United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Water
Program Operations (WH-595)
Washington DC 20460
August 1980
FRD 12
The Alternative
is Conservation
430980AOO
-------
A Companion Guide to
"The Alternative is Conservation"
The Alternative is Conservation, a 20 minute, color production
available in either 3/4" videotape cassette suitable for televised broad-
cast or in 16mm film
Many community organizations, local and state government agencies
and Federal programs use this film for the following-
generating voter interest and responsiveness on major public
investment decisions
water conservation programs
workshops on wastewater treatment and water supply construction
adult education
environment and civic student classroom discussions
promoting constructive discussion among conflicting groups
Some communities have shown the video cassette version on local
television programs The programs air The Alternative is Conservation
followed by a panel discussion Televised programs may be recorded
from the telecast and used without charge for educational or public in-
formation purposes
t/,S. rnvJrcr.r.y */'! p-^r^- - *--\r
---..-.i i 4W4.wwi<^jj /, ' y
To order this publication,
FRD-12 "The Alternative is Conservation", write to:
General Services Administration (8FFS)
Centralized Mailing Lists Services
Building 41, Denver Federal Center
Denver, Colorado 80225
Please indicate the FRD number and title of publication.
This publication was financed with federal funds from the U S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency under Grant No T900892-01 The grant has
been reviewed by the Environmental Protection Agency and approved for
publication Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect
the views and policies of the Environmental Protection Agency, nor does
the mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorse-
ment or recommendation for use
-------
Content:
The film provides a forum for informed and constructive discussion
among viewers The viewer visits eight communities Each community
has a different understanding of their water problems and a variety of
ideas for solving them
In each case, the film highlights the positive results of the community's
approach to their wastewater management or water supply problems
The film interviews water commissioners, sanitary district engineers,
local government officials, business owners and managers, homeowners,
manufacturers of water conserving products, Board of Health members
and other individuals.
Some of the major ideas presented in the film are:
benefits of water conservation to the community
role of conservation in helping solve specific problems such as
water supply and collective wastewater management
role of conservation in helping solve individual on-lot problems
management requirements to make a community conservation
program effective
devices homeowners can use to conserve water
description of EPA's facility planning requirements and relation-
ship to conservation program
Comments from viewers include:
"You made me understand the connection between wastewater
and freshwater "
"Conservation makes sense for treatment and supply, I never heard
that before "
"The videotape would be particularly helpful to community people
who are entering into a Step I Facilities Plan At that point they are
open to suggestions of alternative solutions In addition, the tape
may aid consultants working on 201 projects as they describe the
water conservation measures specified in the EPA regulations "
Copies of either the film or video cassette are available for loan or pur-
chase from USER, INC. 30 Bates Road, Watertown, MA 02172.
-------
Investing In Your Water System
Traveler, there are no paths Path* are made bit walking
imtomo maihiiilo
We have water problems Almost every city and town in the country is
faced with water shortages, excessive wastewater flows, contamination
of water sources, and loss of aquifer recharge areas
A lot of water has flowed over the dam and through the treatment plant
since we outgrew the backyard well and outhouse by inventing the
"limitless" (municipal) water supply and treatment system Since then
we have invested billions of dollars in water supply systems, new water
sources, and in treatment and disposal of wastewater
But will pouring money into more water supply and more treatment
plants solve the problems facing us today?
Could we alleviate if not eliminate many of our water problems if we
used the water we have more efficiently''
It is difficult for a community to stop and ask this question when faced
with a water problem which demands immediate attention The easiest
answer is often to increase water supply or to expand wastewater treat-
ment However, the problem may never have been accurately identified
and properly analyzed to determine if there is a more appropriate solu-
tion Too often, considerations or pressures unrelated to the immediate
problem confuse the issues And seldom is there enough information on
alternative courses of action
In this guide we discuss how a decision maker, a government official, or
a voter, can make a deliberate, reasoned, and logical analysis of the pro-
blem before getting trapped into a solution by default This analysis can
suggest a course of action even if you lack complete information If you
participate at some stage of the decision-making process, we offer'
ways of using available information to throw more light on the problem.
suggestions for making judgments based on available information
an investment strategy for solving water problems, and informa
tion on conservation techniques
Cy
We discuss conservation as a practical, cost-saving, and ne^esf
alternative to the traditional expansion of supply and treatment
meeting our water needs.
-------
The Water System and the Cost of Maintaining It
In the natural water system (cycle), precipitation falls on the land and
drains into water sheds and river basins Some collects in surface
waters such as ponds and lakes while some seeps into marshes and
swamps and into the porous subsurface soils (aquifers) as groundwater
Through absorption, evaporation, wind, and rain, this cycle continues
through the years and makes water available to nourish life.
Humans place the greatest demands on this cycle We also make major
modifications in it. For example, we grow citrus fruits and lawns in the-
desert, transfer water from one watershed to another, and use surface
waters to transport wastes away from our cities, industries, and homes
Land Use
Resource
Supply Treatment
c>
Use
Imagine the water system as a huge liquid transportation system. Fresh
water is shipped in for treatment, then transported to industrial, farming,
or residential users. The users actually consume a minute portion of the
water, throw wastes into the rest of the water, and ship it back to the
starting point where the process begins all over again
Depending on how much water the various consumers want to use, we
must invest in more supply And, depending on what sort of wastes the
various users put into the water, we invest in wastewater treatment
facilities These facilities clean the water before we use it again Just as
it takes billions of dollars to build and maintain the interstate highway
system, it takes billions of dollars to build and maintain the water system
which supports our industrial and agricultural productivity as well as our
home lives - the system provides water for swimming pools, baths and
showers, water for coffee and orange juice in the morning, and water to
flush toilet and sink wastes away from the home But at what cost?
-------
Let's look at just one investment streamtax dollars used for
wastewater treatment Americans invested an estimated $20 billion
between 1972 and 1977 for wastewater treatrrent Another $20 billion is
scheduled to be spent by 1982 for the same purpose Experts predict
another $100 billion more is needed to do the job. Almost all of this
money was and will be spent on building conventional wastewater treat-
ment plants, sewers and other facilities But is this kind of investment in
treatment necessary?
Two alternative investment options appear One option is investment that
helps use the water currently available more efficiently The other invest-
ment option reduces the external costs of using the water supply as a
waste transportation system External costs include the tens of millions
of dollars required to clean up chemical dumps like Love Canal, or the
hundreds of millions of dollars needed to clean the Hudson River of
PCBs Toxic chemicals left unattended by industrial water users, buried
in public "sanitary" landfills, or mindlessly discarded by homeowners
contaminate the water supply if left unattended This creates investment
demand for new, uncontammated water supply, and pressure for "ad-
vanced" wastewater treatment Unfortunately, neither alternative makes
contaminated water safe again for human consunption
Contaminated water can be cleaned in two ways One way is to recycle
wastewater at its point of use (waste-stream separation), and clean it
before it goes into the water system Another method is to avoid the use
of water as a waste transportation system in the first place Often pro-
ductive uses can be found for what were previously considered wastes
Creative Conservation
Creative conservation includes investments to produce more efficient
water use and investments which reduce the wastes flowing to treatment
plants (or septic tanks)
Although conservation is an unquestionably difficult and an often un-
popular concept, its importance grows daily Many people still believe
that to conserve means to do without. But a growing number of
engineers, businessmen, government officials, and citizens view conser-
vation as a creative means to solve their problems
In this new context, conservation means innovation in the productive use
of water, innovation in the productive use of what was once considered
waste, and the elimination of water for the transportation of wastes from
one place to another
Opportunities for investment in creative conservation measures must
receive equal consideration with investments in new supply and
wastewater treatment facilities
-------
Investment Options
Which one will you choose?
Supply augmentation
Wastewater treatment alternatives
Water-use conservation measures
Clean-up hazardous wastes
Do nothing
This simple list suggests five major investment options for a community
with water problems No matter which one of these options is chosen,
the costs and benefits of each option must be weighed
First of all, many of you may ask, "How can doing nothing be an invest-
ment option7" A do-nothing option means that the community decides to
take the money it would have spent in solving its water problem and use
it in some other way The community may decide to build more roads, to
build another school, or to hire more police. However, the costs and
benefits of the do-nothing approach must be weighed against the costs
and benefits of solving the problem
Waiting to solve the town's wastewater problem until the board of health
puts a two-year building moratorium on future growth is expensive
Finding a new public water supply after the "sanitary" landfill or a toxic
waste dump has polluted the town's ground water supply is even more
expensive. Often a do-nothing approach proves vastly more expensive to
taxpayers and to the health of the community Devastating long-term
costs may be avoided with a relatively small expenditure today
A choice of one option, such as wastewater treatment, does not
foreclose creative conservation measures A balanced investment ap-
proach is best Each option can complement the others
For example, if someone proposes a $1 million wastewater treatment
plant, we must ask a few questions. How much extra wastewater treat-
ment do we need9 Can we obtain the same amount of treatment for less
cost in an alternative manner9 If we put some money into cleaning up
wastes at the source, does this open up new, less expensive wastewater
treatment alternatives9 Does water conservation reduce the scope of the
problem. This type of analysis must be done before any decision is
made. As the analysis proceeds, the list of options might look like this
-------
Wastewater Treatment Options
for a hypothetical community* (all numbers are in thousands)
Type Of Treatment Initial Yearly
Cost Operating &
Maintenance
Costs
CENTRALIZED
Conventional treatment $1000
Land application
Holding Ponds prior to
Land application
Aquaculture Systems
Silvaculture Systems
Re-use for Industrial Processes
Sludge Composting
Anaerobic Digestion to
Produce methane gas
DECENTRALIZED
Rennovation of existing
systems in problem areas
Composting Toilets
Low Flow toilets & devices
Conventional Package
treatment
Pricing and land use controls
Sand Filtering
Mounds, alternating fields and
evapotranspiration systems
Greywater segregation & re-use
650
500
600
600
400
500
500
200
300
200
250
100
250
250
150
50
20
10
20
15
25
10
20
10
15
5
5
10
Present Value
Of All Future
Costs Over Next
20 Years
1425
820
585
770
730
615
585
500
370
385
200
380
100
295
295
235
"This table is for illustrative purposes only.
It is neither exhaustive nor is it intended to indicate that one method is
better or less expensive than another For each particular case, the
relative and absolute costs will vary However, the decision maker
should request this type of comparative data for the alternative solutions
proposed in his or her community.
The assumptions for these calculations are a 10% discount rate and
zero inflation effects on future cash flows Since the choice of assump-
tions is an important determinant for the final present value, a large
margin of absolute error is always to be expected. However, the calcula-
tion will highlight if one option is approximately 2X or 3X as expensive
over twenty years as another option
Consideration should also be given to alternative packages of options
which produce an optimal solution.
-------
Protect The Resource
The frog doib nof drink up the pond m which he lives
ammam mdum proverb
Water Management Principles
Protect the watershed
Protect aquifer recharge areas from being built upon or polluted.
Use the water you have more efficiently rather than go after greater
supply.
Take the wastes out of the water stream. Water is becoming too expen-
sive for use as a waste transportation system
Combine water supply and wastewater management districts; they are
part of the same system
Conservation must be rewarded Businesses and households that con-
serve should pay less for water and sewer than more wasteful users.
It is less costly to clean up toxic waste dumps before they pollute the
water supply. It's much less costly to properly dispose of toxic wastes in
the first place.
Price water at the marginal cost of new supply Water users should pay
the real cost associated with producing fresh water supply and cleaning
wastewater for others consumption.
Before investing in wastewater treatment facilities look at the long term
costs for operating and maintaining the facility
It is essential to protect the resource. There are five major ways to do
this:
land use controls
keeping wastes from the water system
solid waste disposal controls
hazardous chemical use and disposal controls
minimizing water consumption waste
-------
Land Use Controls
Land use controls offer the greatest opportunity for protecting valuable
aquifer recharge areas and surface waters Zoning is the major tech-
nique. Zoning can protect resources directly through protection districts
for watersheds, wetlands, and aquifer recharge areas Indirect means in-
clude preformance zoning, cluster zoning, and other techniques.
Although located less than twenty miles from the heart of Boston,
Lincoln, Massachusetts has thousands of acres of open land, miles of ski
and bicycle trails, and a rural atmosphere. Lincoln wants to continue
growing while maintaining its own water supply and aquifer recharge
areas. Officials and citizens are working together to this end
The town's conservation commission mapped out all of the land contain-
ing major resources and compiled a list of the properties and the
owners. As these properties come up for sale, the commission works
with the owners to preserve the resource value of the property, at the
same time providing the owner with the financial benefits he or she
would have derived from developing the property to the density allowed
by law They do this using a combination of techniques:
Direct purchase of property (or part of it) by the town
Gifts of property to the town by the owner
Use of a cluster zoning allowance together with a dedication or
gift of a portion of property to the town This allows for more
intense development on a portion of the property while protecting
the part of it that is valued for aquifer protection, farmlands, and
so forth
The town has been able to continue growing, and that growth has not
cost the community important resources The town has at least 1400
acres of land that it protects in order to conserve water and farm
resources, a large portion of this land was acquned at no cost to the
town Lincoln is one of the few towns that is not hooking up to the
Metropolitan (Boston) District Commission water system which gets its
water from western Massachusetts It is "living within its capacity" while
accommodating more growth
Waste Stream Separation
Separating industrial wastes from household wastes at the source keeps
poisons out of the wastewater The wastewater can then be reused for
irrigation The sludge can be used for fertilizer without fear of contamina-
tion from toxic industrial wastes
There are now 12,000 potentially toxic chemicals now in industrial use
Approximately 500 new chemicals are produced each year and intro-
duced into manufacturing processes. No form of treatment totally
cleanses the water of these chemicals
-------
The IBM plant in Tucson is a positive example of an industry taking
responsibility for its waste streams There are two water systems in the
plant one for sanitary purposes and the other for industrial purposes
Both are treated and recycled The community is not burdened with the
cost of treating industrial wastes produced by the plant The plant is
designed to provide for its own needs
Solid Waste Disposal Controls
Wastes pose the most dangerous threat to public water supplies In 1979
the Metropolitan Boston area thirteen communities lost their water
supplies because of toxic solid wastes seeping into the ground and sur-
face waters All urban areas are faced with the same situation. Waste
dumps are ticking time bombs that have only just begun to go off Even
if the production of all toxic solid wastes were to stop today, we would
still have a legacy from the past to clean up These dumps must be
cleaned up before they do irreparable damage to the ground water
Hazardous Wastes Controls
Hazardous wastes enter water supplies not only through improper dump-
ing, but also through presently legal activities.
For example, common practice in the Pacific Northwest is to spray
petro-chemical defoliants on forests This eliminates underbrush and
makes it easier for lumber companies to harvest the trees However,
these chemicals enter surface water and seep through the ground into
the ground water Traces of these chemicals can be found in all the
drinking water in the region Local communities are attempting to control
or eliminate the use of chemicals which enter the water cycle and end
up in everyone's drinking water
Minimizing Waste In Water Consumption
Waste can be minimized through leak detection and repair, conservation,
greywater reuse, building and plumbing codes, and water pricing
Leak Detection and Repair
A leak detection survey can be a cost-effective means for a community
to conserve water. Particularly in older towns and cities, water lost
through leaks in the public water supply pipes often represents a signifi-
cant percentage of total water use In communities that think they need
more water supply, this should be an early step in the search for more
water
Water leaks in home plumbing can be costly, especially if the leaks are
in the hot water system Such leaks are easy to find and repair
II
-------
Conservation
Marin County, California nearly ran out of water for 170,000 people
because of a severe drought in 1977 Officials considered every possi-
bility including barging water from Washington State, collecting water
from fog, and producing water from desalinization using U.S. Navy ships.
But Mann didn't have enough time to do any of these things, even if
these fanciful suggestions were possible.
One of the things the Water District did do was give away low-flow
showerheads and toilet dams Thousands of people came to the Water
District headquarters for these devices Consumption dropped 60 per-
cent. Today, water consumption is still 30 percent below what it was in
1976 New habits and the low-flow devices help people use less water.
The District now stresses conservation as a long-term strategy to "first
eliminate waste."
Greywater Reuse and Recycling
Greywater is water that does not have feces in it. Greywater comes from
washing machines, dishwashers, showers, sinks, and bathtubs. During
the 1977 California drought, boards of health suspended regulations pro-
hibiting greywater reuse. People used the greywater partially for
irrigating gardens, washing cars, and flushing toilets. No health problems
were reported.
Special dual plumbing systems have been developed for some areas
One system is solely used for potable water and another system for
greywater reuse. The IBM complex previously mentioned treats and
recycles wastewater on site. The site is designed to capture rainfall on
building rooftops and parking lots. The water is used for watering the
landscaping, which is natural desert vegetation
Codes
Outdated plumbing, building, and health codes often prevent conserva-
tion technology from being used. Groups within every state government
are trying to change codes to reflect modern life. Many cities such as
Washington, D.C and states such as California have instituted building
codes requiring three gallon or less flush toilets, low-flow showerheads,
and pressure reducing valves in new construction.
Water Pricing
In an emergency people quickly realize the value of water.
The Mann Water District instituted an allotment program of 40 gallons of
water per person per day during the 1977 drought A penalty structure
increased water rates from 6C/100 cu ft to $1 22/100 cu. ft. for the
allotted amount If a household went over the allotted amount, the cost
12
-------
increased to $10.00<1CC cu ft , for double the allotment, the price was
$50/100 cu rt The water service was cut off, and a payment of a fine
was required to return service for four consecutive months over the
allotment
Wastewater flow 'eductions cetweer. 25 percent ana 60 percent were
achieved Flow reductions up to 30 percent did not reduce the efficiency
of treatment facilities of produce significant problems in sewage con-
veyance Reduced flow often increased plant efficiency
A number of utility districts are instituting new rate structures to more
accurately charge customers what the water actually costs The
Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission has developed an increasing
rate structure which produces the same revenue as the previous rate
structure
Rates are based on average daily consumption auring the Dilling period
A customer that uses 100 gallons per day pays $C 92/1000 gais for
water and sewer, whereas a customer using 1000 gals/day cays $2 26
per 100C gais
Because of pubhc participation during the development of the new rate
structure, it is generally accepted ana endorsed
Under tne schedule of rates, 62°-o o' residential customers who are con-
servative users of water receive a lower bill than they would under a
uniform rate Large consumers pay 29% tc 3i°'c higher bills Doubling
daily consumption from 200 to 400 gallons jn the summer more than
triples the water ana sewe' oin
13
-------
How To Choose A Strategy
That Solves Your Community's
Water Problems
Set Your Priorities and Plan Ahead
The water commissioners for two major metropolitan regions in the
United States expect the water supply for their cities will be totally inade-
quate in less than eight years However, no major investments in solving
the problem are planned because, in each case, city government is so
preoccupied with day-to-day problems that its pr orities reflect only
urgent short-term problems The more important question of water
supply is being neglected until it too becomes urgent
Accurately Identify the Problem
Too often, expensive facility-plan studies have been done without actual-
ly determining the nature of the problem and its origin Often a user-need
survey is an appropriate first step for a facilities plan
When the septic tanks in the center of Bolinas, California started
overflowing, the consultant engineers, with government support, pro-
posed a $12 million sewer system This community of less than a thou-
sand people then began to wonder if the proposed sewer system wasn't
more of a problem than the problem it was designed to correct For one
thing, the sewer engineers wanted to run a pipe through a coastal bird
sanctuary over the San Andreas fault. The taxpayers in the town would
also have had to pay large maintenance and operating costs each year
to run the elaborate and expensive treatment plant
Citizens in the town responded by requesting an Environmental Impact
Study (EIS) on the proposed sewer. Part of the EIS was to accurately
identify the problem, septic system by septic system To do this, they
went door-to-door, assessing each system and educating homeowners
on proper septic tank practices
Using the results of the study, the town built a small central collection
system for the center of the town only. Treatment is a natural biological
system of four settling ponds. Wastewater works its way through each of
these ponds and, by the time it reaches the fourth pond, it can be
sprayed on forage crops The town also permits and encourages the use
14 of composting toilets and the recycling of greywater for watering lawns.
-------
The user-needs survey saved the town $10 million in construction costs
By choosing a non-mechanical biological treatment process the town
also saves each year on maintenance and operating costs. Eighty acres
of crop land are irrigated by the town's wastewater at no additional cost
The bay ecology is spared disruption from construction of the proposed
pipeline And no additional residences in the town must hook up to the
system in order either to have enough water for the system to function
properly or to pay operating and maintenance costs of the treatment
system
Shop Around for the Best Technical Advice
Not all experts are equally knowledgeable or competent to solve the par-
ticular problems which are identified.
Just as it is inappropriate to ask a surgeon to cure a cold, it makes no
sense to ask a sewer engineer to design a conservation program for
your community Often, the choice of a consulting engineer will deter-
mine what solutions are investigated and what recommendations are
made A community may benefit by choosing more than one consultant
and asking each to recommend alternative solutions and outline the
costs, advantages, and disadvantages of each so that a balanced, ra-
tional investment program will be considered
What happens when a community does not receive more than one
opinion in the beginning of a facility planning process is illustrated in the
case of Tisbury, Massachusetts Tisbury has been stalled for over five
years in the facility planning stage Septage from malfunctioning and
overused septic tanks in the town was deposited in the town dump only
five hundred feet from the town well. First the consulting engineers
recommended a $12 million treatment plant and sewer to solve the prob-
lem However, the town voters refused to pay for this expensive system
The sewer engineers then proposed a scaled down $8 million version to
service seven hundred homes and businesses
Dissatisfied with this proposal, the town's citizens requested an En-
vironmental Impact Study Another set of consulting engineers recom-
mended a $2 million treatment plant for 120 homes
In evaluating these recommendations, members of the board of health
realized that a user-needs study was never performed to determine ex-
actly where problems were in this town of two thousand people This
study, finally performed by members of the community themselves, iden-
tified seven septic systems which were the cause of the problem
Since then, citizens have invested in devices to reduce the volume of
wastewater, such as two-quart toilets (replacing five gallon flush toilets)
and low-flow showerheads. Many of the problems for which the $8
million treatment plant was proposed may be eliminated by private
efforts at less expense to the town.
15
-------
16
Identify Your Overall Objective
Too mary communities skip this step by glibly stating thai their objective
is to solve their town's water proolem With suci & limited perspective, it
is far toe easy to generate more problems than you "solve "
In Phoenix. Arizona, water is in shor' suoply, bir at the same time
wastewa er flows in tne treatment piaits are in excess ol capacity Ir
the southeastern, part of town, tne U 3 Water Conservation Laboratory is
experimenting with a technique whicn could so've both problems
simultaneously They are treating wastewater by land application in order
to recycle it bacK for irrigation of farmlands However, on the opposite
side of town, the city has decided to solve the excess wastewater
probiem by selling it to the local utility to cooi its nuclear power plant
The problem with this solution is that it ignores tre other major problem.
water supoly The wastewater sold to the power plant will be completely
consumec and no longer available for irrigating c'ops for reclamation,
or for anything else
The communities' overall objectives must determ ne what solutions are
finally chosen
Identify Your Options
Water demand for the greater Boston area grows each year Over the
last one hundred years Boston has tapped water Ijrther and further from
the city. Today water is piped in through a series of reservoirs from one
hundred miles away in the western part of the sta~e. Boston officials row
want to divert the Connecticut River to augment supoly. However,
citizens of the Connecticut River Valley fear tn>s $ 00 million project
may produce expensive environmental damage and prevent growth in
the western part of the state Tney suggest that investment in conserva-
tion measures such as fixing leaking public water supply pipes may aug-
ment supply for less cost Eng neermg studies indie ate that the water
lost each year due to leaking municipal waterpipes is almost equal to the
extra water that would be available from the divers on
Match Your Choices with Your Objectives
Elmhurst, Illinois is located twenty miles from Lake Michigan, the second
largest body of fresn water in the world However, c ompetition for this
water among Chicago and its sjourbs left no choice for Elmhurstit
either had to build a new town deep well for $400,000 or use its present
supply more wisely
The town's objectives were to secure needed water suoply at minimum
expense to the town while protecting the resource H-nhurst decided to
promote a door-to-door campaign teaching homeowners about their own
water systems, and how to conserve The campaign cost approximately
$50,000, or $1 per person. The town distributed low-'low showerheads,
toilet dams, and information on how to mstaP them "he result was a
-------
13% reduction in wate-~ consumption; an added benefit was less demand
on wastewater treatment facilities Elmhurst can now add an extra four
thousand housing units to tne waste treatment plant because less
wastewater is generated In this case water conservation allows for
growth without construction c' water supply ot treatment facilities
Don't Forget About Inflation Protection
Inflation means that if the choice the community makes today isn't a
good one, it will cost much more in the future to do it right Cleaning up
an aquifer or building a new water supply after the town's supply is
polluted by toxic wastes almost invariably costs many times more tnan
eliminating or containing wastes in the first place Eventually the com-
munity will nave to pay one of these two costs in the past, communities
often chose to defer these costs, reasoning that their children will be
better off than their parents and better able to afford these costs Today
however, the concern, is that our deferred costs are rising at a much
faster rate than the deferred benefits we will leave to our children. In
other words, unless we change our strategy our children may not be
better off than we are today and may be even less so
17
-------
Wastewater Treatment Options
Clean Water Act of 1977
The ahi of Amashi*. », whu.li i.s handsome imd tastefully built, possesses among its finest
[Wis/rmfKvis n vent beautiful and ul the s/mif time very long boulevard, all along one side of
whhh in is ichat indeed n, tailed a rivet, hut is m reality a very foul sewer, hideous with its
hlllni aspect, and equally pestilent from ifc disgusting odour for this reason it is a concern of
sahtlmhi no /FSS than of appcaiai^e that it should be ccivetci up. This shall be done, with
your permission, on our underlak'Hf that money too shall ml l liaian, i»
18
In 1977, Congress passed the Clean Water Act which amended the
Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972, to encourage innovative and
alternative wastewater treatment solutions The goals of the act are the
following
eliminate discharge of pollutants
reduce costs
increase energy conservation or recovery
recycle and conserve water resources (including preventing the
mixing of pollutants with water)
reclaim or reuse effluents to increase land productivity
improve the efficiency and reliability of water systems
use sludge or effluent beneficially
manage toxic wastes for increased environmental benefits
Innovative and Alternative Technologies
Under the new Act, grant recipients are required to analyze innovative
and alternative treatment processes and techniques for use in
wastewater treatment works
The Clean Water Act and its legislative history make it clear that the pro-
visions pertaining to innovative and alternative technologies are intended
to achieve greater use of systems which reclaim and reuse water, pro-
ductively recycle wastewater constituents or othe'wise eliminate the
discharge of pollutants, or recover energy
The principal difference between alternative and innovative wastewater
treatment technologies, as viewed by the 1977 Ac/, is the degree to
which they have been developed and implementec. Alternative
wastewater treatment processes and techniques are those which have
been proven and used in actual practice, innovative processes and
techniques are developed methods which have nol been fully proven
under the circumstances of their contemplated use. The goal of achiev-
ing greater recycling and reclamation, however, is clearly indicated as
-------
being an objective common to both innovative and alternative
technologies Any risk associated wih using innovative technology is
balanced by the very real potential for public benefits including energy
and cost savings
Slates are authorized to give higher priority to treatment work utilizing in-
novative and alternative technologies
Funding:
The Act provides for Federal grants for 85% of allowable construct/on
costs for treatment works or significant portions of treatment works that
utilize innovative and alternative treatment processes and techniques
The Act provides 100% Federal grants for replacement or modification
of malfunctioning treatment works constructed under an 85% grant
The cost effectiveness guidelines permit a 15% cost preference for
treatment works that utilize innovative or alternative processes or techni-
ques
Grant Eligible Methods:
For effluent treatment
land treatment
aquifer recharge
aquaculture
silvaculture
reuse for industrial processes and other non-potable purposes
horticulture
revegetation of disturbed lands
holding ponds
holding ponds prior to land treatment
total containment ponds
For sludge treatment
Land application
horticulture, silvaculture, agriculture
composting for beneficial reuse
revegetation of disturbed lands
Energy recovery
anaerobic digestion to produce and recover over 90% methane gas
self-sustaining incineration
Individual treatment systems and other on-site treatment systems and
facilities that are constructed for septage treatment are eligible for
funding. This includes compositing toilets and septic tank renovation and
replacement as part of an overall local plan
-------
Flow Reduction
Any facilities plan submitted to EPA must mciuae an evaluation of cosfs,
cost savings, and the effects of flow reduction measures over a 20-year
period, unless average da.ly base flows from tne area are less than 70
gallons/day/capita. or the current popuiatio^ o' the applicant is undei
10,000
Flow -eauction measures may include
a public information program
pricing and regulatory approaches
installation of water meters, and retrofit of to.let dams and low-
flow showerheads tor exist ng homes and other habitations
specific changes in local ordinances, building codes or plumbing
codes requir>ng installations of water saving devices such as
rr.eters water conserving toilets showerheads avatory iaucets,
and appl ances in new nomes. motels hotels institutions, and
other establishments
Public Participation
Each agency (EPA, state, interstate, substate) responsible for develop-
ment of the facilities plan must conduc* a continuing program for public
information and participation including the fo.iowng-
the timely provision of informal on tc insure meaningful and
active participation
» continual updating of the public on policy, programs and technical
information. Highlighting significant issues
Advisory Groups
The facilities grants program may require the cre,ition anc participation
of an advisory group Its role is to provide advice and recommendations
to elected decision-makers and to encourage discussion among the in-
terests represented in the grctp The group should be representative 01
private citizens
public m'erest groups
public of'icia.s
citizens or organizations with a substantial economic merest
in the plan
Their main duty is to monitor the progress of the fac' ity plan and to
become familiar with the relevant issues T
-------
Household Devices To
Conserve Water
Regulator Valve
Regulator valves reduce home water pressure to 50 Ibs This conserves
water and reduces wear on washing machines They come with
automatic control, and they cost less than $50 plus installation, they can
conserve more than 30 000 gallons of water per year
Devices for Faucet and Shower
Spray Taps
These are actually mini-showers designed for use in sinks and wash
basins Water is sprayed from the tap rather than issuing a single stream
as in conventional faucets The spray allows for faster washing and
rinsing with less water used as a result When these devices are combin-
ed with thermostatic mixing valves, water savings of up to 90% are
claimed by the manufacturer The saving of hot water is especially
significant since it results in a savings of electricity or gas in the water
heater
Faucet Aerators
This device mixes water with air, reducing the amount of water flowing
from a faucet so that (ess water is used for washing and rinsing
Flow Control Devices
Flow control devices limit the rate of flow from showerheads and
faucets These devices are usually nothing more than valves that fit into
the supply lines for faucets or showers Flow is usually limited to 2 5
gallons per minute. Water savings of 50 to 70 percent are claimed for
flow-limiting showerheads and up to 50% for faucets
Thermostatic Mixing Valves
These valves mix hot and cold water to preset temperatures Water
issues from the tap at 'his temperature. Thus, water is not wasted while
its temperature is be^g adjusted by manipulating the hot and cold water
faucets
Flow-Reducing Showerheads
These showerheads repiace any regular showerheads They reduce
shower water consumotion by as much as 75% They will pay for
themselves in no time from tr.e energy savings reflected ;n the not water 21
-------
bills Two types are available: plastic inserts or plastic showerheads and
metal showerheads. The metal showerheads stem to give a better
shower and save more water Retail prices are less than $15.
Devices for the Toilet
The conventional gravity operated toilet uses 5-8 gallons per flush Only
2-2!/2 gaHons is really needed to carry away the water, the remaining 3-5
gallons are required to build up enough head pressure to flush the bowl
Toilet Dams or Plastic Bottles
Toilet dams or plastic bottles {with rocks in the bottom to weigh then
down) placed in the tank will save 1-2 gallons pe- flush by forming a
reservoir in the tank while maintaining the necessary head pressure. The
cost ranges $ 0-8
Shallow-Trap Toilets
Shallow-trap toilets have a smaller water reservoir than the conventional
toilet and use only 31/2 gallons/flush. It operates the same way and is no
different in appearance than a conventional toilet It costs less than $80.
Pressure Toilets
Pressure toilets store water under pressure so that when the toilet is
flushed, the air pressure provides the velocity required to clean the bowl
Such systems use only 2!/z gallons/flush Cost less than $60
Other Pressure Toilets
These systems use compressed air from an air compressor to flush the
toilet The advantage is that only two quarts of water are needed per
flush This toilet requires no modification to existing plumbing Cost less
than $600
Dual-Flush Devices
This device has two flush volumes By pushing up on the handle a
smaller amount of water i? flushed for liquids, by pushing down, a
normal flush for solids It its most toilets
Dry-Composting Toilets
Composting toilets collect urine, feces, and kitchen wastes in an imper-
vious container, and compost these wastes to produce a high quality
soil fertilizer The toilet uses no water, creates no odor, and is approved
for use in 30 states Two basic types are available electric models
which easily replace conventional toilets and large box models requiring
more plumbing modification The systems work on gravity and thus are
vertical Electric models cost less than $1,000 Comrne'cially produced
large box models are available which accommodate a family of six
Larger models are also available for public and commercial uses These
cost less than $2,000
Note:
Chemical and oil-flush toilets are purposely deleted from this list as op-
tions only where low flow and composting toilets are inadequate
22
-------
Cost Estimate for Four-Member Family
(using a combination of devices to conserve water)
Costs
Material Cost:
1 shallow trap res
1 flow control shower
2 aerators
$ 70.20
15.00
3.00
$ 88.20
Labor Cost:
6 hrs at $10/hr
Expected Life:
20 years
Depreciated equipment
cost/year:
Extra maintenance and
energy cost/year:
Savings
Cost of water saved/year
(Louisville rates)
Cost of energy saved/year
(Cincinnati rates)
Cost of sewage treatment
saved/year
(Louisville rates)
Total savings/year
Net savings/year
60.00
$148.60
7.40
$ 13.70
22.32
14.00
$50.02
$42.62
Water saved:
Return on Investment
56 gals/day
20,400 gals/yr
24%
23
-------
How much water do you use?
Each household consumes and wastes wate: Bf-fcre you can save
water and money, you should understand how you use and waste water
The chart below will help you to calculate your cU'ly consumption of
water
Household Water Consumption
hot
water
fixture
flush toilet
composting
toilet
use in
gallons
5
0
x users x uses = gallons/day
low flush
toilet
bathroom sink
normal shower
low flow
shower
3
2
20-30
8-12
bathtub
cooking
& drinking
d'sh washing
(hand)
dishwashing
(machine)
laundry top
load
30-40
3
6-19
20-33
laundry front
loed
10-15
lawn watering
car washing
(hose)
30/hr/
100 sq ft
5/min
24
Your total water budget will be in "he range of 20 gallons/person/day for a
water conserving household to 80 gallons/person/day for a non-conserving
household
-------
Resources
Educational Materials
A Consumer Handbook on Water Saving and Wastewater Reduction
(19 pp., 1976) is available from the Washington Suburban Sanitary Com-
mission, 4017 Hamilton Street, Hyattsville, MD 20781, This is the first
customer handbook of its kind produced and distributed by a water and
sewer utility It offers practical suggestions for changing family and
individual behavior to prevent water waste Changing water-use behavior
alone can halve the amount of water households use
Conservation Tips from PG & E
Energy Conservation and Services Department, 77 Beale Street, San
Francisco, CA 94106 This public utility publishes pamphlets to help its
customers reduce energy utility bills A few of these are helpful for water
conservation as well They are
"Cooling Your Home More Efficiently"
"Saving Energy with Your Swimming Pool"
"Shoppers Guide Refrigerators, Freezers. Air Conditioners"
EPA Journal
"Protecting Water "July/August 1978 (40 pp) Office of Public Awareness
(a-107), Washington D.C 20460 This issue has articles on treatment for
small communities and on sludge The Clean Water Act and the
Municipal Construction Grants Programs are also discussed
Readings in Water Conservation
is edited by Ronnie McGhee, Mary Reardon, and Arleen Shulman, and
published by the National Association of Counties Research, inc (338
pages, 1978) It is excellent source material for planners and officials
and includes chapters on
regulation (63 pp)
leaks and infiltration technology (14 pp)
25
-------
water conserving devicesshowerheads, clothes washers, dish-
washers, toilet dams, flush adapters, and faucet controls (76 pp,i
education (20 pp)
land use planning (34 pp)
pricing policies (44 pp)
water reuse (52 pp)
1979 Directory of Federal Programs Related to Water Conservation
is published by the Clean Water Fund, 1341 G Street, N.W., Washington
D.C., 20005, (202) 638-2013, and available from the Office of Water
Program Operations, EPA, Washington, DC
The "Watershed" section of The Co-Evolution Quarterly (Winter
1976/77, pp 7-50, Box 248, Sausalito, CA 94965, introduces the
Watershed Quiz
When you turn on the faucet, where does your water come fiom?
When you flush your toilet, where does the water go?
When rainwater flows past your home, what creek, lake, or river
is it flowing toward^
Peter Warshall is completing a book on Watersheds.
It treats the topic from the viewpoint of an anthropologist, botanist, and
well-known watershed expert Contact Sierra Club, Scribners, New York.
Rural Sewage Treatment in Vermont: Book I, A Guide to the Alter-
natives, and Book II, A Planning Manual.
Book I is a source book of generic descriptions of the various types of
wastewatei treatment systems Book li is a water resource management
workbook These are available from Vermont 208 Water Quality Program,
Agency of Environmental Conservation, Montpelier VT 05602.
Water Wasteland
Ralph Nader's Study Group Report on Water Pollution by David Zwick
and Marcy Benstock is a Bantam book published jointly with Grossman
Publishers, me (1972)
Project Water
The East Bay Municipal Utility District, PO Box 24055, Oakland, CA
94623 has created an entire school education curriculum around water
conservation The most famous feature of this curriculum is Captain
Hydro, a four-color comic book that is highly regarded in education
circles The workbook is also available in Spanish
The Story of Water Supply
is a discussion in comic-book format aimed at schoolchildren It is
available from the American Water Works Association, 6666 West
26 Oumcy Avenue, Denver, CO 80235 (15 pp)
-------
Environmental Conservation
by Raymond F. Dasman John Wiley & Sons, Inc , New York (427 pp.
7976) If the goals of environmental conservation and the well-being of
humanity are to be attained, a change must take place in the attitudes of
people toward nature and toward themselves This change must take
place in the individual and the local community This book contains
chapters on civilization and water, the aquatic environment, and the
urban-industnal-technological trap.
Films
The Alternative is Conservation
A 20-minute, 16mm, color documentary on water conservation The film
provides a forum for informed and constructive discussion among
viewers The viewer visits eight communities Each community has a
different understanding of their water problems and a variety of ideas for
solving them u S Environmental Protection Agency, U.S E R , Inc., 30
Bates Road, Watertown, MA 02172
Water Follies (A Soap Opera)
A 16mm, color, animated presentation of the ways individuals can con-
serve water Sponsored by the Denver Water Department Available from
Sfan Phillips Associates, Box 5286, Terminal Annex Street, Denver, CO 80217
Bumper Stickers
"Use Wafer W/se/y" "Save Water - Soap Together"
Illinois Interagency Water Committee, East Bay Municipal Utility District,
303 E Monroe, Springfield, IL 62706 PO Box 24055,
Oakland, CA 94623
"Dirty Cars Save Water"
East Bay Municipal Utility District, "1 Acre of Jojoba=30 Sperm Whales'
P O Box 24055, ESP Jojoba, P.O Box 2749
Oakland, CA 94623. Tucson, AZ 85702
Conservation Techniques
Codes
Dick Church
Plumbing Manufactures Institute (PMI)
P O Box 484
Glen Ellwyn, IL 60137
PMI has information and conducts workshops on plumbing codes and
residential water conserving devices
27
-------
Drought-Resistant Agriculture
Two-th rds of the land surface of the earth is snc or semi-arid. As
modern agriculture has extended into dry ,ancs to meei the world's food
needs. The set of crop species cultivated has become more limited to the
high water-using types which require irrigation For example, in the
Southwest where such water intensive crops as melons, citrus trees and
cotton are grown, the cost of pumping the watr 'S growing so pro-
hibitive (because the water is being mined from deep below the surface)
that farms are being abandoned
Drought-resistant agnculture is not new; the Anencan Indians of the
Southwest cultivated many species. These scenes are being reintro-
duced irto the area with great success Coupled with the use of
microca'chment basins, these species can oe crown in tr.e desert with
less cosi and produce crops suitable for comrriHrcial use Since 30,000
species of edibie seed plants (many of which ar = drougnt resistant) exist
worldwide, it seems very probable that econo-m x crocs may be grown in
and lands which require little irrigation
For information on new crops economical to anc lands and those pro
vidmg ground cover to protect against soil erosicn, contact
Kennetn Foster
Office of And Lands Studies
University ot Arizona
Tucson, AZ 85719
Dwayne Fink
U S Water Conservation Laboratory
^331 E Broadway Road
Phoenix, AZ 85040
Gary Nabhan
Meals foi Millions
715 N Park Ave
Tucson AZ 35719
More Water for Arid Lands is a book that discusses promising
technologies for conserving scarce water supplies in ana a^eas It is
available from The National Academy of Sciences Washington D C.,
154 pages. 1974
Social and Technological Management in Dry Lands, AAAS Sym-
posium #'0, edited by Nancy L. Gonzales. gives a" anthropo'ogist's
views of the peoples and cultu'es 01 and lands and their diverse farming
practices it is published by Westview Press 5500 Central Avenue
Boulder, CO
28
-------
Low Flow / No Flow Devices
Low Flow Devices
EGOS
Damon Mill Square
W. Concord, MA 01742
Composting Toilets
EGOS
Damon Mill Square
W, Concord, MA 01742
Chvus Multrum
14a Eliot Street
Cambridge, MA
Low Flow Toilets
Microphor, Inc.
452 East Hill Road
P 0. Box 490
Willits, CA 95470
Producer of the 2 quart toilet
Land Use
Creative Development, Bridge to the Future,
by Robert Lemire Houghton Mifflin (1979) Discusses creative development
and financing techniques which protect natural resources
Landscaping
Peak water usage determines the size of waterpipes and treatment
facilities In the arid Southwest, water systems are often three times
larger than they would normally have to be just to meet the summer
water demand caused by watering lawns Tax dollars and water can be
saved by using appropriate landscaping for the climate and by catching
rain runoff for watering purposes.
In Tucson and Phoenix desert landscaping is very practical and is
becoming very popular It is replacing lawns in the older neighborhoods
and is common in many new developments Desert landscaping requires
little or no care and no watering In this way these communities are
saving water for drinking purposes that otherwise would be used for ir-
rigating lawns
29
-------
Water Conserving Gardening, Kathenne Cuneo Botanist, Madrone
Associates, Box 2970, San Rafael, CA 94902
Produced for the Mann Municipal Water District, the book highlights
species of landscaping plants and garden planning techniques thai will
ensure a green garden with little water
For SummerDryCalifornia Water Saving Planting, Sunset
Magazine, October 1976
Dwayne Fink, U S. Water Conservation Laboratory, 4331 E Broadway
Road, Phoenix, AZ 85040 For information on microcatchment basins
which collect rainwater for use in agriculture or gardening
Wastewater Treatment
Aquaculture
This process is similar to conventional wastewater lagoons except that
the ponds are covered Solar heating keeps biological activity at a
maximum Plastic strips provide surface area on which bacteria grow
Organisms such as snails feed on the bacteria Other organisms in turn
eat the snails, and so forth On the surface float hyacinths and
duckweeds which absorb nutrients and consume suspended particles
and heavy metals This is considered innovative technology.
Chris Alsten
Solar Aquasystems, Inc
P. O Box 88
Encinitas, CA 92024
Conventional Wastewater Treatment
Proceedings: National Conference on Water Conservation anifMunicipal
Wastewater Flow Reduction. A compilation of 28 papers presented at the
1978 EPA Water Conservation Conference. The papers are divided into
six areas: federal legislative background, regulation of the water resource,
water conservation technology, education and public participation, water
and wastewater management issues, and case studies of water resource
management Individual papers range from economic analysis to discus-
sions of household water conservation devices Available from ERIC,
26 West St. Glair, Cincinnati, OH 45268.
A Primer on Wastewater Treatment is an informative survey of wastewater
treatment technology and terminology Conventional treatment of waste-
water by primary and secondary filtering processes is explained along with
the role of trickling filters, aeration tanks, and storage lagoons in water
purification More advanced methods of treating wastewater including land
application and innovative and alternative methods are also described in
the booklet. Available from EPA, Office of Public Affairs (A107), Wash-
ington, D.C 20460.
30
-------
Small Wastewater Systems folder describes 21 different alternative
systems for small communities and rural areas Illustrations and diagrams
are used throughout. Available from EPA, Office of Water Program
Perations, Washington, D C 20460
Greywater Reuse
Clivus Multrum
14a Elliot Street
Cambridge, MA 02138
(gravel filters)
Land Application
Wastewater Bonanza, a 40 minute 16mm film on land application techni-
ques and case studies. Available for rental Sheafer and Roland, Inc ,
130 N. Franklin, Chicago, IL 60606.
Land Treatment
The U S Water Conservation Laboratory is experimenting with the use of
the natural ability of the soils in the area to purify the wastewater in
order that the wastewater may be used again to irrigate crops including
those for human consumption Contact
Clarence Lance
U S Water Conservation Laboratory
4331 E Broadway Road
Phoenix, AZ 85040
User Needs Survey
Many communities spend thousands of dollars on facilities plans before
their needs have been fully evaluated Septic Tank Practices in Bolinas,
California is a need survey submitted to the Public Utilities District It
contains information necessary for regulating septic tank practices
Management improves sewage disposition practices and prolongs the
life span of septic systems Individual waste disposal systems provide
reliable low cost, nonmechanical septic treatment This form of treat-
ment also offers sub-surface irrigation, low pollution potential, and pro-
motes water conservation The book is available from Marshall and
Farnsworth, Watershed Consultants, PO Box 251, Bolinas, CA 94924
(90 pp 1973)
Wastestream Separation
Keith Burton
Manager, Site Services
IBM General Products Division
Tucson, AZ 85744
Pressure Sewers
Pressure sewers are used to collect septic tank effluent for centralized
treatment They prevent ground water infiltration, accept new hookups
and reasonable expansions, and easily accommodate small flow travell-
ing from considerable distances 31
-------
Priest Lake, Idaho in 1973 built a pressure sewer. The cost of 500
hookups, two separate aerobic treatment lagoons, pumper truck, and all
necessary legal and engineering fees, totaled $900,000 (or $1,800 per
hookup). Two sanitary districts were set up to handle operation and
maintenance of the publicly owned on-site sewerage facility.
Homeowners were assessed $50.00 at the time of installation and have
paid a $10.50 monthly fee The community pays a total of $63,000
operating and maintenance costs per year.
Rural Wastewater Disposal Alternatives, March 1977 Office of
Appropriate Technology, PO Box 1677, Sacramento, CA 95808 (160
pp.). Contains excellent review of alternatives and 80 references for
more detailed reading
The Status of Pressure Sewer Technology, James F Kressil, P.E.,
1977. Wastewater Research Division, Municipal Environmental Research
Laboratory, EPA, Cincinnati, OH 45268,
32
-------
Glossary
The wail thul can be walked on n, not the perfect way. The word that can he said n not the
perfect word.
laa ti.u, 3rd tenhm h.c.
Advanced Waste Treatment
Wastewater treatment beyond the secondary or biological stage which
includes removal of nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen and a
high percentage of suspended solids Advanced waste treatment, also
known as tertiary treatment, is the "polishing stage" of wastewater treat-
ment and produces a high quality of effluent.
Aerobic
Refers to life or processes that occur only in the presence of oxygen.
Alternative Technology
Alternative waste treatment processes and techniques are proven
methods which provide for the reclaiming and reuse of water, produc-
tively recycle waste water constituents or otherwise eliminate the
discharge of pollutants, or recover energy Alternative technologies may
not be variants of conventional biological or physical/chemical treatment
Anaerobic
Refers to life or processes that occur in the absence of oxygen
Aquatic Plants
Plants that grow in water, either floating on the surface, or rooted
emergent or submergent.
Aquifer
A geologic stratum or unit that contains water and will allow it to pass
through. The water may reside in and travel through innumerable spaces
between rock grains in a sand or gravel aquifer, small or cavernous
openings formed by solution in a limestone aquifer, or fissures, cracks,
and rubble in such harder rocks as shale.
Artesian Aquifer
A water-filled layer that is sufficiently compressed between less
permeable layers to cause the water to rise above the top of the aquifer
If the water pressure is great, water will flow freely from artesian wells.
33
-------
Bacteria
Any of a large group of microscopic plants living in soil, water or organic
matter, important to man because of their chemical effects as in
nitrogen fixation, putrefaction or fermentation, or as pathogens.
Bedrock
The solid rock beneath the soil and subsoil
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
A measure of the amount of oxygen consumed in the biological pro-
cesses that decompose organic matter in water. Large amounts of
organic waste use up large amounts of dissolved oxygen, thus, the
greater the degree of pollution, the greater the BOD.
Capital Costs
All costs associated with installation (as opposed to operation) of a
project.
Coliform Bacteria
Members of a large group of bacteria that flourish in the feces and/or in-
testines of warm-blooded animals, including man Fecal coliform
bacteria, particularly Escher/ch/a col/ (E. coli), enter water mostly in fecal
matter, such as sewage or feed-lot runoff Coliform bacteria apparently
do not cause serious human diseases, but these organisms are abundant
in polluted waters and they are fairly easy to detect The abundance of
coliform bacteria in water, therefore, is used as an index to the prob-
ability of the occurrence of such disease-producing bodies (pathogens)
as Salmonella, Shigel/a, and enteric viruses These pathogens are
relatively difficult to detect
Drainage Basin
(1) An area from which surface runoff is carried away by a single
drainage system Also called catchment area, watershed, drainage area
(2) The largest natural drainage area subdivision ot a continent. The
United States has been divided at one time or another, for various ad-
ministrative purposes, into some 12 to 18 drainage basins.
Effluent
Wastewater or other liquid, partially or completely treated, or in its
natural state, flowing out of a reservoir, basin, treatment plant, or
industrial plant, or part thereof
Elevated Mound
A mound, generally constructed of sand, to which settled wastewater is
applied. Usually used in areas where conventional on-site treatment is
inadequate
Gravity System
A system of conduits (open or closed) in which no liquid pumping is
required
34
-------
Groundwater
Water that is below the water table
Groundwater Runoff
Groundwater that is discharged into a stream channel as spring or
seepage water
Holding Tank
Enclosed tank, usually of fiberglass or concrete, for the storage of
wastewater prior to removal or disposal at another location.
Infiltration
The flow of a fluid into a substance through pores or small openings
Commonly used in hydrology to denote the flow of water into soil
material
Infiltration/Inflow
Total quantity of water entering a sewer system. Infiltration means entry
through such sources as defective pipes, pipe joints, connections, or
manhole walls. Inflow signifies discharge into the sewer system through
service connections from such sources as area or foundation drainage,
springs and swamps, storm waters, street wash waters, or sewers
Innovative Technologies
Technologies whose use has not been widely documented by ex-
perience They may be variants of conventional biological or
physical/chemical treatment and offer promise as methods for conserva-
tion of energy or wastewater constituents, or reduce cost of treatment,
or contribute to the elimination of discharge of pollutants
Interceptor Sewers
Sewers used to collect the flows from mam and trunk sewers and carry
them to a central point for treatment and discharge. In a combined
sewer system, where street runoff from rains is allowed to enter the
system along with the sewage, interceptor sewers allow some of the
sewage to flow untreated directly into the receiving stream to prevent
the treatment plant from being overloaded.
Lagoon
In wastewater treatment, a shallow pond, usually man-made, in which
sunlight, algal and bacterial action and oxygen interact to restore the
wastewater to a reasonable state of purity.
35
-------
Land Treatment
A method of treatment in which soil, air, vegetation, bacteria, and/or
fungi are employed to remove pollutants from wastewater. In its simplest
form, the method includes three steps' (1) pretreatment to screen out
large solids, (2) secondary treatment and chlorination; and (3) application
to cropland, pasture, or natural vegetation to allow plants and soil
microorganisms to remove additional pollutants. Some of the applied
wastewater evaporates, and the remainder may be allowed to percolate
to the water table, discharged through drain tiles, or reclaimed by wells
Leachate
Solution formed when water percolates through solid wastes, soil, or
other materials, and extract soluble or suspendable substances from the
materials
Non Point Source
A general source of pollution. Surface water runoff is an example as it
does not originate from a single source and is not easily controlled
Point Source
A stationary source of a large individual emission. This is a general
definition, point source is legally and precisely defined in Federal
regulations.
Pressure Sewer System
A wastewater collection system in which household wastes are collected
in the building drain and conveyed therein to the pretreatment and/or
pressurization facility The system consists of two major elements, the
on-site or pressurization facility, and the primary conductor pressurized
sewer mam.
Primary Treatment
The first stage in wastewater treatment in which nearly all solids are
mechanically removed by screening and sedimentation
Rapid Infiltration
A form of land treatment where wastewater is placed into spreading
basins and applied to the land to percolate into the soil
Recharge
The process by which water is added to an aquifer Used also to indicate
the water that is added Natural recharge occurs when water from rain-
fall or a stream enters the ground and percolates to the water table.
Artificial recharge by spreading water on absorbtive ground over an
aquifer or by injection through wells.
36
-------
Runoff
Surface runoff is the water from rainfall, melted snow, or irrigation water
that flows over the surface of the land Groundwater runoff, or seepage
flow from groundwater, is the water that enters the ground and re-
appears as surface water Hydraulic runoff is groundwater runoff plus
the surface runoff that flows to stream channels, and represents that
part of the precipitation on a drainage basin that is discharged from the
basin as streamflow Runoff can pick up pollutants from the air or the
land and carry them to the receiving waters
Secondary Treatment
The second stage in the treatment of wastewater in which bacteria are
utilized to decompose the organic matter in sewage This step is
accomplished by using such processes as a trickling filter or activated
sludge Effective secondary treatment processes remove virtually all
solids as well as 90% of BOD and suspended solids Disinfection of the
effluent by chlormation customarily is the last step in this process
Septic Snooper
Trademark for the ENDECO (Environmental Devices Corporation) Type
2100 Septic Leachate Detector This instrument consists of an under-
water probe, a water intake system, an anaylzer control unit and a
graphic recorder Water drawn through the instrument is continuously
analyzed for specific fluorescence and conductivity When calibrated
against typical effluents, the instrument can detect and profile effluent-
like substances and thereby locate septic tank leachate or other sources
of domestic sewage entering lakes and streams
Septic Tan*
An underground tank used for the collection of domestic wastes
Bacte.'ia in the wastes decompose the organic matter, and the sludge
sett.es to the bottom The effluent flows through drains into the ground
S'udge is pumped out at regular intervals
Sewer, Combined
A sewer, or system of sewers, that collects and conducts both sanitary
sewage and storm-water runoff During rainless periods-, most or all of
the flow in a combined sewer is composed of sanitary sewage. During a
storm, runoff increases the rate of flow and may overload the sewage
treatment plant to which the sewer connects At such times, it is
common to divert some of the flow, without treatment, into the receiving
water
Sewer, Lateral
A sewer designed and installed to collect sewage from a limited number
of individual properties and conduct it to a trunk sewer. Also known as a
street sewer or collecting sewer
37
-------
Sewer, Storm
A sewer designed and installed to collect sewage from a number of
lateral sewers and conduct it to an interceptor sewer or, in some cases,
to a sewage treatment plant
Water Table
The upper level of groundwater that is not confined by an upper im-
permeable layer and is under atmospheric pressure The upper surface
of the substrate that is wholly saturated with groundwater This level
varies seasonally with the amount of percolation Where it intersects the
ground surface, springs, seepages, marshes or lakes may occur Also
known as the groundwater level.
Watershed
The land area drained by a stream, or by an entire river system.
38
-------
The Alternative is Conservation film and video documentary is made
possible by grants from the Office of Water Program Operations, U S
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and Urban Scientific and Educa-
tional Research, Inc (USER, INC)
This guide was prepared by Laura Brecht, an urban planner and
graduate from the Harvard Graduate School of Design and Lyle Brecht,
applied ecologist and degree candidate at the Harvard Business School
Reference to specific organizations, products or services in this guide is
intended for the general information of readers and not an endorsement
or recommendation by either USER, INC or the U S Environmental
Protection Agency.
Any portion of this guide may be reproduced without permission.
u.s Eiwi,onmen». Flection
hlcago.
U S.GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1980 - 677-094/1121 REGION NO 8
-------
5>2
D ^
-: CD
I"
m
s
m j> ~o m -n
------- |