,.r „ United States Office of Reprint of
• ' '^ Environmental Protection Water Program Operations Department of the Army
C. 1 Agency (WH-546) Hanover, New Hampshire
Washington, D.C. 20460 November 1978
Water
wEPA Waste water
rv^ i_-i- *.- OOOR78102
Stabilization
Pond Linings
MCD-54
-------
Disclaimer Statement
This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Protection
Agency and approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the
contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Environmental
Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names or commercial prod-
ucts constitute endoresement or recommendation for use.
Notes
To order this publication, "Wastewater Stabilization Pond Linings'
(MCD-54) from EPA, write to:
General Services Administration (8FFS)
Centralized Mailing List Services
Bldg. 41, Denver Federal Center
Denver, Colorado 80225
Please indicate the MCD number and title of publication. Multiple
copies may be purchased from:
National Technical Information Service
Springfield, Virginia 22151
-------
EPA Comment
This document was selected for reprinting by the US EPA Office of
Water Program Operations as one of a series of reports to help supply
detailed information for use in selecting, developing, designing, and
operating municipal wastewater treatment systems.
This report provides a technical discussion and evaluation of
procedures and materials for wastewater pond linings when seepage control
is necessary. The US EPA guidance on seepage control from ponds can be
found in the Technical Bulletin MCD-14, "Wastewater Treatment Ponds"
(EPA 430/9-74-011). Pond lining is not necessary in all cases, nor
should it be inferred that the procedures discussed in this report
represent the only acceptable methods.
Harold P. Cahill, Jr., Director
Municipal Construction Division
Office of Water Program Operations
-------
Abstract
A review of the literature on wastewater stabilization lagoon
linings covering the work during the past 20 years is presented.
Design, operating and maintenance experiences are presented for soil
sealants, natural sealants, bentonite clays, chemical treatments,
gunite, concrete, asphaltic compounds, plastics and elastomers. The
characteristics of various materials, applicability to different wastes,
construction techniques and details of installation techniques are
presented. Installation costs for various materials and comparative
costs are summarized. A survey of the 50 states was conducted to
determine the requirements for liners and allowable seepage rates.
Requirements are varied and depend upon the local soil conditions and
the experiences of the regulatory agencies with various materials. The
trend is toward more stringent requirements. Accepted design and
installation procedures are summarized and detailed drawings of instal-
lation techniques are presented. Recommendations of the manufacturers
and installers of liners are also presented.
-------
PREFACE
This report was prepared by E. Joe Middlebrooks, Catherine D.
Perman, and Irving S. Dunn all of Middlebrooks and Associates, Logan,
Utah.
The study was performed for the U.S. Army Cold Regions Research
and Engineering Laboratory (USA CRREL) and was funded under DA Project
4A762720 A896, Environmental Quality for Construction and Operation of
Military Facilities; Task 02, Pollution Abatement Systems* Work Unit 004.
The final scope of study was defined by Mr. Sherwood C. Reed of USA
CRREL and he served as technical monitor during the course of the study
and his efforts in this regard contributed significantly to the success-
ful completion of this report.
Technical review of this report was performed byMessrs. Sherwood C.
Reed, Robert S. Sletten, and John Bouzoun of USA CRREL.
Permission to reproduce drawings, tables, promotional, and instruc-
tional materials by the following firms is greatly appreciated.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y.
Chemical Engineering, A McGraw-Hill Publication, New York, N.Y.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Washington, D.C.
Public Works Journal Corporation, Ridgewood, New Jersey
Water Resources Bulletin, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
American Colloid Company, Skokie, Illinois
Asphalt Products Oil Corp., Long Beach, California
Burke Rubber Company, Burke Industries, San Jose, California
B. F. Goodrich, Akron, Ohio
Watersaver Company, Inc», Denver, Colorado
Staff Industries, Inc., Upper Montclair, New Jersey
Firestone Coated Fabrics Company, Magnolia, Arkansas
The assistance of Ms. Barbara South in the preparation of this
manuscript is greatly appreciated. Ms. Mona McDonald's editorial review
was also most helpful.
The contents of this report are not to be used for advertising or
promotional purposes. Citation of trade names does not constitute an
official endorsement or approval of the use of such commercial products.
iii
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION 1
LITERATURE REVIEW 3
Introduction 3
Types of Lagoon Linings 3
Synthetic Liners 6
Natural Sealing and Chemical Treatment Mechanisms 15
Reviews, General Evaluations, Costs, and Summary 24
STATE DESIGN STANDARDS 35
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION PRACTICE 45
Bentonite, Asphalt and Soil Cement 45
Thin Membrane Liners 52
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 61
LITERATURE CITED 63
APPENDIX A: STATE OF WASHINGTON LAGOON LINER REQUIREMENTS • • • -67
APPENDIX B: STATE OF MINNESOTA LAGOON LINER REQUIREMENTS .... 73
APPENDIX C: TRADE NAMES AND SOURCES OF COMMON LINING MATERIALS • • 79
APPENDIX D: BENTONITE CLAY LININGS 83
APPENDIX E: ASPHALT PANEL LININGS 85
APPENDIX F: HYPALON LINERS 87
APPENDIX G: B. F. GOODRICH "FLEXSEAL" LINERS 99
APPENDIX H: POLYVINYL CHLORIDE LINERS 109
APPENDIX I: VARIOUS LINER MATERIALS 113
APPENDIX J: FIRESTONE FABRITANK LINER 115
IV
-------
CONVERSION FACTORS: U.S. CUSTOMARY TO
METRIC (SI) UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Multiply
inch
inch
foot
yard
foot;*
yard
gallon
pound
pound/inch
pound/foot
25.4
2.54
0.3048
0.8361274
0.02831685
0.764555
0.003785412
453.6
6894.757
16.01846
To obtain
millimeter
centimeter
meter
meter
meter^
meter
Q
meter-"
gram
pascal
kilogram/meter
-------
INTRODUCTION
Many difficulties have been encountered in the application of
various types of materials as liners in wastewater stabilization lagoons.
Difficulties have been pronounced in cold climates. Experiences have
been varied, and considerable confusion exists as to the type of mate-
rials applicable under various conditions.
A review of the literature on lagoon liners and seepage rates is
presented in the following sections. Experiences with various types of
liners are described and observed seepage rates are reported. A summary
of 50 state regulatory agency standards is presented and indicated trends
are discussed.
The types of materials available, their properties, their appli-
cability to various situations, recommended installation techniques and
failure mechanisms are discussed. Detailed installation instructions
and designs recommended by several installation companies are presented.
The following summary of the use of liners in wastewater stabili-
zation lagoons should be of value to design engineers, reviewers of plans
and specifications, and regulatory and planning personnel in making
decisions concerning the protection of water quality.
-------
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
The need for a well-sealed wastewater stabilization lagoon has become
part of modern lagoon design, construction and maintenance. The primary
motive for sealing wastewater stabilization lagoons is to prevent seepage.
Seepage has two effects on lagoon performance. First, seepage affects the
treatment capabilities of the lagoon by causing fluctuations in the lagoon
water depth. For consistent and sufficient treatment, lagoons require a
constant water depth at a specified design depth. Second, seepage can
cause pollution of groundwater which can have serious effects on ground-
water uses.
Many types of lagoon liners exist, but all can be classified into
three major categories. These categories are (1) synthetic and rubber
liners, (2) earthen and cement liners, and (3) natural and chemical treat-
ment sealers. Within each category also exists a wide variety of appli-
cation characteristics. Each of the three liner categories and respective
application characteristics will be discussed in detail in a subsequent
section of this report.
Choosing the appropriate lining for a specific lagoon is a critical
issue in lagoon design and in the improvement of seepage control. The
criteria for lining a lagoon are highly dependent on the specific geo-
graphical location, on climate, on local hydrogeology and on materials
found in the lagoon wastewater. In this review special attention has
been given to design criteria established for cold climates.
Types of Lagoon Linings
Earthen, Concrete and Asphalt Type Linings
Concrete and earthen liners constituted some of the earliest types
of lagoon sealers. Literature from the late fifties cited use of con-
crete to prevent lagoon seepage. Sewage lagoons in Melbourne, Australia,
were built with a 2-in. thick unreinforced concrete liner (Parker et al.,
1959). Wastewater stabilization ponds constructed in Austin, Texas, as
outdoor pilot-plant experiments (Gloyna and Hermann, 1956; Hermann and
Gloyna, 1958) were also lined with concrete.
-------
Van Heuvelen et al. (1960) and Hopkins (1960) all recognized the
significance of lagoon liners in a study of lagoon design for Missouri
Basin States. Prevention of chemical groundwater pollution and mainte-
nance of constant lagoon surface level were considered primary reasons
for preventing lagoon seepage. Chemical contamination of groundwater
from the detergents found in lagoon wastewater was a major concern.
The seepage of biological pollutants was only a problem in infrequent
geologic situations where the major surface formation consisted of fis-
sured rock or coarse gravel. However, in most situations, removal of
porous top soil and compaction of underlying soil provided adequate
sealing for both the bottoms and the dikes of the lagoons. When exces-
sive percolation was still a problem, increased hydraulic loading and
removal of gravel and sand pockets were suggested as methods of partial
sealing. Eventually wastewater solids clogged soil pores, and further
decreased lagoon seepage. To assure a complete seal, bentonite clay and
asphaltic coatings were cited as practical lagoon liners. Similar re-
sults were reported by Leisch (1976).
Benson (1962) described bentonite as a typical natural earth lagoon
sealer because of its very high swelling and gelling characteristics.
As with most earthen sealers, bentonite was found to seal most effective-
ly when applied to an emptied lagoon. A precise application procedure
was described using a 5-15 percent by volume mixture of bentonite with a
loose silty soil, which was then spread over the lagoon and compacted to
a thickness of several inches. Unfortunately, bentonite has been shown
to be subject to piping and to diffusion through soil, sands and gravels
with large pore channels. Lagoon site soil characteristics should there-
fore be a criterion in choosing bentonite for a lagoon sealant. The
cited 1962 price for processed bentonite was $14-$20 per ton.
Edge (1967) suggested that asphalt liners provided a practical
general solution to lagoon seepage. Three types of asphaltic construc-
tion were cited and consisted of hot-sprayed asphalt membranes, asphalt
concrete (requires periodic cleaning), and prefabricated asphalt linings.
The characteristics of each of these liners are impermeability, toughness,
and durability in the presence of domestic and industrial wastes. A de-
tailed description of each asphalt liner follows:
"Hot-Sprayed Asphalt Membranes
A hot-sprayed asphalt membrane developed as a low-cost
canal lining provides a highly effective continuous waterproof
seal. It is a continuous blanket of asphalt cement about 1/4
inch thick placed by a regular asphalt distributor with the
spray bar offset to one side. The heated asphalt is sprayed
on the prepared subgrade, usually in two applications to insure
a continuous water seal.
A special blown asphalt is preferred for this type of
construction. However, in some areas satisfactory asphalt
membranes can be formed using regular paving grade asphalt
cement, 40-50 penetration grade.
-------
An earth or aggregate cover is needed on the side slopes
to protect the lining from oxidation and physical damage. A
thickness of 6 to 8 inches should be sufficient. Sedimentation
and sludge that will eventually be deposited will provide suf-
ficient cover from the bottom. The side slopes should not be
steeper than 2:1 with a 3:1 slope preferred. If there is
danger of erosion from wave action, the side cover should be
an erosion resistant material such as local gravel or an
asphalt-aggregate mix.
Asphalt Concrete
Hot-mix asphalt concrete is especially well suited to the
construction of sewage and waste stabilization lagoons. Its
use is desirable when operating conditions make it necessary
for periodic cleaning of a storage facility by equipment and
trucks. The asphalt concrete is similar to that used for high-
way surface courses, but it should have a higher percentage
(6.5 to 9.5 percent) of asphalt cement of a low penetration
grade and a higher percentage of mineral filler. This insures
a practically voidless lining that is impermeable to water when
compacted. The asphalt concrete can be placed by a regular
paving machine on a properly shaped and prepared subgrade with
side slopes no steeper than 2:1. A compacted thickness of two
inches is sufficient for most lagoons.
Prefabricated Asphalt Linings
Another type of lining recommended for severe operating
conditions may be constructed using prefabricated asphaltic
materials. They vary in thickness generally from 5/32 to 1/2
inch thick, in pieces 3 to 4 feet wide and usually 10 to 15
feet long. Some materials come in rolls similar to roofing
rolls. The lining is fashioned by fitting pieces together to
form a continuous lining. They may be joined together by
overlapping and cementing together or by butting together and
cementing batten strips over the seams.
Prior to placing the lining, the subgrade must be shaped,
although it will not require the degree of compaction or smooth-
ness needed for asphalt membranes or asphalt concrete linings.
This type of lining lends itself to areas where conditions make
it difficult to operate construction equipment.
The subgrade soil of all side slopes, where vegetation is
likely to erupt and rupture or damage the linings, should be
treated with soil sterilants.
The only need, in most cases, for a hard-surfaced lining,
or pavement, in a lagoon is on the side slopes of embankments
to prevent erosion. Both asphalt concrete and prefabricated
asphaltic materials are suitable for use as slope protection.
A hot-mix sand asphalt may be used for this purpose also.
-------
Consideration should be given to the use of suitable locally
available materials.
In all cases, the asphalt linings should extend up the
slope well beyond the highest point where wave wash may be
expected. It is good practice to extend the pavement all
the way across the tops of the embankments and dikes." Edge
(1967).*
Two pilot scale lagoons constructed to study the treatment of milking-
parlor wastes in Salina, Kansas (Loehr and Ruf, 1968) were constructed in
sandy-silty soil. These lagoons were partially sealed using 150 Ibs of
bentonite clay per lagoon spread on the lower half of the dikes and the
bottom of each lagoon. The lagoons had a depth of 4 ft and a surface area
of 400 ft . Without labor and equipment, total cost came to $100.
A summary of the earthen, concrete and asphaltic liners reported in
the literature is presented in Table 1.
Synthetic Liners
Use of synthetics to line lagoons came into practice in the 1960's.
In Minnesota (Ling, 1963) a lagoon treating chemical wastes with a ca-
pacity of 38,000 gal was lined with a 4-mil-thick polyethylene sheet to
eliminate seepage.
In Broken Bow, Nebraska, a (Clark, 1965) fiber glass mat was instal-
led to prevent erosion of sandy banks of a municipal sewage lagoon.
Forty eight hundred ft of 1/4-in. Gustin-Bacon heavy duty ultra-check
fiber glass mat was placed at the water line. The installation procedure
was clearly defined. After draining the lagoon, allowing two weeks of dry-
ing and compacting, the lagoon was cleared of weeds and then graded. A
trench was dug (2 in. wide and 6 in. deep) to secure the upper edge of the
mat. "T" shaped steel pins were used to secure the mat. Asphalt was then
applied to the fiber glass mat at one gal/yd2 at 200°F. A 1/2-in. layer
of gravel was then applied, followed by a second layer of asphalt. The
securing trench was re-filled with soil. After two weeks of curing time,
the pond was refilled. Costs for this procedure are shown in Table 2.
When an oil refinery company operating in Cook Inlet, Alaska, was
faced with strict state water pollution control regulations concerning
groundwater pollution, the refinery designs added a liner to their oxida-
tion pond (Baker, 1970). The liner chosen was a combination of a poly-
propylene fiber mat and asphalt. This liner consisted of a non-woven
polypropylene fiber which was sprayed with a cationic asphalt emulsion
which formed a thin reinforced asphalt membrane. The fabric was made of
oriented polypropylene fibers randomly placed on a supporting scrim.
These fibers were fused during production to provide omni-directional
support. The fibers are non-polar hydrocarbon that is readily wetted by
*Courtesy of Public Works Journal Corp., Ridgevood, Rev Jersey.
-------
Table 1. Summary table of earthen and concrete liners.
Liner
Location
Reference
Concrete
Unreinforced concrete
In situ compaction
Removal of porous top soil
Bentonite clay
Asphaltic coating
Hot-sprayed asphalt
Asphalt concrete
Prefabricated asphalt
Bentonite clay
Texas
Autralia
Missouri Basin
Missouri Basin
Missouri Basin
Missouri Basin
U.S.A.
U.S.A.
U.S.A.
Kansas
Hermann and Gloyna (1958)
Parker et al. (1959)
Van Heuvelen et al. (1960)
Van Heuvelen et al. (I960)
Van Heuvelen et al. (I960)
Van Heuvelen et al. (I960)
Edge (1967)
Edge (1967)
Edge (1967)
Loehr and Ruf (1968)
Table 2. Fiber glass mat cost ($/yd ) (Clark, 1965).
Ditching
Fiber glass
Asphalt in place
T pins
Gravel
Total
0.04
0.35
0.60
0.12
0.06
$1.17
asphalt. In this fashion, the strength of the fabric reinforces the
asphalt against compression and tension.
Design criteria for this liner were stringent. The liner had to
have (1) good sealing qualities, (2) high flexibility and durability,
(3) ability to withstand temperature to -40°F, (4) ability to resist
abrasion and physical abuse from ice, (5) ready availability and ease of
installation, and (6) low cost. The final design called for 11,850 yd
of fabric and 12,000 gal of asphalt emulsion. The strips of fabric were
sewed with special polypropylene thread at a 3-in. overlap. Enough liner
slack had to be permitted in design for the bottom configuration. This
same liner was also used for an oxidation pond near Kenai, Alaska. The
materials cost $3.26/yd . The installation cost $2.94/yd^. Approximately
half of the installation cost was due to the remoteness of the location.
Synthetic liners have become increasingly popular. A black poly-
ethylene (Klock, 1971) (0.006 in. thickness) was used to line a 1,000-
ft^ pilot wastewater lagoon in the southwest U.S.A. because of its
absolute sealing qualities. Vinyl-lined pilot lagoons were also used
-------
in conjunction with rotating asbestos bio-disks in the U.S.A. (Boyle,
1971).
In Oregon (Public Works, 1971), lagoons at a high-use recreation
area were lined with 10-mil-thick polyvinyl chloride furnished by Union
Carbide Corp. in folded sheets. These sheets were overlapped and sealed
with a water-proof adhesive. The PVC liner was covered with a 6-in. layer
of pumice followed by a 1.5-in. layer of crushed rock. Later testing
indicated that there was no seepage through the liner. Many references
to specific application of lining materials are available but were not
included in this review since little design and operating detail is
provided (Staff, 1967, 1971, 1973; Abelishvili, 1972; Jacobson, 1972).
Thornton and Blackall (1976) conducted a field evaluation of plastic
film liners used to protect petroleum storage areas in Canada. Seven
petroleum storage areas in the Mackenzie-Delta area using artificial
liners to enhance the spill retention capabilities of petroleum storage
areas were studied. Polyurethane (20 mil), prestressed laminated poly-
ethylene, and fiber reinforced polyurethane appeared to show promise as
lining materials for the retention of oil spills. The importance of
bedding preparation was stressed, and if the membrane had a low puncture
resistance, the need for an adequate thickness of protective overburden
was also emphasized. Exposed membranes invariably become damaged, and
therefore it is extremely important that the installation of the membrane
be conducted carefully. It was concluded that carefully chosen and proper-
ly installed plastic membranes can be effective and economical in the re-
tention of spills from petroleum storage areas in the Arctic. Plastic
membranes buried during the installation of the initial construction
appear to offer promise as a means of protection from oil spills. If
installed in existing systems, a more elaborate construction technique
would be required and would probably make the installation of plastic
membranes uneconomical.
Erosion of slopes of an aeration pond in Lenexa, Kansas (Staff,
1973) was prevented with a 6-ft-wide strip of a non-woven polypropylene
fabric. The felt-like liner was sewed together on site and then sprayed
with two coats of asbestos-filled asphalt emulsion. A final layer of
fine gravel was applied at 25 lb/yd^ and was then given a final coat of
sealant.
A 2.5-acre synthetic rubber-lined industrial waste pond (Pelloquin,
1972) is being used by Imperial West Chemical Co. in Antioch, California,
to convert U.S. Steel pickle liquor waste. Thirty-mil-thick Dupont
Hypalon synthetic rubber was used because it resists physical abuse, and
the effects of sun and weather as well as oil and acid contaminated fluids,
Kumar and Jedlicka (1973) provided an excellent summary of various
synthetic liners and their properties. This information is presented in
Tables 3a and 3b. Physical and structural information (Ewald, 1973) is
provided in Tables 4 and 5.
-------
to
CO
r^*«
O">
tO
^
O
cu
13
C
to
5
CO
f~H
to
•H
01
•M i
tfl
B
60
C
•H
C
•r-l
rH
CU
CO
3
rH
f*
O
E
O
o
m
O
CO
cu
•r-l
1 1
M
cu
p.
0
to
ro
CU
rs
03
H
c
o
eg
CL
rH Ll
eg at
4-1 3
rH *"*
^ iS
^ 3
« &
C
o
01 •
c
X rH
rH >,
O C.
Cu O
LJ
D-
0)
•a c
« >1
C .H
•H 4-J
Li CU
O >>
-C 0
C_J Q-,
,_^
c1 'S
> *"*
X
4-1
-H
CO
C
C1J
o
ro
ro
^
m
2
CM
.
o
j.
o
00
U
<4~i
•H
Ol
0.
O
o
o
1
o
"1
o
o
„
m
I
o
o
o
o
o
"^
o
o
o
-1
o
o
o
— < o
o m
O |
o o
o
o
o
CN
1 O
o o
o -
ct)
JS
<;
CU
o
C/3
O
in
CM
O
100 0
O
CM
O
0
1
m
CM
O
O
m
i
o
CO
cn
o
o
1 CU U
o
o
o w w
1 O O
o
o
o
O U] U
1 O O CU
o
o
o
4-1
o w w
vO 1 |
1 O O O
o
CN
0
4-1
O ijj O
r-^ | 1
1 O O CU
o
00
^H
o
4J
o o w o
1 CU O Cu
01
4J
rJ §
3 CO CO CU
4J T3 0) 60
CO -H CO X
rJ 0 CTJ X
ai eg ji o
o.
E O O O
CU 4-1 *-» 4J
O 01 Ol 01 CO
•H cu eg rg eg oi
4J 00 4-1 4-1 4J >
eg c co tn to rH
0) Li CO CO tO tf)
G. cu cu eu
o
fc O CN
m
Cu Cu O
O
O
o w o
_,
m
CN
o a o
00
o
o
i
o
o
Cu O O
00
O O ro
CM
T1
O CO
[i, rH
fo pi. A
CO
C X
CU U 4J
O > *H tO -H
4-t o m c -H
eg co js ot J*
O T) -H rH CU
D 01 rH O B
eg 4-t eg OT LI
eg cu
o c o ^ a.
w a> 4-» E
00 D L,
at o a* cu o cn
« j= eg LI > s
4-J U 4-1
U) T3 « CU tJ Li
(0 T3 tn ^ 4J ex
Ot 0) CO
U]
b-.
0
tu
CU
u
o
CU
X
•H
rH
•H
«
cu
«
cu
o
o
^J"
o
o
u
01
U-4
^
M
rH
•H
4-1
^
CJ
eg
Ll
u
o
•z.
o
o
o
o
Ll
ej
Cfl
u
o
E
H
4-t
a
0>
01
o
o
o
-C
g
o
Cu Li
00
II
CJ
CU -H
14H
• CJ
tfl 01
M a-
O CO
4-
3 •« vO
n3 co I
cu -H ey\
cu *
o ex. x
4-1 O 4-1
Q) Ci rH
t— t TH
eg 3 eg
rH O Ot
eg Li LI
> co ot
eg > ex
c
3 S-i Li
0 0
Ol 4n CX
0) CO >
3 T3
0 Lf
5 4J 4-1
o cu eg
rC E 3
CO
4J ••>
4J CO H
O CU CTi
C 4J in
1
CO S ^0
4-t H r-v
eg c/i \o
Q < Q
4j
o
-------
Table 3b. Selection criteria for synthetic liners (Kumar and Jedlicka,
1973).a
1 High tensile strength, flexibility, elongation w/o failure.
2 Resists abrasion, puncture, effects of wastewater.
3 Good weatherability, manufacturer guarantees long life.
4 Immune to bacterial and fungal attack.
5 Specific gravity (S) > 1.0.
6 Color: black (to resist UV light).
7 Minimum thickness, 20 mils.
8 Membrane should have uniform composition, free of physical
defects.
9 Withstand temperature variation and ambient conditions.
10 Easily repairable.
11 Economical.
r\
Courtesy of Chemical Engineering, New York, N.Y.
A capability of synthetic rubber liners which is not directly ap-
plicable to the prevention of seepage, but which may be applicable to
anaerobic lagoons in the future, is the effectiveness of these liners
as floating covers (Rizzo, 1976). The floating cover is a non-rigid
solution to the problem of covering the large areas of exposed water or
other liquid. The impermeable sheet of synthetic rubber is attached to
the berm of a reservoir and is designed with adequate slack to permit
it to rise and fall as the liquid level changes. Floating covers com-
pare favorably with the conventional systems utilizing wood, concrete,
steel, or aluminum. Cost for wood, concrete, steel, or aluminum may
range from $4 to $10/ft2 depending on the location. Estimated service
life may range from 25 to 75 years for these conventional type systems.
The floating cover offers a lower first cost in the range of $1.50 to $2.50/
ft^ and when properly compounded these systems have an expected lifetime
of from 25 to 50 years. In addition to the economic attraction, it
appears that floating covers will provide savings in maintenance and
may reduce the quantities of disinfecting chemicals required because
of the assured protection. Several applications are described by Rizzo
(1976), and he gives recommended procedures for preparation, manufacture,
fabrication and installation specifications.
10
-------
c c
X O ^
O O -^ ^ C
^1 cc CO C Q- ^
TJ
o o ^ —
c S. -. -H Jj
ni
•H
Q)
-U
DC 4-1 ,
PL 0! H O
60
C
•H
•H
CO
o
o
cn
•H
•u
cn
•r-(
M
cu
I
o
•H
fX
H
•s
EH
^1
cO cO i
O O <
LA LA
—i —i CN CM
-H r-1 -J -O-
H
en c
E
- H
00 CO
<
CJ
•G
t/}
1
cn
cn
QJ
C
•H
00
d
4-1
o
CJ
CD
01
1
cn
cj
en c
•H 4~i
E co
8
cn
cn
iO
QJ
c
cn
o
-o
CT
N
O
00
•H
QJ
3
CO
O
•H
CO
4J E
60
QJ
V-i
cn oo o
C -H
— 1 Q. rH CO
cn co -H c
C 3 4n o
QJ r-,
£-< W
CJ
c
0
cn
XI
x:
00
00 OJ
C l-i
D. T-H to
CO -H I-,
3 u-. TO
CD
CJ
-rH
4-1
CO
4-1
cn
O
00 >,
c x;
P. rH C
ClJ -H rH
d
2:
•rH
x:
CJ
cO
e
en
QJ
a
QJ
4-J
cn
•H
z
QJ M
4-1 Cfl
O &
Z r
xa -o
c
0) 01
> -H
O X3
XI
CO S
Q
0) FU
x: w
C V-i
O 1
•H i-H
u I>1
•H VI
T3 d
c
ex
•H
o
4J
•H
OJ
tn
4-1
oo
•H
cu
11
-------
I
•H
•8
H
f
0)
ro
I-i
S
cu
X
IH
J2 /
3
C*
iH
4->
3
PH
M-t
o
CO
C
\
4-1
E
s
s
01
o
IH U
O -H
<4H M
C 43
*H CO
01 fc-
PC
0)
CO
to
m
r-l
CN
X
CN
CM
CN
*
CN
CM
X
CN
CN
CN
X
CM
X
CM
X
CN
CN
**
X
CN
CM
-d-
1—1
CM
CN
X
oo
00
„ "~*
c
3
O
CJ
CJ
IH
43
CO
C
o
O O rH
CO CO B
O
O O rH
CO OO C
c
o
0 0 rH
OO CO E
O
O O rH
s
B
O
O O rH
rH CN >>
B
o
0 0 rH
—i CM ^
B
0
O O rH
-* CM >•>
CN -J- C
O
O O rH
rH CM >-,
CN -4" C
B
o
0 0 rH
^H CM >1
CN -3" C
C
O
O O rH
CN CM B
O
O O rH
CN CN E
)-i
at
H B
cu o>
•H TJ
E
0) 00
TJ B
CX rH CU
tn rH 43
(0 *H TH
B
•H
rH
•H
ft) CO
C
•H
CO l-»
rH •
CX CM
B
*H
rH •
B
•H
rH •
c
-H
co 00 43
CO -H B
0) 01 0)
i i .
B 4-
•H rH
3
X
43
O
CO
3
g
at
4-1
'a,
o
o
e
o
IH
CO
M-l
CO
"
to
IH
at
E
•H
rH
CM
O
4_J
CO
-H
at
^~"
»
*O Ot rH
rH tH X r"1
3 CX Q E
O PH -H
43 0 W >
CO 4-1 >>
to t-i at o
IH CJ E CX
0) 4-1 0)
•H 3 >,
^ -g °
U O CU OH
p., 42 rH TJ
W OB
• CO B
at ai o t3 •«
> -H 0) tH
4-J 4-1 CO CO E
cO -H T3 B O
4J 3 CO iH B
E M tn o
at -o oo o B
to at at rH
0) rJ 13 43 0)
r^ 01 0 C
ex > oo at
0) O B II -H
H
u
E
o
•H •>
4-1 4-J
U rCJ
O) 00
tH -H
•rl TJ Ot
13 B S
t CO
w X co
O Q 4J
MO, O
U td 4J
to IH "
co O co
CO
at to at
e oo c
to c ^
tfi -H cj
43 rH 4J
4-J
K nJ o
^-4 rH UH
•H
SB T3
00 *H .
•H IH (0 1
4J CU > Cl
U 43 CO
^ 3 eu H
^H |-i M CO
TJ CO <
rH
01 r*% CO 4-1
E 4-1 TJ O
•H 3 B
43 43 0> CO
U rH T3
tO 0) 43 • O
B > CX 43
O X -H 4J
CO 43 O TJ 01
co to g ^ B
at 01 -^- 3 u
B 43 M O W
co 4J 0) 43 0>
CO 43 4-J 4-1
O 43 -H
0) 4J 3 3 «
43 P TJ
4J E i at o>
O rH Vl 4J
tO -rl >, Cfl O
•H 4-1 4-1 C
•H 3 CO
r TJ 43 *-• to
r4 CtJ 00 01
CO -H rH
& B CU B
^
s" •
rH S
-H -H
-^. a
E co
•H
1-1 M-t
U O
CO
•^. CO
B at
•H rH
<4-l CX
B CN
•H
^ TJ
O B
CO (0
B B
rH rH
14-1 I4H
rH U
•H 43
IH 4-1
OJ 1
4-1 rH
03 -H
B S
1
CX
m o
co to
01
CO -H
•H i—t
cx
to
H
•o
ft)
TJ
CJ
4-1
cO
4J
CO
o
J-l
43
01
3
x
TJ
B
cO
X
4J
00
0)
M
4-1
CO
tH
cO
(U
4-1
E
O
*H
4-1
cO
S
O
01
00
B
at
IH
4-1
CO
at
rH
•H
CO
B
0)
4-1
12
-------
rto^
I I
I I -
co oo m
in in - 4-1
rH O
cx d
n) -j-
1-1 m
*, rH •
' CN CN d CX —'
rH 'O O T)
g
o o -
CN -J -J
r- CO CO
O O -H
i CO CO C
O O
o o o o
r-t ,—, mm
rH Ol CU O 13 •"
4-» 4J ra n)
aj -i-t TS c
•H -O
CO
O O rH CO -T
04 —« 04 XrH •
CN CN -3" C CX ^
O O O
fM OO OO CNOOO
CO! I-.-H mm rHrHrH
•a
0)
(3
^-I^H m
o o oo
m t-lQOt-<
d rH CO
O i-H
•H J-i -H
W 1) ffl
d *-» co
S5?
I c
3 o
g
O
a)
H
C ^ C
3 CU CD
O -H T3
tfl tO -H -H
« 00
a>*c
C
OOO
C-H
t-Ha.i-Hroa-rHtoa,t-*c
-
SfOS*->-MC;}l4-lO3<4H
O OO(U rH
OHHH W
-
-------
r.
0)
B
0)
M
ex
0
0)
B
r.
B
O
1
cfl
S3
„
a
n
PH
w
w~
PH
u
•t
M
0)
n
43
M
. cfl
rH
4-1 /-*.
3 fi
c^
O
13
0> rH
rH Cti
C*i [5
cfl W
4-1 s— s
•H
3 cn
cn B
rH
CO -H
4-J "4-1
B
O) M
B a)
0) 43
CJ 4-1
M O
O
C B
•H cfl
0)
M 0
rH PH
CO
•H -
CJ 0)
M B
0) 0)
B rH
B >-.
O ,c"1
CJ 4-1
0)
0) >,
B rH
O O
cn ex
.
to
0)
rH
fl
Cfl
4-1
B
0)
B
4-1
cfl
0)
M
H
0)
£>
crj
0)
^
B
•H
CJ
C/3
j_l
0)
r~l
•H
Pn
fi
M
cfl
£>H
O
B
•H
4-1
B
3
O
O
^ rrj T3 -T3 T-J rrj rrjrrj ^rrj
cu o)DO) o) a) o)o) olo)
ex exexex ex ex exex exex
ex cxcxex o- ex exex cxcx
•H -H -H -H -H -H -H -H -H -H
*"O ""O *"O *"O T3 *"CJ rO ""O rX3 ""O
X XXX X X XX XX
0) CUOJCU CD D -U 4J 4J 4-1 -PU -U 4-1
cd cd cd cd cd cd cdcd cdcd
i— 1 T— 1 T-H r-l rH t— 1 i— 1 r—l i— 1 iH
-^ ^ -^ -*^ \__ -^ -• -^^ *-^^ **.
,_J j_J j_J ! 1 ^J , "] |_J ! 1 | ~\ ,_J
pL| pLtflnpLl fin fe pLffln pufJLj
P^ p^ prf PH P^ P^ D^ C^ pi 2
^i v^L^M i-i M MM MM
O OOO O O OO OO
PQ pqpqpq PQ pq pqpq p^eQ
£ £££ it ^ p^S ££
c_> uuu c_> o c_>u uu
p_j p^ p| fV^ p. p j |^j p j p^ p j
0 0
B B
0) 0)
rHrHC BBB BB
•H O -H -H -H O -H -H
rH rHCOB Cfl Cfl COB CtiCfl
•~N. - — rHO) rH ^ooo>,
rH rHrHiHrHiHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHiH
^ !>•> r-^ r-^1 K^ r-*^ K"1 K^ ^> O ^l K^l t^ O
C BBBBBBBBCXBBBCX
MM MMMMMM MM
o)o) oio)(ua)o)o) no)
•H -H -H -rH -H -H -H -H -H -H
C!fi BBBBBB BB
0)0) 0)0)0)0)0)0) 0)0)
13T3 T3T313131313 1313
OO OOOOOO OO
O< — 1 O' — li — ICN< — ICN i — 1<±
rHCN rHCNCN, f-> >,
BBB
M M
a) a)
•H -H
B B
a) a)
13 13
0 0
o- co
00 VD
i — i
M M
o) a) i i
•H -H
fi B 60
0) 0) B
13 13 -H
CX iH
O O M rH
^O
CX] CN 01
•
^
^,
^*
^.
^
?"""
^
ni
r§
00
•H
ru
n)
i-i
i_i
•H
CO
r-H
r)
*rH
.£
^t
iii
O
t^
CO
dJ
3
cfl
14
-------
Natural Sealing and Chemical Treatment Mechanisms
The most interesting and complex techniques of lagoon sealing,
either separately or in combination, are natural lagoon sealing and
chemical treatment sealing (Thomas et al., 1966; Bhagat and Proctor,
1969). Natural lagoon sealing has been found to occur when the settled
solids form a bottom layer that physically clogs soil pores. Chemical
treatment has changed the chemical nature of the bottom soil to incur
sealing. Table 6 shows classified soil types for sealing properties.
Infiltration characteristics of anaerobic lagoons were studied in
New Zealand (Hills, 1976). Certain soil additives were added (bentonite,
sodium carbonate, sodium triphosphate) to 12 pilot lagoons with varying
pond depth, soil types, and compacted bottom soil thickness. A number
of chemical and physical additives have been used for successful pond
sealing. Monovalent cations (sodium, potassium, ammonium ions) chemically
reduced the soil porosity by replacing soil multi-valent cations. Highly
expanding clays, such as bentonite, when wetted, effectively reduced soil
permeability. It was found that chemical sealing was effective for soils
with a minimum clay content of 8 percent and a silt content of 10 percent.
Effectiveness increased with clay and silt content. The most commonly
used salts for chemical sealing have been sodium polyphosphates, sodium
carbonate, and sodium chloride.
In the study mentioned above, the sodium tripolyphosphate was applied
to silt loam at 0.46 lb/yd2 at $303/ac (1974 prices, New Zealand). Sodium
carbonate was applied to silt loam and sand loam at 0.70 lb/yd2 at $162/
ac. For soils with less than the above percentages, chemical treatment
was not effective. Physical treatment with bentonite, for example, would
have effectively sealed these soils. Bentonite has been found to swell
eight to twenty times its original volume. The application for bentonite
rate in the study was 4.6 lb/yd2 at a cost of $502/ac. These methods of
sealing were found to be less expensive than synthetic or earthen liners
(see Figures 1-5 for infiltration rates).
Four different soil columns were placed at the bottom of an animal
wastewater pond to study physical and chemical properties of soil and
sealing of wastewater ponds (Chang et al., 1974). It was discovered
that the initial sealing which occurred at the top 2 in. of the soil
columns was caused by the trapping of suspended matter in the soil pores.
This was followed by a secondary mechanism of microbial growth that
completely sealed off the soil from water movement.
A similar study was performed in Arizona (Wilson et al., 1973).
The double mechanism of physical and biological sealing was also found
to occur. Seepage rate was measured during the first 3 months. Perco-
lation from the lagoon was measured from 70 ft below the surface. The
sealing of the lagoon was also induced by the use of an organic polymer
united with bentonite clay. This additive could have been applied with
15
-------
Table 6. Important physical properties of soils and their uses for pond
linings (identifications based on unified soil classification
system) (Day et al., 1970).
MAJOR DIVISIONS
OF SOILS
o
o
CM
O
5J
O I
*° ? SL
O o v
*J V *O
j™ •» •*. Q*
S ££ «
o -5 - «-
1 E o
w •»- *•
tn o o.
a: *- .0
< ° -
o " >
0 0 o>
f *>
2 ^
0 °
a Q.
«A
O>
O
E
v>
2 5 s
o *- «^
i V >• •>
: c» ° ~
^ E =
•» «)
«• - S
' l/» —
vt
SANDS
on half of course fraction
ler than No. 4 sieve size
suol classificotion^the ;
to the No 4
o >
E c_
w» o
V. •*•
in
>
1±
0 E
O ~
2 ^
* s-
2-
tn
at
>•
4
_l -t
o e
o —
Z -o
< =,
cr
?"
in
<« ^
-1 V
u E
> *-
< 0
IE <=
0 0
Z „
2 5
d 5
i 7T
t JS £
*«, o-
»w C-fe
s£ iU
1 =1
il
£ 2
X £
« *
S*
« =!
SANDS WITH
FINES
(Appreciable
amount of fines)
o
«>
c
0
JC
-»-
M
«/»
41
o
n->
e
0
.c
l_
*>
•*-
0
**
c^
HIGHLY ORGANIC SOILS
TYPICAL NAMES
OF SOIL GROUPS
Well-graded qravels, qrovel-sond
mi»tures, little or no fines
'oorly graded grovels, gravel-sond
mixtures, little or no fines
Silty gravels, poorly graded
grovel-sand- silt mixtures
Clayey gravels, poorly graded
gravel-sand-clay mixtures
[ Gravel with sand-cloy binder
Well-graded sands, gravelly sands,
little or not ines
Poorly graded sands, gravelly
sands, little or no fines
Silty sands, poorly graded sand-
silt mixtures
Clayey sands, poorly graded
sand-cloy mixtures
| Sand with clay binder
Inorganic silts and very fine sands,
rock flour, silty or clayey fine
sands with slight plasticity
Inorganic clays of low to medium
plasticity, gravelly clays, sandy
clays, silty clays, lean cloys
Organic silts and organic silt-
clays of low plasticity
Inorganic silt, micaceous or
diotomoceous fine sandy or silty
soils, elastic silts
Inorganic clays of high plasticity
fat cloys
Organic clays of medium to high
plasticity
Peat and other highly organic' soils
GROUP
SYMBOLS
GW
GP
GM
GC
GW-GC
SW
SP
SM
SC
SW-SC
ML
CL
OL
MH
CH
OH
Pt
SOIL
PROPERTIES
(PERMEABILITY
14
16
12
e
8
13
15
II
5
1
10
3
4
9
'
2
SHEARING
STRENGTH
16
14
10
8
13
15
II
9
7
12
5
6
2
3
4
'
COMPACTED
| DENSITY
15
8
12
II
16
13
7
10
9
14
5
6
3
2
4
1
-*
SUITABILITY!
FOR LINING
EROSION
RESISTANCE
2
3
5
4
1
8
9
coarse
10
coarse
7
6
—
II
—
—
12
-
COMPACTED
EARTH
LININGS
—
—
6
2
1
—
—
7
Erosion
Critical
4
3
8
Erosion
Critical
5
9
Erosion
Critical
—
10
Volume
Change
Critical
—
-X--X-
"««" Numbers above indicate the order ot increasing values for the physical property named
X- Numbers above indicate relative suitability (i = best)
16
-------
o Loam no 4
£ Clcy loam no G
a Silt loam no 7
* Sand loam no 10
soil thickness 25cm
lagoon depth i M
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60
Time (weeks)
Figure 1. Infiltration rates—soil type effects (Hills, 1976).
Courtesy of Journal Water Pollution Control Federation,
Washington, D.C.
T3
'i 6
a 3
* 15 cm no 3
^ 25cm no L
a 35cm no 5
soil type loam
lagoon depth 3 M
* wr
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60
Time (weeks)
Figure 2. Infiltration rates — soil thickness effects (Hills, 1976)
Courtesy of Journal Water Pollution Control Federation,
Washington, D.C.
17
-------
-£ 3
o
u 4 Metres no 1
'~> 3 Metros no L
» 2 Metres no 2
soil thickness 2bc rn
'.oil type loom
*v^
28 32 36
1 imp (weeks)
40
48 52 56 60
Figure 3. Infiltration rates—lagoon depth effects (Hills, 1976).
Courtesy of Journal Water Pollution Control Federation,
Washington, D.C.
o
- 3
\
0 4 8 12 15 20 24 28 32 35 40 44 48 52 56 60
Time (weeks)
Figure 4. Infiltration rates—effects of additives in silt loam (Hills,
1976). Courtesy of Journal Water Pollution Control
Federation, Washington, D.C.
18
-------
E
\
- 5
n
or 4
*«»
o No additive no 10
u Bentonite no 11
A Na2C03 no 12
soil thic knpss
lagoon depth
25 cm
3 M
16 20 24
28 32 36 40
Time (weeks)
/.i 48 52 S6 60
Figure 5. Infiltration rates—effects of additives in sand loam (Hills,
1976). Courtesy of Journal Water Pollution Control Federation,
Washington, D. C.
the pond full or empty, although the treatment was more effective when
the pond was empty.
An experiment was performed by Matthew and Harms (1969) in an effort
to relate the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) of the in situ soil to the
sealing mechanism of wastewater stabilization ponds. The experiments
were performed in South Dakota. No definite quantitative conclusions
were formed. The general observation was made that the equilibrium
permeability ratio decreases by a factor of 10 as SAR varies from 10 to
80. For 7 out of 10 soil samples, the following were concluded: (1)
SAR did affect permeability of soils studied; (2) as the SAR increased,
the probability that the pond would seal naturally also increased; and
(3) soils with higher liquid limits would probably be less affected by
the SAR.
Polymeric Sealants have been used to seal both filled and unfilled
ponds (Rosene and Parks, 1973). Unfilled ponds have been sealed by
admixing a blend of bentonite and the polymer directly into the soil
lining. Filled ponds have been sealed by spraying the fluid surface
with alternate slurries of the polymer and bentonite. It has been recom-
mended that the spraying take place in three subsequent layers: (1)
19
-------
polymer, (2) bentonite, (3) polymer. The efficiency of the sealant has
been found to be significantly affected by the composition of the im-
pounded water. Most importantly, calcium ions in the water exchanged
with sodium ions in the bentonite to cause failure of the compacted
bentonite linings. Figures 6a and 6b indicate the effect of the calcium-
sodium ion exchange on both bentonite sealant and bentonite-polymer
sealant. The polymer had the effect of protecting the seal from failure.
Samples of soil were evaluated under a 10-ft fluid head. Untreated soil
samples seeped at rates between 10 and 88 in/day. Blending bentonite
at a rate of 4 percent by weight into three inches of native soil and
compacting reduced seepage to about 0.8 in/day. A similar application
using the polymer-bentonite sealant reduced seepage to 0.02 in/day. A
16-acre lagoon system was sealed with the polymer-bentonite mixture.
Seepage was estimated to be less than U.I in/day.
•x.
w
10% BENTONITE
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
^.1600
£
j 1200
uu I
3
£ 800
u.
O
£ 400
10% BENTONITE
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0
TIME • DAYS
20 30 40 50
TIME • DAYS
60
70
Figure 6a. Effect of calcium-sodium
ion exchange on seepage
rate of compacted bentonite
sealant (Rosene and Parks,
1973). Courtesy of the
Water Resources Bulletin,
Minneapolis, Minnesota.
Figure 6b. Effect of calcium-
sodium ion exchange
on compacted bentonite-
polymer sealant (Rosene
and Parks, 1973). Cour-
tesy of the Water Re-
sources Bulletin,
Minneapolis, Minnesota.
20
-------
Natural sealing of lagoons has been found to occur from three
mechanisms: (1) physical clogging of soil pores by settled solids,
(2) chemical clogging of soil pores by ionic exchange, and (3) biologi-
cal and organic clogging caused by microbial growth at the pond lining.
The dominant mechanism of the three has been shown to depend on the com-
position of the wastewater being treated. Davis et al. (1973) found
that for liquid dairy waste the biological clogging mechanism predomi-
nated. In a San Diego County study site located on sandy loam, the
infiltration rate of a virgin pond was measured. A clean water infil-
tration rate for the pond was 48 in/day. After two weeks of manure
water, infiltration averaged 2.3 in/day; after 4 months 0.2 in/day.
A study performed in southern California (Robinson, 1973) indicated
similar results. After waste material was placed in the unlined pond in
an alluvial silty soil, the seepage rate was reduced. The initial 4.4
in/day seepage rate dropped to 0.22 in/day after three months, and after
six months to 0.12 in/day.
Stander et al. (1970) presented a summary of information (Table 7)
on measured seepage rates in wastewater stabilization ponds. The results
in Table 7 ^re similar to the values mentioned elsewhere in this report.
Seepage is a function of so many variables it is impossible to anticipate
or predict rates without extensive soils tests. The importance of con-
trolling seepage to protect groundwater dictates that careful evaluations
be conducted before construction of lagoons to determine the need for
linings and the acceptable types.
Sanks et al. (1975) conducted a survey to determine the suitability
of clay beds for the storage of industrial solid waste. It was concluded
that industrial solid waste can be stored in selected geological locations
through the use of a multiple passive barrier concept, proper site selec-
tion and pit preparation.
A rational design of clay pits requires a knowledge of the follow-
ing: (1) the quantity and characteristics of the waste to be stored;
(2) the location of groundwater and paths of percolation; (3) the sorp-
tive and ion exchange properties of the clay, and (4) the permeability
of the prepared clay liner and the natural clay beds.
Five Texas clays studied were found to be capable of providing a
substantial barrier to the migration of pollutants. All of the clays
were highly impermeable and the remolded clays had coefficients of
permeability for distilled water ranging from 0.051 to 6.3 x 10~" in/
sec. Strong acid conditions increased the permeability of three re-
molded clays packed at low densities. Caustic solutions greatly re-
duced the flow rate, and the addition of phenol-like substances and
heavy metals appeared to have little effect on the flow.
The design of an industrial solid waste disposal facility could
best be conducted by selecting consultants with a specialty in geo-
technics and a background in industrial waste management. Careful field
21
-------
^—I C
J T) i-J
i U 03
QJ <
C
-
w QJ
"O 4-1 T3 •-> "O 4-J "Q 4-J 3 CD
CcnC'X ccnctr rev-
M
0)
"O
c
CO
4J
C/}
CD
e
o>
tn
tn
C
o
a,
o
u-i
tn
0)
cfl
V4
ai
M
rt
a,
at
0)
tn
13
0)
M
O
a,
n>
&D QJ
•o o
n3 to
o o
o o
o o
•8
H
—i 0) V-i
22
-------
exploration should be planned on the basis of the known geology of the
area and detailed boring tests. The importance of field permeability
tests was emphasized, and it was recommended that care be exercised in
preparing the borings so that meaningful results would be obtained. Be-
cause little is known about the effects of various chemicals on the
permeability of clay, it was recommended that laboratory tests be con-
ducted on undisturbed cores to correlate the permeabilities for water
with permeabilities for expected leachates. Because of the large percent-
age of shrinking and swelling in clays, the moisture must be carefully
controlled during construction to obtain an impervious lining and to
prevent cracking. Natural clays are frequently more impermeable than
remolded clays, and therefore it was recommended that natural clays not
be disturbed except in areas where cracks, aquifers, or other pathways
for leakage make it necessary. The importance of laboratory evaluations
and careful field studies by competent personnel were emphasized greatly
in the report. It would appear that many of the difficulties encountered
with clay linings in the past can be attributed to improper design and
construction techniques.
The Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (Hannaman et al., 1978) ini-
tiated an intensive study to evaluate the effects of stabilization pond
seepage from five municipal systems. The five communities were selected
for study on the basis of geologic setting, age of the system, and past
operating history of the wastewater stabilization pond. The selected
ponds were representative of the major geomorphic regions in the state,
and the age of the systems ranged from 3 to 17 years.
Estimates of seepage were calculated by two independent methods for
each of the five pond systems. Water balances were calculated by taking
the difference between the recorded inflows and outflows, and pond seepage
was determined by conducting in-place field permeability tests of the
bottom soils at each location. Good correlation was obtained with both
techniques.
Field permeability tests indicated that the sealing ability of the
sludge blanket was insignificant in locations where impermeable soils
were used in the construction process. In the case of more permeable
soils, it appeared that the sludge reduced the permeability of the bot-
tom soils from a background level of 10~^ or 10~^ in/sec to the order of
10~6 in/sec. At all five systems evaluated, the stabilization pond was
in contact with the local groundwater table. Local groundwater fluc-
tuations had a significant impact on seepage rates. The reduced ground-
water gradient resulted in a reduction of seepage losses at three of the
sites. The contact with the groundwater possibly explains the reduction
in seepage rates with time observed in many ponds. In the past this
reduction in seepage rates has been attributed to a sludge buildup, but
perhaps the increase in contact with groundwater accounts for this re-
duction. In an area underlain by permeable material where little ground-
water mounding occurs, there is probably little influence on seepage
rates. The buildup of sludge on the bottom of a pond appears to enhance
the ability of the system to treat seepage water. Sludge accumulation
apparently increases the cation exchange capacity of the bottom soils.
23
-------
Groundwater samples obtained from monitoring wells did not show any
appreciable increases in nitrogen, phosphorus, or fecal coliform over
the background levels after 17 years of operation. The groundwater down
gradient from the waste stabilization pond showed an increase in soluble
salts as great as 20 times over background levels. Concentrations from
25 mg/1 of chlorides to 527 mg/1 were observed.
Emphasis was placed on the need to seal the primary pond to the
extent that the water level is maintained at a level adequate to ensure
that the natural biological processes occurring in a waste stabilization
pond will not be inhibited by fluctuations. It was observed that proper
water level maintenance in the primary pond eliminated nuisance condi-
tions and the potential for enteric organisms to enter the groundwater
flow system. The current recommended design seepage rate of 500 gal/ac/
day was felt to be a good guide for the design of primary pond systems.
The control of seepage from secondary ponds appeared to be of less con-
cern than that observed for the primary ponds.
Reviews, General Evaluations, Costs, and Summary
The selection of the proper lining for a lagoon or holding pond
remains site specific. Each site must be individually analyzed for
specific characteristics. These characteristics include: (1) composi-
tion of wastewater, (2) physical and chemical soil characteristics, (3)
local climate, (4) local lagoon seepage regulations, and (5) project
cost limitations (Morrison et al., 1971).
Dallaire (1975) presented a series of case histories describing the
application of various types of liners to industrial waste lagoons with
emphasis on the synthetic liners. Applications of synthetic liners in
storm water overflow holding ponds, sanitary landfill linings to retain
leachate and salt solution retaining ponds were also discussed. Des-
criptions of the construction methods used to protect the liners were
presented. The article also included a summary of the options normally
available to engineers to obtain an impermeable lining in a lagoon or
holding pond. Five options were discussed: (1) a clay blanket, (2) a
lime-clay blanket, (3) a soil-cement blanket, (4) asphaltic concrete,
and (5) a plastic or rubber impermeable liner. The advantages and dis-
advantages of each option were presented.
Haxo and White (1974) and Haxo and White (1976) have presented an
evaluation of 12 liner materials exposed to landfill leachate. Six
polymeric liner membranes (butyl rubber, chlorinated polyethylene,
chlorosulfonated polyethylene, ethylene propylene rubber, polyethylene,
and polyvinyl chloride), four admix materials (hydraulic asphalt con-
crete, paving asphalt concrete, soil asphalt, soil cement) and two
asphaltic membranes (a blown asphalt-canal lining asphalt, and emulsified
asphalt on fabric) were prepared according to recommended procedures and
24
-------
exposed to the leachate. After a one-year exposure of the liners to the
leachate, the admix liners containing asphalt maintained their imperme-
ability to leachate; however, a drastic decrease in comprehensive strength
occurred. The asphalt became softer, and this was attributed to possible
absorption of organic components from the leachate.
During the one year of monitoring in the above study, only three
cells failed and two of these liners, soil asphalt and paving asphalt
concrete, leaked, whereas the leakage in the third was caused by failure
of the sealing compound around the periphery of the specimen. Soil ce-
ment lost some of its compressive strength, and its permeability decreased
to some degree. Inhomogeneities in the admix materials were thought to
contribute to the failure of the paving asphalt and soil asphalt liners
because of the 2-4-inch-thick liners used in the study. In practice a
much thicker application rate would be recommended. There is no indica-
tion of disintegration or dissolving of the asphaltic membranes during
the one year test period, although a slight swelling occurred. All of
the polymeric liner materials withstood a one year exposure to the
leachate, but the chlorinated polyethylene and Hypalon (chlorosulfonated
polyethylene) swelled appreciably. The swelling softened the liners, but
a reduction in tensile, tear, or puncture resistance was not observed.
Preliminary tests of the polymeric liner materials indicated some in-
crease in permeability which was attributed to swelling. Reductions in
the strengths of the seams of polyvinyl chloride, Hypalon, and chlorinated
polyethylene liners were observed with the polyethylene retaining its
strength best.
The leachate to which the liners were exposed had a COD of 40,000-
50,000 mg/1 and approximately 20,000 mg/1 of organic acids. The simu-
lated landfills were effective and produced anaerobic conditions which
yielded satisfactory leachates and a meaningful test of the lining
materials. All of the construction materials, except the epoxy resins
used to seal the liners in the base of the test facility showed no signi-
ficant deterioration. The resin selected was not designed for chemical
resistance, and for the continuation studies a more resistant material
has been developed.
Haxo et al. (1977) have presented the results of an interim study
describing the effects of liner materials exposed to hazardous and toxic
sludges. The experimental facility is constructed to simulate actual
operating conditions, and in addition to the exposure of sludges at
depths, plywood troughs with sloping sides are constructed for exposing
liners under conditions which simulate those encountered around the
edges of wastewater stabilization ponds.
The five types of admix materials exposed during the testing with
their respective thicknesses are listed below:
Asphalt emulsion on nonwoven fabric (0.3 in.)
Compacted native fine-grain soil (12 in.)
Hydraulic asphalt concrete (2.5 in0)
Modified bentonite and sand (5 in.)
Soil cement with and without surface seal (4 in.)
25
-------
Eight types of polymeric membrane liners have been exposed to toxic
substances and the types of materials and their thicknesses are listed
below:
Butyl rubber, fabric reinforced (34 mils)
Chlorinated polyethylene (32 mils)
Chlorosulfonated polyethylene, fabric reinforced (34 mils)
Elasticized polyolefin (20 mils)
Ethylene propylene rubber (50 mils)
Neoprene, fabric reinforced (32 mils)
Polyester, elastomer, experimental (8 mils)
Polyvinyl chloride (30 mils)
All of the polymeric membrane liners were mounted with lap seams prepared
by the suppliers or by the contractor in accordance with recommended
procedures.
The six classes of hazardous waste selected for the study were:
strong acid, strong base, waste of saturated and unsaturated oils, lead
waste from gasoline tanks, oil refinery tank bottom waste (aromatic oil),
and pesticide waste. Preliminary exposure tests were conducted on the
various kinds of materials to select combinations for long term exposure.
Most of the membrane liners and all of the asphaltic materials either
swelled or dissolved in the aromatic hydrocarbons. Combinations of waste
and liners exhibiting these characteristics were eliminated. The clay
liners were incapable of holding acidic and caustic wastes for extended
periods of time, and these combinations were also dropped from the long-
term exposure test.
The results obtained during the first year of limited bench scale
testing of liner materials exposed to various wastes resulted in the
following conclusions:
1. Liners should be carefully selected for specific wastes.
2. Preliminary exposure tests should be conducted on liner materials
before a specific liner is selected.
3. Asphalt based liners are incapable of containing oily wastes.
4. With the exception of crystalline polymeric membranes, oily
wastes, and particularly those containing aromatic components,
may pose special problems. Non-crystalline materials such as
rubber and PVC swell in oily wastes and swelling can be
particularly damaging to seams using cement compounds.
5. Bentonite liners, polymer modified bentonite and many soils
are probably unsatisfactory materials to be used for the con-
finement of strong acids and bases and concentrated brines.
6. Wastes containing both aqueous and oily phases may pose special
problems because of the need of the liner to resist simulta-
neously two fluids which are inherently different in their
compatibility with materials.
This study is continuing and being expanded and the detailed analyses
of the wastes used to expose the liners are being conducted.
26
-------
Cost comparisons of various liners (Tables 8 and 9) indicate that
natural and chemical sealants are the most economical sealers. Un-
fortunately, natural and chemical sealers are dependent on local soil
conditions for seal efficiency and never form a complete seal. Asphalt
type and synthetic liners compete competitively on a cost basis, but
have different practical applications. Synthetic liners are most prac-
tical for zero or minimum seepage regulations, for industrial waste that
Table 8. Cost of installed liner (Clark and Moyer, 1974).
Liner $/sq ft
Bentonite
2 Ib/sq ft 0.14
Chemical
Sodium Carbonate 0.02
Sodium Silicate 0.02
Sodium Pyrophosphate 0.03
Zeogel 0.03
Coherex 0.03
Asphalt
Asphalt Membrane 0.14
Asphalt Concrete 0.20
Rubbera
Butyl
1/16 in. 0.42
3/16 in. 0.36
1/32 in. 0.30
EPDM
1/16 in. 0.41
3/64 in. 0.35
1/32 in. 0.29
Synthetic Membrane
PVC
10 mils 0.13
20 mils 0.18
30 mils 0.22
Chlorinated Polyethylene (CPE)
20 mils 0.26
30 mils 0.34
Hypalon
20 mils 0.26
30 mils 0.34
Fiber glas
1/8 in. 0.55
•3
Nylon reinforced rubber costs an additional $0.10/sq ft.
27
-------
Table 9. Comparison of various installed liner costs, 1962 cost figures
(Stoltenberg, 1970).a
Liner Type
Cost ($/ft2)
Prefabricated Plastic
Composite PVC and Asphalt
Butyl Rubber Membranes
Bentonite Clay
Prefabricated Asphalt
Spray-type Cutback!
Emulsion Asphalt J
Spray-type Catalytically-blown Asphalt
Asphalt/Concrete (Hot Mix)
Soil Cement
0.03 - 0.10
0.09
0.40
0.60
0.11
0.02
0.08
0.30
> 0.30
Courtesy of Public Works, Ridgewood, New Jersey.
might degrade concrete or earthen liners, and for extremes in climatic
conditions.
Kays (1977) has written a book describing the technology of linings
for seepage control in reservoirs, lakes, ponds, canals, and related
hydraulic facilities. Emphasis is given to earthen reservoirs, but other
forms of containment such as concrete and steel tanks are also discussed.
The lining classifications discussed in the book are summarized in Table
10. The book is an excellent analysis of the technology of linings and
is recommended as a guide for all construction and engineering firms.
A brief history on the application of linings is presented describing
the types of reservoirs frequently encountered. Flexible, rigid, and
miscellaneous lining systems are discussed individually and the basic
problems associated with the selection of an elastomeric lining material
are presented.
A good analysis of the failure mechanisms involved in various types
of linings is also discussed. A chapter is devoted to pollution control
linings and the various types of waste products retained. Holding ponds,
harvesting ponds, groundwater contamination, airborne and thermal pol-
lution are discussed briefly. Detailed recommended design procedures
are also presented along with instructions for operation and maintenance
with the various types of linings.
The primary emphasis of the book is on plastic and elastomeric
membranes. The major advantages of zero permeability, good economics,
and large sheet capability along with their basic properties, testing,
28
-------
Table 10. Lining classifications (Kays, 1977).a
Flexible Rigid Miscellaneous
Plastics Gunite Bentonite clays
Elastomers Concrete Chemical treatments
Asphalt panels Steel Waterborne treatments
Compacted soils Asphalt concrete Combinations
Soil cement
Impervious Semiimpervious
Plastics Compacted soils
Elastomers Gunite
Asphalt panels Concrete
Steel Asphalt concrete
Soil cement
Bentonite clays
Chemical treatments
Waterborne treatments
Continuous Noncontinuous
Plastics Compacted soils
Elastomers Gunite
Asphalt panels Concrete
Steel Asphalt concrete
Soil cement
Bentonite clays
Chemical treatment
Waterborne treatments
o
Courtesy of John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y.
fabrication cost and installation techniques are described in detail.
The discussion of non-continuous lining systems such as concrete, gunite,
asphalt concrete, compacted earth, bentonite, and chemical treatments are
also adequately discussed.
Figure 7 is taken from Kays' (1977) work and shows comparative con-
struction cost ranges for concrete and steel tanks and cut and fill
reservoirs. Figure 8 shows a cost comparison for the various types of
liners used in the United States. Kays (1977) presented a classification
of the principal failure mechanisms observed in cut-and-fill reservoirs
(Table 11). The list is extensive and case histories involving all of
the categories are available; however, the most frequently observed
failure mechanisms were the lack of integrity in the lining support
29
-------
8
•**•
h-
V)
o
o
0
-o
LINED CUT AND FILL
I
I
0 4 8 12 16 20
CAPACITY (millions of gallons)
CONCRETE a
STEEL V
CUT AND FILL o
NOTE • All reservoirs are roofed
DATA • "Southwest Builder" bid sheets
for western states 1964-1965
Figure 7. Comparative construction cost ranges for concrete and
steel tanks and cut-and-fill reservoirs. Legend:
concrete, a ; steel, v; cut-and-fill , o. All reservoirs
are roofed (data from "Southwest Builder" Bid Sheets
for Western States, 1964-1965) (Kays, 1977). Courtesy
of John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y.
30
-------
CO
in
ro
H ^
or
w ~:
O
I- oo
co d
8 s
§5
i O
Q.
I
d
ro
d
CVJ
d
o
d
"
[-1
u
n
LI
D
L
UJOOt-SZUJUJ -I CO L
Z > — Q. a O 2 1- UJ _J h
^J - CD 5!
-
—
—
-
n n
-
r-i
LJ
J
n
1-1 LJ 1
uurai i c.
PHALT CONCRETE
CPE
COMPACTED CLAY
SOIL CEMENT
BENTONITE
BORNE TREATMENT
0>
00
£-
(O
in
2 E
g
cr>
oo
- m
- ro
- w
C/)
O
O
LU
O
Q_
i
oc
UJ
I
co
cu
O
O
en
CO
>,
ro
CO
O)
oo
T3
CU
4->
^D
OJ
co
CO '
O)
LO -^
O O
O ->
oo
Ol
S-
cr,
31
-------
Table H. Classification of the principal failure mechanisms for cut-
and-fill reservoirs (Kays, 1977).a
Supporting structure problems
The underdrains.
The substrate.
Compaction.
Texture.
Voids.
Subsidence.
Holes and cracks.
Groundwater.
Expansive clays.
Gassing.
Sluffing.
Slope anchor stability.
Mud.
Frozen ground and ice.
The appurtenances.
Lining problems
Mechanical difficulties.
Field seams.
Fish mouths.
Structure seals.
Bridging.
Porosity.
Holes.
Pinholes.
Tear strength.
Tensile strength.
Extrusion and extension.
Rodents, other animals, and birds.
Insects.
Weed growths.
Weather.
General weathering.
Wind.
Ozone.
Wave erosion.
Seismic activity.
Operating problems
Cavitation.
Impingement.
Maintenance cleaning.
Reverse hydrostatic uplift.
Vandalism.
1 Courtesy of John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y.
structure and abuse of the liner. A comparison of observed seepage rates
for various types of liner materials is presented in Table 12 (Kays, 1977).
If an impermeable liner is required, it appears that one of the synthetic
materials must be used. Protection of the synthetic liners is essential
if impermeability is specified.
32
-------
Table
12. Seepage rate comparisons (Kays, 1977).
Minimum Expected
Seepage Rate at
20 ft of Water Depth
Material
Open sand and gravel
Loose earth
Loose earth plus chemical treatment*
Loose earth plus bentonite*
Earth in cut
Soil cement (continuously wetted)
Gunite
Asphalt concrete
Unreinforced concrete
Compacted earth
Exposed prefabricated asphalt panels
Exposed synthetic membranes
Thickness
(in.)
4
1.5
4
4
36
0.5
0.045
L (_CJ- -L y i. W i O C- J- V J_ t~. C-
(in. /day)
96
48
12
10
12
4
3
1.5
1.5
0.3
0.03
0.001
The data are based on actual installation experience. The chemical
and bentonite (*) treatments depend on pretreatment seepage rates, and in
the table loose earth values are assumed.
Courtesy of John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y.
33
-------
STATE DESIGN STANDARDS
Each of the 50 states was contacted by mail with a follow-up by
telephone where necessary to obtain information about the requirements
for liners in wastewater stabilization lagoons and allowable seepage
rates from lagoons. The results of the survey are summarized in Table
13. Requirements vary from state to state, but in general all specify
as a minimum that the beneficial uses of the groundwater beneath a waste-
water stabilization lagoon be protected. Recommended methods for pro-
tection of the groundwater range from natural sealing to impervious
linings and stringent leakage allowances.
Written standards varied from a one short paragraph statement
leaving the selection of liners and establishment of seepage rates to
the discretion of the regulatory agency to detailed written descriptions
illustrated with drawings showing the acceptable methods of design and
construction. Washington and Minnesota standards were the most detailed
of all and both sets of standards are presented as Appendixes A and B.
None of the various types of liners were specifically excluded from
application in any of the 50 states; however, the strict allowable seep-
age rates imposed by certain states would make it difficult to employ
many of the soil stabilization techniques discussed in other sections
of this report. The most common method of specifying allowable seepage
rates was to specify protection of the groundwaters without establishing
a minimum seepage rate.
Several states expressed concern about groundwater pollution from
lagoons containing industrial wastes with toxic substances such as heavy
metals and exotic organic compounds. Many of these states indicated
they are presently modifying standards or are considering revisions.
The trend is definitely toward more stringent standards.
Experiences with various materials and application techniques were
also cited as reasons to improve the regulations. Opinions as to the
best lining material varied from state to state, and the favored materi-
al varied with the availability of natural materials for linings and the
local soil conditions. The need for competent professional services was
emphasized by most states.
It appears reasonable to assume that standards will become more
stringent and that more detailed guidelines will be developed by many of
the states. Heavily industrialized states can be expected to require
essentially impervious linings for most industrial applications. It is
likely that military installations will be expected to use impervious
linings in applications where a mixture of domestic and industrial wastes
is discharged to a stabilization lagoon.
35
-------
O3
G
O
0
jf
Q
-»-»
N
ates in wastewater stabi]
v-i
O
ccf
O
lary of state requirements for liners and see]
c
3
CO
ro
"-"*
JH
3
cd
H
03
.X
\—l
cd
6
CO
&
03
§
•4-J
ca
•4-*
1
ft
CD
£
Lining Requirement
•2
2
CO
S o 'o -o
•5 '-3 ^ -^ S3
13 O -£3 •£! Oa o ^
S ftf 8 ^ S S ^
3 >> o? S1 ~ o *s S
05 !=l lw . O O -H ra ">
•-1 ca o o; ;• G ^ 13 03
£> £ c 2 •§ £ ~ - §
•3 S 1 «S 1 S 5 ^ S |
— - bJQ +•* c co „,, »-H ^H ^
'S °r cd r^ co « rt 8 ° £5 12
Q,) •*-* T^Hj S •!-- (-1 Cd tJ A_J > C
0^2 2 s I 2 § a s 3
ft_- «>•» s g -s 'gta § -3
IH ^ Jc >•» ed ^ *J3 _i ra
1 |at | § G g-1 •§ 8
°3cJ3^ -J:ow~ g -
^gggg rt tS . 0 & "3
°u'S-flo 3a>,« M M
«> -2 S 5 & aGS>;g 3 -a
i* o> cd ojj f> -T-i ^3 Cd o s^
*lg<^"8 ^^ a! I f.
8||l1^ ll II -s ll
file 1| § I |-S .i . i&
iiini 35 It Ji si
T3 T3 T3 T3
W CL) ^2 S (^ &
o- ° S^o^.S QQ Q
O • • 'C M C -rt C
^ o Of1ca^ntMK o o> co
-*-• •t-'n^or^ -t-1 *-* -^
23 ca cai_5r
3*1 Il2« "21 S-gS-IS^a gl « &1 "S S
i-3 ||lf li iSil^ie l| i^l 11
•o 'Eh S^Sog1 ^ ^ ^8g3«c^G ^2 J" -S 1 ^^43
£^ ias- £l .^|||^f.2 £* -oaS ssl
^ -Iv-ll «s ^llge^l^ «-l g&s -S&g
^^ l^tS SI .211,8,^ -S is, «l a^ ZE^S
3
G § « 1 -§ "1
S ca 2 G X ca co
lllS log
^ .3 b 'S "i "o o
< <
-------
53
i
I
Seepage not allowed
" X
§•§
& OO
s C-f?
J> Sb c -
H & O
^ & 5 -
C 4> bfl
^> S42
« S
o S
PH.--,
g 3
I 2
"S OH
- c
(—I qj
I E
"S ^
00-T3
•SE
jj OJ
1> 'g
3 S
o
2
6
'O 6O
o c
"
.- 0
No specified allowable
g1
Is
cd O
o ^
If
».s
H -—
|S
T3 M 'C
Z 5 G
.3
00
OH
o
CO
oo
CS
OH
O
C X
•1-s
T3 'C
-
1^
o _4
C 'C
'o S
5
a
37
-------
T3
p
V-»
o
o
rn
»-H
.— H
•S
H
Remarks
CO
d
.0
H-»
OS
•«— »
c
CD
&o
C3
OH
CD
CD
00
Lining Requirement
CD
(rt
•5
CO
Consideration being given to establishing a fixed
seepage rate such as a value of 500 gallons per
day per acre. Local engineers feel that a rate of
500 gal/day -acre would exclude the use of clay
type soils and bentonite, and synthetic or
asphalt lining would be necessary.
>> e
£ 0
£H *3
« .3 >,
« 8-3
^ ^ ,s
rt w* tn
^ ^ 3
0 T3 g c^
^ l-i CU C
« o S 0
EQ, rt '^H
^^ IT -<-»
g-S » S
| .1 ^S
3 CL O
iS °O 5> D
S^~- o> ft
' — 1 CO CO
CO
c
O
Liners evaluated on individual basis. Lago
treating waste water from animal feeding
facilities do not require a lining.
£3
^
Areas with soils unable to retain water, removal
of the bottom soil to a depth VA ft below
finished grade and replacement with clay com-
pacted to a maximum density at \Vi% moisture
as measured by standard Proctor Test.
CD
00
n)
ft .
CD rpH.
1^ (-,
M— ( S-M
o S
CD ^H
ft .
M CD
O -*-1
•^ W
f-t fcH
^
•d 2
Liners required to maintain water level am
protect groundwater. All methods of
seahng or lining are considered on individi
merits.
CO
e3
c
1
Need evaluated on a case-by-case basis.
o
03
1-H
>
^
g
C
£
T3
1
cr
S
S
13
t-l
£
cfl
Where soil porosities necessitate seepage
control, clay blankets approximately two feet
deep were used.
CD
a
LH
CD
bo
cj
ft
CD
CO
_
•P s^ <1>
O "^ M
2 c 2
-*-; CD
co .;;; CD
1-03
o S -o
c3 c
O co o
HJ CD '+3
rt 43 3
C ^^ ril
H 13 0
•Si *
ZH «
•§11
•*— ' f S
xi §
H -Q ft
CO
t^
CD
C
a
o
o
oo
^3
cS
cd
UH
O>
'UH
0
a
W2
•8
3
'o
S
o
o
Z
O
C
38
-------
T3
CD
S
_G
1
W
tu
3
cfl
H
•S
CO
S
o
pg
CO
G
O
1
00
ft
«
oo
S
E
o>
0"
c2
eo
.a
3
cci
00
o o
•^ t-<
^ °-
2£ 2
G ••-• o
°2 •*-• 'S
25 ca £
VH ^ Q>
ft -M ft
« 3 E
^ 'S '^
"i 'S -s "*>
"T3 O ^ •—*
GO B^ g) g^
*C ' CJ ^H
Should adequate bo
substantiate the soil
posed lagoon site,li
material will not be
+2
a
hH
QJ
rt
1
1
t£
O
^
T3
&
'o
0>
O
Z
*"* ^*
,3 " p Q flJ ® t~]
^^ O C S5 So »iIS +-»
c
-3
S*
S
§•>,
^J TO
• O -r3
CO c-i '-' •
Hit
.a s S *
1111
T3 •£* O ^
^ S "c -o
-+-> "^ fO CH
c S "S
O o ^ c3
Some industries hav
Specifications call f<
tests, and typical op
to check for rips, te;
£
ca
(M
o>
~P
(D
oj
^
O
^
T3
CH
'Q
1
O
^i
1 SJ
=3 ?
3 >.
- i
o g
a «•
.2 «
nl , .
3 Q>
0 ft
'o ^
ft»5
CO t-H
(D
^7 -S
X— •( ^-H
CO
-*->
Q
5o
O
CO
S
i? s *S ^3
i — i ' -^ ^ . -^i r^ i5>
^S2§-3gs2^5pgg
•5 "*-< P ^ > u ?3 S ° -S
|~ |8° §,« ll-sa ^
^ -a £ a 2 r* o w> o %^- a
|l2|||||lf| |
4-« O ^ & TT-t ft> *1\ 1^ ^ M
|
IHIIIilHll |
li^ifillllia «
!>-55c«oc«c3iGo3Co.rtO c/2
1 g .g
U G +J , 'S
G T3 S « 0
£ « ° e
^. CL,^ . S
O -+-• +"> T^
"*""* ^ tS ^ "^3
*O ^x ^ « *rt
T~H ?3 i rt^ M *S
5|3 &1I
•4-J O O f> ™
C jcj ou rt 52 "^
q> +-» PS EE Si
G c R4 o -2 q
•2 o S . ^ ^ *""
co (Xi o O o -^ "o
^* ^*1 ^ &D ^^ O '^
O ^^ ~^'J frt^ '^^ O, "*~*
° •§ e "^ ^"d M
o^3 o ^ "*•*
Z ft E .S Z -2 §
S3
l| ..J
Is |13°1-S
§^ 1| 1 8 1 «
S> q •" o •&"£! .S ^ VH TH CH fl>
h-J O CH H-l CO QH -5 OH *&
d
(— ' ^-*
i o
If *>
!" §
§ §
39
-------
3
"S
o
u
2
Kl
CD
3
4)
e co-
state have highly impen
h serve as effective liner
y areas of
soils whic
3 >>
a a
S "o
. o
ID 'C
Ca -4^
(-1 .*-!
0 0
ca M
ft'~
O ^j
cu •£
x> ^
ca c
j£ 3
*r3 b£)
-3 O
flj
1 §
o «
CD £
° 2
x
T3 S3 •§
§ a °
.3 a x>
g «g — J
S co S
«£§
til
.a ,2
^3 . '^
CO CO
0 'S C
S-8!
!!£
Z o Q
1
CO
CO
s
CO
1
•4-»
S>
'•g
I
O T3
*- 5 -a
•ssl
00-3 to
S -S ^ «
J !*§ s
° ««i
KG •
X> « >s S,
S-s£
l^§^
Isli
ts w ^ a
ca ^ i^> '3
X3 u +3 *
•^ ft C g
•S S IB
^^ 2^2
.s-^* s
o ao^, 5
lilt
13
T3
S3
ft
|
v>
(N
d
.2
C3
*-i
ca°
ft
CO
£
^ f**
?a
J5
^
H
1
"^
g
o
•o
HI
.tt
0"
DO
1 «
.5 "*~*
.B
o
CO
g
T3
T3 tJ S
(U C3 rt
« "S ^ P
.s al | .
" £ &-S E
:s used only at industrial
neries using asphalt imp
ced dissolution of the a:
by wastewater. Gunite
er line solved the proble
i|iii
o g &, IM w
T! 3 X «j X^
a ^ u 5 t
•5 o 2 tS *
?* § «-
>> ca C S (U
IV2 PH 3 "S X)
^
o
5.
.S3
O
CT3
M
ft
0>
3
1
_O
1 ^ .V'
f , J^*
CTJ r^
N—3 CX
H
ft
!
JD
^>
s
o
.S
&
oo
s
-2
fe
w
a>
1
-4-*
'%
C
o>
1
I
CO
'«
ca
*-»
ca°
ft
CO
JJ
I-Q
s
o
<
g
^
o>
•*-»
1
-t-»
u
G
3
>,
^3
o
ca
xj
•g
oo
ia
1%
1
CTt
^o
^
•a
> CO
If
p- C3 .Q
good lining material wh
ed. Soil compaction als
;e. Most municipal am
l|!
Its
>>
"2
5?
rt S*
*^ o
S-S
o^ ^*
^J^ ^""j~
.a ••
22. .2
*~* 5
ei ^
5J) "oo
'53 CH
Q O
^
1-1
s— t
CH
T3
•S
cv>
«
.
CS
"ca
•C o
H a
£* o
M 3>
^ &
-5 s
Xj
se bentonite as a sealer,
lagoons u;
1
60
-a
&o
1
1
X)
o
ll
il
o
o
'!
_a>
1
1
3
5
o ^
^ E.
S ca
ca J2
« "
00 ^
0 °
»-g
CU .JZJ
x> a
^ 's
a ^
Q>
S 2
Cj a_i
Q> (-J3
O &
z s
"i
e ^
OU _j
1 §
s>l
a|
CO >
d *-*
c requireme:
>n proposal
M-H O
*rt oo
s-3
J-s
^fl
«3
wt
J;
a>
'S3
S
merits.
a
» s
it
<
*S
t
oc
i
40
-------
•d
|
B
O
CJ
2
CD
2
ca
H
Remarks
CO
B
_O
-4-»
Ca
-«->
'g
^
ft
9j
c/5
I
.S
3
tuj
B
CD
CO
CO
B3
£
O
_B
CO CO
ivells required in case
tices or sensitive area;
Monitoring i
toxic substai
-i—i
2
CD
ca°
ft-d
o o
-
s ^
iJ
ro 4y
d> X>
U2 ca
•S eu
m E
& ft
Q C
z«
B
Linings required. Materials evaluated o
individual merits.
^^
^
Z
CO
^ , V
& •*-»•*-* o
-B .S 'B s-
d> ^ 5 "^
w > " ™
° •3 co o
T3 "5 B 0
ca 5s o o
X> CO O +-J
t>0 W3
O a "o o
M*-
ft B S3
S "S "S
CO 3 £
CL> ^>
SPls <2
ft c^
CD r*? ***
^ ia o
Is Er S
•i, . "ti
|||
•o _ 3
.s 2 2
O -4—* "-rt
& -3 s
Q •— < ~~^
Z.2T3
Lining required to control water qualit1
All types of lining materials considered
o
o
'S
^
S
^
Z
X)
2
o
o B'
••g.2
43 ta
o-B
T3 T3
clay or bentonite an
s receives equal consi
11
> %
op ca
5 g
ca t~i
0)
CO Xl
CL>
O
B
ea
'S
_0j "S
2 E-d
^ o
60 g 5S
& 1- 0
J* —
|||
T3 O jj
|||
q_> "t^ "— ' '
& S T3
° 2 lw
Z CL, o
CO
o .
Linings required to avoid excess Uquid 1
All materials considered on their merits
0
^"
^
Z
S3 S
1 °IS^1
^ § o^|1 -
1 3 is -a w s §
Jj^;p;Si
l^Fil0:
|^.sl«1
l^fo^i
o « * 'S a S3 o
Xl ^ ,,, O T3 B °
ts 1 * s .s a s
l^l^&S^
•a^asSIl
i- *« 3 13 S C =s
§ S^^l's* B
S^._^ucs
EoBO-gSo|
H CTj O f,^ C l-t 'Tj rH
o^g^^3"S_S
ailiiisl
4>
2
Ml
ft
1)
CO
D
3
^
^o
"O
o
53
'3
0>
ft
CO
O
Z
bO K/" rT-T
G ^ ^i "^
is S B 5 .3 3
Lagoon linings required when water ho]
characteristics of the soil are unsatisfad
when there is not satisfactory separatio
between lagoon bottom and groundwat
table, when toxic wastes must be conta
and when embankments must be protec
from wave action.
ca
•S
"o
j-
Ui
O
Z
43
ca
'>H
o>
-*J
ca
E
£
0
£
•5
"d
€
o
ft
£
on
Good succes
^> . ^-i
. M
S3 g3
ft.S
0 5
E CD
•rt K
"^"c '
O) .?! T3
t-i &Q O
C P-4
IP
W3 «^H ^O
jj 'S C.
c3 'rt (*~j
o d o
^2 o -<->
^cj 2
•i tS
ft 0
O C
o G o
If!}
o >. a '53
^ « ft CD
"2 u o g
^ .S -H*
t- -3 r- W
2 CD CO 3
B -s ,*-• T3
•=3 X) <*- 2
H- I ca o .a
ca
*j
O
3
t
o
z
S
3
s!
^.a
o
K d
a> -
&o
ginee
r S
kes-U
ary E
mended Standards
d by the Great Lak
ard of State San
"Reco
publish
River B
13
-------
0>
3
.3
o
r«->
CD
3
Remarks
-
c
_o
re
^
h-3
00
ft
rt^
t/2
Lining Requirements
CD
-4_i
re
r*.
*o
3
CO
T3
Abundance of clay in state precl
manmade materials.
CD
re
CD
oo
re
ft
CD
CO
CD
0
_O
13
T3
'o
CD
ft
CO
0
y >>
Requirements specify that lagoons be
essentially water-tight. Interpreted to h
met when lagoon is constructed in a cla
re
6
O
*^3
T~~1
o
I
o
o
"o
c• XJ r-] j^
re co -*-1 o
45 CD c<_ S 0 P
Sheet hners (manmade materials
ed poorly due to formation of g;
the membrane causing flotation
Some liners have been hfted by i
aerators.
CD
00
re
*^
re
4n
1
rt
_O
r^ •
F— H C3
C^ T^
2^ *-•
<1> Q^
O *o
-4— > ^
Q> **^
wa i— i
|o
o
^S
>-< r3 4^ o c<
re re o o
ft 'CD .X ^ >
S £ "^ 1 -B
o | 1 c g
1 ll -1
co o "re § 'O
G Z 'S ° >.
•^ r^ r-" (-; p.
H-l H C 00 00
C
O
I)
o
g
a
o
1
Flexible membrane hnings shall
thickness of 20 mils.
"re ^3 CD
.0 3 g
•4—* C3 s>l
o o ^
2 E £
p^t ^ o
re ^— H
"c! g -S
O ;*-^ O
(4-l gj
-O g 35
1 ° s
*-J qj p,
"&5 'S «5
VH
Q) _.j (^
"S g "JJ
^ c
O Q> ^ t"*
OO "~ ^ "^ i~s
O-< *M ^>
J^ I.S
o
Requires that lagoons be impermeable 1
safeguard the quality of groundwater.
Seals of soil, bentonite, or synthetic
.ca
M
CO
5
(£
X
liners may be suitable.
o
S
CD
OO
re
CO
CD
^
re
£
^3
TS
S
'o
ft
C/3
*
re
No specific requirements. Reviewed on
case-by-case basis.
•&
M
CD
•S
o
p2
g-a S
S 2 G m
2 2 .2 °
a 111
"S o 43 -ts
1 g 33
C — • o re
a> C ° e
| bl'S
!l|j
0 M C .
^ .2 o oo
8 &!?'i
lll^
0 "» H
« i3 .S *re
CD
re
CD
OO
re
ft
CD
CO
CD
o
re
0
;=!
re
T^-J
.S
'o
ft
CO
0
Z
£
/—I
No specific requirements. Lagoon sites
must be monitored for changes in shallc
groundwater quality.
re
'o
O
4_j
3
&
%
O
t/1
1^ *
g 6
•^ •*-*
distributed over the surface, cla)
suspended and does not seal bot
ST
CD
^
re
Chemical pollution possibility rr
special consideration.
•a
,
CD
ft
O
.3
^?
CO
CD
're
*-<
(D
OO
re
ft
TJ
11
CD
re
CD
oo
«
ft
CD
CO
JS
3
S
"re
^j
CD
'o
ft
CO
0
C |H
CD 0
Water tight conditions required. Frequ
test holes required to determine need f<
seahng.
&
c
H
42
-------
ks
Re
a
X>
&
2J2
•S
!l
1*!
5
a
o
-2'3o|
istll
-S
x
tn
O
^3 •
a T3
§ '"
aj cr
p-sss
o
CL,
(
"S
a>
i
Ill
1
6
11
&
o
a>
a>
o
X
*
c«
hH
_U
3
T3
a>
S
o
43
-------
•d
s
.a
o
0
f)
3
cd
H
•S
«
6
"
CO
c
.0
-t->
6
i-J
&
C3
ft
cs
00
Requirements
oo
:s
"8
So
T3
O
K* •
ft 0}
O S
o 5
• 1-2
*S
^ .52
.j M
8|
1 1
o 6
W «rH
•^H *— 1
"S cL
a «
c« o
rt
1
ft
S
12
0
s
T3
SH
'o
ft
CO
0
^
•£ 1
ft 3
a> u
) control wate
jssive. Bentor
•S I
.§ -S3
fl) CtJ
VH *^
& ec
'1 if
O
o
•53
^
o
8
2
T3
(U
3
CT1
0>
1
oo
ftii
-C^ S
5 "S
"5 i-
S«2
tj JJ
PH *-*
Q> O
•"£ U
| |
§ cs
51
C u
42 '-S en
X) ->"S ft
U CO CO
d>
2
DO
ft
§
3
ca
_O
ra
T3
«S
'o
ft
CO
O
Q CO
I 3
0 S
a c
c o
o o
ts determined
er depth in la§
g |
1 co- -d
O T^ O
bO w d
.S S 8
^ ^ u
t— 1 XI XI
.S
0
^
44
-------
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION PRACTICE
The presentation of recommended design and construction procedures
is divided into two categories: 1) bentonite, asphalt and soil cement
liners, and 2) thin membrane liners. This division was selected because
of the major differences between the application techniques. There is
some similarity between the application of asphalt panels and the
elastomer liners and of necessity there will be some repetition in
these two major subdivisions0 A partial listing of the trade names and
sources of common lining materials is presented in Appendix C.
Regardless of the type of material selected as a liner there are
many common design, specificiation and construction practices. A summary
of the common effective design practices in cut-and-fill reservoirs is
given in Table 14. Most of these practices are common sense items and
would appear to not require mentioning. Unfortunately, experience has
shown these items to be the most commonly ignored practices. Details
of the design practices in Table 14 are presented in the following
sections.
A lining material must be selected with the type of waste to be
contained in mind. Kays (1977) has developed a lining selection guide
chart (Table 15) for various types of wastes and the common types of
lining materials. The chart should be used only as a guide, and before
selecting one of the materials, a careful evaluation of the waste and
the proposed liner must be conducted.
Bentonite, Asphalt and Soil Cement
The application of bentonite, asphalt and soil cement as lining
materials for lagoons and reservoirs has a long history (Kays, 1977) .
The following summary includes consideration of the method of using the
materials, resultant costs and evaluations of durability and effective-
ness in limiting seepage. The cost analysis is necessarily somewhat
arbitrary, since this cost depends primarily on the availability of the
materials. Examples of state standards developed or being developed to
control the application of these types of materials are presented in
Appendixes A and B.
Types of Linings
Bentonite. Bentonite is a sodium type montmorillonite clay, and
exhibits a high degree of swelling, imperviousness and low stability in
45
-------
Table 14. Summary of effective design practice for placing lining in cut
and fill reservoirs.
1. Lining must be placed in a stable structure.
2. Facility design and inspection should be the responsibility of pro-
fessionals with backgrounds in liner applications and experienced
in geotechnical engineering.
3. A continuous underdrain to operate at atmospheric pressure is
recommended.
4. A leakage tolerance should be included in the specifications. The
East Bay Water Company of Oakland, California, developed the follow-
ing formula for leakage tolerance which has been modified by insert-
ing more stringent factors in the denominator, i.e. 100, 200, etc.
Q =
80
where,
Q = maximum permissible leakage tolerance, gallons/minute
A = lining area, 1000 ft2
H = maximum water depth
Q ^ 1.0
5. Continuous, thin, impermeable type linings should be placed on a
smooth surface of concrete, earth, Gunite, or asphalt concrete.
6. Except for asphalt panels all field joints should be made perpendic-
ular to the toe of the slope. Joints of Hypalon formulations and 3110
materials can run in any direction, but generally joints run perpendic-
ular to the toe of the slope.
7. Formal or informal anchors may be used at the top of the slope. See
details in Figures 9-13.
8. Inlet and outlet structures must be sealed properly. See details in
Figures 14-18.
9. All lining punctures and cracks in the support structure should be
sealed. See details in Figures 19 and 20.
10. Emergency discharge quick-release devices should be provided in large
reservoirs (20-30 MG).
11. Wind problems with exposed thin membrane liners can be controlled by
installing vents built into the lining. See details in Appendix F.
12. Adequate protective fencing must be installed to control vandalism.
46
-------
T3
•
/~s
[-%»
p^,
ON
i—H
*
CO
cd
^
.0
nT
•U
^(
ctf
4-1
O
CU
•H
3
60
d
0
•H
4J
O
01
rH
0)
CO
60
d
•H
d
•H
i_3
*
;
01
rH
,jD
tfl
H
60
d
•H
d
•H
[_4
U-l
0
Q)
a,
^
H
0
1
W
c_)
. , 1
01
Ol
4-J
en
O)
4J
01
t-l
o
d
o
o
4-> 2
rH (jj
2 r-l
O
d
°
"*4 r_j
4J
rH |
* "QJ
ex ^
CO — ^
^J
cu
d
O)
^
ex
o
01
53
i-l
rj^ Qj
^Q
•£7 ,n
3 ^
M os!
~^
OL,
d
o
rH
CO
CX
K^l
*T"j
W
p [
0)
O
CJ
cfl
4J
CO
4-1
3
in
WWW WWWWtfWf*!
OOO OOOO2OZ
WWW W W W W f* W ed
OOO O O O O J3 O 55
P_| ^ ^ [yj fgj }yj f^ p^ p^j *yj
ooo otsoaszo
^ p^J *y^ ^J Q^ ^^^ p^ pyj ^.^ ^
o S o o § ^^ I5 s^ ^^ o
^ .^^y. Dd H^ — ^ f^j fc^ (yj }yj p^
O ^^ S O ^^ O O p^ O ^H
K^J ,,-NJ, p^j ^J }y] ^yj [^ p^ }v^ p^
0°"^!^ OOOO^IO^;
}y| ^ ^ ^J }s^ ^ ^ ^^^ }v^ p^
o o C/D o o o cy ^^ o S2i
^ [Vj PH fsf^ *v^ )s^ ^ ctj K^ p^
ooss oooogos
W E~f pd W W W W P^ W 0^1
OCO£2 OOOO55O^5
W W W t^ W W ft^J W P-J
OO^ OOOO53OS2
o o
WWW WWWWPiW^.
ooo oooogo0^
a) co
co s~* 60 tn tn 13 to
i — 1 tO Cfl d d "H rH
•H O ^ O O O -H
CO O -H Ol -H -H cfl O /•— .
rH 4-1 CO 4J 4J CO CO
•Hgcfl 33TJ60 SO
O 3 £ O i — 1 rH *H d 3 "H
01O-HOOO-H CU4J
rHrHi-14-JCOCOCflN rHtfl
Mcflocflco -HCUOB
Ol S i-i CD 4-> CU *"O 'O d r-l O
4-I-H4J O 0rH CO r-l i-l «H 4J S-l
($ C Q) C O tfl Cfl *rH ^ V^ CU CTj
^£ ^^ ^Lj **~s f^H C/^ CT^ ^»1 ^^ p^ p^ *^x
PM 1 t3
o do)
0 0
•> s-i d
tO -H Ol
rH > -H
0) Ol Ol
co d X
cfl CU
II
d d
Eo '
01 r-4
to o
tO 3
d r-l
0) S-l 0)
UH O r-l
u-i u-i 3
•H 4-1
4-1 13 O
CO CU CO
i-l U-I
II OJ 3
T) d
H -H cfl
C/D CO S
O 60
13 0 d
CU -H
13 60 d
d d -H
CU -H rH
i o)
B f> 01
o ,d
O 60 4-1
a) d
!-j -H 4J
d rH
4-1 -H 3
O rH CO
d d
>~. o
H e u
cfl >-i
|-V] •
S d • 55
o >,
4-1 "
CU d -H J4
rH 3 > r-l
^ r-l (U O
cfl 60 >H
d CU d
O rd O 15
•H rH O)
4J tfl 53
CO 4-1 CO
cu to 4J "
3 0) -H •
cr 4-j o
60 d
u d d H
O -H
o- -H d
CO (-1 CO
" (-1 cu d
>, 0) O • .O
S-l E d 4-) 60 C/3
O 13 B O 43 C
4J CU -H O 3 -H >-3
O 4J O d
cfl CO 4-J CO 13 -H >->
U-I 01 Cfl 4J rH CD
CO 60 .d CO d rH
•H 60 4-1 -H -H OJ -H
4-13 X OS
cfl tfl 13 0) d 0)
CO CU 0) -H d
d "d d xi cx .d
>, o d o s o
rH -H CU -H 0) *-3
rH 4J g 4J >, C
to o B to s-i o u-i
S-l 0) O CU O O
0) 4-1 O 3 4-1 Cfl
d O CU cr1 cfl ts
CU S-l S-i S-i 0) to
60 CX cfl O 43 CU
CO 43 4-1
II 0 -H 0) cfl 4-J S-i
•H S-l rH to 3
W t3 4J 0) 3 O
O O M 43 60 S O
rfl 4-1 43 > d O 13
4-J -H
CO 4J 4-1
o d co
Ol 0)
II B 4-1
47
-------
the presence of water. Different ways in which bentonite may be used to
line lagoons are listed below.
(a) A suspension of bentonite in water (with a bentonite concen-
tration approximately 0.5 percent of the water weight) is
placed over the area to be lined, and the bentonite settles
to the surface forming a thin blanket.
(b) The same procedure as (a), except frequent harrowing of the
surface produces a uniform soil bentonite mixture on the
surface of the soil. The amount of bentonite used in this
procedure is approximately 1 Ib/ft of soil.
(c) A gravel bed approximately 6 in. deep is first prepared and
the bentonite application performed as in (a). The bentonite
will settle through the gravel layer and seal the void spaces.
(d) Bentonite is spread as a membrane 1 or 2 in. thick and covered
with an 8 to 12 in. blanket of earth and gravel to protect the
membrane. A mixture of earth and gravel is more satisfactory
than soil alone, because of the stability factor and resistance
to erosion.
(e) Bentonite is mixed with sand at approximately 1 to 8 volume
ratio. The mixture is placed in a layer (approximately 2 to
4 in. in thickness) on the reservoir bottom and covered with
f\
a protective cover. This method takes about 3 Ib/ft of
bentonite (Rollins and Dilla, 1970).
In methods (d) and (e) above, certain construction practices are
recommended. They are as follows:
1. The section must be overexcavated (1 ft or more) with drag
lines or graders.
2. Side slopes should probably be not steeper than 2 to 1.
3. Subgrade surface should be dragged to remove large rocks and
sharp angles. Normally 2 passes with adequate equipment are
sufficient to smooth the subgrade.
4. Subgrade should be rolled with a smooth steel roller.
5. The subgrade should be sprinkled to eliminate dust problems.
6. A membrane of bentonite or soil bentonite should then be placed,
7. The protective cover should contain sand and small gravel, in
addition to cohesive, fine grained material so that it will be
erosion resistant and stable.
The performance of bentonite linings is greatly affected by the
quality of the bentonite. Some bentonite deposits may contain quantities
of sand, silt and clay impurities. Wyoming type bentonite, which is a
high swelling sodium montmorillonite clay has been found to be very
satisfactory. Fine ground bentonite is generally more suitable for the
lining than pit run bentonite. If the bentonite is finer than a No. 30
48
-------
sieve, it may be used without specifying size gradation. But if the
material is coarser than the No, 30 sieve, it should be well graded.
Bentonite should usually contain a moisture content of less than 20 per-
cent. This is especially important for thin membranes. Some distur-
bance and possibly cracking of the membranes may take place during the
first year after construction due to settlement of the subgrade upon
saturation. A proper maintenance program, especially at the end of the
first year, is necessary (USDI, 1968). Examples of the application of
bentonite in sealing various types of reservoirs are presented in
Appendix D.
Asphalt. Asphalt linings may be buried or surface and may be com-
posed of asphalt or a prefabricated asphalt. Some possibilities are as
follows:
A. An asphalt membrane is produced by spraying asphalt at high
temperatures. This lining may be either on the surface or
buried. A large amount of special equipment is needed for
installation. Useful lives of 18 years or greater have been
observed when these membranes are carefully applied and cover-
ed with an adequate layer of fine grained soil.
B. Asphaltic Membrane Macadam. This is similar to the asphaltic
membrane, but it is covered with a thin layer of gravel
penetrated with hot blown asphalt cement.
C. Buried Asphaltic Membrane. This is similar to A, except a
gravel-sand cover is applied over the asphaltic membrane. This
cover is usually more expensive than cover in B and less ef-
fective in discouraging plant growth.
D. Built Up Linings. These include several different types of
materials. One type could be a fiber glass matting, which is
applied over a sprayed asphalt layer and then also sprayed or
broomed with a sealed coat of asphalt or clay. A 10 ounce
jute burlap has also been used as the interior layer between
2 hot sprayed asphalt layers. In this case the total asphalt
application should be about 2.5 gal/yd^. The prefabricated
lining may be on the surface or buried. If buried, it could
be covered with a layer of soil or, in some cases, a coating
of Allox, which is a stabilized asphalt, is used (USDA,
1972).
E. Prefabricated Linings. Prefabricated asphalt linings consist
of a fiber or paper material coated with asphalt. This type
of liner has been used exposed and covered with soil. Joints
between the material have an asphaltic mastic to seal the
joint. When the asphaltic material is covered, it is more
effective and durable. When it is exposed it should be coated
with aluminized paint every 3 to 4 years to retard degradation.
This is necessary especially above the water line. Joints also
have to be maintained when not covered with fine grained soil.
Prefabricated asphalt membrane lining is approximately 1/8 to
49
-------
1/4 in. thick. It may be handled in much the same way as
rolled roofing with lapped and cemented joints. Cover for
this material is generally earth and gravel, although shot-
crete and macadam have been utilized.
Installation procedures for prefabricated asphalt membrane linings
and for buried asphalt linings are similar to those stated for buried
bentonite linings. The preparation of the subgrade is important and it
should be stable and adequately smooth for the lining. Applications of
this material are shown in Appendix E.
Soil Cement Linings. Best results are obtained with soil cement
when the soil mixed with the cement is sandy and well graded to a maxi-
mum size of about 3/4 in. Soil cement should not be placed in cold
weather and it should be cured for about 7 days after placing. Some
variations of the soil cement lining are listed below:
A. Standard soil cement is compacted using a water content of the
optimum moisture content of the soil. The mixing process is
best accomplished by traveling mixing machines and can be
handled satisfactorily in slopes up to 4 to 1. Standard soil
cement may be on the surface or buried.
B. Plastic soil cement (surface or buried) is a mixture of soil
and cement with a consistency comparable to that of Portland
cement concrete. This is accomplished by adding a consider-
able amount of water. Plastic soil cement contains from 3 to
6 sacks of cement/yd^ and is approximately 3 in. thick.
C. Cement modified soil contains 2 to 6 percent volume of cement.
This may be used with plastic fine grained soils. The treat-
ment stabilizes the soil in sections subject to erosion. The
lining is constructed by spreading cement on top of loose soil
layers by a fertilizer type spreader. The cement is then mixed
with loose soil by a rotary traveling mixer and compacted with
a sheeps foot roller. The 7 day curing period is also neces-
sary for a cement modified soil.
Cost of Linings
The cost of linings for lagoons and reservoirs are approximations
at best and have been estimated based on values in specific jobs several
years ago. A factor of 15 percent per year for inflation is estimated
and the costs are based on that rate.
2
Bentonite linings cost approximately $1 to $2/yd when applied on
the surface. The greater cost will occur for harrowed blankets. Buried
blankets cost approximately $2.50/yd^.
The average cost of buried asphalt membrane linings with adequate
cover is about $3.50/yd^.
Prefabricated asphalt materials are generally cheaper than buried
asphalt membrane linings if the prefabricated material can be obtained
for less than $0.90/yd2.
50
-------
Cover material over buried membranes composes the most expensive
part of the placing procedure. The cover materials should, therefore,
be as thin as possible and still provide adequate protection for the
membrane. If a significant current is present in the pond, the depth
of coverage should be greater than 10 in., and this minimum depth should
only be used when the material is erosion resistant and also cohesive.
Such a material as a clayey gravel is suitable. If the material is not
cohesive, or if it is fine grained, a higher amount of cover is needed
(USDI, 1963).
Maintenance costs for different types of linings are difficult to
estimate. Maintenance should include repair of holes, cracks and
deterioration, weed control expenses and animal damages and damages
caused by cleaning the pond, if that is necessary. Climate, type of
operation, type of terrain and surface conditions also influence mainte-
nance costs.
Plastic soil cement containing from 3 to 6 sacks of cement/yd3 and
approximately 3 in. thick costs about $3.00/yd2.
Evaluation of Linings
Bentonite linings may be effective if the sodium bentonite used has
an adequate amount of exchangeable sodium. Deterioration of the linings
has been observed to occur in cases where magnesium or calcium has re-
placed sodium as absorbed ions. A layer of bentonite on the soil surface
tends to crack if allowed to dry and is, therefore, usually placed as a
blanket of bentonite soil mixture with a cover of fine grained soil on
top, or as a thicker layer, 6 in. or more, of a soil bentonite material
(Dedrick, 1975). Surface bentonite cannot be expected to be effective
longer than 2 to 4 years. A buried bentonite blanket may last from 8 to
12 years.
The quality of the bentonite used is a primary consideration in the
success of bentonite membranes. Poor quality bentonite deteriorates
rapidly in the presence of hard water, and it also tends to erode in the
presence of currents or waves. Bentonite linings must often be placed
by hand and this is a costly procedure in areas of high labor costs.
Seepage losses through buried bentonite blankets are approximately
0.7 to 0.85 ft3/ft2/day. This figure is for thin blankets and represents
about a 60 percent improvement over ponds with no lining.
Linings of bentonite and asphalt are sometimes unsuitable in areas
of high weed growth, since weeds and tree roots puncture the material
readily (USDI, 1963).
Many lining failures occur as a result of rodent and crayfish holes
in embankments. Asphalt membrane lining tends to decrease the damage,
but in some cases, hard surface linings are necessary to prevent water
loss from embankment failures.
51
-------
Linings of hot applied buried asphalt membrane provide one of the
tightest linings available. These linings deteriorate less than other
flexible membrane linings (USDI, 1963).
Asphalt linings composed of prefabricated buried materials are best
for small jobs, since the amount of special equipment and labor connected
with installation is a minimum. For larger jobs sprayed asphalt is more
economical.
When fibers and fillers are used in asphalt membranes, there is a
greater tendency to deteriorate when these fillers are composed of organic
materials. Inorganic fibers are, therefore, more useful (USDI, 1963).
Typical volume of seepage through one buried asphalt membrane after 10
years of service was consistently 0.08 ft3/ft2/day (USDI, 1968).
Asphalt membrane linings can be constructed at any time of year,
and since it is usually convenient in canals and ponds to use the late
fall and winter seasons for installing lining, this may dictate the
buried asphalt membrane lining as the proper one to use in many cases
(USDI, 1963).
Buried asphalt membranes in general perform satisfactorily for more
than 15 years. When these linings fail, it is generally due to one or
more of the following causes:
A. Placement of lining on unstable side slopes
B. Inadequate protection of the membrane
C. Weed growth
D. Surface runoff
E. Type of subgrade material
F. Cleaning operations
G. Scour of cover material
H. Membrane puncture
Soil cement has been used successfully in some cases in mild climates.
Where wetting or drying is a factor, or if freezing-thawing cycles are
present, the lining will deteriorate rapidly (USDI, 1963).
Thin Membrane Liners
Plastic and elastomeric membranes are popular in applications re-
quiring essentially zero permeability. These materials are economical,
resistant to most chemicals if selected and installed properly, available
in large sheets simplifying installation, and essentially impermeable.
As discharge standards continue to become more stringent, the application
of plastic and elastomeric membranes as lagoon liners will increase be-
cause of the need to guarantee protection against seepage. This is
particularly true in the sealing of lagoons containing toxic wastewaters
or the sealing of landfills containing toxic solids and sludges.
52
-------
Typical standards being developed to control the application of
liners are presented in Appendixes A and B. A partial listing of the
trade names, product description and manufacturer of plastic and elastomer
lining materials is presented in Appendix C. Properties of the synthetic
flexible liners were presented in Table 4 in the Literature Review section.
The summary of effective design practices presented in Table 14 is appli-
cable to synthetic liners.
Design Details
The most difficult design problem encountered in liner applications
involves placing a liner in an existing reservoir (lagoon). Effective
design practices are essentially the same as those used in new systems,
but additional care must be exercised in the evaluation of the existing
structure and the required results. Lining materials must be selected
so that compatibility is obtained. For example, a badly cracked concrete
lining to be covered with a flexible synthetic material must be properly
sealed and placed in such a way that additional movement will not destroy
the new liner. Sealing around existing columns, footings, etc. are other
examples of items to be considered.
The following paragraphs are a condensation of the discussion by
Kays (1977) of effective design practices which have been summarized in
Table 14. Emphasis is placed on the details describing the installation
of plastic or elastomeric materials.
Top Slope Anchor. Formal and informal anchor systems are used at
the top of the slope of dikes. Details of three types of formal anchors
are presented in Figures 9-11. Recommended are informal anchors shown
in Figures 12 and 13.
Inlet-Outlet Seals. When the lining is pierced, seals can be made
in two ways. The techniques illustrated in Figures 14 and 15 are common-
ly used, and the second technique utilizes a pipe boot which is sealed
to the liner and clamped to the entering pipe as shown in Figure 16.
It is recommended that inlet-outlet pipes enter a reservoir through
a structure such as that shown in Figure 17. A better seal can be pro-
duced when the liner is attached to the top of the structure. However,
such an arrangement can result in solids accumulation and a direct free
entry into a wastewater lagoon is better.
A drain near the outlet can be constructed as shown in Figure 18.
As mentioned in Table 14, large reservoirs containing above 20-30 million
gallons should be equipped to empty quickly in case of an emergency.
Cracks and Imperfection Seals. The structure supporting the liner
must be smooth enough to prevent damage to the liner. Rocks, sharp
protrusions and other rough surfaces must be controlled. In areas with
53
-------
UJ
a.
UJ
O
o
CO
I O
CO O
CO O >uj LJQ:
<^ ***%
uj £ y uj ujo
CO 3 ±5 -I"
<•_)
. COUJ
OUJh-
u/
-T Ul<
< _l-l
UJ1
(T '
o
UI
o
oo •
_l Q
_) Z
—
3-1
— CVI
w o
« a) >H
0) D 01
> o 3
•H O
4-1 «
CO
£• o
^ d
i—I ON *•
I « O
i—I CO CO
•H >,
QJ ^ f^
T3 0)
U3 r-t
^J 60 -H
o d s
X! -H
occ:
C -H J3
cfl iH O
»-3
CX rH
O iH 14-1
H cd O
t>0
•H
Pn
o
Z
o
o
UJ 5 °
I— i e>
owl
O <
o .
ui Q- o:
a! o °
—~ v
g ^ «
i - ui
o z
O
O
z <
z °-
-> 1-
I?
< 0-
co
5 -1
03 Q.
2£
UJ ^
» UJ ^
K ? I
UJ = •-
m S co
^ or cs
0 i
UJ
CO
< a:
03 O
0) 3 0)
> O Z
•H U
4J •>
cd
C . cj
!-< x^. C
Q) t^- t-t
4J t*>
i—t ON »,
co t-H tn
i d
i •> o
rH CO CO
•H >^
cd co <-3
4J W
a) ^—' >-,
T3 QJ
W H
!-( 60 i-l
O C &
X! -H
O C C
C -H XI
Cd iH O
•-> •
a T-H >H
O iH <4-4 •
H cd O 2
0)
M
60
•H
54
-------
cu C
> CO
•H &
4J
CO W
C rH
K cfl
0) X!
MH o
O >i
>> &
a co cu
rH CO CU IS
cO cfl .u
I n «
I 4J 3 •
rH G, O O
•H CU U C
Cfl O M
cu a)
T3
CO
o c
J3 -rl
u C
g-H
CO
C
O
CO
^
CO
ru
ex
O rH 1^ -H
H CO -~s S
0)
^
M
•rt
Pn
cc
UJ
UJ 2
i
o
2
o
O
CO
"1-^1
Ul =3 O S3
•H O
•M «
CO
c • o
>-l --N C
CO
C
O
nj i—<
I
rH CO
•H !>>
CO cfl
4J ^
cu ^-^
T)
O (3 S
J2 iH
O C C
C -H JC
CO rH O
<~)
P. iH
O rH U-l
H CO O
3
60
Pn
55
-------
CO
V)
UJ
1-
o
z
o
CO
CO
o
o
a:
Ul
Q-
•*
CO
CP
z
z
™l
_f
_J
UJ
z
<
A
X
o
I
=
-
2 <
2
a
ui u
y H
z w
!-
3 z
O M
iH M
r-( >. O
ca co >(
0)
n U 3
01 M 0)
o, 3 z
o o
tH U •>
CO
3
O
a
C
M
a> to
J3 -> C
4J O
•> CO
CD CO
Q) >% ^
a ffl
•H « >,
exv-' ai
rH
j_, to -H
•H -H C
n) C X!
0) -H O
W H H-)
60
•H
in
ui
>
»-
<
z
or
2 i
UJ _J
o
o
i
o
a.
o
co
QJ
> o
•H O
4-1
cfl
&
0)
2
o
M
r-H CO
C
• O
CO
-------
LJ
UJ
a:
1I-
C3 <
UJ O O
O ~j
I _, —I
I- oc a.
2?:
UJ >
tOT
0. UJ
58
UJ
-I <£•
o o
03 «
•U H
X O
0) U &
OJ
cn 3
60 •
C /-s •>
13
•H
O
C
t-H 03 03
cfl >, C
fl O
•> W t/1
i-l ^^
•H <^1
cd w
4J rH >,
0) 0) 0)
TJ pj rH
cS -H
•U CX ^
O
O -U C
J3 rH 42
ctj O
-------
CO (U
GO -H
C -rl
•H S
C
•H (3
U-l (-1
o o
•H CO 13
CO CU 0)
3
O
•H
cfl
t-i
3
S
oo
3
bo
•H
CJ
C
CO
(3
O
Q
Ul
CO
*:
i Is
W = rf
S «"
s ^°
Ul
°- < "«>
« 5 t
o <
u 1 *s
I- -i :_ co
O J 3 °
_ g S _i
z 1 £2
"• uj
i_ co 2
LJ Q
< o Q
ifcs
"si
H * ^
t tc <
i Q O
or
Ul
to o ^
t-l
« >, o
cu co ><
M 0)
3 4J 5
4-J !-J CD
032:
3 O
S-t U -
4-1
en
o
c
Q) I—
i—) r^ •>
4-> ON en
3 -H (3
O O
I - en
4-> CO
CU >, ^8
r-H Cd
C W ^
•H ^ CU
iH
4J CO -H
Cfl 60 S
r-l -H (3
CO (3 43
0) -rl O
3
bo
58
-------
particularly rough surfaces, it may be necessary to add padding to protect
the liner. Cracks can be repaired as shown in Figures 19 and 20.
Wind and Gas Control. Thin membrane liners may have problems with
wind on the leeward slopes. Vents built into the lining control this
problem as well as serve as an outlet for gases trapped beneath the liner.
Details of such a venting system are shown in Appendix F.
Fencing. Protection of a thin membrane lining is essential, and
Kays (1977) recommends that the fence be at least 6 feet high and be
placed on the outside berm slope with the top of the fence below the top
elevation of the dike.
Proprietary Products and Recommended Procedures
A partial listing of the manufacturers of plastic and elastomeric
liners is presented in Appendix C. In addition to these manufacturers,
there are many firms specializing in the installation of lining materials.
Most of the installation companies and the manufacturers publish specifi-
cations and installation instructions and design details for use by
customers and design engineers. Most of the recommendations by the
manufacturers and installers are similar, but there are differences
worthy of consideration when designing a system requiring a liner.
It would be impractical to reproduce all of the publications
available; therefore, only a selected few are presented as appendixes.
Information and instruction bulletins were selected for inclusion as
appendixes based principally on the type of material although some firms
install many types of liners.
Appendixes F through I contain many valuable suggestions for the
proper selection and installation of a liner. The information presented
in these appendixes should be used with caution and only after consul-
tation with the firms preparing the information.
The liner described in Appendix J was developed for protection of
water supplies and other liquids requiring protection from the elements
and birds and animals. This type of liner has potential as an odor con-
trol device in small wastewater treatment systems. It would be particu-
larly applicable to small anaerobic systems or in cases where it is
desirable to control light penetration.
New products continue to be developed, and with each new material
the options available to designers continue to improve. The future should
bring even more versatile and effective liners to select for seepage con-
trol. If care and common sense are applied to the application of existing
and new materials, the control of seepage pollution should become a minor
problem of the future.
59
-------
FIRM SETTING
HEAVY BODIED
MASTIC
FLEXIBLE
CONTINUOUS
LINING
|= EXIST.
Hi CRACK
V'CUT
CRACK AT
TOP
EXIST. CONCRETE
A.C. OR GUNITE
HEAVY DUTY, HIGH TENSILE
CURING MASTIC OR
CEMENT GROUT - USE
CONCRETE ADHESIVE
Figure 19, Crack treatment—alternative A j(Kays, 1977). Courtesy
of John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y.
FLEXIBLE
CONTINUOUS
LINING
METAL PLATE
(SEE NOTE)
PERCUSSION DRIVEN
STUDS - 6" 0/C - ONE
SIDE OF CRACK ONLY
METAL PLATE MUST BE ABLE TO SPAN
CRACK WITHOUT BUCKLING FROM WEIGHT
OF WATER BRIDGING THE CRACK. COPPER 8.
STAINLESS STEEL ARE MOST COMMON CHOICES.
Figure 20. Crack treatment—alternative B (Kays, 1977)
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y.
Courtesy of
60
-------
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Based upon the results of the literature review, the following
conclusions and recommendations can be made.
1. The design and construction of liners should be carried out by
trained, experienced professionals.
2. Multiple options exist for designers of lagoon liners, and the
proper selection and installation procedures should result in
satisfactory liners.
3. Little information exists on the natural sealing of wastewater
stabilization lagoons. Most results are based on speculation
from observations instead of carefully planned experiments
designed to evaluate the phenomenon of soil sealing.
4. The mechanisms involved in natural sealing of lagoon bottoms
should be evaluated. Controversy exists as to whether or not
reductions in seepage rates are attributable to natural sealing.
Mounding of groundwater beneath the lagoon has been credited
with much of the reduction in seepage.
5. Most reported seepage rates and the effectiveness of various
liner materials are secondary to other aspects of experiments
and are incomplete and limited in value.
6. A need exists for accurate measurements of seepage rates and
the effectiveness of various lining materials.
7. An accurate, reproducible method of measuring seepage from
lagoons is needed.
8. The success of a particular lining material is dependent upon
the characteristics of the waste contained, the design details,
and the construction techniques.
9. Failure of linings is most often attributable to poor judgment
in selection, installation or operation of a lagoon and not to
the lining material.
10. An assessment of the permeability of all lining materials in
actual installations is needed.
61
-------
LITERATURE CITED
Abelishvili, G. 1972. Soviet Scientists Waterproof Ponds. Water &
Sewage Works. 119(8):57.
Baker, James W. 1970. Polypropylene Fiber Mat and Asphalt Used for
Oxidation Pond Liner. Water & Wastes Engineering. 7(11):F-17.
Benson, J. R. 1962. How to Prevent Sewage Lagoon Seepage. Public
Works. 93(3):111-114.
Bhagat, Surinder K., and Donald E. Proctor. 1969. Treatment of Dairy
Manure by Lagooning. Journal Water Pollution Control Federation.
41(5):785-795.
Boyle, W. C. 1971. Lagoons & Oxidation Ponds. Literature Review.
JWPCF. 43(6):1118-1123.
California State Water Pollution Control Board. 1956. Report on
Continued Study of Waste Water Reclamation and Utilization,
Publication No. 15, Sacramento, California.
California State Water Pollution Control Board. 1957. Third Report on
the Study of Waste Water Reclamation and Utilization, Publication
No. 18, Sacramento, California.
Chang, A. C., W. R. Olmstead, J. B. Johanson, and G. Yamashita. 1974.
The Sealing Mechanism of Wastewater Ponds. JWPCF. 46(7):1715-1721.
Clark, Don A., and James E. Moyer. 1974. An Evaluation of Tailings
Ponds Sealants. EPA-660/2-74-065. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, D.C.
Clark, L. E. 1965. Soil Erosion at Sewage Lagoon Solved with Fiber Glass
Mat. Public Works. 96(5):96-97.
Dallaire, G. 1975. Tough Pollution Laws Spur Use of Impermeable Liners.
Civil Engineering. 45(5):63-67.
Davis, S., W. Fairbank, and H. Weisbeit. 1973. Dairy Waste Ponds Ef-
fectively Self-Sealing. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. Trans. 16:69-71.
Day, M. E., E. L. Armstrong, W. F. Savage, and W. W. Rinne. 1970. Brine
Disposal Pond Manual. Dept. of Interior. R&D Progress Report #588.
GPO#I1:88 #588-592.
63
-------
Dedrick, A. R. 1975. Storage Systems for Harvested Water. U.S.
Department of Agriculture, ARS W-22, p. 175.
Edge, Duane E. 1967. Asphalt Lined Lagoons to Help End Pollution.
Public Works. 98(8):125.
Ewald, George. 1973. Stretching the Lifespan of Synthetic Pond-Linings.
Chemical Engineering. 80(40):67-69.
Gloyna, Ernest F., Edward R. Hermann. 1956. Some Design Considerations
for Oxidation Ponds. J. ASCE - Sanitary Engineering Division SA 4,
1047-1 to 1047-17.
Hannaman, M. C., E. J. Johnson, and M. A. Zagar. 1978. Effects of
Wastewater Stabilization Pond Seepage on Groundwater Quality.
Prepared by Eugene A. Hickok and Associates, Wayzata, Minnesota
for Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, Roseville, Minnesota.
Haxo, H. E., Jr., and R. M. White. 1974. First Interim Report: Evalu-
ation of Liner Materials Exposed to Leachate. National Environ-
mental Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
Haxo, H. E., Jr., and R. M. White. 1976. Second Interim Report: Evalu-
ation of Liner Materials Exposed to Leachate. EPA-600/2-76-255.
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory, Office of Research and
Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Haxo, H. E., R. S. Haxo, and R. W. White. 1977. First Interim Report:
Liner Materials Exposed to Hazardous and Toxic Sludges. EPA-600/2-
77-081. Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory, Office of
Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
Hermann, E. R., and E. F. Gloyna. 1958. Water Stabilization Ponds. I:
Experimental Investigations. Sewage & Industrial Wastes. 30(4):511-
538.
Hills, David J. 1976. Infiltration Characteristics from Anaerobic
Lagoons. JWPCF. 48(4):695.
Hopkins, Glen J. 1960. Waste Stabilization Lagoons - Design, Construction,
and Operation Practices Among Missouri Basin States. Proceedings of
Symposium: Waste Stabilization Lagoons. Kansas City, Missouri. Aug.
1-6, 1960. p. 83-96.
Jacobson, Aluni R. 1972. Nylon Coated Fabric Rehabilitates Reservoir.
Water Works Digest. Public Works. 103(2):88.
Kays, W. B. 1977. Construction of Linings for Reservoirs, Tanks, and
Pollution Control Facilities. Wiley-Interscience Publication, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y.
64
-------
Klock, J. W. 1971. Survival of Coliform Bacteria in Wastewater Treat-
ment Lagoons . JWPCF. 43(10):2071-2083.
Kumar, J., and J. A, Jedlicka. 1973. Selecting and Installing Synthetic
Pond Linings. Chemical Engineering. 80(5):67-70.
Leisch, B. 1976. Evaluating Pollution-Prone Strata Beneath Sewage
Lagoons. Public Works. 104(8):70-71.
Ling, Joseph T. 1963. Pilot Study of Treating Chemical Wastes With an
Aerated Lagoon. JWPCF. 35(8):963-972.
Loehr, Raymond C., and John A. Ruf. 1968. Anaerobic Lagoon Treatment of
Milking-Parlor Wastes. JWPCF. 40(l):83-94.
Matthew, Floyd L., and Leland L. Harms. 1969. Sodium Adsorption Ratio
Influence on Stabilization Pond Sealing. JWPCF. 41(11) Part 2:
R383-R391.
Morrison, W. R., R. A. Dodge, and J. Merriman. 1971. Pond Linings for
Desalting Plants Effluents (Supplement). Office of Saline Water.
GPO 1:1.88 #734.
Neal, J. K., and G. J. Hopkins. 1956. Experimental Lagooning of Raw
Sewage. Sewage and Industrial Wastes. 28(11):1326.
Parker, C. D., H. L. Jones, and N. C. Greene. 1959. Performance of
Large Sewage Lagoons at Melbourne, Australia. Sewage & Industrial
Wastes. 31(2):133-152.
Pelloquin, Lou. 1972. Pond Liner Serves Dual Role. Water & Wastes
Engineering. 9(3):B-15.
Public Works. 1971. Lined Lagoons Prevent Pollution in Park Area.
99(7):79.
Robinson, F. E. 1973. Changes in Seepage Rate from an Unlined Cattle
Waste Digestion Pond. Transactions of the American Society of
Agricultural Engineers. 16:95.
Rizzo, F. J. 1976. Floating Covers Protect Reservoirs. Water & Sewage
Works. 123(3):92-95.
Rollins, M. B., and A. S. Dylla. 1970. Bentonite Sealing Methods Com-
pared in the Field. J. Irr. & Dr. Div., ASCE Proceedings. 96(IR2):193.
Rosene, R. B., and C. F. Parks. 1973. Chemical Method of Preventing Loss
of Industrial and Fresh Waters from Ponds, Lakes & Canals. Water
Resources Bulletin. 9(4):717-722.
Sanks, R. L., J. M. LaPlante, and E. F. Gloyna. 1975. Survey: Suitability
of Clay Beds for Storage of Industrial Solid Wastes. Center for
Research in Water Resources, Environmental Health Engineering, The
University of Texas at Austin.
65
-------
Shaw, V. A. 1962. An Assessment of the Probable Influence of Evapo-
ration and Seepage on Oxidation Pond Design and Construction, Journal
2, Proceedings of the Institute of Sewage Purification, Part 4.
Staff. 1967. Vinyl Liner Helps Reduce BOD Level More Than 90%. Water
& Wastes Engineering. 1(6):457.
Staff. 1971. Lined Lagoons Prevent Pollution in Park Area. Public
Works. 102(7):79.
Staff. 1973. This Pond Wears a Necklace. Water & Wastes Engineering.
12(6):64.
Stander, G. J., P. G. J. Meiring, R. J. L. C. Drews, and H. Van Eck.
1970. A Guide to Pond Systems for Wastewater Purification. In:
Developments in Water Quality Research, H. I. Shuval, Ed. Ann Arbor
Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Stoltenberg, Davis H. 1970. Design, Construction and Maintenance of
Waste Stabilization Lagoons. Public Works. 101(9):103-106.
Thomas, R. E., W. A. Schwartz, and T. W. Bendixen. 1966. Soil Changes
and Infiltration Rate Reduction Under Sewage Spreading. Soil Sci.
Soc. American Proc. 30:641-646.
Thornton, D. E., and P. Blackall. 1976. Field Evaluation of Plastic
Film Liners for Petroleum Storage Areas in the Mackenzie Delta.
EPS 3-EC-76-13. Environmental Conservation Directorate, Environ-
mental Protection Service, Canada.
USDA. 1972. Asphalt Linings for Seepage Control: Evaluation of Effec-
tiveness and Durability of Three Types of Linings. Tech. Bull. No.
1440.
USDI. 1963. Linings for Irrigation Canals.
USDI. 1968. Buried Asphalt Membrane Canal Lining. Research Report No.
12.
Van Heuvelen, Hillis, Jack K. Smith, and Glen J. Hopkins. 1960. Waste
Stabilization Lagoons: Design, Construction and Operation
Practices Among Missouri Basin States. JWPCF. 32(9):909-917.
Voights, D. 1955. Lagooning and Spray Disposal of Neutral Sulphite
Semi-chemical Pulp Mill Liquors. Proceedings of the Tenth Purdue
Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University Extension Service.
No. 89, p. 497. West Lafayette, Indiana.
Wilson, L. G., Wayne L. Clark, and Gary G. Small. 1973. Subsurface
Quality Transformations During Preinitiation of a New Stabilization
Lagoon. Water Resources Bulletin. 9(2):243-257.
66
-------
APPENDIX A
STATE OF WASHINGTON LAGOON LINER REQUIREMENTS1
15.4 Pond Construction Details
15.41 Liners
15.411 Requirement for Lining
The seepage rate through the lagoon bottom should not
exceed 1/4 inch per day. Liners are required if native
soils will not ensure this.
15.412 General
Systems utilizing soil, bentonite, or synthetic liners
may be considered, provided the permeability, dura-
bility, integrity, cost-effectiveness, etc., of the
proposed material can be satisfactorily demonstrated.
Results of a testing program that substantiates the
adequacy of the proposed liner must be incorporated
into and/or accompany the engineering report. Stan-
dard ASTM procedures or acceptable similar methods
should be used for all tests.
As a final field determination of the quality of all
in-place liners, ponds should be prefilled and
checked for seepage.
Schematics for each of the three basic liners are
attached for information.
15.413 Soil Liners (Figure 6)
Preliminary testing of proposed soil liners should
include examination of the factors affecting seepage
through the seal, such as type of soil, water content,
density, thickness, etc., and determination of the
seepage rate through the proposed seal.
Specifications for a soil liner should be based upon
results of the preliminary testing program and at a
minimum provide the type of soil, optimum and accept-
able range in water content, and maximum allowable
boulder size. Recommended requirements include (1)
the soil should have a high and uniform fines (clays
and silts) content, (2) the water content should be at
or up to 4 percent above the optimum for maximum com-
paction, and (3) boulder size should not exceed 4
inches.
Taken from "Manual of Standards for Sewage Works Design" prepared
by Water Quality Management Section, Department of Ecology, State of
Washington, Olympia, Washington.
67
-------
-TOPSOIL AND GRASS AND/OR RIPRAP (>4")
-SOIL LINER (> 12", WITH LIFT THICKNESS < 6" )
SOIL LINER
TOPSOIL AND GRASS AND/OR RIPRAP (>4")
SAND OR FINE TEXTURED SOIL (>4")
INCORPORATED BENTONITE (>3")
SUBSOIL BASEr-
BENTONITE LINER
HEAVY COBBLE OR COURSE GRAVEL OR SMALL
RIPRAP (>3")
SAND OR FINE TEXTURED SOIL (> 3")
SYNTHETIC LINER (>0.02)
BEDDING OF CLEAN SOIL OR SAND
SYNTHETIC LINER
Figure 6. Cross sections of liners,
68
-------
Specifications for construction and/or placement of
a soil seal should be based upon results of a pre-
liminary testing program. As a minimum they should
provide for sealing of dikes prior to pond bottom
and specify seal density and thickness and number of
lifts. Recommended requirements include (1) the
liner should be compacted at the proper water content
to at least 90 percent of Standard Proctor Density,
(2) the liner should be at least 12 inches thick and
applied in lifts no greater than 6 inches, (3) the
completed liner should be maintained at or above the
optimum water content until the pond is prefilled,
and (4) dike liners should be covered as described
under Embankment and Dikes.
Construction and/or placement of the soil liner should
be inspected and tested to ascertain compliance with
specifications. Written certification that the soil liner
was constructed in accordance with specifications should
be provided by the project engineer or an independent
soils laboratory. Tests for water content and density
should be taken during application of each lift. Addi-
tionally, either permeability testing of undisturbed
core samples from the in-place seal, or detailed tests
such as particle size distribution and Atterburg limits
confirming that the soil used in liner construction was
the same soil initially tested, should be provided. In
all cases, at least one test should be provided per
acre per lift, except for core sampling of the in-
place liner, where one core of the completed liner
should be tested per acre.
15.414 Bentonite Liners (Figure 6)
Preliminary testing of proposed bentonite liners should
include, in addition to the tests outlined for soil
liners, an examination of the type and rate of bentonite
being considered.
Specifications for the bentonite liner should be based
upon results of the preliminary testing program and at
a minimum provide the types of soil, type of bentonite,
bentonite application rate, and optimum and acceptable
range in water content of the soil-bentonite mixture.
Recommended requirements include (1) the bentonite
should be high-swelling and free-flowing and have a
particle size distribution favorable for uniform appli-
cation and minimizing of wind drift, (2) the application
rate should be at least 125 percent of the minimum rate
found to be adequate in laboratory tests, (3) appli-
cation rates recommended by a supplier should be con-
firmed by an independent laboratory, and (4) the water
69
-------
content of the soil-bentonite mixture should be at
or up to 4 percent above the optimum for maximum
compaction.
Specifications for construction and/or placement of
a bentonite liner should be based upon results of
the preliminary testing program and at a minimum
provide lining of dikes prior to bottom, bentonite
application procedures, seal density, covering of
the seal, and prehydration of the bentonite. Recom-
mended requirements include (1) bentonite should be
applied with specifically designed spreading equip-
ment, (2) application should be split so that one-
half is applied in one direction and the other half
in a perpendicular direction, (3) the bentonite
should be mixed into the soil to a uniform depth of
at least 3 inches, (4) the liner should be compacted
at the proper water content to at least 90 percent
of Standard Proctor Density (specifically excluding
use of a sheepsfoot roller), (5) the completed seal
should be covered with at least 4 inches of soil in
addition to necessary erosion control, and (6) the
completed liner should be hydrated with fresh water
prior to introduction of wastewater and kept at or
above the optimum water content until the pond is
prefilled.
The bentonite supplier or its representative should
verify that the specifications are in accordance
with its recommendations, and written certification
that the liner was provided and applied in accordance
with specifications should be furnished by the supplier,
project engineer, or independent soils laboratory.
The actual bentonite application rate and the water
content and density should be tested during liner con-
struction. Permeability testing of undisturbed core
samples should be provided following seal completion.
At least one test per acre is recommended in all cases.
15.415 Synthetic Liners (Figure 6)
Requirements for thickness of synthetic liners may
vary due to liner material, but it is generally
recommended that the liner thickness be no less than
.020 inch or 20 mil. Such thickness provides a safety
factor which will reduce the probability of puncture.
Consideration should also be given to liners contain-
ing reinforcing in appropriate situations, such as
sidewall slopes steeper than 3:1 or pond depths greater
than 6 feet. Special care must be taken to select the
appropriate material to perform under existing
conditions.
70
-------
Proper site preparation for synthetic liners is
essential. The subsoil bed should be sufficiently
prepared to ensure that all holes, rocks, stumps,
and other debris are eliminated. The subsoil should
be sieved or the area raked after grading to provide
a smooth, flat surface free of stones and other
sharp protrusions that could damage the liner. If
the subsoil contains sharp, nonremovable objects, a
bedding of 2 to 4 inches of clean soil or sand should
be provided. Soil should be well compacted and
sterilized to kill vegetation. Four-inch perforated
pipe should be strategically placed to allow venting
and draining of the soil to reduce gas and hydrostatic
pressures and to facilitate monitoring for leakage.
The pipe should be installed in trenches sloping
toward a sump and be backfilled with pea gravel or
other coarse material.
Liner panels should be laid out in a longitudinal
direction with an overlap of 4 to 6 inches. Careful
application of the appropriate adhesive is essential.
The anchor trench should be a minimum 6-inch depth
and be placed at least 9 to 12 inches beyond the
slope break at the dike. Care must be exercised in
the backfilling of the anchor trench to ensure the
liner is not damaged.
To prevent erosion, mechanical damage to the liner,
and hydraulic lifting of the liner, a minimum backfill
of 6 inches on top of the liner is recommended. On
the side slopes this should consist of a minimum 3-
inch primary fill of sand or finely textured soil and
a minimum 3-inch secondary fill of heavier cobble,
coarse gravel, or small riprap. On the bottom the
backfill may consist solely of the sand or finely
textured soils.
The manufacturer's representative should supervise
or conduct all phases of installation. It is also
recommended that installation be done by contractors
familiar with potential problems that can be
encountered.
71
-------
APPENDIX B
STATE OF MINNESOTA LAGOON LINER REQUIREMENTS1
94.2 Pond Bottom
94.21 Soil Soil used in constructing the pond bottom (not including
seal) and dike cores shall be relatively incompressible and tight and
compacted at or up to 4 percent above the optimum water content to at
least 90 percent Standard Proctor Density.
94.22 Seal Ponds shall be sealed such that seepage loss through the
seal is as low as practically possible. Seals consisting of soils,
bentonite, or synthetic liners may be considered provided the
permeability, durability, integrity and cost-effectiveness of the
proposed material can be satisfactorily demonstrated for anticipated
conditions. Results of a testing program which substantiates the ade-
quacy of the proposed seal must be incorporated into and/or accompany
the engineering report. Standard ASTM procedures or acceptable similar
methods shall be used for all tests.
To achieve an adequate seal in systems using soil or bentonite seal
materials, the coefficient of permeability (K) in centimeters per
second specified for the seal shall not exceed the value derived from
the following expression:
K < 2.58 x 10~9(L)
where L equals the thickness of the seal in centimeters.
For a seal consisting of a synthetic liner, seepage loss through the
liner shall not exceed the quantity equivalent to seepage loss through
an adequate soil seal.
In addition to the specific quality control tests specified for each
type of seal In the following three sections, all ponds should be
prefilled (See Section 94.24) and checked for seepage as a final field
determination of the quality of in-place seals.
Schematics of each of the three basic seal systems are attached for
information.
94.221 Soil Seals (Figure 4)
a. Preliminary testing of proposed soil seals shall include
examination of the factors affecting seepage through the
seal such as type(s) of soil, water content, density,
thickness, etc. and determination of the coefficient of
permeability for proposed seal.
Taken from revised manual "Recommended Standards for Sewage Works"
prepared by Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, Roseville, Minnesota.
73
-------
-TOPSOIL AND GRASS AND/OR RIPRAP (>4", 10cm)
-SOIL SEAL (> 12", 30cm, WITH LIFT THICKNESS
< 6", 15cm)
Figure 4. Cross-section of pond sealed with soil (Section 94.221)
-TOPSOIL AND GRASS AND/OR RIPRAP (> 4", 10 cm)
-SAND OR FINE TEXTURED SOIL ( > 4", 10cm)
-INCORPORATED BENTONITE (> 3", 7.5 cm)
Figure 5. Cross-section of pond sealed with bentonite (Section 94.222)
HEAVY COBBLE OR COURSE GRAVEL OR SMALL RIPRAP
(>3",7.5 cm)
SAND OR FINE TEXTURED SOIL (> 3, 7.5 cm)
SYNTHETIC LINER (> 0.02" 0.05 cm )
BEDDING OF CLEAN SOIL OR SAND
SUBSOIL BASE
Figure 6. Cross-section Of pond sealed with synthetic liner (Section
94.223)
74
-------
b. Specifications for a soil seal shall be based upon results
of the preliminary testing program and at a minimum provide
the type(s) of soil, optimum and acceptable range in water
content, maximum coefficient of permeability, and maximum
allowable boulder size. Recommended requirements include:
(1) the soil shall have a high and uniform fines (clays
and silts) content; (2) the water content shall be at or
up to 4 percent above the optimum for maximum compaction;
(3) the coefficient of permeability shall not exceed the
value derived in Section 94.22; and (4) boulder size shall
not exceed four inches (10 centimeters).
c. Specifications for construction and/or placement of a soil
seal shall be based upon results of a preliminary testing
program. As a minimum they shall provide for sealing of
dikes prior to pond bottom and specify seal density and
thickness and number of lifts. Recommended requirements
include: (1) the seal shall be compacted at the proper
water content to at least 90 percent of Standard Proctor
Density; (2) the seal shall be at least 12 inches (30
centimeters) thick and applied in lifts no greater than
six inches (15 centimeters); (3) the completed seal shall be
maintained at or above the optimum water content until the
pond is prefilled in accordance with 94.24; and (4) dike
seals shall be covered as specified in 94.17.
d. Construction and/or placement of the soil seal shall be
inspected and tested to ascertain compliance with specifi-
cations. Written certification that the soil seal was con-
structed in accordance with specifications shall be provided
by the project engineer or an independent soils laboratory.
Tests for water content and density shall be taken during
application of each lift. Additionally, either permeability
testing of undisturbed core samples from the in-place seal,
or detailed tests such as particle size distribution and
Atterburg limits confirming the soil used in seal construction
was the same soil initially tested shall be provided. In all
cases, at least one test shall be provided per acre per lift
(two tests per hectare per lift), except for core sampling
of the in-place seal where one core of the completed seal
shall be tested per acre (two cores per hectare).
94.222 Bentonite Seals (Figure 5)
a. Preliminary testing of proposed bentonite seals shall include,
in addition to the tests outlined in 94.221a, an examination
of the type and rate of bentonite being considered.
b. Specifications for the bentonite seal shall be based upon
results of the preliminary testing program and at a minimum
provide the type(s) of soil, type of bentonite, bentonite
application rate, optimum and acceptable range in water
75
-------
content of the soil-bentonite mixture and maximum coef-
ficient of permeability. Recommended requirements include:
(1) the bentonite shall be high swelling, free flowing and
have a particle size distribution favorable for uniform
application and minimizing wind drift; (2) the application
rate shall be at least 125 percent of the minimum rate found
to be adequate in laboratory tests; (3) application rates
recommended by a supplier shall be confirmed by an inde-
pendent laboratory; (4) the water content of the soil-
bentonite mixture shall be at or up to 4 percent above the
optimum for maximum compaction; and (5) the coefficient of
permeability shall not exceed the value derived in Section
94.22.
c. Specifications for construction and/or placement of a bentonite
seal shall be based upon results of the preliminary testing
program and at a minimum provide sealing of dikes prior to
bottom, bentonite application procedures, seal density, cover-
ing of the seal and prehydration of the bentonite. Recom-
mended requirements include: (1) bentonite shall be applied
with specifically designed spreading equipment; (2) appli-
cation shall be split such that one-half is applied in one
direction and the remaining half in a perpendicular direction;
(3) the bentonite shall be mixed into the soil to a uniform
depth of at least three inches (7.5 centimeters); (4) the
seal shall be compacted at the proper water content to at
least 90 percent of Standard Proctor Density (specifically
excluding use of a sheepsfoot roller); (5) the completed seal
shall be covered with at least four inches (10 centimeters)
of soil in addition to necessary erosion control as outlined
in 94.17; and (6) the completed seal shall be hydrated with
fresh water prior to introduction of wastewater and kept at
or above the optimum water content until the pond is pre-
filled in accordance with Section 94.24.
d. The bentonite supplier or their representative shall verify
that the specifications are in accordance with their recom-
mendations, and written certification that the seal was pro-
vided and applied in accordance with specifications shall be
furnished by the supplier, project engineer, or independent
soils laboratory. The actual bentonite application rate and
the water content and density shall be tested during seal
construction. Permeability testing of undisturbed core
samples shall be provided following seal completion. At
least one test per acre (two tests per hectare) is required
in all cases.
94.223 Synthetic Liners (Figure 6)
a. Requirements for thickness of synthetic seals may vary due
to liner material but it is generally recommended that the
linear thickness be no less than .020 inches or 20 "mil"
(0.50 millimeters). Such thickness provides a safety factor
76
-------
which will reduce the probability of puncture. Consideration
should also be given to liners containing reinforcing in
appropriate situations, such as sidewall slopes steeper than
3:1 or ponds depths greater than six feet (2 meters).
Special care must be taken to select the appropriate material
to perform under existing conditions.
b. Proper site preparation for synthetic liners is essential.
The subsoil bed shall be sufficiently prepared to insure that
all holes, rocks, stumps, and other debris are eliminated.
The subsoil shall be sieved or the area raked after grading
to provide a smooth, flat surface free of stones and other
sharp protrusions which could damage the liner. If the sub-
soil contains sharp, non-removable objects, a bedding of two
to four inches (5-10 centimeters) of clean soil or sand
shall be provided.
Soil shall be well compacted and sterilized to kill vegetation.
Four-inch (10-centimeter) perforated pipe should be strate-
gically placed to allow venting and draining of the soil to
reduce gas and hydrostatic pressures and to facilitate monitor-
ing for leakage. The pipe should be installed in trenches
sloping toward a sump and be backfilled with pea gravel or
other coarse material.
c. Liner panels should be laid out in a longitudinal direction
with an overlap of four to six inches (10 - 15 centimeters).
Careful application of the appropriate adhesive is essential.
The anchor trench should have a. minimum six-inch (15-
centimeter) depth and be placed at least 9-12 inches (22 -
30 centimeters) beyond the slope break at the dike. Care
must be exercised in the backfilling of the anchor trench
to insure the liner is not damaged.
To prevent erosion, mechanical damage to the liner, and
hydraulic lifting of the liner, a minimum backfill of six
inches (15 centimeters) on the top of the liner is recom-
mended. On the side slopes this should consist of a minimum
three-inch (7.5 centimeter) primary fill of sand or finely
textured soil and a minimum three-inch (7.5 centimeter)
secondary fill of heavier cobble, coarse gravel or small
riprap. On the bottom the backfill may consist solely of
the sand or finely textured soils.
d. The manufacturer's representative shall supervise or conduct
all phases of installation. It is also recommended that
installation be done by contractors familiar with potential
problems which can be encountered.
77
-------
94.23 Uniformity The pond bottom shall be as level as possible at all
points. Finished elevations shall not be more than one inch (2.5
centimeters) from the average elevation of the bottom. Shallow or
feathering fringe areas usually result in locally unsatisfactory
conditions.
94.24 Prefilling All ponds shall be prefilled to the two foot (0.6
meter) level to protect the liner, to prevent weed growth, to encourage
rapid startup of the biological process and discourage odor, to reduce
freeze up problems for late fall startups, to confirm the seal's
integrity (as discussed in Section 94.22) and to maintain the water
of the seal at or above optimum. However, the dikes must be completely
prepared as described in Sections 94.171 and/or 94.172 before the
introduction of water. Water for prefilling may be taken from the
municipal water supply system or a nearby lake or stream. The raw
sewage influent alone shall not be used for prefilling purposes.
78
-------
APPENDIX C
TRADE NAMES AND SOURCES OF COMMON LINING
MATERIALS (KAYS, 1977)1
Trade Name
Production Description Manufacturer
Trade Names
Aqua Sav
Armor last
Armorshell
Armortite
Arrowhead
Biostate Liner
Careymat
CPE (resin)
Coverlight
Driliner
EPDM (resin)
Flexseal
Geon (resin)
Griffolyn 45
Griffolyn E
Griffolyn V
Butyl rubber
Reinforced neoprene
and Hypalon
PVC-nylon laminates
PVC coated fabrics
Bentonite
Plymouth Rubber
Canton, Mass.
Cooley, Inc.
Pawtucket, R.I.
Cooley, Inc.
Pawtucket, R.I.
Cooley, Inc.
Pawtucket, R.I.
Dresser Minerals
Houston, Tex.
Biologically stable PVC Goodyear Tire & Rubber
Co.
Akron, Ohio
Prefabricated asphalt
panels
Chlorinated PE resin
Reinforced butyl and
Hypalon
Butyl rubber
Ethylene propylene
diene monomer resins
Hypalon and Reinforced
Hypalon
PVC resin
Reinforced Hypalon
Reinforced PVC
Reinforced PVC, oil
resistant
Phillip Carey Co.
Cincinnati, Ohio
Dow Chemical Co.
Midland, Mich.
Reeves Brothers, Inc.
New York, N.Y.
Goodyear Tire & Rubber
Co.
Akron, Ohio
U.S. Rubber Co.
New York, N.Y.
B. F. Goodrich Co.
Akron, Ohio
B. F. Goodrich Co.
Akron, Ohio
Griffolyn Co., Inc.
Houston, Tex.
Griffolyn Co., Inc.
Houston, Tex.
Griffolyn Co., Inc.
Houston, Tex.
1
Courtesy of John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y.
79
-------
Trade Name
Production Description Manufacturer
Hydroliner
Hydromat
Hypalon (resin)
Ibex
Koroseal
Kreene
Meadowmat
National Baroid
Nordel (resin)
Panelcraft
Paraqual
Petromat
Pliobond
Polyliner
Red Top
Royal Seal
SS-13
Butyl rubber
Prefabricated asphalt
panels
Chlorosulfonated PE
resin
Bentonite
PVC films
PVC films
Prefabricated asphalt
panels with PVC Core
Bentonite
Ethylene propylene
diene monomer resin
Prefabricated asphalt
panels
EPDM and butyl
Polypropylene woven
fabric
(Base fabric-spray
linings)
PVC adhesive
PVC-CPE, alloy film
Bentonite
EPDM and butyl
Waterborne dispersion
Goodyear Tire & Rubber
Co.
Akron, Ohio
W. R. Meadows, Inc.
Elgin, 111.
E. I. Du Pont Co.
Wilmington, Del.
Chas. Pfizer & Co.
New York, N.Y.
B. F. Goodrich Co.
Akron, Ohio
Union Carbide &
Chemical Co.
New York, N.Y.
W. R. Meadows, Inc.
Elgin, 111.
National Lead Co.
Houston, Tex.
E. I. Du Pont Co.
Wilmington, Del.
Envoy-APOC
Long Beach, Calif.
Aldan Rubber Co.
Philadelphia, Pa.
Phillips Petroleum Co.
Bartlesville, Okla.
Goodyear Tire & Rubber
Co.
Akron, Ohio
Goodyear Tire & Rubber
Co.
Akron, Ohio
Wilbur Ellis Co.
Fresno, Calif.
U.S. Rubber Co.
Mishawaka, Ind.
Lauratan Corp.
Anaheim, Calif.
80
-------
Trade Name
Production Description Manufacturer
Sure Seal
Vinaliner
Butyl, EPDM, neoprene,
and Hypalon, plain
and reinforced
PVC
Carlisle Corp.
Carlisle, Pa.
Goodyear Tire & Rubber
Co.
Akron, Ohio
Vinyl Clad
Visqueen
Volclay
Water Seal
PVC, reinforced
PE resin
Bentonite
Bentonite
Sun Chemical Co.
Paterson, N.J.
Ethyl Corp.
Baton Rouge, La.
American Colloid Co.
Skokie, 111.
Wyo-Ben Products
Billings, Mont.
Materials
Manufacturers
Locations
Sources
Bentonite
Butyl and EPDM
Butyl and EPDM,
reinforced
CPE, reinforced
Hypalon
Hypalon, reinforced
American Colloid Co.
Archer-Daniels-Midland
Ashland Chemical Co.
Chas. Pfizer & Co.
Dresser Minerals
National Lead Co.
Wilbur Ellis Co.
Wyo-Ben Products, Inc.
Carlisle Corp.
Goodyear Tire & Rubber
Co.
Aldan Rubber Co.
Carlisle Corp.
Plymouth Rubber Co.
Reeves Brothers, Inc.
Goodyear Tire & Rubber
Co.
Burke Rubber Co.
B. F. Goodrich Co.
Burke Rubber Co.
Carlisle Corp.
B. F. Goodrich Co.
Plymouth Rubber Co.
J. P. Stevens Co.
Skokie, 111.
Minneapolis, Minn,
Cleveland, Ohio
New York, N.Y.
Houston, Tex.
Houston, Tex.
Fresno, Calif.
Billings, Mont.
Carlisle, Pa.
Akron, Ohio
Philadelphia, Pa.
Carlisle, Pa.
Canton, Mass.
New York, N.Y.
Akron, Ohio
San Jose, Calif.
Akron, Ohio
San Jose, Calif.
Carlisle, Pa.
Akron, Ohio
Canton, Mass.
New York, N.Y.
81
-------
Materials
Manufacturers
Locations
EPDM
EPDM, reinforced
Neoprene
Neoprene, reinforced
PE
PE, reinforced
PVC
PVC, reinforced
Prefabricated asphalt
panels
3110
See "Butyl and EPDM"
See "Butyl and EPDM,
reinforced"
Carlisle Corp.
Firestone Tire & Rubber
Co.
B. F. Goodrich Co.
Goodyear Tire & Rubber
Co.
Carlisle Corp.
B. F. Goodrich Co.
Firestone Tire & Rubber
Co.
Plymouth Rubber Co.
Reeves Brothers, Inc.
Monsanto Chemical Co.
Union Carbide, Inc.
Ethyl Corp.
Griffolyn Co., Inc.
Firestone Tire & Rubber
Co.
B. F. Goodrich Co.
Goodyear Tire & Rubber
Co.
Pantasote Co.
Stauffer Chemical Co.
Union Carbide, Inc.
Carlisle, Pa.
Akron, Ohio
Akron, Ohio
Akron, Ohio
Carlisle, Pa.
Akron, Ohio
Akron, Ohio
Canton, Mass.
New York, N.Y.
St. Louis, Mo.
New York, N.Y.
Baton Rouge, La.
Houston, Tex.
Akron, Ohio
Akron, Ohio
Akron, Ohio
New York, N.Y.
New York, N.Y.
New York, N.Y.
Firestone Tire & Rubber Akron, Ohio
Co.
B. F. Goodrich Co.
Goodyear Tire & Rubber
Co.
Reeves Brothers, Inc.
Cooley, Inc.
Sun Chemical Co.
Akron, Ohio
Akron, Ohio
New York, N.Y.
Pawtucket, R.I.
Paterson, N.J.
Envoy-APOC
Gulf Seal, Inc.
W. R. Meadows, Inc.
Phillip Carey Co.
E. I. Du Pont Co.
Long Beach, Calif,
Houston, Tex.
Elgin, 111.
Cincinnati, Ohio
Louisville, Ky.
82
-------
X
M
w
CM
S!
o
2;
i—i
z
M
>-)
u
w
H
h-1
2
O
H
53
w
OQ
I
I JliMl! Hi
i ii«i&!l !?:
« J
f
i s
u 5"-o = o S S>S £ o * "o
"S5S^S.-o|^S«|".
f>,SaE«Sss-^"-o
EJs£u'Ss=>*^£'o!1;-
S--sS°sSX»° " *•% = i
-s^?E3^6s?;|g*
-*si:ililas-lf
!ti|
3 * F
»ii
o_
C3 (
CJ3
I CL3 =
^E ^^ *
•«z
CO
lls
i IK
CD * n TO
< M - M
CD
•H
O
OJ
•H
O
O
•H
O
o i
o S
Q -
§,i
O ° •"
O JK
UJ w ^
III
o
o
c
cfl
O
•H
W
-------
il!P n
s?ll! I- 'i!
I
Jfj| f|!|fp;:f|tt
IS!
II
31
84
-------
APPENDIX E
ASPHALT PANEL LININGS
1
PANELCRAFT panels can be installed around equipment
foundations. The panels are unaffected by fluid motion of
domestic sewage and other water-based fluids in properly
designed reservoirs and storage systems with agitation
systems
Flexibility to move with
Earth Movements
PANELCRAFT panels are used in many multi-acre reser-
voirs of great depth and similar facilities in areas of HIGH-
SEISMIC activity With reasonable care and planning during
installation, facilitated and made possible by the flexibility
of the PANELCRAFT panels, these finings will provide the
orpatpst «*»ruirp at a rpacnnahlp r.n^t
greatest service at a reasonable cost.
Single-ply and Two-ply
options
PANELCRAFT linings may be installed in either of two
ways, depending upon the type of reservoir, pond, or other
storage system.
• The single-thickness (1/2-mch) system of installation can
be either installed with edges butted together and a
batten strip placed over the butt point, or the panels can
be overlapped to obtain the desired joint
• For those applications requiring a perfectly smooth sur-
face (for sweeping and other cleaning requirements, for
example), the use of two layers of 1/4-mdi PANEL-
CRAFT panels is recommended The first layer of panels
are installed, with ends butted together, and the second
layer is placed on top of the first, with the second layer
of panels offset approximately one-half panel to prevent
butt joints from being directly over each other.
SINGLE-PLY
BATTEN JOINT
OVERLAP JOINT
OFFSET TWO-PL Y JOINT
PANLL INSTALLATIO'V
Either of the above installation systems provide maximum
protection from water loss, and may be walked on, swept,
and subjected to normal earth movement without loss of
protection PANELCRAFT system requires no additional
protective coverings
PANELCRAFT linings are made of high-grade bitumen, re-
inforced with FIBERGLASS. This construction makes
possible an odorless liner that imparts no taste to the water,
and that is strong and flexible
As shown in the cutaway drawing, the panels are made in
five layers
I The core of ductile air-blown asphalt, fortified with
minerals and reinforcing fibers, thoroughly compounded
and molded under pressure and heat into panels of
desired thickness and length
} Coverings of flexible FIBERGLASS MA T on both sides
of the core
Protective coating of water repelling asphalt, hot applied
to both sides of panel.
PANFL CQNSTHUCTIQN
PANELCRAFT fits properly compacted ground contours
perfectly, and adjusts quickly to normal earth movements.
No heaving, distorting, or damage from hot or cold weather
l
Courtesy of Asphalt Products Oil Corp., Long Beach, California.
85
-------
Protecting our Water
Resources
PANELCRAFT linings are protecting reservoirs, lakes,
canals, reflecting ponds, holding basins, sewage ponds and
other water conservation and storage systems from loss of
water through leakage, seepage, and intrusion — SUCCESS-
FULL Y FOR OVER TWO DECADES
The need for protection and conservation of our precious
water supplies is obvious The large population movement
to arid areas, the normal population growth, the expansion
of water-oriented residential and retirement areas, recrea-
tion areas, and urban and suburban greenbelts places enor-
mous demands on our relatively finite water icsources
Maximum use must be obtained from every drop of water
for its beauty of appearance, for its life-support properties
in drinking water, and its utility in the production of food,
manufacture, and even disposal Every plan that includes
waterA/L/$7 BE WATERPROOF Every drop of water must
be protected against waste and loss through leakage, seep-
age, and contamination by intrusion
PANELCRAFT wilt insure the leakage protection of your
reservoir, lake, canal, or other storage system — and will
provide this protection economically with long life, dura-
bility, and minimum maintenance Some storage systems
using PANELCRAFT are over 20 years old - and now
PANELCRAFT is FIBERGLASS REINFORCED for
strength, stability, and flexibility
today's ecological planning often requires the storage of
bilne and other water-based byproducts in storage basins
to prevent their intrusion into the soil and local water table
PANELCRAFT provides complete strength and ieakproof
capabilities to such holding basins The flexibility of
PANLLCRAFT insures that this integrity is maintained
even when sub|ected to the motion and disruption of filling
and emptying for distribution to disposal points
Tough and Flexible
PANELCRAFT linings are tough and flexible, pioviding
protection from penetration during normal access and
maintenance tasks, and the flexibility insures that the
panels will not crack under the normal movements of the
earth and pressures and forces that result from water flow,
addition, and drainage. PANELCRAFT panels have come
to the rescue of cracked and leaking concrete and other
rigid material construction reservoirs and storage systems.
PANLl CRAh T is simplv installed over the otherwise
troubled concrete Astern, placing the reservoir or storage
system back into operation in the shortest time possible.
86
-------
APPENDIX F
HYPALON LINERS1
INSTALLATION PROCEDURE FOR
BURKE HYPALON 45 POND/PIT LINERS
Courtesy of Burke Rubber Company, Burke Industries, San Jose,
California.
87
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No.
Installation Plan, General Sequence of Events 1
Customer Furnished Materials for Installation 2
Customer Make-Ready List 3
General Instructions for Unrolling and Unfolding
Prefabricated Panels
Recommended Guidelines, Field Seaming Procedure 6
Mandatory Provisions, Field Seaming Procedure 7
Tool List for Field-Seaming Crew(s) 8
88
-------
INSTALLATION PLAN
General Sequence of Events
1. Make ready all materials required for installation prior to commencement of
lining operations. See attached check-off list of materials.
2. Unroll and unfold only those panels which are to be anchored or seamed together
in one day. See attached procedure for unrolling and unfolding techniques.
3. After the panels are initially placed, it is desirable to remove as many
wrinkles as possible. The purpose of this is to make the edges to be bonded
as smooth and free of wrinkles as possible.
4. As soon as the panels are in position, commence field-seaming operations. See
attached procedure on field seaming techniques.
5. At the end of each day all unseamed edges shall be anchored by sandbags. If
winds are expected, the use of boards along the edges of the panels, with
sandbags on top, should be used to anchor liner.
6. After field-seaming is complete in a given area, liner edges in anchor trench
Should be buried.
NOTE: Do not bury the liner edge in the anchor trench within 30 feet
of an "incomplete" field seam. This is to allow the seam area
to be retensioned to remove wrinkles along the seam area.
7. In selecting the sequence to be used in field-seaming, always start in the
middle and work toward an open end. This will minimize large wrinkles from
becoming trapped, which requires cutting and patching.
89
-------
Customer should supply the listed materials
for installation of prefabricated panels of
BURKE HYPALON LINERS
1. All field installation labor and official supervision, i.e., crew chief or foreman.
2. Means to move rolled-up panels of pond liner to specified locations at pit site.
Rolls 4' diameter by 7' long will weigh approximately 2,500 to 5,000 Ibs.
3. Stakes and string or chalk lines (not lime) to define panels locations and initial
unroll guidelines as indicated on the marked-up print provided.
4. Canvas, burlap, or polyethylene bags filled with sand or soft dirt to hold the
unseamed edges in place; quantity depends on wind present during installation;
figure on one bag per five to ten feet of unanchored panel perimeter.
5. Five to ten hand rakes, or large paving rakes.
6. One or more small compacting roller for smoothing out or compacting rough or
badly gouged earth at the pit site (such as a lawn roller).
7. Portable hot air gun. (See seaming tool list).
8. Five to ten shovels.
9. Large box or barrel of clean cotton rags.
10. Tape measure, 100-foot.
11. Roll of twine or heavy string.
12. Old boards, such as 1" x 4", 2" x 4", 1" x 6", 1" x 8" for holding unseamed
edges in place while awaiting seaming (to be used in conjunction with above
sandbags).
13. A way to drag a 2,500-5,000 Ib. strip of folded pond liner if required—rope,
pipe and pulling means.
14. All proper safety equipment and supplies. Responsibility for all safety aspects
of the installation is the customer's.
15. All persons at the site to have smooth, protrusion-free shoe soles and heels.
(Tennis shoes).
16. A 10-foot plus length of 2-1/2" to 4" pipe.
17. Two 8-foot lengths of wood, 2" x 4".
18. Fifty feet of 1/2", 5/8", or 3/4" rope.
19. Wooden dowels, 3/4" to 1-1/2" diameter, approximately 12" long. Ends to be
rounded smooth. These dowels used to facilitate crew in holding onto liner as
it unfolds.
20. If field seaming will be performed, all required equipment per the attached "tool
list for field-seaming crew" should be provided.
90
-------
CUSTOMER MAKE-READY LIST
Things to be accomplished the afternoon or evening
before commencement of the lining operations.
1. All equipment, tools and supplies to be at the pond site in a suitable storage
area.
2. The first day's panels to be in position as shown on the layout drawing. Leave
the panels packaged, and if hot sunlight is present, shade the panels from direct
sunlight using any opaque sheeting; leave free-flowing air space between opaque
sheeting and panels.
3. Anchor trench dug all around pond. Excavated anchor trench dirt to be spread out
(raked back, flat, away from anchor trench) so that panels can be unrolled on
the top of the berm.
4. Stakes and/or lines indicating panel locations as shown on the layout drawing
to be installed.
5. All pond dimensions to be checked to verify that actual pond dimensions are not
greater than those dimensions shown on the drawing.
6. Pond to be ready to be covered with liner.
A. Pond surface raked, smooth, rolled if necessary; free of all large, sharp
rocks or other sharp objects, free of all vegetation and vegetation
stubble.
B. All penetrations, (pipes, etc.) covered or wrapped to protect liner from
being cut, abraded or punctured during installation.
C. All concrete slabs and skirts around penetrating pipes swept clean and
free of all debris and rocks. Where subsequent bonding to concrete is
to be done, the surface to be smooth, clean, dry and ready for adhesive
applications.
D. All pipes, drains, fittings, etc., which are to be installed beneath the
liner should be in place ready to be covered with liner.
7. Distribute sandbags (about one every five feet) along the perimeters of the
area to be lined the next day. Don't put them in the area where the panels
will be unrolled, but immediately adjacent thereto.
91
-------
General Instructions for Unrolling
and Unfolding Prefabricated Panels of
BURKE HYPALON LINERS
1. The package is marked on the outside clearly indicating the panel identification
letter and the directions for unrolling and unfolding. When locating the packaged
panels, observe these markings so panels can be unrolled and unfolded in the proper
direction, (It is also clearly marked on the roll of material inside),
2. Leave packaging on the panel until ready to unrolL If the panel will be sitting
in direct sunlight for over 1/2 hour before unrolling, it should be completely
shaded with any opaque sheeting. It is necessary to leave a free-flowing air
space between the opaque sheeting and the packaged panel,
3. When ready to unroll the panels, remove the packaging carefully DO NOT USE A
KNIFE AS DAMAGE TO LINER MAY OCCUR, Before unrolling off of the pallet, carefully
inspect the pallet for and remove any protrusions which may damage the liner.
4. The panel is normally unrolled by inserting a 2-1/2" to 4" diameter pipe 10-12'
long, through the cardboard core and then looping a rope over each of the pro-
jecting ends of the pipe. The rope should be out close to the ends of the pipe
and away from the roll of Hypalon sheeting. The rope should not touch the
Hypalon during unrolling. By putting an equal number of men on each rope and
pulling, the panel is unrolled along the desired guide line- Crew size: One
man/1,000 sq. ft. of any one panel (e g,, 15,000 sq. ft, panel requires 15 men).
5. After the panel is unrolled, it is straightened out to the guide "line as
indicated by the technical advisor or crew chief,
6. The panel is then unfolded into position Men are positioned at the edge of the
panel as indicated by the technical advisor or crew chief Generally, the men
are positioned approximately 15 feet apart, depending on the size of the panel
and the terrain to be covered. If required, men are positioned at the uphill end
of the panel to keep it from sliding down the slope as it is unfolded. If the
edge to be gripped is subsequently to be bonded, then the panel edge is folded
back about two or three feet, and the fold is gripped for pulling rather than
the edge. This is to avoid stretching the edge where it is to be bonded.
Gripping of the panel can be facilitated by use of a short length of wood dowel,
3/4" to 1-1/2" in diameter, and 12" to 18" long The Imer is first wrapped
around the dowel, and then gripped. The edges of the dowels should be carefully
rounded off to prevent sharp edges from digging into the liner as it is pulled
7. As the panel is pulled out it is necessary to maintain air under the liner This
air can be obtained and maintained by several means One way to maintain air
under the liner is to simply hold the edge up and advance at a rate fast enough
to capture air under the liner as it is unfolded Another way is the same as
above, except the edge is constantly raised and lowered as it is being spread
out to "fan" air under the liner.
92
-------
When there is a prevailing wind from the direction to which the liner is being
pulled, then air can be introduced by lifting the edge just enough to allow the
described amount of air to blow in under the liner. Care must be exercised in
this case to only raise the edge of the liner enough to let the "desired" amount
of air under the liner and lower to cut off the air as soon as enough air is
captured; otherwise, it is possible to have the liner blow away.
When the panel has been partially spread and it is necessary to stop (as is
often the case) the edge should be lowered to try to trap as much air as pos-
sible and keep it from escaping. In spite of this, some air will escape and
it is necessary to introduce more air under the liner; this is accomplished by
"fanning" the edge of the sheet up and down, and sending waves of air far in
under the panel. A common mistake is, when attempting to do this, the crew does
not get enough vertical height on the fanning action; the edge of the liner should
be raised from over-the-head level down to knee level as the cyclic fanning action
is performed. This fanning action should be continued as directed by the tech-
nical advisor or crew chief before spreading of the liner is attempted.
8. A slight lateral tension on the leading edge of the panel being spread should be
maintained. This lateral tension facilitates the spreading operations.
A. Generally, a 2:1 slope is the steepest slope which men can walk on to spread
the liner. Where the liner must be installed on a slope steeper than 2:1,
special detailed plans must be worked out ahead of time by the people res-
ponsible for planning the job.
B. During unfolding-spreading operations it is necessary that the crew wear
work gloves, as these operations can be quite chafing to the knuckles.
C. During unfolding-spreading operations it is necessary that the crew work
as a team. The technical advisor shall provide instructions which will
facilitate this requirement,
D. If a gust of wind attempts to pull the liner away from the crew and they
are about to lose their footing, the following points are applicable:
1. Put lateral tension in the leading edge and lower it to the
ground.
2. Attempt to restrain it further by putting one knee on the leading edge.
If these efforts fail to restrain it, LET IT GO. DO NOT HOLD ONTO THE
LINER AND BE PULLED ALONG WITH THE WIND.
E. It is advisable that all persons at the pond site wear soft rubber-soled
shoes such as tennis shoes or boat shoes.
F. Extreme caution should be exercised when walking on the Hypalon liner
material when it is wetc The sheeting becomes very slippery. It is
generally necessary to use a rope as an aid in going in or out of the
pond.
93
-------
RECOMMENDED GUIDELINES
1. Under ideal soil and weather conditions, removal of surface cure should
not be completed more than ten minutes ahead of seaming. Under adverse
conditions such as high heat, winds, muddy substrate or other conditions
which increase the possibility of foreign material to be deposited on the
washed surfaces, the amount of time between washing and seaming should
be reduced at the discretion of the technical advisor or crew chief.
2. Before adhesive is applied, surfaces to be seamed must have surface
cure thoroughly removed and be essentially free of dirt and foreign
materials. The presence of a few particles of sand or dirt is per-
missible in situations where such presence is unavoidable. The
acceptable limit for such presence is where the few particles are
totally encapsulated in the adhesive/seam and they do not connect to
form a path for a leak.
3. On hot days, better results in removal of surface cure may be achieved
by the use of perchloroethylene.
4. "Fishmouths" can be folded over and bonded closed or slit, bonded down,
and patched per instructions given by the technical advisor. Patches
over fishmouths or other seam flaws should extend at least 2" past the
flaw in question. The rule on patches should be, "if there is any
question as to whether to patch or not, then patch it!"
94
-------
neld Seaming Procedure for
BURKE HYPALON LINER MATERIAL
MANDATORY PROVISIONS
Over1aps
Minimum overlap - 4".
Seams
Minimum seam width - 2"
Preparation
Remove all foreign matter, loose dirt, oil, etc., from edges to be
bonded together.
Surfaces to be seamed must be washed with rags or natural bristle
scrub brushes soaked with trichloroethylene or perchloroethylene
to remove surface cure. Surface cure is removed when Hypalon turns
shiny and slick when wet and a dull black when dry.
Application of Adhesive
Apply a liberal amount of Hypalon adhesive to one of the surfaces and lap
together immediately—no delay between the time the adhesive is applied
and material overlapped. Adhesive must be thoroughly wet at the time
surfaces are joined, with no evidence of surface "skinning" or drying
of the adhesive.
Seaming Method
Seam is "stitched" by rolling with a steel roller in a direction perpen-
dicular to the seam, applying firm pressure. A small amount of adhesive,
forced out of the seam edge, is desirable and indicates sufficient
adhesive has been applied.
NOTE: The temperature of the sheet and adhesive when bonding must be above 60° F.
minimum. If ambient conditions create temperatures lower than this, then
the sheet and adhesive must be warmed by artificial means; i.e., hot air
guns, radiant heaters, heat lamps, spare heaters, etc.
95
-------
TOOL LIST
For Field Seaming Crews
1. Each man on the seaming crew to wear PVA (polyvinyl alcohol) coated gloves.
Edmont-Wilson, Coshocton, Ohio 43812. Their No. 37-165, or equal.
2. Three sets, Size 10, cloth gloves.
3. Two sets knee pads. (If desired).
4. Roll of tape to hold on knee pads,
5. Gallon can with handle, with trichloroethylene. (Consumption rate same as
adhesive).
6. Ten cotton rags per hour.
7. Gallon can with handle, with adhesive.
8. A 3" paint roller with bent wire handle.
9. A 12" to 18" long length of 1/2" to 3/4" diameter metal tubing (will be
used to make handle for paint roller).
10. A 2" diameter x 2" long, flat-face, steel roller with handle ("stitcher").
Hoggson brand, from H. M. Royal, Inc., 11911 Woodruff Avenue, Downey, CA.
Telephone 213-773-3774.
11. A stiff bristle, natural bristle scrub brush.
12. A whisk broom (or fox tail brush).
13. A 1" x 10" x 10' long Douglas fir, clear board, rounded off on both ends
and rounded off on all edges with a rope tied to one end.
14. A Stanley knife.
15. One red or yellow crayon for marking liner surface.
16. A pair of scissors with rounded-off points.
17. Each man on seaming crew safety glasses (for protection from solvent splash).
96
-------
LINER LAYOUT INFORMATION AND DETAILS
HYPALON®
"LINER
Vi**Jt*
'*$&>.
£*&;t>££:•i/^'ii1-iSl 1L£-iKii»i3'iL'CTH^^/.. r -j^
" ""^ssl^^^^^toj^^
'••>'-:i!/-'-if;^••'''•-"'!< •-^'^^^
'••'•• ' • v-VV-;':';|-;j .r;.'''A"/^T
SHROUD GASKETS
12" TO 18" 12"TO18"
AIR-GAS VENT
ANCHOR TRENCH
&
AIR-GAS VENT
Courtesy of Burke Rubber Company, Burke Industries, San Jose, California
97
-------
LINER LAYOUT INFORMATION AND DETAILS
NOTE: PLACE A PIECE OF CAULKING TAPE UNDER THE BATTEN STRIP AT THE RAMSET POINT.
THE BUTYL TAPE WILL SEAL THE HYPALON
WHEN THE BATTEN STRIP IS RAM-SET.
ANCHORING AND SEALING HYPALON
TO CONCRETE BELOW WATER LEVEL
NTS
BATTEN:
1. REDWOOD
2. STAINLESS STEEL
3. ALUMINUM
EXPANSION ANCHORS OR
RAM-SET
1/4" OR %"
CAULKED IN
PLACE SEALANT
1"x'/8" BUTYL TAPE
(SEE NOTE)
> BR-700 CONTACT
ADHESIVE
6" MINIMUM
CONCRETE WALL
SAND BOTTOM
INLET PIPE
30 MIL LINER
BATTEN ANCHOR
SYSTEM
BOLTS ON APPROX.
- 12" CENTERS
SEE DETAIL A
CONCRETE PAD
BATTEN:
1. REDWOOD
2. STAINLESS STEEL
3. ALUMINUM
30 MIL LINER
HYPALON SHROUD WITH
STAINLESS STEEL CLAMP
FASTENER: RED-HEAD
OR RAM-SET
HYPALON
ADHESIVE
INLET SPLASH PAD
NTS
45 MIL
LINER
CONCRETE PAD
BR 700 CONTACT
ADHESIVE
Courtesy of Burke Rubber Company, Burke Industries, San Jose, California
98
-------
APPENDIX G
B.F. GOODRICH "FLEXSEAL" LINEARS
INFORMATION BULLETIN
B.F.GOODRICH GENERAL PRODUCTS COMPANY
D/0414, WHB-3^ 500 South Main Street Akron, Ohio 44318
, RE Goodrich,
EL-1.6-176
INSTALLATION GUIDE FOR B.F.GOODRICH POND LINERS
I. General
B.F.Goodrich Pond Liners are all purpose, tough, durable, rubber or PVC linings that are
heat welded into large panels up to 15,000 square feet each. These in turn can be easily
assembled, as described later, for lining all possible sized pits, ponds, reservoirs, canals
and lagoons.
II. Tools and Equipment Required for Installation
Listed below are the materials and equipment that are typically required on job site before
installation can be accomplished. Please have the materials indicated before the day of
installation.
1. A means of handling large rolls of material: Forklift, Front end Loader,
Crane, or Boom truck.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
.4" paint brushes.
. 2" wide hand rollers (Steel or Nylon).
_ 16' or 20', 1" x 10" clear white pine board or conveyor belt.
_ 50 pound sand bags or tire carcasses.
. pounds of clean rags.
. 1 quart caulking gun.
. 1 gallon paint pails for solvent.
. 6 feet - 2" steel heavy wall (schedule 80) pipe.
. 10 foot chains.
11. —1 ea 1" x 2" x 12" woodensticks per man.
Lists: O-GP, 1-SP-E, 1-SP-W
Courtesy of B.F. Goodrich, Akron, Ohio.
99
-------
III. Receiving and Storage of Lining Material
Material is shipped in rolls up to 6 feet diameter, 5 feet long, strapped on skids or in pallet
boxes. Depending upon the size of the panels, they can weight up to 4,000 pounds each. The
liner is typically packed in a white covering to reflect the sun's heat and can usually be
stored outside at the site for one to three weeks before starting the installation with no harm
to the material. If the job is delayed for an extended time (more than three weeks), material
must be stored inside or in open shade. PVC Liners should be stored at temperatures not
lower than 50°F.
IV. Preparing the Site for the Installation of the Liner
Pond should be free of all standing water or mud. Entire surface to be lined must be free from
all rock, roots, and debris that may puncture the liner material.
Anchor trench should be dug as per drawings and material properly spotted for installation.
The area to be lined should have the soil sterilized. This is especially true of areas having
prior growths of nut or quack grasses.
V. Equipment Needed for Spotting the Material
The panels will weigh up to 4,000 pounds. A large front end loader, bulldozer or crane is re-
quired fo spot the rolls of material.
Material is accordion folded in the length direction, then rolled in the width direction. The
package is marked in the direction the material must be unrolled and pulled into the pond so
that the correct side is up and placed in its proper position without extra handling. The roll
is normally spotted at one corner of the final resting place of the panel, either along the berm
or on a large installation, in the bottom of the pond.
VI. Positioning the Panels for Seaming
Unroll the material using a 6'-2" diameter heavy walled pipe through the core of the roll
chained to the truck or front end loader, being certain to unroll material so that the end of the
material will be in the proper position when unfolded.
With small 1" x 2" x 12" sticks in hand, line 10 or 12 men along the 50' folded material. With
each man grasping the top layer of material and rollmg"the stick into the material 4" to 8", the
material is ready to be pulled into the pond.
After the material is 75 to 100 feet into the pond, place a man on each side of the panel and
have them flip air under the panel. The cushion of air underneath the material makes moving
a panel 300 feet long relatively easy.
When the first panel is in position, temporarily anchor it in the berm trench with sandbags
leaving the edges free to be seamed. The edge of the panel that will be seamed to the next
panel should be re-positioned so that it is as straight and lying as smooth as possible. Then
back fill trench partially to hold panel in place.
Position the next panel in the same manner and allow a 6" overlap of material into the first
panel. After panel is in position, weight panel edges with sand bags or old tire carcasses. Be
certain to position panel so that the edges to be seamed lie straight and as smooth as possible
before attempting any seaming.
100
-------
VII. Adhesive Seaming of Flexseal-Hypalon Pond Liners
Both liner surfaces of the overlap must be free of dirt or mud. If not, wash with water and dry.
Wash both surfaces with cleaning solvent using neoprene gloves for hand protection.
Starting at the center of two panels to be seamed, place a 1" x 10" x 16' board or conveyor
belting underneath the overlapped area. With adhesive, mark outside of the overlap. Fold
overlap back and apply an even coat of adhesive 4" wide to both surfaces. Be careful not to
allow coating surfaces to come in contact with each other before properly positioned. Adhe-
sive surfaces are ready to be placed together when the wettest area will not transfer to your
clean knuckle when pressed onto the adhesive surface.
Carefully apply the two surfaces together avoiding any wrinkles or folds. Using a 2" hand
roller, overlapped area with firm pressure to insure a 100% bond. Pay particular attention to
any area that consists of more than one layer of material (overlapped cross seams).
After overlap is completed upon the length of the board, apply a coat of adhesive to the 3"
tape and an area 3" wide centered on the edge of the overlap just made.
Allow adhesive to dry, using the knuckle test to tell when adhesive is dry enough to position
tape over the seam edge. Position tape and roll firmly with a hand roller.
Pull board or belting from underneath this section and proceed with the next section. Two
crews may now start seaming toward each end of the panel.
Notes of caution:
1. Apply even coats of adhesive.
2. Allow to dry to the touch.
3. Avoid wrinkles.
4. Use a hand roller with firm pressure.
5. Use a board or belting as a working surface.
VIII. Proceed with the next panels in the same manner. Do not lay more material than can be
sealed in one day.
IX. Inlet and Outlet Pipes that Penetrate the Liner.
We recommended all penetrations through the liner and attachments to the liner be in
accordance with B.F.Goodrich Information Bulletin EL-1.5-775.
101
-------
INFORMATION BULLETIN
B.F.GOODRICH GENERAL PRODUCTS COMPANY
P. O. Box 657 Marietta, Ohio 45750
, RE Goodrich,
BULLETIN
EL-1.5-775
Typical Installation Details for
B.F.Goodrich Flexseal® Pond and Pit Liners
ANCHOR TRENCH 6"
WIDE MINIMUM
Figure #1
TOP SIDE-
FLEXSEAL LINER
Figure #2
6' DIA -
Figure #1
The anchor trench should be lo-
cated far enough from the edge of
the berm to provide a sufficient an-
chor for the liner, as well as enough
room to use a ditcher to dig the
trench. The dirt thrown towards the
lagoon may be raked back into the
ditch, provided a minimum 18"
depth is maintained.
Figure #2
The field seam illustrated is used
for the reinforced Flexseal material.
The 3"wide non-reinforced tape pre-
vents wicking of the effluent into the
reinforcing fabric. If non-reinforced
Flexseal liner material is specified
and used, the 3"tapeis not normally
required.
Figure #3
As illustrated, the easiest method
of placing inlet and outlet pipes into
Flexseal lined lagoon is over the top
of the berms.using a protective liner
to contain the discharge, thus pro-
tecting the main liner The fewer pro-
trusions that are designed into a lin-
ing, the easier it is to installandmain-
tain both the liner and the piping.
A double layer of liner material
over the liner at the inlet may also be
sufficient, as opposed to the prefab-
ricated trough illustrated.
© TheBF.OoodndiCompwy
-------
Flexseal Lining — Penetration Attachments
— Flange Type Method —
-RADIUS ON ALL
TOP CORNERS
Figure #4
-CONCRETE
PAD
STAINLESS STEEL BOLT,
WASHER 8 NUT
TACK WELD
-RADIUS ON ALL
TOP CORNERS
Figure #5
-STAINLESS STEEL
Figure #6
WELD
STAINLESS STEEL
STUD TO FLANGE
^-CONCRETE P>
Figures #4, #5, #6
If an inlet or outlet pipe or support
post must penetrate the Flexseal
liner, B.F.Goodrich recommends a
flanged system be used.
As illustrated in Figures 4,5 and 6,
all attachment points have a good
mechanical seal to the penetrating
pipes.The concrete padsaround the
pipes should be used to prevent
ground settlement and unduestress
to the lining material. This system
also allows the installation of large
panels without cutting and fitting
around the protrusion.
All corners of the concrete pads
should be rounded and have a
smooth troweled surface to prevent
unnecessary wear points. The use of
a flanged extension pipe may be
used to divert the effluent away from
the liner if necessary.
At an outlet pipe, 100# sacks of
concrete should be placed around
the outlet five feet apart approxi-
mately ten feet from the pipe. This
is to prevent the liner from being
sucked into the outlet pipe.
103
-------
Flexseal Lining Penetration Attachments
— Boot Type Method —
CA-1056
ADHESIVE
-RADIUS ON ALL
TOP CORNERS
Figure #7
STAINLESS
STEEL CLAMP.
FLEXSEAL SEALANT
FLEXSEAL BOOT
RADIUS ON ALL
TOP CORNERS
Figure #8
CA-1056 ADHESIVE
FLEXSEAL
LINER
SUPPORT POST
FOR OVERHEAD
STRUCTURES
-STAINLESS STEEL
CLftMP
FLEXSEAL BOOT
Figures #7, #8, #9
Where inlets, outlets or support
pipes cannot be flanged, the alter-
nate boot system can be used (fig-
ures 7, 8 and 9). The boots can be
factory or field fabricated for small
pipe sizes and field applied on larg-
er pipes. This system should be
avoided whenever possible. It is
more difficult to install the Flexseal
liner panels and may cause more
field seaming than is necessary due
to cutting and fitting around the pro-
trusion. Boots can be made from re-
inforced or non-reinforced Flexseal
material. All pipes to be flashed in
this manner should be smooth and
clean. Clamping straps should be of
material that will not be attacked by
the effluent.
All concrete pads should have
round edges and smooth surface.
Concrete pads are required to pre-
vent settlement of sub-surface
around pipes, thus reducing undue
stress to the boots and Flexseal liner
material. Large culvert type inlet or
outlet pipe that would be very diffi-
cult to seal by either method can be
sealed directly to the concrete pad
(see Figure 14).
-RADIUS ON ALL
TOP CORNERS
Figure #9
104
-------
Flexseal Lining
Ventilation and Underdrain System
A' PVC
PERFORATED LATERAL
PERFORATED
DRAIN 8 VENT PIPE-SLOPE
TO INSPECTION SUMP
8EYOND PIT AREA
Figure #10
Figure #10
B.F.Goodrich recommends a vent-
ing and underdrain system on most
installations. Gases caused by a fluc-
tuating water table pumping air un-
der the liner or from decaying or-
ganics will be trapped under the
Flexseal liner causing it to float un-
less some precautions are taken. If
the smallest bottom dimension is
larger than 25 feet and less than 50
feet, a simple center drain or vent
may be used. If the smallest dimen-
sion is greater than 50 feet, a lateral
system should be considered. The
laterals should be placed approxi-
mately 50 feet on centers. The cen-
ter drain or vent system, if run to a
sump, may also act as a leak de-
tection system.
The lateral vents should run up the
slope to within a foot of the top and
screened off to keep out surround-
dmg dirt and gravel.
TOP OF DYKE-
TOP OF BERM
SIDE
OF FLAP OPEN
TO HOLE
4"DIA HOLE IN
FLEXSEAL LINER
-SHADED AREA INDICATES
' I" WIDE WIN ADHESIVE
SEAL 3 SIDES ONLY
Figure #11
Directly above the end of the lat-
eral a flap type vent should be placed
in the liner to allow venting through
the liner.
Flap type vents are also recom-
mended on any lagoon where a free
board of liner material is more than
4 or 5 feet. This helps relieve pres-
sure under the liner if wind causes
the Flexseal liner to lift off the berm.
Figure #11
105
-------
Flexseal Lining
of
Aerated Lagoons and Concrete Attachments
ADDITIONAL-
FLEXSEAL LINER
UNDER PAD
r—CONCRETE MOORING
p-|\ PAD TO HOLD
\FLOATING AERATOR
II \ n
Figure #12
PROTECTIVE PAD FOR
FIXED AERATOR
ADDITIONAL LAYER
FLEXSEAL
A n /...I uNER7
7
FOUNDATION
RADIUS ON ALL
TOP CORNERS
Figure #13
f-6"(MIN) OVER LAP
,-CAULK WITH FLEXSEAL SEALANT
/ ,
/y~ RAMSET
OR ANCHOR
BOLT
CONTINUOUS
2x4 BOARD
Figure #14
106
B.F.Goodrich recommends us-
ing reinforced Flexseal liner mate-
rial for aerated lagoons. Some pre-
cautions must be taken to protect
the Flexseal liner from abrasion un-
der the aerator and also from being
sucked into the aerator.
Figure #12
A mooring pad for a floating aer-
ator may also act as an abrasion pad.
This pad may be poured directly
over the Flexseal liner with at least
one additional layer of liner material
being used for protection when pour-
ing the concrete.
Figure #13
On fixed aerators the liner mate-
rial may be anchored to the pad or
totally cover the pad, then an addi-
tional layer of concrete poured on
top of the pad to protect the liner
and/or anchorage of the liner. 100#
sacks of concrete used as weights
should be placed ten feet apart, ap-
proximately twenty feet from aerator
base. This is to insure the liner is not
sucked into the aerator.
Figure #14
Anchoring Flexseal liner to exist-
ing or new concrete pads, walls or
weirs may be accomplished by using
anchor bolts, cast in place or drilled
later, or ramsets to mechanically
seal the liner to the concrete by use
of a batten strip. Spacing of anchors
depends on rigidity of the batten
strip.
-------
Evaporation Nomograph
DATA on. evaporation from lakes and
reservoirs are not extensive. But there
are formulas by which it may be com-
puted. One of these; by Fitzgerald, has
the form, Eh = (S-F) (1 + v/2)/60; where
Eh = evaporation rate, m./hr; S = vapor
pressure of water at water temperature,
m. Hg; F = vapor pressure existing in the
air; and v = wind velocity, mph. Wind
velocities are at the water surface and
may be taken at one-half those recorded
at an elevated station such as the
Weather Bureau stations. For larger
reservoirs, however, Weather Bureau
values give results in close agreement
with available direct measurements.
An alternative and substantially equiv-
alent formula is given by Fitzgerald in
more usable terms. Somewhat simplified
and transformed; it is: Eh = 0.0002 (Ta
- Twb> <1 + v/2>-' where Ta and Twb are
in the air temperature and wet-bulb
-110
^100
^-90
0.035 -
-70
1-60
110—,
100-E
90-
80-E
-70^;
60-;
so-;
40-E
30 -a
temperature, respectively. The nomo-
gram is based on the second formula. It
includes the relative humidity for con-
venience.
Example. Assume the "normal" or long-
term monthly temperature, relative
humidity, and wind velocity for a certain
location are 80°F., 58%, and 8 mph;
what is the "normal" wet-bulb temper-
ature, and what is the evaporation rate
per hour and per month of 31 days?
Solution. Step 1, line 80°F, on Ta scale
with 58% on R scale, extend to Pivot
line and mark. Also read wet-bulb
temperature as 69°F. where line crossed
Twb scale. Step 2, from marked position
Pivot line, connect with 8 mph on V
scale, extend to E^ scale, and read evap-
oration rate as 0.011 in./hr. The evapor-
ation rate per month = 0.011 X 24 X 31
= 8.184 in.
Reprinted from OIL & GAS PETROCHEMICAL
EQUIPMENT, March 1974 issue.
107
-------
APPENDIX H
POLYVINYL CHLORIDE LINERS'
WATERSAVER COMPANY, INC.
3560 WYNKOOP STREET . DENVER, COLORADO 80216 . (303) 623-4111
Data Sheet SPVC - 74
STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
POLYVIflYL CHORIPE PLASTIC LlNHiGS
01 - GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
The work covered by these specifications consists of installina a polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) plastic lininq in the (laqoon, reservoir, canal, etc.) where shown
on the drawinqs or directed by the Enqineer. All work shall be done 1n strict
accordance with the drawinqs and these specifications and subject to the terns
and conditions of tho contract.
92 - PVC MATERIALS
A. General. The materials supplied under these specifications shall be
first quality products designed and manufactured specifically
for the purposes of this work, and which have been satisfactorily demonstrated by
prior use to be suitable and durable for such purposes.
8. Description of PVC Materials,- PVC (polyvinyl chloride) plastic lining
shall consist of widths of calendered
polvvinyl chloride sheeting fabricated into large sections by means of special
factory-bonded seams into a single panel, or into the minimum number of large
panels required to fit thn jobsite as supplied by WATERSAVER CO., INC., 3560
'•Jynkoop St., Denver, Colorado.
1. Physical Characteristics. The PVC materials shall have the follow-
ino physical characteristics.
TEST
Specific Gravity
Tensile Strength, psi, min.
Elongation, " min.
100" Modulus, psi.
Elmendorfer Tear, gms/mil, min.
Graves Tear, Ibs./in. min.
Hater Extraction, " max.
Volatility, "' max.
Impact Cold Crack, op.
Dimensional Stability, max.%
100°C. - 15 minutes
Shore Durometer, "A"
Outdoor Exposure, sun hrs.
Ronded Seam Strength, " of Tensile, nin
Pinhnlps/10 Sq. Yds. max
Color
TYPICAL
TEST
1.24
2200
300 ?
1000
160
270
0.35
0.7
-20
VALUES
- 1.30
I
- 1600
TEST
METHOD
ASTM D792-66
ASTM D882-B
ASTM D882-B
ASTM D882-B
ASTM 689
ASTM nl004
ASTM D1239
ASTM D1203
ASTM 1790
5
65--70
1500
80 %
1
Rlack
ASTM D676
Meets USBR Test specially
formulated for resistance
to micro biological attack.
Passes Corps of Eng. CRD572-61.
1
Courtesy of Watersaver Company, Inc., Denver, Colorado.
109
-------
2. PVC materials shall be manufactured from domestic virgin polyvlnyl chloride
resin and specifically compounded for the use 1n hydraulic facilities. Re-
processed material shall not be used. It shall be neutral gray to black 1n color and
produced in a standard minimum width of at least 54 Inches. Thickness shall be as shown
on the drawings. Certification test results showing that the sheeting meets the specifica-
tions shall be supplied on request.
03 - FACTORY FABRICATION
Individual widths of PVC materials shall be fabricated Into large sections by dielec-
tric sealing into a sinqle piece, or Into a minimum number of panels, up to 100 feet
wide, as required to fit the facility. Lap joints with a minimum joint width of 1/2 inch
shall be used. After fabrication, the lining shall be accordion folded in both directions
and packaged for minimum handling in the field. Shipping boxes shall be substantial
enough to prevent damage to contents.
04 - PLACING OF PVC LINING
A. General. The PVC lining shall be placed over the prepared surfaces to be lined
in such a manner as to assure minimum handling. It shall be sealed
to all concrete structures and other openings through the lining in accordance with de-
tails shown on the drawings submitted by the contractor and approved by the Engineer.
The lining shall be closely fitted and sealed around inlets, outlets and other projections
through the lining. Any portion of lining damaged during Installation shall be removed or
repaired by using an additional piece of lining as specified hereinafter.
1. Field Joints. Lap joints will be used to seal factory fabricated panels of
PVC together in the field. Lap joints shall be formed by
lapping the edges of panels a minimum of 2 Inches. The contact surfaces of the
panels shall be wiped clean to remove all dirt, dust or other foreign materials.
Sufficient cold-applied vinyl to vinyl bonding adhesive shall be applied to the
contact surfaces 1n the joint area, and the two surfaces pressed together imme-
diately. Any wrinkles shall be smoothed out.
2. Joints to Structures. All curing compounds and coatings shall be completely
removed from the joint area. Joining of PVC to con-
crete shall be made with vinyl to concrete adhesive. Unless otherwise shown on
the drawings, the minimum width of concrete shelf provided for the cemented joint
shall be 8 inches.
3. Repairs to PVC. Any necessary repairs to the PVC shall be patched with the
lining material itself and cold applied vinyl to vinyl
bonding adhesive. The bonding adhesive shall be applied to the contact surfaces
of both the patch and lining to be repaired, and the two surfaces pressed together
immediately. Any wrinkles shall be smoothed out.
4. Quality of Workmanship. All joints, on completion of the work, shall be
tightly bonded. Any lining surface showing injury
due to scuffing, penetration by foreign objects or distress from rough subgrade
shall, as directed by the Engineer, be replaced or covered and sealed with an
additional layer of PVC of the proper size.
A Technical Service Representative will be made available to the contractor if the
contractor desires. The contractor will bear the expense of this Technical Service
Representative. The Technical Service Representative 1s not directly responsible
for the quality of the work involved; such responsibility will be solely that of
the contractor.
110
-------
WATERSAVER COMPANY, INC.
3560 WYNKOOP STREET . DENVER, COLORADO 80216 • (303) 6234111
DATA SHEET DET - 74
Vinyl to Concrete
Adhesive
6,v,.\
PVC Lining
A -"4JJSJ- Compacted **%<;£» v~
Subgrade / | ' ." .\N
^2"xl/8" batten j- ,- ',_j.
strips - fasteners *—•~~'1
12" o.c.
ANCHOR TO CONCRETE STRUCTURES
PVC Lining
vinyl to —
' vinyl cement
opening in ,
patch smaller than pipe
diameter & stretched over pipe
SEAL TO PIPE
ANCHOR - METHOD //I
Earth
Water ,^
Level
PVC Lining
Compacted
Earth Subgrade
ANCHOR - METHOD 1)2
J2K/UU .
Earth *~I
Slope to Drain
PVC Liniu,
Water Levej_ ^^^\:'& '»UJ Llnin»
<^ii'^ ''c-^_LlJ^
-------
APPENDIX I
VARIOUS LINER MATERIALS
1
STAFF INDUSTRIES, INC.
78 Dryden Road, Upper Montcbir, NJ. 07043 201-744-5367
240 Chene Street, Detroit, Michigan 48207 313-259-1820
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR INSTALLATION of
STAFF LINERS FOR PREVENTING SEEPAGE
from PONDS, RESERVOIRS, CANALS, LAGOONS, etc.
Staff seepage prevention liners are made from tough, imper-
meable elastomeric sheeting, both reinforced and unreinforced
specially compounded for long life when properly installed.
Liner sections are fabricated up to widths of 70i/2 feet by
lengths up to weights of two tons, in various gauges. Bonding
solvent is supplied for joining sections in the field where it
is necessary to cover wider areas.
We recommend that all liners for ponds, reservoirs, lagoons,
etc., be covered with earth for mechanical protection from
animals, men, and weather. However, where necessary, and
when they can be properly protected, lining materials
with superior outdoor durability may be used as exposed
membranes.
Staff Industries fabricates large liners for use in structures
designed and constructed by others. The following shall serve
as guidelines for the use of Staff seepage prevention liners.
1. SITE PREPARATION
The liner sections as supplied by Staff Industries are im-
permeable to water and gas. (For special instructions regard-
ing high water table and gassy areas, see #2, below.) All
sharp sticks, stones, and trash should be removed from the
bottoms and sides of the installation, or covered with fine soil.
Areas containing nut grass and quack grass should be steril-
ized. Preferably, the area to be covered should be rolled to
effect compaction and smoothing so as to reduce local stresses
on the membrane. At all times care should be taken to prevent
puncturing of the liner during installation and use. A perim-
eter trench 8 to 12 inches square, above the waterline, is
generally used for anchoring the membrane. (See sketches on
reverse side.)
2. HIGH WATER TABLE AND GASSY AREAS
If liners are installed over decomposing materials such as
organic wastes, bogs, etc., or in areas of fluctuating water
tables which "pump" air, bubbles can develop and come to the
surface. They will be unable to escape because of the imperme-
ability of the lining to water and gas and the fact that, under
water, the liner has very little weight. Where such conditions
might exist, special precautions should be incorporated in the
design to allow venting of such gas to the sides by sloping
bottoms and a layer of gas-permeable soils directly under the
liner. Also, it is strongly recommended that the liner be cov-
ered on the bottom to provide weight to aid in gas removal, in
addition to other possible venting methods.
3. INSTALLATION OF LINERS
Staff liners are shipped accordion-folded in both directions
for easy opening, first in the length direction and then in the
width direction. Various methods of installing liners have
been used, and one of them will now be described: A boxed
section designed fora certain area in the installation is placed
on the back of a truck, front-end loader, or other carrier, with
the box length crosswise, and taken to the area where it is to be
installed. After the steel straps are cut, the box top and sides
can be removed vertically, leaving the accordion-folded liner
on a pallet, from which it can be opened lengthwise by holding
the end and driving the vehicle forward while unfolding the
liner. The first section is generally positioned on the berm so
that one edge can be buried in the anchor trench, before the
rest is opened down the slope. The second section is then posi-
tioned adjacent to the first section and unfolded so that the
two can be joined, as described below, to cover the total areas
required.
For joining two sections together, a long smooth work surface
is recommended. A 1" x 10" x 20' board is particularly suitable
and can be used directly on dry ground, or on supports above
wet ground. The two liner edges to be joined are overlapped 2
to 4 inches along the center line of the board and aligned by
two workmen, who also clean the area of any dust, dirt, or
moisture, using a rag or brush. The sheeting must be perfectly
dry before the bonding solvent is applied. The two men then
slightly tension the area, while a third man injects the bond-
ing solvent between the two positioned films (at the rate of
about 1 ounce per 30 feet), using the squeeze bottles which
are supplied for this purpose. It is not necessary or desirable
to turn back the top edge of the sheeting. Slight hand pressure
with a rag should be applied immediately after the bonding
solvent is injected. If any edges remain unsealed, the bonding
application can be repeated so as to bond the flap completely.
The board is then moved forward for sealing the next area.
(Sometimes a rope is attached to the forward end of the board
for pulling it ahead.)
After the seam is completed, the bonding solvent will have
bonded the sections sufficiently so that the newly added sec-
tion can be opened to its full width and another section posi-
tioned and bonded. Shear strength develops in 5 to 15 minutes,
but peel strength requires several days for solvent dissipation.
Seams should be carefully inspected, after a half hour or more,
to detect and reseal any voids in the seam.
4. OBSTRUCTION SEALING
For sealing around connections, walkways, etc., several
methods can be used. For round connections, a hole % the
diameter of the connection is made in the film, and this hole is
then stretched over the connection, (which has been coated
with a special adhesive for bonding sheeting to steel and to
clean concrete), producing an upturned collar. This collar ia
then reinforced with a strip of film and some of the special
adhesive. In the case of connections of square or other shapes,
the film can be adhered with the adhesive. It is also possible
to fabricate from film and the bonding agent specially shaped
collars, attach them to the connection, and then adhere the
liner to the collars. Around walkways or docks it will be neces-
sary to cut the film and glue it to fit as well as possible, and
then make and adhere collars to the posts and film so as to
seal the connections watertight.
5. COVERING OF LINERS
To prevent damage to the sheeting, it is recommended that
all lining surfaces be covered with earth, if possible. For side
slopes, free-draining earth should be topped with erosion-
resistant material such as gravel. In order to retain soil and
gravel cover on the sides, a slope not steeper than 3:1 is neces-
sary. (Concrete can be used to cover steeper slopes.) Covering
of heavier membranes which will not be subject to mechanical
damage and vandalism can be by water only, if desired and
gas development under the lining will not take place. A water
layer will prevent damaging effects of heat to the liner as well
as provide protection. Some facilities which are expected to
be maintained almost constantly full of water have been de-
signed with a bench below the waterline. Cover is then main-
tained above the bench, but no cover except water would be
used below the bench. (See last two sketches on reverse side.)
Equipment used in covering the sides and bottoms of lined
structures can be clamshells, front-end loaders, bulldozers,
dump trucks, elevating graders, carryalls, graders, etc. Though
liners are tough, equipment should not be driven directly on
them, unless it is tested and proved on the job site that damage
will not result. Even then, careful supervision should be
provided.
03212
Staff Industries assume* no liability for the deugn o
tntuc hu authority to make any represcntMtion. IIT
its tnemhranes No ret>resen-
r agreement to the contrary
Courtesy of Staff Industries, Inc., Upper Montclair, N.J., and
Detroit, Michigan.
113
-------
--
U
lr
-VINYL TO CONCRETE ADHESIVE -
-PVC LINING -
COMPACTED
SUBGRADE
l"x 1/8" BATTEN STRIPS,
FASTENERS I2"O.C.
ANCHOR TO CONCRETE STRUCTURES
PVC LINING
-p-
I -,
PATCH TO LAP 8"
ALL AROUND
COLLAR
/ VINYL TO
/ VINYL CEMENT
OPFNING IN PATCH SMALLER THAN
PIPE DIAMETER a STRETCHED-
OVFR PIPE
SEAL TO PIPE
ANCHOR METHOD # 1
EARTH BACKFILL-
PVC LINING
- COMPACTED
EARTH SUBGRADE
ANCHOR METHOD # 2 ,2"m
PVC LINING
WATER LEVEL
COMPACT
-EARTH SUBGRADE
TOP OF SLOPE ANCHORAGE
I _ I SLOPEJTO DRAIN
"2J> »;—EARTH
S\ ] BACKFILL
--N-PVC LINING
ALTERNATE
1/2" WIDE BEAD
VINYL TO VINYL
ADHESIVE
2'MIN ,
-PVC LINING
TYPICAL LAP SPLICE JOINT
6" GRAVEL FILL •
-12" MIN
MAX WATER LEVEL
ALTERNATE 6" COVER
-PVC LINING
ANCHOR METHODS#1 or#2-
6" EARTH COVER
3:i MAX SLOPE
COMWCTED EARTH SUBGRADE
EARTH AND GRAVEL COVER - FULL SLOPES
6" GRAVEL COVER -
MAX WATER LEVEL-
WIN WATER LEVEL
PVC LINING
L.J
'ANCHOR METHOD
6" EARTH COVER
3:i MAX SLOPE
COMPACTED EARTH SUBGRADE
EARTH AND GRAVEL COVER - PARTIAL SLOPES
114
-------
APPENDIX J
FIRESTONE FABRITANK LINER
NOMINAL
CAPACITY
(GMS.)
?5,000
SO. 000
tno.ooo
< ,10.000
VO.OOO
400.000
500,000
, .'0,000
• 10.000
.- 10,000
••00,000
i.nno.ooo
TANKDIMENS. (FT.) DIKE DIMENS.
A
33.2
41.5
52.4
66.4
77.7
87.2
95.6
103.1
110.0
116.5
122.5
128.2
B
15.2
17.5
22.4
30.4
41.7
51.2
59.6
67.1
74.0
80.5
86.5
92.2
c
6
8
10
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
D
22.5
29.0
35.5
42.0
42.0
42.0
42.0
42.0
42.0
42.0
42.0
42.0
E
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3,0
AVERAGE
EARTH DIKE
(CU. YDS )
S49
1045
185S
3137
3628
4041
4402
4728
5028
5307
5563
58 1 6
TANK NET
WEIGHT (LBS.)
(APPROXIMATE)
836
1.286
2,045
3.269
4 414
S.506
6,563
7,b97
8, bl5
?,617
10,609
Il,b93
Tank Top—Square B — Tank Bottom—Square C — Tank Depth D — Earth Dike B, se t - Eatth Dike — Top
f
y
c
EMBANKMENT AND TANK CROSS SECTION
/ i tanks are overside 10%,
othpt si^es available on request.
> ik J'p't'nsioni) A, B & C are shown to illustrate standard available sizes and rao.TCit'O-^
ihaiikrnent dimensions DAE and average earth dike quantities are to he considered
- hematic illustrations only. Since structural characteristics of soil vary, it is tmuortant
t the embankment design be determined by a qualified civil or consulting engineer
lourtesy of Firestone Coated Fabricks Company, Magno1ia, Arkansas,
115
-------
TVPICAL INSTALLATIONS
One-million-gallon Fabntank for domestic water service, prior to filling
Same tank after filling, also showing the community in San Jose, California, that it serves
I US GOVEMIMEIITfKllfmiGOFFICE 1979 -281-1*7/41
116
------- |