,.r „               United States          Office of            Reprint of
• ' '^               Environmental Protection     Water Program Operations     Department of the Army
C. 1               Agency             (WH-546)            Hanover, New Hampshire
                                Washington, D.C. 20460      November 1978
                 Water
 wEPA        Waste water
                rv^  i_-i-   *.-              OOOR78102
                Stabilization
                Pond  Linings
                                                     MCD-54

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                         Disclaimer Statement
     This report has been reviewed by the Environmental  Protection
Agency and approved for publication.   Approval  does not  signify that the
contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Environmental
Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names or commercial  prod-
ucts constitute endoresement or recommendation  for use.
                                 Notes
     To order this publication, "Wastewater Stabilization Pond Linings'
(MCD-54) from EPA, write to:

                    General Services Administration (8FFS)
                    Centralized Mailing List Services
                    Bldg. 41, Denver Federal Center
                    Denver, Colorado  80225

Please indicate the MCD number and title of publication.   Multiple
copies may be purchased from:

                    National Technical Information Service
                    Springfield, Virginia  22151

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                              EPA Comment
     This document was selected for reprinting by the US EPA Office of
Water Program Operations as one of a series of reports to help supply
detailed information for use in selecting, developing, designing,  and
operating municipal wastewater treatment systems.

     This report provides a technical discussion and evaluation of
procedures and materials for wastewater pond linings when seepage  control
is necessary.  The US EPA guidance on seepage control from ponds can be
found in the Technical Bulletin MCD-14, "Wastewater Treatment Ponds"
(EPA 430/9-74-011).  Pond lining is not necessary in all cases, nor
should it be inferred that the procedures discussed in this report
represent the only acceptable methods.
                                   Harold P.  Cahill,  Jr.,  Director
                                   Municipal  Construction  Division
                                   Office of Water Program Operations

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                               Abstract
     A review of the literature on wastewater stabilization  lagoon
linings covering the work during the past 20 years  is  presented.
Design, operating and maintenance experiences are presented  for soil
sealants, natural sealants, bentonite clays, chemical  treatments,
gunite, concrete, asphaltic compounds, plastics and elastomers. The
characteristics of various materials, applicability to different wastes,
construction techniques and details of installation techniques  are
presented.  Installation costs for various materials and comparative
costs are summarized.  A survey of the 50 states was conducted  to
determine the requirements for liners and allowable seepage  rates.
Requirements are varied and depend upon the local soil conditions and
the experiences of the regulatory agencies with various materials.  The
trend is toward more stringent requirements.  Accepted design and
installation procedures are summarized and detailed drawings of instal-
lation techniques are presented.  Recommendations of the manufacturers
and installers of liners are also presented.

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                               PREFACE
     This report was prepared by E. Joe Middlebrooks, Catherine D.
Perman, and Irving S. Dunn  all  of Middlebrooks and Associates, Logan,
Utah.

     The study was performed for the U.S. Army Cold Regions Research
and Engineering Laboratory  (USA CRREL) and was funded under DA Project
4A762720 A896,  Environmental Quality for Construction and Operation of
Military Facilities; Task 02, Pollution Abatement Systems* Work Unit  004.

     The final scope of study was defined by Mr. Sherwood C. Reed of  USA
CRREL and he served as technical monitor during the course of the study
and his efforts in this regard contributed significantly to the success-
ful completion of this report.

     Technical review of this report was performed byMessrs. Sherwood C.
Reed, Robert S. Sletten, and John Bouzoun of USA CRREL.

     Permission to reproduce drawings, tables, promotional, and instruc-
tional materials by the following firms is greatly appreciated.

          John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y.
          Chemical Engineering, A McGraw-Hill Publication, New York,  N.Y.
          Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Washington, D.C.
          Public Works Journal Corporation, Ridgewood, New Jersey
          Water Resources Bulletin, Minneapolis, Minnesota
          Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
          American Colloid Company, Skokie, Illinois
          Asphalt Products Oil Corp., Long Beach, California
          Burke Rubber Company, Burke Industries, San Jose, California
          B. F. Goodrich, Akron, Ohio
          Watersaver Company, Inc», Denver, Colorado
          Staff Industries, Inc., Upper Montclair, New Jersey
          Firestone Coated Fabrics Company, Magnolia, Arkansas

     The assistance of Ms. Barbara South in the preparation of this
manuscript is greatly appreciated.  Ms. Mona McDonald's editorial review
was also most helpful.

     The contents of this report are not to be used for advertising or
promotional purposes.  Citation of trade names does not constitute an
official endorsement or approval of the use of such commercial products.
                                iii

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                         TABLE OF CONTENTS


                                                                      Page

INTRODUCTION  	   1

LITERATURE REVIEW   	   3

     Introduction   	   3
     Types of Lagoon Linings	3
     Synthetic Liners  	   6
     Natural Sealing and Chemical Treatment Mechanisms  	  15
     Reviews, General Evaluations, Costs, and Summary   	  24

STATE DESIGN STANDARDS 	  35

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION PRACTICE   	  45

     Bentonite, Asphalt and Soil Cement  	  45
     Thin Membrane Liners	52

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS   	  61

LITERATURE CITED 	  63

APPENDIX A:  STATE OF WASHINGTON LAGOON LINER REQUIREMENTS •  •  •   -67

APPENDIX B:  STATE OF MINNESOTA LAGOON LINER REQUIREMENTS  ....  73

APPENDIX C:  TRADE NAMES AND SOURCES OF COMMON LINING MATERIALS  •   •  79

APPENDIX D:  BENTONITE CLAY LININGS   	  83

APPENDIX E:  ASPHALT PANEL LININGS 	  85

APPENDIX F:  HYPALON LINERS  	  87

APPENDIX G:  B. F. GOODRICH "FLEXSEAL" LINERS  	  99

APPENDIX H:  POLYVINYL CHLORIDE LINERS   	 109

APPENDIX I:  VARIOUS LINER MATERIALS  	 113

APPENDIX J:  FIRESTONE FABRITANK LINER   	 115
                                IV

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           CONVERSION FACTORS:  U.S. CUSTOMARY TO

              METRIC (SI) UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Multiply

inch
inch
foot
yard
foot;*
yard
gallon
pound
pound/inch
pound/foot
25.4
2.54
0.3048
0.8361274
0.02831685
0.764555
0.003785412
453.6
6894.757
16.01846
 To obtain

millimeter
centimeter
meter
meter
meter^
meter
     Q
meter-"
gram
pascal
kilogram/meter

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                            INTRODUCTION
     Many difficulties have been encountered in the application of
various types of materials as liners in wastewater stabilization lagoons.
Difficulties have been pronounced in cold climates.  Experiences have
been varied, and considerable confusion exists as to the type of mate-
rials applicable under various conditions.

     A review of the literature on lagoon liners and seepage rates is
presented in the following sections.  Experiences with various types of
liners are described and observed seepage rates are reported.  A summary
of 50 state regulatory agency standards is presented and indicated trends
are discussed.

     The types of materials available, their properties, their appli-
cability to various situations, recommended installation techniques and
failure mechanisms are discussed.  Detailed installation instructions
and designs recommended by several installation companies are presented.

     The following summary of the use of liners in wastewater stabili-
zation lagoons should be of value to design engineers, reviewers of plans
and specifications, and regulatory and planning personnel in making
decisions concerning the protection of water quality.

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                          LITERATURE REVIEW
                            Introduction
     The need for a well-sealed wastewater stabilization lagoon has become
part of modern lagoon design, construction and maintenance.  The primary
motive for sealing wastewater stabilization lagoons is to prevent seepage.
Seepage has two effects on lagoon performance.  First, seepage affects the
treatment capabilities of the lagoon by causing fluctuations in the lagoon
water depth.  For consistent and sufficient treatment, lagoons require a
constant water depth at a specified design depth.  Second, seepage can
cause pollution of groundwater which can have serious effects on ground-
water uses.

     Many types of lagoon liners exist, but all can be classified into
three major categories.  These categories are (1) synthetic and rubber
liners, (2) earthen and cement liners, and (3) natural and chemical treat-
ment sealers.  Within each category also exists a wide variety of appli-
cation characteristics.  Each of the three liner categories and respective
application characteristics will be discussed in detail in a subsequent
section of this report.

     Choosing the appropriate lining for a specific lagoon is a critical
issue in lagoon design and in the improvement of seepage control.  The
criteria for lining a lagoon are highly dependent on the specific geo-
graphical location, on climate, on local hydrogeology and on materials
found in the lagoon wastewater.  In this review special attention has
been given to design criteria established for cold climates.
                       Types of Lagoon Linings
Earthen, Concrete and Asphalt Type Linings

     Concrete and earthen liners constituted some of the earliest types
of lagoon sealers.  Literature from the late fifties cited use of con-
crete to prevent lagoon seepage.  Sewage lagoons in Melbourne, Australia,
were built with a 2-in. thick unreinforced concrete liner (Parker et al.,
1959).  Wastewater stabilization ponds constructed in Austin, Texas, as
outdoor pilot-plant experiments (Gloyna and Hermann, 1956; Hermann and
Gloyna, 1958) were also lined with concrete.

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     Van Heuvelen et al. (1960) and Hopkins (1960) all recognized the
significance of lagoon liners in a study of lagoon design for Missouri
Basin States.  Prevention of chemical groundwater pollution and mainte-
nance of constant lagoon surface level were considered primary reasons
for preventing lagoon seepage.  Chemical contamination of groundwater
from the detergents found in lagoon wastewater was a major concern.
The seepage of biological pollutants was only a problem in infrequent
geologic situations where the major surface formation consisted of fis-
sured rock or coarse gravel.  However, in most situations, removal of
porous top soil and compaction of underlying soil provided adequate
sealing for both the bottoms and the dikes of the lagoons.  When exces-
sive percolation was still a problem, increased hydraulic loading and
removal of gravel and sand pockets were suggested as methods of partial
sealing.  Eventually wastewater solids clogged soil pores, and further
decreased lagoon seepage.  To assure a complete seal, bentonite clay and
asphaltic coatings were cited as practical lagoon liners.  Similar re-
sults were reported by Leisch (1976).

     Benson (1962) described bentonite as a typical natural earth lagoon
sealer because of its very high swelling and gelling characteristics.
As with most earthen sealers, bentonite was found to seal most effective-
ly when applied to an emptied lagoon.  A precise application procedure
was described using a 5-15 percent by volume mixture of bentonite with a
loose silty soil, which was then spread over the lagoon and compacted to
a thickness of several inches.  Unfortunately, bentonite has been shown
to be subject to piping and to diffusion through soil, sands and gravels
with large pore channels.  Lagoon site soil characteristics should there-
fore be a criterion in choosing bentonite for a lagoon sealant.  The
cited 1962 price for processed bentonite was $14-$20 per ton.

     Edge (1967) suggested that asphalt liners provided a practical
general solution to lagoon seepage.  Three types of asphaltic construc-
tion were cited and consisted of hot-sprayed asphalt membranes, asphalt
concrete (requires periodic cleaning), and prefabricated asphalt linings.
The characteristics of each of these liners are impermeability, toughness,
and durability in the presence of domestic and industrial wastes.  A de-
tailed description of each asphalt liner follows:

     "Hot-Sprayed Asphalt Membranes
          A hot-sprayed asphalt membrane developed as a low-cost
     canal lining provides a highly effective continuous waterproof
     seal.  It is a continuous blanket of asphalt cement about 1/4
     inch thick placed by a regular asphalt distributor with the
     spray bar offset to one side.  The heated asphalt is sprayed
     on the prepared subgrade, usually in two applications to insure
     a continuous water seal.

          A special blown asphalt is preferred for this type of
     construction.  However, in some areas satisfactory asphalt
     membranes can be formed using regular paving grade asphalt
     cement, 40-50 penetration grade.

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     An earth or aggregate cover is needed on the side slopes
to protect the lining from oxidation and physical damage.  A
thickness of 6 to 8 inches should be sufficient.  Sedimentation
and sludge that will eventually be deposited will provide suf-
ficient cover from the bottom.  The side slopes should not be
steeper than 2:1 with a 3:1 slope preferred.  If there is
danger of erosion from wave action, the side cover should be
an erosion resistant material such as local gravel or an
asphalt-aggregate mix.

Asphalt Concrete
     Hot-mix asphalt concrete is especially well suited to the
construction of sewage and waste stabilization lagoons.  Its
use is desirable when operating conditions make it necessary
for periodic cleaning of a storage facility by equipment and
trucks.  The asphalt concrete is similar to that used for high-
way surface courses, but it should have a higher percentage
(6.5 to 9.5 percent) of asphalt cement of a low penetration
grade and a higher percentage of mineral filler.  This insures
a practically voidless lining that is impermeable to water when
compacted.  The asphalt concrete can be placed by a regular
paving machine on a properly shaped and prepared subgrade with
side slopes no steeper than 2:1.  A compacted thickness of two
inches is sufficient for most lagoons.

Prefabricated Asphalt Linings
     Another type of lining recommended for severe operating
conditions may be constructed using prefabricated asphaltic
materials.  They vary in thickness generally from 5/32 to 1/2
inch thick, in pieces 3 to 4 feet wide and usually 10 to 15
feet long.  Some materials come in rolls similar to roofing
rolls.  The lining is fashioned by fitting pieces together to
form a continuous lining.  They may be joined together by
overlapping and cementing together or by butting together and
cementing batten strips over the seams.

     Prior to placing the lining, the subgrade must be shaped,
although it will not require the degree of compaction or smooth-
ness needed for asphalt membranes or asphalt concrete linings.
This type of lining lends itself to areas where conditions make
it difficult to operate construction equipment.

     The subgrade soil of all side slopes, where vegetation is
likely to erupt and rupture or damage the linings, should be
treated with soil sterilants.

     The only need, in most cases, for a hard-surfaced lining,
or pavement, in a lagoon is on the side slopes of embankments
to prevent erosion.  Both asphalt concrete and prefabricated
asphaltic materials are suitable for use as slope protection.
A hot-mix sand asphalt may be used for this purpose also.

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     Consideration should be given to the use of suitable locally
     available materials.

          In all cases, the asphalt linings should extend up the
     slope well beyond the highest point where wave wash may be
     expected.  It is good practice to extend the pavement all
     the way across the tops of the embankments and dikes."  Edge
     (1967).*

     Two pilot scale lagoons constructed to study the treatment of milking-
parlor wastes in Salina, Kansas (Loehr and Ruf, 1968) were constructed in
sandy-silty soil.  These lagoons were partially sealed using 150 Ibs of
bentonite clay per lagoon spread on the lower half of the dikes and the
bottom of each lagoon.  The lagoons had a depth of 4 ft and a surface area
of 400 ft .  Without labor and equipment, total cost came to $100.

     A summary of the earthen, concrete and asphaltic liners reported in
the literature is presented in Table 1.
                          Synthetic Liners
     Use of synthetics to line lagoons came into practice in the 1960's.
In Minnesota  (Ling,  1963) a lagoon treating chemical wastes with a ca-
pacity of 38,000 gal was lined with a 4-mil-thick polyethylene sheet to
eliminate seepage.

     In Broken Bow, Nebraska, a (Clark, 1965) fiber glass mat was instal-
led to prevent erosion of sandy banks of a municipal sewage lagoon.
Forty eight hundred ft  of 1/4-in. Gustin-Bacon heavy duty ultra-check
fiber glass mat  was  placed at the water line.  The installation procedure
was clearly defined.  After draining the lagoon, allowing two weeks of dry-
ing and compacting, the lagoon was cleared of weeds and then graded.  A
trench was dug (2 in. wide and 6 in. deep) to secure the upper edge of the
mat.  "T" shaped steel pins were used to secure the mat.  Asphalt was then
applied to the fiber glass mat at one gal/yd2 at 200°F.  A 1/2-in. layer
of gravel was then applied, followed by a second layer of asphalt.  The
securing trench was re-filled with soil.  After two weeks of curing time,
the pond was  refilled.  Costs for this procedure are shown in Table 2.

     When an  oil refinery company operating in Cook Inlet, Alaska, was
faced with strict state water pollution control regulations concerning
groundwater pollution, the refinery designs added a liner to their oxida-
tion pond (Baker, 1970).  The  liner chosen was a combination of a poly-
propylene fiber mat and asphalt.  This liner consisted of a non-woven
polypropylene fiber which was sprayed with a cationic asphalt emulsion
which formed  a thin reinforced asphalt membrane.  The fabric was made of
oriented polypropylene fibers randomly placed on a supporting scrim.
These fibers  were fused during production to provide omni-directional
support.  The fibers are non-polar hydrocarbon that is readily wetted by
*Courtesy  of Public Works Journal Corp.,  Ridgevood, Rev Jersey.

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Table 1.  Summary table of earthen and concrete liners.
  Liner
  Location
   Reference
Concrete
Unreinforced concrete
In situ compaction
Removal of porous top soil
Bentonite clay
Asphaltic coating
Hot-sprayed asphalt
Asphalt concrete
Prefabricated asphalt
Bentonite clay
Texas
Autralia
Missouri Basin
Missouri Basin
Missouri Basin
Missouri Basin
U.S.A.
U.S.A.
U.S.A.
Kansas
Hermann and Gloyna (1958)
Parker et al. (1959)
Van Heuvelen et al. (1960)
Van Heuvelen et al. (I960)
Van Heuvelen et al. (I960)
Van Heuvelen et al. (I960)
Edge (1967)
Edge (1967)
Edge (1967)
Loehr and Ruf (1968)
Table 2.  Fiber glass mat cost ($/yd ) (Clark, 1965).
             Ditching
             Fiber glass
             Asphalt in place
             T pins
             Gravel

             Total
                      0.04
                      0.35
                      0.60
                      0.12
                      0.06
                     $1.17
asphalt.  In this fashion, the strength of the fabric reinforces the
asphalt against compression and tension.

     Design criteria for this liner were stringent.  The liner had to
have (1) good sealing qualities, (2) high flexibility and durability,
(3) ability to withstand temperature to -40°F, (4) ability to resist
abrasion and physical abuse from ice, (5) ready availability and ease of
installation, and (6) low cost.  The final design called for 11,850 yd
of fabric and 12,000 gal of asphalt emulsion.  The strips of fabric were
sewed with special polypropylene thread at a 3-in. overlap.  Enough liner
slack had to be permitted in design for the bottom configuration.  This
same liner was also used for an oxidation pond near Kenai, Alaska.  The
materials cost $3.26/yd .  The installation cost $2.94/yd^.  Approximately
half of the installation cost was due to the remoteness of the location.

     Synthetic liners have become increasingly popular.  A black poly-
ethylene (Klock, 1971) (0.006 in. thickness) was used to line a 1,000-
ft^ pilot wastewater lagoon in the southwest U.S.A. because of its
absolute sealing qualities.  Vinyl-lined pilot lagoons were also used

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in conjunction with rotating asbestos bio-disks in the U.S.A. (Boyle,
1971).

     In Oregon (Public Works, 1971), lagoons at a high-use recreation
area were lined with 10-mil-thick polyvinyl chloride furnished by Union
Carbide Corp. in folded sheets.  These sheets were overlapped and sealed
with a water-proof adhesive.  The PVC liner was covered with a 6-in. layer
of pumice followed by a 1.5-in. layer of crushed rock.  Later testing
indicated that there was no seepage through the liner.  Many references
to specific application of lining materials are available but were not
included in this review since little design and operating detail is
provided (Staff, 1967, 1971, 1973; Abelishvili, 1972; Jacobson, 1972).

     Thornton and Blackall (1976) conducted a field evaluation of plastic
film liners used to protect petroleum storage areas in Canada.  Seven
petroleum storage areas in the Mackenzie-Delta area using artificial
liners to enhance the spill retention capabilities of petroleum storage
areas were studied.  Polyurethane (20 mil), prestressed laminated poly-
ethylene, and fiber reinforced polyurethane appeared to show promise as
lining materials for the retention of oil spills.  The importance of
bedding preparation was stressed, and if the membrane had a low puncture
resistance, the need for an adequate thickness of protective overburden
was also emphasized.  Exposed membranes invariably become damaged, and
therefore it is extremely important that the installation of the membrane
be conducted carefully.  It was concluded that carefully chosen and proper-
ly installed plastic membranes can be effective and economical in the re-
tention of spills from petroleum storage areas in the Arctic.  Plastic
membranes buried during the installation of the initial construction
appear to offer promise as a means of protection from oil spills.  If
installed in existing systems, a more elaborate construction technique
would be required and would probably make the installation of plastic
membranes uneconomical.

     Erosion of slopes of an aeration pond in Lenexa, Kansas  (Staff,
1973) was prevented with a 6-ft-wide strip of a non-woven polypropylene
fabric.  The felt-like liner was sewed together on site and then sprayed
with two coats of asbestos-filled asphalt emulsion.  A final layer of
fine gravel was applied at 25 lb/yd^ and was then given a final coat of
sealant.

     A 2.5-acre synthetic rubber-lined industrial waste pond (Pelloquin,
1972) is being used by Imperial West Chemical Co. in Antioch, California,
to convert U.S. Steel pickle liquor waste.  Thirty-mil-thick Dupont
Hypalon synthetic rubber was used because it resists physical abuse, and
the effects of sun and weather as well as oil and acid contaminated fluids,

     Kumar and Jedlicka (1973) provided an excellent summary of various
synthetic liners and their properties.  This information is presented in
Tables 3a and 3b.  Physical and structural information (Ewald, 1973) is
provided in Tables 4 and 5.

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-------
Table 3b.  Selection criteria for synthetic liners (Kumar and Jedlicka,
           1973).a
   1         High tensile strength, flexibility, elongation w/o failure.

   2         Resists abrasion, puncture, effects of wastewater.

   3         Good weatherability, manufacturer guarantees long life.

   4         Immune to bacterial and fungal attack.

   5         Specific gravity (S) > 1.0.

   6         Color:  black (to resist UV light).

   7         Minimum thickness, 20 mils.

   8         Membrane should have uniform composition, free of physical
             defects.

   9         Withstand temperature variation and ambient conditions.

  10         Easily repairable.

  11         Economical.

      r\
      Courtesy  of  Chemical Engineering, New York,  N.Y.
     A capability of synthetic rubber liners which is not directly ap-
plicable to the prevention of seepage, but which may be applicable to
anaerobic lagoons in the future, is the effectiveness of these liners
as floating covers (Rizzo, 1976).  The floating cover is a non-rigid
solution to the problem of covering the large areas of exposed water or
other liquid.  The impermeable sheet of synthetic rubber is attached to
the berm of a reservoir and is designed with adequate slack to permit
it to rise and fall as the liquid level changes.  Floating covers com-
pare favorably with the conventional systems utilizing wood, concrete,
steel, or aluminum.  Cost for wood, concrete, steel, or aluminum may
range from $4 to $10/ft2 depending on the location.  Estimated service
life may range from 25 to 75 years for these conventional type systems.
The floating cover offers a lower first cost in the range of $1.50 to $2.50/
ft^ and when properly compounded these systems have an expected lifetime
of from 25 to 50 years.  In addition to the economic attraction, it
appears that floating covers will provide savings in maintenance and
may reduce the quantities of disinfecting chemicals required because
of the assured protection.  Several applications are described by Rizzo
(1976), and he gives recommended procedures for preparation, manufacture,
fabrication and installation specifications.


                                 10

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          Natural Sealing and Chemical Treatment Mechanisms
     The most interesting and complex techniques of lagoon sealing,
either separately or in combination, are natural lagoon sealing and
chemical treatment sealing (Thomas et al., 1966; Bhagat and Proctor,
1969).  Natural lagoon sealing has been found to occur when the settled
solids form a bottom layer that physically clogs soil pores.  Chemical
treatment has changed the chemical nature of the bottom soil to incur
sealing.  Table 6 shows classified soil types for sealing properties.

     Infiltration characteristics of anaerobic lagoons were studied in
New Zealand (Hills, 1976).  Certain soil additives were added (bentonite,
sodium carbonate, sodium triphosphate) to 12 pilot lagoons with varying
pond depth, soil types, and compacted bottom soil thickness.  A number
of chemical and physical additives have been used for successful pond
sealing.  Monovalent cations (sodium, potassium, ammonium ions) chemically
reduced the soil porosity by replacing soil multi-valent cations.  Highly
expanding clays, such as bentonite, when wetted, effectively reduced soil
permeability.  It was found that chemical sealing was effective for soils
with a minimum clay content of 8 percent and a silt content of 10 percent.
Effectiveness increased with clay and silt content.  The most commonly
used salts for chemical sealing have been sodium polyphosphates, sodium
carbonate, and sodium chloride.

     In the study mentioned above, the sodium tripolyphosphate was applied
to silt loam at 0.46 lb/yd2 at $303/ac (1974 prices, New Zealand).  Sodium
carbonate was applied to silt loam and sand loam at 0.70 lb/yd2 at $162/
ac.  For soils with less than the above percentages, chemical treatment
was not effective.  Physical treatment with bentonite, for example, would
have effectively sealed these soils.  Bentonite has been found to swell
eight to twenty times its original volume.  The application for bentonite
rate in the study was 4.6 lb/yd2 at a cost of $502/ac.  These methods of
sealing were found to be less expensive than synthetic or earthen liners
(see Figures 1-5 for infiltration rates).

     Four different soil columns were placed at the bottom of an animal
wastewater pond to study physical and chemical properties of soil and
sealing of wastewater ponds (Chang et al., 1974).  It was discovered
that the initial sealing which occurred at the top 2 in. of the soil
columns was caused by the trapping of suspended matter in the soil pores.
This was followed by a secondary mechanism of microbial growth that
completely sealed off the soil from water movement.

     A similar study was performed in Arizona (Wilson et al., 1973).
The double mechanism of physical and biological sealing was also found
to occur.  Seepage rate was measured during the first 3 months.  Perco-
lation from the lagoon was measured from 70 ft below the surface.  The
sealing of the lagoon was also induced by the use of an organic polymer
united with bentonite clay.  This additive could have been applied with
                                  15

-------
Table  6.  Important physical  properties of  soils and  their  uses for  pond
           linings  (identifications based on unified soil classification
           system)    (Day et al., 1970).
MAJOR DIVISIONS
OF SOILS
o
o
CM
O
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O I
*° ? SL
O o v
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a Q.
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o *- «^
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^ E =
	 •» «)
«• - S
' l/» —
vt
SANDS
on half of course fraction
ler than No. 4 sieve size
suol classificotion^the ;
to the No 4
o >
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t JS £
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1 =1
il
£ 2
X £
« *
S*
« =!
SANDS WITH
FINES
(Appreciable
amount of fines)
o
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41
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HIGHLY ORGANIC SOILS
TYPICAL NAMES
OF SOIL GROUPS
Well-graded qravels, qrovel-sond
mi»tures, little or no fines
'oorly graded grovels, gravel-sond
mixtures, little or no fines
Silty gravels, poorly graded
grovel-sand- silt mixtures
Clayey gravels, poorly graded
gravel-sand-clay mixtures
[ Gravel with sand-cloy binder
Well-graded sands, gravelly sands,
little or not ines
Poorly graded sands, gravelly
sands, little or no fines
Silty sands, poorly graded sand-
silt mixtures
Clayey sands, poorly graded
sand-cloy mixtures
| Sand with clay binder
Inorganic silts and very fine sands,
rock flour, silty or clayey fine
sands with slight plasticity
Inorganic clays of low to medium
plasticity, gravelly clays, sandy
clays, silty clays, lean cloys
Organic silts and organic silt-
clays of low plasticity
Inorganic silt, micaceous or
diotomoceous fine sandy or silty
soils, elastic silts
Inorganic clays of high plasticity
fat cloys
Organic clays of medium to high
plasticity
Peat and other highly organic' soils

GROUP
SYMBOLS
GW
GP
GM
GC
GW-GC
SW
SP
SM
SC
SW-SC
ML
CL
OL
MH
CH
OH
Pt
SOIL
PROPERTIES
(PERMEABILITY
14
16
12
e
8
13
15
II
5
1
10
3
4
9
'
2
SHEARING
STRENGTH
16
14
10
8
13
15
II
9
7
12
5
6
2
3
4
'
COMPACTED
| DENSITY
15
8
12
II
16
13
7
10
9
14
5
6
3
2
4
1
-*
SUITABILITY!
FOR LINING
EROSION
RESISTANCE
2
3
5
4
1
8
9
coarse
10
coarse
7
6
—
II
—
—
12
-
COMPACTED
EARTH
LININGS
—
—
6
2
1
—
—
7
Erosion
Critical
4
3
8
Erosion
Critical
5
9
Erosion
Critical
—
10
Volume
Change
Critical
—
-X--X-
 "««" Numbers above indicate the order ot increasing values for the physical property named
 X- Numbers above indicate relative suitability (i = best)
                                      16

-------
                                            o Loam     no 4
                                            £ Clcy loam  no G
                                            a Silt loam  no 7
                                            * Sand loam no 10
                                               soil thickness  25cm
                                               lagoon depth   i M



       4   8   12   16   20   24   28   32   36   40   44   48  52  56  60
                                 Time (weeks)

Figure 1.   Infiltration rates—soil type  effects  (Hills, 1976).
            Courtesy of Journal Water Pollution Control Federation,
            Washington, D.C.
T3
'i 6
a 3
                                            * 15 cm no 3
                                            ^ 25cm no L
                                            a 35cm no 5
                                               soil type    loam
                                               lagoon depth   3 M
      * wr
       4   8   12   16   20  24   28   32   36   40   44   48   52   56  60
                                 Time (weeks)

 Figure 2.   Infiltration  rates — soil  thickness  effects  (Hills,  1976)
             Courtesy of Journal Water Pollution Control Federation,
             Washington, D.C.
                                    17

-------
  -£ 3
  o
                                             u 4 Metres  no 1
                                             '~> 3 Metros  no L
                                             » 2 Metres  no 2
                                               soil thickness  2bc rn
                                               '.oil type     loom
          *v^
28   32   36
 1 imp (weeks)
                                            40
                                                    48  52  56  60
Figure 3.   Infiltration rates—lagoon depth effects  (Hills,  1976).
           Courtesy  of Journal Water  Pollution Control Federation,
           Washington, D.C.

   o
   - 3
       \
      0    4    8   12   15   20   24   28   32   35   40   44   48   52   56   60
                                  Time (weeks)

Figure  4.   Infiltration  rates—effects of additives in silt loam  (Hills,
            1976).    Courtesy of Journal Water Pollution  Control
            Federation, Washington, D.C.
                                   18

-------
  E
  \

  - 5

  n
  or 4
             *«»
            o No additive  no 10
            u Bentonite   no 11
            A Na2C03    no 12
               soil thic knpss
               lagoon depth
                                                         25 cm
                                                           3 M
                    16  20  24
28   32   36  40
 Time (weeks)
                                              /.i   48   52   S6  60
Figure 5.  Infiltration rates—effects of additives  in  sand loam (Hills,
           1976).   Courtesy  of Journal Water Pollution  Control Federation,
           Washington, D.  C.
the pond  full  or  empty,  although the treatment was more effective when
the pond  was empty.

     An experiment was performed by Matthew and Harms (1969) in an effort
to relate the  sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) of the in situ soil to the
sealing mechanism of wastewater stabilization ponds.  The experiments
were performed in South  Dakota.  No definite quantitative conclusions
were formed.   The general  observation was made that the equilibrium
permeability ratio decreases  by a factor of 10 as SAR varies from 10 to
80.  For  7 out of 10 soil  samples,  the following were concluded:  (1)
SAR did affect permeability of soils studied; (2) as the SAR increased,
the probability that the pond would seal naturally also increased; and
(3) soils with higher liquid  limits would probably be less affected by
the SAR.

     Polymeric Sealants  have  been used to seal both filled and unfilled
ponds  (Rosene  and Parks,  1973).  Unfilled ponds have been sealed by
admixing  a blend  of  bentonite and the polymer directly into the soil
lining.   Filled ponds have been sealed by spraying the fluid surface
with alternate slurries  of the polymer and bentonite.  It has been recom-
mended that the spraying take place in three subsequent layers:  (1)
                                  19

-------
polymer,  (2) bentonite,  (3)  polymer.   The efficiency of the sealant has
been found  to be  significantly affected by the composition of the im-
pounded water.  Most  importantly,  calcium ions in the water exchanged
with sodium ions  in the  bentonite  to  cause failure of the compacted
bentonite linings.  Figures  6a and 6b indicate the effect of the calcium-
sodium ion  exchange on both  bentonite sealant and bentonite-polymer
sealant.  The polymer had the effect  of protecting the seal from failure.
Samples of  soil were  evaluated under  a 10-ft fluid head.  Untreated soil
samples seeped at rates  between 10 and 88  in/day.   Blending bentonite
at a rate of 4 percent by weight into three inches of native soil and
compacting  reduced seepage to about 0.8 in/day.   A similar application
using the polymer-bentonite  sealant reduced seepage to 0.02 in/day.  A
16-acre lagoon system was sealed with the polymer-bentonite mixture.
Seepage was estimated to be  less than U.I in/day.
     •x.
     w
                 10% BENTONITE
                    2.5

                    2.0


                    1.5

                    1.0


                    0.5
     ^.1600
      £

     j 1200
     uu   I
     3

     £ 800
     u.
     O

     £ 400
10% BENTONITE
         0   10   20   30   40   50   60  70  0
                    TIME • DAYS
                             20   30   40   50
                                TIME • DAYS
60
    70
Figure 6a.  Effect of calcium-sodium
            ion exchange on seepage
            rate of compacted bentonite
            sealant (Rosene and Parks,
            1973).  Courtesy of the
            Water Resources Bulletin,
            Minneapolis, Minnesota.
                     Figure  6b.   Effect of calcium-
                                  sodium ion exchange
                                  on compacted bentonite-
                                  polymer sealant (Rosene
                                  and Parks, 1973).   Cour-
                                  tesy of the  Water  Re-
                                  sources  Bulletin,
                                  Minneapolis, Minnesota.
                                  20

-------
     Natural sealing of lagoons has been found to occur from three
mechanisms:  (1) physical clogging of soil pores by settled solids,
(2) chemical clogging of soil pores by ionic exchange, and (3) biologi-
cal and organic clogging caused by microbial growth at the pond lining.
The dominant mechanism of the three has been shown to depend on the com-
position of the wastewater being treated.  Davis et al. (1973) found
that for liquid dairy waste the biological clogging mechanism predomi-
nated.  In a San Diego County study site located on sandy loam, the
infiltration rate of a virgin pond was measured.  A clean water infil-
tration rate for the pond was 48 in/day.  After two weeks of manure
water, infiltration averaged 2.3 in/day; after 4 months 0.2 in/day.

     A study performed in southern California (Robinson, 1973) indicated
similar results.  After waste material was placed in the unlined pond in
an alluvial silty soil, the seepage rate was reduced.  The initial 4.4
in/day seepage rate dropped to 0.22 in/day after three months, and after
six months to 0.12 in/day.

     Stander et al. (1970) presented a summary of information (Table 7)
on measured seepage rates in wastewater stabilization ponds.  The results
in Table 7 ^re similar to the values mentioned elsewhere in this report.
Seepage is a function of so many variables it is impossible to anticipate
or predict rates without extensive soils tests.  The importance of con-
trolling seepage to protect groundwater dictates that careful evaluations
be conducted before construction of lagoons to determine the need for
linings and the acceptable types.

     Sanks et al. (1975) conducted a survey to determine the suitability
of clay beds for the storage of industrial solid waste.  It was concluded
that industrial solid waste can be stored in selected geological locations
through the use of a multiple passive barrier concept, proper site selec-
tion and pit preparation.

     A rational design of clay pits requires a knowledge of the follow-
ing:  (1) the quantity and characteristics of the waste to be stored;
(2) the location of groundwater and paths of percolation; (3) the sorp-
tive and ion exchange properties of the clay, and (4) the permeability
of the prepared clay liner and the natural clay beds.

     Five Texas clays studied were found to be capable of providing a
substantial barrier to the migration of pollutants.  All of the clays
were highly impermeable and the remolded clays had coefficients of
permeability for distilled water ranging from 0.051 to 6.3 x 10~" in/
sec.  Strong acid conditions increased the permeability of three re-
molded clays packed at low densities.  Caustic solutions greatly re-
duced the flow rate, and the addition of phenol-like substances and
heavy metals appeared to have little effect on the flow.

     The design of an industrial solid waste disposal facility could
best be conducted by selecting consultants with a specialty in geo-
technics and a background in industrial waste management.  Careful field

                                  21

-------
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exploration should be planned on the basis of the known geology of the
area and detailed boring tests.  The importance of field permeability
tests was emphasized, and it was recommended that care be exercised in
preparing the borings so that meaningful results would be obtained.  Be-
cause little is known about the effects of various chemicals on the
permeability of clay, it was recommended that laboratory tests be con-
ducted on undisturbed cores to correlate the permeabilities for water
with permeabilities for expected leachates.  Because of the large percent-
age of shrinking and swelling in clays, the moisture must be carefully
controlled during construction to obtain an impervious lining and to
prevent cracking.  Natural clays are frequently more impermeable than
remolded clays, and therefore it was recommended that natural clays not
be disturbed except in areas where cracks, aquifers, or other pathways
for leakage make it necessary.  The importance of laboratory evaluations
and careful field studies by competent personnel were emphasized greatly
in the report.  It would appear that many of the difficulties encountered
with clay linings in the past can be attributed to improper design and
construction techniques.

     The Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (Hannaman et al., 1978) ini-
tiated an  intensive study to evaluate the effects of stabilization pond
seepage from five municipal systems.  The five communities were selected
for study on the basis of geologic setting, age of the system, and past
operating history of the wastewater stabilization pond.  The selected
ponds were representative of the major geomorphic regions in the state,
and the age of the systems ranged from 3 to 17 years.

     Estimates of seepage were calculated by two independent methods for
each of the five pond systems.  Water balances were calculated by taking
the difference between the recorded inflows and outflows, and pond seepage
was determined by conducting in-place field permeability tests of the
bottom soils at each location.  Good correlation was obtained with both
techniques.

     Field permeability tests indicated that the sealing ability of the
sludge blanket was insignificant in locations where impermeable soils
were used in the construction process.  In the case of more permeable
soils, it appeared that the sludge reduced the permeability of the bot-
tom soils from a background level of 10~^ or 10~^ in/sec to the order of
10~6 in/sec.  At all five systems evaluated, the stabilization pond was
in contact with the local groundwater table.  Local groundwater fluc-
tuations had a significant impact on seepage rates.  The reduced ground-
water gradient resulted in a reduction of seepage losses at three of the
sites.  The contact with the groundwater possibly explains the reduction
in seepage rates with time observed in many ponds.  In the past this
reduction in seepage rates has been attributed to a sludge buildup, but
perhaps the increase in contact with groundwater accounts for this re-
duction.   In an area underlain by permeable material where little ground-
water mounding occurs, there is probably little influence on seepage
rates.  The buildup of sludge on the bottom of a pond appears to enhance
the ability of the system to treat seepage water.  Sludge accumulation
apparently increases the cation exchange capacity of the bottom soils.
                                 23

-------
     Groundwater samples obtained from monitoring wells did not show any
appreciable increases in nitrogen, phosphorus, or fecal coliform over
the background levels after 17 years of operation.  The groundwater down
gradient from the waste stabilization pond showed an increase in soluble
salts as great as 20 times over background levels.  Concentrations from
25 mg/1 of chlorides to 527 mg/1 were observed.

     Emphasis was placed on the need to seal the primary pond to the
extent that the water level is maintained at a level adequate to ensure
that the natural biological processes occurring in a waste stabilization
pond will not be inhibited by fluctuations.  It was observed that proper
water level maintenance in the primary pond eliminated nuisance condi-
tions and the potential for enteric organisms to enter the groundwater
flow system.  The current recommended design seepage rate of 500 gal/ac/
day was felt to be a good guide for the design of primary pond systems.
The control of seepage from secondary ponds appeared to be of less con-
cern than that observed for the primary ponds.
          Reviews, General Evaluations, Costs, and Summary
     The selection of the proper lining for a lagoon or holding pond
remains site specific.  Each site must be individually analyzed for
specific characteristics.  These characteristics include:  (1) composi-
tion of wastewater, (2) physical and chemical soil characteristics, (3)
local climate, (4) local lagoon seepage regulations, and (5)  project
cost limitations (Morrison et al., 1971).

     Dallaire (1975) presented a series of case histories describing the
application of various types of liners to industrial waste lagoons with
emphasis on the synthetic liners.  Applications of synthetic liners in
storm water overflow holding ponds, sanitary landfill linings to retain
leachate and salt solution retaining ponds were also discussed.  Des-
criptions of the construction methods used to protect the liners were
presented.  The article also included a summary of the options normally
available to engineers to obtain an impermeable lining in a lagoon or
holding pond.  Five options were discussed:  (1) a clay blanket, (2) a
lime-clay blanket, (3) a soil-cement blanket, (4) asphaltic concrete,
and (5) a plastic or rubber impermeable liner.  The advantages and dis-
advantages of each option were presented.

     Haxo and White (1974) and Haxo and White (1976) have presented an
evaluation of 12 liner materials exposed to landfill leachate.  Six
polymeric liner membranes (butyl rubber, chlorinated polyethylene,
chlorosulfonated polyethylene, ethylene propylene rubber, polyethylene,
and polyvinyl chloride), four admix materials (hydraulic asphalt con-
crete, paving asphalt concrete, soil asphalt, soil cement) and two
asphaltic membranes (a blown asphalt-canal lining asphalt, and emulsified
asphalt on fabric)  were prepared according to recommended procedures and
                                  24

-------
exposed to the leachate.  After a one-year exposure of the liners to the
leachate, the admix liners containing asphalt maintained their imperme-
ability to leachate; however, a drastic decrease in comprehensive strength
occurred.  The asphalt became softer, and this was attributed to possible
absorption of organic components from the leachate.

     During the one year of monitoring in the above study, only three
cells failed and two of these liners, soil asphalt and paving asphalt
concrete, leaked, whereas the leakage in the third was caused by failure
of the sealing compound around the periphery of the specimen.  Soil ce-
ment lost some of its compressive strength, and its permeability decreased
to some degree.  Inhomogeneities in the admix materials were thought to
contribute to the failure of the paving asphalt and soil asphalt liners
because of the 2-4-inch-thick liners used in the study.  In practice a
much thicker application rate would be recommended.  There is no indica-
tion of disintegration or dissolving of the asphaltic membranes during
the one year test period, although  a slight swelling occurred.  All of
the polymeric liner materials withstood a one year exposure to the
leachate, but the chlorinated polyethylene and Hypalon (chlorosulfonated
polyethylene) swelled appreciably.  The swelling softened the liners, but
a reduction in tensile, tear, or puncture resistance was not observed.
Preliminary tests of the polymeric liner materials indicated some in-
crease in permeability which was attributed to swelling.  Reductions in
the strengths of the seams of polyvinyl chloride, Hypalon, and chlorinated
polyethylene liners were observed with the polyethylene retaining its
strength best.

     The leachate to which the liners were exposed had a COD of 40,000-
50,000 mg/1 and approximately 20,000 mg/1 of organic acids.  The simu-
lated landfills were effective and produced anaerobic conditions which
yielded satisfactory leachates and a meaningful test of the lining
materials.  All of the construction materials, except the epoxy resins
used to seal the liners in the base of the test facility showed no signi-
ficant deterioration.  The resin selected was not designed for chemical
resistance, and for the continuation studies a more resistant material
has been developed.

     Haxo et al. (1977) have presented the results of an interim study
describing the effects of liner materials exposed to hazardous and toxic
sludges.  The experimental facility is constructed to simulate actual
operating conditions, and in addition to the exposure of sludges at
depths, plywood troughs with sloping sides are constructed for exposing
liners under conditions which simulate those encountered around the
edges of wastewater stabilization ponds.

     The five types of admix materials exposed during the testing with
their respective thicknesses are listed below:
          Asphalt emulsion on nonwoven fabric (0.3 in.)
          Compacted native fine-grain soil (12 in.)
          Hydraulic asphalt concrete (2.5 in0)
          Modified bentonite and sand (5 in.)
          Soil cement with and without surface seal (4 in.)

                                  25

-------
     Eight types of polymeric membrane liners have been exposed to toxic
substances and the types of materials and their thicknesses are listed
below:
          Butyl rubber, fabric reinforced (34 mils)
          Chlorinated polyethylene (32 mils)
          Chlorosulfonated polyethylene,  fabric reinforced (34 mils)
          Elasticized polyolefin (20 mils)
          Ethylene propylene rubber (50 mils)
          Neoprene, fabric reinforced (32 mils)
          Polyester, elastomer, experimental (8 mils)
          Polyvinyl chloride (30 mils)
All of the polymeric membrane liners were mounted with lap seams prepared
by the suppliers or by the contractor in accordance with recommended
procedures.

     The six classes of hazardous waste selected for the study were:
strong acid, strong base, waste of saturated and unsaturated oils, lead
waste from gasoline tanks, oil refinery tank bottom waste (aromatic oil),
and pesticide waste.  Preliminary exposure tests were  conducted on the
various kinds of materials to select combinations for  long term exposure.
Most of the membrane liners and all of the asphaltic materials either
swelled or dissolved in the aromatic hydrocarbons.  Combinations of waste
and liners exhibiting these characteristics were eliminated.  The clay
liners were incapable of holding acidic and caustic wastes for extended
periods of time, and these combinations were also dropped from the long-
term exposure test.

     The results obtained during the first year of limited bench scale
testing of liner materials exposed to various wastes resulted in the
following conclusions:
     1.  Liners should be carefully selected for specific wastes.
     2.  Preliminary exposure tests should be conducted on liner materials
         before a specific liner is selected.
     3.  Asphalt based liners are incapable of containing oily wastes.

     4.  With the exception of crystalline polymeric membranes, oily
         wastes, and particularly those containing aromatic components,
         may pose special problems.  Non-crystalline materials such as
         rubber and PVC swell in oily wastes and swelling can be
         particularly damaging to seams using cement compounds.

     5.  Bentonite liners, polymer modified bentonite  and many soils
         are probably unsatisfactory materials to be used for the con-
         finement of strong acids and bases and concentrated brines.

     6.  Wastes containing both aqueous and oily phases may pose special
         problems because of the need of the liner to  resist simulta-
         neously two fluids which are inherently different in their
         compatibility with materials.

     This study is continuing and being expanded and the detailed analyses
of the wastes used to expose the liners are being conducted.
                                 26

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     Cost comparisons of various liners  (Tables 8 and 9) indicate that
natural and chemical sealants are the most economical sealers.  Un-
fortunately, natural and chemical sealers are dependent on  local soil
conditions for seal efficiency and never form a complete seal.  Asphalt
type and synthetic liners compete competitively on a cost basis, but
have different practical applications.   Synthetic liners are most prac-
tical  for zero or minimum seepage regulations, for industrial waste that
Table 8.  Cost of installed liner (Clark and Moyer, 1974).
                  Liner                                  $/sq ft

            Bentonite
                2 Ib/sq ft                                0.14

            Chemical
                Sodium Carbonate                          0.02
                Sodium Silicate                           0.02
                Sodium Pyrophosphate                      0.03
                Zeogel                                    0.03
                Coherex                                   0.03

            Asphalt
                Asphalt Membrane                          0.14
                Asphalt Concrete                          0.20

            Rubbera
                Butyl
                    1/16 in.                               0.42
                    3/16 in.                               0.36
                    1/32 in.                               0.30
                EPDM
                    1/16 in.                               0.41
                    3/64 in.                               0.35
                    1/32 in.                               0.29

            Synthetic Membrane
                PVC
                    10 mils                               0.13
                    20 mils                               0.18
                    30 mils                               0.22
                Chlorinated Polyethylene (CPE)
                    20 mils                               0.26
                    30 mils                               0.34
                Hypalon
                    20 mils                               0.26
                    30 mils                               0.34
                Fiber glas
                    1/8 in.                               0.55

     •3
      Nylon reinforced rubber costs an additional $0.10/sq ft.

                                   27

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Table 9.   Comparison of various installed liner costs,  1962 cost figures
          (Stoltenberg, 1970).a
           Liner Type
 Cost ($/ft2)
     Prefabricated Plastic
     Composite PVC and Asphalt
     Butyl Rubber Membranes

     Bentonite Clay
     Prefabricated Asphalt
     Spray-type Cutback!
     Emulsion Asphalt  J
     Spray-type Catalytically-blown Asphalt
     Asphalt/Concrete (Hot Mix)
     Soil Cement
  0.03 - 0.10
  0.09
  0.40

  0.60
  0.11
  0.02
  0.08
  0.30
> 0.30
      Courtesy of Public Works,  Ridgewood,  New Jersey.
might degrade concrete or earthen liners, and for extremes in climatic
conditions.

     Kays  (1977) has written a book describing the technology of linings
for seepage control in reservoirs, lakes, ponds, canals, and related
hydraulic  facilities.  Emphasis is given to earthen reservoirs, but other
forms of containment such as concrete and steel tanks are also discussed.
The lining classifications discussed in the book are summarized in Table
10.  The book is an excellent analysis of the technology of linings and
is recommended as a guide for all construction and engineering firms.

     A brief history on the application of linings is presented describing
the types  of reservoirs frequently encountered.  Flexible, rigid, and
miscellaneous lining systems are discussed individually and the basic
problems associated with the selection of an elastomeric lining material
are presented.

     A good analysis of the failure mechanisms involved in various types
of linings is also discussed.  A chapter is devoted to pollution control
linings and the various types of waste products retained.  Holding ponds,
harvesting ponds, groundwater contamination, airborne and thermal pol-
lution are discussed briefly.  Detailed recommended design procedures
are also presented along with instructions for operation and maintenance
with the various types of linings.

     The primary emphasis of the book is on plastic and elastomeric
membranes.  The major advantages of zero permeability, good economics,
and large  sheet capability along with their basic properties, testing,
                                  28

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Table 10.  Lining classifications (Kays, 1977).a
Flexible                 Rigid                      Miscellaneous

Plastics                 Gunite                     Bentonite clays
Elastomers               Concrete                   Chemical treatments
Asphalt panels           Steel                      Waterborne treatments
Compacted soils          Asphalt concrete           Combinations
                         Soil cement

Impervious                        Semiimpervious

Plastics                          Compacted soils
Elastomers                        Gunite
Asphalt panels                    Concrete
Steel                             Asphalt concrete
                                  Soil cement
                                  Bentonite clays
                                  Chemical treatments
                                  Waterborne treatments

Continuous                        Noncontinuous

Plastics                          Compacted soils
Elastomers                        Gunite
Asphalt panels                    Concrete
Steel                             Asphalt concrete
                                  Soil cement
                                  Bentonite clays
                                  Chemical treatment
                                  Waterborne treatments

      o
      Courtesy  of  John Wiley  &  Sons,  Inc.,  New York, N.Y.
fabrication cost and installation techniques are described in detail.
The discussion of non-continuous lining systems such as concrete, gunite,
asphalt concrete, compacted earth, bentonite, and chemical treatments are
also adequately discussed.

     Figure 7 is taken from Kays' (1977) work and shows comparative con-
struction cost ranges for concrete and steel tanks and cut and fill
reservoirs.  Figure 8 shows a cost comparison for the various types of
liners used in the United States.  Kays (1977) presented a classification
of the principal failure mechanisms observed in cut-and-fill reservoirs
(Table 11).  The list is extensive and case histories involving all of
the categories are available; however, the most frequently observed
failure mechanisms were the lack of integrity in the lining support
                                  29

-------
     8
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            LINED CUT AND FILL
                       I
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        0      4       8      12      16      20

               CAPACITY (millions of gallons)
                                      CONCRETE    a
                                      STEEL        V
                                      CUT AND FILL o
        NOTE • All reservoirs are roofed
        DATA • "Southwest Builder" bid sheets
             for  western states 1964-1965

Figure  7.  Comparative construction cost ranges  for  concrete and
          steel tanks and  cut-and-fill reservoirs.   Legend:
          concrete, a ;  steel, v; cut-and-fill ,  o.   All  reservoirs
          are roofed (data  from "Southwest Builder"  Bid Sheets
          for Western States, 1964-1965) (Kays, 1977).  Courtesy
          of John  Wiley & Sons,  Inc., New York, N.Y.
                               30

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                                 31

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Table  H.  Classification of the principal failure mechanisms for cut-
            and-fill reservoirs (Kays, 1977).a
Supporting structure problems
   The underdrains.
   The substrate.
      Compaction.
      Texture.
      Voids.
      Subsidence.
      Holes and cracks.
      Groundwater.
      Expansive clays.
      Gassing.
      Sluffing.
      Slope anchor stability.
      Mud.
      Frozen ground and ice.
   The appurtenances.

Lining problems
   Mechanical difficulties.
      Field seams.
      Fish mouths.
      Structure seals.
      Bridging.
      Porosity.
      Holes.
      Pinholes.
      Tear strength.
      Tensile strength.
      Extrusion and extension.
      Rodents, other animals, and birds.
      Insects.
      Weed growths.
   Weather.
      General weathering.
      Wind.
      Ozone.
      Wave erosion.
      Seismic activity.

Operating problems
   Cavitation.
   Impingement.
   Maintenance cleaning.
   Reverse hydrostatic uplift.
   Vandalism.
      1 Courtesy of  John Wiley &  Sons,  Inc.,  New York,  N.Y.
 structure and abuse of the liner.   A comparison of observed seepage  rates
 for various types of liner materials is  presented in Table 12 (Kays,  1977).
 If an impermeable liner is required, it appears that one of the synthetic
 materials must be used.  Protection of  the synthetic liners is essential
 if impermeability is specified.
                                   32

-------
Table
12.  Seepage rate comparisons  (Kays, 1977).
                                                       Minimum Expected
                                                       Seepage Rate at
                                                    20 ft of Water Depth
Material
Open sand and gravel
Loose earth
Loose earth plus chemical treatment*
Loose earth plus bentonite*
Earth in cut
Soil cement (continuously wetted)
Gunite
Asphalt concrete
Unreinforced concrete
Compacted earth
Exposed prefabricated asphalt panels
Exposed synthetic membranes
Thickness
(in.)





4
1.5
4
4
36
0.5
0.045
L (_CJ- -L y i. W i O C- J- V J_ t~. C-
(in. /day)
96
48
12
10
12
4
3
1.5
1.5
0.3
0.03
0.001
      The data are based on actual installation experience.  The chemical
and bentonite (*) treatments depend on pretreatment seepage rates, and in
the table loose earth values are assumed.

      Courtesy of John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y.
                                  33

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                       STATE DESIGN STANDARDS
     Each of the 50 states was contacted by mail with a follow-up by
telephone where necessary to obtain information about the requirements
for liners in wastewater stabilization lagoons and allowable seepage
rates from lagoons.  The results of the survey are summarized in Table
13.  Requirements vary from state to state, but in general all specify
as a minimum that the beneficial uses of the groundwater beneath a waste-
water stabilization lagoon be protected.  Recommended methods for pro-
tection of the groundwater range from natural sealing to impervious
linings and stringent leakage allowances.

     Written standards varied from a one short paragraph statement
leaving the selection of liners and establishment of seepage rates to
the discretion of the regulatory agency to detailed written descriptions
illustrated with drawings showing the acceptable methods of design and
construction.  Washington and Minnesota standards were the most detailed
of all and both sets of standards are presented as Appendixes A and B.

     None of the various types of liners were specifically excluded from
application in any of the 50 states; however, the strict allowable seep-
age rates imposed by certain states would make it difficult to employ
many of the soil stabilization techniques discussed in other sections
of this report.  The most common method of specifying allowable seepage
rates was to specify protection of the groundwaters without establishing
a minimum seepage rate.

     Several states expressed concern about groundwater pollution from
lagoons containing industrial wastes with toxic substances such as heavy
metals and exotic organic compounds.  Many of these states indicated
they are presently modifying standards or are considering revisions.
The trend is definitely toward more stringent standards.

     Experiences with various materials and application techniques were
also cited as reasons to improve the regulations.  Opinions as to the
best lining material varied from state to state, and the favored materi-
al varied with the availability of natural materials for linings and the
local soil conditions.  The need for competent professional services was
emphasized by most states.

     It appears reasonable to assume that standards will become more
stringent and that more detailed guidelines will be developed by many of
the states.  Heavily industrialized states can be expected to require
essentially impervious linings for most industrial applications.  It is
likely that military installations will be expected to use impervious
linings in applications where a mixture of domestic and industrial wastes
is discharged to a stabilization lagoon.

                                  35

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Consideration being given to establishing a fixed
seepage rate such as a value of 500 gallons per
day per acre. Local engineers feel that a rate of
500 gal/day -acre would exclude the use of clay
type soils and bentonite, and synthetic or
asphalt lining would be necessary.
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when there is not satisfactory separatio
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Abundance of clay in state precl
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                  DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION PRACTICE
     The presentation of recommended design and construction procedures
is divided into two categories:  1) bentonite, asphalt and soil cement
liners, and 2) thin membrane liners.  This division was selected because
of the major differences between the application techniques.  There is
some similarity between the application of asphalt panels and the
elastomer liners and of necessity there will be some repetition in
these two major subdivisions0  A partial listing of the trade names and
sources of common lining materials is presented in Appendix C.

     Regardless of the type of material selected as a liner there are
many common design, specificiation and construction practices.  A summary
of the common effective design practices in cut-and-fill reservoirs is
given in Table 14.  Most of these practices are common sense items and
would appear to not require mentioning.  Unfortunately, experience has
shown these items to be the most commonly ignored practices.  Details
of the design practices in Table 14 are presented in the following
sections.

     A lining material must be selected with the type of waste to be
contained in mind.  Kays (1977) has developed a lining selection guide
chart (Table 15) for various types of wastes and the common types of
lining materials.  The chart should be used only as a guide, and before
selecting one of the materials, a careful evaluation of the waste and
the proposed liner must be conducted.
                 Bentonite, Asphalt and Soil Cement
     The application of bentonite, asphalt and soil cement as lining
materials for lagoons and reservoirs has a long history (Kays, 1977) .
The following summary includes consideration of the method of using the
materials, resultant costs and evaluations of durability and effective-
ness in limiting seepage.  The cost analysis is necessarily somewhat
arbitrary, since this cost depends primarily on the availability of the
materials.  Examples of state standards developed or being developed to
control the application of these types of materials are presented in
Appendixes A and B.


Types of Linings

     Bentonite.  Bentonite is a sodium type montmorillonite clay, and
exhibits a high degree of swelling, imperviousness and low stability in

                                  45

-------
Table  14.  Summary of effective design practice for placing lining in cut
           and fill reservoirs.
 1.  Lining must be placed in a stable structure.
 2.  Facility design and inspection should be the responsibility of pro-
     fessionals with backgrounds in liner applications and experienced
     in geotechnical engineering.
 3.  A continuous underdrain to operate at atmospheric pressure is
     recommended.
 4.  A leakage tolerance should be included in the specifications.  The
     East Bay Water Company of Oakland, California, developed the follow-
     ing formula for leakage tolerance which has been modified by insert-
     ing more stringent factors in the denominator, i.e. 100, 200, etc.

               Q  =
                      80
     where,
          Q  =  maximum permissible leakage tolerance, gallons/minute
          A  =  lining area, 1000 ft2
          H  =  maximum water depth
          Q  ^  1.0

 5.  Continuous, thin, impermeable type linings should be placed on a
     smooth surface of concrete, earth, Gunite, or asphalt concrete.

 6.  Except for asphalt panels all field joints should be made perpendic-
     ular to the toe of the slope.  Joints of Hypalon formulations and 3110
     materials can run in any direction, but generally joints run perpendic-
     ular to the toe of the slope.
 7.  Formal or informal anchors may be used at the top of the slope.  See
     details in Figures 9-13.
 8.  Inlet and outlet structures must be sealed properly.  See details in
     Figures 14-18.
 9.  All lining punctures and cracks in the support structure should be
     sealed.  See details in Figures 19 and 20.
10.  Emergency discharge quick-release devices should be provided in large
     reservoirs (20-30 MG).
11.  Wind problems with exposed thin membrane liners can be controlled by
     installing vents built into the lining.  See details in Appendix F.

12.  Adequate protective fencing must be installed to control vandalism.
                                   46

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the presence of water.  Different ways in which bentonite may be used to
line lagoons are listed below.

     (a)  A suspension of bentonite in water (with a bentonite concen-
          tration approximately 0.5 percent of the water weight)  is
          placed over the area  to be lined, and the bentonite settles
          to the surface forming a thin blanket.

     (b)  The same procedure as (a), except frequent harrowing of the
          surface produces a uniform soil bentonite mixture on the
          surface of the soil.   The amount of bentonite used in this
          procedure is approximately 1 Ib/ft  of soil.

     (c)  A gravel bed approximately 6 in. deep is first prepared and
          the bentonite application performed as in (a).  The bentonite
          will settle through the gravel layer and seal the void spaces.

     (d)  Bentonite is spread as a membrane 1 or 2 in.  thick and covered
          with an 8 to 12 in. blanket of earth and gravel to protect the
          membrane.  A mixture  of earth and gravel is more satisfactory
          than soil alone, because of the stability factor and resistance
          to erosion.

     (e)  Bentonite is mixed with sand at approximately 1 to 8 volume
          ratio.  The mixture is placed in a layer (approximately 2 to
          4 in. in thickness) on the reservoir bottom and covered with
                                                              f\
          a protective cover.  This method takes about  3 Ib/ft  of
          bentonite (Rollins and Dilla, 1970).

     In methods (d) and (e) above, certain construction practices are
recommended.  They are as follows:

     1.   The section must be overexcavated (1 ft or more) with drag
          lines or graders.
     2.   Side slopes should probably be not steeper than 2 to 1.
     3.   Subgrade surface should be dragged to remove  large rocks and
          sharp angles.  Normally 2 passes with adequate equipment are
          sufficient to smooth  the subgrade.
     4.   Subgrade should be rolled with a smooth steel roller.

     5.   The subgrade should be sprinkled to eliminate dust problems.

     6.   A membrane of bentonite or soil bentonite should then be placed,

     7.   The protective cover  should contain sand and  small gravel, in
          addition to cohesive, fine grained material so that it will be
          erosion resistant and stable.

     The performance of bentonite linings is greatly affected by the
quality of the bentonite.  Some bentonite deposits may  contain quantities
of sand, silt and clay impurities.  Wyoming type bentonite, which is a
high swelling sodium montmorillonite clay has been found to be very
satisfactory.  Fine ground bentonite is generally more  suitable for the
lining than pit run bentonite.   If the bentonite is finer than a No. 30


                                  48

-------
sieve, it may be used without specifying size gradation.  But if the
material is coarser than the No, 30 sieve, it should be well graded.
Bentonite should usually contain a moisture content of less than 20 per-
cent.  This is especially important for thin membranes.  Some distur-
bance and possibly cracking of the membranes may take place during the
first year after construction due to settlement of the subgrade upon
saturation.  A proper maintenance program, especially at the end of the
first year, is necessary (USDI, 1968).  Examples of the application of
bentonite in sealing various types of reservoirs are presented in
Appendix D.

     Asphalt.  Asphalt linings may be buried or surface and may be com-
posed of asphalt or a prefabricated asphalt.  Some possibilities are as
follows:

     A.   An asphalt membrane is produced by spraying asphalt at high
          temperatures.  This lining may be either on the surface or
          buried.  A large amount of special equipment is needed for
          installation.  Useful lives of 18 years or greater have been
          observed when these membranes are carefully applied and cover-
          ed with an adequate layer of fine grained soil.
     B.   Asphaltic Membrane Macadam.  This is similar to the asphaltic
          membrane, but it is covered with a thin layer of gravel
          penetrated with hot blown asphalt cement.

     C.   Buried Asphaltic Membrane.  This is similar to A, except a
          gravel-sand cover is applied over the asphaltic membrane.   This
          cover is usually more expensive than cover in B and less ef-
          fective in discouraging plant growth.

     D.   Built Up Linings.  These include several different types of
          materials.  One type could be a fiber glass matting,  which is
          applied over a sprayed asphalt layer and then also sprayed or
          broomed with a sealed coat of asphalt or clay.  A 10 ounce
          jute burlap has also been used as the interior layer between
          2 hot sprayed asphalt layers.  In this case the total asphalt
          application should be about 2.5 gal/yd^.  The prefabricated
          lining may be on the surface or buried.  If buried,  it could
          be covered with a layer of soil or,  in some cases, a coating
          of Allox, which is a  stabilized asphalt,  is  used  (USDA,
          1972).

     E.   Prefabricated Linings.  Prefabricated asphalt linings consist
          of a fiber or paper material coated with asphalt.  This type
          of liner has been used exposed and covered with soil.   Joints
          between the material have an asphaltic mastic to seal the
          joint.  When the asphaltic material is covered, it is more
          effective and durable.  When it is exposed it should be coated
          with aluminized paint every 3 to 4 years to retard degradation.
          This is necessary especially above the water line.  Joints also
          have to be maintained when not covered with fine grained soil.
          Prefabricated asphalt membrane lining is approximately 1/8 to
                                  49

-------
          1/4 in. thick.  It may be handled in much the same way as
          rolled roofing with lapped and cemented joints.  Cover for
          this material is generally earth and gravel,  although shot-
          crete and macadam have been utilized.

     Installation procedures for prefabricated asphalt  membrane linings
and for buried asphalt linings are similar to those stated for buried
bentonite linings.  The preparation of the subgrade is  important and it
should be stable and adequately smooth for the lining.   Applications of
this material are shown in Appendix E.

     Soil Cement Linings.  Best results are obtained with soil cement
when the soil mixed with the cement is sandy and well graded to a maxi-
mum size of about 3/4 in.  Soil cement should not be placed in cold
weather and it should be cured for about 7 days after placing.  Some
variations of the soil cement lining are listed below:

     A.   Standard soil cement is compacted using a water content of the
          optimum moisture content of the soil.  The mixing process is
          best accomplished by traveling mixing machines and can be
          handled satisfactorily in slopes up to 4 to 1.  Standard soil
          cement may be on the surface or buried.

     B.   Plastic soil cement (surface or buried) is a mixture of soil
          and cement with a consistency comparable to that of Portland
          cement concrete.  This is accomplished by adding a consider-
          able amount of water.  Plastic soil cement contains from 3 to
          6 sacks of cement/yd^ and is approximately 3 in. thick.

     C.   Cement modified soil contains 2 to 6 percent volume of cement.
          This may be used with plastic fine grained soils.  The treat-
          ment stabilizes the soil in sections subject to erosion.  The
          lining is constructed by spreading cement on top of loose soil
          layers by a fertilizer type spreader.  The cement is then mixed
          with loose soil by a rotary traveling mixer and compacted with
          a sheeps foot roller.  The 7 day curing period is also neces-
          sary for a cement modified soil.

Cost of Linings

     The cost of linings for lagoons and reservoirs are approximations
at best and have been estimated based on values in specific jobs several
years ago.  A factor of 15 percent per year for inflation is estimated
and the costs are based on that rate.
                                                     2
     Bentonite linings cost approximately $1 to $2/yd  when applied on
the surface.  The greater cost will occur for harrowed blankets.  Buried
blankets cost approximately $2.50/yd^.

     The average cost of buried asphalt membrane linings with adequate
cover  is about $3.50/yd^.

     Prefabricated asphalt materials are generally cheaper than buried
asphalt membrane linings if the prefabricated material can be obtained
for less than $0.90/yd2.

                                 50

-------
     Cover material over buried membranes composes the most expensive
part of the placing procedure.  The cover materials should, therefore,
be as thin as possible and still provide adequate protection for the
membrane.  If a significant current is present in the pond, the depth
of coverage should be greater than 10 in., and this minimum depth should
only be used when the material is erosion resistant and also cohesive.
Such a material as a clayey gravel is suitable.  If the material is not
cohesive, or if it is fine grained, a higher amount of cover is needed
(USDI, 1963).

     Maintenance costs for different types of linings are difficult to
estimate.  Maintenance should include repair of holes, cracks and
deterioration, weed control expenses and animal damages and damages
caused by cleaning the pond, if that is necessary.  Climate, type of
operation, type of terrain and surface conditions also influence mainte-
nance costs.

     Plastic soil cement containing from 3 to 6 sacks of cement/yd3 and
approximately 3 in. thick costs about $3.00/yd2.
Evaluation of Linings

     Bentonite linings may be effective if the sodium bentonite used has
an adequate amount of exchangeable sodium.  Deterioration of the linings
has been observed to occur in cases where magnesium or calcium has re-
placed sodium as absorbed ions.  A layer of bentonite on the soil surface
tends to crack if allowed to dry and is, therefore, usually placed as a
blanket of bentonite soil mixture with a cover of fine grained soil on
top, or as a thicker layer, 6 in. or more, of a soil bentonite material
(Dedrick, 1975).  Surface bentonite cannot be expected to be effective
longer than 2 to 4 years.  A buried bentonite blanket may last from 8 to
12 years.

     The quality of the bentonite used is a primary consideration in the
success of bentonite membranes.  Poor quality bentonite deteriorates
rapidly in the presence of hard water, and it also tends to erode in the
presence of currents or waves.  Bentonite linings must often be placed
by hand and this is a costly procedure in areas of high labor costs.

     Seepage losses through buried bentonite blankets are approximately
0.7 to 0.85 ft3/ft2/day.  This figure is for thin blankets and represents
about a 60 percent improvement over ponds with no lining.

     Linings of bentonite and asphalt are sometimes unsuitable in areas
of high weed growth, since weeds and tree roots puncture the material
readily (USDI,  1963).

     Many lining failures occur as a result of rodent and crayfish holes
in embankments.  Asphalt membrane lining tends to decrease the damage,
but in some cases, hard surface linings are necessary to prevent water
loss from embankment failures.

                                51

-------
     Linings of hot applied buried asphalt membrane provide one of the
tightest linings available.  These linings deteriorate less than other
flexible membrane linings (USDI, 1963).

     Asphalt linings composed of prefabricated buried materials are best
for small jobs, since the amount of special equipment and labor connected
with installation is a minimum.  For larger jobs sprayed asphalt is more
economical.

     When fibers and fillers are used in asphalt membranes, there is a
greater tendency to deteriorate when these fillers are composed of organic
materials.  Inorganic fibers are, therefore, more useful (USDI, 1963).
Typical volume of seepage through one buried asphalt membrane after 10
years of service  was consistently 0.08 ft3/ft2/day (USDI,  1968).

     Asphalt membrane linings can be constructed at any time of year,
and since it is usually convenient in canals and ponds to use the late
fall and winter seasons for installing lining, this may dictate the
buried asphalt membrane lining as the proper one to use in many cases
(USDI, 1963).

     Buried asphalt membranes in general perform satisfactorily for more
than 15 years.  When these linings fail, it is generally due to one or
more of the following causes:
     A.  Placement of lining on unstable side slopes
     B.  Inadequate protection of the membrane
     C.  Weed growth
     D.  Surface runoff
     E.  Type of subgrade material
     F.  Cleaning operations
     G.  Scour of cover material
     H.  Membrane puncture

     Soil cement has been used successfully in some cases in mild climates.
Where wetting or drying is a factor, or if freezing-thawing cycles are
present, the lining will deteriorate rapidly (USDI, 1963).
                        Thin Membrane Liners
     Plastic and elastomeric membranes are popular in applications re-
quiring essentially zero permeability.  These materials are economical,
resistant to most chemicals if selected and installed properly, available
in large sheets simplifying installation, and essentially impermeable.
As discharge standards continue to become more stringent, the application
of plastic and elastomeric membranes as lagoon liners will increase be-
cause of the need to guarantee protection against seepage.  This is
particularly true in the sealing of lagoons containing toxic wastewaters
or the sealing of landfills containing toxic solids and sludges.
                                  52

-------
     Typical standards being developed to control the application of
liners are presented in Appendixes A and B.  A partial listing of the
trade names, product description and manufacturer of plastic and elastomer
lining materials is presented in Appendix C.  Properties of the synthetic
flexible liners were presented in Table 4 in the Literature Review section.
The summary of effective design practices presented in Table 14 is appli-
cable to synthetic liners.
Design Details

     The most difficult design problem encountered in liner applications
involves placing a liner in an existing reservoir (lagoon).  Effective
design practices are essentially the same as those used in new systems,
but additional care must be exercised in the evaluation of the existing
structure and the required results.  Lining materials must be selected
so that compatibility is obtained.  For example, a badly cracked concrete
lining to be covered with a flexible synthetic material must be properly
sealed and placed in such a way that additional movement will not destroy
the new liner.  Sealing around existing columns, footings, etc. are other
examples of items to be considered.

     The following paragraphs are a condensation of the discussion by
Kays (1977) of effective design practices which have been summarized in
Table 14.  Emphasis is placed on the details describing the installation
of plastic or elastomeric materials.

     Top Slope Anchor.  Formal and informal anchor systems are used at
the top of the slope of dikes.  Details of three types of formal anchors
are presented in Figures 9-11.  Recommended are informal anchors shown
in Figures 12 and 13.

     Inlet-Outlet Seals.  When the lining is pierced, seals can be made
in two ways.  The techniques illustrated in Figures 14 and 15 are common-
ly used, and the second technique utilizes a pipe boot which is sealed
to the liner and clamped to the entering pipe as shown in Figure 16.

     It is recommended that inlet-outlet pipes enter a reservoir through
a structure such as that shown in Figure 17.  A better seal can be pro-
duced when the liner is attached to the top of the structure.  However,
such an arrangement can result in solids accumulation and a direct free
entry into a wastewater lagoon is better.

     A drain near the outlet can be constructed as shown in Figure 18.
As mentioned in Table 14, large reservoirs containing above 20-30 million
gallons should be equipped to empty quickly in case of an emergency.

     Cracks and Imperfection Seals.  The structure supporting the liner
must be smooth enough to prevent damage to the liner.  Rocks, sharp
protrusions and other rough surfaces must be controlled.  In areas with
                                  53

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particularly rough surfaces, it may be necessary to add padding to protect
the liner.  Cracks can be repaired as shown in Figures 19 and 20.

     Wind and Gas Control.  Thin membrane liners may have problems with
wind on the leeward slopes.  Vents built into the lining control this
problem as well as serve as an outlet for gases trapped beneath the liner.
Details of such a venting system are shown in Appendix F.

     Fencing.  Protection of a thin membrane lining is essential, and
Kays (1977) recommends that the fence be at least 6 feet high and be
placed on the outside berm slope with the top of the fence below the top
elevation of the dike.
Proprietary Products and Recommended Procedures

     A partial listing of the manufacturers of plastic and elastomeric
liners is presented in Appendix C.  In addition to these manufacturers,
there are many firms specializing in the installation of lining materials.
Most of the installation companies and the manufacturers publish specifi-
cations and installation instructions and design details for use by
customers and design engineers.  Most of the recommendations by the
manufacturers and installers are similar, but there are differences
worthy of consideration when designing a system requiring a liner.

     It would be impractical to reproduce all of the publications
available; therefore, only a selected few are presented as appendixes.
Information and instruction bulletins were selected for inclusion as
appendixes based principally on the type of material although some firms
install many types of liners.

     Appendixes F through I contain many valuable suggestions for the
proper selection and installation of a liner.  The information presented
in these appendixes should be used with caution and only after consul-
tation with the firms preparing the information.

     The liner described in Appendix J was developed for protection of
water supplies and other liquids requiring protection from the elements
and birds and animals.  This type of liner has potential as an odor con-
trol device in small wastewater treatment systems.  It would be particu-
larly applicable to small anaerobic systems or in cases where it is
desirable to control light penetration.

     New products continue to be developed, and with each new material
the options available to designers continue to improve.  The future should
bring even more versatile and effective liners to select for seepage con-
trol.  If care and common sense are applied to the application of existing
and new materials, the control of seepage pollution should become a minor
problem of the future.
                                  59

-------
        FIRM SETTING
        HEAVY  BODIED
               MASTIC
  FLEXIBLE
CONTINUOUS
     LINING
                |=  EXIST.
              Hi    CRACK
                                                            V'CUT
                                                            CRACK AT
                                                            TOP
              EXIST. CONCRETE
              A.C.  OR  GUNITE
             HEAVY DUTY,  HIGH TENSILE
             CURING MASTIC  OR
             CEMENT GROUT - USE
              CONCRETE ADHESIVE
Figure  19,   Crack treatment—alternative A j(Kays, 1977).   Courtesy
             of John Wiley  &  Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y.
                 FLEXIBLE
                 CONTINUOUS
                 LINING
                                          METAL  PLATE
                                          (SEE NOTE)
                                 PERCUSSION DRIVEN
                                 STUDS  - 6" 0/C - ONE
                                 SIDE OF CRACK ONLY
              METAL PLATE  MUST  BE ABLE  TO SPAN
              CRACK  WITHOUT BUCKLING FROM  WEIGHT
              OF WATER BRIDGING  THE  CRACK. COPPER  8.
              STAINLESS STEEL ARE  MOST COMMON  CHOICES.
 Figure 20.  Crack treatment—alternative B (Kays,  1977)
             John  Wiley & Sons,  Inc.,  New York, N.Y.
                          Courtesy  of
                                     60

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                   CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS


     Based upon the results of the literature review,  the following
conclusions and recommendations can be made.

     1.  The design and construction of liners should  be carried out by
         trained,  experienced professionals.

     2.  Multiple  options exist for designers of lagoon liners,  and the
         proper selection and installation procedures  should result in
         satisfactory liners.

     3.  Little information exists on the natural sealing of wastewater
         stabilization lagoons.  Most results are based on speculation
         from observations instead of carefully planned experiments
         designed  to evaluate the phenomenon  of soil sealing.

     4.  The mechanisms involved in natural sealing of lagoon bottoms
         should be evaluated.  Controversy exists as to whether  or not
         reductions in seepage rates are attributable  to natural sealing.
         Mounding  of groundwater beneath the  lagoon has been credited
         with much of the reduction in seepage.

     5.  Most reported seepage rates and the  effectiveness of various
         liner materials are secondary to other aspects of experiments
         and are incomplete and limited in value.

     6.  A need exists for accurate measurements of seepage rates and
         the effectiveness of various lining  materials.

     7.  An accurate, reproducible method of  measuring seepage from
         lagoons is needed.

     8.  The success of a particular lining material is dependent upon
         the characteristics of the waste contained, the design  details,
         and the construction techniques.

     9.  Failure of linings is most often attributable to poor judgment
         in selection, installation or operation of a  lagoon and not to
         the lining material.

    10.  An assessment of the permeability of all lining materials in
         actual installations is needed.
                                 61

-------
                          LITERATURE CITED
Abelishvili, G.  1972.  Soviet Scientists Waterproof Ponds.  Water &
     Sewage Works.  119(8):57.

Baker, James W.  1970.  Polypropylene Fiber Mat and Asphalt Used for
     Oxidation Pond Liner.  Water & Wastes Engineering.  7(11):F-17.

Benson, J. R.  1962.  How to Prevent Sewage Lagoon Seepage.  Public
     Works.  93(3):111-114.

Bhagat, Surinder K., and Donald E. Proctor.  1969.  Treatment of Dairy
     Manure by Lagooning.  Journal Water Pollution Control Federation.
     41(5):785-795.

Boyle, W. C.   1971.  Lagoons & Oxidation Ponds.  Literature Review.
     JWPCF.  43(6):1118-1123.

California State Water Pollution Control Board.  1956.  Report on
     Continued Study of Waste Water Reclamation and Utilization,
     Publication No. 15, Sacramento, California.

California State Water Pollution Control Board.  1957.  Third Report on
     the Study of Waste Water Reclamation and Utilization, Publication
     No. 18, Sacramento, California.

Chang, A. C., W. R. Olmstead, J. B. Johanson, and G. Yamashita.  1974.
     The Sealing Mechanism of Wastewater Ponds.  JWPCF.  46(7):1715-1721.

Clark, Don A., and James E. Moyer.  1974.  An Evaluation of Tailings
     Ponds Sealants.  EPA-660/2-74-065.  U.S. Environmental Protection
     Agency, Washington, D.C.

Clark, L. E.  1965.  Soil Erosion at Sewage Lagoon Solved with Fiber Glass
     Mat.  Public Works.  96(5):96-97.

Dallaire, G.  1975.  Tough Pollution Laws Spur Use of Impermeable Liners.
     Civil Engineering.  45(5):63-67.

Davis, S., W. Fairbank, and H. Weisbeit.  1973.  Dairy Waste Ponds Ef-
     fectively Self-Sealing.  Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. Trans. 16:69-71.

Day, M. E., E. L. Armstrong, W. F. Savage, and W. W. Rinne.  1970.  Brine
     Disposal Pond Manual.  Dept. of Interior.   R&D Progress Report #588.
     GPO#I1:88 #588-592.

                                  63

-------
Dedrick, A. R.  1975.  Storage Systems for Harvested Water.  U.S.
     Department of Agriculture, ARS W-22, p. 175.

Edge, Duane E.  1967.  Asphalt Lined Lagoons to Help End Pollution.
     Public Works.  98(8):125.

Ewald, George.  1973.  Stretching the Lifespan of Synthetic Pond-Linings.
     Chemical Engineering.  80(40):67-69.

Gloyna, Ernest F., Edward R. Hermann.  1956.  Some Design Considerations
     for Oxidation Ponds.  J. ASCE - Sanitary Engineering Division SA 4,
     1047-1 to 1047-17.

Hannaman, M. C., E. J. Johnson, and M. A. Zagar.  1978.  Effects of
     Wastewater Stabilization Pond Seepage on Groundwater Quality.
     Prepared by Eugene A. Hickok and Associates, Wayzata, Minnesota
     for Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, Roseville, Minnesota.

Haxo, H. E., Jr., and R. M. White.  1974.  First Interim Report:  Evalu-
     ation of Liner Materials Exposed to Leachate.  National Environ-
     mental Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
     Cincinnati, Ohio.

Haxo, H. E., Jr., and R. M. White.  1976.  Second Interim Report:  Evalu-
     ation of Liner Materials Exposed to Leachate.  EPA-600/2-76-255.
     Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory, Office of Research and
     Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.

Haxo, H. E., R. S. Haxo, and R. W. White.  1977.  First Interim Report:
     Liner Materials Exposed to Hazardous and Toxic Sludges.  EPA-600/2-
     77-081.  Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory, Office of
     Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
     Cincinnati, Ohio.

Hermann, E. R., and E. F. Gloyna.  1958.  Water Stabilization Ponds.  I:
     Experimental Investigations.  Sewage & Industrial Wastes.  30(4):511-
     538.

Hills, David J.  1976.  Infiltration Characteristics from Anaerobic
     Lagoons.  JWPCF.  48(4):695.

Hopkins, Glen J.  1960.  Waste Stabilization Lagoons - Design, Construction,
     and Operation Practices Among Missouri Basin States.  Proceedings of
     Symposium:  Waste Stabilization Lagoons.  Kansas City, Missouri.  Aug.
     1-6, 1960.  p.  83-96.

Jacobson, Aluni R.  1972.  Nylon Coated Fabric Rehabilitates Reservoir.
     Water Works Digest.  Public Works.  103(2):88.

Kays, W. B.  1977.  Construction of Linings for Reservoirs, Tanks, and
     Pollution Control Facilities.  Wiley-Interscience Publication, John
     Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y.

                                  64

-------
Klock, J. W.   1971.  Survival of Coliform Bacteria in Wastewater Treat-
     ment Lagoons .  JWPCF.  43(10):2071-2083.

Kumar, J., and J. A, Jedlicka.  1973.  Selecting and Installing Synthetic
     Pond Linings.  Chemical Engineering.  80(5):67-70.

Leisch, B.   1976.  Evaluating Pollution-Prone Strata Beneath Sewage
     Lagoons.  Public Works.  104(8):70-71.

Ling, Joseph T.   1963.  Pilot Study  of Treating Chemical Wastes With an
     Aerated Lagoon.  JWPCF.  35(8):963-972.

Loehr, Raymond C., and John A. Ruf.  1968.  Anaerobic Lagoon Treatment of
     Milking-Parlor Wastes.  JWPCF.  40(l):83-94.

Matthew, Floyd L., and Leland L. Harms.  1969.  Sodium Adsorption Ratio
     Influence on Stabilization Pond Sealing.  JWPCF.  41(11) Part 2:
     R383-R391.

Morrison, W. R., R. A. Dodge, and J. Merriman.  1971.  Pond Linings for
     Desalting Plants Effluents (Supplement).  Office of Saline Water.
     GPO 1:1.88 #734.

Neal, J. K., and G. J. Hopkins.  1956.  Experimental Lagooning of Raw
     Sewage.  Sewage and Industrial Wastes.  28(11):1326.

Parker, C. D., H. L. Jones, and N. C. Greene.  1959.  Performance of
     Large Sewage Lagoons at Melbourne, Australia.  Sewage & Industrial
     Wastes.  31(2):133-152.

Pelloquin, Lou.  1972.  Pond Liner Serves Dual Role.  Water & Wastes
     Engineering.  9(3):B-15.

Public Works.  1971.  Lined Lagoons Prevent Pollution in Park Area.
     99(7):79.

Robinson, F. E.  1973.  Changes in Seepage Rate from an Unlined Cattle
     Waste Digestion Pond.  Transactions of the American Society of
     Agricultural Engineers.  16:95.

Rizzo, F. J.  1976.  Floating Covers Protect Reservoirs.  Water & Sewage
     Works.  123(3):92-95.

Rollins, M. B., and A. S.  Dylla.  1970.  Bentonite Sealing Methods Com-
     pared in the Field.  J. Irr. & Dr. Div., ASCE Proceedings.  96(IR2):193.

Rosene, R. B., and C.  F. Parks.   1973.  Chemical Method of Preventing Loss
     of Industrial and Fresh Waters from Ponds,  Lakes & Canals.   Water
     Resources Bulletin.  9(4):717-722.

Sanks, R. L., J. M. LaPlante, and E. F. Gloyna.   1975.   Survey:   Suitability
     of Clay Beds for Storage of Industrial Solid Wastes.  Center for
     Research in Water Resources,  Environmental Health Engineering, The
     University of Texas at Austin.

                                  65

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Shaw, V. A.  1962.  An Assessment of the Probable Influence of Evapo-
     ration and Seepage on Oxidation Pond Design and Construction,  Journal
     2, Proceedings of the Institute of Sewage Purification,  Part 4.

Staff.  1967.  Vinyl Liner Helps Reduce BOD Level More Than 90%.   Water
     & Wastes Engineering.  1(6):457.

Staff.  1971.  Lined Lagoons Prevent Pollution in Park Area.   Public
     Works.  102(7):79.

Staff.  1973.  This Pond Wears a Necklace.  Water & Wastes Engineering.
     12(6):64.


Stander, G. J., P. G. J. Meiring, R. J. L. C. Drews, and H. Van Eck.
      1970.  A Guide to Pond Systems for Wastewater Purification.   In:
     Developments in Water Quality Research, H. I. Shuval, Ed. Ann Arbor
     Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Stoltenberg, Davis H. 1970.  Design, Construction and Maintenance of
     Waste Stabilization Lagoons.  Public Works.  101(9):103-106.

Thomas, R. E., W. A. Schwartz, and T. W. Bendixen.  1966.  Soil Changes
     and Infiltration Rate Reduction Under Sewage Spreading.  Soil Sci.
     Soc. American Proc.  30:641-646.

Thornton, D. E., and P. Blackall.  1976.  Field Evaluation of Plastic
     Film Liners for Petroleum Storage Areas in the Mackenzie Delta.
     EPS 3-EC-76-13.  Environmental Conservation Directorate, Environ-
     mental Protection Service, Canada.

USDA.   1972.  Asphalt Linings for Seepage Control:  Evaluation of Effec-
     tiveness and Durability of Three Types of Linings.  Tech. Bull.  No.
      1440.

USDI.   1963.  Linings for Irrigation Canals.

USDI.   1968.  Buried Asphalt Membrane Canal Lining.  Research Report No.
      12.

Van Heuvelen, Hillis, Jack K. Smith, and Glen J. Hopkins.  1960.   Waste
     Stabilization Lagoons:  Design, Construction and Operation
     Practices Among Missouri Basin States.  JWPCF.  32(9):909-917.

Voights, D.  1955.  Lagooning and Spray Disposal of Neutral Sulphite
     Semi-chemical Pulp Mill Liquors.  Proceedings of the Tenth Purdue
     Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University Extension Service.
     No. 89, p. 497.  West Lafayette, Indiana.

Wilson, L. G., Wayne L. Clark, and Gary G. Small.  1973.  Subsurface
     Quality Transformations During Preinitiation of a New Stabilization
     Lagoon.  Water Resources Bulletin.  9(2):243-257.

                                66

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                            APPENDIX A

           STATE OF WASHINGTON LAGOON LINER REQUIREMENTS1
    15.4 Pond Construction Details

        15.41 Liners

              15.411 Requirement for Lining

                     The seepage rate through the lagoon bottom should not
                     exceed  1/4 inch per day.  Liners are required if native
                     soils will not ensure this.

              15.412 General

                     Systems utilizing soil, bentonite, or synthetic liners
                     may be considered, provided the permeability, dura-
                     bility, integrity, cost-effectiveness, etc., of the
                     proposed material can be satisfactorily demonstrated.
                     Results of a testing program that substantiates the
                     adequacy of the proposed liner must be incorporated
                     into and/or accompany the engineering report.  Stan-
                     dard ASTM procedures or acceptable similar methods
                     should be used for all tests.

                     As a final field determination of the quality of all
                     in-place liners, ponds should be prefilled and
                     checked for seepage.

                     Schematics for each of the three basic liners are
                     attached for information.

              15.413 Soil Liners (Figure 6)

                     Preliminary testing of proposed soil liners should
                     include examination of the factors affecting seepage
                     through the seal, such as type of soil, water content,
                     density, thickness, etc., and determination of the
                     seepage rate through the proposed seal.

                     Specifications for a soil liner should be based upon
                     results of the preliminary testing program and at a
                     minimum provide the type of soil, optimum and accept-
                     able range in water content,  and maximum allowable
                     boulder size.   Recommended requirements include (1)
                     the soil should have a high and uniform fines (clays
                     and silts) content, (2)  the water content should be at
                     or up to 4 percent above the optimum for maximum com-
                     paction, and (3) boulder size should not exceed 4
                     inches.
      Taken from "Manual of Standards for Sewage Works Design" prepared
by Water Quality Management Section, Department of Ecology,  State of
Washington, Olympia, Washington.
                                 67

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           -TOPSOIL AND GRASS AND/OR  RIPRAP (>4")
           -SOIL LINER (> 12", WITH LIFT  THICKNESS < 6" )
                      SOIL  LINER
                     TOPSOIL AND GRASS AND/OR RIPRAP (>4")
                     SAND OR FINE TEXTURED SOIL (>4")
                     INCORPORATED BENTONITE (>3")
                         SUBSOIL BASEr-
                  BENTONITE   LINER
                   HEAVY  COBBLE OR COURSE GRAVEL OR SMALL
                                          RIPRAP  (>3")
                   SAND OR FINE TEXTURED SOIL (> 3")
                   SYNTHETIC LINER (>0.02)
                   BEDDING OF CLEAN SOIL OR SAND
                  SYNTHETIC  LINER
Figure  6.   Cross sections of liners,
                           68

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       Specifications for construction and/or placement of
       a soil seal should be based upon results of a pre-
       liminary testing program.   As a minimum they should
       provide for sealing of dikes prior to pond bottom
       and specify seal density and thickness and number of
       lifts.  Recommended requirements include (1) the
       liner should be compacted  at the proper water content
       to at least 90 percent of  Standard Proctor Density,
       (2) the liner should be at least 12 inches thick and
       applied in lifts no greater than 6 inches, (3)  the
       completed liner should be  maintained at or above the
       optimum water content until the pond is prefilled,
       and (4) dike liners should be covered as described
       under Embankment and Dikes.

       Construction and/or placement of the soil liner should
       be inspected and tested to ascertain compliance with
       specifications.  Written certification that the soil liner
       was constructed in accordance with specifications should
       be provided by the project engineer or an independent
       soils laboratory.  Tests for water content and  density
       should be taken during application of each lift.   Addi-
       tionally, either permeability testing of undisturbed
       core samples from the in-place seal, or detailed tests
       such as particle size distribution and Atterburg limits
       confirming that the soil used in liner construction was
       the same soil initially tested,  should be provided.  In
       all cases, at least one test should be provided per
       acre per lift, except for  core sampling of the  in-
       place liner, where one core of the completed liner
       should be tested per acre.

15.414 Bentonite Liners (Figure 6)

       Preliminary testing of proposed bentonite liners should
       include, in addition to the tests outlined for  soil
       liners, an examination of  the type and rate of  bentonite
       being considered.

       Specifications for the bentonite liner should be based
       upon results of the preliminary testing program and at
       a minimum provide the types of soil, type of bentonite,
       bentonite application rate, and optimum and acceptable
       range in water content of  the soil-bentonite mixture.
       Recommended requirements include (1) the bentonite
       should be high-swelling and free-flowing and have a
       particle size distribution favorable for uniform appli-
       cation and minimizing of wind drift, (2) the application
       rate should be at least 125 percent of the minimum rate
       found to be adequate in laboratory tests,  (3) appli-
       cation rates recommended by a supplier should be con-
       firmed by an independent laboratory, and (4)  the water

                    69

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       content of  the  soil-bentonite mixture should be at
       or up  to 4  percent  above  the optimum for maximum
       compaction.

       Specifications  for  construction  and/or placement of
       a bentonite liner should  be based  upon results of
       the preliminary testing program  and at a minimum
       provide lining  of dikes prior to bottom, bentonite
       application procedures, seal density, covering of
       the seal, and prehydration of the  bentonite.  Recom-
       mended requirements include  (1)  bentonite  should be
       applied with specifically designed spreading equip-
       ment,  (2) application should be  split so that one-
       half is applied in  one direction and the other half
       in a perpendicular  direction, (3)  the bentonite
       should be mixed into the  soil to a uniform depth of
       at least 3  inches,  (4) the liner should be compacted
       at the proper water content  to at  least 90 percent
       of Standard Proctor Density  (specifically  excluding
       use of a sheepsfoot roller),  (5) the completed seal
       should be covered with at least  4  inches of soil in
       addition to necessary erosion control, and (6) the
       completed liner should be hydrated with fresh water
       prior  to introduction of  wastewater and kept at or
       above  the optimum water content  until the  pond is
       prefilled.

       The bentonite supplier or its representative should
       verify that the specifications are in accordance
       with its recommendations, and written certification
       that the liner  was  provided  and  applied in accordance
       with specifications should be furnished by the supplier,
       project engineer, or independent soils laboratory.
       The actual  bentonite application rate and  the water
       content and density should be tested during liner con-
       struction.   Permeability  testing of undisturbed core
       samples should  be provided following seal  completion.
       At least one test per acre is recommended  in all cases.

15.415 Synthetic Liners (Figure  6)

       Requirements for thickness of synthetic liners may
       vary due to liner material,  but  it is generally
       recommended that the liner thickness be no less than
       .020 inch or 20 mil.  Such thickness provides a safety
       factor which will reduce  the probability of puncture.
       Consideration should also be given to liners contain-
       ing reinforcing in  appropriate situations, such as
       sidewall slopes steeper  than 3:1 or pond depths greater
       than 6 feet. Special care must  be taken to select  the
       appropriate material to perform  under existing
       conditions.

                   70

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Proper site preparation for synthetic liners is
essential.  The subsoil bed should be sufficiently
prepared to ensure that all holes, rocks, stumps,
and other debris are eliminated.  The subsoil should
be sieved or the area raked after grading to provide
a smooth, flat surface free of stones and other
sharp protrusions that could damage the liner.  If
the subsoil contains sharp, nonremovable objects, a
bedding of 2 to 4 inches of clean soil or sand should
be provided.  Soil should be well compacted and
sterilized to kill vegetation.  Four-inch perforated
pipe should be strategically placed to allow venting
and draining of the soil to reduce gas and hydrostatic
pressures and to facilitate monitoring for leakage.
The pipe should be installed in trenches sloping
toward a sump and be backfilled with pea gravel or
other coarse material.

Liner panels should be laid out in a longitudinal
direction with an overlap of 4 to 6 inches.  Careful
application of the appropriate adhesive is essential.

The anchor trench should be a minimum 6-inch depth
and be placed at least 9 to 12 inches beyond the
slope break at the dike.  Care must be exercised in
the backfilling of the anchor trench to ensure the
liner is not damaged.

To prevent erosion, mechanical damage to the liner,
and hydraulic lifting of the liner, a minimum backfill
of 6 inches on top of the liner is recommended.  On
the side slopes this should consist of a minimum 3-
inch primary fill of sand or finely textured soil and
a minimum 3-inch secondary fill of heavier cobble,
coarse gravel, or small riprap.  On the bottom the
backfill may consist solely of the sand or finely
textured soils.

The manufacturer's representative should supervise
or conduct all phases of installation.  It is also
recommended that installation be done by contractors
familiar with potential problems that can be
encountered.
             71

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                             APPENDIX B

            STATE  OF MINNESOTA LAGOON LINER  REQUIREMENTS1


 94.2 Pond  Bottom

    94.21 Soil   Soil used  in  constructing  the  pond bottom  (not  including
    seal) and dike cores shall be  relatively incompressible  and tight  and
    compacted at or up  to  4 percent  above  the  optimum water  content  to at
    least 90 percent Standard Proctor Density.

    94.22   Seal  Ponds  shall  be sealed such  that  seepage loss through  the
    seal is as low as practically  possible.  Seals consisting of soils,
    bentonite, or  synthetic liners may be  considered provided the
    permeability,  durability,  integrity and  cost-effectiveness  of  the
    proposed material can  be  satisfactorily  demonstrated for anticipated
    conditions.  Results of a testing program  which substantiates  the  ade-
    quacy of the proposed  seal must  be incorporated into and/or accompany
    the  engineering report.   Standard ASTM procedures or acceptable  similar
    methods shall  be used  for all  tests.

    To achieve an  adequate seal in systems using  soil or bentonite seal
    materials, the coefficient of  permeability (K) in centimeters per
    second  specified for the  seal  shall not  exceed the value derived from
    the  following  expression:

        K   <  2.58 x 10~9(L)

    where L equals the  thickness of  the seal in centimeters.

    For  a seal consisting  of  a synthetic liner, seepage loss through the
    liner shall  not exceed the quantity equivalent to seepage loss through
    an adequate  soil seal.

    In addition  to the  specific quality control tests specified for  each
    type of seal In the following  three sections, all ponds  should be
    prefilled (See Section 94.24)  and checked  for seepage as a  final field
    determination  of the quality of  in-place seals.

    Schematics of  each  of  the  three  basic  seal systems are attached  for
    information.

        94.221 Soil Seals  (Figure  4)

        a.     Preliminary testing of proposed soil seals shall  include
              examination of  the  factors  affecting seepage  through  the
              seal such as type(s)  of soil, water content,  density,
              thickness,  etc.  and determination of the coefficient  of
              permeability for proposed seal.
      Taken from revised manual "Recommended Standards for Sewage Works"
prepared by Minnesota Pollution Control Agency,  Roseville, Minnesota.
                                 73

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                       -TOPSOIL AND  GRASS AND/OR RIPRAP  (>4", 10cm)
                       -SOIL SEAL (> 12", 30cm, WITH LIFT THICKNESS
                                              < 6", 15cm)
Figure 4.   Cross-section of pond sealed with soil (Section 94.221)
                     -TOPSOIL AND GRASS AND/OR RIPRAP (> 4", 10 cm)
                     -SAND OR FINE TEXTURED SOIL  ( > 4", 10cm)
                     -INCORPORATED BENTONITE  (> 3", 7.5 cm)
Figure 5.  Cross-section of pond sealed with bentonite  (Section 94.222)
                       HEAVY  COBBLE OR COURSE  GRAVEL OR SMALL RIPRAP
                                              (>3",7.5 cm)
                       SAND OR FINE TEXTURED SOIL (> 3, 7.5 cm)
                       SYNTHETIC  LINER (> 0.02" 0.05 cm )
                       BEDDING  OF CLEAN  SOIL OR  SAND
                           SUBSOIL  BASE
 Figure 6.   Cross-section Of pond  sealed with synthetic liner (Section
             94.223)
                                    74

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b.     Specifications for a soil seal shall be based upon results
       of the preliminary testing program and at a minimum provide
       the type(s) of soil, optimum and acceptable range in water
       content, maximum coefficient of permeability, and maximum
       allowable boulder size.  Recommended requirements include:
       (1) the soil shall have a high and uniform fines (clays
       and silts) content; (2) the water content shall be at or
       up to 4 percent above the optimum for maximum compaction;
       (3) the coefficient of permeability shall not exceed the
       value derived in Section 94.22; and (4) boulder size shall
       not exceed four inches (10 centimeters).

c.     Specifications for construction and/or placement of a soil
       seal shall be based upon results of a preliminary testing
       program.  As a minimum they shall provide for sealing of
       dikes prior to pond bottom and specify seal density and
       thickness and number of lifts.  Recommended requirements
       include:  (1) the seal shall be compacted at the proper
       water content to at least 90 percent of Standard Proctor
       Density; (2) the seal shall be at least 12 inches (30
       centimeters) thick and applied in lifts no greater than
       six inches (15 centimeters); (3) the completed seal shall be
       maintained at or above the optimum water content until the
       pond is prefilled in accordance with 94.24; and (4) dike
       seals shall be covered as specified in 94.17.

d.     Construction and/or placement of the soil seal shall be
       inspected and tested to ascertain compliance with specifi-
       cations.  Written certification that the soil seal was con-
       structed in accordance with specifications shall be provided
       by the project engineer or an independent soils laboratory.
       Tests for water content and density shall be taken during
       application of each lift.  Additionally,  either permeability
       testing of undisturbed core samples from the in-place seal,
       or detailed tests such as particle size distribution and
       Atterburg limits confirming the soil used in seal construction
       was the same soil initially tested shall be provided.  In all
       cases, at least one test shall be provided per acre per lift
       (two tests per hectare per lift), except for core sampling
       of the in-place seal where one core of the completed seal
       shall be tested per acre (two cores per hectare).

94.222 Bentonite Seals (Figure 5)

a.     Preliminary testing of proposed bentonite seals shall include,
       in addition to the tests outlined in 94.221a, an examination
       of the type and rate of bentonite being considered.

b.     Specifications for the bentonite seal shall be based upon
       results of the preliminary testing program and at a minimum
       provide the type(s) of soil, type of bentonite, bentonite
       application rate, optimum and acceptable range in water

                           75

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       content of the soil-bentonite mixture and maximum coef-
       ficient of permeability.   Recommended requirements include:
       (1) the bentonite shall be high swelling,  free flowing and
       have a particle size distribution favorable  for uniform
       application and minimizing wind drift;  (2)  the application
       rate shall be at least 125 percent of the minimum rate found
       to be adequate in laboratory tests;  (3)  application rates
       recommended by a supplier shall be confirmed by an inde-
       pendent laboratory;  (4) the water content of the soil-
       bentonite mixture shall be at or up to 4 percent above the
       optimum for maximum compaction; and (5)  the  coefficient of
       permeability shall not exceed the value  derived in Section
       94.22.

c.      Specifications for construction and/or placement of a bentonite
       seal shall be based upon results of the  preliminary testing
       program and at a minimum provide sealing of  dikes prior to
       bottom, bentonite application procedures,  seal density, cover-
       ing of the seal and prehydration of the  bentonite.   Recom-
       mended requirements include:  (1) bentonite  shall be applied
       with specifically designed spreading equipment; (2) appli-
       cation shall be split such that one-half is  applied in one
       direction and the remaining half in a perpendicular direction;
       (3) the bentonite shall be mixed into the soil to a uniform
       depth of at least three inches (7.5 centimeters); (4) the
       seal shall be compacted at the proper water  content to at
       least 90 percent of Standard Proctor Density (specifically
       excluding use of a sheepsfoot roller);  (5)  the completed seal
       shall be covered with at least four inches (10 centimeters)
       of soil in addition to necessary erosion control as outlined
       in 94.17; and (6) the completed seal shall be hydrated with
       fresh water prior to introduction of wastewater and kept at
       or above the optimum water content until the pond is pre-
       filled in accordance with Section 94.24.

d.      The bentonite supplier or their representative shall verify
       that the specifications are in accordance with their recom-
       mendations, and written certification that the seal was pro-
       vided and applied in accordance with specifications shall  be
       furnished by the supplier, project engineer, or independent
       soils laboratory.  The actual bentonite application rate and
       the water content and density shall be tested during seal
       construction.  Permeability testing of undisturbed core
       samples shall be provided following seal completion.  At
       least one test per acre (two tests per hectare) is required
       in all cases.

94.223 Synthetic Liners  (Figure 6)

a.      Requirements for thickness of synthetic seals may vary due
       to liner material but it is generally recommended that the
       linear thickness be no less than .020 inches or 20 "mil"
       (0.50 millimeters).  Such thickness provides a safety factor

                            76

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       which will reduce the probability of puncture.  Consideration
       should also be given to liners containing reinforcing in
       appropriate situations, such as sidewall slopes steeper than
       3:1 or ponds depths greater than six feet (2 meters).
       Special care must be taken to select the appropriate material
       to perform under existing conditions.

b.     Proper site preparation for synthetic liners is essential.
       The subsoil bed shall be sufficiently prepared to insure that
       all holes, rocks, stumps, and other debris are eliminated.
       The subsoil shall be sieved or the area raked after grading
       to provide a smooth, flat surface free of stones and other
       sharp protrusions which could damage the liner.  If the sub-
       soil contains sharp, non-removable objects,  a bedding of two
       to four inches (5-10 centimeters) of clean soil or sand
       shall be provided.

       Soil shall be well compacted and sterilized to kill vegetation.
       Four-inch (10-centimeter) perforated pipe should be strate-
       gically placed to allow venting and draining of the soil to
       reduce gas and hydrostatic pressures and to facilitate monitor-
       ing for leakage.   The pipe should be installed in trenches
       sloping toward a sump and be backfilled with pea gravel or
       other coarse material.

c.     Liner panels should be laid out in a longitudinal direction
       with an overlap of four to six inches (10 - 15 centimeters).
       Careful application of the appropriate adhesive is essential.

       The anchor trench should have a. minimum six-inch (15-
       centimeter) depth and be placed at least 9-12 inches (22 -
       30 centimeters) beyond the slope break at the dike.  Care
       must be exercised in the backfilling of the anchor trench
       to insure the liner is not damaged.

       To prevent erosion, mechanical damage to the liner, and
       hydraulic lifting of the liner, a minimum backfill of six
       inches (15 centimeters) on the top of the liner is recom-
       mended.  On the side slopes this should consist of a minimum
       three-inch (7.5 centimeter) primary fill of sand or finely
       textured soil and a minimum three-inch (7.5 centimeter)
       secondary fill of heavier cobble, coarse gravel or small
       riprap.  On the bottom the backfill may consist solely of
       the sand or finely textured soils.

d.     The manufacturer's representative shall supervise or conduct
       all phases of installation.  It is also recommended that
       installation be done by contractors familiar with potential
       problems which can be encountered.

                           77

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94.23  Uniformity  The pond bottom shall be as level as possible at all
points.  Finished elevations shall not be more than one inch (2.5
centimeters) from the average elevation of the bottom.   Shallow or
feathering fringe areas usually result in locally unsatisfactory
conditions.

94.24 Prefilling   All ponds shall be prefilled to the two foot (0.6
meter) level to protect the liner, to prevent weed growth, to encourage
rapid startup of the biological process and discourage odor, to reduce
freeze up problems for late fall startups, to confirm the seal's
integrity (as discussed in Section 94.22) and to maintain the water
of the seal at or above optimum.  However, the dikes must be completely
prepared as described in Sections 94.171 and/or 94.172 before the
introduction of water.  Water for prefilling may be taken from the
municipal water supply system or a nearby lake or stream.  The raw
sewage influent alone shall not be used for prefilling purposes.
                                78

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                            APPENDIX C

             TRADE NAMES AND SOURCES OF COMMON LINING

                      MATERIALS (KAYS, 1977)1
Trade Name
Production Description    Manufacturer
Trade Names
Aqua Sav


Armor last


Armorshell


Armortite

Arrowhead


Biostate Liner



Careymat


CPE (resin)


Coverlight

Driliner



EPDM (resin)

Flexseal


Geon (resin)

Griffolyn 45


Griffolyn E


Griffolyn V
Butyl rubber


Reinforced neoprene
  and Hypalon

PVC-nylon laminates


PVC coated fabrics


Bentonite
Plymouth Rubber
Canton, Mass.

Cooley, Inc.
Pawtucket, R.I.

Cooley, Inc.
Pawtucket, R.I.

Cooley, Inc.
Pawtucket, R.I.
Dresser Minerals
Houston, Tex.
Biologically stable PVC   Goodyear Tire & Rubber
                            Co.
                          Akron, Ohio
Prefabricated asphalt
  panels

Chlorinated PE resin
Reinforced butyl and
  Hypalon
Butyl rubber
Ethylene propylene
  diene monomer resins
Hypalon and Reinforced
  Hypalon

PVC resin
Reinforced Hypalon


Reinforced PVC


Reinforced PVC, oil
  resistant
Phillip Carey Co.
Cincinnati, Ohio

Dow Chemical Co.
Midland, Mich.

Reeves Brothers, Inc.
New York, N.Y.

Goodyear Tire & Rubber
  Co.
Akron, Ohio
U.S. Rubber Co.
New York, N.Y.
B. F. Goodrich Co.
Akron, Ohio

B. F. Goodrich Co.
Akron, Ohio
Griffolyn Co., Inc.
Houston, Tex.
Griffolyn Co., Inc.
Houston, Tex.

Griffolyn Co., Inc.
Houston, Tex.
     1
      Courtesy of John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y.

                                  79

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Trade Name
Production Description    Manufacturer
Hydroliner


Hydromat

Hypalon (resin)


Ibex

Koroseal


Kreene


Meadowmat

National Baroid

Nordel (resin)


Panelcraft

Paraqual

Petromat



Pliobond


Polyliner


Red Top

Royal Seal

SS-13
Butyl rubber
Prefabricated asphalt
  panels
Chlorosulfonated PE
  resin
Bentonite

PVC films

PVC films
Prefabricated asphalt
  panels with PVC Core
Bentonite
Ethylene propylene
  diene monomer resin
Prefabricated asphalt
  panels
EPDM and butyl
Polypropylene woven
  fabric
(Base fabric-spray
  linings)
PVC adhesive
PVC-CPE, alloy film
Bentonite
EPDM and butyl
Waterborne dispersion
Goodyear Tire & Rubber
  Co.
Akron, Ohio
W. R. Meadows, Inc.
Elgin, 111.

E. I. Du Pont Co.
Wilmington, Del.

Chas. Pfizer & Co.
New York, N.Y.

B. F. Goodrich Co.
Akron, Ohio
Union Carbide &
  Chemical Co.
New York, N.Y.

W. R. Meadows, Inc.
Elgin, 111.
National Lead Co.
Houston, Tex.

E. I. Du Pont Co.
Wilmington, Del.
Envoy-APOC
Long Beach, Calif.
Aldan Rubber Co.
Philadelphia, Pa.
Phillips Petroleum Co.
Bartlesville, Okla.
Goodyear Tire & Rubber
  Co.
Akron, Ohio

Goodyear Tire & Rubber
  Co.
Akron, Ohio
Wilbur Ellis Co.
Fresno, Calif.
U.S. Rubber Co.
Mishawaka, Ind.
Lauratan Corp.
Anaheim, Calif.
                                  80

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Trade Name
Production Description    Manufacturer
Sure Seal
Vinaliner
Butyl, EPDM, neoprene,
  and Hypalon, plain
  and reinforced

PVC
Carlisle Corp.
Carlisle, Pa.

Goodyear Tire & Rubber
  Co.
Akron, Ohio
Vinyl Clad
Visqueen
Volclay
Water Seal
PVC, reinforced
PE resin
Bentonite
Bentonite
Sun Chemical Co.
Paterson, N.J.
Ethyl Corp.
Baton Rouge, La.
American Colloid Co.
Skokie, 111.
Wyo-Ben Products
Billings, Mont.
Materials
Manufacturers
Locations
Sources
Bentonite
Butyl and EPDM
Butyl and EPDM,
  reinforced
CPE, reinforced
Hypalon
Hypalon, reinforced
American Colloid Co.
Archer-Daniels-Midland
Ashland Chemical Co.
Chas. Pfizer & Co.
Dresser Minerals
National Lead Co.
Wilbur Ellis Co.
Wyo-Ben Products, Inc.
Carlisle Corp.
Goodyear Tire & Rubber
  Co.
Aldan Rubber Co.
Carlisle Corp.
Plymouth Rubber Co.
Reeves Brothers, Inc.
Goodyear Tire & Rubber
  Co.

Burke Rubber Co.
B. F. Goodrich Co.

Burke Rubber Co.
Carlisle Corp.
B. F. Goodrich Co.
Plymouth Rubber Co.
J. P. Stevens Co.
Skokie, 111.
Minneapolis, Minn,
Cleveland, Ohio
New York, N.Y.
Houston, Tex.
Houston, Tex.
Fresno, Calif.
Billings, Mont.
Carlisle, Pa.
Akron, Ohio

Philadelphia, Pa.
Carlisle, Pa.
Canton, Mass.
New York, N.Y.
Akron, Ohio


San Jose, Calif.
Akron, Ohio

San Jose, Calif.
Carlisle, Pa.
Akron, Ohio
Canton, Mass.
New York, N.Y.
                                   81

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Materials
Manufacturers
Locations
EPDM

EPDM, reinforced


Neoprene
Neoprene, reinforced
PE



PE, reinforced

PVC
PVC, reinforced
Prefabricated asphalt
  panels
3110
See "Butyl and EPDM"

See "Butyl and EPDM,
  reinforced"

Carlisle Corp.
Firestone Tire & Rubber
  Co.
B. F. Goodrich Co.
Goodyear Tire & Rubber
  Co.

Carlisle Corp.
B. F. Goodrich Co.
Firestone Tire & Rubber
  Co.
Plymouth Rubber Co.
Reeves Brothers, Inc.

Monsanto Chemical Co.
Union Carbide, Inc.
Ethyl Corp.

Griffolyn Co., Inc.

Firestone Tire & Rubber
  Co.
B. F. Goodrich Co.
Goodyear Tire & Rubber
  Co.
Pantasote Co.
Stauffer Chemical Co.
Union Carbide, Inc.
Carlisle, Pa.
Akron, Ohio

Akron, Ohio
Akron, Ohio


Carlisle, Pa.
Akron, Ohio
Akron, Ohio

Canton, Mass.
New York, N.Y.

St. Louis, Mo.
New York, N.Y.
Baton Rouge, La.

Houston, Tex.

Akron, Ohio

Akron, Ohio
Akron, Ohio

New York, N.Y.
New York, N.Y.
New York, N.Y.
Firestone Tire & Rubber   Akron, Ohio
  Co.
B. F. Goodrich Co.
Goodyear Tire & Rubber
  Co.
Reeves Brothers, Inc.
Cooley, Inc.
Sun Chemical Co.
                                                   Akron, Ohio
                                                   Akron, Ohio

                                                   New York, N.Y.
                                                   Pawtucket, R.I.
                                                   Paterson, N.J.
Envoy-APOC
Gulf Seal, Inc.
W. R. Meadows, Inc.
Phillip Carey Co.
E. I. Du Pont Co.
Long Beach, Calif,
Houston, Tex.
Elgin, 111.
Cincinnati, Ohio
Louisville, Ky.
                                   82

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-------
                                          APPENDIX E
                                ASPHALT  PANEL  LININGS
                                                                   1
PANELCRAFT panels can  be installed around equipment
foundations. The panels are unaffected by fluid motion of
domestic sewage and other water-based fluids in properly
designed reservoirs and storage systems with agitation
systems
Flexibility to move  with

Earth  Movements
PANELCRAFT panels are  used in many multi-acre reser-
voirs of great depth and similar facilities in areas of HIGH-
SEISMIC activity With reasonable care and planning during
installation, facilitated and  made possible by the flexibility
of the PANELCRAFT panels, these finings will provide the
orpatpst «*»ruirp at a rpacnnahlp r.n^t
greatest service at a reasonable cost.
                                                   Single-ply  and  Two-ply

                                                   options
                                                   PANELCRAFT linings may be installed in either of two
                                                   ways, depending upon the type of reservoir, pond, or other
                                                   storage system.
                                                   • The single-thickness (1/2-mch) system of installation can
                                                     be either installed with  edges  butted together and a
                                                     batten strip placed over the butt point, or the panels can
                                                     be overlapped to obtain the desired joint
                                                   • For those applications requiring a perfectly smooth sur-
                                                     face  (for sweeping and other cleaning requirements, for
                                                     example), the  use of two layers  of 1/4-mdi PANEL-
                                                     CRAFT panels is recommended  The first layer of panels
                                                     are installed, with ends butted together, and the second
                                                     layer is placed  on top of the first, with the second layer
                                                     of panels offset approximately one-half panel to prevent
                                                     butt joints from being directly over each other.
 SINGLE-PLY
           BATTEN JOINT
                                OVERLAP JOINT
                                                                      OFFSET TWO-PL Y JOINT
                                                                  PANLL INSTALLATIO'V
Either of the above installation systems provide maximum
protection from water loss, and may be walked on, swept,
and subjected to normal earth movement without loss of
protection  PANELCRAFT system requires no additional
protective coverings
PANELCRAFT linings are made of high-grade bitumen, re-
inforced  with FIBERGLASS. This  construction  makes
possible an odorless liner that imparts no taste to the water,
and that is strong and flexible

As shown in  the cutaway drawing, the panels are made in
five layers
I  The core  of ductile air-blown asphalt, fortified  with
   minerals and reinforcing fibers, thoroughly compounded
   and molded  under  pressure  and  heat into panels of
   desired thickness and length
}  Coverings of flexible FIBERGLASS MA T on both  sides
   of the core
   Protective coating of water repelling asphalt, hot applied
   to both sides of panel.
                                                                 PANFL CQNSTHUCTIQN
                                                   PANELCRAFT fits properly compacted ground contours
                                                   perfectly, and adjusts quickly to normal earth movements.
                                                   No heaving, distorting, or damage from hot or cold weather
l
 Courtesy  of  Asphalt Products  Oil  Corp.,  Long  Beach,  California.

                                                85

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Protecting   our  Water

Resources

PANELCRAFT  linings  are  protecting  reservoirs,  lakes,
canals,  reflecting ponds, holding basins, sewage ponds and
other water conservation and storage systems from loss of
water through leakage, seepage, and intrusion — SUCCESS-
FULL Y FOR OVER TWO DECADES
The need for protection and conservation of our precious
water supplies is obvious The large population movement
to arid  areas, the normal population growth, the expansion
of water-oriented residential  and  retirement areas, recrea-
tion areas, and urban and suburban greenbelts  places enor-
mous demands on  our  relatively finite water icsources
Maximum use must be obtained from every drop of water
for its beauty of appearance, for its life-support properties
in drinking water, and its utility in the production of food,
manufacture, and even disposal  Every plan that  includes
waterA/L/$7 BE WATERPROOF Every drop of water must
be protected against  waste and loss through leakage, seep-
age, and contamination by intrusion

PANELCRAFT wilt insure the leakage protection of your
reservoir,  lake, canal,  or other storage system —  and will
provide this protection economically with long life, dura-
bility, and minimum  maintenance  Some storage systems
using PANELCRAFT are over 20 years  old - and now
PANELCRAFT   is   FIBERGLASS  REINFORCED  for
strength, stability, and flexibility
today's ecological planning often requires the  storage  of
bilne and  other water-based  byproducts in  storage  basins
to prevent  their intrusion into the soil and local water table
PANELCRAFT provides complete strength  and ieakproof
capabilities to such  holding basins  The  flexibility  of
PANLLCRAFT insures  that   this  integrity  is maintained
even when sub|ected to the motion and disruption  of filling
and emptying for distribution  to disposal points
 Tough  and  Flexible

 PANELCRAFT linings  are tough and flexible, pioviding
 protection  from penetration  during  normal  access and
 maintenance  tasks,  and the flexibility  insures  that the
 panels will  not  crack under  the normal movements of the
earth and pressures and forces that result from water flow,
addition, and drainage. PANELCRAFT panels  have  come
to the  rescue of cracked and leaking concrete and  other
rigid material construction reservoirs and storage systems.
PANLl CRAh T  is simplv  installed over  the  otherwise
troubled concrete  Astern, placing the reservoir or storage
system back into  operation in the shortest time  possible.
                                                   86

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                            APPENDIX F

                          HYPALON LINERS1
                    INSTALLATION PROCEDURE FOR
                 BURKE HYPALON 45 POND/PIT LINERS
      Courtesy of Burke Rubber Company,  Burke Industries,  San Jose,
California.

                                  87

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                       TABLE OF CONTENTS


                                                   Page No.

Installation Plan, General Sequence of Events         1


Customer Furnished Materials for Installation         2


Customer Make-Ready List                              3
General Instructions for Unrolling and Unfolding
   Prefabricated Panels
Recommended Guidelines, Field Seaming Procedure       6


Mandatory Provisions, Field Seaming Procedure         7


Tool List for Field-Seaming Crew(s)                   8
                               88

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                                INSTALLATION  PLAN

                           General  Sequence of Events
1.  Make ready all  materials required for installation prior  to  commencement  of
    lining operations.   See attached check-off list of materials.

2.  Unroll and unfold only those panels which are to be anchored or seamed  together
    in one day.  See attached procedure for unrolling and unfolding techniques.

3.  After the panels are initially placed, it is  desirable to remove as many
    wrinkles as possible.   The purpose of this is to make the edges to be bonded
    as smooth and free of  wrinkles as possible.

4.  As soon as the panels  are in position, commence field-seaming  operations.  See
    attached procedure on  field seaming techniques.

5.  At the end of each day all unseamed edges shall be anchored  by sandbags.   If
    winds are expected, the use of boards along the edges of  the panels, with
    sandbags on top, should be used to anchor liner.

6.  After field-seaming is complete in a given area, liner edges in anchor  trench
    Should be buried.

    NOTE:  Do not bury the liner edge in the anchor trench within  30 feet
           of an "incomplete" field seam.   This is  to allow the  seam area
           to be retensioned to remove wrinkles along the seam area.

7.  In selecting the sequence to be used in field-seaming, always  start in  the
    middle and work toward an open end.  This will  minimize large  wrinkles  from
    becoming trapped, which requires cutting and  patching.
                                      89

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 Customer should supply the listed  materials
 for installation of prefabricated  panels  of
 BURKE HYPALON LINERS


 1.   All  field installation labor and  official  supervision,  i.e.,  crew  chief or  foreman.

 2.   Means to move rolled-up panels of pond  liner  to  specified  locations  at pit site.
     Rolls 4' diameter by 7' long  will  weigh  approximately  2,500  to  5,000 Ibs.

 3.   Stakes and string or chalk lines (not  lime) to define  panels  locations and initial
     unroll guidelines as indicated on the marked-up  print  provided.

 4.   Canvas, burlap, or polyethylene  bags filled with sand  or soft dirt to hold the
     unseamed edges in place;  quantity depends on  wind present  during  installation;
     figure on one bag per five to  ten feet  of unanchored panel perimeter.

 5.   Five to ten hand rakes, or large paving  rakes.

 6.   One or more small compacting  roller  for  smoothing out  or compacting  rough  or
     badly gouged earth at the pit  site (such as a lawn roller).

 7.   Portable hot air gun.  (See seaming  tool  list).

 8.   Five to ten shovels.

 9.   Large box or barrel  of clean  cotton  rags.

10.   Tape measure, 100-foot.

11.   Roll of twine or heavy string.

12.   Old boards, such as 1" x  4",  2"  x 4",  1" x 6", 1" x 8" for holding unseamed
     edges in place while awaiting  seaming  (to be  used in conjunction  with above
     sandbags).

13.   A way to drag a 2,500-5,000 Ib.  strip of folded  pond liner if required—rope,
     pipe and pulling means.

14.   All  proper safety equipment and  supplies. Responsibility  for all safety aspects
     of the installation is the customer's.

15.   All  persons at the site to have  smooth,  protrusion-free shoe soles and heels.
     (Tennis shoes).

16.   A 10-foot plus length of 2-1/2"  to 4"  pipe.

17.   Two 8-foot lengths of wood, 2" x 4".

18.   Fifty feet of 1/2", 5/8", or  3/4" rope.

19.   Wooden dowels, 3/4" to 1-1/2"  diameter,  approximately  12"  long.   Ends to be
     rounded smooth.  These dowels used to  facilitate crew  in  holding  onto liner as
     it unfolds.

20.   If field seaming will be performed,  all  required equipment per  the attached "tool
     list for field-seaming crew"  should  be  provided.
                                         90

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                              CUSTOMER MAKE-READY LIST
Things to be accomplished the afternoon or evening
before commencement of the lining operations.
1.  All equipment, tools and supplies to be at the pond site in a suitable storage
    area.

2.  The first day's panels to be in position as shown on the layout drawing.   Leave
    the panels packaged, and if hot sunlight is present, shade the panels  from direct
    sunlight using any opaque sheeting; leave free-flowing air space between  opaque
    sheeting and panels.

3.  Anchor trench dug all around pond.  Excavated anchor trench dirt to be spread out
    (raked back, flat, away from anchor trench) so that panels can be unrolled on
    the top of the berm.

4.  Stakes and/or lines indicating panel locations as shown on the layout  drawing
    to be installed.

5.  All pond dimensions to be checked to verify that actual pond dimensions are not
    greater than those dimensions shown on the drawing.

6.  Pond to be ready to be covered with liner.

    A.  Pond surface raked, smooth, rolled if necessary; free of all  large, sharp
        rocks or other sharp objects, free of all vegetation and vegetation
        stubble.

    B.  All penetrations, (pipes, etc.) covered or wrapped to protect liner from
        being cut, abraded or punctured during installation.

    C.  All concrete slabs and skirts around penetrating pipes swept clean and
        free of all debris and rocks.  Where subsequent bonding to concrete is
        to be done, the surface to be smooth, clean, dry and ready for adhesive
        applications.

    D.  All pipes, drains, fittings, etc., which are to be installed  beneath  the
        liner should be in place ready to be covered with liner.

7.  Distribute sandbags (about one every five feet) along the perimeters of the
    area to be lined the next day.   Don't put them in the area where the panels
    will be unrolled, but immediately adjacent thereto.
                                        91

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General  Instructions for Unrolling
and Unfolding Prefabricated Panels of
BURKE HYPALON LINERS
1.  The package is marked on the outside clearly indicating the panel  identification
    letter and the directions for unrolling and unfolding.   When locating the packaged
    panels, observe these markings so panels can be unrolled and unfolded in the proper
    direction,  (It is also clearly marked on the roll  of material  inside),

2.  Leave packaging on the panel until  ready to unrolL   If the panel  will  be sitting
    in direct sunlight for over 1/2 hour before unrolling,  it should be completely
    shaded with any opaque sheeting.  It is necessary to leave a free-flowing air
    space between the opaque sheeting and the packaged  panel,

3.  When ready to unroll  the panels, remove the packaging carefully   DO NOT USE A
    KNIFE AS DAMAGE TO LINER MAY OCCUR,   Before unrolling off of the pallet, carefully
    inspect the pallet for and remove any protrusions which  may damage the liner.

4.  The panel is normally unrolled by inserting a 2-1/2" to 4" diameter pipe 10-12'
    long, through the cardboard core and then looping a  rope over each of the pro-
    jecting ends of the pipe.  The rope  should be out close to the  ends of the pipe
    and away from the roll of Hypalon sheeting.  The rope should not touch the
    Hypalon during unrolling.  By putting an equal  number of men on each rope and
    pulling, the panel is unrolled along the desired guide  line-   Crew size:  One
    man/1,000 sq. ft. of any one panel  (e g,, 15,000 sq. ft,  panel  requires  15 men).

5.  After the panel is unrolled, it is straightened out  to  the guide "line as
    indicated by the technical  advisor or crew chief,

6.  The panel is then unfolded into position   Men  are  positioned at the edge of the
    panel as indicated by the technical  advisor or  crew  chief   Generally,  the men
    are positioned approximately 15 feet apart, depending on the size of the panel
    and the terrain to be covered.  If required, men are positioned at the uphill  end
    of the panel to keep it from sliding down the slope  as  it is unfolded.   If the
    edge to be gripped is subsequently to be bonded, then the panel edge is  folded
    back about two or three feet, and the fold is gripped for pulling  rather than
    the edge.  This is to avoid stretching the edge where it is to  be  bonded.
    Gripping of the panel can be facilitated by use of  a short length  of wood dowel,
    3/4" to 1-1/2" in diameter, and 12"  to 18" long  The Imer is  first wrapped
    around the dowel, and then gripped.   The edges  of the dowels should be carefully
    rounded off to prevent sharp edges from digging into the liner  as  it is  pulled

7.  As the panel is pulled out it is necessary to maintain  air under the liner   This
    air can be obtained and maintained by several means   One way to maintain air
    under the liner is to simply hold the edge up and advance at a  rate fast enough
    to capture air under the liner as it is unfolded  Another way  is  the same as
    above, except the edge is constantly raised and lowered as it is being  spread
    out to "fan" air under the liner.
                                        92

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    When there is a prevailing wind from the direction to which the liner is being
    pulled, then air can be introduced by lifting the edge just enough to allow the
    described amount of air to blow in under the liner.   Care must be exercised in
    this case to only raise the edge of the liner enough to let the "desired" amount
    of air under the liner and lower  to  cut  off the air as soon as enough air is
    captured; otherwise, it is possible to have the liner blow away.

    When the panel has been partially spread and it is necessary to stop (as is
    often the case) the edge should be lowered to try to trap as much air as pos-
    sible and keep it from escaping.  In spite of this,  some air will escape and
    it is necessary to introduce more air under the liner; this is accomplished by
   "fanning" the edge of the sheet up and down, and sending waves of air far in
    under the panel.  A common mistake is, when attempting to do this, the crew does
    not get enough vertical height on the fanning action; the edge of the liner should
    be raised from over-the-head level down to knee level as the cyclic fanning action
    is performed.  This fanning action should be continued as directed by the tech-
    nical advisor or crew chief before spreading of the  liner is attempted.

8.  A slight lateral tension on the leading edge of the  panel being spread should be
    maintained.  This lateral  tension facilitates the spreading operations.
    A.  Generally, a 2:1 slope is the steepest slope which men  can walk on  to spread
        the liner.  Where the liner must be installed on a slope steeper than 2:1,
        special detailed plans must be worked out ahead of time by the people res-
        ponsible for planning the job.

    B.  During unfolding-spreading operations it is  necessary that the crew wear
        work gloves, as these operations can be quite chafing to the knuckles.

    C.  During unfolding-spreading operations it is  necessary that the crew work
        as a team.  The technical advisor shall  provide instructions which  will
        facilitate this requirement,

    D.  If a gust of wind attempts to pull  the liner away from  the crew and they
        are about to lose their footing, the following points are applicable:

        1.  Put  lateral  tension  in  the  leading  edge  and  lower  it  to the
            ground.

        2.  Attempt  to restrain it further by putting one knee  on the  leading  edge.

        If these efforts fail to restrain it, LET IT GO.  DO  NOT HOLD  ONTO  THE
        LINER AND BE PULLED ALONG WITH THE WIND.

    E.  It is advisable that all  persons at the pond site wear  soft rubber-soled
        shoes such as tennis shoes or boat shoes.

    F.  Extreme caution should be exercised when  walking on the Hypalon liner
        material when it is wetc   The sheeting becomes very slippery.   It is
        generally necessary to use a  rope as an aid  in going  in or out of the
        pond.
                                          93

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                          RECOMMENDED  GUIDELINES


1.  Under ideal  soil  and weather conditions,  removal  of surface cure  should
    not be completed  more than ten minutes ahead  of seaming.   Under adverse
    conditions such as high heat, winds,  muddy substrate or other  conditions
    which increase the possibility of  foreign material  to be  deposited  on  the
    washed surfaces,  the amount of time  between washing and seaming should
    be reduced at the discretion of the  technical  advisor or  crew  chief.

2.  Before adhesive is applied, surfaces  to be seamed must have surface
    cure thoroughly removed and be essentially free of  dirt and foreign
    materials.  The presence of a few  particles of sand or dirt is per-
    missible in situations where such  presence is  unavoidable.   The
    acceptable limit  for such presence is where the few particles  are
    totally encapsulated in the adhesive/seam and  they  do not connect to
    form a path for a leak.

3.  On hot days, better results in removal  of surface cure may be  achieved
    by the use of perchloroethylene.

4.  "Fishmouths" can  be folded over and  bonded closed or slit,  bonded down,
    and patched per instructions given by the technical advisor.   Patches
    over fishmouths or other seam flaws  should extend at least 2"  past  the
    flaw in question.  The rule on patches should  be, "if there is any
    question as to whether to patch or not, then  patch  it!"
                                    94

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 neld  Seaming Procedure for
 BURKE  HYPALON LINER MATERIAL
                                MANDATORY PROVISIONS
Over1aps

       Minimum overlap - 4".

Seams

       Minimum seam width - 2"

Preparation
           Remove all foreign matter, loose dirt, oil, etc., from edges to be
           bonded together.

           Surfaces to be seamed must be washed with rags or natural  bristle
           scrub brushes soaked with trichloroethylene or perchloroethylene
           to remove surface cure.  Surface cure is removed when Hypalon turns
           shiny and slick when wet and a dull black when dry.
Application of Adhesive
       Apply a liberal amount of Hypalon adhesive to one of the surfaces and lap
       together immediately—no delay between the time the adhesive is applied
       and material overlapped.  Adhesive must be thoroughly wet at the time
       surfaces are joined, with no evidence of surface "skinning"  or drying
       of the adhesive.

Seaming Method

       Seam is "stitched" by rolling with a steel  roller in a direction perpen-
       dicular to the seam, applying firm pressure.   A small  amount of adhesive,
       forced out of the seam edge, is desirable and indicates sufficient
       adhesive has been applied.

NOTE:  The temperature of the sheet and adhesive when bonding must  be above  60°  F.
       minimum.   If ambient conditions create temperatures  lower  than this,  then
       the sheet and adhesive must be warmed by artificial  means; i.e.,  hot  air
       guns, radiant heaters, heat lamps, spare heaters,  etc.
                                     95

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                                      TOOL  LIST
                               For  Field  Seaming  Crews

 1.   Each man on the seaming  crew to  wear PVA  (polyvinyl  alcohol)  coated gloves.
     Edmont-Wilson,  Coshocton,  Ohio 43812.  Their No. 37-165,  or equal.
 2.   Three sets, Size 10,  cloth gloves.
 3.   Two sets knee pads.   (If desired).
 4.   Roll of tape to hold  on  knee pads,
 5.   Gallon can with handle,  with trichloroethylene.  (Consumption rate same as
     adhesive).
 6.   Ten cotton rags per hour.
 7.   Gallon can with handle,  with adhesive.
 8.   A 3" paint roller with bent wire handle.
 9.   A 12" to 18" long length of 1/2" to  3/4"  diameter metal tubing  (will be
     used to make handle for  paint  roller).
10.   A 2" diameter x 2" long, flat-face,  steel roller with  handle  ("stitcher").
     Hoggson brand,  from H. M.  Royal, Inc., 11911  Woodruff  Avenue, Downey, CA.
     Telephone 213-773-3774.
11.   A stiff bristle, natural bristle scrub brush.
12.   A whisk broom (or fox tail brush).
13.   A 1" x 10" x 10' long Douglas  fir, clear  board, rounded off on  both ends
     and rounded off on all edges with a  rope  tied to one end.
14.   A Stanley knife.
15.   One red or yellow crayon for marking liner  surface.
16.   A pair of scissors with  rounded-off  points.
17.   Each man on seaming crew safety  glasses  (for protection from  solvent splash).
                                      96

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LINER LAYOUT INFORMATION AND DETAILS
                                HYPALON®
                               "LINER
        Vi**Jt*
        '*$&>.
         £*&;t>££:•i/^'ii1-iSl 1L£-iKii»i3'iL'CTH^^/..	r -j^	


           " ""^ssl^^^^^toj^^
                            '••>'-:i!/-'-if;^••'''•-"'!< •-^'^^^

                                 '••'•• ' • v-VV-;':';|-;j .r;.'''A"/^T
 SHROUD GASKETS
                   12" TO 18" 12"TO18"
                                            AIR-GAS VENT
 ANCHOR TRENCH

       &

  AIR-GAS VENT
Courtesy of Burke Rubber Company,  Burke Industries, San Jose,  California


                                  97

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 LINER LAYOUT  INFORMATION AND DETAILS
 NOTE: PLACE A PIECE OF CAULKING TAPE UNDER THE BATTEN STRIP AT THE RAMSET POINT.
 THE BUTYL TAPE WILL SEAL THE HYPALON
 WHEN THE BATTEN STRIP IS RAM-SET.
ANCHORING AND SEALING HYPALON
TO CONCRETE BELOW WATER LEVEL
              NTS
                          BATTEN:
                          1. REDWOOD
                          2. STAINLESS STEEL
                          3. ALUMINUM
                 EXPANSION ANCHORS OR
                 RAM-SET
                 1/4" OR %"
                                                CAULKED IN
                                                PLACE SEALANT
                                                                1"x'/8" BUTYL TAPE
                                                                   (SEE NOTE)
                                                              >  BR-700 CONTACT
                                                                  ADHESIVE
                                                                  6" MINIMUM

                                                                 CONCRETE WALL
                         SAND BOTTOM
                                 INLET PIPE
  30 MIL LINER
BATTEN ANCHOR
SYSTEM
                          BOLTS ON APPROX.
                          - 12" CENTERS
              SEE DETAIL A
                        CONCRETE PAD
                BATTEN:
                1. REDWOOD
                2. STAINLESS STEEL
                3. ALUMINUM
                          30 MIL LINER
                                                             HYPALON SHROUD WITH
                                                             STAINLESS STEEL CLAMP
                                                              FASTENER: RED-HEAD
                                                              OR RAM-SET
                                                                       HYPALON
                                                                       ADHESIVE
 INLET SPLASH PAD
       NTS
                                                             45 MIL
                                                             LINER
                              CONCRETE PAD
BR 700 CONTACT
ADHESIVE
Courtesy of Burke Rubber Company,  Burke Industries,  San Jose,  California

                                      98

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                        APPENDIX G
              B.F. GOODRICH "FLEXSEAL" LINEARS
INFORMATION  BULLETIN
B.F.GOODRICH   GENERAL  PRODUCTS   COMPANY
     D/0414, WHB-3^ 500 South Main Street       Akron, Ohio 44318
                                                                 , RE Goodrich,
                                                    EL-1.6-176
                INSTALLATION GUIDE FOR B.F.GOODRICH POND LINERS
  I.   General

     B.F.Goodrich Pond Liners are all purpose, tough, durable, rubber or PVC linings that are
     heat welded into large panels up to 15,000 square feet each. These in turn can be easily
     assembled, as described later, for lining all possible sized pits, ponds, reservoirs, canals
     and lagoons.

  II.  Tools and Equipment Required for Installation

     Listed below are the materials and equipment that are typically required on job site before
     installation can be accomplished. Please have the materials indicated before the day  of
     installation.

       1.  A means of handling large rolls of material: Forklift, Front end Loader,
          Crane, or Boom truck.
       2.

       3.

       4.

       5.

       6.

       7.

       8.

       9.

      10.
 .4" paint brushes.

 . 2" wide hand rollers (Steel or Nylon).
_ 16' or 20', 1" x 10" clear white pine board or conveyor belt.

_ 50 pound sand bags or tire carcasses.

. pounds of clean rags.

. 1 quart caulking gun.

. 1 gallon paint pails for solvent.

. 6 feet - 2" steel heavy wall (schedule 80) pipe.

. 10 foot chains.
      11. —1 ea  1" x 2" x 12" woodensticks per man.
 Lists: O-GP, 1-SP-E, 1-SP-W
 Courtesy of B.F.  Goodrich, Akron,  Ohio.
                                     99

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III.  Receiving and Storage of Lining Material

    Material is shipped in rolls up to 6 feet diameter, 5 feet long, strapped on skids or in pallet
    boxes. Depending upon the size of the panels, they can weight up to 4,000 pounds each. The
    liner is typically packed in a white covering to reflect the sun's heat and can usually be
    stored outside at the site for one to three weeks before starting the installation with no harm
    to the material. If the job is delayed for an extended time (more than three weeks), material
    must be stored inside or in open shade. PVC  Liners should be stored at temperatures not
    lower than 50°F.

IV.  Preparing the Site for the Installation of the Liner

    Pond should be free of all standing water or mud. Entire surface to be lined must be free from
    all rock, roots, and debris that may puncture the liner material.

    Anchor trench should be dug as per drawings  and material properly spotted for installation.

    The area  to be lined  should  have the soil sterilized.  This is especially true of areas having
    prior growths of nut or quack grasses.

V.  Equipment Needed for Spotting the Material

    The panels will weigh up to 4,000 pounds. A large front end loader, bulldozer or crane is re-
    quired fo spot the rolls of material.

    Material is accordion folded  in the length direction,  then rolled  in the width direction.  The
    package is marked in the direction the material must be unrolled and pulled into the pond so
    that the correct side is up  and placed in its proper position without extra handling. The roll
    is normally spotted at one corner of the final resting place of the panel, either along the berm
    or on a large installation, in the bottom of the pond.

VI.  Positioning the Panels for Seaming

    Unroll the material using a 6'-2" diameter heavy walled pipe through the core of the roll
    chained to the truck or front end loader, being certain to unroll material so that the end of the
    material will be in the proper position when unfolded.

    With small 1" x 2" x 12" sticks in hand, line 10 or 12 men along the 50' folded material.  With
    each man grasping the top layer of material and rollmg"the stick into the material 4" to 8", the
    material is ready to be pulled into the pond.

    After the material  is 75 to 100 feet into the pond,  place a man on each side of the panel and
    have them flip air under the panel. The cushion of air underneath the material makes moving
    a panel 300 feet long relatively easy.

    When the first panel is  in position, temporarily anchor it in the berm  trench with  sandbags
    leaving the edges free to be seamed. The edge of the panel that will be seamed to the next
    panel should be re-positioned so that it is as straight and lying as smooth as possible. Then
    back fill trench partially to hold panel in place.

    Position the next panel  in the same manner and  allow a 6" overlap of material into the first
    panel. After panel is in position, weight panel edges with sand bags or old tire carcasses. Be
    certain to position panel so that the edges to be seamed lie straight and as smooth as possible
    before attempting any seaming.
                                           100

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VII. Adhesive Seaming of Flexseal-Hypalon Pond Liners

    Both liner surfaces of the overlap must be free of dirt or mud. If not, wash with water and dry.
    Wash both surfaces with cleaning solvent using neoprene gloves for hand protection.

    Starting at the center of two panels to be seamed, place a 1" x 10" x 16' board or conveyor
    belting underneath the  overlapped area. With adhesive, mark  outside of  the  overlap. Fold
    overlap back and apply an even coat of adhesive 4" wide to both surfaces. Be  careful not to
    allow coating surfaces to come in  contact with each other before properly  positioned. Adhe-
    sive surfaces are ready to be placed together when the wettest  area will not transfer to your
    clean knuckle when pressed onto the adhesive surface.

    Carefully apply the two surfaces  together avoiding any wrinkles or folds. Using  a 2" hand
    roller, overlapped area with firm pressure to insure a 100% bond. Pay particular attention to
    any area that consists of more than one layer of material (overlapped cross seams).

    After overlap is completed upon the length of the board, apply a coat of adhesive to the 3"
    tape and an area 3" wide centered  on the edge of the overlap just made.

    Allow adhesive to dry, using the knuckle test to tell  when adhesive is dry enough to position
    tape over the seam edge. Position tape and roll firmly with a hand roller.

    Pull board or belting from underneath this section and proceed with the  next section.  Two
    crews may now start seaming toward each end of the panel.
       Notes of caution:


       1. Apply even coats of adhesive.


       2. Allow to dry to the touch.


       3. Avoid wrinkles.


       4. Use a hand roller with firm pressure.


       5. Use a board or belting as a working surface.
VIII.  Proceed with the next panels in the same manner. Do not lay more material than can be
     sealed in one day.
IX.   Inlet and Outlet Pipes that Penetrate the Liner.

     We  recommended  all penetrations through the liner and attachments to the  liner  be in
     accordance with B.F.Goodrich Information Bulletin EL-1.5-775.
                                          101

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INFORMATION   BULLETIN
B.F.GOODRICH   GENERAL   PRODUCTS   COMPANY
P. O. Box 657                                    Marietta, Ohio 45750
                                                                 , RE Goodrich,
               BULLETIN
               EL-1.5-775
                       Typical Installation Details for
               B.F.Goodrich Flexseal®  Pond and Pit Liners
                 ANCHOR TRENCH 6"
                   WIDE MINIMUM
               Figure #1
                TOP SIDE-
              FLEXSEAL LINER
  Figure #2
                 6' DIA -
Figure #1

  The anchor trench should be lo-
cated far enough from the edge of
the berm to provide a sufficient an-
chor for the liner, as well as enough
room to use a ditcher to dig the
trench. The dirt thrown towards the
lagoon may be raked back into the
ditch, provided a minimum 18"
depth is maintained.
Figure #2

  The field seam illustrated is used
for the reinforced Flexseal material.
The 3"wide non-reinforced tape pre-
vents wicking of the effluent into the
reinforcing fabric. If non-reinforced
Flexseal liner material is specified
and used, the 3"tapeis not normally
required.
                                                     Figure #3

                                                      As illustrated, the easiest method
                                                     of placing inlet and outlet pipes into
                                                     Flexseal lined lagoon is over the top
                                                     of the berms.using a protective liner
                                                     to contain the discharge, thus pro-
                                                     tecting the main liner The fewer pro-
                                                     trusions that are designed into a lin-
                                                     ing, the easier it is to installandmain-
                                                     tain both the liner and the piping.

                                                      A double layer of liner material
                                                     over the liner at the inlet may also be
                                                     sufficient, as opposed to the prefab-
                                                     ricated trough illustrated.
                                                                       © TheBF.OoodndiCompwy

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           Flexseal Lining — Penetration Attachments
                      — Flange Type Method —
  -RADIUS ON ALL
  TOP CORNERS

   Figure #4
              -CONCRETE
               PAD
                  STAINLESS STEEL  BOLT,
                     WASHER  8  NUT
                            TACK WELD
  -RADIUS ON ALL
   TOP CORNERS


   Figure #5


 -STAINLESS STEEL
                                Figure #6
    WELD
STAINLESS STEEL
STUD TO FLANGE
                 ^-CONCRETE  P>
                                                   Figures #4, #5, #6
  If an inlet or outlet pipe or support
post must penetrate the Flexseal
liner, B.F.Goodrich recommends a
flanged system be used.

  As illustrated in Figures 4,5 and 6,
all attachment points have a good
mechanical seal to the penetrating
pipes.The concrete padsaround the
pipes should be  used to prevent
ground settlement and unduestress
to the lining material. This system
also allows the installation of large
panels without  cutting and fitting
around the protrusion.
  All corners of the concrete pads
should  be rounded and  have a
smooth troweled surface to prevent
unnecessary wear points. The use of
a flanged extension pipe may be
used to divert the effluent away from
the liner if necessary.
  At an outlet pipe, 100# sacks of
concrete should be placed around
the outlet  five feet apart  approxi-
mately ten feet from the pipe. This
is to prevent the liner from being
sucked into the outlet pipe.
                                   103

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                Flexseal Lining Penetration Attachments
                         — Boot Type Method —
                               CA-1056
                               ADHESIVE
            -RADIUS ON ALL
             TOP CORNERS
                   Figure #7
     STAINLESS
     STEEL CLAMP.
                         FLEXSEAL SEALANT

                         FLEXSEAL BOOT
    RADIUS ON ALL
    TOP CORNERS
Figure #8
     CA-1056 ADHESIVE
        FLEXSEAL
        LINER
 SUPPORT POST
 FOR OVERHEAD
 STRUCTURES

-STAINLESS STEEL
 CLftMP

 FLEXSEAL BOOT
                                                         Figures #7, #8, #9
                                 Where inlets, outlets or support
                              pipes cannot be flanged, the alter-
                              nate boot system can be used (fig-
                              ures 7, 8 and 9). The boots can be
                              factory or field fabricated for small
                              pipe sizes and field applied on larg-
                              er pipes. This system should be
                              avoided whenever possible. It is
                              more difficult to install the Flexseal
                              liner panels and may cause more
                              field seaming than is necessary due
                              to cutting and fitting around the pro-
                              trusion. Boots can be made from re-
                              inforced or  non-reinforced Flexseal
                              material. All pipes to be flashed in
                              this manner should be smooth and
                              clean. Clamping straps should be of
                              material that will not be attacked by
                              the effluent.
  All concrete pads should have
round edges and smooth surface.
Concrete pads are required to pre-
vent settlement of  sub-surface
around pipes, thus reducing undue
stress to the boots and Flexseal liner
material.  Large culvert type inlet or
outlet pipe that would be very diffi-
cult to seal by either method can be
sealed directly to the concrete pad
(see Figure 14).
                             -RADIUS ON ALL
                              TOP CORNERS
            Figure #9
                                         104

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                           Flexseal Lining
              Ventilation  and Underdrain System
                           A' PVC
                     PERFORATED LATERAL
        PERFORATED
DRAIN 8 VENT PIPE-SLOPE
TO INSPECTION SUMP
8EYOND PIT AREA
                Figure #10
                                   Figure #10

                                     B.F.Goodrich recommends a vent-
                                   ing and underdrain system on most
                                   installations. Gases caused by a fluc-
                                   tuating  water  table pumping  air un-
                                   der  the  liner  or  from decaying or-
                                   ganics  will be trapped  under  the
                                   Flexseal liner  causing it to float un-
                                   less some precautions are taken. If
                                   the  smallest  bottom  dimension  is
                                   larger than 25 feet and less than 50
                                   feet,  a  simple center drain or vent
                                   may be used. If the smallest  dimen-
                                   sion is greater than 50 feet, a lateral
                                   system  should be considered. The
                                   laterals should  be placed approxi-
                                   mately 50 feet on centers. The cen-
                                   ter drain  or vent system, if run to a
                                   sump, may also act  as a leak  de-
                                   tection system.

                                     The lateral vents should run up the
                                   slope to within a foot of the top and
                                   screened off to keep out surround-
                                   dmg dirt and gravel.
   TOP OF DYKE-
                         TOP OF BERM
         SIDE
 OF FLAP OPEN
 TO HOLE
                         4"DIA HOLE IN
                       FLEXSEAL  LINER
  -SHADED AREA INDICATES
' I" WIDE WIN ADHESIVE
SEAL 3 SIDES ONLY
                                   Figure #11

                                     Directly above the end of the lat-
                                   eral a flap type vent should be placed
                                   in the  liner to allow venting through
                                   the liner.

                                     Flap  type  vents  are  also recom-
                                   mended on any lagoon  where a free
                                   board  of liner material is more than
                                   4 or 5 feet. This helps relieve pres-
                                   sure under the  liner if  wind causes
                                   the Flexseal liner to lift off the  berm.
                Figure #11
                                    105

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                         Flexseal Lining
                                 of
       Aerated Lagoons and  Concrete Attachments
ADDITIONAL-
FLEXSEAL  LINER
   UNDER PAD
  r—CONCRETE MOORING
p-|\  PAD TO HOLD
   \FLOATING AERATOR
II  \          n
                 Figure #12
                     PROTECTIVE PAD FOR
                     FIXED AERATOR
ADDITIONAL LAYER
FLEXSEAL
      A  n	/...I  uNER7
                             7
 FOUNDATION
                      RADIUS ON ALL
                      TOP CORNERS
                Figure #13
  f-6"(MIN) OVER LAP
         ,-CAULK WITH FLEXSEAL SEALANT
                    /  ,
                     /y~ RAMSET
                         OR ANCHOR
                         BOLT
                         CONTINUOUS
                         2x4 BOARD
                             Figure #14

                                106
  B.F.Goodrich  recommends  us-
ing  reinforced  Flexseal liner mate-
rial  for aerated lagoons. Some  pre-
cautions  must  be  taken  to protect
the  Flexseal liner from  abrasion un-
der the aerator and also from being
sucked into the aerator.
                                 Figure #12

                                   A mooring pad for a floating aer-
                                 ator may also act as an abrasion pad.
                                 This  pad  may  be poured directly
                                 over the Flexseal liner  with at  least
                                 one additional layer of liner material
                                 being used for protection when pour-
                                 ing the concrete.
                                 Figure #13

                                   On fixed  aerators the liner  mate-
                                 rial may be anchored to the pad or
                                 totally cover the pad, then an addi-
                                 tional  layer of concrete poured  on
                                 top of the pad to  protect the liner
                                 and/or anchorage of the liner. 100#
                                 sacks of  concrete  used as weights
                                 should be placed ten feet apart, ap-
                                 proximately twenty  feet  from aerator
                                 base. This is to insure the liner is not
                                 sucked into the aerator.
                                 Figure #14

                                   Anchoring Flexseal  liner to exist-
                                 ing or new concrete pads, walls or
                                 weirs may be accomplished by using
                                 anchor bolts, cast in place or drilled
                                 later,  or ramsets  to  mechanically
                                 seal the liner to the concrete by use
                                 of a batten strip. Spacing of anchors
                                 depends on rigidity of the  batten
                                 strip.

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Evaporation   Nomograph
DATA  on. evaporation from  lakes and
reservoirs  are not extensive.  But  there
are  formulas by which it may be  com-
puted.  One of these; by Fitzgerald, has
the  form, Eh = (S-F) (1 + v/2)/60; where
Eh  = evaporation rate, m./hr;  S = vapor
pressure of water at water temperature,
m. Hg;  F = vapor pressure existing in the
air;  and v = wind velocity, mph.  Wind
velocities are at the water surface and
may be taken at one-half those recorded
at  an   elevated  station  such  as the
Weather Bureau  stations.  For  larger
reservoirs,  however,  Weather  Bureau
values  give results  in  close agreement
with available direct measurements.

An  alternative and substantially equiv-
alent formula is given by  Fitzgerald in
more usable terms. Somewhat  simplified
and  transformed; it is: Eh = 0.0002 (Ta
- Twb>  <1 + v/2>-' where Ta and Twb are
in  the   air temperature and  wet-bulb
           -110
           ^100
           ^-90
                              0.035 -
           -70
           1-60
                       110—,
                       100-E
                       90-
                       80-E
                       -70^;
                       60-;
                       so-;
                       40-E
                       30 -a
temperature,  respectively.  The  nomo-
gram is based on the second formula. It
includes the relative humidity for con-
venience.

Example.  Assume the "normal" or long-
term  monthly temperature,  relative
humidity, and wind velocity for a certain
location are 80°F.,  58%, and 8  mph;
what is the "normal" wet-bulb temper-
ature,  and what is the evaporation rate
per hour and per month of 31 days?

Solution.  Step 1, line 80°F, on Ta scale
with  58%  on R scale, extend to Pivot
line  and  mark. Also  read  wet-bulb
temperature as 69°F. where line crossed
Twb scale. Step 2, from marked position
Pivot  line, connect with 8  mph on  V
scale, extend to E^ scale, and read evap-
oration rate as 0.011 in./hr. The evapor-
ation rate per month = 0.011 X 24 X 31
= 8.184 in.
  Reprinted from OIL & GAS PETROCHEMICAL
  EQUIPMENT, March 1974 issue.
                                 107

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                                APPENDIX  H
                     POLYVINYL CHLORIDE LINERS'
                  WATERSAVER COMPANY, INC.
                3560 WYNKOOP STREET .  DENVER, COLORADO 80216  .  (303) 623-4111


                                                   Data Sheet  SPVC - 74

                            STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS

                       POLYVIflYL CHORIPE  PLASTIC LlNHiGS
 01  -  GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

      The work covered  by these specifications consists of installina a polyvinyl
 chloride (PVC) plastic lininq in the (laqoon, reservoir,  canal, etc.) where shown
 on  the  drawinqs or directed by the Enqineer.  All work shall  be done 1n strict
 accordance with the drawinqs and these specifications and subject to the terns
 and conditions of tho  contract.
 92 -  PVC MATERIALS

      A.  General.   The materials supplied  under these specifications shall  be
                   first quality products  designed and manufactured specifically
 for the purposes of this work, and which have been satisfactorily demonstrated by
 prior use to be suitable and durable for such purposes.

      8.  Description  of PVC Materials,-  PVC (polyvinyl chloride) plastic lining
                                      shall consist of widths of calendered
 polvvinyl chloride sheeting fabricated  into large sections by means of special
 factory-bonded seams  into a single panel,  or into the minimum number of large
 panels required to fit thn jobsite as supplied by WATERSAVER CO., INC., 3560
 '•Jynkoop St., Denver,  Colorado.

         1.  Physical Characteristics.  The PVC materials shall have the follow-
             ino physical characteristics.

                  TEST
 Specific Gravity
 Tensile Strength,  psi, min.
 Elongation, " min.
 100" Modulus, psi.
 Elmendorfer Tear,  gms/mil, min.
 Graves Tear, Ibs./in. min.
 Hater Extraction,  " max.
 Volatility, "' max.
 Impact Cold Crack, op.
 Dimensional Stability, max.%
       100°C. -  15 minutes
 Shore Durometer, "A"
 Outdoor Exposure,  sun hrs.
 Ronded Seam Strength, " of Tensile, nin
 Pinhnlps/10 Sq.  Yds. max
 Color
TYPICAL
TEST
1.24
2200
300 ?
1000
160
270
0.35
0.7
-20
VALUES
- 1.30

I
- 1600





TEST
METHOD
ASTM D792-66
ASTM D882-B
ASTM D882-B
ASTM D882-B
ASTM 689
ASTM nl004
ASTM D1239
ASTM D1203
ASTM 1790
5
65--70
1500
80 %
1
                                       Rlack
ASTM D676
Meets  USBR Test specially
formulated for resistance
to micro  biological attack.
Passes Corps of Eng.  CRD572-61.
1
 Courtesy of Watersaver  Company,  Inc.,  Denver,  Colorado.
                                      109

-------
          2.   PVC materials shall  be manufactured from domestic virgin polyvlnyl  chloride
              resin and specifically compounded for the use 1n hydraulic facilities.   Re-
processed material shall  not be used.  It shall be neutral  gray to black 1n color and
produced in a standard minimum width of at least 54 Inches.  Thickness shall  be as shown
on the drawings.   Certification test results showing that the sheeting meets  the specifica-
tions shall be supplied on request.

03 - FACTORY FABRICATION

     Individual  widths of PVC materials shall  be fabricated Into large sections by dielec-
     tric sealing into a sinqle piece, or Into a minimum number of panels, up to 100 feet
wide, as required to fit the facility. Lap joints with a minimum joint width of 1/2 inch
shall be used.  After fabrication, the lining  shall be accordion folded in both directions
and packaged for minimum handling  in the field.  Shipping boxes shall be substantial
enough to prevent damage to contents.

04 - PLACING OF PVC LINING

     A.  General.  The PVC lining  shall be placed over the prepared surfaces to be lined
                   in such a manner as to assure minimum handling.  It shall  be sealed
to all concrete structures and other openings  through the lining in accordance with de-
tails shown on the drawings submitted by the contractor and approved by the Engineer.
The lining shall  be closely fitted and sealed  around inlets, outlets and other projections
through the lining.  Any portion of lining damaged during Installation shall  be removed or
repaired by using an additional piece of lining as specified hereinafter.

         1.  Field Joints.  Lap joints will be used to seal factory fabricated panels of
                            PVC together in the field.  Lap joints shall be formed by
         lapping the edges of panels a minimum of 2 Inches.  The contact surfaces of the
         panels shall be wiped clean to remove all dirt, dust or other foreign materials.
         Sufficient cold-applied vinyl to vinyl bonding adhesive shall be applied to the
         contact surfaces 1n the joint area, and the two surfaces pressed together imme-
         diately.  Any wrinkles shall be smoothed out.

         2.  Joints to Structures.  All curing compounds and coatings shall be completely
                                    removed from the joint area.  Joining of PVC to con-
         crete shall be made with vinyl to concrete adhesive.  Unless otherwise shown on
         the drawings, the minimum width of concrete shelf provided for the cemented joint
         shall be 8 inches.

         3.  Repairs to PVC.  Any necessary repairs to the PVC shall be patched with the
                              lining material  itself and cold applied vinyl to vinyl
         bonding adhesive.  The bonding adhesive shall be applied to the contact surfaces
         of both the patch and lining to be repaired, and the two surfaces pressed together
         immediately.  Any wrinkles shall be smoothed out.

         4.  Quality of Workmanship.  All joints, on completion of the work, shall be
                                      tightly bonded.  Any lining surface showing injury
         due to scuffing, penetration by foreign objects or distress from rough subgrade
         shall, as directed by the Engineer, be replaced or covered and sealed with an
         additional layer of PVC of the proper size.

         A Technical Service Representative will be made available to the contractor if the
         contractor desires.  The contractor will bear the expense of this Technical  Service
         Representative.  The Technical Service Representative 1s not directly responsible
         for the quality of the work involved;  such responsibility will be solely that of
         the contractor.
                                           110

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           WATERSAVER COMPANY, INC.
         3560 WYNKOOP STREET  . DENVER, COLORADO 80216  •  (303) 6234111
                                                             DATA SHEET DET - 74
      Vinyl  to Concrete
      Adhesive
                      6,v,.\
     PVC Lining
 A -"4JJSJ-    Compacted   **%<;£»  v~
              Subgrade   / | ' ." .\N
       ^2"xl/8"  batten     j- ,- ',_j.
        strips - fasteners *—•~~'1
        12" o.c.
   ANCHOR TO CONCRETE  STRUCTURES
PVC Lining
           vinyl to —
'          vinyl cement
opening in              ,
patch smaller than pipe
diameter &  stretched over pipe


         SEAL  TO  PIPE
                                                ANCHOR - METHOD //I
                                                                Earth
                                     Water ,^
                                     Level
                                                PVC Lining
                                                   Compacted
                                                   Earth Subgrade
                                                ANCHOR - METHOD 1)2

                                                               J2K/UU .
                                                  Earth        *~I
                                                                     Slope  to Drain
                                      PVC Liniu,
                                      Water Levej_ ^^^\:'&   '»UJ  Llnin»

                                               <^ii'^      ''c-^_LlJ^
-------
                                                APPENDIX  I
                                    VARIOUS  LINER MATERIALS
                                                                            1
                            STAFF   INDUSTRIES,   INC.
                        78 Dryden Road, Upper Montcbir, NJ. 07043           201-744-5367
                        240 Chene Street, Detroit, Michigan  48207              313-259-1820

                                  GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR INSTALLATION of
                                    STAFF LINERS FOR PREVENTING SEEPAGE
                                from PONDS, RESERVOIRS, CANALS, LAGOONS, etc.
 Staff seepage prevention liners are made from tough, imper-
 meable elastomeric sheeting, both reinforced and unreinforced
 specially compounded for long life when properly installed.
 Liner  sections are fabricated  up to widths of 70i/2 feet by
 lengths up to weights of two tons, in various gauges. Bonding
 solvent is supplied for joining sections in the field where it
 is necessary to cover wider areas.
 We recommend that all liners for ponds, reservoirs, lagoons,
 etc., be covered with earth for mechanical protection from
 animals, men, and weather. However, where necessary, and
 when  they can be properly  protected,  lining materials
 with  superior  outdoor durability may be used as exposed
 membranes.
 Staff Industries fabricates large liners for use in structures
 designed and constructed by others. The following shall serve
 as guidelines for the use of Staff seepage prevention liners.

 1. SITE PREPARATION
 The liner sections as supplied by Staff Industries  are im-
 permeable to water and gas. (For special instructions regard-
 ing high water table and gassy areas,  see #2, below.) All
 sharp  sticks, stones, and trash should be removed from the
 bottoms and sides of the installation, or covered with fine soil.
 Areas  containing nut grass and quack grass should be steril-
 ized. Preferably, the area to be covered should be rolled to
 effect compaction and smoothing so as to reduce local stresses
 on the membrane. At all times care should be taken to prevent
 puncturing of the liner during  installation and  use. A perim-
 eter trench 8 to  12  inches square, above the  waterline,  is
 generally used for anchoring the membrane. (See sketches on
 reverse side.)
 2. HIGH WATER TABLE AND GASSY AREAS
 If liners are installed over decomposing materials such as
 organic wastes, bogs, etc.,  or  in areas of fluctuating water
 tables  which "pump" air, bubbles can develop and come to the
 surface. They will be unable to escape because of the imperme-
 ability of the lining to water and gas and the fact that, under
 water, the liner has very little weight. Where such conditions
 might exist, special precautions should be incorporated in the
 design to allow venting  of such gas to the sides  by sloping
 bottoms and a layer of gas-permeable soils directly under the
 liner. Also, it is strongly recommended that the liner be cov-
 ered on the bottom to provide weight to aid in gas removal, in
 addition  to other possible  venting methods.
 3. INSTALLATION OF LINERS
 Staff liners are shipped accordion-folded in both directions
 for easy opening, first in the length direction and then in the
 width  direction. Various methods of installing liners have
 been used,  and one of them will now be described: A boxed
 section designed fora certain area in the installation is placed
 on the back of a truck, front-end loader, or other carrier, with
 the box length crosswise, and taken to the area where it is to be
 installed. After the steel straps are cut, the box top and sides
 can be removed vertically, leaving the accordion-folded liner
 on a pallet, from which it can be opened lengthwise by holding
 the end and driving the vehicle forward  while unfolding the
 liner. The first section is generally positioned on the berm so
 that one edge can be buried in  the anchor trench, before the
 rest is opened down the slope. The second section is then posi-
 tioned  adjacent to the first section and unfolded so that the
 two can be joined, as described  below, to cover the total areas
 required.
For joining two sections together, a long smooth work surface
is recommended. A 1" x 10" x 20' board is particularly suitable
    and can be used directly on dry ground, or on supports above
    wet ground. The two liner edges to be joined are overlapped 2
    to 4 inches along the center line of the board and aligned by
    two workmen, who  also clean the area of any dust, dirt,  or
    moisture, using a rag or brush. The sheeting must be perfectly
    dry before the bonding solvent is applied. The two men then
    slightly tension the  area, while a third man injects the bond-
    ing solvent between the two positioned films (at the rate  of
    about 1 ounce per 30 feet), using the  squeeze bottles which
    are supplied for this purpose. It is not necessary  or desirable
    to turn back the top edge of the sheeting. Slight hand pressure
    with a rag should be applied immediately after  the bonding
    solvent is injected. If any edges remain unsealed,  the bonding
    application can be repeated so as to bond the flap completely.
    The board is then moved forward for sealing the next area.
    (Sometimes a rope is attached to the forward end  of the board
    for pulling it ahead.)

    After the seam is completed, the  bonding solvent will have
    bonded the sections sufficiently so that the newly added sec-
    tion can be opened to its full width and another section posi-
    tioned and bonded. Shear strength develops in 5 to 15 minutes,
    but peel strength requires several days for solvent  dissipation.
    Seams should be carefully inspected, after a half hour or more,
    to  detect and reseal  any voids in the seam.

    4. OBSTRUCTION SEALING
    For sealing  around connections, walkways,  etc.,  several
    methods can be used. For  round  connections, a  hole %  the
    diameter of the connection is made in the film, and this hole is
    then stretched over  the connection, (which has been coated
    with a special adhesive  for bonding sheeting to  steel and to
    clean concrete), producing an upturned collar. This collar ia
    then reinforced with a strip of  film and some of the special
    adhesive. In the case  of connections of square or other shapes,
    the film can  be adhered with the adhesive. It is also possible
    to fabricate from film and the bonding agent specially shaped
    collars, attach them  to the connection, and then  adhere the
    liner to the collars. Around walkways or docks it will be neces-
    sary to cut the film and glue it to  fit as well  as possible, and
    then make and adhere collars to the posts and film so as to
    seal the connections  watertight.

    5. COVERING OF LINERS
    To prevent damage to the sheeting, it  is recommended that
    all lining surfaces be covered with earth, if possible. For side
    slopes,  free-draining earth  should be  topped with erosion-
    resistant material such as gravel.  In order to retain soil and
    gravel cover on the sides, a slope not steeper than 3:1 is neces-
    sary. (Concrete can be used to cover steeper slopes.) Covering
    of heavier membranes which will not be subject to mechanical
    damage and vandalism can be by  water only, if desired and
    gas development under the lining will not take place. A water
    layer will prevent damaging effects of heat to the liner as well
    as  provide protection. Some facilities which are  expected to
    be  maintained almost constantly full of water have been de-
    signed with a bench below the waterline. Cover is then main-
    tained above the bench, but no  cover except water would be
    used below the bench. (See last two sketches on reverse side.)
    Equipment  used in covering the sides  and bottoms of lined
    structures can be clamshells, front-end loaders,  bulldozers,
    dump trucks, elevating graders, carryalls, graders,  etc. Though
    liners are tough, equipment should not be driven  directly on
    them, unless it is tested and proved on the job site that damage
    will not result. Even then,  careful supervision should be
    provided.
 03212
Staff Industries assume* no liability for the deugn o
tntuc hu authority to make any represcntMtion. IIT
                                                                                              its tnemhranes No ret>resen-
                                                                                              r agreement to the contrary

          Courtesy  of  Staff  Industries,  Inc.,  Upper  Montclair,  N.J.,   and
Detroit,  Michigan.
                                                         113

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    --
         U

         lr
            -VINYL TO CONCRETE ADHESIVE -


            -PVC LINING -

             COMPACTED
             SUBGRADE
l"x 1/8" BATTEN STRIPS,
FASTENERS I2"O.C.
  ANCHOR   TO  CONCRETE  STRUCTURES
        PVC LINING
  -p-
  I -,
      PATCH TO LAP 8"
         ALL AROUND
         COLLAR
 /         VINYL TO
/          VINYL CEMENT

 OPFNING IN PATCH SMALLER THAN
 PIPE DIAMETER  a STRETCHED-
 OVFR PIPE

        SEAL  TO PIPE
                                        ANCHOR  METHOD # 1
                                               EARTH BACKFILL-
                                          PVC  LINING
                                                              - COMPACTED
                                                               EARTH SUBGRADE
                                                  ANCHOR  METHOD # 2    ,2"m
                                         PVC  LINING
                                WATER  LEVEL
                                         COMPACT
                                        -EARTH SUBGRADE
                                                TOP  OF  SLOPE  ANCHORAGE
                                                                            I _  I   SLOPEJTO DRAIN

                                                                             "2J> »;—EARTH
                                                                             S\    ] BACKFILL
                                                                                 --N-PVC LINING
                                                                               ALTERNATE
                                               1/2" WIDE BEAD
                                               VINYL TO VINYL
                                               ADHESIVE
                                                     2'MIN ,
                                                                       -PVC LINING
                                               TYPICAL LAP SPLICE JOINT
                                               6" GRAVEL FILL •

                                           -12" MIN
                        MAX WATER  LEVEL
ALTERNATE 6" COVER
             -PVC LINING
                                                        ANCHOR METHODS#1 or#2-

                                              6" EARTH  COVER

                                          3:i  MAX SLOPE

                                 COMWCTED EARTH SUBGRADE

                    EARTH  AND  GRAVEL  COVER -  FULL  SLOPES
                                             6" GRAVEL COVER -
          MAX WATER LEVEL-
    WIN WATER LEVEL
    PVC  LINING
                                                           L.J

                                                      'ANCHOR METHOD
                                                    6" EARTH  COVER
                                               3:i MAX SLOPE
                        COMPACTED  EARTH SUBGRADE

                              EARTH  AND GRAVEL COVER - PARTIAL SLOPES
                                         114

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                                  APPENDIX J
                       FIRESTONE FABRITANK  LINER
NOMINAL
CAPACITY
(GMS.)
?5,000
SO. 000
tno.ooo
< ,10.000
VO.OOO
400.000
500,000
, .'0,000
• 10.000
.- 10,000
••00,000
i.nno.ooo
TANKDIMENS. (FT.) DIKE DIMENS.
A
33.2
41.5
52.4
66.4
77.7
87.2
95.6
103.1
110.0
116.5
122.5
128.2
B
15.2
17.5
22.4
30.4
41.7
51.2
59.6
67.1
74.0
80.5
86.5
92.2
c
6
8
10
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
D
22.5
29.0
35.5
42.0
42.0
42.0
42.0
42.0
42.0
42.0
42.0
42.0
E
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3,0
AVERAGE
EARTH DIKE
(CU. YDS )
S49
1045
185S
3137
3628
4041
4402
4728
5028
5307
5563
58 1 6
TANK NET
WEIGHT (LBS.)
(APPROXIMATE)
836
1.286
2,045
3.269
4 414
S.506
6,563
7,b97
8, bl5
?,617
10,609
Il,b93
  Tank Top—Square  B — Tank Bottom—Square   C — Tank Depth   D — Earth Dike  B, se   t - Eatth Dike — Top
                                    f
                                                                           y
                                                                            c
  EMBANKMENT AND  TANK  CROSS SECTION
/ i tanks are overside 10%,
 othpt si^es available on request.
 > ik J'p't'nsioni) A, B & C are shown to illustrate standard available sizes and rao.TCit'O-^
  ihaiikrnent dimensions DAE and average earth dike quantities are to he considered
  -  hematic illustrations only. Since structural characteristics of soil vary, it is tmuortant
  t  the embankment design be determined by a qualified civil or consulting engineer
  lourtesy  of Firestone  Coated  Fabricks  Company,  Magno1ia,  Arkansas,
                                       115

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TVPICAL    INSTALLATIONS
  One-million-gallon Fabntank for domestic water service, prior to filling
  Same tank after filling, also showing the community in San Jose, California, that it serves
                                                                        I US GOVEMIMEIITfKllfmiGOFFICE 1979 -281-1*7/41
                                                      116

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