

Power plants, loiary kilns, acid mists
At id mists
Fly ash, abtasion pioblem
1'iec leaner
Compact

Simple, inexpensive, most widely used
Abiasion and plugging problems

High clliciciuv, leinpeiatuic and Imiivchu hums
Moic compact, t oils', nit How
1. muled t.ipatily, const. ml How possible

High elhciency, heavy duty, expensive
Compact, an conditioning servic c

Common, low vv.Ut'i use
I'lcssuie gam, Ingli \clociiv liquidjft
lligli velocity gas stream
Modified city collector
Abiasion pioblem
Chaimcling pioblc'in
Abrasion ptoblem
" liiiluding necessarv auxiliaries.   * Wiili !K)-'.).ri% elluieniv by weight.  '' hu hides picssuie loss, watei pumping, eleitntal en
                                   V-73
-------
           Realistic evaluation of the treatments given to waste streams
     by industry, indicates that many hazardous materials are
     being released into the water streams and air streams.  Fortun-
     ately,  dilution reduces the hazards below the threshold levels
     of the human population,  or the general pollution level is such
     that people refrain from exposing themselves  to such air or
     water waste streams.  The continuous  increase in the amounts
     of wastes released and the variety of hazardous substances
     produced,  indicates that the threshold safety levels may be
     exceeded in the future. Since the chronic effects of chemical
     substances are difficult to measure,  the threshold levels of
     some substances may have been exceeded already.

           The  substances listed as hazardous compounds are
     examples of the types of  toxic compounds which should  be
     excluded from waste streams.  If steps are taken to minimize
     their release,  such actions will eliminate,  concurrently,  other
     compounds of comparable hazard.
6.     DISPOSAL OF SMALL LOTS OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
      The disposal of small amounts of hazardous materials is quite
different from the treatment methods used to remove contaminants
from water or air waste streams or from the disposal techniques
which might be used to dispose of large amounts of a single compound.
The objective when disposing of small amounts is to render the
material harmless while ensuring the  safety of the persons involved
in the disposal and in the vicinity of the disposal action.

      The disposal of relatively small amounts of hazardous materials
poses unique problems.  Such disposal problems arise in commercial
operations which use a small amount of a variety of materials, or
when such materials are used in retail establishments or households.
The disposal means used most frequently are the conventional
municipal services,  trash  collection and sewage systems.  The disposal
process normally consists of using the material  fully and then discar-
ding the container, or discarding the container with a small residue,
or emptying the residual chemicals into a drain and then discarding
                              V-74
-------
the container.  Problems arise when the containers are damaged or
leak,  or when the user is not familiar with safe handling and disposal
practices.

      Various techniques have been developed by the chemical industry
to ensure safe disposal practices.  When hazardous materials are in
their  pure form (e. g. ,  as products),  they  are frequently transported
and used in large quantities.  On occasion, due to accidents, contami-
nation,  etc. , it becomes necessary for the transporter or user to
dispose of the otherwise valuable materials.  The chemical industry
has historically refrained from including disposal instructions on
package labels,  for two reasons.  First, detailed disposal  instructions
would,  in many cases,  require inclusion of the product formulation,
and such information is proprietary with the producers.  The second,
and very practical  reason,  is that the manufacturers have no way of
knowing many of the ultimate users,  particularly in terms  of the
users' technical knowledge  and ability to understand fully any
instructions that  might be included on labels.

      For these reasons, the chemical  manufacturers have preferred
to provide the service of taking back  hazardous materials and disposing
of the materials themselves.   This is particularly true of the larger
chemical manufacturing firms. Recently, however,  the manufacturers
have entered into a cooperative arrangement which provides a central
point  of contact for materials' users  who encounter disposal problems,
especially with respect to large spills.   The central point is now the
Manufacturing Chemists Association, and  a  common telephone number,
termed the "hot line, " is available to all users.  This does not mean
that the manufacturers no longer provide the disposal service, only
that the necessary  arrangements can be made through a single point
of contact.   Each occurrence is handled on its own characteristics,
and the manufacturers feel  that disposal instructions on labels will
not become necessary.  A series of publications have been prepared
by various organizations as guides to the safe handling and  disposal
of hazardous compounds. Among these publications are:

           Industrial Data  Sheets—National Safety Council.
           Information is provided on  properties,  uses, containers,
           shipping regulations, storage, hazards, handling, first
           aid, toxicity and waste disposal  practices.

           Data Sheets and Chem-Cards—Manufacturing Chemists
           Association.  Information is given on the properties,
           hazards,  handling, storage, safety, waste disposal and
           first  aid related to specific hazardous materials.
                               V-75
-------
            Chemical Hazards Bulletins—American Insurance Asso-
            ciation.  Information given is similar to that in the
            previous publications.

            Hygiene Guide—American Industrial Hygiene Association.
            Information is provided on hygienic standards,  toxic
            levels, and medical information on hazardous materials.

A  large number of other publications  provide data as to  the safe
handling of dangerous materials. A comprehensive list is contained
in Chemical Safety References  published by the National Safety Council.

      The key reference to the  safe disposal of hazardous materials
is titled Laboratory Waste Disposal Manual published by the Manu-
facturing Chemists Association.  This manual  provides  recommen-
dations for the treatment and disposal of hazardous chemical wastes.
The manual stresses safe procedures for onsite waste disposal from
small laboratories,especially those in small communities not possessing
sophisticated equipment.  The compounds that  are included in the list
of hazardous compounds have been  identified with a disposal method
listed in this manual.  This was accomplished  by listing in the data re-
cords the disposal technique which is  applicable.  These disposal
methods also assist in identifying the physical  properties of the
compound such as its flammability, explosive characteristics,  and
toxicity.  Figure V-3 lists excerpts from the MCA Manual.
7.    DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
      Review of the data and information available on hazardous
materials contained in industry waste streams indicates that sufficient
data is not available to specifically identify and quantify the hazardous
waste streams.  While individual industrial production facilities may
have detailed data,  few have published such data.  Where detailed
studies of waste  treatment processes have been made  (the Deepwater
Pilot Plan Treatability Study),  the identification of waste streams to
production facilities has been avoided.  Historically, industry has
not analyzed waste streams with the same level of interest and in the
detail that is devoted to process output streams.  The lack of data
may also be due  to a reluctance to identify materials that may create
community-relation problems.
                                V-76
-------
                 FIGURE V-3
           Waste Disposal Procedure
          Small Spills or Package Lots
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V-78
-------
      In view of these difficulties, assumptions must be made as to
the probability of hazardous materials being present in conventional
waste streams. Some information as to the type of materials in air,
water and solid waste streams may provide an indication as to the
control methods which may be needed and the type waste stream which
must be considered for special disposal treatment.

      In the absence of knowledge as to specific materials in the
waste streams, the following  reasoning can be used to establish the
possibility of a signficant hazardous waste stream.

            It  is essential to identify potentially hazardous disposal
            conditions.   If hazardous materials are present in a waste
            stream,  a hazardous waste condition may exist.

            The materials that are considered to contribute most to
            the creation of hazardous wastes are those that are  the
            most toxic, corrosive, radioactive, explosive, flammable,
            etc. , of those which are used  or produced in commercial
            amounts.

            If  hazardous materials are part of the  raw material input
            or output stream (i. e. ,  used or produced  in the manu-
            facturing facility), some fraction of the amount used will
            appear in the air,  water or solid waste streams.

            The continuous use of a number of hazardous materials
            increases the probability that  hazardous wastes  are
            created.

            The use  of deep-well disposal systems, disposal contractors,
            deep-sea disposal, or other special disposal methods may
            indicate  the existence of hazardous waste  streams.

            The presence of hazardous materials does not indicate
            that a hazardous condition exists.  Many industrial
            processes involve hazardous materials that  are controlled
            safely.

            When hazardous materials are distributed in small
            containers, such materials will appear in municipal waste
            streams.
                              V-79
-------
           The presence of organic compounds in waste streams
           may indicate a hazardous waste.  Little is known as to
           the chronic effects of most organic compounds.  Relative
           hazardous effects are based largely on observed acute
           effects.  Carcinogenic or similar chronic effects of
           many compounds are unknown.

      The probability that a hazardous waste stream is produced at
an industrial site can be estimated based on a  set of material
production-consumption characteristics. Table V-31, on the following
page, indicates these characteristics and the evaluation of such
characteristics for different segments of the industrial community.

      Some industries produce waste streams  that are typical of the
industry,  i. e. , textile, pulp and paper,  leather tanning,  and plating
wastes.  The characteristics  of these waste streams are similar.
Other industries have highly variable waste streams.   The chemical
industry produces thousands of different materials by a wide variety
of processes and may produce over a thousand different products at
a single facility.

      The quantities of wastes produced are dependent on the materials
processed.  The extractive industries produce large quantities of
spoil from which the valuable ores have been extracted;  for example,
an average of seven barrels of brine  is produced for each barrel of
oil.  Some industrial operations  produce little waste;  for example,
the electrolysis of brine to  produce chlorine and caustic,  but such
waste (mercury) may be significant although small in quantity.

      The list of hazardous wastes that has been prepared identifies
those substances which are significant wastes, even in relatively
small amounts,  because of their toxicity or other hazardous properties.
It is not, of course, an exhaustive list of hazardous material, but
does represent the  type materials that create  conditions  which are
potentially hazardous.  This list provides a means to  evaluate the
potential hazards involved in a specific waste  stream.  If these
compounds are present, it is  presumptive evidence that a hazard
exists  which  requires control.

      The list can be used in several ways: to identify the producers
of particularly hazardous materials,  to identify the industrial consumers
mers of such materials, and  to identify the extent to which these
materials enter the municipal waste streams.
                               V-80
-------


































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V-81
-------
      Constraints on interviews and the mailing of questionaires
prevented a detailed analysis as to the specific locations that produce
and use the materials on this list.  A detailed  analysis of a few major
SMSAs should be made  to identify the industrial use and commercial
distribution of these materials. Such information should establish
the practical relationships between these compounds and the hazard
potential of air, water and solid waste streams.   Then control
measures based on these compounds, which insure  their safe handling
and disposal,  will adequately protect against other compounds with
similar properties.

      The concept of controls  over hazardous wastes must recognize
the realities of waste production.  Most wastes are created at the
time a material is made or consumed.  Most chemical compounds
are produced and consumed within the chemical industry.  Some are
produced for retail use, while  many compounds are used to a minor
degree for small commercial,  retail or household purposes.   The
major waste quantities  are related to industrial production.

      The industrial producers and consumers of hazardous materials
operate extensive facilities which most frequently produce or  consume
a variety of chemicals.  The waste treatment methods they use are
designed to cope with a variety of materials to the degree needed to
satisfy the legal requirements  of local authorities.  The waste
treatment process is designed  to produce wastes  which  are acceptable
to the community.  Such treatment facilities are not designed  to
completely remove hazardous  effects.  They reduce harmful effects
to an acceptable level.  Typically such  treatment methods involve
dilution of waste materials with water and the  treatment of such
wastes as part of a water stream.

      Once introduced into water, compounds are not readily separated
and the dilution factors insure  that thousands and/or millions  of
gallons of water per day must  be treated.   The large quantities of
water involved make it  uneconomic to ship  such waste streams.   Local
treatment is most practical.  The shipment of conentrated waste
streams are more economic than  the shipment of dilute waste streams.
Because of this  truism, concentrated waste streams are more likely
to be considered as candidates for movement to disposal sites other
than those at the site where the waste originates.
                               V-82
-------
      Those waste streams which are now transported to offsite
disposal plants or dumps provide an indication as to the  type of waste
streams which may be the initial candidates for national disposal
sites.  These collectable hazardous waste streams  include:

           Ocean disposal of barge delivered liquid and solid wastes

           Deep-well injection streams

           Contract disposal wastes

           Munition disposal operations

           Radioactive wastes

           Industrial chemical containers.

      The economics of waste disposal will determine,  ultimately, the
amounts and  types of wastes that will be moved to distant disposal
sites.  It is unlikely that industry will move wastes if they can be
treated satisfactorily and more economically at the point of origin.

      The data in the table on the following page illustrates the type
and quantities of materials now moved to offsite disposal locations.

      Should  deep-well disposal and deep-sea  disposal be restricted,
a substantial improvement in onsite capabilities for tertiary
treatment will be required.  Most wastes now deep-welled will
require tertiary treatment to remove toxic contaminants.
                              V-83
-------
                            Table V-32
           Quantitative Data on Offsite Disposal Tonnages

Marine Disposal Operations - 1968
        Waste Type                Amount (tons per year)
Dredge Spoils                            52,200,000
Industrial Wastes                          4, 690, 500^
Sewage                                   4,477,000
Construction and Demolition                 574, 000
Explosive                                    15,200
Radioactive                                       4
Garbage                                      26,000
Miscellaneous                            	200
                                         61, 982,904

                                  (3)
Deep-Well Injection Streams - 1968y
Oil Field Brines                          10, 000, 000 barrels/day
Chemical Wastes                         >1, 000, 000 barrels/day
  a.  Inorganic Salt Solutions
  b.  Mineral and Organic Acids
  c.  Basic Solutions                      .   ,  ,  .....  ,      „
  j   _,, ,   .   ,  ,    , „.       ,  ,    approximately 175 deep wells
  d.  Chlorinated and Oxygenated
        Hydrocarbons
  e.  Municipal Sewage

Contract Disposal Wastes

30-40, 000 tons annually

Munitions Disposal -  1970
80-120, 000 tons Explosive Munitions
      8, 000 tons Chemical Munitions

Radioactive Wastes - 1963

 70, 000, 000 gallons High Level Wastes Stored
  7, 000, 000 cubic feet Solid Waste Buried at Atomic  Energy
                      Commission Sites
400, 000, 000 gallons Low Activity Waste Processed
                               V-84
-------
                         Table V-32
                         (Continued)
Industrial Chemical Containers - 1971
                                   !75 percent < 33 ounces
                                    5 percent   33 to 127 ounces
                                   20 percent > 127 ounces
  Ocean Disposal of Barge Delivered Liquid and Solid Wastes from
  U.S.  Coastal Cities,  Environmental Protection Agency,  Report
  No. SW-19c, 1971.
(2)
  Industrial Wastes Include

     Waste Acid             58 percent       2,720,000 tons
     Refinery Wastes        12                 562,000
     Pesticide Wastes         7                 328,000
     Paper Mill Wastes       3                 142, 500
     Other                  20                 938,000

(3)
  Injection Wells and Operations Today, E.G.  Donaldson,  U.S.
  Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines,  Bartlesville, Oklahoma.
                              V-85
-------
-------
VI.    MAJOR FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS
-------
         VI.    MAJOR FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS
      The following sections summarize the major findings and
conclusions which were developed as the study progressed.  They
have been grouped under the following headings:

            Definition of Hazardous Wastes and Identification of
            Hazardous Effects

            Selection and Rating of Hazardous Materials

            Quantification and Distribution

            Waste Treatment Processes

            National Disposal Systems.

      Many of the conclusions presented may overlap these categories
and relate  to two or more general areas, but this is  only indicative
of the complex,  integral nature of the hazardous waste and hazardous
effects problem.


I.    DEFINITION  OF A HAZARDOUS MATERIAL AND HAZARDOUS
      EFFECTS
      It is difficult to give a simple explanation of what is meant by
the term hazardous.  The term implies a substance, or mixture of
substances, which has (have)  an inherent potential of being harmful
to man or to the environment.   In this context,  the term also tends to
describe a condition or situation rather than a material.   The situation
could involve a toxic substance,  a flammable or explosive substance,
or a highly reactive substance.   A  reactive substance,  in  turn, could
cause fire,  explosion, or the  formation of toxic substances.  All
substances in these latter categories, as well as  others not speci-
fically mentioned here, have a potential to produce harmful effects
to humans,  plants,  animals, etc.  They could,  therefore, by classed
                              VI-1
-------
as hazardous substances.  The term "potential" is significant,  since
a great many materials are suspected of being hazardous  to various
life forms, but too little is known factually about their hazardous
effects  to permit including them  in the hazardous category.  It  is the
effort to hold to facts that has resulted in the relatively short list of
materials identified as hazardous in this study.

      The term hazardous also connotes an element of change or
uncertainty.  In the context of waste materials and their potential
dangers, chance or uncertainty derive from the various ways that
humans or the environment can be exposed to harmful amounts  of
a waste substance.  Harmful amounts vary and are dependent upon
factors such as the type of receptor (i.e. , humans, plants,  animals,
etc. ),  the type and amount of exposure (i. e. , levels of concentration,
magnitude of dose necessary for damage to occur,  magnitude of
explosion,  violence of reaction,  etc. ),  and the duration of exposure.

      To appraise one hazardous substance relative to another,
comparison must be made on the basis of criteria which serve  as
standards for rating each appropriate factor, as described above.

      When the nature of hazardous wastes is thus  understood,  the
difficulty of defining and listing hazardous wastes becomes more
apparent.  The process of creating the toxic materials and the  methods
used to treat such materials when  they become waste  can  be better
described.  Evidence as to the deleterious effects of such materials
is more elusive.

      The following conclusions have been reached concerning the
definition of hazardous materials and hazardous effects:

      (1)   Knowledge of the long-range effects of chemical components
           is quite limited.  Severe knowledge gaps,  concerning both
           ecological systems interrelationships and the  total  effects
           of hazardous substances on all receptors,  limit under-
           standing as to which  factors are pertinent and most
           important to the  identification  of hazardous compounds.

      (2)   By using an extensive set of criteria to define hazardous
           substances, a list of substances which possess a high
           potential for creating hazardous conditions as uncontrolled
           wastes can be developed.  This list is valuable for  defining
           the relative dangers  which may develop if hazardous
           substances are not controlled throughout their life cycle.
                              VI-2
-------
      (3)    The development of a list of hazardous substances is not
            equivalent to the development of a list of hazardous wastes,
            largely because of the unknown nature of effects possible
            from mixed waste streams, especially synergistic effects
            of a variety of input materials.

      (4)    Wastes to be hazardous must contain one or more hazardous
            substances in sufficient concentration to be detrimental
            to human health or other elements of the ecological system.
2.    SELECTION AND RATING OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
      As part of the current study, a list of "hazardous compounds"
was developed and each compound was  later rated,  relative to the
others listed, on the basis of a defined set  of criteria.  Knowledge
gaps have a critical impact on the list of hazardous substances.   In
particular,  knowledge of the long-range effects of chemical compounds
on man or  the environment are quite limited.  In many instances it
may take years for the effects of new compounds,  or even compounds
now in use, to be noticed and be traced directly to a particular chemical
compound.   Quantitative cause and effect relationships will  take
additional time to establish.  Because of this,  it is likely that many
compounds or materials with highly deleterious long-range  effects
are not on  the list developed during this study.

      Conclusions reached relative to the selection and rating of
hazardous  materials include:

      (1)    The list of 424 hazardous compounds which has  been
            developed  is representative of a larger unidentified set
            or list of hazardous compounds.

      (2)    The list of hazardous compounds can be useful  for future
            research in tracing the flow of  identified hazardous
            compounds from their points of manufacture to points  of
            use, and to categorize  their status at any  given  time as:

                       Intermediate in manufacturing  processes

                       Consumables in manufacturing processes
                              VI-3
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                 Hazardous end products

                 Nonhazardous end products

                 Others.

(3)   Knowledge concerning the presence of particularly toxic
     compounds in complex waste streams provides useful
     indication of the amount of waste control or treatment
     required.

(4)   Continual industrial process and product changes produce
     a  continuous stream of new compounds, some of which are
     hazardous.  Data deficiencies relative to this stream
     introduce the possibility of omissions of some hazardous
     materials from the list.  However, the development  of a
     meaningful program to deal with hazardous wastes is not
     dependent upon a complete or totally comprehensive  list
     and rating of hazardous substances.

(5)   The rating procedure  developed includes ratings on the
     basis of known effects to ecological populations  and the
     effects of flame,  explosion, and reaction in addition  to
     human toxic effects.   Also, the  rating system is modular
     in design providing a  flexible capability to:

                 Develop and examine alternative ratings  on
                 the basis  of adjusted weightings of the various
                 modules

                 Develop specific hazard ratings for  human
                 effects, other ecological effects, or flame/
                 explosion/reaction effects either individually
                 or by any  combination

                 Develop specific hazard ratings for  air,  water,
                 or land disposal either individually or by any
                 combination.
                         VI-4
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3.     QUANTIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION
      Initial waste streams of production plants include process,
storage, and package product wastes.  Each customer also develops
wastes either as process waste streams or as packaged wastes.
Estimates of probable waste quantities are frequently made based on
fractions of the total production.  Such estimates  provide a general
indication as to disposal needs.

      Several conclusions have been reached with respect to quantifi-
cation and distribution of hazardous materials:

      (1)   Gross quantification data (i. e. , number of pounds of waste
           material produced  in different areas by type industry),
           is useful as a general indicator of the magnitude and
           pervasiveness of industrial waste streams.  Such data
           assists in defining  the scope of the problem and gives
           some indication as to disposal needs.

      (2)   While gross  quantification data are useful and valid, as
           described above, their use to estimate the quantities  of
           wastes in a particular geographical area with an implied
           degree of accuracy is probably not valid and may lead to
           erroneous  conclusions, because of the great number of
           variables in  production processes within small segments
           of any one industry.

      (3)   The amount of waste produced does not indicate the
           hazards which may be produced by such wastes.
           Hazardous wastes must produce toxic concentration effects
           greater than can be tolerated by the threatened life system.
           The existence of such concentrations must be established
           on a continuing plant-by-plant basis by analysis of waste
           generated.
                              VI-5
-------
4.    WASTE TREATMENT PROCESSES
      Any waste stream may be hazardous under certain conditions.
That is,  the toxicity of the materials, the susceptibility of the environ-
ment,  and  the concentration in the air, soil,  or water may exceed
the tolerable levels.

      The disposal treatment required and the facilities needed  to
cope with hazardous wastes are specifically related to the products
made, the  processes involved, waste stream characteristics, and
local geographic,  demographic, and environmental conditions.  Each
industrial facility will find it necessary to tailor disposal facilities
to its individual needs, i. e. ,  methods cannot apply in common even
across single industries.

      In general, disposal processes at individual plants treat only
the waste streams originating in the production process.  That  is,
they do not contribute materially  in disposing of packaged products
which frequently create additional hazardous disposal conditions.
Municipal disposal systems, for example, are not designed to deal
with potentially hazardous materials. In general, dilution with
other materials is the only operational safeguard currently  in use.

      Means  to control the hazards  associated with the disposal of
toxic explosive materials used in business and households need  to be
developed.   The studies which have been made for pesticides  indicate
some of the actions which are needed. Current regulations covering
drugs and other carefully controlled products such as rodenticides
and alcohol may provide insights  into the means to control the
movement  and disposal of such materials.

      The following specific conclusions were reached in the above
study areas:

      (1)   Accurate characterization of waste streams is essential
           to the evaluation of hazard potentials and to the  design of
           waste treatment to abate such hazards, yet these  charac-
           terizations have not been made in the majority of  indus-
           trial situations.
                               VI-6
-------
(2)    Waste characterization data should be used to identify the
      specific treatments which are required and the removal
      or corrective efficiencies which must be achieved once
      criteria for waste is established.  The  most useful approach
      appears to  be the development of disposal processes which
      can be used to dispose of a wide variety of compounds by
      a  single treatment sequence.

(3)    Following conclusion 2 above, indepth studies of specific
      industrial processes are needed in several areas in order
      to:

                 Determine the composition of associated
                 waste streams  in detail

                 Establish the feasibility of separating certain
                 hazardous compounds  from general waste
                 streams (e. g. , heavy  metals,  phenols)

                 Develop alternative ways of categorizing and
                 rating treatment requirements of composite
                 waste streams.

(4)    The selection of waste treatment systems and disposal
      sites is highly influenced by external conditions such as
      data concerning geology, topography, meteorology,
      population density,  industry concentrations,  and  political
      boundaries. Indepth studies into these  external conditions
      are needed  to avoid costly long-term miscalculations.

(5)    Data on waste characteristics for  individual  plants obtained
      by the Corps of Engineers, through enforcement of the
      Refuse Act of 1899, should be used for  conversion into
      estimates of disposal treatment needs and costs  by means
      of relatively simple automated  calculations.  Such estimates
      can be accumulated into data specific to plants, localities,
      and regions and  be  the basis for national disposal planning
      and control.
                        VI-7
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5.     NA TIONA L DISPOSA L SYSTEM
      While it is intuitively acceptable to expand the operational
practices of the AEC for radioactive wastes to other materials which
tend to create hazardous conditions, these practices may not be
applicable to the wide range of industrial wastes.  Radioactive wastes
by and large are inevitable by-products of other operations.  With few
exceptions little use has been found for them.  On  the other hand,
most hazard creating chemical compounds are produced  for specific
purposes and needs.  The wastes involved in their production process
may or may not create conditions which are hazardous.  Generally
speaking, the  chemical industry has dealt successfully with toxic/
flammable/explosive compounds  and possess the technology to dispose
of all waste safely.

      Specific conclusions  with respect to the development  of a
national disposal system or systems are:

      (1)   A  national disposal system can  minimize toxic  wastes by:

                       Improving plant treatment  practices

                       Improving controls  over materials  in
                       distribution channels

                       Defining subsystems for collecting  specific
                       toxic residues

                       Developing improved packages which  will
                       assist in  the safety  and completeness of
                       disposition.

      (2)   National disposal sites  should be developed only if needed
           as part of a comprehensive hazardous  material system.
                               VI-8
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VII.    RECOMMENDATIONS
-------
                VII.   RECOMMENDA TIONS
1.    HAZARDOUS WASTE CONTROL SYSTEM


      Develop a national hazardous waste control,  collection and
disposal system which might include as a component,  as needed,
hazardous waste disposal sites and processes.  The system concept
should consider all steps necessary to control designated hazardous
substances from their initial production through intermediate stages
of use to final disposal.

      Control system development should incorporate the following
major tasks:

           Identification of critical waste processes or products

           Licensing of production and disposal processes

           Specification of handling and treatment methods

           Inspection for conformance

           Prescriptions for labeling,  warnings and disposal methods

           Designation of collection points for specific waste
           categories requiring special handling

           Licensing of contractors for disposal or recycling

           Designation of ultimate disposal methods

           Development of implementation plan.
                              VII-1
-------
2.     INDEPTH HAZARDOUS MATERIAL STUDY
      Conduct an indepth study of a limited number of hazardous
materials in order to establish the quantities, distribution and disposal
possibilities.  In essence this study would serve as a feasibility study
for a national  hazardous waste control system.  Tasks would include:

           Selection of about 10 to 15 hazardous materials based on
           highest production quantities and widest distribution

           Investigation of production,  distribution, and disposal
           patterns for selected materials

           Determine possibilities and problems with a national
           disposal system

           Preparation of a national profile  to illustrate the findings

           Develop projections for a  national system for a large
           number of hazardous wastes.
3.    WASTE STREAM HAZARD ANALYSIS
      Conduct a study of plant waste streams to establish waste
characteristic profiles,  identify the hazardous  parameters of a
given waste content and recommend treatment profiles.  Treatment
processes will be directed toward the processing required to achieve
the minimum acceptable standard for  introduction to a municipal
treatment system. Major tasks would include:

            Identification of municipal acceptance standards

            Collection of typical waste characteristic profiles from
            Corps of Engineers

            Identification of treatment level (by characteristic) for
            various wastes which is necessary to meet standard

            Establishment of  automated program to read-in waste
            profile and read-out treatment profile
                              VII-2
-------
            Provide routine to

                 Estimate cost of adequate treatment facilities by
                 type and quantity of waste

                 Estimate sludge and other residue production in
                 industrial and municipal treatment

                 Sort data—profile, treatment requirements,  costs,
                 effluent quantity, SIC, geographical location

            Preparation of computer program for above

            Provide for analysis of inplant  processes by these  methods,


4.    HAZARDOUS EFFECTS RESEARCH
      Launch a research effort directed toward the specific task of
identifying the hazardous effects of various materials.  The result
of this effort should be combined with a program  to require firms
to file data on new  compounds  (similar to FDA Requirements),
Criteria for such industry data should also be established.  Major
tasks in this effort would include:

           Analysis of new chemical substances  and  other potentially
           harmful substances

           Early identification and characterization of substances
           which may produce hazardous  effects due to long-term
           persistence  and toxic effects of accumulation

           Determination of persistency of toxic substances in soil,
           water,  etc.

           Determination of mutagenic and  carcinogenic effects.

      A specific laboratory should be tasked to monitor and direct
this research program and to assemble, correlate, and distribute
data acquired through  this research effort.
                               VI-3
-------
-------
BIBLIOGRAPHY
-------
                      TABLE OF CONTENTS
                                                           Page
                                                          Number
INTRODUCTION                                              1
1.    STANDARD INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATION
      (SIC) CODES                                            3
           SIC 01 - Agricultural Production                   4
           SIC 10 - 14 Mining                                 5
           SIC 20 - Food and Kindred Products                9
           SIC 22 - Textile Mill Products                     12
           SIC 26 - Paper and Allied Products                15
           SIC 28 - Chemicals and Allied Products            17
           SIC 2834 - Pharmaceutical Preparations           23
           SIC 2879 - Agricultural Pesticides, and Other
           Agricultural Chemicals, Not Elsewhere
           Classified                                        24
           SIC 2892 - Explosives                             25
           SIC 29 - Petroleum Refining and Related
           Industries                                        27
           SIC 30 - Rubber and  Miscellaneous Plastics
           Products                                         31
           SIC 311  - Leather Tanning and Finishing           32
           SIC 33 - Primary Metal Industries                 34
           SIC 333  - Primary Smelting and Refining of
           Nonferrous Metals                                38
           SIC 347  - Coating, Engraving,  and Allied
           Services                                         39
           Radioactive Wastes  - U.S. Atomic Energy
           Commission                                      42
           Waste Management in the  Department of
           Defense                                          46
-------
                                                          Page
                                                         Number
2.    DISPOSAL PRACTICES AND TECHNIQUES, AND
     TYPES OF POLLUTION                               47
           Air Pollution                                    48
           Biological Treatment                             60
           Corps of Engineers                              61
           Deep Well                                       62
           Economic Data                                  63
           Federal Regulations                              64
           Fluidized-Bed                                   66
           General Disposal Techniques                      67
           Hazardous Spills                                 73
           Health Hazards                                  74
           Hospital Wastes                                 76
           Identification of Hazardous Materials              77
           Incineration                                     79
           Ion Exchange                .                    81
           Lagooning                                       82
           Literature Lists - General                        83
           Math Modelling and Cost Techniques               85
           Oxidation Reduction                              86
           Pesticide Collection and Disposal Systems         87
           Sludge Disposal                                  88
           Solid Waste  - General                            89
           Toxicity                                         97
           Utilities                                        105
3.    SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCE MATERIAL           106
-------
                           INTRODUCTION
      The fundamental effort in conduct of the Hazardous Materials
Study was a literature survey.  The principal objective of this analytical
survey was a systematic screening of available literature data.  Several
thousand abstracts were obtained, perused by the study team, and
assessed according to their relevance within the context of the study.
Requests were then submitted for those documents felt to be most
propitious.  Additional documents were identified and acquired as a
result of personal interviews conducted with representatives  of industry,
trade associations, and Governmental agencies.  In all, approximately
800 documents were accepted as containing information worthwhile to
the purposes of the study.

      In accordance with the major thrust of this  study and the contents
of the acceptable documents, three separate categories were established
for cataloging the incoming material.   These major categories are:

            Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Codes

            Disposal Practices and Techniques, and Types of Pollution

            Supplementary Reference Material.

Within each category,  further subjective  differentiation was made, and
is reflected in the table of contents to this bibliography as an aid to the
user in locating references of interest  among the  very large number
included.

      Consequently, as each document  was received,  the required
bibliographical information was recorded, a control number was given,
and the document was filed by subject within the appropriate category.
The bibliographical information was also  filed categorically for easy
reference and for later transcription.  Distinction was made  between
articles, magazines,  reports, and books.  All literature was identified
by title, since this seemed to be most conducive for easy access of
the documents.  Both the study team and  EPA personnel referred to
material by title,  and, in most cases,  the title implied the subject
                              -1-
-------
content of the document.  In addition, the company, association,
Governmental agency, etc., with which the author was associated
at the time of publication, proved to be beneficial in analyzing the
literature data, and this information was included in the bibli-
ographical material.

      This bibliography contains all information discussed above for
those documents considered to be acceptable.  This information is
separated into the three  categories and a brief description of each
category precedes the literature listing.
                               -2-
-------
1.    STANDARD INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATION (SIC) CODES

      Thirteen major SIC codes were selected in this category. The
last two sections are not SIC codes but represent major agencies,
within the government,  that must be considered in a study of this
nature:  the Atomic Energy Commission and the Department of
Defense.  Several major SIC codes are further classified by the finer
SIC code breakdown.  Within each section, all documents are listed
alphabetically by title according to the type of material:  article,
magazine,  report, and book.
                              -3-
-------
             SIC 01 - AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
REPORTS
      A Study of Farm Waste, Farm Animal Waste;  Characterization,
      Handling,  Utilization, S.A. Witzel, O.J. Attoe,  E. McCoy, L. B.
      Polkowsky, and K. Crabtree, University of Wisconsin,  Project
      OSW UI-00556-01 to -04, for the U.S. Department of Health,
      Education, and Welfare, Office of Solid Waste,  1970.

      The Pollution Potential of the Confined Livestock Feeding
      Industry. Midwest Research Institute, Project 3481-C,  for the
      Environmental Protection Agency,  June 1971.
                                 -4-
-------
                        SIC 10  -  14  MINING


ARTICLES

      "A Long-Range Look at Acid Mine Drainage, " based on Paper
      by E. P. Hall (of Consolidation Coal Co.),  Mining Engineering,
      January 1966, pp.  61-62.

      "An Operator's Approach to Mine Water Drainage  Problems and
      Stream Pollution, " H.  E. Steinman (of Vesta-Shannopin Coal
      Division, Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp.), Mining Congress Journal,
      July 1960,  pp.  70-73.

      "Acid Mine-Drainage:  Control Case Histories, " Coal Age,
      June 1964, pp. 72-77.

      "Acid Mine-Drainage Control:  Principles and Practices Guide, "
      Coal Age,  June 1964, pp. 81-86.

      "Acid Mine Drainage Pollution Control - Approach to Solution, "
      S. Krickovic (of U.S. Department of Interior,  Bureau of Mines),
      Mining  Congress Journal, December 1966,  pp. 64-68.

      "Acid Mine Drainage Research Potentialities,  " G. P. Hanna, Jr.,
      J. R. Lucas, C. I. Randies, E. E. Smith,  andR. A. Brant (of
      Ohio State  University), Water Pollution Control Federation
      Journal, Vol.  35,  No.  3, March 1963,  pp.  275-296.

      "Bibliography on Solid Wastes and Recycling Research, " U.S.
      Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines.

      "Clear, Alkaline Run-Off is J&L's Goal in Water-Treatment Plan, "
      Coal Age,  August  1967, pp. 70-74.

      "Lime Slurry System at Pursglove No.  15 Mine, " V. H. Ream
      (of Christopher Coal Co. ),  Mining Congress Journal, January 1970,
      pp. 55-59.

      "Neutralization of  Acid Mine Drainage, " D.  W. Hill, Water Pollution
      Control Federation Journal, Vol. 41, No.  10,  October 1969, pp. 1702-1715.

      "New Technology of Leaching Waste Dumps, "  E. E.  Malouf and
      J. D. Prater (of Kennecott Copper Corp.),  Mining Congress Journal,
      November  1962, pp. 82-85.
                                -5-
-------
      "Pelletizing Fine Coal Recovered from Pumped Refuse, "
      H. N. Egan, Mining Engineering, November 1967, pp. 73-75.

      "Pollution Control  in Mining and Processing of Indiana Coal, "
      R. A. Woodley (of Commercial Solvents Corp. ), and S. L. Moore
      (of Industrial Waste Section, Indiana State Board of Health), Water
      Pollution Control Federation Journal, January 1967,  pp.  41-49.

      "Stabilizing Mine Dumps, "  Mining Magazine, Vol.  119, No. 4,
      October 1968,  pp.  296-299.

      "This Month in Mining - Symposium Sees Hard Times Ahead for
      Industry in Clean-Up of Tailing and Milling Wastes, " Engineering/
      Mining Journal, May 1970,  pp.  102-104.

      "Treatment of an Old Sands Dump at the Luipaards Vlei Estate
      and Gold Mining Co., Ltd. " P. B. Weehuizen (of Venter Post
      Gold Mining Co. , Ltd.), Mining Magazine, Vol.  115,  No.  6,
      December 1966, pp. 464-471.
MAGAZINES
      Environmental Science and Technology,  Vol.  4, No.  7, July 1970.
REPORTS
      Burning Coal Refuse Banks and the Associated Environmental
      Problems,  L. M. McNay,  U. S. Department of Interior,  Bureau of
      Mines, Information Circular, 1970.

      Case Studies of Municipal Waste  Disposal Systems, H. W. Sheffer,
      E. C. Baker, and G. C. Evans, U. S.  Department of Interior,
      Bureau of Mines, Pub. 8498, 1971.

      Chemical and Vegetative  Stabilization of a Nevada Copper Porphyry
      Mill Tailing, K. C. Dean,  R.  Havens, and K. T. Harper, U.S.
      Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Pub. 7261, May 1969.

      Chemical Stabilization of the Uranium Tailings at Tuba City,  Arizona,
      R.  Havens and K. C. Dean, U. S.  Department  of Interior,  Bureau of
             Pub. 7288, August 1969.
                                 -6-
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Coal Refuse Fires, an Environmental Hazard. L. M. McNay,
U.S. Department of Interior,  Bureau of Mines, Pub. 8515, 1971.

Design of Dams for Mill Tailings, C. D. Kealy and R. L. Soderberg,
U.S. Department of Interior,  Bureau of Mines, Pub. 8410, 1969.

Dewatering Florida Phosphate Pebble Rock Slime by Freezing
Techniques, M. H. Stanczyk,  I. L. Feld, andE.W. Collins,
U. S. Department of Interior,  Bureau of Mines, Pub. 7520,
June 1971.

Disposal of Solid Wastes from Coal Mining in Washington, Oregon,
Montana,  M. R.  Geer,  U. S.  Department of Interior, Bureau of
Mines, Pub.  8430,  1969.

Distribution of Sulfide and Oxide  Copper in Copper Mill Tailings,
J. C. White and  A. R.  Rule, U. S. Department of Interior,  Bureau
of Mines, Pub.  7498, April 1971.

Fly Ash Utilization -  A Summary of Applications and Technology,
J. P. Capp and J. D. Spencer,  U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of
Mines, Pub.  8483,  1970.

Ignition and Control of Burning of Coal  Mine Refuse, J.W. Myers,
J. J. Pfeiffer, E. M. Murphy,  and F. E.  Griffith, U. S. Department
of Interior, Bureau of Mines,  Pub. 6758,  1966.

Industrial Waste Study of the Flat Glass,  Cement,  Lime,  Gypsum,
and Asbestos Industries, Sverdrup &  Parcel and Associates,  Inc. ,
July 1971.

Mineral Facts and Problems,  U. S. Department of Interior,
Bureau of Mines Staff, Bulletin 630,  1965  Edition.

Mineral Facts and Problems,  U. S. Department of Interior,
Bureau of Mines, Bulletin 650.

Mineral Industry Solid Wastes and Our  Environment, U, S,
Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines,  c.  1971.

National  Inventory of  Sources  and Emissions, Cadmium,  Nickel,
and Asbestos; Section II: Nickel, W. E.  Davis & Associates,
for the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National
Air Pollution Control Administration, February 1970.
                           -7-
-------
Pennsylvania Anthracite Refuse - A Survey of Solid Waste from
Mining and Preparation, J. C. MacCartney, R. H. Whaite, U. S.
Department of Interior,  Bureau of Mines,  Pub.  8409, 1969.

Proceedings of the First Mineral Waste Utilization Symposium,
Chicago, Illinois,  March 27-28,  1968,  Illinois Institute of Technology
Research Institute, 1968.

Proceedings of the Second  Mineral Waste Utilization Symposium,
Chicago, Illinois,  March 18-19,  1970,  Illinois Institute of Technology
Research Institute, 1970.

Reclamation of Acidic Coal-Mine Spoil with Fly Ash,  L. M. Adams,
J. P. Capp,  and E. Eisentrout,  U. S. Department of Interior,
Bureau of Mines,  Pub.  7504,  April  1971.

Recovery of Phosphates and Metals  from Waste Phosphate Sludge
by Reduction-Sinter Processes,  R.F. Waters, H. E. Powell, and
A. A.  Cochran,  U.S.  Department of Interior,  Bureau of Mines,
Pub. 7533,  July 1971.

Surface Mining and Our  Environment, U. S. Department of Interior,
U.S. Government  Printing Office, Staff Report,  1967.

Utilization of Waste Fluosilicic  Acid: Section  1 — Laboratory
Investigations;  Section 2 - Cost Evaluation, H. E. Blake, Jr. ,
W.S.  Thomas,  K.W.  Moser,  J. L. Reuss, and H.  Dolezal, U.S.
Department of Interior,  Bureau of Mines,  Pub.  7502, April 1971.

Waste  Disposal  Costs at Two  Coal Mines in Kentucky and Alabama,
V. A.  Danielson and D. H. White, Jr. ,  U. S. Department of Interior,
Bureau of Mines,  Pub.  8406,  1969.

Waste  Disposal  Costs of a  Florida Phosphate Operation, J. R. Boyle,
U.S. Department of Interior,  Bureau of Mines,  Pub.  8404,  1969.
                             -8-
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           SIC 20 - FOOD AND KINDRED PRODUCTS
ARTICLES
      "A Pollution Abatement Program for Distillery Wastes, "
      R. G. Paulette,  C. S. Boruff, and J. O. Nack, Water Pollution
      Control Federation Journal, Vol. 42,  No. 7, July 1970,  pp.  1387-
      1394.

      "Baffled Biological Basins for Treating Poultry  Plant Wastes, "
      N. L. Nemerow, Water Pollution Control Federation Journal,
      September, 1969, pp. 1602-1612.

      "The Treatment of Effluents from the Milk Industry, " A. B. Wheatland,
      (of Water Pollution Research Laboratory, England), Chemistry and
      Industry, September 16,  1967,  pp.  1547-1548.

      "Waste Disposal in the Meat Industry,  Part I, "  A. J.  Steffen,
      Water and Wastes Engineering/Industrial,  Vol.  7, No. 3,
      March  1970, pp. B-20 to B-22.

      "Waste Disposal in the Meat Industry,  Part II, "  A. J. Steffen,
      Water and Wastes Engineering/Industrial,  Vol.  7, No. 5, May 1970,
      pp.  C-l to C-4.

      "Wastewater Treatment from Potato Processing, " O. Sproul,
      K. Keshavan, M.W.  Hall, and B. B.  Barnes, Water and  Sewage
      Works, February 1968.
REPORTS
     A Report on Bottled and Canned Soft Drinks and Flavoring Extracts
     and Syrups,  Associated Water and Air Resources Engineers,  Inc. ,
     for the Environmental Protection Agency, August 1971.

     Aerated Lagoon Treatment of Food Processing Wastes, K.A.  Dostal,
     Pacific Northwest Water  Laboratory, Project 12060,  for the
     Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality Office, March 1968.

     Aerobic Secondary Treatment of Potato Processing Wastes,
     The R.T. French Co., Project 12060 EHV, for the Environmental
     Protection Agency (Grant WPRD 15-01-68), December 1970.
                                 -9-
-------
Cannery Waste Treatment, Kehr Activated Sludge, FMC Corp. ,
for the U. S.  Department of Interior,  Federal Water Quality
Administration (Grant 12060  EZP), September 1970.

Current  Practice in Potato Processing Waste Treatment,
K.  Guttormsen and D. A. Carlson,  University of Washington,  for
the U. S. Department  of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration (Grant WP-01486-01), October 1969.

Final Report Industrial Waste Study of the Meat Products Industry,
J.P.  Pilney,  E. E. Erickson, and N. O.  Halvorson, North Star
.Research and Development Institute,  for the Environmental
Protection Agency, July 8, 1971.

Industrial Waste Study of Canned and Frozen Fruits and Vegetables.
SCS Engineers, for the Environmental Protection  Agency,  July 17, 1971.

Industrial Waste Study of the Grain Mill Industry,  Sverdrup & Parcel
and Associates, Inc. ,  for the Environmental Protection Agency,
August 1971.

Industrial Waste Survey of the Distilled Spirits Industry. Associated
Water and Air Resources Engineers,   Inc. ,  for the Environmental
Protection Agency, August 1971.

Industrial Waste Survey of the Malt Industry,  Associated Water and
Air Resources Engineers,  Inc. ,  for the Environmental Protection
Agency,  August 1971.

Industrial Waste Survey of the Malt Liquor Industry.  Associated
Water and Air Resources Engineers,   Inc.,  for the Environmental
Protection Agency, August 1971.

Proceedings:  First National Symposium of Food Processing Wastes,
April 6-8.  1970.  Portland, Oregon. U. S. Department of Interior,
Federal  Water Quality Administration, Research  Series 12060,
April 1970.

Secondary Treatment of Potato Processing Wastes. K.A. Dostal,
Pacific Northwest Water Laboratory,  Project 12060, for the
Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality  Office,
July 1969.
                           -10-
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Solid Waste Management in the Food Processing Industry,
A.M. Katsuyama, N. A.  Olson,  R. L. Quirk,  andW.A. Mercer,
National Canners' Association and Western Research Laboratory,
for the Environmental Protection Agency,  1971.

Study of Wastes and Effluent Requirements of the Dairy Industry,
A.T. Kearney & Co., Inc., Report ATK-ENV-71-02-1,  May 1971.

The Cost of Clean Water. Volume III:  Industrial Waste Profile
No.  6 - Canned  and Frozen Fruits and Vegetables, U. S. Department
of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,
September 1967.

The Cost of Clean Water, Volume III:  Industrial Waste Profile
No.  8 - Meat Products, Wichita State University, Department of
Economics, for the U. S. Department of Interior, Federal Water
Pollution Control Administration,  September  1967.

The Cost of Clean Water, Volume III:  Industrial Waste Profile
No.  9 - Dairies, U. S. Department of Interior, Federal Water
Pollution Control Administration,  September  1967.

Treatment of Citrus Processing Wastes,  The Coca Cola Co.,
Foods Division, Project 12060,  for the Environmental Protection
Agency, Water Quality Office (Grant WPRD 38-01-67),
October 1970.

Waste Reduction in Food Canning Operations, National Canners'
Association Research Foundation, Western Research Laboratory,
for the U. S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Quality
Administration (Grant WPRD  151-01-68),  August 1970.
                           -11-
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             SIC 22 - TEXTILE MILL PRODUCTS
ARTICLES
      "Aerated Stabilization of Synthetic Organic Chemical Wastes, "
      F. D. Bess and R. A. Conway (of Union Carbide Corp.), Water
      Pollution Control Federation Journal, Vol. 38,  No. 6,  June 1966,
      pp.  939-955.

      "Aerobic Treatment of Textile Mill Waste, " E. L.  Jones.  T. A. Alspaugh,
      and H. B. Stokes (of Cone Mills Corp.), Water Pollution Control
      Federation Journal, Vol. 34, No. 5,  May 1962, pp. 495-512.

      "Biological Treatment of Textile Effluents, " A. I. Biggs (of the
      Confederation of British Industry), Chemistry and Industry,
      September 16, 1967, pp.  1536-1538.

      "Disposal of Dye and Finishing House Wastes and Similar
      Materials, " E. C. Oden, Sr., Water  and  Sewage Works,
      September 1967, pp. 367-368.

      "Energy-Induced Changes in an AZO  Dyestuff Waste, "  A. I. Mytelka
      (of AeroChem Research Laboratories, Inc. ) and R. Manganelli
      (of Rutgers University), Water Pollution  Control Federation Journal,
      February 1968, pp.  260-268.

      "Orion Manufacturing Wastes Treatment, " E. F. Taylor,
      F.T. Bodurtha, Jr., R. F.  Rocheleau, and G. C.  Gross (of E. I.
      duPont de Nemeurs  & Co. ),  Water Pollution Control Federation
      Journal,  Vol.  33, No. 10, October 1961, pp.  1076-1089.

      "Pollution Factors and  Treatment of  Textile Waste Waters, "
      P.W.  Sherwood, The Textile Manufacturer, June 1965, pp.  235-238.

      "Sodium Hydroxide Recovery in the Textile Industry, "  C. S.  Carrique
      and L. U. Jauregui (of University of Buenos Aires), Purdue  University -
      Engineering Extension Series 121,  1966,  pp.  861-868.

      "Some Differences Between British,  American  and Continental
      Practice, " Dr.  L.  Klein (of Mercey River Board, England), pp. 3-32.
                                 -12-
-------
      "Stream Pollution and Effluent Treatment, with Special Reference
      to Textile and Paper Mill Effluents, " Dr. L. Klein, Chemistry and
      Industry, May 23, 1964,  pp.  866-873.

      "Tannery, Textile and Wool Scouring Wastes, " reviewed by
      T. A. Alspaugh, Water Pollution Control Federation Journal,
      1967 Literature Review.  Vol. 40,  No.  6,  June  1968,  pp. 1165-1171.

      "The Disposal and Recovery of Textile Wastes,  Part I - The
      Problem; Preliminary Studies;  Experimental Work; Disposal by
      Chemical Precipitation, " M.S.  Campbell (of The Textile
      Foundation),  Textile Research, pp. 490-504.

      "The Treatment and Control of Bleaching and Dyeing Wastes, "
      A. H. Little (of The Cotton, Silk and Man-Made Fibres Research
      Association), Water Pollution Control,  1969, pp. 178-189.

      "Trade Effluent Control in the Carpet Industry, " D. Evers (of  the
      Trent River Board), Textile Institute and Industry, September 1965,
      pp.  237-240.

      "Waste Treatment Studies at  Cluett, Peabody and Company Finishing
      Plant, "  R. H. Souther (of The Arrow Company Division), American
      Dyestuff Reporter,  July 28,  1969,  pp.  13-16.

      "Zeroing in on Five Top  Trouble Spots, " Textile World. October 1971,
      pp.  41-46.
REPORTS
      A Simplification of Textile Waste Survey and Treatment, J.W. Masselli,
      N.W.  Masselli, and M. G. Burford,  Wesleyan University,  for the New
      England Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission, July 1959.

      Industrial Waste Studies Program -  Textile Mill Products,
      Arthur D. Little,  Inc. , for the Environmental Protection Agency,
      Water Quality Office, May 28,  1971.
                                  -13-
-------
Industrial Waste Surveys of Two New England Cotton Finishing
Mills, M.G. Burford and J.W.  Masselli (of Wesleyan University),
W. J.  Snow (of Connecticut State Water Commission),  and
H. Campbell and F. J. DeLuise  (of University of Rhode Island),
for the New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission,
June 1953.

Pollution Sources from Finishing of Synthetic Fibers, J.W.  Masselli
and M. G. Burford, Wesleyan University, for the New England
Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission,  June 1956.

Reuse of Chemical Fiber Plant Wastewater and Cooling Water
Slowdown, Fiber Industries,  Inc.  and Davis & Floyd Engineers,
Inc.,  Project 12090 EUX,  for the Environmental Protection
Agency,  Water Quality Office (Grant WPRD-100-01-68),
October  1970.

The Cost of Clean Water, Volume III:  Industrial Waste Profile
No. 4 - Textile Mill Products. U. S. Department of Interior,
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Pub. IWP-4,
June 30,  1967.
                            -14-
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           SIC 26 - PAPER AND ALLIED PRODUCTS
ARTICLES
      "Development and Research into Pulp and Paper Waste Treatment
      in France," J. Bebin, Technical Paper T215, Pulp and Paper,
      Vol.  71, No. 10, May 5,  1970,  pp. 53-56.

      "Disposal System for Mixed Primary and Secondary Sludges, "
      O. B. Burns, Jr. (of West Virginia Pulp and Paper)  and J. L.  Mancini
      (of Hydroscience, Inc. ), Technical Association  of the Pulp and Paper
      Industry Journal,  Vol. 50,  No.  1, January 1967, pp. 99A to 104A.

      "Economic Aspect of Industrial Effluent Treatment, " A. L.  Caron
      (of National Council for Stream Improvement), Technical Association
      of the Pulp and Paper Industry Journal, Vol. 47, No. 9, September
      1964, pp. 62A to 72A.

      "Paper Mill Sludge Dewatering, " G. H. Koenitzer  (of Beloit Corp. ),
      Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry Journal,
      Vol.  51, No. 12, December 1968, pp. 53A to 56A.

      "Spent Liquor Disposal Via Fluo-Solids Combustion  at an NSSC
      Mill, " H. Mills (of Dorr-Oliver, Inc. ), Paper Trade Journal,
      Vol.  154, No. 33, August  17,  1970, pp.  26-31.

      "Stock Preparation for Sorted Waste Paper, " W. Musselmann
      and J.M. Voith,  Paper Technology, Vol.  8,  No. 3,  June  1967,
      pp. 270-277.

      "The Effects of Industrial Wastes from Charmin Paper Products
      Company on Fish of the Cheboygen River Drainage System, "
      P.M. Thomas ( of The University of Michigan),  and R. O.  Legault
      ( of The  University of Ottawa), July 16, 1966, Water Research,
      Vol.  1, 1967, pp. 217-229.
REPORTS
      A Paper Industry Environmental Control Technical Program,
      National Council of the Paper Industry for Air and Stream
      Improvement, Inc., (NCASI).
                                 -15-
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Aerial Photographic Tracing of Pulp Mill Effluent in Marine
Waters, F.  J. Burgess and W. P. James, Oregon State University,
Project 12040 EBY, for the U.S.  Department of Interior, Federal
Water Quality Administration (Grant WP-00524), August 1970.

C-E Recovery, Bark and Power Boiler, C-E Combustion
Engineering, Pub. SP-1014 0106610.

Dilute Spent Kraft Liquor Filtration Through Wood Chips, North
Carolina State University,  Project 12040 EUG,  for the U.S.
Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration (Grant WPRD 115-01-68), National Technical
Information Service, Pub.  PB-191-873, April 1970.

Foam Separation of Kraft Pulping Wastes, Georgia Kraft Co.,
Project 12040 EUG, for the U.S.  Department of Interior, Federal
Water Pollution Control Administration (Grant WPRD 117-01-68),
Pub. PB-189-160, October 1969.

Industrial Waste Study of the Paper and Allied Products Industriest
WAPORA, Inc., for the Environmental Protection Agency, July 1971.

NCASI Report to Members,  National Council of the Paper Industry
for Air and Stream  Improvement, Inc., 1970.

NCASI Technical Review, National Council of the Paper Industry for
Air and Stream Improvement,  Inc., Bulletin 16, June 1, 1971

The Cost of Clean Water, Volume III:  Industrial Waste Profile No.  3
Paper Mills, Except Building, U.S. Department of Interior,
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, November 1967.
                           -16-
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        SIC 28 - CHEMICALS AND ALLIED PRODUCTS
ARTICLES
      "A Comprehensive Survey of Industrial Waste Pollution in South
      Carolina," R.W. Hann, Jr. (of Texas A&M University) and
      F. D. Callcott (of The Harwood Beebe Co. ),  Proceedings of the
      Twentieth Industrial Waste Conference. 1965, Engineering
      Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 538-550.

      "Ability of Activated  Sludge Microorganisms to Oxidize Aromatic
      Organic Compounds,1'  C. V. Marion and G. W.  Malaney (of Ohio
      State University), Proceedings of the Eighteenth Industrial Waste
      Conference,  1963, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University,
      pp.  297-308.

      "Chemical and Allied Products, " reviewed by A. I. Mytelka,
      Water Pollution Control Federation Journal,  1967 Literature Review,
      Vol.  40,  No. 6, June 1968, pp. 1198-1199.

      "Chemical Plant Waste Treatment by Ten Methods, "  A. C. Hyde
      (of E. I.  duPont de Nemeurs and Co. ), Water Pollution Control
      Federation Journal, Vol. 37, No. 11, November  1965, pp. 1486-
      1494.

      "Contract Disposal Catches On, " Chemical Engineering,
      November 17,  1969,  pp. 138-140.

      "Effect of Boron on Aerobic Biological Waste Treatment, "
      S. K. Banerji,  B. D. Bracken,  and B. M.  Garg (of the  University
      of Delaware), Proceedings of the Twenty-Third Industrial Waste
      Conference,  1968, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University,
      pp.  956-965.

      "Effluent Treatment at a Fine  Chemicals Factory, " D. H.  BeH
      (of B. D. H. Laboratory Chemicals Works, England), Manufacturing
      Chemist, May  1960,  pp. 194-197.

      "New Chemical Precipitation Plant Designed for 'Secondary'
      Removals," T. M. Riddick (of  Thomas M. Riddick & Associates),
      Wastes Engineering,  December 1963, pp. 652-653, 666.
                                  -17-
-------
"Oxidation of Selected Carcinogenic Compounds by Activated Sludge, "
P. A.  Lutin, J. J. Cibulka,  and G. W. Malaney (of Vanderbilt
University), Proceedings of the Twentieth Industrial Waste
Conference, 1965, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University,
pp.  131-145.

"Phenol Plant Safeguards Against Pollution, " J. A. Turcotte and
V. T.  Burns, Jr.  (of Gibbs and Hill,  Inc. )andJ.W.  Schluter
(of Brookhaven National Laboratory), Water and Wastes Engineering,
June 1967, pp. 69-70.

"Phosphate-Plant Waste Looms as Hydrofluoric-Acid Source, "
Chemical Engineering, May 4, 1970, pp. 46-48.

"Pollution Problem Caused by Elemental Phosphorus in Aqueous
Effluents Was Eliminated by Reusing Treated Waste  in the Process, "
J. C. Barber (of Tennessee Valley Authority),  Chemical Engineering
Progress, Vol. 65, No. 6, June 1969,  pp.  70-73.

"Preventive Measures Get Results in a Chemical Processing
Waste Abatement Program," W. L. Leucht,  P. T. McNally and
F. B.  Kay lor (of Allied Chemical Corp. ) and I. Grossman (of New
York State Department of Health),  Water Pollution Control Federation
Journal,  Vol.  34, No. 10, October 1962, pp. 999-1009.

"Screening for Chemical Process Hazards, " L.  Silver (of Merck,
Sharp, and Dohme Research Laboratories,  Division  of Merck & Co. ,
Inc. ), Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol.  63,  No. 8,  August
1967,  pp. 43-49.

"The Treatment of Fluoride Wastes, "  W. Zabban (of The Chester
Engineers) and H.W. Jewett (of Corning Glass Works), Water
and Sewage Works,  November 1967,  pp.  415-419.

"Treating Parathion Wastes",  C. N.  Stutz (of Monsanto Co. ),
Chemical Engineering Progress,  Vol.  62, No.  10, October 1966,
pp.  82-85.

"Treatment of Parathion Wastes and Other  Organics, " G. Coley
and C. N.  Stutz (of Monsanto Chemical  Co. ), Water Pollution
Control Federation Journal. Vol. 38, No. 8,  August 1966,
pp.  1345-1349.
                            -18-
-------
      "Treatment of Tetraethyl Lead Manufacturing Wastes, " M. Nozaki
      and H.  Hatotani (of Japan Organo Co., Ltd. , Japan), Water
      Research, Vol. 1, 1967, pp. 167-177.

      "Waste Disposal at a Phosphoric Acid and Ammonium Phosphate
      Fertilizer Plant, " W.E. Jones and R. L.  Olmsted (of Northwest
      Cooperative Mills), Proceedings of the Seventeenth Industrial
      Waste Conference, 1962,  Engineering Bulletin of Purdue  University,
      pp.  148-202.

      "Water Reclamation with Activated Carbon, "  J. C. Cooper and
      D. G. Hager (of Pittsburgh Activated Carbon Co. ), Chemical
      Engineering Progress,  Vol. 62, No. 10,  October  1966, pp. 85-90.
MAGAZINES
      American Paint Journal, April 21,  1958.
REPORTS
      A 1967 Survey of the Members of the Manufacturing Chemists
      Association, Manufacturing Chemists Association,  1968.

      A.V. Phosphoric Acid,  Volume  1, Part 2, K. K.  Huffstuter, Slack,
      Marcel Dekker,  Inc., 1968.

      Air Pollution Aspects of Emission Sources:  Nitric Acid Manufac-
      turing (A Bibliography with Abstracts),  Environmental Protection
      Agency, Air~Pollution Control Office, Pub. AP-93,  May 1971.

      An Action Plan for Controlling Hazardous Chemicals in the
      Environment.  D. L. Worf, R. B. Medz,  ORD Consumer Protection
      and Environmental Health Service,  1968.

      Atmospheric Emissions from Sulfuric Acid Manufacturing Processes,
      Manufacturing Chemists' Association and Public  Health Service,
      for the U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, National
      Air Pollution Control Administration, 1965.
                                  -19-
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Chemistry and Technology of Fertilizers, A.V. Slack (of
Tennessee Valley Authority), Interscience Publishers (a
division of John Wiley and Sons), 1967.

Cleaning Our Environment, The Chemical Basis for Action,
American Chemical Society, Subcommittee on Environmental
Improvement,  Committee on Chemistry and Public Affairs,
1969.

Current Industrial Reports, Inorganic Chemicals, U. S. Department
of Commerce,  1969.

Evaluation of the  Hazard of Bulk Water Transportation of Industrial
Chemicals - A Tentative Guide, the Committee on Hazardous
Materials Advisory to the U. S.  Coast Guard, National Academy of
Sciences, National Research Council,  1970.

Handbook for Sulfuric Acid Piping Systems, The Dow Chemical Co.,
1971.

Hazard Survey of the  Chemical and Allied Industries,  American
Insurance Association,  Division of Technical Services Engineering
and Safety Department, Technical Survey No.  3,  1968.

Industrial Oily Waste Control.  W. H. Barcus (of Sun Oil Co. ),
J. S. Baum (of  Cities  Service Oil),  C. F. Gurnham and Dr. H. C.
Bramer (of Gurnham,  Bramer  and Associates,  Inc.),  Dr.  A. J.
Freedman and  R. S. Robertson  (of Nalco Chemical Co.),
D. L. Hill (of Rockwell-Standard Co. ),  B. V.  Prather (of Consulting
Chemist),  S. L. McDoniel (of Metropolitan Sanitary District  of
Greater Chicago), R. D.  Ross (of Thermal Research & Engineering
Corp.), J.K. Sargent (of Dravo Corp. ), J.W.  Swain, Jr.  (of Swain
Corp. ), for the American Petroleum Institute and American Society
of Lubrication  Engineers,  c 1969.

Industrial Waste Survey of Inorganic Chemicals.  Alkalines and
Chlorine. General Technologies Corp., for the Environmental
Protection Agency,  May 28, 1971.

Industrial Waste Study of the Asbestos Industry. Associated  Water
and Air Resources Engineers,  Inc., for the Environmental Protec-
tion Agency,  1971.
                            -20-
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Industrial Waste Study of the Plastic Materials and Synthetics
Industry,  N. Barson and  J. W. Gilpin (of Celanese Research Co. ,
for the Environmental Protection Agency, 1971.

National Industrial Solid Waste Management Study of the Industrial
Chemical Industry,  The Research Corporation of New England,
for the Environmental Protection Agency, Bureau of Solid Waste
Management,  January 1971.

New Market for Tomorrow's Sulphur, The Sulphur Institute.

Recovery of Oxidizer from Rocket Propellants, U.S.  3,451,789,
To F. Graf To Thiokal Chemical Corp.,  1969.

Safety in Handling Hazardous  Chemicals, Matheson Coleman & Bell,
1969.

Study Report - Industrial Waste Studies Program; Group 6:
Fertilizers, Wellman  Lord,  Inc., for the Environmental Protection
Agency,  July 1971.

Synthetic Organic Chemicals,  U. S.  Tariff Commission  Report,
Pub.  412,  1969.

Synthetic Organic Chemicals - United States Production and Sales,
1968, U. S.  Tariff Commission,  U. S. Government Printing  Office,
Pub.  327,  1970.

The Cost of Clean Water,  Volume III: Industrial  Waste Profile
No.  10 - Plastics Materials and Resins,  Illinois Institute of
Technology Research Institute, for to U. S.  Department of Interior,
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,  October 12, 1967.

The Economics of Clean Water, Volume III; Inorganic  Chemicals
Industry Profile, U. S.  Department of Interior, Federal Water
Pollution Control Administration, March 1970.

The Manufacturing Chemists'  Association - What Is It,  What It
Does, Manufacturing Chemists' Association,  August 1965.

Toward a Clean Environment,  Manufacturing Chemists  Association,
1967.
                            -21-
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BOOKS
      Reigel's Industrial Chemistry,  ed. by J. A.  Kent,  Reinhold
      Publishing Co.
                                  -22-
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        SIC 2834 - PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATIONS
REPORTS
      National Industrial Solid Waste Management - The Drug Industry,
      D. M.  Shilesky, K.W. Krause, and R. J.  Sullivan,  Litton Systems, Inc.,
      for the Environmental Protection Agency, Solid Wastes Management
      Office, 1971.

      Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association Year Book 1969-1970,
      Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association, 1970.
BOOKS
      The Merck Index of Chemicals and Drugs, P. G. Stecher,
      Dr. M. J.  Finkel, Dr. O. H. Siegmund,  and B. M. Szafkanski,
      Merck and Co. , Inc. , Seventh Edition, 1960.
                                 -23-
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    SIC 2879 - AGRICULTURAL PESTICIDES. AND OTHER
AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS, NOT ELSEWHERE CLASSIFIED
ARTICLES
      "Biological Treatment of Organic Phosphorus Pesticide Waste-
      Waters, " C. Lue-Hing (of Ryckman, Edgerley, Tomlinson and
      Associates,  Inc. ) and S. D. Brady (of Chemagro Corp. ),  Proceedings
      of the Twenty-Third Industrial Waste Conference,  1968,
      Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp.  1166-1177.

      "Biological Treatment of Pesticide Waste Water Containing Collodial
      Sulphur, " P. Fitter and J.  Chudoba (of the Institute of Chemical
      Technology, Czechoslovakia),  Chemistry and Industry,  December 28,
      1968,  pp. 1846-1848.

      "Farm Resources, Income,  and Expenses, 1966, " Agricultural
      Statistics, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research
      Service, 1966, pp. 494-497.

      "Pesticides Bill Hit as Wiping Out Gains, " Elsie Carper,
      The Washington Post, Thursday, October 14, 1971, p.  A8.

      "Safety Aspects in the Design of an Organic Insecticide Plant, "
      K.M.  Cukwen (for Albright & Wilson (Mfg. ) Ltd. ,  England),
      Chemistry and Industry, August 23,  1958,  pp.  1096-1101.

      "Treatment of Effluents from the Manufacture  of Weedkillers and
      Pesticides," A. E. Lambden and Dr. D. H. Sharp (of Fisons Pest
      Control Ltd. , England). Manufacturing Chemist,  May 1960, pp. 198-201.
REPORTS
      Description and Location(s) of Pesticides, Herbicides, and Related
      Hazardous Substances on Department of Defense Properties,
      Compilation of Tables.

      Tentative Guidelines for the Safe Handling and Disposal of Used
      Pesticide Containers in California,  Dr.  L. F.  Saylor, Dr. S. M. Heslep,
      R.F. Peters, P. A.  Rogers, J. Cornelius, Dr. J.B.  Bailey and
      Dr.  T.H. Milby,  California State Department of Public Health in
      cooperation with the California State Department of Agriculture and the
      Agricultural Extension Service of the University of California, June 1970.
                                 -24-
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                   SIC 2892 - EXPLOSIVES
ARTICLES
      "Hazards of Potentially Explosive Materials, "  W. G. Sykes
      (of Arthur D. Little, Inc.),  Chemical Engineering Progress,
      Vol.  62, No.  12,  December 1966,  pp.  49-53.
REPORTS
      Comparison of Plant Water Quality to Proposed Water Quality
      Standard,  H. A. Jacob, Jr., Hercules, Inc., July 22,  1971.

      Control of Pollution at Army Ammunition Plants, U. S. Army
      MUCOM, paper presented at Conference on Identification of R&D
      Needs in Pollution Control, Dover, New Jersey, November, 1970.

      Detailed Statements Concerning Deep Water Dumping of Ammunitions
      Pursuant to  Section 102(2)C of the National Environmental Policy
      Act of 1969. U.S. Navy.

      Detailed Statement Concerning Local Deep Water Disposal of
      Conventional Ammunition Pursuant to Section 102(2)C of the
      National Environmental Policy Act of  1969,  U. S.  Navy.

      Engineering Design Handbook - Explosives Series - Properties
      of Explosives of Military Interest,  Headquarters,  U. S. Army
      Materiel Command,  Pub. AMCP 706-177, January 1971.

      Environmental Statement for Maritime Administration Hulks
      Numbered Deep Water Dumps Submitted Pursuant to Section
      102(2)C of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, U. S. Navy.

      Environmental Statement for Small Scale Deep Water Dumps
      Submitted  Pursuant to Section 102(2)C of the National Environmental
      Policy Act of 1969,  U.S.  Navy.
                                  -25-
-------
Explosive Ordnance Disposal Service,  Headquarters, U. S. Depart-
ment of the Army, Field Manual 9-14, April 1971.

Fire and Explosion Hazards Evaluation,  Hazards Research Corp. ,
Vol. 1, No.  1, October 1970.

Handling Hazardous Materials, National Aeronautics and Space
Administration Technical Survey,  Pub. NASA-SP-5032,  Washington,
B.C.,  1965.

Hazardous Chemicals Handling and Disposal, Institute of Advanced
Sanitation Research, Noyes Data Corp., New Jersey,  1970.

Industrial Wastes: Their Disposal and Treatment,  ed. by Willem
Rudolfs (of American Chemical Society Monograph), Reinhold
Publishing, New York,  1953.

Pollution Abatement Engineering Program for Munition Plant
Modernization, Second Briefing for Senior Scientist Steering
Group  (SSSG), U. S. Army Research Office (ARO),  September
14-15, 1971,  Ammunition Engineering Directorate,  Picatinny
Arsenal, 1971.

Properties of Explosives of Military Interest, U. S.  Army
Materiel Command,  AMCP  706-177, Washington, D. C., 1967.

Safety  and Environmental Considerations in Ammunition Disposal,
presented at Armed Services Explosives Safety Board  Seminar,
J.R. Roach,  ORD04M/BX1, August 31, 1971.

Technical and Administrative Problems of Nitrogen Oxide  Control
Faced  by MUCQM. R.O. Matthern, U. S. Army MUCOM, Picatinny
Arsenal, Dover, N. J.

Technical and Administrative Problems of Water Pollution Control
Faced  by MUCOM, R. O. Matthern and H. S.  Stethers,  paper
presented at Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality
Office, September 1971.

Water  Pollution Problems Arising from TNT Manufacture, A
Survey. D. H.  Rosenblatt, G. E.  Lauterbach, and G. T. Davis,
Edgewood Arsenal, Special  Pub. EASP 100-94, March 1971.
                           -26-
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    SIC 29 - PETROLEUM REFINING AND RELATED INDUSTRIES
ARTICLES
      "A Disposal Well for Spent Sulphuric Acid from Alkylating Iso-
      Butylenes, " H. R. Holland (of Imperial Oil Enterprises,  Ltd. )
      and F. R. Clark (of Calgary Refinery), Proceedings of the Nineteenth
      Industrial Waste Conference, 1964, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue
      University,  pp. 195-199.

      "A Technique for Evaluating the Biological Treatability of Industrial
      Wastes, "  J. C. Lamb, W. C. Westgarth, J. L.  Rogers, and A. P.
      Vernimmen, presented at the Thirteenth Southern Municipal and
      Industrial Waste Conference at Duke University, April 16-17, 1964,
      Water Pollution Control Federation Journal,  Vol.  36, No. 10,
      October 1964.

      "Compact Activated-Sludge  Treatment of Combined Petrochemical-
      Municipal Waste, " G. W.  Kumke and R. A. Conway (of Union
      Carbide Corp. ) and Dr.  J. P. Creagh (of South  Charleston Waste
      Treatment Works), presented at the Twenty-Third Purdue Industrial
      Waste Conference, 1968, Water and Wastes Engineering/Industrial,
      pp.  C-l to C-6.

      "Effluent Pretreatment and  Biological Effluent  Treatment in the
      Oil Industry, " H. Fassbender (of BP Benzin und Petroleum
      Aktiengesellschaft, Germany),  presented to the Industrial Water
      and Effluent Group of the Society of Chemical Industry,  London,
      February 23, 1967,  Chemistry  and Industry, September  16, 1967,
      pp.  1539-1546.

      "Environmental Management at a Major Petrochemical Facility, "
      R. N. Rickles (of Resource  Engineering Associates,  Inc. ),
      Proceedings of the Twenty-Third Industrial Waste Conference 1968,
      Engineering Bulletin  of Purdue  University, pp.  1074-1088.

      "How Monsanto Handles  its Petrochemical Wastes, "  R. D. Sadow
      (of Monsanto Chemical Co. ), Wastes Engineering, December 1963,
      pp.  640-644.
                                -27-
-------
      "Minimizing Wastes in the Petrochemical Industry, " S. K. Mencher
      (ofM.W. Kellogg Co.),  Chemical Engineering Progress,  Vol.  63.
      No.  10,  October 1967, p. 80.

      "Oil Refinery Effluent Treatment in Ponds, " T. C. Dorris,
      D.  Patterson and B. J. Copeland, presented at the Thirty-Fifth
      Annual Meeting of the Water Pollution Control Federation in
      Toronto, Ontario, October  7-11, 1962, Water Pollution Control
      Federation Journal. Vol. 35, No. 7, July 1963, pp. 932-939.

      "Petrochemical Wastes  Effects on Water, " E. F.  Gloyna and
      J.F.  Malina, Jr.,  Water and Solid Waste.  Ref. No.  1963,
      pp. R-262 to R-285.

      "Petroleum  Processing  Wastes, " reviewed by F. Mulik, Water
      Pollution Control Federation Journal, 1967 Literature Review,
      Vol.  40, No. 6,  June 1968, pp. 1179-1180.

      "The First Large Scale  Industrial Waste Treatment Plant on the
      Missouri River, " P.W.  Stroud,  L. V. Sorg, and J. C.  Lamkin
      (of American Oil Co. ),  Proceedings of the  Eighteenth Industrial
      Waste Conference 1963,  Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University,
      pp. 460-475.

      "Waste Treatment  at a Large Petrochemical Plant," R. D.  Sadow
      (of Monsanto Co. ), presented at the Thirty-Eighth Annual
      Conference of the Water Pollution Control Federation, Atlantic
      City, New Jersey,  October 10-14, 1965, Water Pollution Control
      Federation Journal. March 1966, Vol.  38,  No.  3, pp.  428-441.
REPORTS
      Disposal of Polymer Solid Wastes by Primary Polymer Producers
      and Plastics Fabricators,  C.W.  Marynowski,  Stanford Research
      Institute, 1970.

      1967  Domestic Refinery Effluent Profile, Committee for Air and
      Water Conservation, American Petroleum Institute,  Crossley,
      S-D Surveys, Inc. ,  September 1968.

      Federal Water Pollution Control Act - Oil Pollution Act, U. S.
      Department of Interior,  1966.
                                 -28-
-------
Final Report of the Task Force on Used Oil Disposal,  American
Petroleum Institute, Pub. 4036.

Fluid Bed Incineration of Petroleum Refinery Wastes, American
Oil Co., Manden Refinery,  Project 12050 EKT, for the Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Water Quality Office Grant WPRD
215-01-68), March 1971.

Manual on  Disposal of Refinery Wastes,  Volume IV - Sampling
and Analysis of Waste Water, American Petroleum Institute,  1957.

Manual on  Disposal of Refinery Wastes,  Volume VI - Solid Wastes,
American Petroleum Institute, First Edition, 1963.

Oil Versus Other Hazardous Substances, C.  H.  Thompson
(of the Environmental Protection Agency),  presented at the American
Petroleum Institute—Environmental Protection Agency—U.S.
Coast Guard Conference on Oil Pollution, March 23,  1971.

Petrochemical Effluents Treatment Practices - Summary,
Dr. E.  F.  Gloyna and Dr.  D. L. Ford, Engineering-Science, Inc.,
Project 12020, for U.S. Department of Interior,  Federal Water
Pollution Control Administration, Pub. PB-192-310,  February  1970.

Petroleum Refining Effluent Guidelines for Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Water Programs, R.  F.  Weston,
Environmental Scientists and Engineers, September 1,  1971.

Polymeric Materials for Treatment and Recovery of Petrochemical
Wastes, Gulf South Research Institute, for the  Environmental
Protection Agency, Water Quality Office (Grant 12020 DQC),
March 1971.

Report on Air and Water Conservation Expenditures of the
Petroleum Industry in the United States,  Crossley, S-D Surveys,
Inc.,  August 1968.

The Characteristics  and Pollutional Problems Associated with
Petrochemical Wastes - Summary Report, Dr. E.  F.  Gloyna  and
Dr. D. L.  Ford,  Engineering Science, Inc. /Texas, Project 12020,
for the Environmental Protection Agency, February 1970.
                            -29-
-------
The Control of Solvent Vapor Emissions, J. D. Lauber, New
York State Department of Health, Pub. 69-42, January 1,  1969.

The Cost of Clean Water, Volume III;  Industrial Waste Profile
No. 5 - Petroleum Refining,  U.S. Department of Interior, Federal
Water Pollution Control Administration, November 1967.
                           -30-
-------
   SIC 30  - RUBBER AND MISCELLANEOUS PLASTICS PRODUCTS
REPORTS

      Rubber Reuse and Solid Waste Management, Part I - Solid Waste
      Management in the Fabricated Rubber Products Industry, 1968,
      R. J.  Pettigrew,  F. H. Roninger (of Uniroyal, Inc. ),  for the
      Environmental Protection Agency,  1971.
                                 -31-
-------
           SIC 311 - LEATHER TANNING AND FINISHING
ARTICLES
      "Disposal of Tannery Wastes, " R. R. Parker (of Reid Crowther and
      Partners, Ltd.,  Canada),  Proceedings of the Twenty-Second
      Industrial Waste Conference. 1967,  Engineering Bulletin of Purdue
      University, pp.  36-43.

      "Survey of Waste Management Practices in the Tanning Industry, "
      D. J. Eye, Proceedings of the Fifty-Second Annual Meeting,
      Tanners' Council of America,  October 1968.

      "Tannery Waste  Treatment, Barrie, Ontario, "  M. Yatable (of Gore
      & Storrie, Ltd.), Industrial Worker, July/August 1971, pp.  IW/14
      to IW/16.

      "The Application of Biological Processes to the Treatment of Liquid
      Tannery Effluent," G. H. Green, Waste Treatment - Proceedings
      of the Second Symposium on the Treatment  of Waste-waters,
      Pergamon Press, 1960,  pp. 397-410.

      "Treatment of Chrome-Tanning Wastes for Acceptance by an
      Activated Sludge Plant,"  F. J. Wims (of Collis  Leather Co. ,
      Ltd. ,  Canada),  Proceedings of the Eighteenth Industrial Waste
      Conference,  1963,  Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University,
      pp.  534-549.
REPORTS
      Anaerobic-Aerobic Lagoon Treatment for Vegetable Tanning Wastes.
      C. E. Parker,  University of Virginia, Project 12120 DIK, for the
      U. S. Department of Interior,  Federal Water Quality Administration
      (Grant WPD-199-01-67),  December 1970.

      Effluent Requirements for the Leather Tanning and Finishing
      Industry. Stanley Consultants,  Inc.,  September 1971.
                                 -32-
-------
The Cost of Clean Water, Volume III;  Industrial Waste Profile
No. 7 - Leather Tanning and Finishing, U. S.  Department of Interior,
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Pub. IWP-7,
September 1967.

Treatment of Sole Leather Vegetable Tannery Wastes, Dr.  J. D.  Eye,
University of Cincinnati, Project 12120, for the U.S. Department of
Interior, Federal Water Quality Administration (Grant WPD-185),
September 1970.
                            -33-
-------
              SIC 33 - PRIMARY METAL INDUSTRIES
ARTICLES
      "Bethlehem Steel's Burns Harbor Wastewater Treatment Plant,"
      Water and Sewage Works. December 1966, pp. 468-470.

      "Comparative Study of Recovery of Zinc and Nickel by Ion Exchange
      Media and Chemical Precipitation," D. Kantawala and H. D.  Tomlinson
      (of Washington University, St.  Louis), Water  and Sewage Works,
      Ref. No.  1964, pp. R-280 to R-286.

      "Complete Waste Treatment System Designed for New Foundry,"
      A. J.  Bader (of Caterpillar Tractor Co. ), Plant Engineering,
      April 18, 1968,  pp.  118-120.

      "Deep-Well Disposal of Steel-Mill Wastes, " C. D. Hartman (of
      National Steel Corp.), presented at the Thirty-Ninth Annual
      Conference of the Water Pollution Control Federation, Kansas
      City, Missouri, September  25-30, 1966, Water Pollution
      Control Federation Journal, Vol., 40, No. 1,  January 1968,
      pp. 95-100.

      "Deep-Well Waste Disposal  at Midwest Steel, " C. D. Hartman (of
      National Steel Corp. ), Iron  and Steel Engineer,  December 1966,
      pp. 118-121.

      "Disposal of Metallurgical Wastes, "  F. H. Day (of The Anaconda Co.),
      Mining Congress Journal, November 1961, pp. 52-56.

      "Fluid  Bed Regenerates Hydrochloric Pickle Liquor," Chemical
      Engineering, August  29, 1966, pp.  32-33.

      "Handling and Treating Petrochemical Plant Wastes: A Case
      History," E.S. Shannon (of  Dow Bay  City Plants), Water and
      Sewage Works. Ref.  No. 1964,  pp. R-292 to R-298.

      "Hydrochloric Waste Pickle Liquor Disposal - A New Process,"
      F. G. Krikau (of Interlake Steel Corp. ),  Iron and Steel Engineer,
      January 1969, pp. 71-74.
                                  -•34-
-------
"Industrial Waste Control - Mill Scale," D. Y.  Wallace (of the
Youngstown Sheet and Tube Co. ), Iron and Steel Engineer, July
1960, pp. 75-77.

"Industrial Waste Treatment - Steel Plants," M. Morgan (of U.S.
Steel Corp.),  Iron and Steel Engineer, July 1960,  pp.  67-74.

"Liquor Regeneration Slashes Cost of Steel Pickling," J. A. Buckley,
Chemical Engineering,  January 2,  1967, pp. 56-58.

"Metal Finishing Waste Disposal, " M. Ceresa and Dr. L. E.  Lancy
(of Lancy Laboratories, Inc.), Metal Finishing, April 1968,
pp. 56-62.

"Polyelectrolytes in Industrial Waste Treatment, " R. B. Schaffer
(of Dow Chemical Co. ), Water and  Sewage Works,  Ref.  No.  1964,
pp. R-300 to R-305.

"Recovery and Production  of Alumina from Waste Solutions by
Solvent Extraction, " D. R.  George, K. E.  Tame,  S. R. Crane, and
K. B. Higbie (of the U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines)
Journal of Metals, September 1968, pp.  59-63.

"Recycled Water Systems for  Steel Mills, " G. A. Bowman (of Dravo-
Doyle Co. )  and R. B. Houston (of Dravo Corp. ), Iron and Steel
Engineer, November 1966,  pp.  139-148.

"Solvent Extraction of Phenolic  Compounds from Weak Ammonia
Liquor, " A. C. Elliott and  A. J.  Lafreniere (of The Steel Co.  of
Canada,  Ltd. ), Water and  Sewage Works,  Ref. No. 1964,
pp. R-325 to R-332.

"Stabilization Lagoons Successfully Treat Steel Mill Wastes, "
D. F. Cairns (of Granite City Steel  Company),  presented at the
Thirty-Eighth Annual Conference of the Water  Pollution Control
Federation,  Atlantic City,  New  Jersey, October 1965, Water
Pollution  Control Federation Journal, Vol.  38, No. 10,  October
1966, pp. 1645-1955.

"Steel Mill Treats Waste Acids, " Paul Harsha (of Dow Chemical
Co. ), Water and Sewage Works, Ref. No.  1963, pp. R-286 to R-288.
                             -35-
-------
      "Steel Pickling and Pollution, " D.  Krofchak (of KSF Chemical
      Processes, Ltd.,  Canada), WIRE, October 1966, pp.  1603-1608.

      "Treatment of Wastes from the Steel Industry, " reviewed by S.  E.
      Smith, Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, 1967
      Literature Review, Vol.  40, No. 6, June 1968, pp. 1173-1174.

      "Waste Disposal Well Completion and Maintenance, " W. H. Baker
      (of Halli Burton Co.), Water and Sewage Works, Ref.  No.  1964,
      pp. R-287 to R-291.

      "Waste Pickle Liquor Disposal, " G.  A. Howell (of U.S. Steel
      Corp.), presented at the 1957  Annual Meeting,  Central States
      Sewage and Industrial Wastes Association, June 26-28, 1957,
      Sewage and Industrial Wastes, November 1957, pp. 1278-1281.

      "Waste Treatment and Metal Recovery in Copper and Copper
      Alloy Pickling Plant, "Dr. L.  E. Lancy and R. Pinner (of Lancy
      Laboratories, Inc.), Metallurgia,  March 1966, pp. 119-122.

      "Wire Mill Liquid Waste Disposal, " J. W. DePoy (of EF&I Steel
      Corp.), WIRE, October 1966,  pp.  1614-1619.
REPORTS
     Air Pollution Aspects of the Iron and Steel Industry. J. I.
     Schueneman, M. D.  High and W. E. Bye,  U.S. Department of
     Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Environ-
     mental Health Service  Series No.  999.

     C-E Products for the Primary Metals Industries, C-E Industrial
     Boiler Operations, SP-1063 0507008.

     Industry Profile Study  on Blast Furnace and Basic Steel Products,
     NUS Corp., for the Environmental Protection Agency,  June 1971.

     Limestone Treatment of Rinse Waters from Hydrochloric Acid
     Pickling of Steel, Armco Steel Corp., Project 12010 DUL., for the
     Environmental Protection Agency,  Water Quality Office, February
     1971.
                                -36-
-------
The Cost of Clean Water,  Volume III:  Industrial Waste Profile
No. 1 - Blast Furnaces and Steel Mills, U.S.  Department of
Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,
Pub. IWP-1, Septermber  1967.

Treatment of Waste Water-- Waste Oil Mixtures, Armco Steel
Corp., Project 12010 EXV, for  the U.S. Department of Interior,
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (Grant WPRD-
169-01-68), May 1970.
                           -37-
-------
SIC 333 - PRIMARY SMELTING AND REFINING OF NONFERROUS METALS
 ARTICLES
       "Neutralization of Acid Mine Drainage, " D. W.  Hill, Water Pollution
       Control Federation Journal,  Vol. 41, No.  10, October 1969,
       pp. 1702-1715.

       "Occurrence of Beryllium as a Trace Element  in Environmental
       Materials," W.R. Meehan and L. E. Smythe  (of the Australian
       Atomic Energy Commission), Environmental Science and Technology,
       Vol. 1, No. 10, October 1967, pp.  839-844.
 REPORTS
      Industrial Waste Survey of the Aluminum Industry,  Gurham &
      Associates, Inc.,  for the Environmental Protection Agency,
      August 1971.

      Mineral Industry Solid Wastes and Our Environment,  U. S.
      Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Staff Report.

      Other  Metals, Socorro, New Mexico Office of Mineral Resources,
      Field Office Report, 1969.
                                  -38-
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     SIC 347 - COATING,  ENGRAVING, AND ALLIED SERVICES
ARTICLES
      "Air Force Industrial Waste Treatment and Disposal," Lt.  Col.  F.A.
      Sanders (of the U. S.  Air Force, Regional Civil Engineer Office),
      Proceedings of the Fifteenth Industrial Waste Conference, I960.
      Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 302-307.

      "Biological Treatability of Various Air  Force Industrial Wastes, "
      Lt.  J.A. Mueller and Col. W.W. Melvin, Jr. (of the U.S. Air
      Force, Regional Environmental Health  Laboratory), Proceedings
      of the Twenty-Third  Industrial Waste Conference, 1968, Engineering
      Bulletin of Purdue University, pp.  398-427.

      "Electrolysis Speeds Up Waste Treatment, "  Environmental Science
      and Technology, Vol. 4,  No.  3,  March  1970,  p.  201.

      "General Problems of the Metal Plating Industry, " reviewed by
      W.N. Grune, Water  Pollution Control Federation Journal, 1967
      Literature Review, Vol.  40, No. 6, June 1968, pp.  1180-1198.

      "Industrial Waste Treatment at Trans World Airlines Overhaul
      Base, " G. C.  Higgins (of Burns and McDonnell Engineering Co. ),
      Proceedings of the Industrial Waste Conference,  Engineering
      Bulletin of Purdue University, pp.  194-202.

      "Metal Finishing Waste Disposal -  Part 1, " M. Ceresa and Dr. L. E.
      Lancy (of  Lancy Laboratories, Inc. ), Metal Finishing,  Vol.  66,
      No. 4, April,  pp. 56-62.

      "Metal Finishing Waste Disposal -  Part 2," M. Ceresa and
      Dr. L. E.  Lancy (of Lancy Laboratories,  Inc. ),  Metal Finishing,
      Vol.  66, No.  5, May, pp. 60-65.

      "Metal Finishing Waste Disposal -  Part 3," M. Ceresa and
      Dr. L. E.  Lancy (of Lancy Laboratories,  Inc. ),  Metal Finishing,
      Vol.  66, No.  6, June,  pp. 112-118.

      "Metals Focus Shifts to Cadmium, " Environmental Science and
      Technology,  Vol.  5,  No. 9,  September  1971,  pp. 754-755.
                                 -39-
-------
      "Nuclear Garbage Disposal: A Buried Problem" Thomas O'Toole,
      The Washington Post, Sunday, September 19, 1971, p. D5.

      "Operating Costs of Waste Treatment in General Motors, " R. J. Brink
      (of Buick Motor Division, General Motors Corp.),  Proceedings of
      the Nineteenth Industrial Waste Conference^ 1964, Engineering
      Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 12-144.

      "Plating Waste - Continuous or Batch Treatment, " J. S. Delos
      (of General Motors Corp.), Proceedings  of the Industrial Waste
      Conference,  Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp. 138-144.

      "Slug of Chromic Acid Passes Through a Municipal Treatment Plant,"
      J. N. English,  E. F. Barth, B. V.  Salotto, and M. B.  Ettinger (of Taft
      Sanitary Engineering Center),  Proceedings of the Nineteenth
      Industrial Waste Conference»1964, Engineering Bulletin of
      Purdue University,  pp.  493-507.

      "The Lancy Integrated System for Treatment of Cyanide and
      Chromium Wastes in Electroplating Plants," N.  Schreur (of
      Shakespeare Co.),  Proceedings of the Industrial Waste Conference,
      Engineering  Bulletin of Purdue University,  pp.  310-316.

      "Treatment of Photographic Laboratory Wastes at Norton Air Force
      Base,  California," P.V. Hennessy, D. G. Rosenberg, andR.G.
      Zehnpfennig  (of Montgomery Research, Inc. ), Proceedings of the
      Industrial Waste Conference,  Engineering Bulletin of Purdue
      University, pp. 740-751.

      "Water Pollutant or Reusable Resource?" Environmental Science
      and Technology, Vol.  4, No.  5, May 1970,  pp. 380-382.
REPORTS
      A State-of-the-Art Review of Metal Finishing Waste Treatment,
      Battelle Memorial Institute,  Project 12010 EIE 11/68,  for the
      Environmental Protection Agency (Grant WPRD 201-01-68),
      November 1968.
                                 -40-
-------
      Recovery of Metals from Electroplating Wastes by the Waste-
      Plus-Waste Method, L. C. George and A. A. Cochran, Technical
      Progress Report 27, August 1970.

      Symposium on the Surface Treatment of Metals,  Twenty-Second
      Annual Convention of the American Society for Metals, October
      21-25,  1940,  Cleveland, Ohio,  c.  1941.

      The Electrolytic and Chemical Polishing of Metals in Research
      and Industry, Dr. W. J. McGitecart, Pergamon Press,  1959.
ABSTRACTS
      Complete Study of A. F.  Geneated Industrial Wastes, G. Reid
      (of the University of Oklahoma Research Institute),  April 1, 1963
      to May 31,  1964.
BOOKS
      Theories and Practices of Industrial Waste Treatment,  N. L. Nemeron,
      Addison Wesley Publishing Co.,  Inc.
                                 -41-
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   RADIOACTIVE WASTES - U. S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION
ARTICLES
      "Development of a Process for Incorporation of Radioactive Waste
      Solutions and Slurries in Emulsified Asphalt," H.W.  Godbee,
      J.H. Goode, andR.E.  Blanco (of the Chemical Technology Division,
      Oak Ridge National Laboratory),  Environmental Science and Tech-
      nology, Vol. 2, No. 11, November 1968, pp. 1034-1040.

      "Disposal of Low-Level Radioactive Wastes  from Pilot Plants, "
      M.W. Boback, J. O. Davis, K. N. Ross, and J. B. Stevenson  (of
      National Lead Co. of Ohio), Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol. 67,
      No.  4,  April 1971, pp.  81-86.

      "Disposing of Nuclear Plant Solid Wastes, " P. T.  Tuite  (of Hittman
      Nuclear and Development Corp. ), Power, November 1970,  reprint.

      "Ground Rules Laid for Burying Radioactive Wastes," G.W. Siebert
      (of the Western Electric Engineering Research Center),  Journal  of
      Environmental Health,  Vol. 32, No.  6, May/June 1970,  pp.  656-662.

      "Nuclear Power and the Environment - A Perspective, " remarks by
      Dr.  G. T.  Seaborg, Chairman, U. S.  Atomic Energy Commission,
      presented at a Conference on  Nuclear Power, Burlington, Virginia,
      September 11, 1969.

      "Solid Waste Disposal,  " (A Report on Solid Waste Disposal Operation
      Carried Out by the European Nuclear Energy in the Atlantic), Nuclear
      Engineering, October 1968, pp. 845-847.

      "Storage of Radioactive Materials" and "Disposal of Radioactive
      Materials," DSAM 4145.8,  AR 700-64, NAVSUPPUB 5012,  AFM
      67-8, MCO P4400. 105.

      "The Nuclear Industry  and Air Pollution," A. Rivera-Cordero (of
      Drexel University),  Environmental Science and Technology,  Vol. 4,
      No.  5,  May 1970, pp.  392-395.

      "Thermal Pollution in Uncharted Wastes, " Environmental Science
      and  Technology,  Vol. 5, No.  12, December  1971.
                                  -42-
-------
REPORTS
      A Survey of Alpha Waste Generation and Disposal as Solids in the
      U. S. Nuclear Fuel Industry, Pub.  BNWL-B-34, December 1970.

      A Survey of Spent Fuel Shipments in the 1970's,  A. E. Aikens, Jr.
      (of the Division of Materials Licensing, Irradiated Fuels Branch,
      Chief), CAPINTEC, Inc., April 26, 1967.

      A Survey of Spent Fuel Shipments in the 1970's.  A. E. Aikens, Jr.,
      PRS Systems,  Inc., January 1970.

      Current Status and Future Technical and Economic Potential of
      Light Water Reactors,  Wash-1082.

      Data for Preliminary Demonstration Phase of the 'Environmental
      Quality Information and Planning System'  (EQUIPS), Pub. BNWL-B-
      141, December 1971.

      Design and Analysis, Midwest Fuel Recovery Plant,  General
      Electric Co., for the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission,  Docket 50
      (in U. S.  AEC Document Room).

      Environmental Monitoring and Disposal of Radioactive Wastes from
      U.S. Naval Nuclear-Powered Ships and Their Support Facilities,
      M. E. Miles, J. J.  Mangeno, and R. D.  Burke, Naval Ship Systems
      Command, Nuclear Power Directorate, Report NT-71-1, February  1971.

      Environmental Statement Radioactive Waste Repository,  Lyons.
      Kansas,  U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, National Technical
      Information Service, June 1971.

      Land Burial of Solid Radioactive Wastes:  A Study of Commercial
      Operations and Facilities, Wash-1143.

      Phosphate Glass Solidification Performance During Final Radioactive
      Tests in Waste Solidification Engineering Prototypes (WSEP),
      J. L. McElroy  et al., Pub.  BNWL 1541, January 1971.

      Pollution Control in the Atomic Energy Industry, Part II - Solidification
      of Highly Radioactive Liquid Wastes - The Status of Technology in the
      U. S. A., K. J.  Schneider (of the Pacific Northwest  Laboratory),
      American Institute of Chemical Engineers, for  the U.S. Atomic Energy
      Commission,  1969.
                                   -43-
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Pollution Control In the Atomic Energy Industry,  Part III -
Disposal of Liquid Radioactive Wastes to Coastal Waters by
the Atomic Energy Industry - A Preview of the Future of
Pollution Control, W. L. Templeton (of the Pacific Northwest
Laboratory), American Institute of Chemical Engineers, for the
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, 1969.

Pollution Control in the Atomic Energy Industry,  Part IV -
Treatment of Radioactive Wastes by Ion Exhange, B.W. Mercer
(of the Pacific Northwest Laboratory), American Institute of
Chemical Engineers,  for the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, 1969.

Pollution Control in the Atomic Energy Industry,  Part I - The
Sorption of Radioactive Wastes on Soil, R. C. Routson (of the
Pacific Northwest Laboratory), American Institute of Chemical
Engineers, for the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission,  1969.

Pot Solidification Performance During Final Radioactive Tests
in WSEP, J. L. McElroy et al.,  BNWL 1628, January 1972.

Proposal for a Study of Radioactive Waste Management Practices.
Hittman Associates,  Inc.,  Pub.  HA-773P,  September 22, 1971.

Radioactivity from Fossil Fuel and Nuclear Power Plants,
J.E. Martin et al., U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, United
Nations Headquarters, SM-146/19, August 10,  1970.

Radiological Surveillance Studies at a Boiling Water Nuclear
Power Reactor,  B. Kahn et al.,  Radiological Engineering
Laboratory, Cincinnati,  Pub.  PB-191-091, BRH/DER 70-1,
March 1970.

Report on the May 11. 1969.  Fire at the Rocky Flats  Plant Near
Boulder, Colorado, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Pub.  M-257,
November  18, 1969.

Report on the Nuclear Industry -  1970. U. S. Atomic Energy
Commission, for Atomic Industrial Forum's Annual Conference,
Washington, D. C. , November 18, 1970.

Role of Nuclear Power in the United States, T. J. Thompson,  U. S.
Atomic Energy Commission, United Nations Headquarters,  IAEA-
SM-146/4, August 10, 1970.
                           -44-
-------
      Safety Series No. 7, Notes on Certain Aspects of the Regulations,
      International Atomic Energy Agency,  Vienna, 1961.

      Siting of Fuel Reprocessing Plants and Waste Management Facilities,
      U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
      July 1970.

      Spray Solidification Performance During Final Radioactive Test
      in WSEP, W. R.  Bond et al.,  BNWL 1583,  June 1971.

      Statement on the Sources of Radioactive Material in  Effluents
      from Light-Water Cooled Nuclear Power Reactors and State of
      Technology of Waste Treatment Equipment to Minimize Releases,
      H. R. Denton, U.S.  Atomic Energy  Commission, January 10, 1972.

      Statistical Data on the Uranium Industry. U. S. Atomic Energy
      Commission, Grand Junction Office,  January 1, 1971.

      Thermal  Pollution - 1968 (Part 3, Hearings Before the Subcom-
      mittee on Air and Water Pollution of the Committee  on Public
      Works), U. S. Senate, Ninetieth Congress,  Second Session,
      Appendix 1,  U.S. Government Printing Office, Pub.  93-370, 1968.

      U. S. A. Standard Proposed Definition of Radioactive  Waste
      Categories,  American Institute of Chemical Engineers,
      June 7, 1967.

      U. S. Regulations for the Control  of Release of Radioactivity to
      the Environment in  Effluents for Nuclear Facilities,  L. Rogers,
      C. C. Gramertsfelder,  U. S. Atomic Energy Commission,
      United Nations Headquarters,  IAEA-SM-146/8,  August 10,  1970.
BOOKS
      Management of Nuclear Materials, ed. by R. F.  Lumb (of Western
      New York Nuclear Research Center), D. Van Nostrand Co. ,  Inc.,  1960.

      Reactor Handbook, Volume IV, Engineering, ed.  by S.  Me Lain and
      J. H.  Martens  (of Argonne National Laboratory),  Interscience
      Publishers,  1964.
                               -45-
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   WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE
ARTICLES
      "DOD Hazardous Materials Transported by Railroad 1968-1969
      (1st Quarter), " U.S. Department of Defense, 1969.

      "instructions Regarding Disposal of Ammunition,  Explosives
      and Chemicals by Dumping at Sea, " Chief of Naval Operations,
      OPNAVINST 8026.1, April 12,  1963.
REPORTS
      An Introduction to the Defense Supply Agency,  Defense Supply
      Agency,  January 1971.

      Classes  of Surplus Personal Property, Defense Supply Agency,
      August 1970.

      Phase I Final Report on Naval Ship Waste Disposal Study.
      Booz, Allen Applied Research, Inc., for the U. S. Coast Guard,
      January  20, 1969.
                               -46-
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2.    DISPOSAL PRACTICES AND TECHNIQUES, AND TYPES
      OF POLLUTION

      Twenty-three major sections were selected within this category.
For the most part, these sections represent standard disposal practices
and/or techniques (e. g. ,  fluidized-bed, ion exchange),  and specific
types of pollution (e. g. , air pollution,  solid waste). In addition,
material considered essential to the  study of disposal and pollution
were  included in this category (e.g., math modeling and cost techniques,
Federal regulations).

      As in Category 1,  all documents  are  listed alphabetically by
title according to the type of material:  article,  magazine, report, and
book.
                                -47-
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                         AIR POLLUTION
ARTICLES
      "Air," Pollution Equipment News, April 1969.

      "Air Pollution and the Automotive Industry," Dr. F. W. Bowditch
      (of Automobile Manufacturers Association), Professional Engineer,
      February 1969,  pp.  36-39.

      "Air Pollution Control Activities Are Noted for 23 Industry Areas, "
      A. Schildhammer, Air Engineering, June 1967,  pp. 28-35.

      "Air Pollution Control Meteorological Service - Description of
      Service, " pp. 4-6.

      "Controlling the Oxides of Sulfur, " R. P. Hangebrauck, P. W.
      Spaite (of the National Center for Air Pollution Control),  Air
      Pollution Control Association Journal, Vol. 18,  No. 1,
      January 1968, pp. 5-8.

      "Detroit Pushes Search for Answer to Problem of Pollution by
      Autos. " C.  B. Camp (of The Wall Street Journal,  Staff Reporter),
      The Wall Street Journal,  Tuesday, March 31, 1970.

      "Diseased Estuaries. " The  New Republic, March  1, 1969, p. 7.

      "Does the Smaller City Have a Future?" Changing Times, The
      Kiplinger Magazine, June 1970, pp.  25-28.

      "Evaporative Coolers in Air Pollution Control Systems, "
      S.  A.  Reigel and C. D. Doyle (of Standard Havens Systems, Inc.),
      Iron and Steel Engineer, January 1971, pp.  81-83.

      "industry Action to Combat Pollution, " J. J. Hanks and H. D.  Kube,
      Harvard Business Review, September /October 1966,  pp.  49-52.

      "Nation's Cost/Benefit Ratio Weighs Heavily on Auto Emissions, "
      P. S.  Myers (of the Society of American Engineers, 1969 President),
      Society of American Engineers Journal,  Vol.  78, No.  3,  March 1970,
      pp. 20-27.
                                -48-
-------
"News Release on Besser-Wasteco Corp., " Porter Advertising
Agency, Inc.

"Noise, " Pollution Equipment News, February 1969.

"Ozone and Electric Air Cleaners, " F.  J. Versagi, Air Conditioning,
Heating and Refrigeration News, April 1970,  pp.  3-11.

"Pollution, " B.  B. Berger (of the  University of Massachusetts,
Director of the Water Resources Research Center), The Americana
Annual, 1967, pp. 551-553.

"Priorities in Pollution: The SST  and the Smogless Car, " J. Stein
(Washington Free  Lance), The Washington Monthly, Vol. 1, No. 1,
February 1969,  pp.  34-43.

"Process Chemistry and Kinetics,1I Air Engineering,  April  1968,
pp. 23-27.

"Reactivity of Selected Limestones and Dolomites with Sulfur
Dioxide, " R. E. Harrington, R. H. Borgwardt, and A. E. Potter
(of the National Center for Air Pollution  Control), American
Industrial Hygiene Association Journal, March/April  1968,
pp. 152-158.

"Sulfur Oxides Must Be Controlled, " J. T. Middleton (of the National
Air Pollution Control Administration, Commissioner), Environ-
mental Science and Technology, Vol. 4,  February 1970, p.  89.

"Technical Information Resources in the  Air  Pollution Field, "
V. C.  Searle (of the Consumer Protection and Environmental
Health Service), Air Pollution Control Association Journal,
Vol. 19, No. 3, March 1969, pp.   137-141.

"The Elusive Polluter, " J. Bockel, Science News, Vol. 96,
November 22,  1969, pp. 480-481.

"The Environment: ACS Report is Practical  Anti-Pollution  Guide, "
P. M.  Boffey,  Science, Vol. 165,  pp.  1104-1107.

"The Massive Effort of the Motor Industry, The Petroleum Industry,
and Government to Control Automobile Emissions, " C.  Cady (of
the Highway User, Managing Editor),  Highway User, November 1967,
pp. 14-17.
                            -49-
-------
      "Thermal Pollution and Aquatic Life, " J. R. Clark, Scientific
      American, Vol. 220, No.  3, March 1969, pp.  19-27.

      "Vehicle  Traverse Profiles, "  Environmental Measurements, Inc.
      Air Note, January 1970.

      "Waste,"  Pollution Equipment News, December 1969.

      "Waste,"  Pollution Equipment News, October 1969.

      "Who's Kidding Who?" Motor Trend, June 1970, pp.  22-24.
MAGAZINES
      Science and Technology,  "Pollution Control"  Issue, International
      Communications, Inc., No.  90, June 1969.
REPORTS
      A Primer on Air Pollution, Mobil Oil Corporation, Second Edition,
      1970.

      A Progress  Report on Inter-Industry Emission Control,  Inter-
      Industry Emission Control.

      A Report on Commonwealth Edison Company's Air Pollution Control
      Program to  the City of Chicago's Department of Air Pollution Control,
      Commonwealth Edison Co. , January 17,  1967.

      Air Pollution (A Survey of Existing Legislation),  World Health
      Organization,  1963.

      Air Pollution Aspects of Aeroallergens (Pollens),  Dr.  H. Finkelstein,
      Litton Systems, Inc. , for the U. S. Department of Health, Education,
      and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, Clearing-
      house for Federal Scientific and Technical Information, Pub. PB-188-076,
      September 1969.

      Air Pollution Aspects of Aldehydes, Dr.  Q.  R. Stahl,  Litton Systems,
      Inc. , for the U.S. Department of Health,  Education, and Welfare,
      National Air Pollution Control Administration,  National Technical
      Information  Service,  Pub. PB-188-081,  September 1969.
                                 -50-
-------
Air Pollution Aspects of Ammonia,  S.  Miner, Litton Systems, Inc. ,
for the U.S. Department of Health,  Education,  and Welfare, National
Air Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information
Service, Pub. PB-188-082,  September 1969.

Air Pollution Aspects of Arsenic and Its Compounds, R.  J.  Sullivan,
Litton Systems, Inc. , for the U. S.  Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National
Technical Information Service,  Pub. PB-188-071,  September 1969.

Air Pollution Aspects of Asbestos,  R.  J. Sullivan and Y. C.
Athanassiadis, Litton Systems, Inc. ,  for the U. S.  Department of
Health,  Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control
Administration, National Technical Information Service,
Pub.  PB-188-080,  September 1969.

Air Pollution Aspects of Barium and Its Compounds,  S.  Miner,
Litton Systems, Inc.  for the U.S. Department of Health,  Education,
and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National
Technical Information Service,  Pub. PB-188-083,  September 1969.

Air Pollution Aspects of Beryllium  and Its  Compounds, N.  L. Durocher,
Litton Systems, Inc. , for the U. S.  Department of Health,  Education,
and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National
Technical Information Service,  Pub. PB-188-078,  September 1969.

Air Pollution Aspects of Biological  Aerosols (Microorganisms),
Dr. H.  Finkelstein, Litton Systems, Inc. ,  for the U. S.  Department
of Health, Education,  and Welfare,  National Air  Pollution Control
Administration, National Technical Information Service,  Pub.  PB-188-
084, September 1969.

Air Pollution Aspects of Boron  and  Its Compounds, N. L. Durocher,
Litton Systems, Inc. , for the U. S.  Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National
Technical Information Service,  Pub. PB-188-085,  September 1969.

Air Pollution Aspects of Cadmium and Its Compounds, Y. C.
Athanassiadis, Litton Systems, Inc. ,  for the U. S.  Department of
Health,  Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control
Administration, National Technical Information Service,
Pub.  PB-188-086,  September 1969.
                            -51-
-------
Air Pollution Aspects of Chlorine Gas, Dr. Q.  R.  Stahl, Litton
Systems,  Inc., for the U.S.  Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National
Technical Information Service,  Pub. PB-188-087, September 1969.

Air Pollution Aspects of Chromium and Its Compounds, R. J.
Sullivan, Litton Systems, Inc. , for the U.S.  Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration,
National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-075,
September 1969.

Air Pollution Aspects of Ethylene, Dr. Q.  R. Stahl, Litton Systems,
Inc.,  for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
National Air Pollution Control Administration,  National Technical
Information Service,  Pub. PB-188-069, September 1969.

Air Pollution Aspects of Hydrochloric Acid, Dr. Q.  R. Stahl,
Litton Systems, Inc., for the U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration,  National
Technical Information Service,  Pub. PB-188-067, September 1969.

Air Pollution Aspects of Hydrogen Sulfide,  S. Miner,  Litton Systems,
Inc. ,  for the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
National Air Pollution Control Administration,  National Technical
Information Service,  Pub. PB-188-068, September 1969.

Air Pollution Aspects of Iron and Its Compounds, R. J. Sullivan,
Litton Systems, Inc.  , for the U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration,  National
Technical Information Service,  Pub. PB-188-088, September 1969.

Air Pollution Aspects of Manganese and Its Compounds, A.  J.
Sullivan,  Litton Systems, Inc. , for the U.S.  Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare,  National Air Pollution Control Administration,
National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-188-079,
September 1969.

Air Pollution Aspects of Nickel and Its Compounds,  R. J. Sullivan,
Litton Systems, Inc.  , for the U.S.  Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National
Technical Information Service,  Pub. PB-188-070,  September  1969.
                            -52-
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Air Pollution Aspects of Odorous Compounds, R. J.  Sullivan,
Litton Systems, Inc. , for the U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration,  National
Technical Information Service,  Pub. PB-188-089, September 1969.

Air Pollution Aspects of Organic Carcinogens,  Dr.  D. A. Olsen and
J. L. Haynes,  Litton Systems,  Inc., for the U. S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control
Administration, National Technical Information Service,
Pub.  PB-188-090,  September 1969.

Air Pollution Aspects of Pesticides,  Litton Systems,  Inc., for the
U. S.  Department of Health,  Education,  and Welfare,  National Air
Pollution Control Administration, National Technical Information
Service, Pub.  PB-188-091,  September  1969.

Air Pollution Aspects of Phosphorus and Its Compounds, Y.  C.
Athanassiadis, Litton Systems, Inc. , for the U. S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control
Administration, National Technical Information Service,
Pub.  PB-188-073,  September 1969.

Air Pollution Aspects of Radioactive Substances, S.  Miner,  Litton
Systems, Inc., for the U. S.  Department of Health,  Education, and
Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration, National
Technical Information Service,  Pub. PB-188-092, September 1969.

Air Pollution Aspects of Selenium and Its Compounds, Dr. Q. R.  Stahl,
Litton Systems, Inc. , for the U. S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration,  National
Technical Information Service,  Pub. PB-188-077, September 1969.

Air Pollution Aspects of Vanadium and Its Compounds,  Y. C.
Athanassiadis, Litton Systems, Inc. , for the U. S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control
Administration, National Technical Information Service,
Pub.  PB-188-093,  September 1969.

Air Pollution Aspects of Zinc and Its Compounds, Y. C. Athanassiadis,
Litton Systems, Inc., for the U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration,  National
Technical Information Service,  Pub. PB-188-072, September 1969.
                            -53-
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Air Pollution Injury to Vegetation,  I. J.  Hindawi, for the U.S.
Department of Health, Education,  and Welfare,  Public  Health
Service, National Air Pollution Control Administration,
Pub. AP-71, 1970.

Air Pollution Literature List,  The Engineering  Index,  1966.

Air Pollution Literature List,  The Engineering  Index,  1967.

Air Pollution Literature List,  The Engineering  Index,  1968.

Air Quality Criteria for Sulfur Oxides, U. S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare,  National Air Pollution Control
Administration, Pub. AP-50, January 1969.

Air Quality Criteria for Photochemical Oxidants, U.S.  Department
of Health,  Education, and Welfare,  National Air Pollution Control
Administration, Pub. AP-63, March 1970.

Analysis and Modeling of Air Pollution Measurements,
A. Eschenroeder and J. R.  Martinez, General  Research Corp.

Analysis of Alternative Solutions to the Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Problem Study Design Phase, Booz, Allen Applied Research,  Inc. ,
for the U.S. Department of Transportation,  Federal Highway
Administration, November  15, 1970.

Analysis of Alternative Solutions to the Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Problem Study Design Phase. Booz, Allen Applied Research,  Inc.,
for the U.S. Department of Transportation,  Federal Highway
Administration, January 15, 1971.

Atmospheric Diffusion of Beryllium (Project ADOBE),  Major G.  L.
Tucker,  H. E. Malone,  Captain R.  W. Smith,  U.S. Air Force,
Air Force Rocket Propulsion Laboratory, Pub.  AFRPL-TR-70-65,
Vol. I, July 1971.

Atmospheric Pollutants, World Health Organization, Pub.  271,  1964.

Atomization and Acceleration of Liquid in a Venturi Scrubber, A. J.
Engels and S.  Calvert,  Pennsylvania State University,  for  the U. S.
Department of Health, Education,  and Welfare,  Public Health Service
(Special Fellowship Grant No.  F3-AP-35-097).
                            -54-
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Bulletin of Air Pollution Training Courses,  July 1970 through
June 1971, U.S. Department of Health,  Education,  and Welfare,
Office of Manpower Development, July 1970.

Bulletin - Project 70:  Clean Air, Standard  Oil Company of
California, Pub.  Vol.  XLVII, No.  2,  Spring 1970.

Clean Air Research and Inter-Industry Emission Control,
Inter-Industry Emission Control Program.

Control Techniques for Carbon Monoxide, Nitrogen Oxide, and
Hydrocarbon Emissions from Mobile  Sources,  U.S.  Department of
Health,  Education, and Welfare, National Air Pollution Control
Administration,  Pub. AP-66, March  1970.

Control Techniques for Sulfur Oxide Air Pollutants,  U.S. Department
of Health, Education, and Welfare,  National Air Pollution Control
Administration,  Pub. AP-52, January 1969.

Controlling Sulfur Dioxide Emissions From Coal Burning by the Use
of Additives, G. W.  Land (of Republic Coal and Coke Co. ), E. W.  Linna
(of the Chicago Department  of Air Pollution Control), and W.  T.  Earley
(of the Chicago Department  of Public  Works), for the City of Chicago
Department of Air Pollution Control,  Air Pollution Control Association,
Pub. 69-143.

Diffusion Forces and Particulate Scrubber Efficiencies, L. E. Sparks
and M. J. Pilat,  University of Washington,  for the U. S. Department
of Health, Education, and Welfare,  Public Health Service, National
Air Pollution Control Administration  (Training Grant AP-29),
Pub. 69-82.

Economic Factors in Recovery of Sulfur Dioxide from  Power Plant
Stack Gas, A. V.  Slack, G.  G. McGlamery, and H.  L. Falkenberry
(of the Tennessee  Valley Authority), presented at the Sixty-Second
Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association in New York,
New York, June 22-26, 1969, Pub.  69-142,   1969.

Engelhard PTX Exhaust Purifiers Bulletins, Exhaust Controls, Inc. ,
Pub. EM-6366,  Rev 4/71, Pub.  EM-8958, Pub. EM-8778,  1968-1971.
                           -55-
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Exciting New Pollution Control Systems from Besser-Wasteco,
Besser-Wasteco Corp.

Final Report on Phase I Atmospheric Reaction Studies in the Los
Angeles Basin. Volume I, Scott Research Laboratories,  Inc. ,
Project 1116, for the U.S. Department of Health,  Education, and
Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration,  July 28, 1969.

Forecasting Air Pollution Potential, Advisory Service of the Weather
Bureau, U. S. Department of Health,  Education, and Welfare, Public
Health Service, 1968.

Governmental Organization for an Air Resource Management and
Control System in the Penjerdel Region - A Research Inquiry in
Environmental Control Administration for the Regional Conference
of Elected Officials, C. P. Cella, Jr. , R. P. Lane, B. H.  Renshaw,  III,
R, Pfannenstiel,  M. A. Satinsky, and M. W. Verano (of the FELS
Institute of Local and State Government,  University of Pennsylvania),
F. P.  Grad (of the  Columbia University Law School), Dr. R. J. Hickey
and D. C. Wagner (of the University of Pennsylvania), Dr.  A.  Teller and
Dr. J. R. Norsworthy (of Temple University),  Government Studies
Center, 1968.

K-B Dust and Fume Control Systems,  The Kirk and Blum Manufacturing
Co. ,  Catalog 5712.

National Air Pollution Control Administration Alkali Scrubbing Test
Facility Proposal,  Bechtel Corp. ,  Pub.  6955.

National Inventory of Sources and Emissions Cadmium, Nickel, and
Asbestos, W. E.  Davis & Associates, for the U.S. Department of
Health, Education,  and Welfare,  National Air Pollution Control
Administration, National  Technical Information Service, Pub.  PB-192-
252, February 1970.

Operating Experience with Wet-Dolomite Scrubbing, J. F. McLaughlin
(of the Union Electric Co. ) and J. Jonakin (of Combustion Engineering,
Inc. )  for the Air Pollution Control Association,  Pub.  69-139, 1969.

Operating Plan -  Fiscal Years  1969 and 1970 - Of the National Air
Pollution Control Administration, U.S. Department of Health,  Education,
and Welfare, Consumer Protection and Environmental Health Service,
CPEHS Tactical Plan Series, February 1969.
                          -56-
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Participate and Total Gaseous Hydrocarbon Emissions From a
Gas-Heated Veneer Dryer,  R. T. Shigehara (of the Institute for
Air Pollution Training) and Dr.  R. W.  Boubel (of the Oregon State
University), for the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
National Air Pollution Control Administration, Pub. 69-163.

Present Applications  of Mechanical Collectors to Boilers,
J. L. Burdock, UOP  Air Correction Division, 1969.

Proceedings Digest. Sixty-Second Annual Meeting, Air Pollution
Control Association,  New York,  New York, June 22-26,  1969,
Air Pollution Control Association,  1969.

Proctor TRAPS System,  Proctor and Schwartz,  Inc.,
Bulletin 533 - 1/71, 1971.

Recognition of Air Pollution Injury to Vegetation: A Pictorial Atlas,
J. S. Jacobson (of Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research) and
A. C.  Hill (of the University of Utah), for the Air Pollution Control
Association, Agricultural Committee, Pub. 1, TR-7,  1970.

Report for Consultation on the Metropolitan Cincinnati Interstate Air
Quality Control Region,  U.S.  Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Administration,  January 1969.

Report to United  States Rubber Company on Air Pollution at
Kankakee Unit  - Joliet Arsenal, Foster D. Snell, Inc., March 20, 1953.

Scrubbing Coal Dryer Exhaust Gases,  F.  Ekman, National Dust
Collector Corp. ,  Pub.  69-85.

Some Aspects of  Air Pollution:  Odors, Visibility, and Art,
B. W. Peckham,  U.S.  Department of Health, Education,  and Welfare,
Public Health Service,  National Air Pollution Control Administration.

Storage and Retrieval of Air Quality Data (SAROAD) System Descrip-
tion  and Data Coding Manual,  D.  H. Fair, G. B.  Morgan, and C. E.
Zimmer,  U. S.  Department of Health,  Education, and Welfare,
National Air Pollution Control Administration, Air Quality and
Emission Data  Program, Pub. APTD 68-8, August 1968.
                           -57-
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     Studies on the Removal _of Sulphur Dioxide From Hot Flue Gases as
     a Measure to Prevent Air Pollution, IV;  Recovery of Flue Gas
     Sulphur as Ammonium Phosphate, R. Kiyoura,  M.  Munidasa,
     H.  Hayashi, and C.  Nakamoto, Tokyo Institute of Technology (Japan),
     for the Air Pollution Control Association, Pub.  69-140,  1969.

     Sulfur Oxide Removal From Power Plant Stack Gas (Use of Lime-
     stone in Wet-Scrubbing Process), Tennessee Valley Authority,
     for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
     National Air Pollution Control Administration, Conceptual Design
     and Cost Study Series,  Study No.  2, 1969.

     The Dry-Limestone Process for  Sulfur Dioxide  Control:  A Field
     Study of the Role of  Overburning.  R.  H. Borgwardt and T.-A.
     Kittleman, U.S. Department of Health, Education,  and Welfare,
     Public Health Service,  Division of Process  Control Engineering,
     Pub.  69-141.

     The Effect of Common Variables on Cyclone Performance,  J. W.
     Schindeler, Air Pollution Control Association, Pub. 69-162.

     The Federal Plan for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research
     Fiscal Year 1970,  U. S.  Department of Commerce,  Office of Federal
     Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research,
     1969.

     The Mountain Iron Diffusion Program:  Phase I  South Vandenburg:
     Volume I.  W.  T.  Hinds and P. W. Nickola  (of Battelle Memorial
     Laboratory), National Technical  Information Service, Pub. AD-721-
     858, AFWTR-TR-67-1, BNWL-572, Vol. 1, UC-53, November 1967.

     The Philosophy of Air Pollution Control.

     Your Car and Clean Air, Automobile Manufacturers Association,  Inc.
ABSTRACTS
      Air Pollution Abstracts, Environmental Protection Agency, Office
      of Air Programs, Vol. 2,  No.  6,  Pub.  5503-0017, June 1971.

      National Air Pollution Control  Administration Abstract Bulletin, Air
      Pollution Technical Information Center, Office of Technical Information
      and Publications,  Vol.  1, No.  8, Abstracts 1779-2285.
                                 -58-
-------
National Air Pollution Control Administration Abstract Bulletin,
Air Pollution Technical Information Center,  Office of Technical
Information and Publications,  Vol.  1,  No. 9, Supplement 1,
Abstracts 3565-4548.

National Air Pollution Control Administration Abstract Bulletin,
Air Pollution Technical Information Center,  Office of Technical
Information and Publications,  Vol.  1,  No. 9, Supplement 2,
Abstracts 4549-4917.

National Air Pollution Control Administration Abstract Bulletin,
Air Pollution Technical Information Center,  Office of Technical
Information and Publications,  Vol.  1,  No. 9, Supplement 3,
Abstracts 4918-6272.

National Air Pollution Control Administration Abstract Bulletin,
Air Pollution Technical Information Center,  Office of Technical
Information and Publications,  Vol.  1,  No. 9, Supplement 4,
Abstracts 6273-7327.
                             -59-
-------
                    BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT
ARTICLES
      "Disposal Effects of Citrus By-Products Wastes, " R. G. Ludwig
      and R. V. Stone, Water and Sewage Works, November 1962,
      pp.  410-415.
REPORTS
      Conversion of Organic Solid Wastes Into Yeast .  . .  An Economic
      Evaluation, F. H. Meller,  Ionics, Inc., for the U. S. Department
      of Health,  Education, and Welfare,  Bureau of Solid Waste
      Management,  1969.
                               -60-
-------
                     CORPS OF ENGINEERS
ARTICLES
      "Proposed Rule Making - Permits for Discharges or Deposits
      Into Navigable Waters," U.S. Department of Defense,  Army
      Corps of Engineers, Pub. 33 CFR Part 209, Federal Register.
      Vol. 36, No. 14, Thursday, January 21,  1971.
REPORTS
      Errata/Permits for Work and Structures In, and For, Discharges
      or Deposits Into Navigable Waters,  U. S.  Department of Defense,
      Army Corps of Engineers, 1971 Preliminary Edition,  1971.

      Permits for Work and Structures  In, and For,  Discharges or
      Deposits Into Navigable Waters, U. S. Department of Defense,
      Army Corps of Engineers, 1971 Preliminary Edition,  1971.
                               -61-
-------
                         DEEP WELL
ARTICLES
      "Deep-Well Disposal of Industrial Wastes, " D.  L.  Warner
      (of the Robert A.  Taft Sanitary Engineering Center), Chemical
      Engineering,  January 4,  1965, pp. 73-78.

      "Deep-Well Disposal of Problem Wastes, " Factory, Vol.  126,
      No. 4, April  1968, pp. 148-150.

      "Deep-Well Injection of Liquid Waste, " Review and Evaluation,
      Pub. GPO 820-193-4, pp. 1-43.

      "Subsurface Disposal of Industrial Wastes in the United States, "
      E. C. Donaldson, for the U.S. Department of Interior,  Bureau
      of Mines,  pp. 1-33.
REPORTS
      Waste Disposal in Deep Wells,  National Industrial Pollution
      Control Council (NIPCC),  Sub-Council Report,  February 1971,
                                 -62-
-------
                         ECONOMIC DATA
REPORTS
     A Study of Pollution Control Practices in Manufacturing Industries,
     Part 1: Water Pollution_Contrql. Dun & Bradstreet, Inc. ,
     Pub. 71-1-11, June 1971.

     A Study of Pollution Control Practices in Manufacturing Industries,
     Part 2: Air Pollution Control, Dun & Bradstreet,  Inc. ,
     Pub. 71-1-11, June 1971.

     A Study of Pollution Control Practices in Manufacturing Industries,
     Part 3: Solid Waste Disposal, Dun &  Bradstreet,  Inc. ,
     Pub. 71-1-11, June 1971.

     Bulletin 26:  Economics of Air and Water Pollution, W. R. Walker
     Water Resources Research Center,  for the U.S. Department of
     Health, Education, and Welfare, National Technical Information
     Service, Pub.  PB-195-424,  1969.

     Dun's Market Identifiers, Dun & Bradstreet.  Inc.,  1969.

     Dun's Market Identifiers, Dun & Bradstreet,  Inc.,  1971.

     Economic Aspects of Ocean Activities, Volume III: Economic
     Aspects of Solid  Waste Disposal  at Sea,  Massachusetts Institute
     of Technology, National Technical Information Service,
     Pub. PB-195-225,  September 1970.

     Multi-Client Study:  The Industrial Market for Pollution Products,
     Dun & Bradstreet,  Inc.

     Pollution Control - Putting It Back Together Becomes An Industry,
     Dun & Bradstreet,  Inc.,  March  1971.
                                 -63-
-------
                     FEDERAL REGULATIONS


ARTICLES

      "Certain Bulk Dangerous Cargoes on Unmanned Tank Barges, "
      U. S. Department of Transportation,  Coast Guard,  Federal
      Register, Vol. 35,  No.  38, Part II, Wednesday, February 25,
      1970.


REPORTS
     A Bill to Amend the Federal Water Pollution Control Act,
     Senator Muskie, 92nd Congress, 1st Session, Pub. 92-414,
     (Calendar, No. 411,  S.  2770), October 28,  1971

     Code of Federal Regulations - Title 49-Transportation Parts 0-190,
     U.S. Department of Transportation,  General Services Administration,
     Office of the Federal Register, January 1,  1968.

     Federal Hazardous Substances Act,  U.S. Department of Health,
     Education, and Welfare, Food and Drug Administration, June 1967.

     H. R. 4148 - An Act to Amend the Federal Water Pollution Control
     Act, as Amended, and for Qther^ Purposes,  91st Congress,
     1st Session,  April 18, 1969.

     Report of the Committee on Public Works United States Senate
     Together with Supplemental Views to Accompany S.  2770,
     92nd Congress, 1st Session, October 28, 1971.

     Report of the Committee on Public Works,  United States Senate to
     Accompany S. 3201 -  Solid Waste Disposal  Act Amendment of 1968,
     90th Congress, 2nd Session, Pub. 1447,  (Calendar No. 1427),
     July 22,  1968.

     Rules of the  Texas Water Quality Board, Texas Water Quality
     Board, November 28, 1967.           "

     S. 7 - A Bill to Amend the  Federal Water Pollution Control Act,
     As Amended, and for  Other Purposes,  91st Congress, 1st Session,
     January 15,  1969.
                                -64-
-------
State of Wisconsin - State Laws, Policies and Programs Pertaining
to Water and Related Land Resources, Water Subcommittee of the
National Resources Committee of State Agencies,  September 1967.

Suggested State Water Pollution jTontrol Act, Revised, U. S.
Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration,  November 1965,  Reprinted May 1966.

The Solid Waste Disposal Act,  Title II of Public Law  89-272 -
89th Congress, S. 306 - October 30,  1965, U.S. Department of
Health,  Education,  and Welfare, Public Health Service, February
1966.
                            -65-
-------
                         FLUIDIZED-BED
ARTICLES
      "Fluidized-Bed Processes - A Solution for Industrial Waste
      Problems, " J.E. Hanway, Jr.  (of Copeland Process Corp. ),
      Proceedings of the  Twenty-Second Industrial Waste Conference,
      1967. Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp.  183-193.
                               -66-
-------
               GENERAL DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES


ARTICLES

      "Bureau Attacks Nation's Solid Waste,"  R.  D.  Vaughan (of the
      U. S. Department of Health,  Education and Welfare, Bureau of
      Solid Waste Management, Director), Environmental Science and
      Technology.  Vol. 3,  No. 8,  August 1969, pp. 705-707.

      "Conversion to Activated Sludge at Union Carbide's Institute
      Plant, " G. W. Kumke,  J. F.  Hall, and R.  W.  Deben (of the
      Union Carbide Corporation), Water Pollution Control Federation
      Journal, Vol.  40, No. 8, Part  1, August 1968,  pp.  1408-1422.

      "Cyanide Control Experience -  Indiana Stream Pollution Control
      Board, "  R.  A. Woodley (of the Indiana State Board of Health),
      Proceedings of the Nineteenth Industrial Waste  Conference, 1964,
      Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University,  pp.  264-271.

      "Deep-Sea Disposal of Liquid and Solid Wastes, " D. D. Smith
      and R.  P.  Brown (of the Dillingham Environmental  Co. ), Industrial
      Water Engineering, September 1970,  pp. 20-24.

      "Disposal of Solid and Semi-Solid Toxic Wastes, "  J.  L.  Stringer
      (of Hertfordshire County Health Inspector,  England), Water
      Pollution Control, Vol.  69,  1970, pp. 321-333.

      "Disposing of Halogenated Hydrocarbon Waste, " J. H. S.  Haggin,
      Industrial and  Engineering Chemistry, pp.  10-12.

      "Economic Aspects of Recovery of Minerals from Effluents, "
      Dr. I.  W.  Teworte, Chemistry and Industry, May  3, 1969,
      pp.  565-574.

      "Effects of a Mixture of Heavy Metals on Sewage Treatment
      Processes, "  E.  F. Earth,  B.  V.  Salotto,  G.  N. McDermott,
      J.  N.  English, and M. B. Ettinger (of the Robert A. Taft Sanitary
      Engineering Center), Proceedings of the Eighteenth Industrial
      Waste Conference, 1963, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University,
      pp.  606-635.
                                 -67-
-------
"Industrial Hygiene News Report - Index to Volume 13, " January
 through December 1970.

"industrial Solid Wastes and Garbage Composting, " Reviewed by
L. W. Lefke, Water Pollution Control Federation Journal,  1967
Literature Review. Vol. 40,  No. 6, June 1968, pp. 1163-1165.

"Industrial Water Reuse:  Future Pollution Solution, " G. Rey,
W. J.  Lacy, and A. Cywin (of the Environmental Protection Agency),
Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 5,  No. 9, September
1971,  pp.  760-765.

"New  Conversion Plant, Sewer Separation System Boast 'Firsts', "
Water and Wastes Engineering,  July 1971.

"On-Site Incineration of Special Industrial Wastes, " R.B.  Engdahl
(of Battelle Memorial Institute),  Principles and Practices of
Incineration, pp.  210-226.

"Process  Waste Burner Destroys Liquid Organic Chemical Wastes
Safely, " R.E. Mills (of the Naugatuck Chemicals,  Canada), Water
Sewage  Works,  July 1964, pp. 337-340.

"Recent Advance  in Cyanide Waste Reduction Practice, " R.H. L.
Howe  (of Eli Lilly & Co. ), Proceedings  of the Eighteenth Industrial
Waste Conference,  1963, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University,
pp.  690-705.

"Solid Waste Disposal in Chemical Plants, " R. J. Bender (of Power,
Consulting Editor), Power, March 1967, p. 65.

"Spray Irrigation of Organic Chemical Wastes, " R. A.  Woodley (of
Commercial Solvents Corporation), Proceedings of the Twenty-Third
Industrial Waste Conference, 1968, Engineering Bulletin of Purdue
University,  pp. 251-261.

"The  Present and Future of Industrial Waste  Treatment, " Dr.  G. E.
Symos (a Consultant and Technical Editor,  Larchmont,  New York),
Proceedings of the Seventeenth Industrial Waste Conference, 1962,
Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, pp.  717-732.

"The  Use  of Activated Charcoal in  the Treatment of Trade  Wastes, "
D.H.  Sharp (of Fisons Ltd.,  England), British Chemical Engineering,
February  1961, pp. 107-110.

"Toxic Wastes Degradation and Disposal, " Dr.  R.H. L. Howe (of Eli
Lilly  &  Co.), Process Biochemistry,  April 1969, pp. 25-28, 37.

                            -68-
-------
      "Waste Farm Takes Care of Phenolic Waste Disposal, " S. B.
      Hettig (of General Electric Co.), Chemical Engineering,
      December 24,  1962, pp. 96-97.
REPORTS
      Bulk Transport of Waste Slurries to Inland and Ocean Disposal Sites,
      Volume I:  The Waste Management Concept -  Inland and Ocean
      Disposal of Selected Wastes, Bechtel Corporation, for the U.S.
      Department of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Admin-
      istration, Pub.  PB-189-757, September 1969.

      Bulk Transport of Waste Slurries to Inland and Ocean Disposal Sites,
      Volume II:  Criteria for Waste Management, P. E.  Snoek, Bechtel
      Corporation,  for the  U. S.  Department of Interior, Federal Water
      Pollution Control Administration, Pub. PB-189-758, September 1969.

      Bulk Transport of Waste Slurries to Inland and Ocean Disposal Sites,
      Volume III: Technical Aspects of Pipelining of Waste Materials.
      J. P. Kenny,  Bechtel Corporation, for the U.S.  Department of
      Interior,  Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,
      Pub. PB-189-759,  September 1969.

      Bulk Transport of Waste Slurries to Inland and Ocean Disposal Sites -
      Summary Report, Bechtel Corporation, for the  U. S. Department of
      Interior,  Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,
      Pub. PB-189-756,  September 1969.

      C-E Products for Municipal Service, C-F Industrial Boiler Opera-
      tions, Pub. SP-1064  OSO 7008.

      Combustion Engineering,  Inc. ,  Progress Number Three, Combustion
      Engineering,  Inc. , 1970.

      Control of Water Pollution (A Survey of Existing Legislation), World
      Health Organization,  1967.  .

      Cost of Wastewater Treatment Processes, D. DiGregorio (of the
      Robert A.  Taft Water Research Center),  Clearinghouse for Federal
      Scientific and Technical Information, Pub. PB-187-760,  December  1968.

      Disposal of Wastes from Water  Treatment Plants, American Water
      Works Association, Program 12120 ERC, Project WP  1535-01-69,
      for the U. S. Department of Interior,  Federal Water Pollution Control
      Administration, Pub. PB-186-157, August 1969.

                                 -69-
-------
Electrophoretic Clarification of Water, E. A. Hiler and W. M.  Lyle,
of Texas A&M University,  Project A-009-TEX, for the U.S.
Department of Interior, Office of Water Resources Research,
National Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-194-566,
August 31, 1970.

Floor -to- Roof Corrosion Protection (and) The Corrosion Consultant,
Ceilcote Company,  Vol. VI, No.  1,  Bulletin 1-2,  May 1971.

Industrial Process Design for Water Pollution Control, Volume 3,
Proceedings of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers Water
Committee Workshop, San Francisco, California, March 31 -
April 2,  1970.

Instream Aeration of Polluted Rivers, W. Whipple, Jr.,
J. V. Hunter, B. Davidson, F.  Dittman,  and S. Yu (of Rutgers
University), National Technical Information Service,  Pub. PB-192-
637, August 1969.

International Research Group  on Refuse Disposal  (IRGRD), U. S.
Department of Health, Education,  and Welfare,  Public Health Service,
Office of Solid Wastes, Pub.  1-12, November 1956 -  September 1961.

Laboratory Waste Disposal Manual,  Manufacturing Chemists
Association, May 1970.

Nalgene  Industrial Division (Standard Molded Tanks Plus Custom
Molding), Nalge Co. ,  1971.

Ocean Disposal of Barge-Delivrered  Liquid and Solid Wastes from
U. S. Coastal Cities,  D. D. Smith and R. P.  Brown, Dillingham
Corporation, Applied Oceanography  Division, for the Environmental
Protection Agency, Solid Waste Management Office, Pub. SW-19c,
1971.

Process Design Manual for Carbon Adsorption,  Swindell-Dressier
Co. , Program  17020 GNR, for the Environmental Protection Agency -
Technology Transfer,  October 1971.

Process Design Manual for Phosphorus Removal, Black & Veatch
Consulting Engineers, Program 17010 GNP, for th* Environmental
Protection Agency, October 1971.
-------
Process Design Manual for Upgrading Existing Wastewater Treat-
ment Plants, Roy F.  Weston, Inc., Program 17090 GNQ, for the
Environmental Protection Agency,  October 1971.

Purification of Sewage Waters Carrying Toxic Chemicals,  B. Y.
Libman et al.  (of the USSR), National Technical Information
Service, Pub. JPRS 44, 488, February 26, 1968.

Recovery. Separation, and Identification of Phenolic Compounds
from Polluted Waters, S. D. Faust,  H.  Stutz, and O.  M. Aly
(of Rutgers University),  and P.  W. Anderson (of the U. S.
Geological Survey),  for the U. S. Department of Interior,  Office of
Water Resources Research,  National Technical Information Service,
Pub.  PB-198-030, January 1971.

State-of-the-Art Review on Product Recovery, Resource Engineering
Associates, National Technical  Information Service, Pub.  PB-192-
634, November 1969.

Storage of Wastes from Watercraft and Disposal at Shore Facilities,
General Dynamics, Program 15020DHB03/70, for the  Environmental
Protection Agency, Water Quality Office, April 1970.

Subsurface Disposal, Subsurface Disposal Corporation, 1972.

Survey of Hazardous Waste Disposal  in California, California
Department of Public Health, 1971.

Technical Survey - A World  Report on Advances in Technology,
Gaylor Technical Survey Corporation, Vol. 27,  No.  3, January 16,
1971.

The Cost of Clean Water, Summary Volume, U. S. Department of
Interior,  Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,
January  10, 1968.

Theories of Practices of IAD Waste Treatment,  Burford and Masselli.

Ultimate Disposal of Phosphate  from  Waste Water by Recovery as
Fertilizer, M.  G. Dunseth,  M.  L.  Salutsky, K. M.  Ries,  and J.  J.
Shapiro, Dearborn Chemical Division,  Project 17070 ESJ, for the
U. S.  Department of  Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration, U.S. Government Printing Office, January 1970.
                          -71-
-------
     Vane-Flo Solids Handling Centrifugal Pumps, Marlow Pumps ITT,
     VF-625,

     Water and Waste Treatment Buyers Guide, Permutit Sybron
     Corporation, Bulletin 5391.

     Water Pollution Control,  World Health Organization, Technical
     Report Series No. 318, 1966.
BOOKS
      Industrial Pollution Control Handbook, H. F.  Lund (of Leadership
      Plus,  Inc.,  President), McGraw-Hill Book Co.,  1971.

      Industrial Waste:   Their Disposal and Treatment, W. Rudolfs
      (of ACS Monograph),  Reinhold Publishing Co. , 1953.
                               -72-
-------
                        HAZARDOUS SPILLS
ARTICLES
      "Safe Highway Transportation of Bulk Liquids, " L. A.  Botkin
      (of Fruehauf Corp),  Society of Automotive Engineers,  No.  700872.
REPORTS
      Control of Spillage of Hazardous Polluting Substances, G. W.
      Dawson, A.J. Shuckrow, and W. H.  Swift, Pacific Northwest
      Laboratories, for the U.S.  Department of Interior,  Federal
      Water Quality Administration, November 1,  1970.

      Hazardous Material Spills Research Newsletter,  Edison Water
      Quality Laboratory, for the Environmental Protection Agency,
      Water Quality Office, Vol. I,  May 1971.

      Spill Prevention Techniques for Hazardous Polluting Substances,
      Oil and Hazardous  Materials Program Series,  J.L.  Goodier,
      J.I. Stevens,  S.V. Margolin, W.V.  Keary, and J. R. McMahan
      Arthur D.  Little, Inc. ,  for the Environmental Protection
      Agency,  February  1971.

      The West Falmouth Oil Spill,  M. Blumer, J. Sass,  H.L. Sanders,
      J. F. Grassle,  and G. R. Hampson (of Woods Hold Oceanographic
      Institution), and G. Souza (of Falmouth Shellfish Warden),  National
      Technical  Information Service,  Pub.  AD-713-947, Ref. No. 70-44,
      September 1970.
                                 -73-
-------
                        HEALTH HAZARDS
ARTICLES
      "infectious Hepatitis Epidemic at Posen,  Michigan, " J.E.  Vogt
      (of Michigan State Department of Health,  Director of the Division
      of Engineering),  American Water Works Association Journal,
      October 1961,  pp. 1238-1242.

      "Physiologic and Health Aspects of Water Quality - Task Group
      Report,"  H.O. Hartung,  H.A.  Faber,  H.E. Hudson, P.W. Kabler,
      W.W. Sanderson, D. Williams, andR.L. Woodward (of Task
      Group 2760P, St.  Louis County Water Co. ), American Water Works
      Association Journal, November 1961, pp. 1354-1360.
REPORTS
      Accident Facts. National Safety Council, Pub.  021.69,  1969 Edition.

      Accident Facts, National Safety Council, Pub.  021.70,  1970 Edition.

      Accident Prevention Manual for Industrial Operations, National
      Safety Council,  Sixth Edition, 1969.

      American National Standards Applicable to Occupational Safety
      and Health, Safety of Household and Industrial Products, Highway
      and Traffic Safety, Recreational Safety - Publication List,
      American National Standards Institute,  February 1971.

      1969 Analysis of Accident Reports Involving Fire, U.S. Department
      of Transportation, Bureau of Motor Carrier Safety, 1970.

      Analysis and Summary of Accident Investigations 1969,  U.S.
      Department of Transportation, Bureau ot" Motor Carrier Safety,
      November 30, 1970.

      Design of an Overview System for Evaluating the Public Health^
      Hazards of Chemicals in the Environment,  Volume I: Test-Case
      Studies, G.A. Lutz, S.B. Gross,  J.B.  Boatman,  P.J.  Moore,
      R.L. Darby, W. H. Veazie, and F.A. Butrica, Battelle Memorial
      Institute, for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
      Welfare, Public Health Service, National Technical Information
      Service, Pub. PB-194-398, July 1967.
                                 -74-
-------
Design of an Overview System for Evaluating the Public Health
Hazards of Chemicals in the Environment, Volume II:  The Overview
System,  G.A. Lutz, S. B. Gross,  J.B. Boatman,  P.J.  Moore,
R. L. Darby, W. H. Veazie, andF.A.  Butrica, Battelle Memorial
Institute, for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, Public Health Services, National Technical Information
Service, PB-194-398, July 1967.

Ecological Effects of Weather^ Modification: A Problem Analysis,
C. F. Cooper and W. C. Jolly, University of Michigan (Ann Arbor),
for the U.S. Department of Interior, Office of Atmospheric Water
Resources,  May  1969.

Environmental Lead and Public Health, R. E. Engel, D.I. Hammer,
R.J.M.  Horton, N. M. Lane, andL.A. Plumlee, Environmental
Protection Agency, Air Pollution Control Office, Pub. AP-90.

Morbidity and Mortality, U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare, National Communicable Disease Center,  Weekly
Report,  Vol. 18, No. 35,  Week Ending August 30,  1969.

Morbidity and Morality, U.S.  Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare, National Communicable Disease Center,  Weekly
Report,  Vol. 18, No. 37,  Week Ending September 13,  1969.

Occupational Safety and Health Standards, National Institute of
Occupational Safety and Health, 1971.

Special  Course Announcement - Occupational Health Hazards for
Trade Union Representatives, The City University of New York,
Mt.  Sinai School of Medicine,  April 19-23, 1971.

United States Metropolitan Mortaility 1959-1961, E.A. Duffy and
Dr.  R. E. Carroll,  U.S.  Department of Health,  Education,  and
Welfare, National Center  for Air Pollution Control,  Health  Effects
Research Program,  Pub.  999-AP-39,  1967.

World Health Organization Publications - Catalogue  1947-1971,
World Health Organization (Switzerland),  1971.
                            -75-
-------
                       HOSPITAL WASTES
ARTICLES
      "Management of Solid Wastes From Hospitals - Problems and
      Technology, " R. D. Vaughan, U.S. Department of Health,
      Education, and Welfare,  Solid Wastes Programs,  Chief, pp. 41-46.
                               -76-
-------
           IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
ARTICLES
      "List of Toxic Substances, " Occupational Safety and Health
      Reporter.  The Bureau of National Affairs, Inc.,  1971.
REPORTS
     A Procedure for Evaluating Environmental Impact, L. B. Leopold,
     F.E. Clarke, B.B.  Hanshaw, and J. R. Balsley, U.S. Department
     of Interior, Geological Survey, Pub. 645, 1971.

     A Study of Transportation of Hazardous Material, Highway  Research
     Board and the Committee on Hazardous Materials,  National Academy
     of Sciences/National Research Council, National Technical Information
     Service, Pub. AD-692-182,  1969.

     An Appraisal of the Problem of the Handling, Transportation, and
     Disposal of Toxic and Other Hazardous Materials, H. D.  Messer,
     L.  Crevoiserat, L.  Richardson,  A. Christodoulou, J. Hain, and
     L.  Bush,  Booz, Allen and Hamilton, Inc., January 30,  1970.

     Chemical Safety References, National  Safety Council, 1968.

     Consolidated Hazardous  Item List,  U.S. Department of Defense,
     Navy Fleet Material Support Office, Pub. 4500, COG  1 Stock
     No.  0588-005-000,  October 1,  1969.

     Control of Hazardous Polluting Substances,  Volume I:  Report to
     the President,  U.S.  Department of Transportation, Coast Guard,
     October 20,  1970.

     Criteria for Selection of Elements and Compounds to be Designated
     as Hazardous Polluting Substances, C.H. Thompson,  Environmental
     Protection Agency, Division^ of Oil  and Hazardous Materials,
     October 22,  1971.

     Designation of Hazardous Substances,  Notice of Proposed Rule
     Making, Environmental Protection  Agency,  Pub. 18 CFR,  Part 618,
     May 14, 1971.
                                 -77-
-------
      Distribution of Selected Metals in Bottom Sediments,  B. J.  Mathis
      and T. F. Cummings (of Bradley University), Project A-034-I11,
      National Technical Information Service,  Pub.  PB-199-713,
      March 1971.

      National Inventory of Sources and Emissions Cadmium, Nickel,
      and Asbestos  - Cadmium Section I,  W. E. Davis and Associates,
      National Technical Information Service,  Pub.  PB -192-250,
      February 1970.

      Predicting Future Growth of Organic Pollution in Metropolitan
      Area Rivers,  M. Marcus and W. Whipple, Jr.  (of Rutgers
      University, New Jersey Water Resources Research Institute),
      Project B-002-N. J. , Clearinghouse for  Federal Scientific  and
      Technical Information,  Pub. PB-191-128, February 1970.
BOOKS
      Dangerous Chemicals Code,  Los Angeles Fire Department,
      Parker & Son,  Inc., 1951.

      Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials,  N. I. Sax (of the
      New York State Health Department Radiological Sciences
      Laboratory,  Director),  et al.,  Reinhold Book Corp, Third
      Edition, 1968.

      Research Chemicals Catalog, Dfaltz & Bauer,  Inc.
                                -78-
-------
                          INCINERATION
ARTICLES
      "incineration of Process Wastes, " J. I. Frankel,  Chemical
      Engineering, August 29, 1966, pp. 91-96.               "~
REPORTS
     Air Pollution Aspects of Emission Sources: Municipal
     Incineration - A Bibliography with Abstracts,  Environmental
     Protection Agency, Pub. AP-92, May 1971.

     An Accounting System for Incinerator Operations, E. R. Zausner,
     U.S.  Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public
     Health Service,  Pub.  2032,  Report SW-17 ts,  1970.

     C-E Boilers for Catalytic Regenerator Waste  Gas, C-E Combustion
     Engineering, Inc., Pub. CD-I,  P-452-7-58-3500, 1958.

     C-E Combustopak Waste Disposal System,  C-E Combustion
     Engineering, Inc., SP-1047 (0406905).

     C-E Refuse Incinerator Systems, C-E Industrial  Boiler Operations,
     SP-1090 (0507103).

     Combustall Waste Incinerator by Air Preheater,  The Air Preheater
     Co.,  Inc., Pub. WA-45-685A.

     COR-PAK Direct-Flame Fume Incineration With Heat Recovery,
     The Air Preheater Co. ,  Inc. , Pub. WA-36-669,  1966.

     Direct Gas Flame Oxidation of Hydrocarbons for  Smoke, Gaseous
     Hydrocarbons and Odor Control  by Thermal Incineration. D. E, Waid
     (of Maxon Premix Burner Co. , Inc. ), presented at the Sixty-Second
     Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, Pub. 69-45,
     June 22-26, 1969.

     Evaluation of the Melt-Zit High -Temperature  Incinerator Operation
     Test Report,  E. R. Kaiser,  U.S. Department of Health, Education,
     and Welfare,  (Grant DOT-UI-00076), August 1968.
                                 -79-
-------
Feasibility Analysis of Incinerator Systems for Restoration of Oil
Contaminated Beaches, Envirogenics Co., Project 15080DXE, for
Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality Office, November
1970.

Flue Gas Desulfurization in a Limestone Fluidized Bed, R.K.
Bertrand and J. T. Sears, presented at the Sixty-Second Annual
Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association,  Pub. 69-47,
June 22-26, 1967.

Incineration Bibliography, Combustion Engineering, Inc.,
Pub. VS-1024 (0016803).

Incineration of Industrial Liquid Waste,  E.S.  Monroe,  Jr.,
E. I. duPont de Nemeurs and Co.,  Pub.  70-109.

Incinerator Guidelines 1969, J. DeMarco, D. J. Keller, J.
J. Leckman and J. L.  Newton, U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare,  Public Health Service, Pub.  2012,  1969.

Oxy-Catalyst Pre-Engineered Oxidation Units for  Control of
Gaseous Air Pollutants, Oxy-Catalyst, Inc.

The Good  Earth, MaxonCorp., Bulletin PC-1000,  September 1970.
                           -80-
-------
                          ION EXCHANGE
REPORTS
     Electrodialysis in Advanced Waste Treatment, J.D. Smith and
     J.L.  Eisenmann,  Robert A.  Taft Sanitary Engineering Center,
     for the U. S.  Department of Interior,  Federal Water Pollution
     Control Administration,  Pub. WP-20-AWTR-18, February  1967.

     Feasibility of Hydrolysis of Sludge Using Low Pressure Steam
     With SO2 as a Hydrolytic Adjust and Utilization of the jlesulting
     Hydrolysate, Foster D. Snell,  Inc., for the U.S.  Department of
     Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,
     December 1969.

     Parametric Economic and  Engineering Evaluation Study of the
     Electrodialysis Process for Water Desalination,  C. M. Wong,
     W. F.  Savage,  andK.C.  Channabasappa  (of the U. S. Department
     of Interior,  Office of Saline Water), A.P. Christodoulou,
     G.R.  Olsson, andH.J. Monnik (of Booz, Allen Applied Research,
     Inc. ),  for the U.S. Department of Interior,  Office of Saline Water,
     Pub.  488.

     1968 Saline Water Conversion Report, U.S.  Department of Interior,
     Office of Saline Water,  1968.

     Summary Report - The Advanced Waste  Treatment Research
     Program - June 1960-December 1961, U.S.  Department of  Health,
     Education, and Welfare, Research Branch,  Division of Water
     Supply and Pollution Control, Pub. SEC  TR W62-9, May 1962.
                                -81-
-------
                            LAGOON ING
ARTICLES
      "Combined Industrial and Domestic Waste Treatment in Waste
      Stabilization Lagoons," O.O.  Olson,  W. Van Heuvelen and J. W.
      Vennes (of North Dakota State Department of Health), Water
      Pollution Control Federation  Journal, February 1967,  pp. 214-222.

      "Experimental Operation of Industrial Waste Stabilization Ponds, "
      G.H. Dunstan (of Washington University),  andL.L.  Smith (of
      State Department of Health, Salt City), Public Works,  April 1960,
      pp.  93-95.

      "Stabilization Ponds for Treatment of Industrial Wastes, " pp.  1-7.
                                 -82-
-------
                  LITERATURE LISTS - GENERAL
REPORTS
     Abstracts of Proceedings - Hazardous Polluting Substances
     Symposium,  September 14-16, 1970 - Annex I to Study On
     Control of Hazardous Polluting Substances,  U^S. Department
     of Transportation,  Coast Guard,  1970.

     Annual Literature Review, Water Pollution  Control Federation
     Journal, June 1970.

     Applied Science Technology Index, March-August 1971.

     NASA  Literature Search Number - Hazardous Waste Disposal,
     Pub.  16721,  October 20, 1971.

     NASA  Literature Search Number - Part II (Limited Distribution
     References) Hazardous Waste Disposal,  Pub. 16721,  October 20,
     ___


     Selected United States Government Publications,  U.S. Government
     Printing Office, Pub.  18, Septembers,  1971.

     Solid Waste/Disease Relationships - A Literature Survey, Dr.  T.G.
     Hanks, Aerojet-General Corp. ,  for the U. S. Department of Health,
     Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service,  Pub. 999-UIH-6,
     1967.

     Ulrich's International  Periodicals Directory - Volume One:
     Classified List of Periodicals, Ulrich's Abstracting and Indexing
     Services, pp. 1-34.

     Water: Purification and Decontamination -  A DDC Bibliography,
     (July 1952-August 1969), U.S. Department of Defense,  Defense
     Documentation Center, National Technical Information Service,
     Pub. AD-725-610,  June  1971.
                                 -83-
-------
            MATH MODELLING AND COST TECHNIQUES
REPORTS
      Fellowship and Research Opportunities In the Mathematical
      Sciences 1971-1972, National Research Council, Division of
      Mathematical Sciences, September 1971.

      Mathematical Analysis Of Solid Waste Collection, D. H. Marks
      and J.C. Liebman, Johns Hopkins University, for the U.S.
      Department of Health, Education,  and Welfare, Bureau of Solid
      Waste Management (Grant EC-00309), Report SW-5rg,
      Pub.  21D4,  1970.

      Mathematical Modeling of Solid Waste Collection Policies,
      Volumes 1 and 2,  M. M. Truitt,  J.C. Liebman, andC.W
      Kruse, Johns Hopkins University,  for the U.S.  Department of
      Health, Education, and Welfare, Bureau of Solid Waste Management
      (Grant UI-00539),  Report SW-1 rg,  Pub.  2030,  1970.

      Use of Mathematical Models  In Water Quality Control Studies,
      A.S.  Goodman and R. J. Tucker, Northeastern University,
      Program 16090, for the U.S. Department of Interior, Federal
      Water Pollution Control Administration,  (Grant WP-01090),
      National Technical Information Service,  Pub. PB-188-494,
      July 1967.
                                  -84-
-------
                     OXIDATION REDUCTION


ARTICLES

      "Destructive Oxidation of Sodium Dibutylanphthalene-Sulfonate
      At Elevated Temperatures and Pressures, " V.P. Sokolov,
      Pub. UDC 628. 543, Journal of Applied Chemistry of USSR,
      Vol.  39 No. 9, September 1966, pp. 1931-1934.


REPORTS

      An Investigation of Light-Catalyzed Chlorine Oxidation for
      Treatment of Wastewater, A.F. Meiners, E.A. Lawler,  M.E.
      Whitehead, and J. I.  Morrison, Robert A. Taft Water Research
      Center, for the U.S.  Department of Interior, Federal Water
      Pollution  Control Administration,  Report TWPC-3, December
      1968.

      Ozone Treatment of Secondary Effluents from Wastewater
      Treatment Plants. Dr.  T.A. Huibers,R. McNabney,  and A. Half on,
      Robert A.  Taft Water Research Center,  for the U.S. Department of
      Interior,  Federal  Water Pollution Control Administration, Report
      TWRC-4, April 9, 1969.

      Partial Oxidation of Solid Organic Wastes, W. W. Shuster,
      Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, for the  U.S.  Department of
      Health, Education, and Welfare,  Bureau of Solid Waste Manage-
      ment, Grant EC-00263, Pub.  52133, Report SW-7 rg,  1970.
                                  -85-
-------
         PESTICIDE COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL SYSTEMS
REPORTS
      Ground Disposal of Pesticides:  The Problem and Criteria for
      Guidelines, Working Group on Pesticides,  National Technical
      Information Service, Pub. PB-197-144,  Report WGP-DR-1,
      March 1970.

      Summary of Interim Guidelines for Disposal of Surplus or Waste
      Pesticides and Pesticides Containers, Working Group on Pesticides,
      Report WGP-DS-1, December 1970.

      The Handling and Disposal of "Empty" Agricultural Pesticide
      Containers in California,  J.  Cornelius, P. E. (of California
      State Department of Public Health),  presented to California's
      County Agricultural Commissioners, Sacramento, California,
      December 9, 1969.
                                  -86-
-------
                        SLUDGE DISPOSAL
ARTICLES
      "Land Disposal of Industrial Wastes, "  R. H. Scott (of the State
      of Wisconsin),  pp.  261-277.

      "Land Disposal of Sewage and Industrial Wastes, " R. Stone (of
      the Los Angeles Sanitary Engineers),  Sewage and Industrial
      Wastes,  Vol.  25, No.  4, April 1953, pp. 408-418.

      "Underground Disposal of Process Waste Water, " L.K. Cecil
      (of Infilco, Inc. ), Industrial and Engineering,  April  1950, pp. 594-
      599.
REPORTS
      Composting Dewatered Sewage Sludge, G.L. Shell and J.L. Boyd,
      EMCO Corp., for the U.S. Department of Health, Education,  and
      Welfare,  Public Health Service, Pub.  1936,  Report SW-12c, 1967.
                                  -87-
-------
                    SOLID WASTE - GENERAL
ARTICLES
      "industrial Solid Waste Production and Disposal in California, "
      J. Cornelius, California Vector Views, Vol. 16, No. 5, May 1969,
      PP. 35-56.

      "Let DARE Make Your Solid-Waste Decisions, " A.  K.  Klee (of the
      U.S.  Department of Health, Education,  and Welfare, Bureau of
      Solid Waste Management),  The American City, February 1970.

      "Reclaiming Municipal Garbage,11 Environmental Science and
      Technology,  Vol.  5, No. 10, October 1971, pp.  998-1002.
       Reuse of Solid Wastes:  A Major Solution to a Major National
      Problem, " R. O. Vaughan (of the U. S. Department of Health,
      Education, and Welfare, Bureau of Solid Waste Management, Director),
      Waste Age,  April,  1970, pp. 10,  14-15.

      "Solid Waste Transfer and Disposal for Rural Areas, " D. R. Andres
      (of the California Bureau of Vector Control and Solid Waste Manage-
      ment), and F. W.  Cope (of the Humboldt County Department of Public
      Works),  California Vector News, Vol. 17,  No.  7,  July 1970,
      pp.  67-78.

      "The Solid Waste Field Has Special Problems," P. A.  Witt (of the
      American Institute  of Chemical Engineers),  Chemical Engineering
      Progress,  Vol. 67, No.  9,  September 1971.
REPORTS
      A Systems Study of Solid Waste Management in the Fresno Area - Final
      Report on A Solid Waste Management Demonstration,  Aerojet-General
      Corp. and Engineering-Science, Inc.,  for the  U.S.  Department of
      Health, Education,  and Welfare, Bureau of Solid Waste Management,
      Pub. 1959, Report  SW-5d, 1969.
                                   -88-
-------
An Accounting System for Sanitary Landfill Operations, E.  R.
Zausner, U.S.  Department of Health, Education and Welfare,
Public Health Service,  Bureau of Solid Waste Management, Pub. 2007,
Report SW-15ts,  1969.

An Accounting System for Solid Waste Collection, E. R. Zausner,
U. S.  Department of Health,  Education, and Welfare, Public Health
Service, Bureau of Solid Waste Management, Pub. 2033,  Report
SW-27ts, 1970.

An Interim Report -  1968 National Survey of Community Solid Waste
Practices,  R. J.  Black, A.  J.  Muhich, A. J.  KLee, H. L.  Hickman, jr.,
and R. D. Vaughn, U.  S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
Public Health Service,  Bureau of Solid Waste Management, 1968.

A Review of Industrial  Solid Wastes, R. L. Cummins, U.  S.  Depart-
ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, Bureau of Solid Waste
Management, 1970.

A Study of Solid Waste  Collection Systems Comparing One-Man With
Multi-Man  Crews, Ralph Stone  and Company,  Inc., for the U.S.
Department of Health,  Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service,
Pub.  1892, Report SW-9c, 1969.

Background Papers on  Coastal Wastes Management, Volume I,
National Academy of Engineering and National Academy of Sciences,
National Technical Information  Service, Pub.  PB-198-032, 1969.

California Solid Waste  Planning Study, California Department of
Public Health,  1969.

Closing Open Dumps, D. R. Brunner,  S. J. Hubbard, D. J. Keller,
and J. L. Newton, Environmental Protection Agency,  Report SW-61ts,
1971.

Comprehensive Study of Solid Waste  Disposal in Cascade County,
Montana, Thomas, Dean & Hoskins,  Inc., for the U.S. Department of
Health,  Education, and Welfare,  Bureau of Solid Waste Management
(Grant l-DOI-UI-00095-01),  Pub. 2002, Report SW-6d, 1970.

Comprehensive Studies of Solid-Waste Management, First and Second
Annual Reports, C. G. Golueke and P. H. McGauhey, University of
California,  for  the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
Public Health Service (Grant EC-0026  ), Pub.  2039, Report SW-3rg,  1970.
                             -89-
-------
Concept and Design of the Joint U. S. Public Health Service.
Tennessee Valley Authority Composting Project,  Johnson City,
Tennessee. J. S. Wiley (Tennessee Office of Solid Wastes), and
F. E. Gartrell and H. G.  Smith (of the Tennessee Valley Authority),
for the U. S. Department of Health,  Education, and Welfare, Environr
mental Control Administration,  1968.

Developing a State Solid Waste Management Plan. R. O.  Toftner,
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health
Service,  Bureau of Solid Waste Management, Pub. 2031,  Report SW-42ts,
1970.

Grants for Solid Waste Disposal Projects, U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, Public  Health Service, Federal Register,
Vol.  31,  No. 61, Part III,  Wednesday, March 30,  1966.

Industrial Wastes, W. Rudolphs, Library of Engineering Classics.

Intergovernmental Approaches to Solid Waste Management, R.  O.  Toftner
andR. M. Clark,  Environmental Protection Agency, Solid Waste Manage-
ment Office, Report SW-47ts, 1971.

Kenilworth Model Sanitary Landfill  - Interim Report On A Solid Waste
Demonstration Project (December 1967 - January 1969), District of
Columbia, Department of  Sanitary Engineering, for the U.S.  Depart-
ment of Health,  Education, and Welfare,  Bureau of Solid Waste
Management (Grant l-DOI-UI-00143), 1969.

Master Plan for Solid Waste Collection and Disposal -  Tri-Parish
Metropolitan Area of New Orleans,  Albert  Switzer & Associates, Inc.
and Greenleaf/Telesca, for the U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare, Bureau of Solid Waste Management  (Grant DO1-UI-00063),
Pub. 1932, Report SW-4d, 1969.

Municipal Waste Facilities in the United States - Statistical Summary -
1963 Inventory,  K. H. Jenkins and J. L.  Lewis, U.S.  Department of
Interior,  Federal Water Quality Administration, Data and Information
Services Section, Pub. CWT-6.

National  Industrial Solid Waste  Management Study, Industrial Chemical
Society,  for the  Environmental  Protection Agency, Research Corp. of
New  England,  January 1971.

New  Water Quality Report, Environmental  Protection Agency,
Announcement 15, February 8,   1971.
                              -90-
-------
New Water Quality Report, Environmental Protection Agency,
Announcement 16, February  15, 1971.

New Water Quality Report, Environmental Protection Agency,
Announcement 17, March 8,  1971.

New Water Quality Report, Environmental Protection Agency,
Announcement 19, April 9, 1971.

New Water Quality Report, Environmental Protection Agency,
Announcement 21, May 28, 1971.

Observations of Continental European Solid Waste Management Practices,
M. E. Jensen,  U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
Public Health Service, Bureau of Solid Waste Management,  1969.

Policies for Solid Waste Management,  Ad Hoc Committee on Solid
Waste Management of the Division of Engineering Committees on
Pollution Abatement and Control, for the U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, Public  Health Service,  Report SW-llc, 1970.

Pollution Control and Management, Charles River Associates,  Inc.,
National Technical Information Service, October 1969.

Process Design Manual for Suspended Solids Removal, Burns and Roe,
Inc., Project 17030GNO, for the Environmental Protection Agency,
October  1971.

Proposals for a  Refuse Disposal System in Oakland County,  Michigan,
Final Report on A Solid Waste Demonstration Grant Project, Jones &
Henry Engineers Limited, for the  U.S.  Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, Bureau of Solid Waste Management  (Grant
DOI-UI-00068),  Pub. 1960, Report SW-7d, 1970.

Recovery and Utilization of Municipal Solid Waste, N.  L. Drobny,
H. E.  Hull and R. F. Testin,  Battelle Memorial Institute, for the
Environmental Protection Agency, Solid Waste Management Office,
Report SW-lOc,  1971.

Refuse Collection and Disposal,  An Annotated Bibliography,  1960-
1961, R. J. Black and P. L.  Davis,  Bureau of Disease Prevention
and Environmental Control,  Cincinnati, for the U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service,  Pub. 91,
Supplement E.
                            -91-
-------
Sanitary Landfill Facts. T.  J. Sorg and H. L. Hickman, Jr., U.S.
Department of Health,  Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service,
Pub. 1792, Report SW-4ts,  Second Edition, 1970.

Selected Problems of Hazardous Waste Management in California,
F. R. Dansby et al.  ..(of the Governor's Task Force on Solid
Waste Management,  California), National Technical Information
Service, Pub. PB-192-026, January 1970.

Solid Waste/Disease Relationships - A Literature Survey,
Dr. T.  G.  Hanks,  Aerojet-General Corp. for the U.S. Department
of Health, Education, and Welfare,  Public Health Service,
Report SW-lc,  999-UIH-6,  1967.

Solid Waste Practices  in the United States Air Force, Maj.  T. Rothman,
P. E., and Lt. J. J.  Beres, U.S. Air Force, Air Force Weapons
Laboratory, Report AFWL-TR-71-119, October 1971.

Solid Waste Processing - A State-of-the-Art Report on Unit Operations
and Processes,  R.  B.  Engdahl,  Battelle Memorial Institute, for the
U.S. Department of Health, Education,  and Welfare, Public Health
Service, Pub. 1856, Report SW-40,  1969.

Solid Waste Study for Metropolitan Atlanta,  Atlanta Region Metro-
politan Planning Commission, Project GA P-144,  June 1970.

Solid Waste Management:  A List of Available Literature, U.  S. Depart-
ment of Health,  Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service,
December 1969.

Solid Waste Management:  A List of Available Literature, U.S. Depart-
ment of Health,  Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service,
June 1970.

Solid Waste Management:  A List of Available Literature, T.  B. Bayless,
E. H. Cox,  M. S.  Hackettt and B. A. Johnson, U.  S. Department of
Health,  Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Report SW-58.8,
September 1970.

Solid Waste Management:  A List of Available Literature, Environmental
Protection Agency,  Report SW-58. 9,  January 1971.

Solid Waste Management:  A List of Available Literature, Environmental
Protection Agency,  Report SW-58. 10,  April 1971.
                            -92-
-------
Solid Waste Management: A List of Available Literature,  Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Report SW-58. 11, July 1971.

Solid Waste Management: Abstracts and Excerpts from the Litera-
ture, Volumes 1 and 2, C. G. Golueke and Staff  of the College of
Engineering, University of California, for the U.S. Department
of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service  (Grant
EC-00260),  Pub.  2038, Report SW-2rg,  1970.

Solid Waste Management and the Packaging Industry,  R. D. Vaughan,
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,  Public Health
Service, Bureau of Solid Waste Management, Director, 1969.

Solid Waste Management Plan -  Oregon Status Report  1969, Oregon
State Board of Health,  for the Environmental Protection Agency,
Public Health Service, Pub.  2115,  1971.

Solid Wastes: A List of Available Literature, U.S. Department of
Health,  Education, and Welfare,  Public Health Service, October-
December 1968, with January-April 1969 Supplement.

Solid Wastes Demonstration Grant Abstracts. C. E. Sponagle,
Cincinn. a Sanitary Engineer, Director,  for the U. S.  Department of
Health,  Education, and Welfare,  Environmental Control Admin-
istration,  1968.

Solid Wastes Demonstration Grant Abstracts -  Grants Awarded
January 1-June 30, 1969, C. E. Sponagle (Sanitary Engineer Director)
for the U. S.  Department of Plealth, Education,  and Welfare, Bureau
of Solid Waste Management,  1969.

Study of the Health Effects of Air Pollution Related to  Solid Wastes,
B. Linsky, Final Report, 1969.

Sub-Council Reports -  February 1971, National Industrial  Pollution
Control Council
      Acid  Mine Drainage
      Air Pollution by  Sulfur Oxides
      Animal Slaughtering and Processing
      Animal Wastes
      The Chemical Industry and Pollution Control
      Council Report
      Deep Ocean Dumping of Bailed Refuse
      Detergents
                           -93-
-------
      The Engineer's Responsibility in Environmental Pollution Control
      Fertilizers and Agricultural Chemicals
      Mathematical Models for Air Pollution Control Policy Decision-
       Making
      Mercury
      Pape r
      Plastics in Solid Waste
      Pollution Problems in Selected Food Industries
      Regionally Consolidated Industrial Wastewater Treatment
      Rubber
      The Use and Disposal of Electrical Insulating Liquids
      Waste Disposal in Deep Wells
      Wastewater Reclamation
      Wood Products

Summaries - Solid Wastes Demonstration Grant Projects, 1968,
U.S.  Department of Health,  Education, and Welfare, Public Health
Service,  Solid Waste Program, Pub.  1821,  1968.

Summaries - Solid Wastes Demonstration Grant Projects, 1969,
U.S.  Department of Health,  Education, and Welfare, Public Health
Service,  Bureau of Solid Waste Management, Pub.  1821, 1969.

Summaries of Solid Wastes Program Contracts - June  1, 1965 to
June 30,  1968, C. A. demons and R.  J.  Black, U.S.  Department of
Health, Education,  and Welfare, Public Health Service, Bureau of
Solid  Waste  Management,  Pub. 1897,  1969.

Summaries of Solid Wastes Research and  Training Grants - 1968,
L. W. Lefke,  U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
Public Health  Service, Solid Wastes Program,  Pub. 1596,  1968.

Systems Analysis of Regional Solid Waste Handling, N. Morse and
E. W. Roth, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., for the U.S.
Department of Health,  Education,  and Welfare, Bureau of Solid
Waste Management, 1970.

Technical-Economic Study of Solid Waste  Disposal Needs and
Practices, Volumes I. II,  and IV,  Combustion Engineering, Inc.,
for the U.S. Department of Health, Education,  and Welfare,  Public
Health Service, Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical
Information, Pub. 1886, Pub.  PB-187-712,  Report SW-7c,  1969.
                             -94-
-------
      The Federal Solid Waste Demonstration Program, D. M.  Keagy
      (of Region IX Solid Wastes Program,  Chief), for the II. S. Depart-
      ment of Health,  Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, 1968.

      The National Solid Wastes Survey - An Interim Report, R. J. Black,
      A.  J. Muhich, A. J.  Klee, H. L. Hickman, Jr., and R.  D.  Vaughan,
      U.S. Department of Health, Education,  and Welfare, Bureau of Solid
      Waste Management, Clearinghouse  for Federal Scientific  and Tech-
      nical Information, Pub. PB-187-296, 1968.

      The Role of Packaging in  Solid Waste Management - 1966 to 1976,
      A Darney and W. E. Franklin (of the Midwest Research Institute),
      for the U.S.  Department of Health,  Education, and Welfare, Public
      Health Service,  Pub.  1855,  1969.

      Wastes Management Concepts for the Coastal  Zone, Requirements
      for Research and Investigation, National Academy of Sciences and
      National Academy of Engineering, Pub. ISBN  0-309-01855-2,  1970.
BOOKS
     Solid Wastes (An Environmental Science and Technology Reprint
     Book), American Chemical Society,  1970.
                                 -95-
-------
                           TOXICITY
ARTICLES
      "A Factory Inspector's Views on Chemical Plant Design for
      Personal Safety Against Toxic Hazards,11 S.  G. Luxon, Chemistry
      and Industry, May 20,  1967, pp. 816-818.
      "A Polychlorinated Biphenyl (Aroclor 1254^y)In the Water, Sediment,
      and Biota of Escambia Bay, Florida/' T. W.  Duke, J.  I. Lowe,
      and A.  J. Wilson, Jr.  (of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries,
      Gulf Breeze, Florida),  Bulletin of Environmental Contamination
      and Toxicology, Vol. 5, No. 2, 1970.

      "A Quantitative Method for Assessing the Toxic Effects of Some
      Water Soluble Substances, Based on Changes  in Periphyton Com-
      munity Structure," M.  Dickman (of the University of Ottawa),
      Water Research, Vol. 3, 1969, pp. 963-972.

      "A Suggested Measure of Toxicity Due to Metals in Industrial
      Effluents,  Sewage and River Water, " R. Lamb (of the Simon-
      Carves Ltd.,  of England), Air and Water Pollution, Vol. 8,  1964,
      pp. 243-249.

      "Acute Toxicity of Some Important Petrochemicals to Fish, "
      A. H. Pickering and  C.  Henderson (of the Robert A.  Taft Sanitary
      Engineering Center), Water Pollution Control Federation Journal,
      Vol.  38, No. 9, September 1966, pp.  1419-1429.

      "Antimony and Its Compounds, " National Safety Council, Stock
      123-04-408, Data Sheet 408.

      "Availability of Sediment-Sorbid Materials to Marine Biota, "
      T. W. Duke, E. R. Ibert, and K.  M. Rae (of the Texas A&M
      University), Proceedings of the First National Symposium on
      Radioecology,  1961,  pp.  171-174.

      "Rioassays  Determine Pesticide Toxicity to Aquatic Invertebrates,"
      A. R. Gaufin,  L. Jensen, and T. Nelson (of the  University of Utah),
      Water and Sewage Works, 1962, pp. R-227-R-231.
                                -96-
-------
"Chemical Interactions of Wastewater in a Soil Environment, "
B. F. Hajek (of Battelle Memorial Institute), Water Pollution
Control Federation Journal, Vol. 41, No. 10, October 1969,
pp. 1775-1786.

"Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in Livers of Fishes From the
Northeastern Pacific Ocean, " T. W. Duke and A. J. Wilson, Jr.
(of the Gulf Breeze Laboratory), Pesticides Monitoring Journal,
Vol. 5,  No. 2, September 1971, pp. 228-232.

"Chronic Exposure of Blue Crabs, Callinectes Sapidus, To Sub-
lethal Concentrations of DDT. 11 J.  I. Lowe  (of the U. S. Bureau of
Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory), Ecology, Vol. 46,
No. 6, Autumn 1965,  pp.  899-900.

"Chronic Exposure of Oysters to DDT, Toxaphene and Parathion, "
J. I. Lowe, P. D. Wilson, A. J. Rick and A. J.  Wilson,  Jr.
(of the Gulf. Breeze Laboratory), Proceedings of the National Shellfisheries
Association, Vol.  61, June 1961, pp. 71-79.

"Chronic Toxicity,  Uptake, and Retention of Aroclor© 1254 In Two
Estuarine Fishes, " D. J.  Hansen, P. R. Parrish,  J. I. Lowe,
A. J. Wilson,  Jr.  and P.  D.  Wilson (of the  Gulf Breeze Laboratory),
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, Vol. 6,
No. 2, 1971, pp.  113-119.

"Controlling Health Hazards in Pilot Plant Operations, "A.  R. Jones
and D. J. Hopkins (of Esso Research and Engineering), Chemical
Engineering Progress, Vol 67, No. 12, December  1966, pp.  59-67.

"Development  of Water Quality Criteria for  Aquatic Life, "
C. M.  Tarzwell (of the Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center),
Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, Vol.  34,  No.  11,
November  1962, pp. 1178-1185.

"Effect of Suspended Solids, Organic Matter and Toxic Materials
On Aquatic Life in Rivers, " Dr. R. Patrick (of the  Academy
of Natural  Sciences),  Water and Sewage Works, February 1968,
pp. 89-92.

"Effects of Copper-Zinc Mining Pollution On a Spawning Migration
of Atlantic Salmon, " R.  L. Saunders and J.  B. Sprague (of the
Fisheries Research Board of Canada),  Water Research, Vol. 1,
1967, pp. 419-432.
                          -97-
-------
 "Effects of Pollutants on Marine Organisms: Improving Methodology
 of Evaluation - A Review of the Literature, " M. Waldichuk (of the
 Fisheries Research Board of Canada), Water Pollution Control
 Federation Journal, Vol.  41, No.  9,  September 1969,  pp. 1586-1601.

 "Estuarine Pesticide Research - Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, "
 T.  W. Duke  (of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries,  Gulf Breeze,
 Florida), Proceedings of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute,
 Twenty-Second Annual Session, November 1969, pp. 146-153.

 "Field Toxicity Studies and Juvenile Salmon Distribution in Port
 Angeles Harbor,  Washington, " C.  D. Ziebell, R.  E. Pine, A. D. Mills,
 and R.  K. Cunningham (of the Washington Water Pollution Control
 Commission), Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, Vol.  42,
 No. 2,  Part  1, February  1970, pp. 229-236.

 "Fluid-Carbon Columns for Sorption of Persistent Organic Pollutants,"
 W. J. Weber, Jr.  (of the University of Michigan), Water Pollution
 Control Federation Journal, Vol. 38, No. 3, March 1966, pp.  331-332.

 "How Much Pollution Can Fish Tolerate?" W. L. Nelson (a Technical
 Editor and Petroleum Consultant), The Oil and Gas Journal,  November 30,
 1959, p. 72

 "influence of Chronic Exposure to  Anionic Detergents on Toxicity of
 Pesticides to Goldfish, " P. R. Dugan (of the Ohio State University),
 Water Pollution Control Federation Journal,  January 1967, pp.  63-71.

 "List of Toxic Substances, " The Bureau  of National Affairs,  Inc. ,
 Occupational Safety and Health Reporter, Reference File, 1971.

 "Localization of DDT In the Body Organs of Pink and White Shrimp, "
 D.  R. Nimmo,  A. J. Wilson, Jr., and R. K. Blackman (of the Bureau
 of Commercial Fisheries Center for Estuarine and Menhaden Research),
 Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and  Toxicology, Vol. 5, No. 4,
 1970, pp. 333-341.

 "Measurements of Organic Contaminants in the Nation's Rivers, "
 F.  M. Middleton and J. J. Lichtenberg (of the Robert A. Taft Sanitary
 Engineering Center), Industrial and Engineering Chemistry,  Vol. 52,
 No. 6, June 1960, pp.  99A-102A.

 "New Techniques for The Evaluation of Organic Pollutants, "
 D.  W. Ryckman,  N. C. Burbank, Jr., and E. Edgerley, Jr. (of
the Washington University), American Water Works Association
 Journal, August 1964,  pp.  975-983.
                         -98-
-------
"Organochlorine Pesticides in Fur Seals, " R. E. Anas (of the Marine
Mammal Biological Laboratory - Seattle), and A. J. Wilson, Jr.
(of the Biological Field Station, Gulf Breeze, Florida), Pesticides
Monitoring Journal,  Vol.  3, No.  4, March 1970, pp.  198-200.

"Persistence Of Four Herbicides in Pond Water, " A.  R.  Grzenda,
H. P. Nicholson and W. S. Cox (of the U.S. Department  of Interior,
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Southeast Water
Laboratory), American Water Works Association Journal,  March 1966,
pp.  326-332.

"Poisoning with DDT:  Effect on Reproductive Performance  of
Artemia, " D. S.  Grosch (of the North Carolina State University),
Science,  Vol. 155,  February 3,  1967, pp.  592-593.

"Polychlorinated Biphenyl Absorbed From Sediments  by  Fiber Crabs
and Pink Shrimp, " D.  R.  Nimmo, P. D. Wilson, R. R.  Blackman,
and A. J. Wilson, Jr.  (of the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency),
NATURE, Vol. 231, No. 5297, May 7,  1971, pp. 50-52.

"Possible Toxic Effects of Photographic Laboratory Wastes Dis-
charged to Surface Water, " R. G. Zehnpfenning (of the Montgomery
Research,  Inc.) Water and Sewage Works, Vol.  115,  No. 3,
March 1968,  pp.  136-138.

"Proposed Toxicity Screening Procedure for Use in Protecting
Drinking-Water Quality, " M. B.  Ettinger (of the Robert  A.  Taft
Sanitary  Engineering Center), American Water Works Association
Journal,  Vol. 52, No.  6,  June 1960,  pp. 689-694.

"Relative Resistance of Fish Species to Petroleum Refinery Wastes,"
N. H. Douglas and W,  H.  Irwin (of the Oklahoma State University),
Water and Sewage Works, October 31, 1963, pp. R-246-R-261.

"Significance of Chemical Limits in USPHS Drinking-Water  Standards,"
G. B. Welsh (of the  U.S.  Department of Health, Education,  and Welfare,
Public Health Service), and J. F. Thomas (of the University of Cali-
fornia, Berkeley), American Water Works Association Journal, Vol. 52,
No. 3, March 1960,  pp. 289-300.

"Significance of DDT Residues From the Estuary Near Pensacola,
Florida, " D. J.  Hansen and A. J. Wilson, Jr.  (of the Bureau of Com-
mercial Fisheries Center for Estuarine and Menhaden Research),
Pesticides Monitoring  Journal, Vol. 4,  No. 2,  September 1970,
pp.  51-56.

 "Significance of Pesticides in Water  Supplies, " R.  L. Woodward,
American Water Works Association Journal,  November  1960, pp. 1367-1372.
-------
"Significant Physiological Characteristics of Organic Pollutants, "
O. J. Sproul  (of the University of Maine), and D. W. Ryckman (of
Washington University), Water Pollution Control Federation Journal,
Vol. 35,  No.  9,  September 1963, pp. 1136-1145.

"Some Effects of Detergents in the Marine Environment, "
Dr. E. J. Perkins (of the University of Strathclyde, England),
Chemistry and Industry,  January 3, 1970, pp. 14-22.

"Studies  On the Toxicity and Decomposition  of Fluosilicic Acid, "
R. S. Ingols  (of the Georgia Institute of Technology), American
Water Works Association Journal, July 1960,  pp. 927-929.

"The Acute Toxicity of Some Heavy Metals to Different Species of
Warm Water  Fishes, " A. H. Pickering (of the Robert A. Taft
Sanitary  Engineering Center),  and C.  Henderson (of the U. S. Fish
and Wildlife Service), Air and Water Pollution,  Vol. 10, No. 6-7,
June-July 1966,  pp. 453-463.

"The Effect of Temperature on the Acute Toxicity of Phenol to
Rainbow  Trout in Hard Water,11 V. M. Brown and D. H. M. Jordan
(of the Water Pollution Research Laboratory,  England), and B. A. Tiller
(of the University of Bath, England), Water  Research,  Vol.  1,
No.  8-9, August-September 1967,  pp.  587-594.

"The 'Red' Herrings of Placentia Bay, " Fishing News International,
November  1970, pp. 28-33.

"Threshold Limit Values, " American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists,  1966.

"Toxic Effects of Odorous Trace Organics, " J.  W.  Smith and
S. G. Grigoropoulos  (of the University of Missouri, Rolla),  American
Water Works Association Journal, August 1968, pp.  969-979.

"Toxic Inorganic Materials and Their Emergency Detection By the
Polarographic Method," H.  G. Offner and E. F. Witucki, American
Water Works Association Journal, August 1968, pp.  947-952.

"Toxicity Changes of Stored Oil Refinery Effluents, " W. R.  Gould
and T. C.  Dorris (of Oklahoma State University), Water Pollution
Control Federation Journal, Vol. 33,  No. 10, October 1961, pp.
1107-1111.
                           -100-
-------
      "Toxicity Evaluation of a Technique for Introducing Diedrin Into
      Water"  G. C. Chadwick and U.  Kilgemagi,  Water Pollution Control
      Federation Journal,  January 1968, pp. 76-82.

      "Toxicity Measurements In Activated Sludge,1I L. Hartman and
      G. Laubenberger (of the Laboratory  of Bioengineering, Technical
      University, West Germany), Journal of the Sanitary Engineering
      Division - Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers,
      April  1968, Paper 5894,  pp. 247-256.

      "Toxicity  of Elemental Phosphorous,1t B. G. Isom  (of the Tennessee
      Department of Public Health),  Water Pollution Control Federation
      Journal, Vol.  33, No. 12, December 1960, pp. 1312-1316.

      "Toxicity of Nitrogen Dioxide,11 Stanford  Research Institute Journal,
      No. 11,  September 1966.

      "Toxicity of Petrochemicals in the Aquatic Environment, "
      J.  F.  Malina,  Jr.  (of the University of Texas), Water and Sewage
      Works, October  1964, pp. 456-460.

      "Toxicologic Evaluation of Gibberellic Acid, " H.  M. Peck,
      S.  E.  McKinney,  A.  Tytell, and B. B. Byham (of Merck, Sharpe &
      Dohme Research Laboratory), Science, Vol.  126, November 22,  1957,
      pp. 1064-1065.            "

      "Toxins  in Plant Disease: Structure and  Mode of Action, "
      L. D.  Owens  (of the  U.S. Soils Laboratory),  Science, Vol. 165,
      July 4, 1969,  pp. 18-25.

      "Uptake  and Effects of Dichlobenil In a Small Pond, " G. E. Walsh,
      C. W. Miller, and P. T. Heitmuller (of the  Gulf  Breeze  Laboratory),
      Bulletin  of Environmental Contamination  and  Toxicology, Vol. 6,
      No. 3, 1971, pp.  279-288.
REPORTS
      Control of Domestic Rats and Mice - Training Guide,  Rodent Control
      Series, B.  F.  Bjornson, H. D. Pratt,  and K. S. Littig,  U.  S.  Depart-
      ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service,
      Consumer Protection and Environmental Health Service,  Pub. 563,
      1970.
                                 -101-
-------
Diborane Handbook, M. T. Constantine, K. T. Youel and J. Q. Weber
(of the Rocketdyne Research Division), for the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration, National Technical Information Service,
Pub. N70-78384.

Estimating Population Exposure to Selected Metals - Manganese,
W.  K.  Poole and O. R.  Johnston, of Research Triangle Institute,
Project AU-229, for the National Institute of Health, National
Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-195-834,  October 1969.

Estimating Population Exposure to Selected Metals - Titanium,
W.  K.  Poole and D. R.  Johnston, of Research Triangle Institute,
Project AU-229, for the National Institute of Health, National
Technical Information Service, Pub. PB-195-819,  March  1969.

1969 Fish Kills Caused by Pollution, U. S. Department of Interior,
Federal Water Quality Administration, Report 0-410-884, Report
CWA-7,  1970.

Hexavelent Chromium: Toxicological Effects and Means for Removal
From Aqueous Solution, C. M. Sheperd and R. L.  Jones,  U.S. Navy
Naval Research Laboratory, National Technical Information Service,
Pub. AD-717-348, January 4,  1971.

Progress Report of the  Bureau of Commercial Fisheries  Center
for Estuarine and Menhaden Research, Pesticide Field Station
Gulf Breeze, Florida,  T.  R. Rice (Bureau of Commercial Fisheries
Center for Estuarine and Menhaden Research, Director), and C. W. Duke
(Pesticide Field Station, Station Chief),  U. S.  Department of Interior
Circular 335, August 1970.

Statement by Mr.  Charles L. Poor  Before the Subcommittee on
International Organizations and Movements -  Foreign Affairs
Committee, C.  L. Poor (Acting Assistant Secretary of the Army,
Research and Development), Ninety-First Congress, First Session.

Stream Pollution in the  "New Lead Belt" of Southeast Missouri,
B. G. Wixson and  H. W. Chen, University of Missouri,  Rolla,  Project
A-021-MO,  for the U.S. Department of Interior, Office of Water
Resources Research, National Technical Information Service,
Pub. PB-195-285, August 1970.
                         -102-
-------
     Toxic Hazards Research Unit Annual Technical Report: 1967,
     E.  J. Fairchlld,  II, Aerojet-General Corp. ,  for the National
     Aeronautics and Space Administration/U. S. Air Force, National
     Technical Information Center, Pub. AD-834-723, December 1967.

     Toxic Hazards Research Unit Annual Technical Report: 1970,
     J. D. MacEwen and E. H.  Vernot,  SysteMed Corp., for the
     National Aeronautics  and Space Administration/U. S. Air Force,
     National Technical Information Service, Pub.  AD-714-694, August
     1970.

     Toxic Substances, Council On Environmental Quality, April 1971.
BOOKS
     Clinical Toxicology of Commercial Products, M. N. Gleason
     Dr.  R.  E. Gosselin,  Dr. H.  C.  Hodge, Dr. R. P. Smith,
     The  Williams and Wilkins Co., Third Edition, 1969.

     Clinical Toxicology of Commercial Products Acute Posioning,
     M. N. Gleason and Dr.  H.  C. Hodge (of the University of Rochester)
     and Dr. R. E.  Gosselin  and Dr. R. P. Smith (of Dartmouth
     Medical School), The Williams and Wilkins Co.,  1969.

     Handbook of Emergency Toxicology - A Guide for the Identification
     Diagnosis, and Treatment of Poisoning, Dr. S. Kaye and
     Charles C. Thomas,  Third Edition, 1970.

     Handbook of Toxicology - Volume I: Acute Toxicities of Solids,
     Liquids and Gases to Laboratory Animals,  ed. by W.  S.  Spector,
     W. B. Saunders Company,  1956.

     Handbook of Toxicology - Volume III:  Insecticides,  A. Compendium,
     W. O. Negherbon, W. B.  Saunders Company,  1956.

     Handbook of Toxicology - Volume IV:  Tranquilizers, M.  Gordon,
     R. F. J.  McCandless, S.  W. Lipsman, R. M. Grebe,  W. B. Saunders
     Company,  1959.

     Toxicity of Industrial Metals, Dr.  E.  Browning (Advisor on Toxicology
     to the Courtauld Organization), Butterworth and  Co. Ltd.,  Second
     Edition, 1969.
                               -103-
-------
Toxicology of Drugs and Chemicals, Dr. W. B. Deichmann,
Dr. H. W.  Gerarde,  Academic Press,  1969.

Veterinary Toxicology, R. D. Radeleff and D. V. M. (of the
Toxicological Investigations Laboratory), Lea & Febiger,  1964.
                        -104-
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                            UTILITIES
ARTICLES
      "Electric Power From Nuclear Fission, " M. Benedict,
      Technology Review, October /November 1971.

      "Energy, The Economy And The Environment," B.C. White,
      Technology Review, October/November 1971.

      "Geothermal - Earth's Primordial Energy, " R.G.  Bowan,
      E.A. Groh, Technology Review, October/November 1971.

      "Human Energy Production As A Process In The Biosphere, "
      S.F. Singer, Scientific American, September  1970.

      "Must Fossil Fuels Pollute?, "  H. Perry, H.  Berkson,  Technology
      Review, December 1971.
REPORTS
      Design of an Overview System for Evaluating the Public Health
      Hazards of Chemicals in the Environment,  Volume II: The Overview
      System,  G.A. Lutz, S.B. Gross,  J.B.  Boatman, P.J.  Moore,
      R.L. Darby, W. H. Veazie,  andF.A. Butrico,  Battelle Memorial
      Institute, for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
      Welfare,  Public Health Service, National Technical Information
      Service, July 18,  1967.

      Industrial Waste Studies:  Steam Generating Plants, E.  Aynsley and
      M. R. Jackson, Freeman  Laboratories, Inc., Project 70-1005,  for
      the Environmental Protection Agency,  May 1971.

      New Techniques for Energy Conversion, S. N. Levine,  Dover
      Publications.
BOOKS
     Resources In America's Future, Landsbury,  Fischman, and Fisher,
     The Johns Hopkins Press.
                                 -105-
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3.    SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCE MATERIAL

      Several books selected for this study contained information
relevant to many subjects within the previous two categories.  For
this reason,  they are considered to supplement previous information
and are therefore included in this category.  An example would be the
Census of Manufactures books which tabulate information concerning
all industries by SIC code.  Books such as these are found in this
supplementary category.  All books are listed alphabetically by title.
                              -106-
-------
            SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCE MATERIAL
MAGAZINES
      Chemical Engineering (Pollution Issue),  McGraw-Hill, Inc.,
      September 9,  1968.

      Nation's Cities (Pollution Issue), National League of Cities,
      September 1969.

      Technology Review - Energy Technology to the Year 2000,  edited
      at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Northern Research and
      Engineering Corp.,  October/November 1971.
BOOKS
      1963 Census of Manufactures:  Location of Manufacturing Plants
      By Industry, County and Employment Size, Part 6:  Stone,  Clay,
      and Glass Products; Miscellaneous Manufacturers; Ordnance and
      Accessories, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the
      Census,  Report MC 63(s)-3.6, June 1966.

      1963 Census of Manufactures:  Location of Manufacturing Plants
      by Industry,  County,  and Employment Size, Part 7:  West South
      Central Division,  U.S.  Department of Commerce, Bureau of the
      Census,  Report MC 63(s)-4.7, August 1966.

      1967 Census of Manufactures - Volume I:  Summary and Subject
      Statistics,  U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census,
      January  1971.

      1967 Census of Manufactures - Volume II:  Industry Statistics.
      U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census,  January 1971,

      1967 Census of Manufactures - Volume III: Area Statistics,
      U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census,  January 1971,

      1967 Census of Manufactures - Water Use in  Manufacturing,  U. S.
      Department of Commerce,  Bureau of the Census, Pub.  MC67(l)-7,
      April 1971.
                                 -107-
-------
Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University - Proceedings of the
Twenty-First Industrial Waste Conference, May 3-5,  1966,
Part Two,  sponsored by Purdue University and Indiana State
Board of Health, Pub.  121, Vol. L, No.  2, March 1966.

Environmental Quality - The Second Annual Report of the Council
On Environmental Quality, August 1971,  Executive Office of the
President,  Council On Environmental Quality, August 1971.

Environmental Reporter,  Volume: Federal Laws, The Bureau of
National Affairs,  Inc., 1970.

Environmental Reporter,  Volumes I and 2:  State Air Laws, The
Bureau of National Affairs, Inc., 1970.

Environmental Reporter,  Volumes 1 and 2:  State Water Laws,
The Bureau of National Affairs,  Inc. ,  1970.

Environmental Reporter,  Volume: State Solid Waste-Land Use,
The Bureau of National Affairs,  Inc. ,  1970.

Environmental Reporter,  Volume: Monographs, The Bureau of
National Affairs,  Inc. , 1970.

Environmental Reporter,  Volume: Decisions, The Bureau of
National Affairs,  Inc. , 1970.

Federal Water Resources Research Program for Fiscal Year  1970,
Executive Office of the President,  Office of Science and Technology,
Federal Council for Science and Technology,  December 1969.

Geographical Location Codes,  General Services Administration,
Office of Finance,  Federal Supply Service, October 1966.

Index of 1962-1964 Research Grant Publications and Reports.
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Research and
Training Grant Program.

Projects of the Industrial  Pollution Control Branch, W.J. Lacy,
U.S.  Department of Interior, Federal  Water Pollution Control
Administration,  Division Chief of Applied Science and Technology,
National Technical Information Service, Pub.  PB-189-766,
January 1970.
                            -108-
-------
Projects of the Industrial Pollution Control Branch, A.  Cywin,
U.S. Department of Interior, Federal Water Quality Administration,
Division Director of Applied Science and Technology,  Pub. 1200--07/70,
July 1970.

Resources for the Future Annual Report for the Year  Ending
September 30,  1964, Resources for the Future,  Inc., December
_____


Resources for the Future Annual Report for the Year  Ending
September 30,  1965, Resources for the Future,  Inc. , December
___


Resources In America's  Future - Patterns of Requirements and
Availabilities,  1960-2000, H.H. Landsberg, L.L. Fischman, and
J.L. Fisher (of Resources for  the Future,  Inc. ), The Johns
Hopkins Press, 1963.

Standard Industrial  Classification Manual, Executive Office of the
President, Bureau of the Budget, Office of Statistical Standards,
U.S. Government Printing Office,  1967.

Summaries of USAEC Environmental Research and Development,
Atomic Energy Commission,  Division of Biology and Medicine,
Division  of Technical Information Extension, September 1970.

1970 Technical Highlights of the National Bureau of Standards
(Annual Report, Fiscal Year  1970), U.S. Department of Commerce,
National  Bureau of Standards, Pub. 340, February 1971.
                            -109-
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