systems planning
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SOLID WASTE SYSTEMS PLANNING
This training course manual has been specially
prepared for the trainees attending the course
and should not be included in reading lists or
periodicals as generally available.
Conducted by
Training Academy, Planning and Training Branch
Systems Management Division
Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Chicago, Illinois
March 1972
Ctl
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Region I
Region II
Region III
Region IV
Region V
Region VI
Region VII
Region VIII
Region
Region X
REGIONAL REPRESENTATIVES
Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
Earl J. Anderson
John F. Kennedy Federal Bldg.
Government Center
Boston, Massachusetts 02203
Phone: (617)-223-6687
Gordon E. Stone
Federal Building, Rm. 3400
26 Federal Plaza
New York, New York 10007
Phone: (212)-264-0503
Joseph F. Mastromauro
6th and Walnut Streets
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19106
Phone: (215)-597-9156
Elmer G. Cleveland
Suite 300
1421 Peachtree Street, N.E.
Atlanta, Georgia 30309
Phone: (404)-526-3921
William Q. Kehr
1 North Wacker
Chicago, Illinois 60606
Phone: (312)-353-6560
Grover L. Morris
1600 Patterson, Suite 1100
Dallas, Texas 75201
Phone: (214)-749-2007
Donald A. Townley
1735 Baltimore Avenue
Kansas City, Missouri 64108
Phone: (816)-374-3307
Lawrence P. Gazda
9017 Federal Office Bldg.
19th and Stout Streets
Denver, Colorado 80202
Phone: (303)-837-3926
Rodney L;. Cummins
Acting Representative
100 California Street
San Francisco, California 94111
Phone: (415)-556-5010
Lester E. Blaschke
1200 Sixth Avenue
Seattle, Washington 98101
Phone: (206)-442-1260
Connecticut, Maine,
Massachusetts, New
Hampshire, Rhode
Island, Vermont
New Jersey, New York,
Puerto Rico, Virgin
Islands
District of Columbia,
Maryland, Virginia,
West Virginia, Delaware,
Pennsylvania
Alabama, Florida,
Georgia, Mississippi,
S. Carolina, Tennessee,
Kentucky, N. Carolina
Illinois, Indiana,
Michigan, Ohio,
Wisconsin, Minnesota
Arkansas, Louisiana,
New Mexico, Oklahoma,
Texas
Iowa, Kansas, Missouri,
Nebraska
Colorado, Montana, Utah,
Wyoming, N. Dakota,
S. Dakota
Arizona, California,
Hawaii, Nevada, Guam,
American Samoa
Oregon, Washington,
Idaho, Alaska
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SPEAKERS
MICHAEL F. DE BONIS
Training Officer, Training Academy
Planning and Training Branch
Systems Management Division
Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio
FRANCIS T. MAYO
Regional Administrator, Region V
Environmental Protection Agency
Chicago, Illinois
, XCHET MC LAUGHLIN
Sanitary Engineer-Planner, Region VII
Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
Environmental Protection Agency
Kansas City, Missouri
R. PERRY
Senior Training Officer, Training Academy
Planning and Training Branch
Systems Management Division
Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio
/?. h . fro-PP
2-U,. G,P. rf,
4302. ^ . niat/n,
L f
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SOLID WASTE SYSTEMS PLANNING
Chicago, Illinois
March 28-30, 1972
AGENDA
Moderator: M. F. DeBonis
DAY AND TIME
Tuesday,
9:00 -
9:15 -
9:30 -
9:45 -
10:15 -
10-30 -
11:00 -
11:30 -
12:00 -
1:00 -
1:30 -
2:00 -
2:30 -
2:45 -
3-45 -
March 28
9:15
9:30
9:45
10:15
10:30
11:00
11:30
12:00
1:00
1:30
2:00
2:30
2:45
3:45
4:00
SUBJECT
Registration
Welcome
Course Objectives
Solid Waste Characteristics and Related
Health Problems
Break
Introduction to Planning
Solid Waste Storage
Solid Waste Collection Systems
Lunch
Solid Waste Collection Equipment
Public Relations and Basic Studies
Occupational Health and Safety
Break
Volume Reduction
Film: "Where Will It All End? "
SPEAKER
F . T . Mayo
M F. DeBonis
J. R . Perry
C McLaughlin
M. F. DeBonis
J R. Perry
J R. Perry
C. McLaughlin
M. F DeBonis
J R. Perry
Wednesday, March 29
9:00 -
9:30 -
10-00 -
10:15 -
11-15 -
12-00 -
1-00 -
1:30 -
2-15 -
2:30 -
3-00 -
3:30 -
9:30
10-00
10-15
11:15
12-00
1-00
1-30
2:15
2-30
3:00
3:30
4-00
Problem Definitions and Objective Formulations
Transfer Operations
Break
Incineration
Solid Waste - A Resource
Lunch
Alternative Determination and Evaluation
Sanitary Landfill I
Break
Sanitary Landfill II
Film: "The Green Box"
Alternative Selection and the Plan
C. McLaughlin
M. F DeBonis
J R Perry
M F. DeBonis
C. McLaughlin
M F DeBonis
M. F DeBonis
C. McLaughlin
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AGENDA
DAY AND TIME
SUBJECT
SPEAKER
Thursday, March 30
9:00 - 9:30
9:30 - 10:00
10:00 - 10:15
10:15 - 10:45
10:45 - 11:15
11:15 - 11:45
11:45 - 12:00
Implementation and Feedback
Dump Closing and Conversion
Break
Rural and Recreational Systems
Federal Solid Waste Planning Programs
Keeping the Public Informed
Course Summary and Critique
C McLaughlin
J R. Perry
M. F. DeBonis
C. McLaughlin
J R Perry
M F. DeBonis
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CONTENTS
SECTION I
Solid Waste Characteristics and Related Health Problems
Solid Waste Storage
Solid Waste Collection Systems
Solid Waste Collection Equipment
Occupational Health and Safety
Volume Reduction I: On-Site Systems
Volume Reduction II: Central Systems
SECTION II
Transfer Operations
Incineration
Solid Waste - A Resource
Sanitary Landfill I
Sanitary Landfill II
SECTION III
Dump Closing and Conversion
Rural and Recreational Systems
Keeping the Public Informed
APPENDICES
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SECTION I
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SOLID WASTE CHARACTERISTICS
AND RELATED HEALTH PROBLEMS
Training Staff*
I INTRODUCTION
A Improper management of solid waste may
lead to accidents and disease, blighted re-
creational and living areas, subtle cultural
and environmental damage. It may mean
lost money, lost enjoyment, lost resources.
The problem has grown upon us in recent
years through:
1 The trend toward living in cities or
metropolitan regions
1900 - 40% lived in urban areas
1960 - 70% lived in urban areas
2000 - 90-95% in urban areas estimated
2 Population growth
3 Intensive production of crops, livestock,
poultry - often near suburbs
4 Development and use of recreational
areas
5 Continued growth of our whole industrial
complex
6 Increased use of packaging, and an
emerging philosophy of "use and throw"
extending even to large appliances:
20 billion pounds of paper and card-
board/year, (including 70 billion
grocery bags); over a billion pounds
of plastic film for packaging; 48 billion
cans (including 2 billion aerosols);
28 billion bottles and jars; 7 million
automobiles. Composition of home
refuse is changing - less ashes and
garbage; more paper and plastic.
Volume, rather than weight, is be-
coming the problem.
B Public awareness and interest in the mount-
ing problems of solid waste storage,
collection, and disposal have lagged. In
recent months there has been a remark-
able awakening of interest in environmental
matters.
-Training Branch, Division of Technical
Operations, Solid Waste Management Office,
Cincinnati, Ohio
II DIRECT EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH
A Insects and rodents resulting from improper
refuse handling are vectors of human disease.
B Accidental injuries are a direct consequence
of improper refuse handling practices.
C Air pollution through the open burning of
solid wastes creates hazards.
Ill DIRECT EFFECTS ON THE HUMAN
ENVIRONMENT
A Nuisances resulting from improper refuse
handling are increasingly serious with
crowding.
B Blighting of the natural scenery with
scattered refuse is now too evident to
ignore. This "visual pollution" now
reaches out to spoil our dwindling beauty
sites.
C Air pollution results from open burning
at dumps or home storage sites, or from
burning at makeshift incineration or sal-
vaging operations.
D Water pollution occurs as a consequence of
open dumping or improper disposal site
selection or design. Untreated quench water
and scrubber water from some outmoded
incinerator designs add to the problem.
IV ECONOMIC LOSSES TO POOR REFUSE
MANAGEMENT
A Decreased property values are a certain
consequence of poor operating practices.
B Economic losses due to poor service are
perhaps more common, and more often
tolerated, than is the case with other
municipal services.
SW.AD.cp.1.8.70 1
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Solid Waste Characteristics and Related Health Problems
V BASIC DATA
A Information on the volume and character-
istics of solid waste generated within the
refuse shed is needed:
1 As a basis for planning future collection
and disposal operations
2 As a consideration in determining the
disposal method
3 As a basis for proper administration of
the collection and disposal system
a Cost data
b Proper routing
c Proper vehicle selection
B Data developed on the solid waste volumes
and characteristics for residential, com-
mercial or industrial establishments in a
given area can fulfill immediate needs and
can also be useful in estimating future
solid waste volumes in that area.
C A knowledge of "average" municipal waste
characteristics and per capita contributions
would also be useful in estimating future
solid waste volumes.
D The use of any published information for
estimating either commercial, industrial
or municipal solid wastes should be done
with great caution. Basic information on
actual volumes and characteristics should
be developed as soon as possible.
VI DESCRIPTIONS AND SOURCES OF SOLID
WASTE CONSTITUENTS
A Residential and Commercial Solid Wastes
1 Mixed garbage is separately collected
in some residential and commercial
collection systems. It consists of food
wastes for the most part; is rapidly
decomposable with ultimate residue
as little as 10% of initial mass. Weight
is about 600 Ibs/cu.yd.
2 Rubbish includes the nonputrescible
combustible or noncombustible wastes;
ashes, paper, cans, yard trimmings,
plastics, glass, wood, and similar
materials. Weight uncompacted is
about 250 Ibs/cu.yd.
3 Combined garbage and rubbish is the
most common municipally collected
waste. Weight uncompacted is about
300 Ibs/cu.yd.; in a packer truck about
500 Ibs/cu. yd. Production varies
greatly by area; national average in
1968 was about 5. 3 Ibs/person/day.
B Construction and Demolition Wastes
1 These are typically heavy, (up to 2000 Ibs.
or more/cu. yd. ), bulky, often with low
fuel value.
2 Typical composition includes wood,
steel, plaster, concrete bricks. If
wood is minimized the category is
often called solid fill.
C Institutional Solid Wastes
Wastes from hospitals, nursing homes,
prisons, schools, are often similar to
residential and commercial wastes.
Quantities of hospital wastes may be high,
10-20 Ibs. per patient per day or more,
with large amounts of paper and cloth.
Contaminated materials (bandages,
catheters, etc.) may be separately stored,
and often are disposed of by onsite
incineration.
D Industrial Solid Wastes
It is almost impossible to generalize about
composition or quantities, because of the
variety of industrial operations. There is
usually a food waste and rubbish component
from cafeteria and other personnel service
which resembles home waste, but the
wastes from the industry itself may be
unique to the operation.
E Agricultural Solid Wastes
These are also highly variable. The two
principal categories are:
1 Crop residues - that portion of the crop
left in the field.
2 Animal manures
F Miscellaneous Municipal Solid Wastes
1 Street cleaning residues consist of dirt,
leaves, paper. Weight is usually high
- about 1000 Ibs/cu.yd.
2 Digested sludge from the sewage treat-
ment plant is sometimes buried, sometimes
dewatered and burned.
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SOLID WASTE STORAGE
Training Staff*
I INTRODUCTION
With the planned obsolescence in our affluent
society, the statement repeated more and
more often that we may well smother in our
own refuse is rapidly assuming added signi-
ficance. In some areas future community
survival depends on today's community
sanitation plans. Included in community
planning must be plans for optimum refuse
storage.
H COMMUNITY REFUSE STORAGE
OBJECTIVES
A Good refuse storage techniques must be
practiced primarily for health and sani-
tation reasons, to prevent:
1 Vectors
2 Odors
3 Unsightliness
B Proper storage expedites collection.
Better health and better economy are
interrelated.
Ill RESPONSIBILITY FOR STORAGE
A Refuse storage is an individual
responsibility
B Government also shares a responsibility
by:
1 Providing guidelines through
recommendations and ordinances
2 Enforcing ordinances
IV RESIDENTIAL REFUSE STORAGE
A Factors to consider in establishing
container standards:
1 Manageable size, shape
a Usually 20-30 gallon capacity
b Convenient shape, tapered for
easy emptying.
2 Material
a If reusable, must be durable,
cleanable; includes metals, plastics.
b Single service includes kraft paper
bags, plastic liners.
3 Complete enclosure of contents
a Protection from weather
b Prevention of scattering
c Exclusion of vectors
4 Convenient hand holds
B Containers may be given proper care
and protection by:
1 Wrapping refuse
2 Using racks
3 Washing cans
4 Providing sheds, storage pits, other
shelter
a May improve sightliness, protection
b Add to cleaning responsibility
* Training Branch, Division of Technical
Operations, Solid Waste Management Office,
Cincinnati, Ohio
SW. ST. gn. 2. 1.67
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Solid Waste Storage
C Container placement may be:
1 In attached garage or basement
a Most convenient for householder
b Collector must enter premises un-
less containers are set out by
householder
c Aesthetics of inside storage are
usually desirable from community's
viewpoint; may not be from house-
holder's viewpoint. Nearness of
containers helps householder
remember to maintain them.
2 At rear or side of house
a Does not detract from neighborhood
appearance
b Convenient location for householder
c Reasonably close for collection from
either street or alley.
3 At rear of property line by the alley
a Convenient to collectors; less so to
householder.
b Containers are apt to be damaged
or stolen, and contents scattered.
c Isolation predisposes to littered
storage areas and makeshift
containers.
-D The area surrounding the container should
be kept:
1 Free from litter
2 Free from vectors
3 Free from materials not intended for
collection
E Factors affecting storage include:
1 Types of refuse
2 Method of disposal
3 Per capita contribution
4 On-site processing
5 Climate
6 Seasons
7 Multifamily _vs single occupancy.
F Human factors also affect storage
practices
1 Attitude of homeowner
2 Socioeconomic level
3 Local customs and aesthetic standards
V COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL
STORAGE
A Commercial and industrial operations
share responsibility with individuals and
government for good refuse storage.
B Nature and quantity of refuse generated
may be of special character.
C Containers are of shape, volume, and
construction to meet the particular needs
of the nature and volume of waste
generated.
1 Detachables
2 Compactors
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SOLID WASTE COLLECTION SYSTEMS
Training Staff*
I PUBLIC HEALTH AND SAFETY
The aspects of public health and safety must
not be ignored when considering refuse
collection methods.
A Flats, flies and other vectors are possible
sources of diseases or, more commonly,
nuisances to the general public.
B The design of an adequate collection
system minimizes public nuisances by
recognizing their existence and preventing
their occurrence.
II FACTORS AFFECTING COLLECTION
METHODS
An evaluation of an interrelated set of fixed
and variable factors is necessary for the
proper development of a refuse collection
system
A Fixed Factors May Include:
1 Type of refuse produced
2 Population density
3 Physical layout of area
4 Zoning
5 Climate
B Variable Factors May Include:
1 Responsibility for disposal
2 Disposal methods
3 Material handled and collection
frequency
4 Type of equipment
5 Extent of municipal, contract and/or
private collection agencies
6 Location of refuse
7 Organization of crews
*Trammg Branch, Division of Technical
Operations, Solid Waste Management Office,
Cincinnati, Ohio
III CO LLECTION AGENCIES
A Municipal collection is performed by
public employees and equipment under
direction of a regular department or
official.
1 Advantages are:
a Sanitation can be a primary motive
b Department is directly responsible
to the public
2 Disadvantages are:
a Adverse political influences may
exist; there may be a frequent
turnover of supervisory staff.
b There is a possibility of operation
by untrained officials.
c Emphasis may be on cheapness,
rather than efficiency
B Contract Collection is Performed by a
Private Company, Paid by the City.
1 Advantages are:
a The service is run as a business
b Political influence is less evident
c The city's part in collection is
simplified
d Cost is established in advance
e Contractor must raise the capital
f The city can stipulate and enforce
adequate collection standards
2 Disadvantages are:
a Profit, rather than sanitation, is
the prime motive.
b Contracting permits less flexibility
of service
c If contract is broken, no alternative
service may be available.
SW.CL.gn.5. 12.68 1
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Solid Waste Collection Systems
d Contractor is not necessarily assured
of contract renewal.
C Private collection is performed by
individuals or companies, with arrange-
ments for service being made directly
with each householder or business.
1 Art advantage is that some service is
offered where none may be available
otherwise.
2 Disadvantages are:
a Expensive overlapping of routes
occurs
b Competition may result in price
cutting and lowering of sanitation
or service standards.
D Regardless of the collecting agency used,
refuse collection is a governmental
responsibility and should be under the
constant supervision of the appropriate
government agency.
IV UNIT OPERATIONS
Careful analysis of the various methods
available for each individual operation
involved in collection is required to arrive
at the most efficient and economical
collection system.
A The pick-up operation is the act of
transferring refuse from the householders'
premises to the collection vehicle. The
various types of service provided to the
householder may include:
1 Curb service
2 Set-out service
3 Complete backyard service
a Set-out, set-back service
b Backyard carry service
B Method of Organizing Work
Integrated analyses of the method of
refuse pick-up to be used, types of equip-
ment available and the various methods
of organizing work should be accomplished
to provide efficient and economical
collection.
1 Individual crews may be organized to
accomplish collection by a variety of
methods. These include:
a Daily route
b Large route
c Single load
d Definite working day
e Relay
2 It is sometimes advantageous to
integrate the work of several crews
in a collection system. The method
under such circumstances may include:
a Swing crew
b Variable size crew
c Inter-relief
d Reservoir route
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SOLID WASTE COLLECTION EQUIPMENT
Training Staff*
I COLLECTION
Speaking very generally, we can say that
collection represents three-fourths of the
whole refuse management cost; and of the
collection cost, about three-fourths is labor.
Most of the day-to-day management headaches
involve labor, too, so the trend has been to
the increasing mechanization of the collection
process. This is true of rural collection as
well. Labor is becoming too expensive for
us to justify the use of makeshift equipment.
A Manually Loaded Compacting Bodies
1 Some economic advantages of suitable
equipment over makeshift vehicles
are:
a They can carry a useful load because
loose refuse is compacted
b Low loading height and other loading
conveniences are built in
c Loads are easily emptied
1) Dump bodies
2) Ejector plate bodies
2 Some sanitary, safety, and esthetic
advantages are:
a Leak-proof, covered body built to
withstand corrosion
b Cleanable body and respectable
appearance
c Safety advantages
1) Traffic signals, mirrors
2) Handholds, steps, emergency
stop bars
3 Crews and loading practices vary
a A usual crew for a 16 to 24 cubic
yard truck is a driver and one or
two loaders. The driver may help
load.
''Training Branch, Division of Technical
Operations, Solid Waste Management Office,
Cincinnati, Ohio
b Sometimes the loaders drive
motor scooters or small pickups
("Satellite System") to save walking
time. This is particularly true where
there are long driveways or some
distance between houses.
c The "one man" collection system
usually employs a vehicle specially
equipped for one-man operation.
It has been used in both rural and urban
situations.
B Mechanically Loaded Bodies
There are almost all detachable container
systems. It is only a partially mechanized
service in that the customer and collector
still do something.
1 The customer puts the refuse in the
container; special equipment is used
to empty the containers.
2 The container may be emptied at the
storage site; or it may be carried to
the disposal site and emptied there.
3 The refuse may be compacted at
the point of origin with a stationary
packer, or in the collection vehicle,
or not at all.
4 There are several types of detachable
container systems:
a Lift and Carry - usually 3 to 15
cubic yard capacity containers,
trucked to the disposal site.
b Side Loader Rollouts - usually 1
to 3 cubic yard containers, hoisted
at the side of the truck and emptied
at point of collection.
c Rear Loader - similar in concept to
the side loader. Some are rather
makeshift accessories to the con-
ventional manually loaded truck.
d Front End Loader - handles containers
from 1 to 10 cubic yards. Arms
move the container up over the cab,
dumping contents into the truck body.
SW.CL.ce.3.4.70 1
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Solid Waste Collection Equipment
The system is fast and sparing of
labor. Interesting variations in-
clude the refuse trains (bulk con-
tainers on wheels); container stations
for rural collection like the Chilton
County, Alabama system; and me-
chanical collection of household
waste like "Godzilla" and the
"Garbage Grabber" of Scottsdale,
Arizona.
e Pull-ons - also called drop-offs.
These are large detachable contain-
ers of up to 40 cubic yards or more,
pulled onto a lowboy or tiltbed with
cables or hydraulics and trucked to
the disposal site. May have a
stationary compaction unit provided.
These were first used for commer-
cial and industrial use. However,
they have some good application for
small communities or rural service,
acting as a sort of small transfer
station or "removable disposal site".
Detachable containers may be cleaned
at the storage or disposal site, or at
the truck. Truck-mounted cleaners
are available.
C Other Systems or Applications
1 Small covered, compacting, side-
loading bodies. These are inexpensive,
designed usually for about a 1-ton
chassis, and good for narrow alleys,
1-man rural collection, collection from
small recreational areas, and so on.
They may be provided with side-loader
hoists to handle barrels.
2 Vacuum systems. These are just
leaf-collection trucks adapted for
cleaning out litter barrels,
3 Non-compactor, open body collection
vehicles, hopefully with dumping
mechanism. These have some legi-
timate uses for hauling bulky items
like furniture, appliances, wrecked
cars. They may conceivably also be
used for collecting home or recrea-
tional refuse stored in plastic or
paper disposable sacks.
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OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY
Training Staff*
I INTRODUCTION
The solid waste management business is one
of the most hazardous in America. It has
been criticized for the severity of its acci-
dents, for lacking equipment standards and
for having poorly trained personnel. At best,
only a guess can be made of the overall number
of injuries occurring annually. Usually only
the spectacular type injuries are the ones we
learn of through the news media.
II THE NATIONAL PROBLEM IN REFUSE
COLLECTION
A Injuries Per Million Man-Hours - 1966
1 Industry 6.91
2 Federal Civil Service 7.30
3 Municipal Employees 22.20
4 Underground Mining 36.64
5 Sanitation (refuse collection) 60.77
B National Safety Council is Attempting to
Create an Awareness Through:
1 Assemblage and presentation of injury
data
2 The Government Refuse Collection and
Disposal Association
C Reasons for Lack of Data
1 Municipalities combine functions and
their records:
a Sanitation and health
b Sanitation and streets
c Public Works
III ANALYSIS OF ACCIDENTS IN REFUSE
COLLECTION
A Types of Accidents Include:
* Training Branch, Division oiTecrmical
Operations, Solid Waste Management Office,
Cincinnati, Ohio
1 Struck against
2 Struck by
3 Overexertion
4 Contact
5 Caught in
6 Falls
B Nature of Injury:
1 Back strain
2 Sprain
3 Contusion
4 Fracture
5 Bruise
6 Laceration
7 Hernia
8 Muscle spasm
9 Cuts
10 Dislocations
IV FACTORS IN CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS
A Narrow Streets
B Old or Otherwise Unsuitable Equipment
C Ordinances Not Enforced
D Haste in Completing Route
E Carrying Refuse From Home to Truck
V HAZARDS IN REFUSE COLLECTION
A Equipment Types Include:
1 Rotary blade - blade close to worker
SW.HS.hi.2 .6.70 1
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Occupational Health and Safety
2 Packer - blade travels on rollers in
tracks. Edges come close to body frame
and may pinch or amputate fingers or
hands.
3 Ejector-Packer blade - retracted,
lowered and pushed forward by hydraulic
cylinders. Packing action starts ten
inches from rear of hopper. In one city,
nine hand losses in six years.
4 Side loader truck - high loading height
5 Front-end loader - arms close to cab
B Design Deficiencies Include:
1 Most equipment is designed for speedy
reception and packing of refuse, and
maximum pay load.
2 There is insufficient guarding at point
of rotation or operation.
C Human Errors of Collectors (Greater than
Equipment Design Errors) Include:
1 Poor physical condition
2 Insufficient rest
3 Daydreaming
4 Negligent attitude
5 Chance-taking
D Street Collection is Hazardous
1 Back-up of vehicle causes 80 percent of
vehicle accidents
2 Riding on hoppers or steps is dangerous
E Unsanitary Health Conditions Include:
1 Lack of toilet facilities
2 Lack of storage place for lunches
3 Lack of shower facilities
4 Lack of drinking water
DISPOSAL INJURIES
In an environment where men are working in
and around moving vehicles and machinery
there is the potential for accidents resulting
in injuries and even death. Compound the
problems created by the moving vehicles and
machinery with the presence of hazardous
material and the potentials for the injuries
increases. These are the working conditions
for the men employed at refuse disposal
facilities.
I TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS
Traffic accidents are among the most com-
monly occurring accidents at a disposal
facility.
A Hazards to the Public
1 Collection vehicles waiting to enter
disposal site
2 Collection vehicles turning off access
roads
3 Private homeowner dumping waste at
facility
a Stranger at site unfamiliar with
operation
b Small vehicle difficult to see
B Hazards to Facility Personnel
1 Congestion of collection vehicles
2 Operation of dozer
a In marshy areas
b On steep slopes
c Over uncertain slopes of refuse
C Hazards to Collection Personnel
1 Improperly constructed access road
a Dusty roads
b Blind corners
c Uncertain terrain
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Occupational Health and Safety
2 Improperly constructed dumping area
a Backing into pits or trenches
b Falling into pits or trenches during
dumping
c Unstable soil conditions giving away
II FIRES AND EXPLOSIONS
Although a properly operated disposal facility
minimizes the potentials for accidents, the
acceptance at the site of such materials as
floor sweepings, magnesium shavings, chemical
and petroleum waste products, sawdust,
plastics and ground rubber presents additional
hazards to the personnel.
A Hazards to the Public
1 Wind blown contaminants air borne by
explosion
2 Projectiles air borne by explosion
3 Direct injury to homeowner dumping
at facility
4 Children injured playing near fire
5 Spread of fire to nearby property
6 Accidents caused by smoke obscuring
vision
a Highways
b Airports
B Hazards to Facility Personnel
1 Direct injury from explosion or fire
a Burns
b Punctures
c Severance
2 Inhalation of contaminants
3 Asphyxia from smoke
4 Underground fire
C Hazards to Collection Personnel
1 Dumping of unknown waste
2 Traveling over underground fire
3 Visibility obscured by smoke
4 Unloading of a "hot load".
Ill TOXIC OR PATHOGENIC INGESTIONS
The ingestion of toxic or pathogenic agents
dispursed at a disposal facility is not of parti-
cular concern to the average homeowner, but
to the facility and collection personnel and
the homeowner who delivers his own waste
to the disposal site, this is of grave concern.
A Hazards to the Public
1 Air-borne contaminants from burning or
explosion at a disposal site
2 Water-borned contaminants from
leachate
3 Children and scavengers utilizing the site
B Hazards to the Facility Personnel
1 Breathing of air-borne contaminants
from:
a Explosion of empty container
b Dumping procedure
c Rehandling procedure
2 Physical transmission of contaminants
a Handling the waste
b Contaminated lunch
c Handling the residue
C Hazards to Collection Personnel
The dangers to the collection personnel of
ingestion of toxic or pathogenic agents
will generally be from the breathing of
air-borne agents or the physical transmission
by handling the waste.
D Sources of Hazardous Waste
1 Hospital
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Occupational Health and Safety
2 Sewage disposal facilities
3 Colleges
4 Dispensaries
5 Drug stores
6 Medical offices
7 High schools
8 Industries
9 Commercial laboratories
10 Home
IV MISCELLANEOUS INJURIES
A Lacerations
1 Walking on refuse
2 Children playing
3 Scavengers handling refuse
4 Flipping up or flying objects
B Bites
1 Animals
2 Vectors
V CONSTRUCTIVE PREVENTIVE STEPS
A An Aggressive Safety Program
1 A "Program Guide for Public Employee
Safety" from NSC is available
2 Safety programs that have been successful:
a Dallas, Texas
b North Miami, Florida
c National Disposal Contractors
3 A safety program may be organized
through committees:
a Department heads
b Selected individuals
c Should meet regularly
4 Training program essential
a Supervisory training
1) General safety
2) First aid
b Employee training
c Get help from State Industrial
Commission (Ohio; Florida; Californ-
ia; Michigan).
5 Driver and heavy equipment operator
training
a Use of collection and other heavy
equipment
b Use of safety equipment
6 Safety equipment (as situation warrants)
a Leather shoulder and hip pads
b Rubber gloves and aprons
c Safety shoes
d Eye shields
e Goggles
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VOLUME REDUCTION I: ONSITE SYSTEMS
Training Staff*
I DEFINITION OF ONSITE
A Onsite is any physical location where
solid wastes are produced such as a
factory, restaurant, institution, multiple
dwelling unit or the private home.
B Some Types of Volume Red iction Are:
1 Mechanical compacting
2 Incineration
3 Pulping
4 Composting
II REASONS FOR ONSITE VOLUME
REDUCTION
A For Health and Economic Reasons, Onsite
Volume Reduction is Beneficial.
1 Elimination or reduction of food and
harborage for mosquitos, flies, rats,
roaches.
2 Smaller quantities of refuse may be
stored, which generally keeps the area
neater.
3 Reduces chances of accidents such as
children being poisoned, or fires.
B Economic
1 With reduced volume of refuse there is
correspondingly less handling of refuse
and lower labor costs.
a Refuse usually goes directly into
reducing mechanism at large
establishments such as apartments,
restaurants, factories.
b Garbage is fed directly into grinders
with no secondary handling.
c Fewer items are carried from
storage area to collection truck.
2 Collection costs may be reduced or
better service may result from onsite
volume reduction.
^Training Branch, Division of Technical
Operations, Solid Waste Management Office,
Cincinnati, Ohio
a Municipality might collect the
smaller quantities involved from
apartments which were not
previously served.
b Less work is done by collectors.
c Charge by private contractors may
be lower.
Ill METHODS OF ONSITE VOLUME REDUCTION
FOR INDIVIDUAL HOMES
A Composting - Includes Standard Farm
Composting and Bottomless Cans Set In
Ground with Tight-Fitting Tops.
1 Advantages: in bottomless cans food
wastes shrink and decompose to about
\ of original volume.
2 Disadvantages:
a Open pile encourages breeding of
flies and rats.
b With open pile it is difficult if not
impossible, to do a good job with-
out first shredding or grinding.
c Can must be cleaned out every 8
to 14 months.
d Residue is odorous, must be buried
or composted elsewhere with other
material such as leaves or garden
wastes.
e Container rusts and is difficult to
dig out.
B Dump - is not satisfactory generally and
its use even on a farm or ranch is ques-
tionable for the reasons of fire hazards,
rodent, fly and mosquito breeding and
accident potential for humans and domestic
animals.
C Backyard Burning - a simple method of
refuse volume reduction by open burning
on ground, in wire mesh container, drum
or outdoor fireplace.
SW.VR.os.2.1.70 1
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Volume Reduction I: Onsite Systems
1 Advantages: reduces volume for
collection.
2 Disadvantages:
a Produces air pollution due to low
burning temperature and incomplete
combustion.
b Attracts flies, rats and small
animals.
c Produces odors.
d Residue remains to be disposed of.
e Safety - fire
IV METHODS OF ONSITE VOLUME
REDUCTION FOR INDIVIDUAL HOMES
AND MULTIPLE UNITS
A Garbage Grinders - in the mind of the
housewife or whoever uses a grinder this
is a true type of garbage disposal. How-
ever, it is really a means of preparing
garbage for water transport to another
location for treatment.
1 Advantages:
a Reduces total collected refuse
volume about 10%.
b Convenient - particularly at
restaurants, institutions, produce
markets
c Reduces length of storage time.
d May eliminate home garbage can.
2 Disadvantages:
a Does not handle all food wastes
(large bones, fibrous material).
b Considerable variance in size of
grind.
c Considerable difference in safety
features between makes.
B Domestic Incinerators
Indoor domestic incinerators without
auxiliary fuel - slightly better than
outdoor types due to taller chimney.
Domestic incinerators using gas for
auxiliary fuel are of three general
types:
a Dehydrating units - provide a
continuous flame (or hot plate if
electric) which heats and dries
refuse which then ignites. The
flame is not in direct contact with
refuse.
b High Btu input units - act as a
storage unit until ignited when
full. Often has timer on burner
to turn off at preset time.
c High Btu input units with afterburner
- similar in appearance to other
home incinerators except that the
combustion chamber is baffled so that
the gases of combustion from the
primary chamber must pass down and
under the baffle to reach the secondary
chamber. About 1/3 of gas Btu
output is discharged into the primary
chamber and 2/3 into the secondary
chamber. Secondary flame burns
smoke and oily vapors from the
primary chamber.
Problems with domestic incinerators
include:
a Limited air supply
b Small combustion chamber volume
c Low flue gas temperature
d Poor residue quality
e Odors
f Air pollution - fly ash, smoke
g Lack of proper insulation
h Danger of flashbacks
i Personal cost to homeowners usually
more than municipal collection
j Householder may cut back on timer
to save gas
k Householder may pile incinerator
full of wet material it can not
handle.
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Volume Reduction I: Onsite Systems
C Flue-Fed Incineration - Primarily apart-
ment house systems which are composed
of a single or multiple basement chamber
with either an integral flue for both refuse
delivery, and flue-gas exhaust, or a.
double flue comprising one flue for refuse
delivery and other for flue-gas exhaust.
1 The elementary designs of single-flue
incinerators have proved unsatisfactory
for achieving complete combustion of
refuse.
a Excess of combustibles found in
residue
b Incompletely oxidized materials
discharged to the atmosphere con-
tain a wide range of hydrocarbons
and other odorous and harmful
emissions including:
1) Highly odorous aldehydes - acrid,
citric, rancid butter
2) Organic acids and esters - fruity
3) Small amounts of oxides of
nitrogen
4) Small amounts of sulfur compounds
c Fly ash, charred paper, and other
particulate materials discharged to
the atmosphere.
d Smoke and odorous gases from flue
escape into corridors
2 Despite the disadvantages, existing
apartment house flue-fed incinerators
have continued in use in some
communities because they are:
a Simple and convenient for the
occupant
b Economical for the apartment owner
c Reduces load on municipal disposal
facilities
D Home Compaction Units
V METHODS OF ONSITE VOLUME
REDUCTION FOR MULTIPLE - FAMILY
UNITS, HOSPITALS, OFFICE BUILDINGS
A Pulping^' - A process in which paper
wastes are ground in a water vortex then
squeezed semi-dry. Originally designed
for elimination of secret documents -
banks use them.
1 Advantages:
a Provide fast and reduced handling
of wastes
b Aid prevention of contamination of
hospitals
c 80% volume reduction
d Good for "high-rise" developments
e Can have more than one service
unit serving central dewatering unit
f Has trash receptacle; restaurants
save silverware
2 Disadvantages:
a Expensive initial cost
b Require specialized equipment
c Chutes may plug up
d Increase water consumption
B Compaction
A method of onsite volume reduction,
consisting of packaging refuse under
compression into paper sacks or containers.
1 Advantages:
a High compaction ratio up to 75%
b Reduce space needed for waste
storage
c Eliminate rubbish barrels
d Quieter, lighter, easier to take
refuse to collection point
e Eliminate onsite incineration where
air pollution legislation is in force
f Reduce manhours
g Reduce handling and hauling costs
h Can be manually operated; or
automatically with chutes
2 Disadvantages:
a Require compressed air for some
models
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Volume Reduction I: Onsite Systems
b Must have facilities for wheeling
containers to collection truck
c Chutes plug
d Chutes must be sanitized
VI OTHER ITEMS CONCERNING ON-SITE
VOLUME REDUCTION
A Research
B Planning for New Buildings
C Ordinances and Enforcements
D Field Evaluation Techniques
4
REFERENCES
1 APWA, Municipal Refuse Disposal, Public
Administration Service, Chicago,
Illinois, 2nd Ed. 528 pp. 1966.
2 U.S. Public Health Service. Community
Wide Installation of Household Garbage
Grinders. Washington, GPO, 41 pp.
1952.
3 Kaiser, E.R. Unsolved Problems With
Flue-Fed Incinerators, APCA Journal,
Vol. 11, No. 5, 524-527. May 1961
4 Incinerator Institute of America, 1. 1. A.
Incinerator Standards. New York.
April 1963.
5 Waste Handling Now Critical for Planners.
Material Handling Engineering, p. 64.
November 1966.
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VOLUME REDUCTION II: CENTRAL SYSTEMS
Training Staff*
I INTRODUCTION
Even with on-site volume reduction methods
finding increasing use in the United States,
there still exists a very real need for more
centralized volume reduction systems.
Some of the newer approaches to volume
reduction are grinding, baling and liquid-
waste pulping. All of these techniques
serve to reduce the amount of land required
for final disposal.
II GRINDING
To date refuse grinding has been utilized
principally in conjunction with the com-
posting process. Recently the grinding
process has been considered for use with
baling, sanitary landfill, and incineration.
Several manufacturers are now producing
or developing grinders suitable for use with
municipal refuse.
A Reasons For Grinding
1 Some volume reduction achieved
2 Elimination of voids
3 Permits easier handling of material
4 Permits easier compaction of material
5 Homogenizes material somewhat
6 Promotes more complete burnout from
incineration
B Disadvantages of Grinding
1 Some materials not grindable
2 Need for downtime alternative procedure
C Grinder Designs
1 Horizontal hammermills - Floating
hammers on a rapidly rotating rotor
strike the material. When sufficient
size reduction is achieved, the material
passes through grate bars. Several
mills may be arranged in series to
achieve even further particle size
reduction.
'"Training Branch, Division of Technical
Operations, Solid Waste Management Office,
Cincinnati, Ohio
2 Vertical hammermills - These are
similar to horizontal mills except that
the rotor is now vertical. Material is
fed in at the top of the mill and passes
down through a series of rapidly moving
hammers. No grate system is used.
3 Other designs
a Impact mills
b Knife hogs
III BALING
Baling of material has been widely practiced
by agriculture and industry. Balers have
been developed to handle material ranging
from hay to paper to metal. The refuse
balers being developed now in the U. S. are
generally variations of the older baler
designs.
A Advantages of Baling
1 Volume reduction
2 Increased payload after transfer
3 Easy handling
4 Better dust and odor control
5 Possible use for bales
B Disadvantages of Baling
1 Non-baleable items exist
2 Too high moisture content can cause
extrusion of juices
3 Need down-time alternative procedure
or stand-by baler
C Baler Designs
1 Agricultural type baler - The basic baler
has been '"beefed-up" to withstand
abrasiveness of solid waste.
a Nearly continuous operation
b Single reciprocating hydraulic ram
SW. VR. cs. 1. 11. 69 1
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Volume Reduction II: Central Systems
c Compression is one direction only
d Tie-wires used to enclose bale
2 Scrap metal type baler - This baler is
similar to junk automobile balers.
a Batch operation - one bale per cycle
b Several hydraulic rams used
c Compression in two or three direc-
tions
d Bales may or may not be enclosed
3 The Tezuka-Kosan Press - This is
essentially a large scrap metal type
baler. Publicity concerning this baler
has been widespread.
Consists of:
a Preliminary compression system
(pressure of 221 to 425 pounds per
square inch)
b Main compression system - two
step pressure exerted (675 psi, then
5120 psi)
c Optional 12 cylinder kneading
sequence main compression system
available (5, 278 psi)
d May enclose bales with chicken wire
and coat with cement or asphalt
e Bale height determined by compressi-
bility or refuse
D Grinding May Be Beneficial To Baling For
the Following Reasons:
1 Increase bale densities
2 More uniform moisture distribution
3 Less loss of fines
4 Less presorting
5 Less bridging problems
IV LIQUID WASTE PULPING
Recently, wet-paper pulping equipment
has been adapted to handle general muni-
cipal refuse. The addition of water to the
refuse apparently makes a large portion
of the wastes (particularly cardboard and
paper) more readily grindable.
A The pulper consists of a drum, into which
refuse and water are mixed. At the bottom
of the drum is a rapidly rotating grinding
blade overriding a perforated face plate.
The pulped material is extruded through
this plate. Other features of this pulper
are:
1 Junk-chute where nongrmdables are
automatically ejected
2 Grit (ground glass and heavy particles)
is separated from process in liquid
cyclone
3 Pulp is dewatered
4 Process water is recycled
B Material From This Process Is Not Used
For Baling
V GRINDING AND BALING COSTS
Grinding and baling costs are not well
established yet, since most of this equip-
ment is still in the developmental phase.
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SECTION II
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TRANSFER OPERATIONS
Training Staff*
I INTRODUCTION
A Background
1 Transfer stations used during horse-
drawn collection era
2 Transfer stations made obsolete by
faster trucks used for refuse collection
B The Need for Transfer Stations Today
1 Close-in disposal sites becoming
harder to find
2 Wasting time of collection crew during
haul
3 Collection agency and disposal agency
may be separate
C Considerations for Use of Transfer
Operations
1 Cost Analysis and engineering
economics
2 Efficiency of system
3 Length of haul to disposal site
4 Time of travel to disposal site
5 Suitability of transfer operations to
area
II REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD TRANSFER
STATION
A System Must he Equal to or Better Than
Collection System In:
1 Capacity
2 Sanitation
3 Reliability
4 Adequacy
5 Standards of operation
^Training Branch, Division of Technical
Operations, Solid Waste Management Office,
Cincinnati, Ohio
B System Must Not'
1 Provide uneconomical delivery at the
disposal site
2 Create confusion or loss of time
3 Create nuisances
III DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
A Location of Transfer Stations
1 Locate near center of population it
serves
2 Be convenient for supplemental modes
of transportation
3 Minimize public objection
B Actual Design of System Depends On:
1 Character of refuse handled
2 Quantity of refuse handled
3 Disposal method
4 Site availability
5 Community attitude
6 Collection equipment and methods
7 Any peculiar condition of transport
C Other Design Considerations
1 Provisions for sanitation
2 Layout for efficiency
3 Accessories
IV TRANSFER EQUIPMENT
A Transportation Equipment
1 Large body motor trucks with or
without compaction
SW.TR.to.3.11.69
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Transfer Operations
2 Water transport
a Self-propelled
b Ancillary propulsion
3 Rail haul equipment
a Adaption of existing equipment
b Specialized equipment
B Transfer Stations - General Types
1 Direct dump - utilizes gravity
2 Storage type - involves rehandling
3 Ancillary equipment
a Air pollution control devices
b Handling equipment
c Sweepers
C Mobile Transfer Equipment - Considered
As Collection System
1 Train or scooter system
2 Detachable containers
V ECONOMICS OF TRANSFER
A Transfer Cost Usually Linked With
Disposal Operation
B To Justify Use of Transfer, Total Cost
of Collection, Transfer and Disposal
Must Be Less Than Total Cost of Collection
and Direct Haul With Disposal.
C Transfer Station Costs
1 Total unproductive cost = per ton
cost of owning, operating and
maintaining station, plus billing and
accounting ^xpense, plus expense of
extra time used at disposal site
Haul cost - given in dollars
per minute
per ton
Plot Cost per ton versus round trip
driving time (minutes) for the transfer
system and its alternatives.
VI TYPICAL COSTS
A Los Angeles County, California
1 Operation and maintenance $2.49/ton
2 Amortization 0.19/ton
3 Total 2.68/ton
4 Includes transfer to sanitary landfill
B Orange County, California
1 Operation and maintenance $0.72/ton
2 Cost of transfer haul 0. 92/ton
3 Total 1.64/ton
4 Includes no collection costs
26 miles round trip; 4 stations - average
910 tons/day each
VII ASSOCIATED OPERATIONS
A Grinding and Pulverizing
B Baling
C Salvage
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Transfer Operations
REFERENCES 2 Orange County Road Department. The
Orange County Refuse Disposal Program.
1 American Public Works Association, Santa Ana: Orange County Road
Committee on Refuse Collection, Department. 44pp., 1055.
Refuse Collection Practice, APWA
Research Foundation Project No. 101, 3 Stirrup, F.L. F. Inst. P.C. Public
Chicago: Public Administration Service, Cleansing: Refuse Disposal, Pergamon
3rd Edition, 522pp. 1966. Press Ltd. , London. 144 pp., 1965.
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INCINERATION
Training Slat'i
I INTRODUCTION
A Incineration is normally used as a disposal
method in favor of some other type because
of:
1 Shorter haul distances because of a
more central location.
2 Nonavailability of suitable sites or
conditions conducive to other disposal
methods.
3 In some cases community officials may
feel that they have "grown up1' to the
point where incineration is what they
need regardless of the economics or
other factors, or they may have the idea
that a physical structure will be easier
to sell the citizens.
B The Purpose of Incineration is to Provide
as Complete a Combustion Process as
Possible to-
1 Reduce the volume of the solid waste
to a more easily disposed of quantity.
2 Minimize environmental pollution from
the process such as air, water, or
land.
3 The residue should contain as little
combustibles and putrescibles as
possible. (Present recommendations
call for a maximum of 5% combustibles
and 1% putrescibles in terms of total
dry weight of residues. )
C The Process Should be Planned, Designed
and Operated to Reduce Such Nuisances
as:
1 Traffic problems such as heavy truck
travel through residential areas.
2 Dust which is generated in operations
such as unloading and charging.
3 Noise which may be particularly
objectionable at night.
4 Steam plume which may be aesthetically
objectionable.
-Training Branch, Division of Technical
Operations, Solid Waste Management Office,
Cincinnati, Ohio
5 High stacks which may not be in
conformance with area architecture.
IT GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
A Site Selection
1 Population growths and trends to
determine a site as close as possible
to the center of generation.
2 Good access to the site is essential.
3 Incinerators require a complete range
of utilities.
a Electricity for cranes, fans, grates,
etc.
b Water supply for sanitary, fire
protection and process purposes.
c Sewers and in some cases pretreat-
ment facilities to handle waste
waters.
d Gas for auxiliary fuel and plant
heating.
e Telephone communication with
entire solid waste management
system.
4 Topography and soil conditions can
have a major effect on plant construc-
tion costs.
5 Land cost is a major consideration in
many cases.
6 Residue disposal site must be considered
when selecting the incinerator site.
7 Meterological conditions and the
relationship to air pollution potential
is particularly important.
8 Public opinion and political considera-
tions may be one of the most difficult
of all the problems associated with
the selection of a site for an incinerator.
SW. IN. do. 3.7. 68 1
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Incineration
B Selection of the Size of the Incinerator
Required is Based On;
1 A design period must be selected which
'the incinerator is expected to serve
normally 20-30 years. Bonding or
amortization limits may influence this.
2 Predictions for this period must be
made for:
a Population growth
b Per capita solid waste production
c What sources of solid wastes will
be handled
3 Stages of construction can be used to
meet greater solid waste production
demands at various time periods during
the expected life of the incinerator.
4 The hours of operation to meet the
demands of production should be
continually studied to provide the best
economy of operation.
5 There are three types of capacities
which must be defined and applied to
each incinerator:
a Design Capacity - the quantity of
solid waste expressed in tons per
24 hour period that the designer
expects that the plant will handle.
b Rated Capacity - the quantity of
solid waste expressed in tons per
24 hour period that the incinerator
will process while meeting all
environmental criteria such as air
pollution, water pollution and
acceptability of residue. (This may
be more or less than the design
capacity.)
c Actual Capacity - the quantity of
solid waste expressed in tons per
24 hour period that the operator of
the incinerator actually processes,
e.g., the incinerator may only
operate for 8 to 16 hours out of the
24 hour period.
Ill DESIGN AND OPERATION OF UNIT
PROCESSES
A Scales - These are essential to the
incineration process in order to provide
information on efficiency, operational
changes required, and to assist in planning
for future facilities.
B Unloading Area - The area must be
sufficiently large to provide easy access
to vehicles and enough dumping areas to
prevent a back-up of traffic.
C Storage Pit - Must be of durable construc-
tion, cleanable, and provided with a
method of removing nonincmerable
materials.
1 Capacity must not be less than 100%
of design capacity but should be small
enough that it is periodically emptied.
2 Dust control, although difficult to
achieve, must be provided in this area.
D Furnace Charging Equipment
1 Types available include overhead crane
and charging hopper, conveyor-fed
and end-loading rams.
2 Overhead cranes have been by far the
most prevalent in incinerator designs.
a Two types are used:
1) Monorail - horizontal movement
in only one direction
2) Bridge - horizontal movement in
both directions
b The cranes serve three important
functions which must be considered
in their selection and operation.
1) Charging of the furnaces
2) Casting of material from the
front of the pit to the rear
3) Mixing of the solid wastes to
obtain a more homogeneous
mixture for burning
E Types of Furnaces
1 Batch feed - May have fixed or move-
able grates
a Has the advantage of being cheaper
in initial cost, and smaller capacities
are possible.
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Incineration
b Has several distinct disadvantages
including very poor temperature
control, high maintenance costs,
poor residue quality and a high
degree of air pollution potential.
2 Continuous Feed - Moveable grates
required.
a Advantages over batch feed include
larger capacity, better temperature
and air supply control, greater
flexibility in operating rate, and
much less thermal shock to furnace
refractories.
b The disadvantages compared to
batch feed plants are actually minor
compared to the advantages. They
include a higher initial cost and a
higher degree of skilled labor.
F Grate Types
1 Fixed grates for batch feed incinerators
require hand stoking to remove the
residue. This type is almost obsolete
for municipal incineration.
2 Conical grates sometimes equipped
with moving arms for batch or inter-
mittent feed furnaces.
3 Traveling grates which are a continuous
belt on which the burning takes place.
Only mixing and breaking up that occurs
is when the solid wastes falls from one
grate to the next if the furnace has a
series of these grates.
4 Rocking grates move the solid wastes
through the combustion chamber as the
grate sections alternately raise and
push the material ahead. This action
breaks up the material and enhances
more complete combustion.
5 Reciprocating grates, by means of
alternate moveable horizontal grate
sections which slide back and forth,
move the solid wastes through the
combustion chamber and breaks up
the material.
6 Rotary kilns, in addition to some type
of moveable grates for drying and
ignition, provide for an excellent
residue with very complete burnout
because of the breaking up and mixing
action which the material receives
while tumbling through the kiln.
7 There are other types of grates used
in Europe and other places which
appear to have some merit for incinera-
tion. In addition, other ty; >s are
being investigated in this c untry.
G Combustion Chambers
1 Most present-day combustion chambers
are refractory brick lined in order to
maintain incineration temperature.
a One waterwall type furnace has
been built in this country and the
degree of success has not been
determined at this time.
b Temperatures are normally main-
tained within a range of 1500 - 1800°F
to provide for combustion of odor
producing materials but not damage
the refractory lining.
2 The design of the dimensions of the
chamber should be done on an
individual basis. The BTU content
of the solid wastes must be determined
and the best design based on this. Some
rules of thumb which should be used
only with caution are:
a Grate area based on a heat release
of approximately 300, 000 Btu/sq. ft. /hr.
b The primary combustion chamber
volume based on 20, 000 - 35, 000
Btu/cu.ft./hr.
c The width of the grates and the
furnace are determined mainly by
the grate widths available.
3 Combustion and cooling air is intro-
duced into the furnace at various
points for various purposes:
c Underfire air is used to promote
burning on the grate and cool the
grates. An excess of air introduced
here will result in an increased
particulate air pollution loading.
b Overfire air through the sidewalls
and roof to provide for combustion
of the gases and provide turbulence
and mixing.
H Residue Handling and Disposal
1 The residue from normal incineration
will be about 20-25% by weight and
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Incineration
10 - 15% by volume of the solid wastes
charged.
2 After leaving the end of the grate the
residue is quenched either by
a Water sprays before direct dis-
charge to transport vehicle.
b Submersion in a water bath from
which it is carried by conveyor to
transport vehicle.
3 The residue is a corrosive and
abrasive material which cause consider-
able wear in all the equipment used to
handle the residue,
4 Residue from almost all the presently
operating incinerators requires
disposal in a sanitary landfill. Excessive
combustible and putrescible content
excludes disposal by open dumping.
5 In some cases such as rotary kiln
incinerators, metals and tin cans may
be salvaged from the residue.
I Air Pollution Control Equipment
1 All incinerators must be equipped with
some type of properly maintained air
pollution control facilities.
a State and local regulations are
becoming more difficult to meet.
b The Federal code for Federal
installations requires that particu-
late emissions not exceed 0.2 grain
per standard cubic foot of dry flue
gas corrected to 12% CC>2. (Very
few of the incinerators in this
country could meet this code.)
c As better air cleaning is required,
the percentage of the construction
and operating costs for air pollution
control is increasing tremendously.
At present gaseous pollutants such
as SOX and NOX are not considered
to be a problem. They may however
at some future date, e.g., with
high temperature burning the pro-
duction of NOX will increase signi-
ficantly and may become a consider-
ation in the future.
2 Types of particulate contro] equipment -
a summary of some of the types
available:
a Settling chamber
1) Efficiency - 40 to 60%; large
particles are the only ones
efficiently removed (greater
than 40 microns).
2) Costs - installation costs are
low ($0.10 - $.30/cfm) and
operating costs are low.
b Inertial cyclones
1) Mechanical (wet cyclones are
very similar)
a) Efficiency - 75 to 90%; low
efficiency on small particles
(less than 10 microns)
b) Costs - installation costs are
medium ($0.40 - $1.20/cfm)
2) Multi-cyclones (miniature)
a) Efficiency - 90 to 98%; not
too efficient on particles less
than 5 microns.
b) Costs - installation costs are
low ($0.20 - $0.60/cfm) and
operating costs are low.
c Scrubbers
1) Flooded baffle
a) Efficiency - 90 to 99%; good
removal down to 1 micron.
b) Costs - installation costs are
medium ($0.35 - $1.00/cfm)
and operating costs are high.
2) Venturi
a) Efficiency - 90 to 99%; removal
down to submicron (less than
1 micron).
b) Costs - installation costs are
medium ($0.50 - $1.50/cfm)
and operating costs are high.
d Bag house filters (self-cleaning)
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Incineration
1) Efficiency - 98 to 99.9%; removal
down to submicron
2) Costs - installation costs are
medium ($0.75 - $2.00/cfm) and
operating costs are medium to
high.
e Electrostatic precipitator
1) Efficiency - 90 to 99. 9%; removal
down to submicron
2) Costs - installation costs are
high ($1.00 - $5.00/cfm) and
operating costs are low.
J Water Supply and Treatment
1 Water at an incinerator is used for:
a Potable sources such as drinking,
toilets, etc.
b Process purposes
1) Air pollution control
2) Sluicing fly ash
3) Cooling and residue quenching
4) Heat utilization (steam production)
5) Lubrication
6) Housekeeping
c Another important use is that of
fire fighting. Sufficient quantities
at high pressure must be available
for any fire emergencies at the
incinerator.
2 The waste waters from the plant must
be discharged in such a manner that
no water pollution will result.
a In many cases discharge of all
waste waters to a sanitary sewer
for carriage to a waste water
treatment plant.
b On-site treatment may be used
1) Some waste waters such as
residue quenching and particulate
scrubbing waters may have to be
treated before disposal through a
sanitary sewer.
2) Plants which practice recirculation
of process will require treatment
of the water before r ^circulation
can be done.
3) Where heat utilization is done
the water for boilers and other
equipment may have to be
treated before use and before
recirculation.
IV COST AND COST ACCOUNTING
A Capital Costs
1 Cost factors
a Planning costs
b Actual construction costs
c Equipment costs
2 Capital costs for incinerators range
from as low as $5000 to $10, 000 or
more per ton of design capacity.
Because of increased mechanization,
air pollution control requirements,
and construction costs are increasing.
B Total Cost of Incineration - defined as
the operating cost plus the capitalization
(amortization) cost for the incinerator
1 Operating costs include such items as:
a Labor - including fringe benefits
b Maintenance
c Overhead
d Materials and supplies
c Utilities
2 Capitalization Costs - this is the cost
to be applied for the depreciation of
the building and all major equipment
used in the process.
3 The total cost of incineration will
range from about $4.50 to $9.00 per
ton of incoming refuse processed. The
capitalization cost will vary depending
on the estimated life of the facilities
and the interest rate.
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Incineration
REFERENCES
1 Aerospace Commercial Corporation.
CPU-400 Solid Waste Disposal System,
Preliminary Design Study"! Public
Health Service Contract PH 86-67-259.
Palo Alto: Aerospace Commercial
Corporation, 1968.
2 American Public Works Association,
Committee on Refuse Disposal.
Municipal Refuse Disposal. Second
Edition, Chicago:
Service, 1966,
Public Administration
3 American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
The Incinerator Committee. Proceed-
ings of 1964 National Incinerator"
Conference. New York: AmerTcan
Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1 964.
4 American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
The Incinerator Committee. Proceed-
ings of the 1966 National Incinerator
r1 oriTe^FencTe". TTew~York~ American
iaoHety~oT"Mechanical Engineers, 1966.
5 American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
The Incinerator Committee. Proceedings
of the 1968 National Incinerator
CcinTere n ce". New~York:A merle an
SocTefy~oT~Mecnanical Engineers, 1968.
6 Day and Zimmerman Associates. ^Air-
Pollution Study_gf Municipal Incinerator
Gases. " Special Studies for Incinerator
No." b, Government of the District of
Columbia, Department of Sanitary
Engineering, February 1966. (Avail-
able from Solid Wastes Program, PHS,
C moujri.'tti, Ohio)
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SOLID WASTE - A RESOURCE
Training Staff*
I INTRODUCTION
A The definition of solid waste as a "resource1
implies that solid waste can be utilized as
a secondary source of materials to supple-
ment our natural raw materials. This
utilization, rather than disposal of any
waste material is known as salvage.
B The extent to which any salvage operation
is carried on is dependent on many vari-
ables among which are-
1 Characteristics of the waste
2 Nature of material to be salvaged from
the waste
a Form
b Concentration
3 Method necessary for salvage
a Physical
b Mechanical
c Chemical
4 Market studies
C The actual salvage operation could be used
as:
1 A volume reduction method
2 The disposal method
D Volume reduction is utilized by some in-
dustries and could be utilized by some
municipalities as a means of reducing the
total volume of waste material to ultimately
be disposed of.
E Industries and commercial establishments
use salvage operations as a disposal meth-
od by recycling the total volume of waste
material, or recovering and selling this
material to the secondary industries.
II SALVAGE POTENTIALS
A Prior to utilizing any salvage operation,
certain factors must be considered and a
*Trainmg Branch, Division ot Technical
Operations, Solid Waste Management Office,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
decision reached as to whether or not sal-
vage should be practiced.
1 Does the salvage operation fit into the
present method of disposal or operation ?
2 What is the market value of salvaged
material ?
a Cost studies
b Market trends
3 From a public health standpoint, will
the salvage operation be efficient and
most importantly, nuisance free:
a Excess noise
b Odor
c Esthetics
B Some of the advantages of utilizing salvage
are:
1 Provides a source of revenue
2 Decreases amount of refuse to be dis-
posed of
C Some of the disadvantages of utilizing sal-
vage are
1 Market for most salvage materials is
unstable.
2 During high market value the amount to
be salvaged will decrease.
3 Standby disposal facilities and/or stor-
age facilities must be provided for per-
iods of very low market value.
4 Salvage operations, if conducted as a
part of another disposal method, may
interfere with the orderly disposal of
refuse.
Ill SALVAGE AS A DISPOSAL METHOD
A In talking about salvage as a disposal meth-
od, it must be remembered that the direct
recycling or recovery of waste material is
applicable only when these wastes are
SW. GD.sv.3.7.68 1
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Solid Waste - A Resource
homogeneous and their recovery will not
interfere with the storage-collection
practices.
B The present labor and wage scales that
must be adhered to by industry plus the
fact that most secondary industries will
only buy properly cleaned, sorted, and in
some cases, prepared items limits the
cyclic reuse of waste materials to those of
commercial and industrial establishments.
1 Reuse if material within same industry.
2 Sold to secondary industry as source of
revenue.
3 Salvage by scavenger
a Generally on bid with contract basis
for one year
b Scavenger pays industry annual fee
for pick-up of industrial waste and
scavenger uses waste as source of
revenue
c Scavenger picks up waste with indus-
try paying scavenger for service.
IV SALVAGE FOR VOLUME REDUCTION
A With respect to municipal solid waste, sal-
vage operations have been initiated as a
volume reduction method.
1 To extend life of disposal facility.
2 With available market, to provide source
of revenue.
B These salvage operations could occur at
numerous areas:
1 At point of generation
2 During collection
3 At disposal facilities
C Salvage may be carried on by the house-
holder.
1 Paper
2 Cardboard
3 Metal
D Materials may be salvaged during, or after,
collection-
1 By collection personnel
2 At transfer stations
E Materials may also be salvaged at the dis-
posal facilities.
1 Sanitary landfill
a Storage area
b Separation area
2 Incinerators
a Prior to charging
b After incineration
3 Composting plants, normally as integral
part of the process.
F Industrial wastes can also be reduced in
volume by utilizing salvage operations.
V SALVAGEABLE MATERIALS
A Garbage
1 The method of disposal known as reduc-
tion is a process through which garbage
is converted to fats and oils with a res-
idue called tankage.
2 This method of volume reduction was
popular and productive prior to World
War I.
3 In the reduction process, garbage was
cooked with steam in digesters and
grease was extracted and sold to soap
manufacturers. The residue, tankage,
was sold as feed for livestock.
4 The reduction process is now obselete
due to the use of synthetic or petrochem-
icals in soap manufacturing.
5 Garbage has also been used as feed for
livestock, notably hogs.
a All states require cooking of garbage
b One state prohibits feeding hogs garbage
B Rags
1 Rags salvaged from municipal refuse is
of little use to the paper industry today
as only natural fibers can be used in
paper manufacturing.
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Solid Waste - A Resource
2 Textile wastes (both natural and synthe-
tic fibers) are widely used by the textile
industry as a major source of revenue.
These wastes not only supplement the
primary raw materials used in the in-
dustry, but have a wide range of nontex-
tile applications:
a Filler materials
b Insulating materials
c Gift box nesting used by jewelers
d Absorbent medical cotton
e Mattress manufacturing
f Papermaking
g Linoleum
3 Competition from plastics has closed
some markets for textile wastes entire-
ly, notably in the manufacture of
records.
C Paper and Paper Products
1 Waste paper continues to be the most
important source of the so called sec-
ondary fibers in papermaking, with
25% of the material being used by the
industry coming from salvage.
2 Grading, sorting and decontaminating
of waste papers has become a vital seg-
ment of the industry, as plastics, ad-
hesives and other coatings pose numer-
ous problems in reclamation.
3 Waste paper can be used in manufac-
turing:
a Container board
b Box board
c Gypsums and paper board
d Cylinder board
e Roofing materials
f Molded paper containers
D Glass
1 The trade name for broken glass is cul-
let, and broken glass salvaged for
reheating - whatever its origin - is
universally known as cullet.
2 An advantage of cullet, that has been
properly sorted and segregated, is
not only that it economically stretches
the supply of virgin materials, but that
it melts more rapidly than the virgin
sands, and thus shortens the melt time
of a furnace batch.
3 The trend toward throw-away "dispos-
able" bottles has essentially eliminated
the market for salvaged bottles from
municipal solid waste.
4 The major source of cullet is from indus-
trial wastes and is generally recycled
within the same industry.
5 Scrap glass is also sold by the primary
manufacturers to the secondary indus-
tries for various uses:
a Spun glass decorative fabrics
b Match and abrasive industry
c Flashlight lens
d Flat glass circles for gauges
E Tin Cans (Ferrous Metal)
1 Tin cans are salvaged for the ferrous
metal content rather than the tin content.
2 Salvaged tin cans are used in:
a Copper precipitation
b Recovery of ferrous metal
F Rubber
1 Rubber scrap today is segregated into
several hundred grades, with most of
this scrap rubber being reclaimed from
automobile tires.
2 Various grades of recovered rubber are
ground and chemically treated by the
reclaimer and processed into rubber
sheets marketed for the manufacture
of new rubber articles.
3 An idea of the value of secondary scrap
rubber may be gained from the fact that
a 20 pound tire contains the equivalent
of 6 pounds crude rubber and 100 pounds
of old inner tubes equals 65 pounds of
crude rubber.
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Solid Waste - A Resource
4 Scrap rubber can be used in the manu-
facturing of:
a New rubber items
b Recapping tires
G Plastics
1 Plastic wastes are almost completely
recovered from the plastic industry as
an in-house salvage operation.
2 Plastic scrap can be utilized in manu-
facturing:
a Protective coatings
b Packaging materials
c Toys
H Industrial Wastes
1 Metal scrap
a Principal nonferrous scrap metals
commercially recovered in the United
States are copper, brass, lead, zinc,
aluminum, nickel and magnesium.
b Most collectors sell their scrap to
wholesale metal dealers. The dealer
segregates the scrap according to
types and grades, based upon the
actual metallic content and degrees
of contamination.
2 Food processing and farm animal wastes.
a Feathers can be hydrolyzed and fed
back to poultry.
b Chicken manure is being fed to cattle.
c Cull fruits and vegetables are fed to
stock.
d Charcoal has been made from fruit
pits.
VI SPECIAL SALVAGE ITEMS
A Incineration Wastes
1 Waste heat can be used to produce steam.
a Used for heating buildings
b Conversion of salt water' 2)
c Many complicating factors to consider
2 Residue - as a fill material
3 Fly ash
a Concrete Products
b Fertilizers
B Automobile Bodies^3*
1 Approximately 6 million automobiles
were retired from the highway in 1965.
a All of these are not salvaged as metal
scrap.
b Many are stripped at auto wrecking
yards.
c Some are used to improve fishing
sites or control erosion.
d Others are held in indefinite storage.
2 New changes in steel scrap processing
have decreased the market for automo-
bile scrap.
a The newer furnaces have reduced the
percentage of scrap which may be
added.
b Changes since advent of oxygen con-
verter furnaces;
1) Open hearth furnace - 35 to 50%
scrap
2) Oxygen converter - 25 to 30%
scrap
3 The car body is a solid waste product,
legally, administratively, and physically
cumbersome to handle.
a Burning out body prepares it for la-
ter bundling, or at least accelerates
the rusting process.
b Stripped cars may be flattened with
a D-8 or D-9 tractor, or with a car
crusher; or compressed into a bale.
c Stripped cars may be sheared into
scrap, before or after burning.
d Complete processing plants reduce
body into sized and sorted scrap,
salvage nonferrous metals, and
remove nonmetals and dirt.
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Solid Waste - A Resource
REFERENCES 3 Institute of Scrap Iron and Steel. Pro-
ceedings of the National Conference
1 American Public Works Association, on Auto Salvage! Washington: Insti-
Committee on Refuse Disposal. tute of Scrap Iron and Steel. October
Municipal Refuse Disposal. Chicago: 1, 1964.
"Public Administration Service.
522 pp. 1961. 4 Lipsett, Charles H. Industrial Wastes
and Salvage, 1963.
2 Velzy, Charles R. and Velzy, Charles O.
Unique Incinerator Develops Power and
Provides Salt Water Conversion. Public
Works 95:4:90, April 1964.
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SANITARY LANDFILL I
Training Staff*
I INTRODUCTION
A Definitions and Description
1 American Society of Civil Engineers
"Sanitary landfill is a method of dis-
posing of refuse on land without creating
nuisances or hazards to public health
or safety, by utilizing the principles
of engineer ing to confine the refuse to the
smallest practical area, to reduce it to the
smallest practical volume, and to cover it
with a layer of earth at the conclus ion of
each day's operation or at such more fre-
quent intervals as may be necessary. "^'
2 Training Branch, Office of Solid
Waste Management Programs, EPA
"A Sanitary landfill can be defined
as a system for the final disposal of
solid waste on land, in which the waste
is spread and compacted on an inclined,
minimized working face in a series of
cells and a daily cover of earth is pro-
vided so that no hazard or insult to the
environment results."
B History and Development
1 Used by the Greeks over 2, 000 years
ago (burial without compaction)
2 Early municipal waste burial in United
States
a Champaign, Illinois, 1904
b Columbus, Ohio, 1906-1910
c Davenport, Iowa, 1916
3 Mixing and covering waste in inert
material (soil or ash)
a Germany
b England, called "controlled tipping"
4 Landfill practices with compaction by
heavy equipment started in U.S. around
1930
-'Training Branch, Division of Technical
Operations, Solid Waste Management Office,
Cincinnati, Ohio
a New York City
b Fresno, California; Jean L. Vincenz
originated term "Sanitary Landfill"
5 Used by U.S. Army during World War II
II METHODS OF SANITARY LANDFILLING
A Area Method
1 Best suited for gently sloping land and
is also used where quarries, ravines
or other suitable land depressions exist.
2 Cell walls are formed by the adjacent
cells.
3 Normally the earth cover material is
hauled in or obtained from, adjacent
areas.
B Trench Method
1 Best suited for flat or gently sloping
land where the water table is not near
the surface.
2 A trench is cut in the ground and the
solid waste placed at the bottom of a
working slope.
3 Excavated earth from the cut is used
as the cover material.
Ill PLANNING AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
A Preliminary Planning - Should Include
Consideration Of-
1 A competent designer and planning group
2 A public information program
3 A survey of solid waste practices
4 Financing methods
5 Use of completed site
6 Site zoning arrangements
SW.SL.doI.7. 1.70 1
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Sanitary Landfill I
B Design Responsibilities and Resources
1 Planner or planning agency
a Responsible for area planning
b Extent of planning detail does vary
c Legal responsibility will vary with
establishing authority
2 Design engineer
a Must collect and evaluate data,
schedule implementation activities,
and consider such items as landfill
life, public health and personnel
safety potentials, and ultimate use.
b Should have a thorough understanding
of the state, county and local laws,
rules or regulations concerning
sanitary landfill site selection, design
and operation.
c Responsible for final site selection
1) Each government agency having
area authority should be contacted
2) Health department should not be
excluded as an information source
3) State geological survey agencies
may assist in site selection
4) The U.S. Soil Conservation Service
may provide additional data
3 Additional resource personnel
a Land surveyor
1) Property description and location
2) Topographic description of existing
conditions
3) Field layout of proposed project
4) Final topography survey and
facility location
b Geologist
1) Soil types and suitability
2) Bedrock elevations and rock types
c Hydrogeologist
1) Estimated ground water table
elevation
2) Surface water location and
interrelationship
d Meteorologist or climatologist
1) Prevailing winds
2) Rainfall predictions
3) Frost penetration determinations
4) Temperature variations
e Health officials
1) State and local laws
2) Sanitation practices
3) Nuisance evaluations
4) Aesthetic acceptability
f Public works officials
1) Potable and fire control water
supplies
2) Sewers storm and sanitary
3) Roads bridges and tunnels
4) Collection methods (if applicable)
g Utility officials
1) Telephone availability
2) Electricity location and adequacy
3) Estimate of available assistance
h Equipment specialist
1) Selection of proper equipment
2) Maintenance methods
3) Proper operating techniques
4 Other public officials may be able to
assist in site selection and in the
solicitation of citizen support.
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Sanitary Landfill I
5 The engineer's responsibility does not
end with initial design or construction
of facilities but includes:
a Continuing operating evaluation
b Ultimate usage
IV SITE SELECTION
A Land Requirements
1 In place refuse densities
2 Cover material requirements
3 Per capita refuse production
B Relative Location to Generating Areas
1 Time spent in hauling refuse more
important than distance
2 Highway systems available with ready
access to and from the site
3 The capacities of vehicles operating in
the system
4 Utilization of transfer operations
C Relationship to Community Growth
1 Direction and magnitude of projected
growth
2 Redevelopment and density of refuse
3 Long-range area development
4 Commercial and industrial development
D Utilities
1 Electrical power for lights and equip-
ment
2 Water supply for sanitary purposes,
equipment washing and fire protection
3 Sewer service for sanitary waste
4 Telephone, radio communications
E Nuisances That Can Affect Site
1 Traffic to and from site
2 The noise of mechanical equipment
3 Dust is inevitable under certain
weather conditions
F Soil Conditions
1 Less suitable soils can sometimes
be improved.
2 Cover material may have to be brought
to site
G Ground Water
1 Location of ground water table and
proximity to surface
2 Leachate from fill
H Access to Site
1 Preferably over high speed, unrestricted
routes with easy on-off access in both
directions
2 All weather on-site roads constructed
for heavy traffic
a Laid out to eliminate crossing of
traffic and consequent tie-ups
b Waiting space on-site for scales
c Parking space for employee's
automobiles and stand-by equipment
3 Traffic controlled by signs and, if
necessary, traffic control lights
I Legal Aspects
1 Jurisdiction, or lack of same, in any
area for solid waste disposal
2 State, county and/or local laws
J Public Opinion
Public opinion toward sanitary landfilling
is generally negative and the term
"sanitary landfill" is synonymous with
open dump.
K Political Considerations
Political considerations must also be
considered and may range from lack of
political support to lack of authority.
L Climatic Conditions
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Sanitary Landfill I
1 Wind
2 Rain or snow
3 Temperature
M Ultimate Land Use
1 Parks and playgrounds
2 Industrial sites
3 Agriculture
V SITE PREPARATION
A Preliminary Work
1 On-site inspection, site surveys,
clearance and cleanup of site
2 Construction of all weather access and
on-site roads
3 Provision of utilities and drainage
facilities
4 Provision of adequate employee
facilities
5 Provision of weighing facilities
6 Provision of communication facilities
7 Provision of adequate fire protection
8 Provision of equipment maintenance
facilities
9 Provision of adequate fencing
B Nature of Work
It must be remembered that the finished
design of a sanitary landfill is an engineered
project and all work undertaken to prepare
the site and operate the sanitary landfill
be considered as any other engineered
job including:
1 Use of proper equipment
2 Use of proper construction techniques
3 Adequate supervision of all preliminary
site work and actual landfill operation
C Additional Facilities
1 Guard rails or bumper logs at the top
of the working face
2 Guide barrels and directional signs
3 Identification signs and information
signs
4 A fence completely enclosing the
landfill site
5 Drop-off boxes for after hours usage
VI SANITARY LANDFILL EQUIPMENT
The selection of equipment for sanitary land-
fill operations is dependent upon many variables,
including (1) type of refuse to be handled,
(2) compaction requirements, and (3) versatility.
A Crawler Tractor
The crawler tractor, and less commonly,
the rubber-tired tractor and the steel
wheel compactor, are basic pieces of equip-
ment. The crawler tractor can use dozer
blades, landfill blades, front-end loader
and can pull scraper. It is versatile and
can perform all operations including (1)
spreading, (2) compaction, (3) covering,
(4) trenching, and (5) hauling material.
B Rubber-Tired Tractor
1 Found where only one piece of equip-
ment can be purchased
2 With bucket can rapidly carry and
distribute cover material
C Steel-Wheeled Compactor
Can increase densities. Used where
operation is on relatively flat terrain and
normally found working in conjunction with
crawler-tractor.
D Auxiliary Equipment
1 Water truck to keep down dust
2 Sheepfoot and rubber-tired roller
additional compaction
3 Dump trucks for hauling cover material
4 Motor gradersfor finished grading of
completed fill
5 Refuse shredders
6 Draglines
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SANITARY LANDFILL II
Training Staff*
I OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
The cell concept is used in both the area and
trench methods.
A Cell Development
CELL CONSTRUCTION
layer Thickness
Solid Watt* Spread In 2 Foot layers
Compacted M I Fool
LAYER THICKNESS
\
\
t S 4 5 4 ? «.« 10
LAYER THICKNESS
NO. OF PASSES
Density
1500
WOO
500
123456789 10
NO, Of CASSIS
^'Training Branch, Division of Technical
Operations, Solid Waste Management Office,
Cincinnati, Ohio
This technique requires the initial
construction of a 3:1 slope or berm.
Refuse is deposited at base of slope,
spread upward in two foot layers
and then compacted to about a one
foot thickness.
This recommended practice is based
on field determinations which show
that an optimum density is achieved
by using a two foot thickness.
To achieve this optimum density
requires about 5 passes over each
layer of refuse.
SW. SL. doll. 8. 12.70
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Sanitary Landfill II
CELL CONSTRUCTION
WORKING FACE COVER
Compacted Earth
Minimum 6 Inch*!
CEIL CONSTRUCTION
FINAL TOP COVER
Compacted Earth
Minimum » fMl
CELL CONSTRUCTION
CELL HEIGHT
Compacted Solid Watttt
About 8-IO r.et High-
CELL CONSTRUCTION
INTERMEDIATE TOP COVER
Compacted Eorth
''
Building of cell continues (as outlined
in step 1 above) until the day's in-
coming refuse is compacted in place
or desired length is reached. The
working face is then covered with
6" of compacted soil.
Top of cell is covered by no less
than two feet of compacted earth.
Additional mounding can be provided
to allow for settlement and graded
to prevent ponding on surface.
Cell height is measured vertically
and is normally 8-10 feet. This will
vary and in some cases may be
greater, depending on the skill of
the operator and amount of refuse
being handled.
If additional lifts (layers of cells)
are to be placed above, an inter-
mediate cover of 1 foot of compacted
earth can be provided.
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Sanitary Landfill II
8 Other considerations
a In area method, side slopes are also
maintained at 3:1 slope and covered
with 6" of compacted earth.
b Minimum cell width in Trench Method
is about twice the width of a tractor.
c Cell width in Area Method dependent
on amount of solid waste deposited
and number of pieces of equipment
working on slope.
d In both methods the width is main-
tained as narrow as possible without
interfering with unloading of refuse
and movement of equipment.
B Control of Dust and Blowing Litter
1 Protection of existing terrain
2 Litter fences
3 Water sprays and waste oil on on-site
roads
4 Apply ground cover
C Winter Operations
1 Sanitary landfill trenches may be dug in
advance of cold weather
2 Area to be excavated may be covered
with leaves or straw
3 Cover materials may be stockpiled in
loose fashion
D Wet Weather Operations
1 Standby disposal site near all-weather
access road
2 All-weather access roads constructed
to the disposal point as fill progresses
3 Cover material covered or demolition
and construction materials stockpiled
for this purpose
4 Surface drainage slopes and ditches
E Ground Water and Related Pollution
Problems
1 High water table operational difficulties
a Inability to properly compact the
refuse
b Flotation of refuse
c Limitations on the mobility and
usefulness of landfill equipment and/or
collection vehicles
2 Water pollution caused by direct hori-
zontal or verticle leaching as result of:
a Chemical contaminants
b Biological contaminants
c Decomposition products
C0
2) CH4
3) Hydrogen sulfide
4) NH
3 Remedial action
Sites having high water tables may be
utilized by using one or more of the
following methods:
a Use only that portion of the site suf-
ficiently above the water table to
preclude pollution (2* to 5' above
known highwater is recommended as
a minimum). Cover material may
be obtained-
1) On-site, above the water table;
or,
2) Tn an adjacent site by excavating
a pond or lake; or,
3) By hauling from another location
to the site
b Permanently lower the water table
with-
1) Underground drains; or,
2) Drainage ditches
c Temporarily lower the water table
with:
1) Well points or wells; or,
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Sanitary Landfill II
2) Direct pumping
3) Deposit only nonputrescible,
relatively inert materials to a
point sufficiently above the high-
est known water table so that
possible water pollution is
avoided
F Conditioning of Cover Material
1 Rock at the fill site
a The selection of a sanitary landfill
site containing massive rocks may
result in the following problems:
1) On-site cover may be unavailable,
difficult to separate and use, or
too coarse to be effective
2) Equipment operation is hindered
and/or increased maintenance costs
result
3) Uneven and unpredictable terrain
may upset landfill equipment and/or
collection vehicles
b Sites containing massive rocks may
be used by employing one or more of
the following methods:
1) Haul cover material from some
other source
2) Remove excessively large rocks
or bury them on site
2 Coarse cover materials
a Sanitary landfill cover materials
which are coarse and/or permeable
may result in the following conditions-
1) Surface waters may seep into the
refuse fill
2) Noncohesive soils may be subject
to wind erosion
3) The cover material may shift under
the vibration and pressure of heavy
equipment
b Sanitary landfill cover material which
is too granular may be improved by
adding quantities of cohesive soil
during placement, spraying cover with
asphalt emulsion, or simply applying
a clay cover over the coarser material.
3 Clay cover material
a Cover materials containing a high
percentage of clay may result in the
following conditions:
1) Greasy surface, difficult to compact
when wet
2) Excavation difficulties
3) Cracking in the process of drying
b Clay covers can be improved by add-
ing coarser material; sand, cinders,
etc.
G Salvaging Operations
The reuse and receiving of solid waste holds
great promise as a means of reducing the
nation's total waste problem. At the pres-
ent time, however, a real need is seen for
prohibiting salvaging operations at sanitary
landfills in order to insure clean, orderly
sites and to help maintain their integrity.
No matter how commendable, .a salvaging
operation almost inevitably leads to poor
sanitation and should be located elsewhere.
H Large Bulky Items
Cars, refrigerators and other white goods,
etc. , can be handled simply by reducing
their volume and placing at the bottom of
the fill.
I Animal Feeding
Hog feeding, sea gulls, etc. , have no place
in the sanitary landfill and should be elimi-
nated.
J Hot Loads
Should be handled according to a precon-
ceived plan, away from the working area,
in a place where everyone should be familiar
with its proper handling.
K Sewage Sludge and Reprocessed Oil Sludge
This type of waste, together with other
waste such as magnesium and chromate
waste, can be accommodated at a sanitary
landfill provided their disposal has
been anticipated and the site designed ac-
cordingly.
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Sanitarv Landfill II
II LANDFILL COSTS AND ULTIMATE USE
A Total Cost of Operation
1 Generally falls between $2 - $4/ton of
solid waste landfilled
2 In large operations may be less than
$l/ton of solid waste landfilled
3 Consists of initial investment for land,
equipment, construction features and
operating costs
B Ultimate Use
1 Depends on rate of settlement (95"^ dur-
ing first 2-5 yrs)
2 Must coincide with regional plan
3 Should consider problems with gas
production
4 Must utilize effective planning, parti-
cularly when considering construction of
buildings and facilities in the proximity
of the sanitary landfill
REFERENCES
1 American Society of Civil Engineers,
Committee on Sanitary Landfill Practice.
Sanitary Landfill ASCE-Manuals of
Engineering - No. 39, 62 pp. 1959.
2 American Public Works Association,
Committee on Refuse Disposal. Muni-
cipal Refuse Disposal. APWA Research
Foundation Project No. 104. Chicago:
Public Administration Service, 2nd Ed.
528 pp. 1966.
3 Hughes, G.M., R. A. Landon and R. N.
Farvolden. Summary of Findings on
Solid Waste Disposal Sites in
Northeastern Illinois. April 1971.
4 Orange County Road Department. The
Orange County Refuse Disposal Program.
Santa Ana: Orange County Road Depart-
ment, 44 pp. 1965.
Planning is the Key to Ames' Landfill
Success. Refuse Removal Tournal,
July 1958.
1:7:9,
Weaver, Leo and Keagy, Donald M. The
Sanitary Landfill Method of Refuse
Disposal in Northern .States. Public
Health Service Publication No. 226, U. S.
Government Printing Office, Washington,
D. C. 1952.
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SECTION III
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DUMP CLOSING AND CONVERSION
Training Stall*
I INTRODUCTION
A The closing of a dump is a planned pro-
cedure and not merely the act of
abandonment.
B Plans for closure or conversion include:
1 Advising public of intended changes and
enlisting their cooperation.
2 Preparing acceptable disposal facilities
to replace those being closed.
3 Abating existing nuisances at the closed
dump and preparing the site for its
ultimate use.
II PUBLIC INFORMATION RESPONSIBILITIES
A The public needs to know, and has a right
to know, your plans for the existing site
and any new sites.
1 The change must be an environmental
improvement; rumors to the contrary
can be anticipated, particularly in the
absence of factual information.
2 Location of new disposal sites must be
made known.
3 New restrictions at the old site may
include:
a Limited access, particularly during
poisoning operations.
b Elimination of dumping, burning,
rat shooting, scavanging.
4 Operating rules at the new site may
include:
^Training BrancnjDivision of Technical
Operations, Solid Waste Management Office,
Cincinnati, Ohio
a Hours of operation; access limitations.
b Disposal fees.
c Nature of refuse accepted, vehicles
allowed.
d Traffic regulations.
e Restrictions on scavenging, burning.
B Public support to help you do the job may
be developed by:
1 Direct approach to;
a People directly involved - political
figures, residents near the sites.
b Civic and social organizations.
2 News, other mass media
a Press, radio, television
b House cards, leaflets, displays
III DUMP CLOSURE
A Prepare plans for sanitary landfill opera-
tions at same or adjacent site, observing
all requisites for suitable operation and/or;
B Prepare plans for abatement of existing
dump, with conversion to ultimate use of
site. Proper sequence of closing opera-
tions is important.
1 Fence or otherwise restrict unauthorized
access.
2 Place necessary informational signs and
assign dump manager to the site.
SW. SL. dc.3. 10. 70
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Dump Closing and Conversion
3 Close dump to incoming refuse or es-
tablish a specific spot on the dump for
sanitary landfill operation during
closing.
4 Extinguish fires.
5 Control vectors.
6 Provide necessary drainage.
7 Establish grades.
8 Compact and cover.
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RURAL AND RECREATIONAL SYSTEMS
Training Staff*
I INTRODUCTION
A The principles of design and operation for
a small sanitary landfill differ little from
the principles for a large operation.
Many responsibilities are necessary
whether the operation is large or small
and certain criteria must be met for any
operation to be termed a sanitary landfill.
B Types of Operation
1 Individual community
2 County
3 Small district
II INDIVIDUAL COMMUNITY
A How small can a community be and still
operate a sanitary landfill1?
1 Proper operation must be practiced
a Cover at end of each day's operation
but may not require full time
operator,
b Schedule operation to fit collection
practice
c Limit operation to specific time
2 Use a plan that will utilize minimum
size working face.
3 If operator is not present full time,
arrange so that dumped refuse will be
protected from wind until spread and
compacted.
4 Close the site to public use when
attendant is not present.
5 Use minimum size equipment that can
handle the load, but arrange for stand-
by equipment to be available in case
of breakdown.
B New Hampton, Iowa - Population 3, 600
"Training Branch, Division of Technical
Operations, Solid Waste Management Office,
Cincinnati, Ohio
1 History and background
a Prior to 1964, disposal by open,
burning dump
b In 1962, City Planning Commission
investigation began, without success,
to locate a new disposal site.
c Search for new site began again in
latter part of 1963.
d Through efforts of Mayor, City
Council and interested citizens
during January 1964, a new site
was located on a farm 2-3/4 miles
from town.
e After various meetings to convince
farmer's groups a sanitary landfill
would be run, on July 27, 1964, city
passed an ordinance which estab-
lished a sanitary landfill area and
provided for its regulation.
f Subsequently, City Council passed
a resolution establishing rules and
regulations for the rise of landfill
area.
g Consulting engineer retained to lay
out basic plan for earth movement
and operation of the sanitary landfill.
h The consulting engineer's plan
together with State Health Department
recommendations were very impor-
tant in successful development of
the landfill area.
2 Regulations
a Open to public on Wednesday and
Saturday, one to four p.m., from
April 1st to November 1st; on each
Saturday from one to four p.m.,
from November 1st to April 1st.
b A man will be on duty whenever
open to general public to direct
traffic and enforce regulations
c Operating area of 7 acres fenced
with no dumping outside the fenced
area.
SW SL cd.4. 1. 70
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Rural and Recreational Systems
d Will not accept junked autos, dead
animals, explosive materials or other
items so large as not to be compress-
ible for landfill operations.
e Use of sanitary landfill is restricted
to residents or agencies, businesses
or commercial establishments
outside corporate limits but served
by the City's collection service.
f All users shall deposit refuse directly
into the trench for spreading, com-
paction and cover,
g Licensed hauler s fee is $10 per
load. Residential fee for dumping
is $.75, and commercial fee is
$1,50 and $2.50.
3 Soil conditions and land requirements
a Soil is well graded coarse to fine sand
with trace of nonplastic fines and
drains well.
b Precipitation averages 31 inches
per year, snowfall averages 35
inches per j-ear; and, temperatures
vary from minus 20 degrees to 100
degrees.
c Present site total 90 acres which
cost $13,000.
d Original 7 acres fenced off in
August 1964, will be filled by
spring 1969. In November 1968,
operating area expanded to include
10 more acres.
e Remainder of 90 acres rented for
$800 per year for agricultural use.
4 Operating procedures
a When a city collection truck is at
the site unloading, one member of
the collection crew operates the
track-type tractor to spread, com-
pact and cover.
b A city sanitary landfill equipment
operator is present during public
disposal hours.
c If a major contractor or business
within New Hampton wants to dump
solid wastes when the landfill is
normally closed, they must arrange
for one of the equipment operators
to be at the sanitary landfill.
5 Equipment
a Initially an Allis Chalmers ED-9
track-type dozer which was too
small.
b Initially trench digging contracted
locally to an earth-moving contractor
at $100 per month.
c City operated for 15 months in this
manner or until November 1965,
City then purchased a 1950 model
977 Caterpillar Traxcavator with
a 2 cubic yard bucket.
d Traxcavator could dig trenches but
trench sides tended to cave in during
excavation. In August 1967, a used
1950 model Lorain dragline was
purchased, repaired and put into
operation during January 1968. The
dragline has proven quite effective.
e A movable garage equipped with
lighting, telephone, and which can
be heated is provided.
f Consideration being given to pur-
chase of a wood chipper
6 Operational costs
a In 1967, New Hampton spent
$41, 930 for operating entire solid
wastes management system. This
includes:
1) Purchase and repair of dragline
- $16,500
2) Operation and maintenance of
two compactor collection vehicles
- $3,680
3) Packer unit reserve - $5,000
4) Operation and maintenance of
the sanitary landfill equipment
- $6,180
5) Salaries of four men working
42 to 45 hours per week
-$19, 970.
b In 1968, the city budgeted $37, 000
for the annual operation of their
solid wastes management system.
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Rural and Recreational Systems
7 Public acceptance
a City collection is not mandatory
b Initially 300 homeowners, businesses,
and institutions subscribed to service.
c City collection vehicles now make
over 800 separate stops per week.
d Collection crews pick up approxi-
mately 90 per cent of all solid
wastes generated with two private
collectors and individuals hauling
the balance.
e The monthly service charge is
$2.00 for collection and disposal.
Ill COUNTY SANITARY LANDFILLS
A Huron County, Ohio Sanitary Landfill
1 Location, population and type of county
a Located in north central Ohio
b Rural county with approximately
52, 000 population
2 Political subdivisions include:
a Three cities
b Seven villages
c Nineteen townships
3 History and background
a Public awareness began about
1956 with a dump problem
b Dumps in adjacent northern county
closed and no provisions made
c Many problems with fires, roaches,
rats.
d One city tried to interest county
several times, the latest in 1963,
in joining forces, but was unsuccess-
ful. This city established their own
landfill in January 1964.
4 Organization, investigation,
recommendations
At a joint meeting of county
commissioners and County Board
of Health on August 5, 965, committee
composed of two health ooard members,
a county commissioner and two county
sanitarians appointed to study needs,
existing services and make
recommendations.
Data obtained from a questionnaire
sent to subdivisions representing
about 22,000 residents indicated:
4, 600 invested in real estate for
dumps
2, 667 paid annually to rent dump sites
5, 643 paid annually for attendants
labor
1, 700 annually for equipment rental
Costs ranged from $. 50 to $1. 00
per resident per year to maintain
dumps which in most cases did not
provide place to put garbage, com-
bustibles or liquids.
In addition to the one landfill and
14 remaining dumps, refuse was
being hauled out of county from
5 villages and another city was in
dire need of a new facility.
The committee report, endorsed
by the Board of Health and passed
on to the county commissioners
in January 1966, recommended that
the county commissioners establish
and operate a centrally located
county sanitary landfill.
5 Results
In July 1966, the county commission-
ers decided to proceed and appointed
a committee to develop standards,
recommend a method of operation,
and find a site.
A site was purchased in January
1967, and opened on a limited basis
on June 1, 1967.
Site facilities include a service
building, scales, fencing and
sanitary facilities.
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Rural and Recreational Systems
d Equipment includes a D7E Caterpillar
e A lagoon for septic tank and other
liquid wastes is provided
f One city closed their dump in
July 1967
6 Initial costs in 1967 - $74,340, including:
a Land - 91 acres $13,000
b Equipment - $45, 000
c Building, fence, etc. - $16,430
7 Expenditures in 1967 - $7,240, including:
a Salaries for half year - $5, 900
b Other - $1,340
8 Income in 1967 - $30,910, including:
a Receipts - $ 3, 635
b From general fund - $27,275
9 Expenditures in 1968 approx. -$23,260
10 Income in 1968 approximately-$14, 975
11 Expenditures for 8 mos of 1969-$20, 340
12 Income for 8 mos of 1969 -$16,250
13 Fee schedule
a Minimum of $. 50 for private car
b Maximum of $2 per ton
B Henry County, Ohio Sanitary Landfill
1 Rural county with 27, 000 population
located in north-western Ohio
2 History and background
a Each village operated open dump
b Only city in county had two to three
months operating time left in their
landfill.
c County commissioners declared the
county a refuse district August 8, 1967.
d County commissioners purchased
87 acre farm on August 7, 1967.
3 Initial costs - $157, 800 - including:
a Land - $69, 600
b Caterpillar D7 - $25,000
c 1 cu. yd. dragline - $39,000
d Maintenance building - $17,000
e Scales - $7,200
4 Initial estimated volumes per year:
a One city - 3, 000 tons
b Industrial plant - 3, 000 tons
c Balance of the county - 4, 000 tons
5 Volumes actually received during first
six months from July 1, 1968 through
December 1968.
a From city - 1,450 tons
b Industrial plant - 4, 475 tons
c Balance of county - 1, 200 tons
6 Fee schedule
a Minimum of $.75 for cars
b Scaled from $. 80 for 450 pounds
to $3. 50 for one ton
c Total receipts for first six months
were $25, 000
7 Public acceptance
a The only city and at least 4
villages joined refuse district
b Farmers satisfied to use the landfill
c Neighbors satisfied with operation.
8 Additional equipment purchased
a Used air compressor
b Used road grader
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Rural and Recreational Systems
IV OREGON RURAL DISPOSAL SITES
A County-wide Solid Waste Disposal
1 Counties experienced large quantities
of illegal roadside dumping.
2 Goal to reduce or eliminate roadside
dumping by providing free dumping
sites open seven days a week.
3 In three counties responsibility of
the program given to the county health
department.
4 In other counties program assigned to
the county road department or public
works department.
5 Operation of sites
a Maintained once or twice weekly
b No caretaker on duty
c Public directed by signs
d No salvage allowed to accumulate
6 Equipment
a 7 to 9 cubic yard dump truck
b 18 ton tilt-deck trailer
c D-6 with 4 in 1 bucket
REFERENCES
1 Degner, Dennis A. Sanitary Landfill
Country - New Hampton, Iowa, Un-
published Report, Bureau of Solid
Waste Management, CPE, EGA, USPHS,
DHEW, Region VI, Kansas City,
Missouri, 15 pp. October 1968.
2 Henry County, Ohio. Information obtained
during on-site visits and personal
communications with Robert C. Jones,
Consulting Engineer, Napoleon, Ohio.
3 Huron County, Ohio. Information obtained
during on-site visits and personal
communications with Clarence R. Ellett,
Deputy Health Commissioner, Huron
County Health Department, Norwalk,
Ohio.
4 Oregon Rural Landfill Disposal Sites.
Information obtained from Bruce B.
Bailey, Solid Waste Program, Oregon
State'Board of Health, Portland, Oregon.
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KEEPING THE PUBLIC INFORMED
Training Staff*
I INTRODUCTION
A The solid waste system must be designed
properly to work properly but the social,
cultural, psychological implications of
refuse must be recognized and considered
for the system to work.
II THE PUBLIC HAS A RIGHT AND A NEED
TO KNOW
A Support Comes Through Understanding
1 The public sits in judgment on your
proposed disposal operation and will
decide whether or not they want it. To
judge realistically they must know.
a The need to stop improper operations
b Needed human and material resources
c The role of individuals and public and
private agencies in helping with the
needed changes.
2 Their cooperation is needed. It is
affected by their attitudes toward your
operation and their understanding of
what is required on their part.
B The Public Are Customers and Partners in
Your Disposal Program
1 Householders and businessman, industry,
and city or private solid waste collection
agencies are probably all users of your
disposal site. They must learn how to
use it.
2 The individuals and groups served by
you want to know the benefits (or
disadvantages) that your disposal system
offers them.
HI THE INFORMATION MUST BE
APPROPRIATE
A Timing Is Important
1 Your message is weakened if it comes
too early or too late.
2 The sequence of events and activities
must be logical.
'''Training Branch, Division of Technical Opera-
tiorus, Solid Waste Management Offiee,
Cincinnati, Ohio
B The Message Should Be Clear, Sufficient,
and Properly Directed.
Absence of information breeds mistrust.
People tend to be "down on what they are
not up on. " Rumor and misinformation
flourish when good information is
lacking.
Always be honest, but do not stir up
people unnecessarily with controversial
matters.
Material which is not understandable, or
is directed to the wrong group, just
causes confusion.
Last minute "once over lightly" efforts
to reach the public may actually just
stir up misunderstanding, speculation,
and resentment.
IV BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
A Differences In Backgrounds Hinder
Understanding
1 Language is an imperfect tool. People
may not understand what you mean,
particularly when the subject is technical.
2 Because of interests and problems
different from yours, the public may
view your program differently than you
do. Try to anticipate their attitudes.
3 There may be other matters (a school
bond issue, a local governmental crisis,
etc. ) which will affect your program
even though not directly related to it.
Keep your eyes open for these possible
conflicts.
B Solid Waste Tends To Be an Emotionally
Negative Subject
1 Solid waste is unwanted, by definition.
The public has to understand that money
and equipment for proper disposal are
not being expended on the refuse per se,
but on maintaining a livable environment.
2 Solid waste is boring, useless, ugly, or
degrading to some people to the point
where they block their minds to rational
solutions.
SW.AD.ki.2. 12.70 1
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Keeping the Public Informed
C There Is Tremendous Competition for
Public Attention
V ASSETS TO COMMUNICATION
A Your Cause Is Obviously Worthy in
Principle
1 The open dump with its rats, flies,
smoke and unsightliness is generally
recognized to be evil.
2 You represent a respected agency.
B The Public is Already Somewhat Informed
and Interested About Disposal Practices
1 Interest in pollutional control has
already been stimulated by recent
national publicity. This helps
tremendously.
2 Getting heard or read is no longer so
much of a problem. This makes it
easier for you to proceed with the
business of convincing the public that
your approach to the disposal problem
is the right one, and ought to be
supported.
VI WHAT NEEDS TO BE TOLD
A What Is to Be Done, and Why
B Effects (Favorable and Unfavorable) on
the User
1 Better environment, better service
2 Higher costs, etc.
C The User's Expected Role in Helping
Improve the Disposal System
D The User's Responsibilities in Using the
System
E Progress Reports on Your Program
1 Before-and-after pictures and stories
of your work in eliminating dumps and
establishing sanitary landfills can be
most persuasive arguments in winning
public support.
2 You need to update information on what
is going on so the public will not lose
interest or faith in you.
VII HOW TO DO IT
A Read "Getting Your Message Across" and
get to work. Forget excuses that you do
not speak well, or that this is not really
your job. Public relations is everyone's.
B Remember that the public is a part of
your operation. Work with:
1 Responsible individuals
a Those particularly affected by your
proposed changes
b Generally accepted leaders
2 Social, civic, religious, fraternal, and
volunteer organizations. Do not forget
the school kids.
3 Mass media:
a The press
b Radio and television
c Posters, leaflets, displays
C Your Organization and Actions Can Win
Public Support Directly
1 Be sure your personnel and equipment
help you create a good image.
a Simple, neat uniforms
b Clean, well-maintained equipment
c Signs that look nice, help the user
instead of just telling him what he
cannot do.
d Courteous, informed workers
2 Early in the effort, make a few obviously
desirable improvements and make sure
the public knows about it.
a News coverage of dump cleanup
b Neat signs, early planting of trees
and shrubs
VIII SOME FINAL THOUGHT
A Tell the whole story. Tell the good and the
bad and never lie. Do not be bashful
about your achievements, though. You
have a concept to sell.
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Keeping the Public Informed
B Do not Expect Overnight Miracles in
Changing Public Attitudes. There is much
competition for individuals' attention and
communication can be a slow process.
C Expect Some Opposition and Be Prepared
to Overcome It. Some will misunderstand
your program and some will be adversely
affected despite all you can do. And a very
few are opposed to any change. Answer
reasonable opposition and do not wear
yourself out on the others.
D Notice That This Outline is Entitled
"Keeping the Public Informed." Your
Efforts Must be Diversified and Sustained
to be Effective.
REFERENCES
1 Air Pollution Control Association. How
to Tell the Air Pollution Control Story.
Pittsburgh, 12pp. 1965.
2 National League of Cities. Careers in
Municipal Public Relations. Washington,
D.C., 9 pp. 1965.
3 Wilcomb, M.J. Getting Your Message
Across. DREW, PHS, EGA Training
Institute, Cincinnati, 15 pp. 1969.
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APPENDICES
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SOLID WASTE DEFINITIONS
Training Staff*
ACRE
Unit for measuring land, equal to 43, 560
sq. ft.; or 4840 sq. yd. ; or 160 sq. rds.
ACTINOMYCETES
A large group of microorganisms closely
related to bacteria, but the cells show
branching, and form masses like the fungi
do, except that the cells are much smaller.
Actinomycetes give the characteristic odor
of rich earth, are important in giving off-
tastes to food and water, and are of signi-
ficance in the stabilization of solid waste
(composting) and sewage.
AERATION
The process of exposing something to air
or charging a liquid with gas.
AFTERBURNER
A device used to burn or oxidize the
combustible constituents remaining in the
effluent gases from prior combustion
processes.
AGGREGATE
Crushed rock or gravel screened to sizes
for use in road surfaces, concrete, or
bituminous mixes.
AIR, AMBIENT
The surrounding environmental air.
AIR, COMBUSTION (EXCESS)
Air supplied in excess of theoretical air,
usually expressed as a percentage of the
theoretical air. Also called excess air.
AIR. COMBUSTION (OVERFIRE)
See AIR, COMBUSTION (SECONDARY)
AIR, COMBUSTION (PRIMARY)
Air admitted to a combustion system at
the point of initial oxidation of the fuel.
For example the air admitted through the
fuel bed.
-Training Branch, Division of Technical
Operations, Solid Waste Management Office,
Cincinnati, Ohio
AIR COMBUSTION (SECONDARY)
Air introduced above or beyond the fuel
bed by natural, induced, or forced draft.
It is generally referred to as overfire air
if supplied above the fuel bed through the
side walls and/or the bridge wall of the
primary chamber.
AIR, COMBUSTION (STOICHIOMETRIC AIR)
See AIR, COMBUSTION (THEORETICAL)
AIR, COMBUSTION (THEORETICAL)
Air, calculated from the chemical com-
position of waste, required to burn the
waste completely without excess air.
Also designated as stoichiometric air.
AIR, COMBUSTION (UNDERFIRE)
See AIR, COMBUSTION (PRIMARY)
AIR DEFICIENCY
Insufficient air, in an air-fuel mixture,
to supply the oxygen theoretically required
for complete oxidation of the fuel.
AIR POLLUTANT
A substance when present in the atmosphere
in concentrations large enough to interfere
directly or indirectly with man's comfort,
safety, health, or full use or enjoyment
of his property. The substance source
may be natural or man-made.
AIR POLLUTION
The presence of contaminants in the air
to such a degree that the normal self-
cleansing or dispersive ability of the
atmosphere cannot cope with them.
AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
Levels of atmospheric contamination by
specific pollutants or combinations of
pollutants prohibited under laws or ordin-
ances enforced by municipal or state
governments or regional agencies.
SW.AD.pa.3. 1.70 1
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Solid Waste Definitions
ALKALINITY
A quantitative measure of the capacity of
liquids or suspensions to neutralize strong-
acids or to resist the establishment of
acidic conditions. Alkalinity results from
the presence or bicarbonates, carbonates,
hydroxides, volatile acids, salts, and
occasionally of borates, silicates and
phosphates. Numerically it is expressed
in terms of the concentration of calcium
carbonates that would have an equivalent
capacity to neutralize strong acids.
ALGAE
Plants found in sunlit situations on land as
well as in fresh and salt water over a wide
range of latitude. They grow as individual
cells, small clumps or large masses.
ANGLE OF REPOSE
The maximum angle which the inclined
surface of a pile of loosely divided mater-
ial can make with the horizontal.
AQUIFER
Underground water-bearing geologic forma-
tion or structure.
ARCH. DROP
Any vertical refractory wall supported bv
arch construction which serves to deflect
gases in a downward direction. (Sometimes
referred to as a curtain wall.)
ARCH, FURNACE
A substantially horizontal structure
extending into the furnace to serve as a
deflector of gases.
ASHES
The residue from the burning of wood, coal,
coke, and other combustible material.
AUXILIARY-FUEL FIRING EQUIPMENT
Equipment to supply additional heat by
the combustion of an auxiliary fuel for
the purpose of attaining temperatures
sufficiently high (a) to dry and ignite the
waste material, (b) to maintain ignition
thereof, and (c) to effect complete com-
bustion of combustible solids, vapors,
and gases.
BACKFILL
The material used in refilling a ditch or
other excavation or the process of such
refilling.
BACKUPS
A mechanical hoe or pull shovel.
BACTERIA
Single-celled organisms, microscopic in
size, which possess rigid cell walls and
when motile have flagella. The cell nucleus
is not surrounded by a membrane. There
are three major groups true bacteria,
actinomycetes, and budding bacteria. .
Some are capable of causing human, animal,
or plant diseases. Some are important
in sewage or refuse stabilization.
BACTERIA, AEROBIC
Bacteria which require the presence of
free (dissolved or molecular) oxygen for
their metabolic processes. Oxygen in
chemical combination will not support
aerobic organisms.
BACTERIA, ANAEROBIC
Bacteria that do not require the presence of
free or dissolved oxygen for metabolism.
Strict anaerobes are hindered or completely.
blocked by the presence of dissolved oxygen
and in some cases by the presence of highly
oxidized substances such as sodium
nitrates, and perhaps sulfates.
BACTERIA, FACULTATIVE
Bacteria which can exist and reproduce
under either aerobic or anaerobic conditions.
BAFFLE
Any refractory construction intended to
change the direction of flow en the products
of combustion.
BAFFLE CHAMBER
A device designed to promote the settling
of fly ash and/or coarse particiilate
matter by changing the direction and/or
reducing the velocity of the gases produced
by combustion.
BAFFLE, WATER-COOLED
A baffle composed essentially of closely
spaced boiler tubes.
BEARING CAPACITY
Maximum ability of a material to support
an imposed load before failure.
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Solid Waste Definitions
BECCARI PROCESS
Composting process developed by Dr.
Giovanni Beccari in 1922. Initial anaerobic
fermentation is coupled with a final stage
in which decomposition proceeds under
partially aerobic conditions. Later
modifications were the Verdier and Bordas
processes.
BEDDING, ANIMAL
Material, usually organic, which is placed
on the floor surface of livestock buildings
for animal comfort to absorb urine
and other liquids and thus promote
cleanliness.
BEDDING, PIPE
Ground or supports in which pipe is laid.
BEDROCK
The solid rock underlying soilc and the
regolith, or exposed rock at the surface
without a cover.
BENCH MARK
A point of known or assumed elevation used
as a reference in determining and record
ing other elevations
BERM
An artificial ridge of earth.
BITUMINOUS
Containing asphalt or tar
BLADE
Steel plate, concave in vertical plane,
affixed to a tractor used for excavation and
spreading.
BLADE (SANITARY LANDFILL)
A U-blade with extension fabricated on top
to increase volume of solid waste that may
be pushed and spread.
BLADE (U)
A dozer blade with extension on both sides,
protruding forward at an obtuse angle to
the blade, enabling handling of a larger
volume of solid waste.
BLUE TOPS
Grade stakes whose tops indicate finish
grade level.
BOGIE (TANDEM) (TANDEM DRIVE UNIT)
A two axle driving unit in a truck. Also
called tandem drive unit or a tan--em.
BOOM
In a revolving shovel, a beam hinged to the
deck front, supported by cables. Any
heavy beam which is hinged at one end
and carries a weight-lifting device at tne
other.
BORING
Rotary drilling.
BORROW PIT
An excavationfrom which material is taken
to a nearby job.
BOULDER
A rock which is too heavy to be lifted
readily by hand.
BREECHING OR STOCK OONNECTION
A passage for conducting the products of
combustion to the stack or chimney.
BRICK, ALUMINA - DIASPORE FIRECLAY
Brick made essentially of diaspore or
nodule clay, and having an alumina content
of 50, 60, or 70 per cent plus or minus
2| percent.
BRIDGE WALL
A partition wall between chambers over
which pass the products of combustion.
(see CURTAIN WALL).
BTU (BRITISH THERMAL UNIT)
The quantity of heat required to increase
the temperature of one pound of water
from 59. 5° to 60. 5OF.
BUCKET
An open container affixed to movable
arms of a loader to move and spread solid
waste and soil, and also to excavate soil.
BULKY WASTE
Large items of refuse such as appliances,
furniture, large auto parts, trees and
branches, palm fronds, stumps, flotage,
etc.
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Solid Waste Definitions
BULL CLAM
A bulldozer fitted with a curved bowl hinged
to the top of the front of the blade.
BULLDOZER
A tractor equipped with a front pusher
blade.
BURNER, PRIMARY
A burner installed in the primary
combustion chamber to dry out and ignite
the material to be burned.
BURNER, RE FUSE
A device of simple construction for either
municipal or on-site volume reduction of
refuse by burning. Not to be
confused with incinerator which, pro-
perly designed and operated, can produce
an acceptable emission and residue.
BURNER, SECONDARY
A burner installed in the secondary
combustion chamber to maintain a minimum
temperature and complete the combustion
process. (Sometimes referred to as an
afterburner. )
BURNING AREA (INCINERATOR)
The horizontal projected area of grate,
hearth, or combination thereof on which
burning takes place.
BURNING RATE, INCINERATOR
The amount of heat released (Btu) per
unit size (ft^, ft^) per unit of time (min.,
hr., day) e. g. Btu per ft^ of furnace
volume per hour. Another, though less
exact, expression may be by quantity of
solid waste (pounds, tons) per unit or
unit size (furnace or ft^, ft^) per unit of
time e.g. (tons per furnace per day).
BYPASS (BREECHING)
An arrangement of breechings or flue
connections and dampers to permit the
alternate use of two or more pieces of
equipment by directing or diverting the
flow of the products of combustion.
CAPACITY, INCINERATOR
a) Design Capacity the capacity at
which the designer expects that the
incinerator will be capable of operating;
the number of tons of solid waste per
24 hour period, which is anticipated that
the plant can process.
b) Rated Capacity - tons of waste per 24
hour day which can be processed,
according to specified criteria. Trend
is to use criteria relating to residue
quality and air pollution standards.
c) Dependable Capacity - plant capacity
considering nonoperating time (main-
tenance, down-time etc.) - usually
expressed as a percentage of the rated
capacity.
d) Actual Output - actual amount of material
processed per day even though the plant
may be operated for only a portion of the
day.
CAPILLARY ATTRACTION
The tendency of water to move into fine
spaces, as between soil particles, regard-
less of gravity.
CAPILLARY WATER
Underground water held above the water
table by capillary attraction.
CARBON DIOXIDE
An odorless, colorless, and nonpoisonous
gas. One source is from sanitary landfills
undergoing aerobic and/or anaerobic
microbial decomposition which is highly
soluble in water, forming carbonic acid.
CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)
A colorless gas characterized by an
exceedingly faint metallic odor and taste.
It is extremely poisonous, inducing
asphyxiation. As much a 0.2% in air is
poisonous and 0.43% will induce
asphyxiation.
CARBON NITROGEN RATIO
The ratio of carbon to nitrogen.
Abbreviated C/N.
CARRIER
A person who harbors a specific infectious
agent in the absence of discernible clinical
disease and serves as a potential source
or reservoir of infection for man.
CARRY-CLOTH
A large canvas or burlap cloth square
used in transfer of refuse from homes by
collectors in backyard carryout service.
Serves as a carrying container (see
CARRYING CONTAINER).
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Solid Waste Definitions
CARRYING CONTAINER
A transfer container carried by the
collector in backyard carryout service.
Usually of 30-50 gallon capacity and
especially constructed of plastic or
aluminum. In England these are called
skips.
CAT
A trademark designation for any machine
made by the Caterpillar Tractor Company.
Widely used to indicate a crawler tractor
or mounting of any make.
CATALYTIC COMBUSTION SYSTEM
A catalytically active substance, inter-
posed in the exhaust gas stream to burn
or oxidize vaporized hydrocarbons or
odorous contaminants.
CELL
The volume of compacted solid waste
enclosed by natural soil and/or cover
material in a sanitary landfill.
CELL DEPTH
Vertical thickness of compacted solid
waste enclosed by natural soil and/or
cover material in a sanitary landfill.
CELL THICKNESS
Perpendicular distance between cover
material placed over the last working
faces of two successive cells in a sanitary
landfill.
CHARGING CHUTE
A passage through which waste materials
are charged into an incinerator from
above by gravity.
CHARGING RAM
A reciprocating device to meter and force
refuse into a furnace.
CHECKER WORK
A pattern of multiple openings in refractory
through which the products of combustion
pass to promote turbulent mixing of the
gases.
CHIMNEY (STACK, FLUE)
See STACK.
CHIPPER
A size reduction device relying primarily
on the shearing, cutting, or chipping
action produced by sharp-edged blades
attached to a rotating shaft (mandrel)
which shaves or chips off pieces of the
charged object.
CLAMSHELL
A shovel bucket with two jaws which clamp
together by their own weight when it is
lifted by the closing line.
CLAY
Soil particles less than 0.002 mm in diameter
according to USDA classification.
CLEANER BARS
Metallic bars affixed to wheeled equipment
to remove mud and solids from wheel
area.
CLIMATE
Long-term manifestations of weather.
More rigorously, the climate of a
specific area is specified by the statistical
collection of its weather conditions during
a specified interval of time (usually several
decades).
COLLECTION
The act of picking up refuse at home, busi-
ness or industrial site and putting it in a
truck.
COLLECTION, CONTRACT
City pays a contractor for doing collection
work.
COLLECTION METHODS (CREW ORGANIZATION)
a) Daily Route Method
A collection crew is assigned a weekly
route, divided into daily routes. The
crew is then responsible for refuse
pickup at an collection points on the
assigned daily routes. Weather, refuse
quantities and other variables will cause
the elapsed time for completion of each
daily route to vary. The crew is allowed
to go home after completion of the day's
route, whether it takes less or more than
the established work day to complete.
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Solid Waste Definitions
b) Definite Working Day
A variation of the large route method.
Definite routes are laid out and a crew
assigned to each. Collection proceeds
along a route for the length of time
adopted for a working day. The next
day, collection begins where the crew
stopped the day before. This continues
until the route is completely collected,
whereupon the crew starts collection
again at the beginning of the route with-
out interruption.
c) Large Route Method
A variation of the task system in which
work is laid out for a normal week's
activity for a single crew. The crew
may work each day without a fixed
stopping point or number of hours, but
the route must be entirely completed
within the working week.
d) Single Load Method
A variation of the task system whereby
areas or routes are laid out and under
normal conditions each provides a full
load of refuse. Each crew usually has
two or more such routes for a day's
work. The crew quits for the day when
the assigned number of routes are
completed. See also TASK SYSTEM.
COLLECTION METHODS (CREW
INTEGRATED)
a) Inter-Route Relief Method
A collection method in which regular
crews help collect other routes when
their own assignments are completed.
b) Reservoir Route Method
The use of several crews to pick up a
central route after having collected
marginal routes around the central
route.
c) Swing Crew Method
The provision of one or more extra
crews to help out at any point where
they are needed.
d) Variable Size Crew Method
System which provides a variable
number of collectors for the individual
crews, depending on the amount and
conditions of work on particular routes.
COLLECTION METHODS (PICK UP OPERATIONS)
a) Backyard Carry Service
The collection personnel proceed to the
place on a householder's premises where
the refuse is regularly stored and
transfer the accumulated material from
the householder's containers to a
carrying barrel. The carrying barrel
is then taken to the collection vehicle
and emptied. A number of premises
may be served before barrel has to be
emptied.
b) Curb Service
The householder sets the refuse con-
tainer at the curb where it is then
emptied into the collection truck by the
collection personnel. The householder
then takes the empty container back to the
regular storage area.
c) Set-out Service
A special set-out crew carries the
full refuse containers to the curb a few
minutes before the collection vehicle
arrives. The refuse is then emptied
into the truck and the empty containers
are left at the curb. The householder
has the responsibility to take back the
empty containers.
d) Setout, Setback Method
Full refuse containers are carried by a
special set-out crew from back doors
or other places on the householder's
premises to curbs or alleys a few
minutes before the collection vehicle
arrives. Refuse is loaded in the same
manner as when it is placed at curbs or
alleys by the householders, leaving
empty containers at the curbs or alleys.
A special set-back crew returns the
empty cans to their regular locations
within a short time after they are
emptied.
COLLECTION, MUNICIPAL
City pays employees; operation by city
departments.
COLLECTION, PRIVATE
Citizens or firms, individually or in
limited groups, pay collectors or private
operating agencies.
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Solid Waste Definitions
COLLECTION STOP
Stop made by the collection vehicle and
crew on the route to collect refuse from
one or more service stops.
COLLECTION TIME (PICK-UP TIME)
Elapsed or cumulative time spent by the
refuse collection crew in collecting
refuse from a collection stop. Does not
include travel time between collection
stops on the route.
COLLECTOR, BAG-TYPE
A filter wherein the cloth filtering medium
is made in the form of cylindrical bags.
COLLECTOR, CYCLONE
A structure without moving parts in which
the velocity of an inlet gas stream is
transformed into a confined vortex from
which centrifugal forces tend to drive the
suspended particle to the wall of the
cyclone body.
COLLECTOR, FILTER FABRIC
A device designed to remove solid disper-
coids from a carrier gas by passage of the
gas through a porous medium.
Two basic types of filters are presently
employed. In one,a fibrous medium is
used as the collecting element and in the
other,a medium is utilized as a support for
a layer of collected particles, relying on
the coat of collected particles to serve as
the principal collecting medium.
COMBUSTION CHAMBER (PRIMARY)
Chamber where ignition and burning of the
waste occurs.
COMBUSTION CHAMBER (SECONDARY)
Chamber where combustible solids,
vapors, and gases from the primary
chamber are burned and settling of fly
ash takes place.
COMBUSTION, COMPLETE
The complete oxidation of the fuel, regard-
less of whether it is accomplished with
an excess amount of oxygen or air or just
the theoretical amount required for
perfect combustion.
COMMERCIAL OPERATOR (OHIO'S
DEFINITION)
All persons, firms,or corporations who
own or operate stores, restaurants,
industries, institutions, and other similar
places, public or private, charitable or
non-charitable, including all responsible
persons other than householders, upon the
premises of which garbage or other refuse
or both is or are created.
COMMUNICABLE DISEASE
An illness due to an infectious agent or
its toxic products which is transmitted
directly or indirectly to a well person
from aft infected person or animal, or
through the agency or an intermediate host,
vector, or inanimate environment.
COMMUNICABLE PERIOD
The time or times during which the etiologic
agent may be transferred from an infected
person or animal to man.
COMPACTED YARDS
Cubic yard measurement of material after
it has been placed and compacted in a fill.
COMPACTION
Reduction in bulk of fill by rolling and
tamping.
COMPACTOR COLLECTION TRUCK
Enclosed vehicle provided with special
mechanical devices for loading the refuse
into the main compartment of the body,
for compressing the loaded materials, and
for distributing the refuse within the body.
COMPACTOR (STEEL WHEEL)
A gas or diesel powered machine equipped
with steel wheels to provide good compaction
and crushing effort, used to spread and
compact soil and solid waste.
COMPOSTING
A controlled microbial degradation of
organic waste yielding a nusiance-free
product of potential value as a soil
conditioner.
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Solid Waste Definitions
COMPRESSION
For steel wheel rollers, the compacting
effect of the weight at the bottom of the
roll, measured in pounds per linear inch
of roll width.
CONDUIT
A pipe or tile carrying water, wire, or
pipes.
CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION WASTE
Waste building materials and rubble
resulting from construction, remodeling,
repair, and demolition operations on
houses, commercial buildings, pavements,
and other structures.
CONTAINER, CARRYING
A transfer container carried by the collector
in backyard carryout service. Usually of
30-50 gallon capacity and especially
constructed of plastic or aluminum. In
England these are called skips.
CONTAINER, STORAGE (DETACHABLE)
A partially mechanized self-service
refuse removal procedure with specially
constructed containers and vehicles. It
is mechanized in that special equipment
is used to empty the containers and haul
refuse to the disposal site. It is self-
service in that the customer puts the
refuse in the container.
CONTAINER, STORAGE (DISPOSABLE)
Specially designed plastic or paper sack
refuse storage containers which are intend-
ed for disposal along with its contents.
CONTAINER STORAGE (LIFT AND CARRY)
Detachable container system in which
service vehicle has lifting arms to pick
up container and contents together for
transportation to disposal site.
CONTAINER STORAGE (PULL-ON)
Detachable container system in which
large container (approximately 20-40
cubic yards) is pulled onto service
vehicle mechanically and carried to
disposal site for emptying.
CONTAINER STORAGE (REAR LOADER,
DETACHABLE)
Detachable container system in which
roll-out containers, typically 1 to 3 yard
capacity are hoisted at the rear of the
collection vehicle and mechanically
emptied. Container is left with the
customer.
CONTAINERS, STORAGE (REUSABLE.
IINDIVIDUATT
Galvanized metal or plastic containers
specifically intended for use to store
solid waste. Sizes normally vary from
20 to 82 gallons. The container has tight
fitting cover and suitable handles.
CONTAINER STORAGE (SIDE LOADER.
DETACHABLE)
Detachable container system similar to
rear loader (which see) except loaded at
side of collection vehicle.
CONVEYOR
A device that transports material by belts,
cables, or chains.
CONVEYOR, SCREW
A revolving shaft fitted with auger-type
flights that moves bulk materials through
a trough or tube.
CORE
A cylindrical piece of an underground
formation cut and raised by a rotary drill
with a hollow bit.
COVER MATERIAL
Granular material, generally soil, that
is used to cover compacted solid waste
in a sanitary landfill, generally free of
large objects that would hinder compaction
and free of organic content that would be
conducive to vector harborage, feeding
and/or breeding.
CRANE
A mobile machine used for lifting and
moving loads without use of a bucket.
CRANE. BRIDGE
A crane consisting of a lifting unit that
hangs from, and can travel along, a
movable horizontal rail which rides between
two parallel, horizontal rails.
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Solid Waste Definitions
CRANE, MONORAIL
A crane consisting of a lifting unit that
hangs from a suspended, horizontal rail in
such a way that the unit can travel the
length of the rail.
CRAWLER
One of a pair of roller chain tracks used
to support and propel a machine, or any
machine mounted on such tracks.
CUT
Portion of land surface or area from which
earth or rock has been removed or will
be removed by excavation. The depth below
original ground surface to excavated
surface.
DAMPER
A manually or automatically controlled
device to regulate draft or the rate of
flow of air or other gases.
DAMPER, BAROMETRIC
A hinged or pivoted balanced blade, placed
so as to admit air to the breeching, flue
connection or stack,thereby automatically
maintaining a constant draft in the
incinerator.
DAMPER, BUTTERFLY
A plate or blade installed in a duct,
breeching, flue connection or stack, which
rotates on an axis in its plane to regulate
flow of gases.
DANO BIOSTABILIZER SYSTEM
Aerobic, thermophilic composting process
in which conditions of moisture, air, and
temperature are maintained in a single
slowly revolving cylinder that retains the
compostable refuse for one to five days.
The refuse is later windrowed.
DEAD ANIMALS
Those that die naturally or from disease
or are accidentally killed. Condemned
animals or parts of animals from
slaughter houses or similar places are
not included in this term, but are regarded
as industrial refuse.
DEADHEADING
Traveling without load, except from the
dumping area to the loading point.
DECOMPOSITION (AEROBIC)
Reduction of the net energy level and change
in chemical composition of organc matter
by aerobic microorganisms.
DECOMPOSITION (ANAEROBIC)
Reduction of the net energy level and
change in chemical composition of organic
matter caused by microorganisms in an
anaerobic environment.
DEGLASSER
See OSBORNE SEPARATOR.
DENSITY
The ratio of the weight of a substance to
its volume.
DEPTH OF FILL
Total distance between undisturbed earth
or bottom of solid waste in the sanitary
landfill and top of final cover material.
DESIGN RUNOFF RATE
Maximum runoff rate (occurring expected)
in a given period of time, during and
immediately following rainfall.
DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION
The heating of organic matter when air
is not present, resulting in the evolution
of volatile matter and leaving solid char
consisting of fixed carbon and ash.
DIKE
Bank of material, normally earth,
constructed to form a barrier.A levee.
DISEASE AGENT
Any organism or material capable of
causing disease.
DISINFECTION
Killing of pathogenic agents outside the
body by chemical or physical means
directly applied.
DISPOSAL AREA
A site, location, tract of land, area,
building, structure or premises used or
intended to be used for partial and/or
total refuse disposal.
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Solid Waste Definitions
DISPOSAL, OCEAN
A sea dumping process which had been
- used extensively in the past, but which
lost considerable popularity after the U.S.
Supreme Court in 1933 outlawed dumping
off the New Jersey shore by the city of
New York.
DISPOSAL, ON-SITE
Includes all means of disposal of refuse
on premises before collection. Examples
are garbage grinding, burning or incinera-
tion, and burial.
DISPOSAL, WASTE
The final deposition of waste by man. This
does not include its ultimate dessemination
by forces other than man.
DOZER
Abbreviation for bulldozer or shovel dozer.
DOZER SHOVEL (SHOVEL DOZER)
A tractor equipped with a front-mounted
bucket that can be used for pushing,
digging, and truck loading.
DRAFT
The pressuredifference between the
incinerator or any component part and the
atmosphere which causes the products of
combustion to flow through the gas passages
of the incinerator to the atmosphere
Natural:
Induced:
Forced:
DRAGLINE
The negative pressure created
by stack or chimney due to its
height and the temperature
difference between the flue gases
and the atmosphere.
The negative pressure created
by the action of a fan, blower,
or ejector, which is located
between the incinerator and the
stack.
The positive pressure created
by the action of a fan or blower,
which supplies the primary or
secondary air.
A revolving shovel which carries a bucket
attached only by cables, and digs by
pulling the bucket toward itself.
DRAWBAR
In a tractor, a fixed or. hinged bar extend-
ing to the rear; used as a fastening for line
and towed machines or loads.
DRAWBAR HORSEPOWER
A tractor's flywheel horsepower minus
friction and slippage losses in the drive
mechanism and the tracks or tires.
DREDGE
To dig under water.
under water.
DRUM MILL
A machine that digs
A long, inclined steel drum that rotates
and grinds solid waste in the rough interior
of the drum, the smaller ground material
falling through holes near the end of the
drum and the larger material dropping out
the end.
DUCT
A pipe, tube, or channel that conveys a
substance.
DUMP
See (OPEN DUMP)
ECOLOGY
The science that deals with the study of the
interrelationships of living organisms to
their environment.
EFFLUENT SEEPAGE
Diffuse discharge of ground water to the
ground surface.
EFFLUENT (STACK)
The gas and particulates that reach the
atmosphere from the burning process.
EMISSION (STACK)
See EFFLUENT (STACK)
ENDEMIC
The regular occurrence of a fairly constant
number of cases of a disease within an
area.
ENERGY SOURCE
The source from which an organism
derives the energy for metabolic activities,
e.g., sunlight, sulfur, cellulose, hydrogen,
etc.
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Solid Waste Definitions
ENGINE SIDESCREEN
A rugged fabrication to fit on engine
housing o' a tractor or other machine to
prevent accumulation of paper and protect
the engine from damage.
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR
A device for collecting dust, mist, or fume
from a gas stream by placing an electrical
charge on the particle and removing that
particle to a collecting electrode.
EPIDEMIC
The occurrence in a community or region
of a group of illnesses of a similar nature,
clearly in excess of normal expectancy
and derived from a common or propagated
source.
EPIDEMIOLOGY
The study of the causes, transmission,
and incidence of diseases in communities
or other population groups.
EROSION, SOIL
The wearing away of the land surface
normally by wind or running water.
ET IP LOGICAL AGENT
The pathogenic organism causing a
specific disease in a living body.
EVAPO-TRANSPIRATION
The sum of water removed by vegetation
and that lost by evaporation for a particu-
lar area during a specified time.
EXCESS AIR
See (COMBUSTION AIR (EXCESS))
EXPANSION CHAMBER
See (SETTLING CHAMBER)
EXPANSION JOINT (REFRACTORY)
An open joint left for thermal or permanent
expansion of refractories. Also, small
spaces or gaps built into a refractory
structure to permit sections of masonry to
expand and contract freely and to prevent
distortion or buckling of furnace structures
from excessive expansion stresses.
FAIRFIELD-HARDY DIGESTER (COMPOST)
A patented product of Fairfield Engineering
Company, Marion, Ohio, which decomposes
garbage, sewage sludge, industrial and
other organic waste by a controlled
continuous aerobic-thermophilic process.
FAN, INDUCED-DRAFT
A fan exhausting hot gases from the heat-
absorbing equipment, dust collector or
scrubber.
FAN, OVERFIRE AIR
A fan used to provide air to a combustion
chamber above the fuel bed.
FERMENTATION
Any energy-yielding oxidation in which the
oxidant is organic.
FIELD CAPACITY (SEE MOISTURE-HOLD ING
CAPACITY)
Quantity of water held by compacted
solid waste where application of additional
water will cause it to drain rapidly to
underlying material.
FILL DEPTH
See DEPTH OF FILL.
FIREBRICK
Refractory brick of any type.
FLUE (CHIMNEY, STACK)
See STACK.
FLUE GAS
Waste gas from combustion processes
which may contain water vapor or dilution
air added after the combustion chambers.
FLUE GAS SCRUBBER (WASHER)
Equipment for removing fly ash and other
objectionable materials from the flue gas
by means of sprays, wet baffles, etc.
Also reduces excessive temperatures of
effluent.
FLUIDIZING
Causing a mass of finely divided solid
particles to assume some of the properties
of a fluid, as by aeration.
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Solid Waste Definitions
FLUME
An artificial channel, often elevated above
the ground, used to carry fast flowing water.
FLY ASH
All solids including ash, charred paper,
cinders, dusty soot, or other partially
incinerated matter carried in the flue
gases.
FLY ASH COLLECTOR
Equipment for removing fly ash from the
products of combustion.
FOMES (PLURAL, FOMITES)
An inanimate object not supporting
bacterial growth but serving to transmit
pathogenic organisms from human to
human.
FOMITE
See FOMES.
FOOD WASTE DISPOSER
See GARBAGE GRINDING.
FOOT
In tamping rollers, one of a number of
projections from a cylindrical drum.
FRONT END LOADER (COLLECTION)
Detachable container system in which
collection vehicle has arms which engage
container (usually 1-10 yard capacity)
move it up over the cab and empty it into
the vehicle body. Container is left with
the customer.
FUNGI
Simple plants without photosynthetic
pigment. The cells have a nucleus
surrounded by a membrane, and the cells
are connected together in long filaments
called hyphae, which may grow together
to form a visible body. Simpler fungi are
involved in stabilization of solid waste
(composting) and sewage.
FURNACE
The chambers of the incinerator into
which the refuse is charged, ignited and
burned.
GARBAGE
Animal and vegetable waste resulting from
the handling, preparation, cooking and
serving of foods. It does not include
food wastes from industrial processing.
GARBAGE GRINDING
A method of uniformly reducing food waste
or garbage and placing the reduced product
in sewer systems. The reducing device
may be a home sink grinder, or a large
central grinder which serves industry or
the community. It is noted that the ground
garbage, which should pass through a
sewage treatment plant, must still be
disposed of as sewage sludge after
treatment.
GARBAGE GRINDING (CENTRAL)
The grinding by mechanical means of
garbage accumulated by municipal,
commercial, or private delivery vehicles.
GARCHEY (GANDILLON)
A patented system for the water carriage
and temporary storage of household
wastes by means of a storage and flushing
device mounted under the sink and tubing
to convey the refuse to a central holding
tank.
GAS BARRIER
Any device or material used to divert the
flow of gases through soil from a sanitary
landfill or other land disposal technique.
GASES
Normally formless fluids which occupy the
space of enclosure and which can be
changed to the liquid or solid state only
by the combined effect of increased
pressure and decreased temperature.
GASES (COMBUSTION)
Mixture of gases produced in the
combustion chambers.
GASES, (FLUE)
Waste gas from combustion process, which
may contain water vapor or dilution air
added after combustion chambers.
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Solid Waste Definitions
GASIFICATION
The process or processes whereby solid
or liquid matter is converted to such
gases as carbon dioxide, methane, or
ammonia through biological activity.
GRADER
A gas or diesel pneumatic wheel machine
equipped with a centrally located blade
that can be angled to cast to either side,
with independent hoist control on each
side.
GRADE STAKE
A stake indicating the amount of cut or
fill required to bring the ground to a
specified level.
GRADIENT
Slope along a specific route, as of a road
surface, channel or pipe.
GRAPPLE
A clamshell-type bucket having three or
more jaws.
G_RATE_
Surface with suitable openings, to support
the refuse and permit passage of air
through the burning fuel.
GRATE, DEAD PLATE
A stationary grate through which no air
passes.
GRATE, FIXED
A grate which does not have movement.
A stationary grate.
GRATE, RECIPROCATING
A forced-draft grate whose sections move
continuously and slowly, forward and
rearward, for the purpose of agitating and
moving the burning refuse material from
the charging to the discharge ends of an
incinerator furnace.
GRATE, ROCKING
An incinerator stoker with moving (and
stationary) grate bars which are trunnion
supported. In operation, the moving bars
oscillate on the trunnions, imparting a
rocking motion to the bars, and thus
agitating and moving the burning refuse
along the grate.
GRATE, STATIONARY
See GRATE FIXED
GRATE, TRAVELING GRATE
A traveling grate stoker consists of an
endless grate similar to a chain grate,
but with grate keys mounted on transverse
bars. The lead nose of each key on one
bar overlaps the rear end of the keys
on the preceding bar. The transverse bars
are mounted on chains and are driven by
sprockets.
GRAVEL
Rock fragments from 2 mm to 64 mm (. 08
to 2. 5 inches) in diameter. Or a mixture
of such gravel with sand, cobbles, boulders,
and not over 15 percent of fines.
GROUND PRESSURE
The weight of a machine divided by the
area in square inches of the ground
directly supporting it.
GROUNDWATER
Water occurring in the zone of saturation
in an aquifer or soil.
GROUNDWATER FLOW
Flow of water in an aquifer or soil. That
portion of the discharge of a stream which
is derived from groundwater.
GROUNDWATER, FREE
Groundwater in aquifers not bounded or
confined by impervious strata.
GROUNDWATER RUNOFF
That part of the groundwater which is
discharged into a stream channel as spring
or seepage water.
GROUSER
A ridge or cleat across a track shoe
which improves its grip on the ground.
GROUT
A cementing or sealing mixture of cement
and water, to which sand, sawdust, or
other fillers may be added.
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Solid Waste Definitions
HAMMERMILL_
A grinding machine that operates by
impaction of material against heavy metal
hammers loosely pinned to a shaft rotating
at a high velocity.
HAMMERMILL SYSTEM
A composting process similar to the
rasping system (which see), except that
a rapidly spinning hammermill shreds the
refuse, instead of a slowly turning rasping
machine which serves the same purpose.
HARDPAN
Hardened, compacted or cemented soil
horizon.
HAUL DISTANCE
a) Distance which cover material must
be transported to the working face.
b) Distance collection truck must travel
from its last pick-up stop to the working
face of a sanitary landfill or tipping
floor of a solid waste volume reduction
or disposal facility.
c) Distance transfer vehicle must travel
from solid waste processing station to
point of final disposal.
HAUL TIME
Elapsed or cumulative time spent hauling
collected refuse from the route or from
transfer station to the disposal point.
HEARTH, DRYING
A solid surface upon which waste material
with high moisture content, or liquids or
waste material which may turn to liquid
before burning, is placed for drying or
burning.
HEAT, AVAILABLE
The quantity of useful heat per unit of
fuel available from complete combustion
after deducting dry-flue-gas and water-
vapor losses.
HEAT BALANCE
An accounting of the distribution of the
heat input and output, usually on an
hourly basis.
HEAT EXCHANGER
A set of tubes to accommodate exhaust
gases with means for passing room air
over outside of tubes such that heat of
gases is transferred to room air used for
heating ventilation air supply to room or
process equipment.
HEAT OF COMBUSTION
See HEAT VALUE
HEAT RELEASE RATE
The amount of heat liberated during the
process of complete combustion and ex-
pressed in BTU per hour per cubic
foot of the internal furnace volume in which
such combustion takes place.
HEAT VALUE, HIGH
The heat liberated per pound of refuse
when burned completely and the products
of combustion are cooled to the initial
temperature, as in a calorimeter.
HEAT VALUE, LOW
The high heat value minus the latent heat
of vaporization of the water formed by
burning the hydrogen in the fuel.
HOG FEEDING
A conservation process in which the food
waste or garbage portion of refuse is
disposed of by feeding to hogs. State
regulations throughout the country require
that garbage be treated prior to feeding.
HORSEPOWER
A measurement of power that includes the
factors of force and speed. The force
required to lift 33, 000 pounds one foot in
one minute.
HORSEPOWER. DRAWBAR_
Horsepower available to move a tractor
and its load, after deducting losses in the
power train.
HORSEPOWER SHAFT (FLYWHEEL OR
BELT
Actual horsepower produced by the engine,
after deducting the drag of accessories.
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Solid Waste Definitions
HOST
The living body, human or animal, that
provides food and shelter for the disease
organisms.
HUMUS
Decayed organic matter. A dark fluffy
swamp soil composed chiefly of decayed
vegetation, that is also called peat.
HYDRAULIC GRADIENT
Change in the hydraulic head per unit
distance.
HYDRAULIC HEAD (WATER IN SOIL)
The elevation with respect to a standard
datum at which water stands in a riser
or manometer connected to the point in
question in the soil.
HYDROGEN SULFIDE
Gas product of the reduction of sulfate,
odorous in concentrations as small as
parts per billion.
HYDROGRAPHER
Person who measures and analyzes dis-
charge, precipitation and runoff, etc.
HYDROLOGY
Science dealing with the properties,
distribution and flow of water on or in the
earth.
ID_LE_R
A wheel or gear which changes the
direction of rotation of shafts, or the
direction of movement of a chain or belt.
IMPACTMILL
A grinding machine that operates by
impaction of material against heavy metal
projections rigidly attached to a shaft ro-
tating at a high velocity.
IMPERVIOUS
Resistant to penetration by fluid.
INCINERATION
The controlled combustion process of
burning solid, liquid, or gaseous
combustible wastes to gases and to a
residue containing little combustible
material.
INCINERATOR
Any device used for the burning of refuse
where the factors of combustion, i. e.,
temperature, retention time, turbulence;
and combustion air, can be controlled.
INCINERATOR, BATCH FED
An incinerator which is charged with
refuse periodically; the charge being
allowed to burn down or burn out before
another charge is added.
INCINERATOR, COMMERCIAL
A predesigned, shop-fabricated unit,
possibly shipped assembled as a package
for general refuse.
INCINERATOR, CONTINUOUS FEED
An incinerator into which refuse is charged
in a nearly continuous manner so as to
maintain a steady rate of burning.
INCINERATOR, INDUSTRIAL
A specifically designed, site-erected unit
for disposal of a particular industrial
waste.
INCINERATOR, MULTIPLE CHAMBER
An incinerator consisting of two or more
refractory-lined chambers, interconnected
by gas passage ports or ducts and designed
in such a manner as to provide for complete
combustion of the material to be burned.
Depending upon the arrangement of the
chambers, multiple-chamber incinerators
are designated as in-line or retort types.
INCINERATOR, MUNICIPAL
A specifically designed, site-erected unit
for disposal of refuse collected from
residential, commercial, and industrial
sources.
INCINERATOR, RESIDENTIAL
A predesigned, shop-fabricated unit,
shipped assembled as a package for
individual dwellings.
INCUBATION PERIOD
The time interval between the infection of
a susceptible person or animal arid the
appearance of signs or symptoms of the
disease.
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Solid Waste Definitions
INDORE PROCESS
Anaerobic composting method originating
in India iu the 1920's. Organic waste such
as garbage, straw, and leaves is placed in
alternate layers with night soil, sewage
sludge or animal manure into pits or
trenches 2 or 3 feet deep or piled on open
ground to a height of about 5 feet. Pile
is turned twice m six months; drainage
is used to keep compost moist. Similar
to Bangalore process. The Van Mannen
process is a recent modification.
INFECTION
The entry and development or multipli-
cation of a particular pathogen in the body
of man or animal.
INFECTION (RESERVOIR OF)
Man, animals, plants, soil or inanimate
organic matter in which an infectious
agent lives and multiplies and depends
primarily for survival, reproducing itself
in such manner that it can be transmitted
to man. Man himself is the most frequent
reservoir of infectious agents pathogenic
to man.
INFLUENT STREAM
Stream or portion of stream that contrib-
utes water to the groundwater supply.
INOCULUM
Material such as bacteria placed in a
culture medium, soil, compost, etc.
in order to initiate biological action.
INTERFLOW
That portion of rainfall which infiltrates
the soil and moves laterally through
the upper soil horizons until intercepted
by a stream channel or until it returns to
the surface at some point down slope
from its point of infiltration.
ISOTROPIC SOIL
Soil having the same property (or
properties) such as permeability, in all
directions.
JUNK
A collection of secondary materials;
sorted but unprocessed.
LANDFILL
Deposition of refuse on land with earth
cover applied on a weekly or more
frequent basis so that no nuisance or
insult to the environment results.
LANDFILL, SANITARY
a) A method of disposing of refuse on
land without creating nuisances or
hazards to public health or safety, by
utilizing the principles of engineering
to confine the refuse to the smallest
practical area, to reduce it to the
smallest practical volume, and to
cover it with a layer of earth at the
conclusion of each day's operation or
at such more frequent intervals as
maybe necessary.ASCE
b) A sanitary landfill is a system for
final disposal of solid waste on land,
in which the waste is spread and
compacted on an inclined, minimized
working face in a series of cells and a
daily cover of earth is provided so that
no hazard or insult to the environment
results. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Solid Waste Management
Programs, Training Branch.
LANTZ PROCESS
A destructive distillation process in
which combustible fractions of solid waste
are converted to combustible gas, char-
coal, and a variety of distillates.
LEACHATE
Liquid emanating from a land disposal
cell that contains dissolved, suspended
and/or microbial contaminants from the
solid waste.
LIFT
A layer of cells covering a designated area
of a sanitary landfill.
LIFT DEPTH
Vertical thickness of a compacted volume
of solid waste plus thickness of cover
material immediately above the same
volume of solid waste in a sanitary landfill.
LIQUID LIMIT
Minimum moisture content which will
cause soil to flow if jarred slightly.
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Solid Waste Definitions
LOAM
A soft, easily worked soil containing sand,
salt, anc clay.
LOAMY
A broad grouping of soil texture classes;
includes all sandy loams, clay loams,
loam, silt, and silt-loam textures. Some-
times subdivided into moderately coarse-
textured, medium-textured, and moder-
ately fine-textured groups.
LYSIMETER
Device to measure the quantity or rate of
water movement through or from a block
of soil, usually undisturbed and in situ,
or to collect such percolated water for
analysis.
MANOMETER
A u-shaped tube or an inclined tube filled
with a liquid used to measure pressure
difference.
MANURE
The fecal and urinary defecations of
livestock and poultry. Manure may often
contain some spilled feed, bedding or
litter.
MEMBRANE BARRIER
Thin layer or thickness of material
impervious to the flow of gas or water.
METALS
In the secondary materials industry,
includes all nonferrous materials, copper,
brass, aluminum, zinc, lead, etc.; not
iron and steel.
METHANE
An odorless, colorless, nonpoisonous
and explosive gas. One source is from
sanitary landfills undergoing anaerobic
microbial decomposition.
MICROORGANISMS
Generally any living things microscopic
in size and including the bacteria, actino-
mycetes, yeasts, simple fungi, some algae,
rickettsiae, spirochaetes, slime molds,
protozoans, and some of the simpler
multicellular organisms. Some produce
disease in man, animals, or plants;
some are involved in stabilization of solid
waste (composting) and sewage.
MIXING CHAMBER
Chamber usually placed between 1he
primary combustion chamber and the
secondary combustion chamber where
thorough mixing of the products of
combustion and air is accomplished by
turbulence created by increased velocities
of the gases, checker-work and/or turns
in direction of the gas flow.
MOISTURE PENETRATION
Depth to which moisture penetrates
following irrigation or rainfall before
the rate of downward movement becomes
negligible.
MULTICYCLONE
A dust collector consisting of a number of
cyclones, operating in parallel through
which the volume and velocity of gas can
be regulated by means of dampers in order
to maintain dust-collector efficiency over
the load range.
MUNICIPAL COLLECTION
See COLLECTION, MUNICIPAL
MULTIPLE CHAMBER INCINERATOR
See INCINERATOR, MULTIPLE CHAMBER.
NITROGEN OXIDES
(NOX)
Gases formed from atmospheric nitrogen
and oxygen whenever anything is burned
in air. Usually NOX breaks down to
oxygen and nitrogen except when NOX
is cooled suddenly from a high temperature.
OCEAN DISPOSAL
See DISPOSAL, OCEAN
ODORANT
A gaseous nuisance which is offensive
or objectionable to the olfactory senses.
ODOR THRESHOLD
The lowest concentration of an odor in
air that can be detected by a human.
OFFAL
Intestines and discarded parts from the
slaughter of animals.
OPACITY RATING
The apparent obscuration of an observer's
vision to a degree equal to the apparent
obscuration of smoke of a given rating on
the Ringelmann Chart.
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Solid Waste Definitions
OPEN BURNING
Uncontrolled burning of wastes in the open
or in an open dump.
OPEN DUMP
The consolidation of waste from one or
more sources at a central disposal site
which has little or no management. Some
of the problems associated with open dumps
are: vector breeding, fires, air pollution,
water pollution, unsightliness, wasted
land, disease and accident potentials.
ORGANIC
Containing carbon. Organic materials
oxidize or burn easily and, when they
contain nitrogen or sulfur, or both, they
give off odorous by-products. See
METHANE, HYDROGEN-SULFIDE.
ORGANIC ACID
A product of biochemical activity contain-
ing the carboxyl group which readily
reacts with other compounds.
ORGANIC CONTENT
Synonymous with volatile solids except
for small traces of some inorganic
materials such as calcium carbonate
which will lose weight at temperatures
used in determining volatile solids.
ORSAT
An apparatus used for analyzing flue gases
volumetrically by measuring the amounts
of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and carbon
monoxide.
OSBORNE SEPARATOR
Device to effect the efficient removal from
compost of small particles of glass,
metals, and other products . Patented by
R. G,. Osborne Laboratories, Los Angeles.
Utilizes a pulsed rising column of air to
separate heavy items contained in compost.
Also called deglasser.
OVERFIRE AIR
See AIR, COMBUSTION (SECONDARY)
OXIDATION
Reinoval of electrons from an atom or
molecule.
OXYGEN RECORDER
An instrument for continuously monitoring
the percentage oxygen content of flue gas.
PARTICLE CONCENTRATION
Concentration expressed in terms of
number of particles per unit volume of
air or other gas. (Note: On expressing
particle concentration, the method of
determining the concentration should be
stated; that is, number/vol. or wt./vol.)
PARTICLES
A small, discrete mass of solid or liquid
matter. Included under particles are
aerosols, dusts, fumes, mists, smokes.
and sprays.
PARTICLE SIZE
An expression of the size of liquid or
solid particles expressed as the average
or equivalent diameter.
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
The relative percentage by weight or
number of each of the different size
fractions of particulate matter.
PARTICULATE MATTER
Material which is suspended within or
discharged to the atmosphere in finely
divided liquid or solid form at atmospheric
temperature and pressure.
PATHOGEN
Any infective agent capable of producing
disease; may be a virus, rickettsia,
bacterium, protozoan, etc.
PEAT (HUMUS)
A soft light swamp soil consisting mostly
of decayed vegetation.
PERCHED WATER TABLE
Underground water lying over dry soil,
and sealed from it by an impervious layer.
PERCOLATION
A qualitative term applying to the down-
ward movement of water through soil.
PERMEABILITY (QUALITATIVE)
The quality or state of a porous medium
relating to the readiness with which it
conducts or transmits fluids.
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Solid Waste Definitions
pH
Negative log of Hydrogen Ion concentration.
PICKING TABLE OR BELT
Table or belt at which solid waste is sorted
by removing certain items. Normally
associated with composting and salvaging
operations.
PIN, TRACK
A hinge pin connecting two sections or
shoes or a crawler track.
PITOT TUBE
An instrument which will sense the total
pressure and the static pressure in a
gas stream. It is used to determine gas
velocity.
PLASTICITY (SOIL)
Property of a soil which allows it to be
deformed without appreciable volume-
change or cracking.
PLASTIC LIMIT
The minimum amount of water in terms
of percent of oven-dry weight of soil that
will make the soil plastic.
POLLUTANTS, AIR
Any solid, liquid or gaseous matter in the
effluent which tends to pollute the
atmosphere.
POLLUTION
The presence in a body of water (or soil
or air) of substances of such character
and in such quantities that the natural
quality of the body of water (or soil or
air) is degraded so it impairs the water's
usefulness or renders it offensive to the
senses of sight, taste, or smell. Contam-
ination may accompany pollution. In
general, a public health hazard is created,
but in some cases only economy or esthetics
are involved as when waste salt brines
contaminate surface waters, and when foul
odors pollute the air.
POLYVINYL CHLORIDE - (PVC)
A common plastic material (general
formula CH2 = CHC1) which releases
HC1 when burned.
POROSITY
Ratio of the space in any porous material
(such as a soil) that is not filled with
solid matter, to the total space occupied;
generally expressed as a percentage.
The porosity of an aquifer is equal to the
sum of the specific yield and the specific
retention.
POWER TAKEOFF
A place in a transmission or engine to
which a shaft can be so attached as to
drive an outside mechanism.
POWER TRAIN
All moving parts connecting an engine
with the point or point where work is
accomplished.
PREMISES
A tract or parcel of land with or without
habitable buildings.
PRESSURE
Total load or force acting upon a surface
expressed as a weight per unit area
i.e. pounds per square inch (psi).
PRIMARY AIR
(See PRIMARY COMBUSTION AIR)
PRIMARY COMBUSTION CHAMBER
See COMBUSTION CHAMBER (PRIMARY)
PRIVATE COLLECTION
See COLLECTION, PRIVATE
PROCESS WEIGHT
The total weight of materials introduced
into an incinerator including solid fuel
charges but excluding liquid or gaseous
fuels and combustion air.
P.S.I. (PSI)
Pressure in pounds per square inch.
PULVERIZATION
The crushing of brittle material, such as
glass, to a small size.
PUTRESCIBLE
Capable of being decomposed by micro-
organisms with sufficient rapidity as to
cause nuisances from odors, gases, etc.
Kitchen wastes, offal, and dead animals are
examples of putrescible components of
solid waste.
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Solid Waste Definitions
PUTRESCIBLE MATTER IN RESIDUE
Unburned organic matter in the residue
that is fermentable, or capable of decaying,
or of assimilation by animals and micro-
organisms.
PYROMETER
An instrument for measuring and/or re-
cording temperature.
QUARRY
A rock pit. An open cut mine in rock
chosen for physical rather than chemical
characteristics.
RADIATION PYROMETER
A pyrometer which determines tempera-
ture by measuring the intensity of
radiation from a hot body.
RASPING MACHINE
A grinding machine consisting of a large
verticle drum containing heavy hinged
arms which rotate horizontally over a
rasp and sieve floor.
RASPING SYSTEM
A composting procedure in which refuse
is ground through a screen partly covered
with steel pins that have the effect of a
rasp. Compost piles are turned during a
three to six week period. Developed in
the Netherlands in 1951.
RATED LOAD
The maximum load which a crane is
designed to handle safely.
REDUCTION (IN CHEMISTRY)
Addition of electrons to an atom or
molecule.
REFRACTORY (REFRACTORIES)
Nonmetallic substances capable of
enduring high temperatures and used in
linings of furnaces. While their primary
function is resistance to high temperature,
they are usually called upon to resist one
or more of the following destructive
influences: abrasion, pressure, chemical
attack and rapid changes in temperature.
REFUGE
A hiding place or shelter for rats, mice,
and insects. It is important to distinguish
between refuge and refuse, the latter
being synonymous with solid waste. The
confusion comes about because refuse
frequently serves as a refuge for vermin.
REFUSE
Comprises all solid waste of the
community and semi-liquid or wet waste
with insufficient liquid content to be free
flowing. Synonym Solid Waste.
REFUSE, COMMERCIAL
All solid waste which orginates in
businesses operated for profit even as
office buildings, stores, markets, theaters
and privately owned hospitals and other
institutional buildings.
REFUSE, DOMESTIC
All those types which normally originate
in the residential household or apartment
house. Does not include bulky wastes
requiring special pickup.
REFUSE FILL
A systematic and periodic operation
conducted to compact and cover the refuse,
on less than a daily basis. (See OPEN
DUMP)
REFUSE. INDUSTRIAL
All solid waste which results from
industrial processes and manufacturing
operations such as factories, processing
plants, repair and cleaning establishments,
refineries and rendering plants.
REFUSE, MOISTURE CONTENT
The weight loss on drying a sample to
constant weight under standard conditions,
tentatively 7Qoc for refuse.
REFUSE (RESIDENTIAL)
See REFUSE (DOMESTIC)
REFUSE SHED
A region or area which for reasons of
topography, contiguous population and/or
other common features, includes refuse
sources which may be considered collective-
ly in general planning. Usually synonymous
with the general populated or metropolitan
area and not necessarily limited by lines
of political jurisdiction.
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Solid Waste Definitions
REFUSE, STREET_
Material picked up by manual and mechani-
cal sweeping of streets and sidewalks,
litter from public letter receptacles and
dirt removed from catch basins.
REFUSE TRAIN
A number of open carts hitched in series
and pulled by a motor vehicle, its purpose
being to collect solid waste.
RENDERING
A process of salvaging fats and oils,
animal feed, and other products from
animal waste by cooking. Dead animals,
fish, and waste from slaughter houses
and butcher shops are commonly used.
RESIDUE
All of the solid material collected from
the process of incineration, consisting of
grate siftings, material from off the end
of the grates and particulate collected from
air pollution control devices.
RESPIRATION
Any energy-yeilding oxidation in a living
organism in which the oxidant is an
inorganic compound. Oxygen need not be
involved, though it is the most common
oxidant.
RESPIRATION, AEROBIC
Oxidation of organic compounds by oxygen.
(See also RESPIRATION).
RESPIRATION, ANAEROBIC
A type of respiration among some bacteria
in which an inorganic oxidant (NOg, 804)
other than oxygen is used. (See also
RESPIRATION)
RETAINING WALL
A wall separating two levels.
RINGELMANN CHART
A printed or photographically reproduced
series of four shades of gray, by which
density of smoke emissions from an in-
cinerator may be estimated. A clear
stack is recorded as 0, and 100% black
smoke as 5. No. 1 smoke is 20% dense;
No. 2, 40% dense; No. 3, 60% dense;
No. 4, 80% dense.
RIPARIAN RIGHTS
Rights of a land owner to water rn or
bordering his property, including right to
prevent diversion or misuse of upstream
water.
RIPPER
A towed machine equipped with teeth,
used primarily for loosening hard soil
and soft rock.
ROLL BAR
Steel protection over the cab of a tractor
or loader to prevent injury to the operator.
ROLLER, SUPPORT
In a crawler machine, a roller that
supports the slack upper part of the
track.
ROLLER, TRACK
In a crawler machine, the small wheels
that rest on the track and carry most of
the weight of the machine.
RUBBISH
Non bulky domestic and commercial
solid waste exclusive of garbage.
RUBBISH CHUTE
A pipe, duct or trough through which waste
materials are conveyed by gravity from
the upper floors to a storage area prepara-
tory to burning or compaction.
RUBBISH, COMBUSTIBLE
Miscellaneous burnable materials. In
general, the combustible component of
rubbish.
RUBBISH, NONCOMBUSTIBLE
Miscellaneous refuse materials that are
unburnable in ordinary incinerators.
RUBBISH, YARD
Prunings, grass clippings, \f-eeds, leaves,
and general yard and garden waste.
RUBBLE
Broken pieces of masonry and concrete.
RUNOFF
The portion of precipitation or irrigation
water which is returned to the stream as
surface flow.
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Solid Waste Definitions
SAND
Soil particles ranging from 0.05 to 2.0 mm
in diameter. Soil material containing 85
percent or more particles of this size.
SALVAGING
The controlled removal of reusable
materials.
SANITATION
The control of all those factors in man's
physical environment which exercise or
may exercise a deleterious effect on his
physical development, health, and survival.
SATURATE
To fill all the voids in a material with fluid,
to form the most concentrated solution
possible under a given set of physical
conditions in the presence of an excess of
the substance.
SCARIFIER
See RIPPER
SCAVENGING
The uncontrolled picking of materials.
SCOOTER
A small, usually single-passenger, 3-
whee:led vehicle with body of 1 cubic yard
capacity, used in refuse collection especial-
ly to negotiate long driveways and narrow
alleys. Collected refuse is emptied into
a collection truck. Some have dump bodies,
others have a stationary bed which holds
the collector's carry-cans.
SCRAP
In the secondary materials industry, applies
to iron and steel scrap only.
SCRUBBER, FLUE GAS
See FLUE GAS SCRUBBER (WASHER)
SECONDARY AIR
(See COMBUSTION AIR (SECONDARY)
SECONDARY COMBUSTION CHAMBER
(See COMBUSTION CHAMBER SECONDARY)
SECONDARY MATERIALS
Those materials which might go to waste
if not collected and processed for reuse.
Includes scrap, metals, waste, and junk.
(See under definitions of each),
SECTION
An area equal to 640 acres or 1 square mile.
SEEPAGE
Movement of water through soil without
formation of definite channels.
SEPARATOR. BALLISTIC
A separating device that operates by
dropping mixed material onto a high speed
rotary impeller so that materials of different
physical characteristics are hurled off at
different velocities and subsequently land
in several separate collecting bins.
SEPARATOR, INERTIAL
A material separation device that relies
on ballistic or gravity separation of
materials having different physical
characteristics.
SEPARATOR, MAGNETIC
Any separating device that removes metals
by means of magnets.
SEMI-GROUSER
A crawler track shoe with one or more low
cleats.
SERVICE STOP
Residence, commercial establishment, or
other living or business unit receiving
periodic refuse collection service.
SETTLEMENT
A gradual subsidence of material.
SETTLEMENT, DIFFERENTIAL
A subsidence of material that is not uni-
form throughout the plane of the material.
SETTLING CHAMBER
Any chamber designed to reduce the
velocity of the products of combustion to
promote the settling of fly ash from the
gas stream.
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Solid Waste Definitions
SETTLING VELOCITY
The velocity at which a given dust will fall
out of dur,t-laden gas under the influence
of gravity only. Also known as "terminal
velocity".
SEWAGE SLUDGE
A semiliquid substance consisting of
suspended sewage solids combined with
water and dissolved material in varying
amounts.
SEWAGE TREATMENT RESIDUES
Coarse screenings, grit, and dewatered
or air-dried sludge from sewage treat-
ment plants, and pumpings of cesspool
or septic tank sludges which require
disposal with municipal solid waste.
SHALE
A rock formed of consolidated mud.
SHEARS
A size reduction machine that operates
by cutting material between large blades.
SHEEPSFOOT
A tamping roller with feet expanded at
their outer tips.
SHOE
A ground plate forming a link of a track,
or bolted to a track link. A support for a
bulldozer blade or other digging edge to
prevent cutting down.
SHORING
Temporary bracing to hold the sides of an
excavation from caving.
SHOVEL
A digging and loading machine or tool.
SHOVEL, DIPPER (SHOVEL) (DIPPER
STICK)
A revolving shovel that has a push type
bucket rigidly fastened to a stick that
slides on a pivot in the boom.
SHOVEL DOZER (DOZER SHOVEL)
A tractor equipped with a front-mounted
bucket that can be used for pushing,
digging, and truck loading.
5 H:: L '
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DITCHING SHOVEL, BACKHOE)
A revolving shovel having a pull-t;-pe
bucket rigidly attached to a stick hinged
on the end of a live boom.
SHOVEL-OFF
Any collection vehicle lacking a mechanical
emptying device, and which must be
unloaded by hand.
SHOVEL, REVOLVING
A digging machine that has the machinery
deck and attachment on a vertical pivot
so that it can swing independently of its
base.
SHOVEL-UP
Refuse which is not stored in containers
for collection and must be laboriously
hand loaded with forks or shovels into a
carrying container or collection vehicle.
SHREDDERS
Chops up discarded automobiles and other
ordinarily low-grade sheet and coated scrap
in continuous operation producing premium
grade fistsized pieces that are 99 per
cent steel.
SHRINKAGE
Loss of bulk of soil when compacted in a
fill. Usually is computed on the basis
of bank measure.
SILT
Small, 0.05 to 0.002 mm in diameter,
mineral soil grains intermediate between
clay and sand. Waterborne sediment with
diameters of individual grains approaching
that of silt. Soil material containing 80
percent or more silt and less than 12 per-
cent clay.
SINTERING
A heat treatment which causes adjacent
particles of material to cohere at a tem-
perature below that of complete melting.
SLAG
A liquid mineral substance formed by
chemical action and fusion at furnace-
operated temperatures.
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Solid Waste Definitions
SLAGGING OF REFRACTORIES
Destructive chemical action upon refractor-
ies at high temperatures, resulting in the
formation of slag. Also the coating of
refractories by ash particles, which form
a molten or viscous slag on the refractories.
SLOPE
Degree of deviation of a surface from the
horizontal, usually expressed in percent
or degrees.
SLOUGH
Wet or marshy area.
SLURRY
Cement grout.
SMOKE
An aerosol consisting of all the dispersible
particulate products from the imcomplete
combustion of carbonaceous materials
entrained in flue gas as gaseous medium.
SMOKE ALARMS
Instruments that provide an objective
method of continuous measurement and
recording of smoke density by measuring
the amount of light obscured by smoke
when a beam of light is shone through the
smoke in a flue. Most of the instruments
have on them a scale, graded according to
Ringelmann shades. They can be fitted
with an alarm that operates when the smoke
is above a preset density.
SMOKE DENSITY
The amount of solid matter contained in
smoke and often measured by systems
that relate the grayness of the smoke to
an established standard.
SOIL
Natural body, developed from weathered
minerals and decaying organic matter,
covering the earth. Theupper layer of the
earth in which plants grow.
SOIL EROSION
Detachment and movement of soil from the
land surface by wind or water, including
normal soil erosion and accelerated
erosion.
SOIL, (HEAVY)
A fine grained soil, made up largely of
clay or silt.
SOIL, ISOTROPIC
Soil having the same property (or properties)
such as permeability, in all directions.
SOIL, TIGHT
Soil that is relatively impermeable to
water movement.
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
The purposeful systematic control of the
storage, collection, transportation,
processing and disposal of solid waste.
SPARK ARRESTER
A screen-like device to prevent sparks,
embers, or other ignited materials above
a given size from being expelled to the
atmosphere.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY (SOLIDS OR LIQUIDS)
The ratio of the mass of a body to an
equal volume of water.
SPOIL
Dirt or rock which has been removed from
its original location.
SPOT LOG
A log or marker placed to show a truck
driver the spot where he should stop to
be loaded.
SPOTTER
In truck use, the man who directs the
driver into loading or dumping position.
STABILIZE
To make soil firm and to prevent it from
moving.
STACK (CHIMNEY, FLUE)
A vertical passage for conducting products
of combustion to the atmosphere.
STACK EFFECT
The phenomenon of vertical movement of
hot gases in a stack because of the tempera-
ture (density) difference between the gases
and the atmosphere.
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Solid Waste Definitions
STADIA
Measurement of distance by proportion to
the space on a vertical rod seen between
upper and lower instrument cross hairs,
usual proportion is one vertical to 100
horizontal.
STAKE, SLOPE
A stake marking the line where a cut or
fill meets the original grade.
STATION
Any one of a series of stakes or points
indicating distance from a point of beginning
or reference.
STATIONARY PACKER
An adjunct of a refuse container system
which compacts refuse at the site of
generation into a pull-on detachable
container (see PULL-ON CONTAINER).
STEERING BRAKE
A brake which slows or stops one side of
a tractor.
STEERING CLUTCH
A clutch which can disconnect power from
one side of a tractor.
STERILIZATION
Destruction of all microorganisms and
their spores outside the body by chemical
or physical means.
STOCKPILE
Material dug and piled for future use.
SUBSIDENCE
To settle or sink. Usually applied to
peat and muck soils and refers to the
settling due to oxidation, compaction,
shrinkage, and wind erosion.
SUBSOIL
That part of the soil beneath the topsoil,
usually that not having an appreciable
organic matter content.
SULFUR, OXIDES OF
Compounds of sulfur combined with oxygen.
Those of significance in air pollution in-
clude sulfur dioxide (802) and sulfur
trioxide (803).
SUMP
Pit, tank, or reservoir in whir'i water is
collected or stored.
SURFACE COMPACTION
Molding together and collapse of structure
of surface soil when subjected to pressure.
SURFACE CRACKING
Creation of discontinuities in the cover
material of a sanitary landfill as a result
of settlement and decomposition of solid
waste and/or a change in moisture content
of the cover material which may result
in exposure of solid waste, entrance or
egress of vectors and entrance of water.
SURFACE WATER
A body of water whose top surface is
exposed to the atmosphere including a flowing
body as well as a pond or lake.
SURVEYING
To find and record elevations, locations,
and directions by means of instruments.
SWILL (SLOPS)
Semiliquid waste material consisting of
garbage and free liquids.
TAILINGS
Second grade or waste material separated
from pay material during screening or
processing.
TAMP
Pound or press soil to compact it.
TAMPING ROLLER
One or more steel drums fitted with
projecting feet and towed by means of a
box frame.
TANDEM
A double-axle drive unit for a truck or
grader. (A bogie).
THEORETICAL AIR
(See COMBUSTION AIR - THEORETICAL)
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
The specific rate of heat flow per hr. through
refractories, expressed inBTUpersq. ft.
of area, for a temperature difference of
one degree Fahrenheit, and for a thickness
of one inch. BTU/(sq. ft. ) (hr) (deg. F) (in.)
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Solid Waste Definitions
THERMAL SHOCK RESISTANCE
The ability to withstand sudden heating or
cooling,or both, without cracking or spalling.
THERMOCOUPLE
Two lengths of wire made from different
homogeneous metals, connected to form a
complete electric circuit which develops
an electromotive force (emf) when one
junction is at a different temperature than
the other.
THERMO PHILS
Bacteria or other microorganisms which
grow best at temperatures of roughly 45°
to 60°C. Not to be confused with thermo-
durics, which resist high temperatures."
Others: mesophils -grow best at medium
temperature, 25° to 40°C; psychrophils -
grow best at colder temperatures, below
2QOC.
TIDAL MARSH
Low flat marshlands traversed by inter-
laced channels and tidal sloughs and
subject to tidal inundation. Vegetation
usually consists of bushes, grasses, and
other salt-tolerant plants.
TILTH
Soil condition in relation to lump or
particle size.
TILTING DOZER
A bulldozer whose blade can be pivoted
on a horizontal center pin to cut low on
either side.
TIPPING FLOOR
Unloading area for vehicles that are
delivering refuse to an incinerator.
TOE
The projection of the bottom of a face
beyond the top.
TONS PER DAY (INCINERATION)
Denotes the weight of refuse which can be
properly processed by an incinerator
within a 24 hour period.
TOPSOIL
The topmost layer of soil, usually refers
to soil containing humus which is capable
of supporting a good plant growth.
26
TOPOGRAPHIC MAP
A map indicating surface elevation and
slope.
TORQUE, FULL LOAD
The torque necessary for a motor to
produce its rated horsepower at full-load
speed.
TOTAL COST OF BIDDING
A method of establishing the purchase price
for movable equipment whereby the buyer
is guaranteed that maintenance shall not
exceed a set maximum amount during a
fixed period of time (normally 5 years) and
that the equipment will be repurchased by
the seller at a set minimum price at the
end of the fixed time period.
TRACK^
A crawler track.
TRACK, CRAWLER
One of a pair of roller chains used to
support and propel a machine. It has an
upper surface which provides a track to
carry the wheels of the machine, and a
lower surface providing continuous ground
contact.
TRACK ROLLER
In a crawler machine, the small wheels
which are under the track frame and
which rest on the track.
TRACTOR (CRAWLER)
See TRACTOR TRACK
TRACTOR LOADER (TRACTOR SHOVEL OR
STgJVEL DOZ'JJR)
A tractor equipped with a bucket which
can be used to dig and to elevate to dump
at truck height.
TRACTOR, PNEUMATIC WHEEL
A gas or diesel powered machine equipped
with 4 pneumatic tires, used to spread,
excavate and compact soil and solid waste.
TRACTOR, RUBBER-TIRED
See pneumatic wheel tractor.
TRACTOR, TRACK
A gas or diesel powered machine equipped
with continuous roller belt over cogged
wheels for moving over rough or low
bearing capacity terrain, used to spread,
excavate and compact soil and solid waste.
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Solid Waste Definitions
TRANSFER STATION
A fixed facility used for removing refuse
from col ection trucks and placing it in
long-haul vehicles.
TRASH
Exact meaning is vague but it is usually
synonomous with rubbish.
TRAVEL TIME
The elapsed or cumulative time of travel
between collection stops on the route.
TREAD
The ground contact surface on a tire or
track shoe.
TROUGHING
Making repeated dozer pushes in one track,
so that ridges of spilled material hold
dirt in front of the blade.
TRUCK, BOTTOM DUMP (DUMP WAGON)
A trailer or semitrailer that dumps bulk
material by opening doors in the floor of
the body.
TRUCK. COMPACTOR COLLECTION
Enclosed vehicle provided with special
mechanical devices for loading the refuse
into the main compartment of the body,
for compressing the loaded materials,
and for distributing the refuse within the
body.
TRUCK CAPACITY
Volumetric capacity for refuse.
TRUCK, DUMP
A truck or semitrailer that carries a
box body with a mechanism for discharging
its load.
TRUCK, PLATFORM (RACK BODY TRUCK)
A truck having a flat open body.
TRUCK. REAR DUMP (END DUMP)
A truck or semitrailer that has a box body
that can be raised at the front so the load
will slide out the rear.
UNDERGROUND RUNOFF (SEEPAGE)
Water flowing toward stream channels after
infiltration into the ground.
UTILITY (PR1VATE)_
Firm providing service under a g jvermnent
license or monopoly franchise. Tlay collect
or dispose of solid waste.
VAN MANNEN PROCESS
Anaerobic composting process which is a
modification of the Indore method (which
see). Used in the Netherlands from about
1932. City refuse is heaped in long rows
and moistened. Decomposition takes about
six months.
VAPOR PLUME
The stack effluent consisting of flue gas
made visible by condensed water droplets
or mist.
VAPORS
The gaseous form of substances which are
normally in the solid or liquid state and
which can be changed to these states either
by increasing the pressure or decreasing
the temperature alone.
VECTOR (OF DISEASE)
A living insect or other arthropod, or
animal (not human) which transmits
infectious diseases from one person or
animal to another.
VEHICLE, ABANDONED
Motor vehicles and trailers that are dis-
carded on public or private property longer
than a specified time.
VEHICLE (OF INFECTION)
Water, food, milk, or any substance or
article serving as an intermediate means
by which the pathogenic agent is transported
from a reservoir and introduced into a
susceptible host through ingestion, through
inoculation or by deposit on the skin or
mucous membrane.
VOLATILE MATTER OF REFUSE
The weight loss of a dry sample on heating
to red heat in a closed crucible.
VOLATILE SOLIDS
The sum of the volatile matter and fixed
carbon of a refuse sample a J.. i- , joined
by allowing a dried sample to burn in a
heated and ventilated furnace.
WALL, AIR-COOLED
A wall in which there is a lane for the
flow of air directly in back of the refractory.
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Solid Waste Definitions
WALL, CURTAIN
A partition wall between chambers, which
serves to deflect gases in a downward
direction. (Sometimes referred to as a
drop arch.)
WALL, SUPPORTED
A furnace wall that is anchored to and
has its weight transferred to a structure
(usually steelwork and castings) outside
of the high temperature zone.
WALL, WATER-COOLED
A furnace wall containing water tubes.
WASTE
Useless, unwanted, or discarded materials
resulting from normal community
activities. Waste includes solids, liquids,
and gases. Solid waste is classed as
refuse.
WASTE HANDLING
The manipulation or transportation of
waste.
WASTE, PROCESSING OF
An operation in which the physical or
chemical characteristics of the waste are
changed. Example of this would include
compaction, composting and incineration.
WATERSHED
Total land area above a given point on a
stream or waterway which contributes
runoff to that point.
WASTE, SOLID
See REFUSE
WATER TABLE
The surface of underground, gravity-
controlled water.
WET DIGESTION
A solid waste stabilization process
proposed by Dr. William Oswald of the
University of California on the basis of
experience with anaerobic sewage lagoons.
A wide variety of mixed solid organic
waste is placed in an open digestion pond
to decompose anaerobically. Much of the
carbonaceous matter is converted into
carbon dioxide and methane. The soluble
and suspended fraction is converted
aerobically by algae in a biooxidation pond.
28
WET MILLING
Mechanical size reduction of solid waste
after it has been wetted to soften the paper
and cardboard constituents.
WETTfNG AGENT
A chemical that reduces the surface
tension of water so that it soaks into
porous material more readily. Example -
synthetic soap powder.
WORKING DRAWING
Any drawing showing sufficient detail so
that whatever is shown can be built
without other drawings or instructions.
WORKING FACE
That portion of the compacted solid waste
at a sanitary landfill which will have more
waste placed on it and/or is being
compacted prior to placement of cover
material.
ZOONOSIS
A disease of animals transmissible
to man. Some examples are anthrax,
bubonic plague, murine typhus, some of
the salmonellae.
REFERENCES
1 American Public Works Association,
Committee on Refuse Collection.
Refuse Collection Practice. APWA
Research Foundation Project No. 101,
Chicago: Public Administration Service.
3rd Edition, 525 pp. 1966.
2 Schwartz, Dari. Lexicon of Incinerator
Terminology. Proceedings - 1964
National Incinerator Conference.* New
York: American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, pp. 20-31. 1964.
3 U.S. Public Health Service and American
Public Works Association. Proceedings
- National Conference on Solid Waste
American Public
Research.Chicago-
Works Association, 228 pp.
1964.
February
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Solid Waste Definitions
5 American Society of Civil Engineers, 6 Nichols, Herbert L. Moving the Earth,
Committee on Sanitary Landfill Practice. The Workbook of Excavation.
Sanitary Landfill. ASCE... Manuals of North Castle Books, Greenwich,
Engineering... No. 39, 62 pp. 1S59. Connecticut. 1962.
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REFUSE MATERIAL BY KIND, COMPOSITION, AND SOURCES*
Kind
REFUSE
GARBAGE
RUBBISH
ASHES
STREET
REFUSE
DEAD
ANIMALS
ABANDONED
VEHICLES
INDUSTRIAL
WASTE
DEMOLITION
WASTE
CONSTRUCTION
WASTE
SPECIAL
WASTE
SEWAGE
TREATMENT
RESIDUE
Composition
Waste from preparation, cooking,
and serving of food; market waste;
waste from handling, storage, and
sale of produce.
Combustible: paper, cartons, boxes,
barrels, wood, excelsior, tree
branches, yard trimmings, wood furni-
ture, bedding, dunnage.
Noncombustible: metals, tin cans,
metal furniture, dirt, glass,
crockery, minerals.
Residue from fires used for cooking
and heating and from on- site
incineration.
Sweepings, dirt, leaves, catch basin
dirt, contents of litter receptacles.
Cats, dogs, horses, cows.
Unwanted cars and trucks left on
public property.
Food processing waste, boiler house
cinders, lumber scraps, metal scraps,
shavings.
Lumber, pipes, brick, masonry, and
other construction materials from
razed buildings and other structures.
Scrap lumber, pipe, other construc-
tion materials.
Hazardous solids and liquids: explo-
sives, pathological waste, radioactive
materials.
Solids from coarse screening and from
grit chambers; septic tank sludge
Sources
Households, restaurants,
institutions, stores,
markets.
Streets, sidewalks,
alleys, vacant lots.
Factories, power
plants.
Demolition sites to be
used for new buildings,
renewal projects,
expressways.
New construction,
remodeling.
Households, hotels, hos-
pitals, institutions,
stores, industry.
Sewage treatment plants;
septic tanks.
(1) . 1 A 4.- /- -4.4. D 11 4." ' ' 1
Refuse Disposal. Chicago: Public Administration Service. 2nd Edition, 1966. 528 pp.
SW. ST. gn. 1. 1. 67
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PRELIMINARY ENGINEERING SURVEY FOR SANITARY LANDFILL SITES
Richard W. Eldredge*
I SITE IDENTIFICATION
II SITE LOCATION
III ACREAGE
LENGTH
_ACRES
WIDTH
(Provide Sketch of Irregular Sites)
IV OWNER OF RECORD
OWNER'S REPRESENTATIVE (IF ANY)
A AVAILABILITY
B PRESENT USAGE
C TERMS AND CONDITIONS
1 LEASE: PRICE PER ACRE_
TOTAL COST
PER YEAR;
PER YEAR
2 SALE: PRICE PER ACRE:_
TOTAL COST
V LAND CHARACTERISTICS
A GENERAL DESCRIPTION
B DRAINAGE
NATURAL
STORM SEWERS
_ACRES
ACRES
* Formerly Assistant Bureau Director for
Program Development, Bureau of Solid Waste
Management, EGA, Cincinnati, Ohio.
SW. SL. ss.2.1.67
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Preliminary Engineering Survey for Sanitary Landfill Sites
FARM TILE ACRES
OPEN DITCH ACRES
SUMMER INCHES
FALL INCHES
WINTER INCHES
D OUTFALL (DESCRIBE CRITICAL CONDITIONS UP TO ONE MILE DOWNSTREAM
OF OPEN DRAINS, ETC. )
E GROUND COVER
Estimated Acreage
1 HEAVILY WOODED
LIGHT BRUSH
GRASSES OR PASTURE
CULTIVATED
2 ESTIMATED CLEARING COST PER ACRE
(REDUCE CLEARING COST BY ANY AMOUNTS RECEIVED
FROM SALE OF TIMBER)
3 SUGGESTED METHOD OF CLEARING
F AGRICULTURAL SOIL CLASSIFICATION
% SAND
% SILT TEXTURE CLASSIFICATION
% CLAY
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(Provide Sketch of Drainage Facilities if Other Than Natural)
C RAINFALL |
Quantity Estimate
SPRING INCHES
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(See Page 209 - Soil Survey Manual USDA) ~
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Preliminary Engineering Survey for Sanitary Landfill Sites
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G ATTACH BORING LOGS OF REPRESENTATIVE TEST HOLES, BORED TO
DETERMINE WATER TABLE AND SOILS PROFILE (Logs of Nearby Wells
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May Be Used In Lieu of Test Borings - If The Area Presents a Generally
Consistant Soils Pattern)
F IF COVER MATERIAL IS NOT AVAILABLE AT THE SITE - WHERE WILL
IT BE OBTAINED?
WHAT COSTS ARE INVOLVED?
OWNER (COVER MATERIAL)
VI OPERATIONAL SUPPORT
A FIRE PROTECTION
1 WHO IS RESPONSIBLE FOR FIRE PROTECTION?
2 WHAT ARE THE COSTS, IF ANY?
3 WHERE IS THE NEAREST WATER SOURCE FOR FIRE-FIGHTING?
4 FOR DRINKING WATER?
B ARE THERE ANY OTHER SOURCES OF WATER WHICH MIGHT BE ADVERSELY
AFFECTED BY A LANDFILL?
C UTILITIES
On Site Nearby (State Where)
WATER
GAS
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Preliminary Engineering Survey for Sanitary Landfill Sites
ELECTRICITY
TELEPHONE
SANITARY
SEWERS
STORM
SEWERS
VII PHYSICAL AND GOVERNMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
A OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS
1 CITY
2 COUNTY
3 STATE
4 WATER BOARD
5 HEALTH DEPARTMENT
6 PLANNING COMMISSION
7 OTHER
PROVIDE COMMENTARY ON EXTENT OF CONTROL
AND COPY OF SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS
B ZONING
1 ZONING CLASSIFICATION
2 ENFORCEMENT AGENCY
3 RESTRICTIONS - IF ANY
ACTIONS NECESSARY TO USE SITE
C EXISTING OPERATIONS
1 DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES SERVING THE SAME AREA
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Preliminary Engineering Survey for Sanitary Landfill Sites
SUMMARY OF REFUSE DISPOSAL HISTORY IN THE AREA
(Include Adjacent Areas if Pertinent)
D LAND USE OF ADJACENT PROPERTIES
South W.est North East
1 RESIDENTIAL
2 COMMERCIAL
3 LIGHT INDUSTRIAL
4 HEAVY INDUSTRIAL
5 RURAL
6 MIXED
IF LAND IS NOT ZONED MARK USE "O"
IF LAND USE AGREES WITH ZONING MARK "Z"
IF LAND USE AND ZONING DO NOT AGREE MARK "V"
VIII SITE ACCESS
A ROADS MAINTAINED BY:
1 CITY
2 TOWNSHIP
3 COUNTY
4 STATE
5 INTERSTATE
6 OTHER
EXPLAIN:
B TYPES OF ROAD SURFACE
1 CONCRETE
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Preliminary Engineering Survey for Sanitary Landfill Sites
I
2 ASPHALT
3 SEAL COAT
4 SOIL CEMENT
5 GRAVEL
6 CRUSHED STONE
7 DIRT
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(Include Information on All Bridges in
Immediate Vicinity)
D RAILROAD CROSSINGS
8 OTHER
C BRIDGES
1 LOCATION
2 LOAD LIMIT
3 CONDITION
I GRADE CROSSING VISIBILITY
2 ELEVATED CONDITION
3 UNDERPASS HEIGHT
E DISTANCE TO COMMUNITY CENTER
1 PROBABLE MAXIMUM HAUL DISTANCE
(ONE WAY)
PROBABLE MINIMUM HAUL DISTANCE
(ONE WAY)
PROBABLE AVERAGE HAUL DISTANCE
(ONE WAY)
AVERAGE TIME OF AVERAGE HAUL
(ONE WAY)
CHARACTERISTICS OF AREA ADJACENT TO MAJOR HAUL ROUTES
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Preliminary Engineering Survey for Sanitary Landfill Sites
IX RECOMMENDED PROCEDURE
A PROPOSED LANDFILL METHOD
1 TRENCH
2 CUT AND COVER
3 AREA
4 RAMP
5 OTHER OR COMBINATION
(Attach Detailed Recommendations)
B PROPOSED COMPLETED SITE USE
1 PARKS
2 PLAYGROUNDS _____
3 AGRICULTURE
4 PARKING
5 LIGHT INDUSTRIAL
6 OTHER
DESCRIBE
C PROPOSED MAXIMUM FINISHED ELEVATION:
D ESTIMATED CAPACITY OF SITE:
X POPULATION DATA
A POPULATION SERVED BY LANDFILL
1 NOW
2 NEXT TEN YEARS
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B TOTAL AREA POPULATION
1 NOW
2 NEXT TEN YEARS
XI SUMMARY:
Preliminary Engineering Survey for Sanitary Landfill Sites ______
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Report Submitted By: _____ __
Date __________^___. __ _ _ _ I
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PRELIMINARY ENGINEERING SURVEY FOR INCINERATOR SITES
I SITE IDENTIFICATION
II SITE LOCATION
III ACREAGE ACRES
LENGTH WIDTH
(Provide Sketch of Irregular Sites)
IV OWNER OF RECORD
OWNER'S REPRESENTATIVE (IF ANY)
A AVAILABILITY
B PRESENT USAGE
C TERMS & CONDITIONS
1 LEASE
a PRICE PER ACRE PER YEAR
b TOTAL COST PER YEAR
2 SALE
a PRICE PER ACRE
b TOTAL COST
V LAND CHARACTERISTICS
A GENERAL DESCRIPTION
B DRAINAGE
NATURAL ACRES
STORM SEWERS ACRES
FARM TILE ACRES
OPEN DITCH ACRES
(Provide Sketch of Drainage Facilities if Other Than Natural)
--Formerly Assistant Bureau Director for
Program Development, BSWM, Cincinnati, Ohio.
SW. IN. ss.2.1.67
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Preliminary Engineering Survey for Incinerator Sites
C ATTACH BORING LOGS OF REPRESENTATIVE TEST HOLES BORED TO
DETERMINE BEARING ABILITY OF SOILS
D THE DISPOSAL SITE FOR THE RESIDUE FROM THE INCINERATOR SHALL BE
EVALUATED BY FURNISHING THE INFORMATION AS REQUIRED IN THE PRELIMINARY
"ENGINEERING SURVEY - SANITARY LANDFILL SITES"
E WEATHER
1 ANNUAL RAINFALL
2 PREDOMINANT WIND DIRECTION
VI OPERATIONAL SUPPORT
A FIRE PROTECTION
1 WHO IS RESPONSIBLE FOR FIRE PROTECTION ?
2 WHAT ARE THE COSTS, IF ANY?
3 WHERE IS THE NEAREST WATER SOURCE FOR FIRE-FIGHTING?
4 FOR DRINKING WATER?
B UTILITIES
WATER
GAS
ELECTRICITY
TELEPHONE
SANITARY
SEWERS
STORM
SEWERS
ON SITE
NEARBY
SIZE OR ESTIMATED
QUANTITY AVAILABLE
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Preliminary Engineering Survey for Incinerator Sites
VII PHYSICAL & GOVERNMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
A OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS
1 CITY
2 COUNTY
3 STATE
4 WATER BOARD
5 HEALTH DEPARTMENT
6 PLANNING COMMISSION
7 OTHER
(Provide Commentary on Extent of Content and Copy of Specific
Requirements)
B ZONING
1 ZONING CLASSIFICATION
2 ENFORCEMENT AGENCY
3 RESTRICTIONS - IF ANY
4 ACTIONS NECESSARY TO USE SITE
C EXISTING OPERATIONS
1 DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES SERVING THE SAME AREA
2 SUMMARY OF REFUSE DISPOSAL HISTORY IN THE AREA
(Include Adjacent Areas if Pertinent)
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Preliminary Engineering Survey for Incinerator Sites
D LAND USE OF ADJACENT PROPERTIES
South
West
North
East
1 RESIDENTIAL
2 COMMERCIAL
3 LIGHT INDUSTRIAL
4 HEAVY INDUSTRIAL
5 RURAL
,6 MIXED
IF LAND IS NOT ZONED MARK USE "0"
IF LAND USE AGREES WITH ZONING MARK "Z"
IF LAND USE AND ZONING DO NOT AGREE MARK "V"
VIII SITE ACCESS
A ROADS MAINTAINED BY:
1 CITY
2 TOWNSHIP
3 COUNTY
4 STATE
5 INTERSTATE
6 OTHER
EXPLAIN:
B TYPES OF ROAD SURFACE
1 CONCRETE
2 ASPHALT
3 SEAL COAT
4 SOIL CEMENT
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Preliminary Engineering Survey for Incinerator Sites
5 GRAVEL
6 CRUSHED STONE
7 DIRT
8 OTHER
C BRIDGES
1 LOCATION
2 LOAD LIMIT
3 CONDITION
(Include Information on All Bridges in Immediate Vicinity)
D RAILROAD CROSSINGS
1 GRADE CROSSING VISIBILITY
2 ELEVATED CONDITION
3 UNDERPASS HEIGHT
E DISTANCE TO COMMUNITY CENTER
1 PROBABLE MAXIMUM HAUL DISTANCE
(ONE WAY)
2 PROBABLE MINIMUM HAUL DISTANCE
(ONE WAY)
3 PROBABLE AVERAGE HAUL DISTANCE
(ONE WAY)
4 AVERAGE TIME OF AVERAGE HAUL
(ONE WAY)
5 CHARACTERISTICS OF AREA ADJACENT TO MAJOR HAUL ROUTES
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Preliminary Engineering Survey for Incinerator Sites
IX RECOMMENDED PROCEDURE FOR RESIDUE DISPOSAL
A RECOMMENDED METHOD OF RESIDUE DISPOSAL (AND ITEMS WHICH MAY NOT
BE INCINERATED)
B DISTANCE FROM THE PROPOSED INCINERATOR SITE TO THE LOCATION OF
PROPOSED RESIDUE DISPOSAL
X POPULATION DATA
A POPULATION SERVED BY INCINERATOR
1 NOW
2 NEXT TEN YEARS
3 NEXT TWENTY YEARS
B TOTAL AREA POPULATION
1 NOW
2 NEXT TEN YEARS
3 NEXT TWENTY YEARS
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Preliminary Engineering Survey for Incinerator Sites
XI SUMMARY:
Report Submitted By:
Date:
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RATING METHOD FOR SANITARY LANDFILLS-
This rating method is an approach to measuring
the level of acceptability of the various
operations taking place at a given land disposal
site, as well as an overall comparison of its
suitability with that of other rated sites. The
rating consists of two subsets of criteria.
The first subset is a series of eight Require-
ments. These must be satisfied for the site
to qualify as a sanitary landfill. If the
operation meets all eight requirements a
score of 72 is given for the subset. If the
operation fails to meet all of the requirements
it is not a sanitary landfill.
If the operation is a sanitary landfill, the
second subset is completed. Fourteen Items
are rated on the basis of a maximum of two
points each to determine the level of per-
formance attained at the operation. Although
not shown, an item could receive a rating of
one point if the operation is only partially
deficient in one of the recommended pro-
visions. A "perfect" sanitary landfill would
achieve a score of 100. No sanitary landfill
will ever rate below 72 since this is the
score obtained to qualify in the first subset
of the rating.
Each Requirement and Item in the rating has
a statement of what is needed to qualify, the
reasoning for the statement, and the criteria
to meet the rating. The sanitary landfill
should be visited and inspected in detail in
order to complete the rating. Some categories
will require that the operator or supervisor
supply answers to certain questions and pre-
cautions should be taken to assure that the
questions are understood and the answers
reliable. If possible, written documentation
should support the answers.
PART I
REQUIREMENTS FOR SANITARY LANDFILL
REQUIREMENT A: Open Burning Prohibited.
No solid waste shall be burned at the sanitary
landfill.
Basis: Open burning of solid waste creates
odors, air pollution and fire and safety
hazards. Such burning adversely affects
public acceptance of the operation and proper
location of future sanitary landfill sites.
Local laws which allow or require the open
^Training Branch, Division of Technical
Operations, Solid Waste Management Office,
Cincinnati, Ohio
burning of select materials (such as diseased
elm trees or condemned dry foods) are out-
moded. Such materials can either be in-
corporated within the sanitary landfill or
disposed of in such a manner as to prevent
health hazards or nuisances. Open burning
at a sanitary landfill site for any reason
converts the operation to that of an open
dump.
Burning of Solid Waste on the Site
is Never Permitted:
Yes No
REQUIREMENT B: Spreading and Compaction.
Solid Waste to be compacted shall be spread
on a slope of approximately 3:1 in uniform
layers not to exceed an average depth of two
feet prior to compaction.
Basis: Successful operation and maximum
utilization of a sanitary landfill depends upon
adequate compaction of the solid waste. In
addition, settlement will be excessive and
uneven when the solid waste is not well
compacted. Such settlement permits invasion
by insects and rodents and severely limits
the usefulness of the finished area.
Compaction is best initiated by spreading the
solid waste evenly in shallow layers on a
slope rather than placing the material in a
single deep layer. Further compaction is
provided by the repeated travel of equipment
over the layers and, if necessary, by the
use of special compacting equipment. Addi-
tional compaction also can be achieved by
routing collection trucks so that they travel
over the finished fill area.
S Dlid Waste is Properly Spread and
Compacted on a Slope:
Yes No
REQUIREMENT C: Daily Cove_r. A uniform
compacted layer of at least sTx~mches of
suitable earth cover shall be placed on all
exposed solid waste by the end of each working
day.
Basis: Daily covering of the solid waste is
necessary to prevent insect and rodent in-
festation, blowing litter, fire hazards and
SW.SL.rm.5. 1.70
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Rating Method for Sanitary Landfills
an unsightly appearance. Fly emergence
generally is prevented by six inches of
compacted soil. Daily covering also divides
the fill into "cells" that will limit the spread
of underground fires should one occur. The
soil should have good workability and com-
paction characteristics and be able to serve
the stated needs.
A Uniform, Compacted Layer of
at Least Six Inches of Suitable Earth
Cover is Used for Daily Cover:
Yes No
REQUIREMENT D: Final Cover. A uniform
layer of suitable earth cover compacted to
a minimum depth of two feet shall be placed
over the entire surface of each portion of the
final lift, not later than one week following
the placement of solid waste within that
portion.
Basis: A minimum final cover of two feet of
compacted suitable earth cover will prevent
emergence of insects from the compacted
solid waste, minimize escape of odors, pre-
vent rodent burrowing, support plant growth
and provide for an aesthetically acceptable
finished site. This cover also provides an
adequate bearing surface for vehicles and
sufficient thickness for cover integrity in the
event of settlement or erosion. Workability
and compaction characteristics should be at
least equal to those provided for daily cover.
A Minimum Final Cover of Two
Feet of Compacted, Suitable Earth
Cover is Used as Stated:
Yes No
REQUIREMENT E: Contamination Control.
There shall be no existing contamination of
ground or surface waters by deposited solid
wastes or their products of decomposition,
nor ha2;ard or nuisance caused by gases or
other products generated by the biologically
or chemically active wastes. Furthermore,
in locations where a potential for such
contamination or hazard may be reasonably
considered to occur, both the location and
the operation must have the approval of the
appropriate governmental agency such as the
State Department of Health.
Basis: Circumstances of location, nature of
waste deposited and operational procedure
may lead to pollution of underground aquifers.
Offensive and dangerous concentrations of
gases may occur in the soil or aboveground
and cause undesirable influences upon the
environment. It may be necessary to provide
special construction techniques or alter
operations to control these conditions.
Solid Waste is Placed so that the
Environment is not and will not be
Adversely Affected, as Determined
by Competent Authority:
Yes No
REQUIREMENT F: Blowing Litter Controlled.
Blowing litter shall be controlled by providing
fencing near the working area or by use of
earth banks or natural barriers. The entire
sanitary landfill site shall be policed
constantly and unloading shall be performed
so as to minimize scattering of the solid waste.
Basis: The purpose of the sanitary landfill
is to dispose of solid waste in a sanitary
nuisance-free manner. If papers and other
light materials are scattered and the area is
not policed, fire hazards, nuisances and
unsightliness result.
Blowing Litter is Controlled and the
Site and Surrounding Area Routinely
Policed:
Yes No
REQUIREMENT G: jjalvage Prohibited.
Salvaging shall not be permitted at the sanitary
landfill. *
Basis: Nothing can be tolerated that interferes
with the prompt sanitary disposal of solid
waste. Salvaging on the sanitary landfill
delays the filling operation and creates
insanitary conditions. The accumulation of
salvaged materials at the sanitary landfill
also provides harborage for vectors and
promotes an unsightliness which can be
detrimental to public acceptance of the operation.
Salvaging is Never Allowed at the
Site:
Yes No
*Any salvage or reclamation of solid waste
materials must take place in a systematic and
controlled manner at some site other than the
sanitary landfill operating area. If such a
facility is physically located on the same land
plat or nearby, it should not be considered to
be part of the sanitary landfill operation and
should be rated by some other means.
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Rating Method for Sanitary Landfills
REQUIREMENT H: Operational Considera-
tions. Provision shall be made for all-
weather access roads leading to the working
face and written provisions and guarantees
shall be made for the replacement of operat-
ing equipment during periods when the normal
operating equipment is down for a period of
more than 24 hours.
Basis: The purpose of a sanitary landfill is
The immediate disposal of solid waste,
resulting in the elimination of nuisances and
producing an aesthetically acceptable opera-
tion. The major breakdown of operating
equipment resulting in equipment down time
of more than 24 hours reverts the sanitary
landfill operation to an open dump. Access
roads, which are not negotiable by collection
vehicles, cause unnecessary delays in the
disposal operation.
Sanitary landfills utilizing more than one
piece of equipment normally are able to
operate effectively even when or ; piece of
equipment has a major breakdo- ri and thus
may already have sufficient res, rve
capacity. Smaller operations, which utilize
only one piece of equipment, require some
type of prior written agreement which
guarantees the equivalent of standby equipment
within a 24-hour period after any major
breakdown.
Due to heavy duty use of equipment, a
schedule of inspection and maintenance must
be followed to keep equipment operational
under normal conditions. (See Recommended
Item #6)
Provisions Have Been Made to Assure
Ail-Weather Access Roads and to
Guarantee the Equivalent of Standby
Equipment Within a 24-Hour Period
Following Major Breakdowns to Normal
Operating Equipment:
Yes No
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Rating Method for Sanitary Landfill
PART II
RECOMMENDED ITEMS FOR SANITARY
LANDFILL
ITEM 1: Public Information. The sanitary
landfill shall have posted signs which clearly
indicate the purpose of the operation; the
owner or operator of the site; hours of
operation; instructions for after hours
delivery; materials accepted and/or excluded;
fees charged and emergency telephone
numbers.
Basis: The site is typically intended to
include use by the general public, and guidance
must be given as to the location and purpose
of the activity, and its relationship to the
user. Proper use of the site is not guaranteed
by clearly instructing the public, but it is
an essential step in gaining compliance.
A sanitary landfill may sometimes be called
a "land reclamation project" or other such
terms but never a "dump" since this term
connotes an unacceptable operation. Pro-
vision of some method of storage, such as
a bulk container near the gate, is an added
service for the small hauler or householder
who arrives after hours. Persons arriving at
the site should quickly be able to determine
if their material will be accepted and if so,
the cost per unit (ton, cu.yd., etc.). If
there should be an emergency such as a fire,
either during or after working hours, or a
person injured, the clearly posted emergency
telephone numbers will expedite obtaining
the proper assistance.
1 If suitable informational and directional
signing is provided at the entrance and/or
other appropriate locations.
2 points
If the site is not marked with
appropriate signs.
0 points
ITEM 2; Limited Access. Access to a
sanitary landfill shall be limited to those
times when an attendant is on duty and only
to those authorized to use the site for disposal
of solid waste.
Basis: If public use of a sanitary landfill
is allowed when no attendant is on duty,
scavenging, burning and indiscriminate
dumping commonly occur. Men and equip-
ment must then be diverted from operations
to restore sanitary conditions. When
access to the site during operating hours is
limited to those authorized, traffic and other
accident hazards are minimized.
1 If access by unauthorized vehicles
or pedestrians is controlled.
2 points
2 If access is uncontrolled.
0 points
ITEM 3: Measuring Facilities. Provision
shall be made for weighing or adequately
measuring all solid waste delivered to the
sanitary landfill.
Basis: A suitable method of measuring
incoming and/or deposited solid waste is
desirable to provide a reliable quantity of
data, to determine trends and to estimate
future needs. Estimates of volumes based
on truckloads rather than weights are
misleading. Weighing provides the best
basis for establishing fees requiring scales
as an integral part of the sanitary landfill
operation. Weighing discourages trips to
the site with half-filled trucks. Determina-
tion of the volume increments in deposited
solid waste may be done by periodic volu-
metric surveys, permitting evaluation of
the use-rate and remaining capacity of the
site.
1 If suitable fixed or portable scales have
been installed at the sanitary landfill
and are used continuously or if the
sanitary landfill is routinely "cross-
sectioned" at least every 30 days to
determine volumes in place.
2 points
2 If neither weighing is accomplished
nor routine (30 days minimum) measure-
ments of volume in place are taken.
0 points
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Rating Method for Sanitary Landfills
ITEM 4: Communications. Telephone or
radio communications shall be provided at
the sanitary landfill site.
Basis: Communications are desirable at the
generally remote sanitary landfill sites, in
case of emergency. If the sanitary landfill
is part of a combined collection and disposal
system, good communications will result in
better performance throughout the system.
1 If reliable telephone or radio
communications are installed at the
site.
2 points
2 If communications are not available
at the site.
0 points
ITEMS: Employee Facilities. Suitable shelter
and sanitary facilities shall~5e provided for
personnel.
Basis: Shelter is a desirable protection of
the sanitary landfill employees during in-
clement weather. Toilet and handwashing
facilities are desirable for good personal
hygiene for sanitary landfill employees and
collection personnel.
1 If permanent or temporary shelter of
adequate size is provided, along with
safe drinking water, sanitary handwash-
ing and toilet facilities, suitable heating
facilities, screens and electricity (if
needed).
2 points
2 If no shelter and/or toilet facility is
furnished.
0 points
ITEM 6: Equipment Maintenance Facilities.
Provisions shall be made for tiie"~rouTin.e
operational maintenance of equipment at the
sanitary landfill site and for the prompt repair
or replacement of equipment.
Basis: Equipment breakdowns of a day or
more result in the accumulation of uncovered
solid waste (as in an open dump) with all the
attendant health hazards or nuisances. Sys-
tematic, routine maintenance of equipment
reduces repair costs, increases life expectancy,
and helps to prevent breakdowns that interrupt
sanitary landfill operations. In the event of
breakdown, prompt repair of equipment will
materially reduce down time an-* insure
continuity of operations.
1 If facilities for routine maintenance
are available on site, and if adequate
provisions for major maintenance and
repair have been made.
2 points
2 If maintenance facilities and repair
provisions are not provided or are
inadequate; or if equipment is inoper-
able 01 of limited capability because
of poor maintenance.
0 points
ITEM 7; Unloading Area and Working Face.
The unloading" of the solid waste shall be
controlled and restricted to an area such that
the material can easily be incorporated into
the working face with the available equipment.
Basis: Proper operation requires systematic
placement of the solid waste in a restricted
unloading area. Unloading must be coordin-
ated with spreading and compacting. Con-
trolled unloading reduces work, conserves
landfill volume, permits better compaction,
minimizes scattering of solid waste and
expedites unloading of collection vehicles.
The type and size of the unloading area is
dependent on the type of operation and the
size of the working face. A large working
face increases the area to be compacted
and covered, with resulting high cost, delays
and unnecessarily exposed solid waste.
1 If unloading is controlled at all times
by signs and/or an unloading supervisor,
and the size of the unloading area is
balanced with the size of the working
face allowing collection vehicles to
v.nload promptly.
2 points
2 If the unloading is uncontrolled and/or
the working face is much larger than
necessary.
0 points
ITEM 8: Fire Protection. Suitable measures
shall be taken to prevent and control fires
which may accidently start.
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Rating Method for Sanitary Landfills
Basis: Fires endanger life and property.
Smoke and odors create nuisances to
surrounding property owners, endanger dis-
posal personnel and interfere with sanitary
landfilling operations. Deliberate burning on
sanitary landfills causes them to revert to a
status equivalent to open dumps.
1 If an adequate supply of water under
suitable pressure is available with
necessary hose, etc.; a stockpile of
earth is maintained reasonably close
to the working face of the fill for
smothering fires; and a suitable fire
extinguisher is maintained on all equip-
ment and in all buildings.
2 points
2 If adequate fire protection is not
present.
0 points
ITEM 9: Special Waste Handling. Large
or bulky items, sewage solids or liquids
(septic tank or cesspool pumpings, sewage
sludge and grit), and other materials which
are either hazardous or hard to manage shall
be disposed of in a sanitary landfill only if
special provisions are made for such disposal.
Basis: Sewage solids or liquids are hard to
handle, potentially infectious and capable of
creating health hazards or nuisances if not
properly handled. Other materials, s uch as
oil sludges, chemical wastes, magnesium
shavings and empty insecticide containers may
present special hazards. Unless properly
handled these wastes can be dangerous to
sanitary landfill employees. When the
sanitary landfill design includes special
provisions for disposal of hazardous materials
and large or bulky items such as car bodies,
refrigerators, water heaters, demolition
wastes, tree stumps, logs and branches,
these materials can be disposed of safely and
need not be excluded.
1 If suitable procedures are established
and followed for disposal of special
materials.
2 points
2 If all hazardous and bulky materials
are accepted without provision for
suitable disposal; or if hazardous or
bulky materials are excluded without
provision for disposal elsewhere.
0 points
ITEM 10: Vector Control. Conditions un-
favorable for Ihe production of insects and
rodents shall be maintained by carrying out
routine sanitary landfill operations promptly
in a systematic manner. Supplemental vector
control measures shall be instituted whenever
necessary.
1 If vector control is not needed or is
adequately provided.
2 points
2 If vector control is needed and is not
promptly furnished.
0 points
ITEM 11: Dust Control. Suitable control
measures shall be taken wherever dust is
a problem at the sanitary landfill.
Basis: Excessive dust at the sanitary land-
fill can cause or create a slowdown of
operations, accident hazards, excessive
equipment wear, aesthetic problems and eye
irritation or other injury to sanitary landfill
personnel.
1 If dust control is not required or if
suitable control measures are applied
as needed.
2 points
2 If dust control is necessary and is
not applied.
0 points
ITEM 12: Accident Prevention and Safety.
Employees shall be instructed in the principles
of first aid and safety and in the specific
operational procedures necessary to prevent
accidents. Accident precautionary measures
shall be employed at the site. An adequate
stock of first-aid supplies shall be maintained
at the site.
Basis: The use of heavy earth-moving equip-
ment; the maneuvering of collection trucks
and other vehicles; and the infectious, ex-
plosive or flammable items that may be in the
solid waste can create accident hazards at
sanitary landfills. The remote location of
some sites makes it particularly important
that personnel be oriented to accident hazards,
trained in first aid and provided first-aid
supplies. For reasons of safety, access
should be limited to those authorized to use
the site for the disposal of solid waste.
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Rating Method for Sanitary Landfills
If employees are given periodic safety
training; and if an adequate first-aid
kit, and at least one employee, trained
ii first aid, is available on the site at
all times.
2 points
If employees are not given periodic
safety training; or if neither an on-site
first-aid kit nor trained first-aid
assistance is available.
0 points
ITEM 13: Drainage and Grading. The entire
site shall be graded and/or provided with
drainage facilities to minimize run-off onto
the sanitary landfill, to prevent the erosion
of earth cover and to drain rain water falling
on the surface of the sanitary landfill. The
final surface of the sanitary landfill shall be
graded to a slope of at least one percent, but
no surface slope shall be so steep as to cause
erosion of the cover. The surface drainage
shall be consistent with the surrounding area
and shall in no way adversely affect proper
drainage from these adjacent lands.
Basis: Run-off from lands adjacent to the
site, unless diverted, and rain falling on the
surface of the site may percolate into the
sanitary landfill and may contaminate either
ground or surface waters. Cover material
may also be removed by erosion and standing
water may permit mosquito breeding or
interfere with access, unloading, compacting
of placement of cover. To promote sanitary
landfill as an acceptable solid waste disposal
practice it is important that the complete
sanitary landfill blend with its surroundings
and not impair adjacent land usage.
1 If the sanitary landfill is properly
graded and permits proper drainage.
2 points
If the sanitary landfill has evidence
of scouring of cover, ponding or other
evidence of improper drainage or
grading.
0 points
ITEM 14: Operational Records and Plan
Execution. A daily log shall be maintained
by the sanitary landfill supervisor to record
operational information, including the type
and quantity of solid waste received, the
portion of the site used, and any deviations
made from the plans and specifications. A
copy of the original plans and specifications,
a copy of the daily log, and a plan of the com-
pleted sanitary landfill shall be filed with the
local governmental agency responsible for
maintaining titles to land.
Basis: Completed sanitary landfill sites are
ultimately utilized for a variety of purposes.
When the ultimate use of the site is known
beforehand, the operation can be planned so
that suitable building sites, roads and utilities
can be provided. Final grades can be
established and allowances made for land-
scaping and adequate drainage. A record of
the construction of the sanitary landfill is
necessary for the most efficient utilization
of the completed site and for the prevention
of health hazards or nuisances.
1 If complete records are maintained as
delineated above.
2 points
2 If there are no records or the records
are inadequate.
0 points
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CHECK LIST FOR SANITARY LANDFILL EVALUATION
LANDFILL POINTS
LOCATION RATING
RATER DATE
CONTACTS
BASICS OF OPERATION
REQUIREMENTS YES NO
A Open Burning Prohibited
B Spreading and Compaction
C Daily Cover
D Final Cover
E Contamination Control
F Blowing Litter Controlled
G Salvage Prohibited
H Operational Continuity
If all above Requirements are met
(Require all YES) 72
If all of the above are not met (Comment
as to why Requirement(s) is/are not met) 0
Comments:
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Check List for Sanitary Landfill Evaluation
ITEM
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Public Information
Complete signs
Inadequate
Limited Access
Controlled
Uncontrolled
Measuring Facilities
Scales or cross -
sections
No measurement
Communications
Adequate
None
Employee Facilities
Satisfactory
None
Equipment Maintenance
Facilities
Adequate
Inadequate
Unloading Area and
Working Face
Adequate
Inadequate
Fire Protection
Satisfactory
Inadequate
COMMENTS:
2
POINTS POINTS
ALIX3CATED ITEM ALIjOCATE.
2
0
2
0
2
0
2
0
2
0
2
0
2
0
2
0
9 Special Waste
Handling
Special Provisions 2
No Provisions 0
10 Vector Control
Not needed or provided 2
Needed 0
11 Dust Control
Not needed or provided 2
Needed 0
12 Accident Prevention
and Satety
Adequate 2
Inadequate 0
13 Drainage and Grading
Adequate 2
Inadequate 0
14 Operational Records
and Plan Execution
Adequate 2
Inadequate 0
TOTAL FOR REQUIREMENTS
TOTAL FOR PROVISIONS
TOTAL RATING
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
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TENTATIVE RATING METHOD FOR INCINERATOR OPERATION
Training Staff*
ITEM 1: Access Roads. Access roads shall
be designed and constructed so that traffic
will flow smoothly and will not be interrupted
by ordinary inclement weather. Refuse
collection vehicles shall not interfere with
normal traffic operation while waiting for
access to the disposal facility.
Reason. Delays at the disposal facility may
impede local traffic, hamper unloading of
refuse, result in unproductive time for
collection crews and delay collection
schedules. These delays result in on-site
refuse storage facilities becoming overtaxed.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If an all-weather access road, negotiable
by loaded collection vehicles, with pro-
per on-site parking areas for vehicles
waiting for access to the unloading
area has been provided: . ,
2 points
If the access road provided is negotiable
by loaded collection vehicles in any weather,
but parking facilities for vehicles awaiting
access to the unloading area ar>e not
provided; .
^ 1 point
If the road is negotiable in good weather
only: _ . ,
J 0 points
ITEM 2: Employee Facilities. Suitable
shelter and sanitary facilities shall be pro-
vided for personnel.
Reason. Private handwashing and toilet
facilities are desirable for the good personal
hygiene of incinerator employees as well as
the collection personnel. Under inclement
weather conditions, theemployees' desire for
comfort results in lack of attention to the
*Training Branch, Division of Technical
Operations, Solid Waste Management
Office, Cincinnati, Ohio.
operational requirements for the olant. Em-
ployee morale and efficiency are enhanced by
provision of adequate sanitation facilities.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If all operational areas provide adequate
shelter, are screened (if required), and
are adequately ventilated and personnel
are furnished with adequate safe drinking
water, sanitary handwashing, toilet,
locker and shower facilities: 0 . .
2 points
If shelter, ventilation and screening are
provided in all operational areas but only
minimal handwashing and toilet facilities
are available. , . ,
1 point
If shelter, sanitation and ventilation
facilities are not adequate :
0 points
ITEM 3: Communications. Telephone or
radio communications shall be provided at
the incinerator plant.
Reason. Communications are necessary at
incinerators in case of emergency. If the
incinerator is part of a combined collection
and disposal operation, better service and
sanitary conditions can be rendered through
good communications.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If a reliable telephone or radio communi-
cation system is installed at the
incir.erator: .
2 points
If no communications are installed at
the incinerator:
0 points
1
Not for general distribution
Subject to revision
SW.IN.rm.4.2.68 1
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Tentative Rating Method for Incinerator Operation
ITEM 4: Fire Protection. On-site fire
protection shall be provided and arrangements
shall be made with a responsible agency to
provide adequate fire-fighting forces in an
emergency.
Reason. Combustion in the refuse storage
pits or malfunction of the incineration equip-
ment may generate fires which could endanger
men and equipment.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If sufficient approved water hose stations','
(adequate to fight localized large fires),
are available at appropriate locations
throughout the structure; sufficient
approved fire extinguishers are so located
to extinguish smaller fires immediately,
and arrangements have been made with the
local fire-fighting agency to assist in an
emergency: 2 points
If the incinerator must rely upon hand-
operated extinguishers for fire-fighting
while awaiting assistance which has
been arranged for from the local
fire-fighting agency: 1 point
If fire-fighting techniques to be used in
case of fire have not been developed, or
if an adequate water supply under pressure
is not available for use by fire-fighting
agency, or if a local fire-fighting agency
is not available: .
0 points
ITEM 5: Accident Prevention and Safety.
Employees shall be instructed in first-aid
and safety principles and in the procedures
necessary to prevent accidents or control
dangerous situations. Accident precautionary
measures and suitable safety equipment shall
be employed at the site. An adequate stock j
of first-aid supplies shall be maintained at
the site.
Reason. The complexity of incineration
equipment, the continual handling of flam-
mable (sometimes explosive) materials, and
high temperatures create potential accident
hazards for incinerator employees.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If a periodic safety-training program is
employed, safety equipment is provided,
an adequate first-aid kit is available, and
at least one employee, trained in first-aid,
is available on the site at all times:
2 points
If a periodic safety-training program is
employed, safety equipment is provided,
an adequate first-aid kit is available, and
trained first-aid assistance is available
at locations within three miles of the site
and if Item 3, C ommunications, is rated
2 points , . ,
1 point
If a periodic safety-training program is
not employed, no safety equipment is
provided, an on-site first-aid kit is not
available, a person trained in first-aid is
not available within three miles, or com-
munications to the trained first-aid
assistant are not available at all times'-
0 points
If no positive accident prevention program
is employed, or if unsafe practices are
carried on at the site:
Deduct 5 points
ITEM 6: Operation Records. A daily log
shall be maintained by the incinerator super-
visor to record operational information, in-
cluding the type and quantity of refuse
received, hours of operation, maximum and
minimum temperatures of the furnaces
during operation, and quantities of both re-
jected refuse and incinerator residue
with the disposal method used therefore.
Reason. An incinerator is designed to burn
specific quantities of refuse under controlled
conditions including rate, temperature, air
supply, etc. It is essential that enough data
be maintained in the operational records to
determine if satisfactory destruction of the
refuse material is accomplished. Operational
records will help establish the need for
additional men and/or equipment and will
indicate when changes in operating methods,
or hours, should be made to accomplish
adequate incineration.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If adequate operational records are
accurately maintained, correlated, and
used to review and improve operational
procedures: . ,
6 points
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Tentative Rating Method for Incinerator Operation
If the operational records are inadequate,
or are not used for operational control:
2 points
If there are no operational records:
0 points
ITEM 7: Operational Maintenance. Pro-
visions shall be made for the routine opera-
tional maintenance of the incinerator. Repair
or replacement of operational equipment shall
be made efficiently and quickly. The incinera-
tor shall be so designed and maintained that
the operational failure of one furnace and/or
component part will not result in a complete
shutdown of the incinerator. Should exten-
uating circumstances result in a situation
whereby the incoming wasteload exceeds the
plant capacity, an approved temporary alter-
nate disposal plan should be available and
used.
Reason. Routine maintenance of mechanical
equipment reduces repair cost, increases
life expectancy, and helps to prevent break-
downs. Advance arrangements for making
major repairs will materially reduce down
time. Complete equipment breakdown of a
day or more results in accumulations of re-
fuse, creating health hazards and nuisances
at the plant and throughout the collection
system. A temporary disposal method in-
sures protection against these health hazards
and nuisances until corrective measures have
been made at the incinerator.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If routine maintenance is employed and if
a decrease in plant capacity caused by
malfunction of a component part can be
overcome by extending the hours of opera-
tion or by alternate disposal in a properly
operated sanitary landfill or other approved
facility:
14 points
If no routine maintenance is employed and
if a decrease in plant capacity caused by
malfunction of a component part can be
overcome by extending the hours of opera-
tion or by alternate disposal in a properly
operated sanitary landfill or other
approved facility:
^ 10 points
If routine maintenance is employed but no
alternate disposal method is available, or
an extension of the operating fiours to
adequately incinerate all refuse generated
from the community is not possible:
4 points
If no routine maintenance is employed and
no alternate disposal method is available,
or an extension of the operating hours to
adequately incinerate all refuse generated
from the community is not possible:
0 points
ITEM 8: Limited Access. Access to an
incinerator shall be limited to those times
when operational employees are on duty.
Only those authorized to visit or to use the
disposal facility shall be allowed access.
Reason. When only authorized persons are
permitted access to the incinerator during
operating hours, traffic, fire, and accident
hazards are minimized.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If all access is controlled so that neither
vehicles nor pedestrians have access to
the incinerator at other than working
hours:
2 points
If uncontrolled or partially controlled
access is allowed:
0 points
ITEM 9: Area Sanitation. All refuse shall
be confined to the dumping area within the
building. The entire incinerator site shall
be policed regularly as necessary.
Reason. The purpose of an incinerator is to
dispose of refuse in a sanitary nuisance-free
manner. If scattering of papers and other
light materials is not controlled and if the
area is not policed, fire hazards and
nuisances are created.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If all refuse unloading is done within a
suitable enclosure or within the building^
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Tentative Rating Method for Incinerator Operation
and if policing of the area is practiced
so that the incinerator site is neat and
clean:
4 points
If scattering of paper and refuse is allowed
at the incinerator site and policing is not
done or is inadequate:
0 points
ITEM 10: Building Sanitation. All areas
within the building shall be maintained free
of paper, refuse, dirt, and debris.
Reason. A we 11-maintained building will
improve working conditions and the general
acceptability of the operation, thus attracting
a better class of labor, improving the occupa-
tional environment, and maintaining a better
health and safety record for the employees.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If the interior of the building is main-
tained free of paper, refuse, dirt and
debris:
4 points
If the interior of the building is usually
free of paper, refuse, dirt, and debris,
with only occasional lapses: _ . ,
J ^2 points
If the interior of the building shows
general lack of good housekeeping
practices: . . ,
^ 0 points
ITEM 11: Weighing_facilities. Provisions
shall be made for weighing all refuse de-
livered to the incinerator.
Reason. An accurate method of measuring
and recording the quantity of incoming refuse
and outgoing residue is necessary to measure
operating capacity and efficiency in relation-
ship to the design capacity. Weighing provides
an equitable basis for establishing fees, and
is an integral part of the incinerator operation.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If suitable fixed or portable scales have
been installed and are used continuously
for recording the weight of incoming
refuse and outgoing residue:
4 points
If no weighing is accomplished, only
partial weighing is accomplished, or
quantities are established in volume
estimates only: Q points
ITEM 12: Unloading Area. The unloading
area shall be adequate in size and design to
facilitate the rapid unloading of all refuse
in collection trucks with a minimum of delay
or confusion.
Reason. Delays at the unloading area reduce
the efficiency of collection. Uncontrolled use
of the unloading area will reduce the safety
and efficiency of the incinerator operation.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If the unloading area is adequate for the
prompt discharge of refuse from the
trucks as they arrive and traffic is well-
organized and supervised:
^ 4 points
If the unloading area is too small for
proper,rapid unloading of collection trucks
or unloading operations are poorly
supervised so that delays are caused:
0 points
ITEM 13: Dust Control at Unloading and
Charging ATeluDust resulting from the un-
loading and furnace charging operations shall
be controlled at all times.
Reason. The dust generated by the unloading
and furnace charging operations is a health
hazard to both incinerator and collection
personnel.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If adequate dust control is in effect during
the unloading and charging operations and
personnel continually exposed to dust are
supplied with proper protective equipment:
2 points
If control of dust during the unloading or
charging operations is inadequate but
personnel are furnished protective
equipment: ,
^ ^ 1 point
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If neither dust control nor protective
equipment is adequate: .
0 points
ITEM 14: Capacity and Operation of Storage
Pit. The capacity of the storage pit shall
be equivalent to at least the rated capacity
of the incinerator for one day's operation.
The unloading operation shall be organized
so that pit capacity is conserved for use in
the event of breakdown or temporary
overload.
Reason. In the event of incinerator mal-
function, the storage pit will furnish interim
storage of refuse until the incinerator can
be operated. Care in the loading of the
storage pit will conserve capacity so that it
will be readily available in an emergency.
Refuse should not be stacked high enough
to impede unloading of vehicles.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If the storage pit will hold at least one
day's collection volume, and an unused
volume equivalent to one day's refuse
collection remains at the end of each
working day, and no more than three
days collection volume will be stored
at any time:
2 points
If the storage pit will hold one day's
volume of refuse,but less than one day's
volume remains at the end of each
working day, and no more than three
days collection volume will be stored at
any time: , . ,
J I point
If the storage pit will hold less than one
day's volume and no other provisions are
made for storage or emergency capacity,
or if more than three days collection
volume is stored at any time:
ITEM 15: Segregation of Refuse. If the
incinerator cannot incinerate bulky items or
certain materials must be excluded, such
items shall be removed from the incoming
refuse and disposed of by sanitary landfill
or by other means acceptable to the local
health authority.
Reason. Attempting to incinerate items for
which the incinerator is not designed serves
no purpose and interferes with proper
incineration of the normal refus-; charge.
Segregated materials need to be disposed of
in a satisfactory manner as they are removed,
and should not be stored.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If appropriate items are separated from
the refuse prior to furnace charging and
are disposed of each working day by
sanitary landfill or other means satis-
factory to the local public health
authority
J 2 points
If all appropriate items are removed
prior to incineration but are stored on-
site and/or not disposed of by means satis-
factory to the local public health authority:
0 points
ITEM 16: Furnace Temperature Control.
Operating temperatures at the combustion
chamber exit in the furnaces of most
incinerators shall be maintained between
1300°F to 1800°F, or according to the limits
established by the design engineer. The
furnace shall not be consistently operated
at temperatures lower than 1300°F.
Reason. To insure best combustion and
minimize gaseous andparticulate emissions,
furnace temperatures must be maintained
between 1300°F and 1800°F. Furnace
temperatures in excess of 1800°F in most
incinerators may damage furnace refrac-
tories, requiring expensive repairs and
causing shutdowns. In incinerators of
special design, temperatures exceeding
1800°F may be permitted.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If furnace charts or records indicate
that temperatures above 1500° F are
successfully maintained, and that furnace
temperatures are maintained within the
upper range established by the designer:
10 points
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Tentative Rating Method for Incinerator Operation
If the furnace chart or records indicate
that temperatures above 1300° F are
successfully maintained,and upper tem-
perature design limits are not exceeded:
5 points
If furnace charts or records are not
maintained, or furnace temperatures
are consistently lower or higher than those
required for proper incineration:
0 points
ITEM 17: Residue and Fly Ash Disposal.
The residue from the incinerator shall
contain less than four percent volatile
solid or disposition shallbe made in a properly
operated sanitary landfill.
Reason. The purpose of incineration is to
reduce the volume of refuse to an inert re-
sidue without creating air pollution, water
pollution, odor, insect, or rodent vector
problems. If residue is not organically inert,
public health hazards are caused.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If residue contains less than four percent
volatile solids by weight (as determined
by the standard procedure listed in APWA
Publication "Municipal Refuse Disposal, "
page 375, for the determination of volatile
solids in residue) orr if incinerator residue
is disposed in a properly operated sani-
tary landfill and not used as cover material.
(See "PHS Tentative Rating Methods for
Sanitary Landfill Operations"):
8 points
If the incinerator residue containing more
than four percent of volatile solids by
weight or the fly ash disposition is by
improper means:
0 points
ITEM 18: Emission Quality. Gaseous and
particulate emissions from an incinerator
shall be of a quality acceptable in the com-
munity and in the area in which the incinera-
tor is established.
Reason. Gaseous and particulate emissions
beyond certain levels from improperly in-
cinerated refuse are aesthetically unaccept-
able and may create public health hazards.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If the gaseous and particulate emissions
are maintained within the Federal Standards
(Executive Order 11282): 8 points
If the gaseous and particulate emissions
are maintained within the standards es-
tablished for the area. (In lieu of local
air pollution standards, use recommended
standards from the ^National Center for
Air Pollution Control); 6 points
If emissions are not maintained within
local air pollution standards, (In lieu of
local air pollution standards, use re-
commended standards from the National
Center for Air Pollution Control)-
0 points
ITEM 19: Sewage Solids, Liquids, and Other
Hazardous Materials. Sewage soTTdsTor
liquids (septic tank or cesspool pumpings,
sewage sludge and grit) and other hazardous
materials shall be disposed of in an incinera-
tor only if special provision has been made
for such incineration.
Reason. Sewage solids or liquids are in-
fectious and create health hazards if not
properly handled. Other materials
ing oil sludges, waste chemicals, magnesium
shavings, explosives and empty insecticide
containers may also present special hazards.
Unless properly handled, incineration of these
wastes can be dangerous to incinerator
employees. When the design and operation
of an incinerator includes special provisions
for disposal of these materials, they can be
disposed of safely and need not be excluded.
This Jtej:n_j5haU_b_e_rja.tejj as follows:
If suitable procedures are established
and followed for the disposal of hazardous
materials, or If all hazardous materials
are excluded from the incinerator charge-.
2 points
If hazardous materials are incinerated
without special provisions or precautions^
0 points
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Tentative Rating Method for Incinerator Operation
ITEM 20: Salvage. Salvaging, if permitted,
shall not interfere with the prompt incinera-
tion of refuse, nor create unsightliness or
health hazards. Scavenging shall not be per-
mitted.
Reason. No activity that interferes with
prompt, sanitary disposal of refuse can
be tolerated. Improperly conducted sal-
vaging delays incineration and creates un-
sanitary conditions. Accumulation of sal-
vaged materials at the incinerator results
in vector problems and unsightliness.
Scavenging is an unhealthy, aesthetically
objectionable practice which interferes with
the orderly, efficient operation of an
incinerator.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If no salvaging is allowed:
2 points
If salvaging is controlled and all salvaged
items are removed from the site each
working day:
1 point
If scavenging is allowed or salvaged
materials are allowed to accumulate be-
yond the end of a working day. . ,
J & J 0 points
ITEM 21: Open Burning. No refuse shall be
burned except in the incinerator. Burning of
items too large for the incinerator shall be
done elsewhere and materials segregated for
this purpose shall be removed from the site
daily.
Reason. Garbage can not be burned without
nuisance except in high-temperature incinera-
tors. Any other method of combustion creates
odors, air pollution, fire and safety hazards,
and such burning adversely affects public
acceptance of the operation. Controlled
burning of certain combustible materials not
readily incorporated into the incinerator (such
as lumber, tree stumps, and brush) may pro-
vide a satisfactory means of disposal. Burn-
ing of such materials should be done at an
alternate site so that the public will not asso-
ciate this practice with operation of the
incinerator.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If no burning outside of the .icinerator
furnaces is allowed at any time and items
segregated for burning elsewhere are re-
moved from the site daily:
4 points
If on-site burning of combustible materi-
als is allowed outside of the furnaces at
any time or if such items are accumulated
beyond the end of the work day: n t
J J 0 points
ITEM 22: Vector Control. Conditions per-
mitting insect and rodent attraction or pro-
duction shall be minimized by handling and
incinerating all refuse in a systematic
manner. Supplemental insect and rodent
control measures shall be instituted when-
ever necessary.
Reason. Proper operation of an incinerator
will minimize insect and rodent problems,
but any lapse in proper operation may result
in attraction and rapid production of insects
and rodents, especially in the storage pit.
Frequent emptying and cleansing of the
storage pit, proper disposal of residue and
off-site disposal of segregated items are
key factors in minimizing vector problems.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If vector-preventive operation activities
are maintained and supplementary vector
control is rarely required: . . ,
4 points
If vector-preventive operation activities
are not maintained and supplementary
vector control is provided frequently :
2 points
If no vector-preventive operational
activities are maintained and no vector
control activities are prpvided- .
r 0 points
ITEM 23: Disposal of Quenching and
Scrubbing Waters. Water used to quench
the incinerator residue or scrub the flue
gases shall be discharged into a sanitary
sewer or disposed of as required by the
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Tentative Rating Method for Incinerator Operation
local health authority. Vehicles for trans-
porting quenched residue shall be water-
tight.
Reason. The residue quenching operation
may contain considerable chemical and
bacteriological contamination (especially
when used to quench poorly-incinerated
residue) and should be considered a potentially
hazardous liquid waste. Scrubbing water
presents the same problems. Improper dis-
posal of these waste waters may pollute sur-
face or underground water supplies in the
area. Leaking of quenching water from
residue trucks may also pose health hazards
and unaesthetic conditions.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If quenching and scrubbing water is dis-
posed of in a sanitary sewer or as
directed by the local health authority,
and quenched residue when transported
on public roads is contained in water-
tight trucks- . .
8 points
If quenching and scrubbing water is im-
properly disposed of,or water drains
from residue trucks'- . ,
0 points
Incinerators rated by the foregoing schedule
shall be classified as follows:
A-Rated Incinerator - For Industrial Areas
The following items must score as follows:
Item 7 (Operational - 10 points
Maintenance)
16 (Furnace Temperature- 5 points
Control)
17 (Residue Quality) - 8 points
18 (Emission Quality) - 6 points
21 (Open Burning) - 4 points
23 (Disposal of Quenching - 8 points
and Scrubbing Waters)
Total rating must equal 80 or more points.
B-Rated Incinerator - For heavy industrial
or rural areas. The following items must
score as follows:
Item 7 (Operational - 10 points
Maintenance)
16 (Furnace Temperature - 5 points
Control)
17 (Residue Quality) - 8 points
18 (Emission Quality) - 6 points
21 (Open Burning) - 4 points
23 (Disposal of Quenching - 8 points
and Scrubbing Waters)
The sum of all item points scored should
equal 60 or more points.
C-Rated Incinerator - For rural areas or
remote sites. The following items must
score as follows:
Item 7 (Operational - 10 points
Maintenance)
16 (Furnace Temperature - 5 points
Control)
17 (Residue Quality) - 8 points
18 (Emission Quality) - 6 points
21 (Open Burning) - 4 points
23 (Disposal of Quenching - 8 points
and Scrubbing Waters)
Total rating must equal 40 or more points.
Any rating less than 40 points, regardless
of rating of Item 16, 17, 18, 21 and 23 is
uns atisf actory.
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CHECK LIST FOR INCINERATOR EVALUATION
INCINERATOR^
LOCATION
RATER
CONTACTS
POINTS_
RATING
DATE
ITEM
1. Access Roads
all-weather with parking
all-weather, no parking
undesirable
2. Employee Facilities
satisfactory
limited
none
3. Communications
reliable on-site
none on-site
4. Fire Protection
satisfactory
limited
none
5. Accident Prevention and
Safety
training, on-site aid
training, near-by aid
no training, remote aid
unsafe practices
6. Operational Records
satisfactory
limited
none
7. Operational Maintenance
routine maintenance and
alternate plan
alternate plan only
routine maintenance only
neither
8. Limited Access
controlled
uncontrolled
POINTS
ALLOTTED
2
1
0
DEDUCT
5
14
10
4
0
ITEM
9. Area Sanitation
neat and clean
littered
1 0 .
S anitatin
POINTS
ALLOTTED
4
0
4
0
_ __
neat and clean
occasional lapses
littered
11. Weighing Facilities
scales continually used
no scales
12. Unloading Area
spacious and supervised
limited and uncontrolled
13. Dust J^ontrol at Unloading
controlled, personnel protected 2
uncontrolled, personnel
protected 1
no control or protection 0
14. Capacity and Operation of
Storage Pit
remaining capacity >
1 day; amount stored < 2
3 day's collection.
remaining capacity <
1 day; amount stored < 1
3 day's collection.
available capacity <
1 day; amount stored > 0
3 day's collection.
15. Segregation of Refuse
satisfactory disposal 2
indiscriminate handling 0
PAGE TOTAL
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ITEM
16. Furnace Temperature
Control
1500°F to maximum design
1300°F to maximum design
no records/not maintained
POINTS
ALLOTED
10
5
0
17. Residue and Fly Ash Disposal
sanitary landfilled or < 4%
organics 8
> 4% organics not sanitary
landfilled 0
18. Emission Quality
meets Federal standards
meets area standards
does not meet standards
19. Hazardous Materials
special provisions
exclusions
no special provisions
MUST ITEMS AND RATINGS
FEM
7
16
17
18
21
23
RATING
A
10
5
8
6
4
8
B
10
5
8
6
4
8
C
10
5
8
6
4
8
POINTS
ALLOTED
ITEM
20.
none
controlled
uncontrolled
21. Open Burning
none
any
22. Vector Control
rarely required
frequently required
not maintained
23. Disposal of Quenching
and Scrubbing Waters
properly handled
improperly handled
PAGE TOTAL
TOTAL POINTS_
RATING
POINTS
ALLOTTED
4
2
0
SUITABILITY
TOTAL POINTS FOR RATING:
A - 80 or more
B = 60-80
C - 40 or more
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TENTATIVE RATING METHOD FOR
OPERATION OF COMPOSTING PLANTS
ITEM 1: Access Roads. Access roads shall
be designed, constructed, and maintained so
that traffic will flow smoothly and will not be
interrupted by ordinary inclement weather.
Collection vehicles shall not interfere with
normal traffic operation while waiting for
access to the disposal facility.
Reason. It is of the utmost importance that
collection not be delayed at the disposal
facility and that unloading of vehicles at the
facility not impede local traffic. A smoothly-
operated disposal operation permits collec-
tion crews to accomplish collection routes on
schedule, but delays in unloading result in
deviations from normal collection schedules
and refuse storage facilities become
overtaxed.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If an all-weather access road, negotiable
by loaded collection vehicles, with adequate
on-site parking areas for collection
vehicles, have been provided and unloading
of vehicles is accomplished without delay.
2 points
If the access road provided is negotiable
by loaded collection vehicles, but collec-
tion vehicles impede traffic flow or delay
unloading because of lack of adequate
parking. , . ,
^ & 1 point
If the access road is negotiable in good
weather only. . ,
0 points
ITEM 2: Employee Facilities. Suitable
shelter and sanitary facilities shall be pro-
vided for personnel.
Reason. Sanitary facilities are desirable for
good personal hygiene of both plant employees
and collection personnel. If employees are
'^Training Branch, Division of Technical
Operations, Solid Waste Management Office,
Cincinnati, Ohio
required to operate the plant under inclement
weather conditions without adequate shelter,
a lack of attention to the operational require-
ments will result. Employee morale and
efficiency are enhanced by provision of ade-
quate sanitation facilities.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If all operational areas of the plant are
provided with adequate shelter, including
ventilation and screens (if required), and
personnel are furnished with adequate
drinking water, sanitary handwashing,
toilets, locker, and shower facilities.
2 points
If adequate shelter is provided in all
operational areas of the plant, but only
minimal handwashing and toilet facilities
are available.
1 point
If shelter or sanitary facilities are
inadequate.
0 points
ITEM 3: Communications. Telephone or
radio communications shall be provided at
the composting plant.
Reason. Communications are necessary at
composting plants in case of emergency.
If the plant is part of a combined collection
and disposal operation, better service and ;
sanitary conditions can be rendered through-
out thi? collection area by providing good
communications.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If reliable telephone or radio communica-
tions are maintained at the plant.
2 points
1
Not for General Distribution
Subject to Revision
SW. CP. rm.3.5.67 1
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Tentative Rating Method for Operation of Composting Plants
If no communications are installed at the
compost plant.
0 points
ITEM 4: Fire Protection. On-site fire pro-
tection shall be provided and arrangements
shall be made with a responsible agency to
provide adequate fire-fighting forces in an
emergency.
Reason. Combustion in refuse storage or
processing areas or malfunction of equip-
ment may generate fires which will be of
particular danger to men and equipment.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If the plant has an adequate water supply
under sufficient pressure for fire-fighting
purposes available at appropriate loca-
tions throughout the plant; approved ex-
tinguishers are so located to extinguish
small fires or equipment fires; and arrange-
ments have been made with the local fire-
fighting agency to assist in an emergency.
2 points
If personnel must rely upon hand-operated
extinguishers while waiting for assistance
which has been arranged for from the local
fire-fighting agency.
1 point
If suitable emergency procedures to iso-
late or confine a fire have not been
established, a local fire-fighting agency
is not available, or suitable water under
pressure is not available.
0 points
ITEM 5: Accident prevention and Safety.
Employees shall be instructed in the
principles of first-aid and safety and in the
specific operational procedures necessary
to prevent accidents or control dangerous
situations. Accident precautionary measures
shall be employed at the site. An adequate
stock of first-aid supplies shall be maintained
at the site.
Reason. The complex mechanical equipment
required for composting and the processing
of flammable (sometimes explosive) materials,
creates a potential accident hazard for com-
posting plant employees.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If all employees are given adequate and
periodic operational and safety training; an
adequate first-aid kit and at least one
employee trained in first-aid are avail-
able on the site at all times.
2 points
If all employees are given periodic opera-
tional and safety training; an adequate
first-aid kit is available at the site and
trained first-aid assistance is available
within three miles of the site and Item 3,
Communications, is rated 2 points.
1 point
If periodic operational and safety training
is not given; an on-site first aid kit is not
maintained, trained first-aid assistance is
not available within three miles, or com-
munications to the trained first-aid assis-
tant are not available at all times.
0 points
If all hazardous machinery is not equipped
with appropriate safety devices and warn-
ing signs or unsafe practices are used at
the site.
Deduct 5 points
ITEM 6: Operational Records. A daily log
shall be maintained by the plant supervisor
to record operational information, including
the type and quantity of refuse received;
hours of operation; maximum and minimum
temperatures of the composted material and
quantities of rejected refuse or salvageable
items and disposal method used.
Reason. A composting plant is designed to
reduce refuse to a sanitary, nuisance-free
material through biochemical degradation
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Tentative Rating Method for Operation of Composting plants
of compostable materials. It is essential
that adequate operational records be kept
in order to determine if satisfactory reduc-
tion oi the refuse is routinely accomplished,
if the plant's capacity is being exceeded and
what disposition is made of rejected
materials. Such records will indicate if
changes in operating methods or if additional
men, equipment or facilities should be
sought to more adequately dispose of the
incoming refuse.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If adequate records are routinely and
accurately maintained.
J 6 points
If the operational records are inadequate.
2 points
If there are no records.
0 points
ITEM 7: Operational Maintenance. Adequate
provisions shall be made for the routine
operational maintenance of the composting
plant. Repair or replacement of operational
equipment shall be made efficiently and
promptly. The plant shall be so designed
and maintained that failure of one component
of the composting plant will not result in
complete plant shutdown. Provision shall
be made for diversion of refuse to an approved
alternate disposal facility in the event of a
breakdown of more than 24 hours duration.
Reason. Routine maintenance of equipment
reduces repair cost, prolongs equipment life
and helps to prevent breakdowns that interrupt
plant operations. If a failure of one compo-
nent does not completely disable the compost-
ing plant, hours of operation may be extended
to insure continuity of operations. Advance
arrangements for making major repairs will
materially reduce down-time. Complete
breakdown of a day or more results in accu-
mulation of refuse at the plant with develop-
ment of health hazards and nuisances at the
plant and throughout the collection system.
Alternate disposal provisions will reduce
health hazards and disruption of collection
operations.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If routine maintenance is em, toyed and if
a decrease in plant capacity Caused by
malfunction of a component part can be
overcome by extending the hours of opera-
tion or by alternate disposal in a properly
operated sanitary landfill or other approved
facility- 12 points
If no routine maintenance is employed and
if a decrease in plant capacity caused by
malfunction of a component part can be
overcome by extending the hours of opera-
tion or by alternate disposal in a properly
operated sanitary landfill or other approved
facility. . . ,
9 points
If routine maintenance is employed but
extension of the operating hours to ade-
quately compost the refuse generated from
the community is not possible or no al-
ternate disposal method is provided.
3 points
If np_ routine maintenance is employed and
if extension of the operating hours to ade-
quately compost the refuse generated from
the community is not possible or no alter-
nate disposal method is provided.
0 points
ITEM 8: Limited Access. Access to the
composting plant shall be limited to those
times when operational employees are on
duty. Only those authorized to visit or to
use the disposal facility shall be allowed
access to the compost plant. Particular
caution shall be taken to insure that access
to ha -.ardous areas shall be restricted to
authorized persons only.
Reason. When only authorized persons are
permitted access to the composting plant
during operating hours, traffic, fire, and
accident hazards are minimized.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If neither vehicles nor pedestrians have
access to plant outside of working hours.
2 points
-------
Tentative Rating Method for Operation of Composting Plants
If uncontrolled or partially controlled
access is allowed.
0 points
ITEM 9: Area Sanitation. All refuse shall
be confined to the unloading area, preferably
within a building. No refuse, paper, etc. ,
should be scattered adjacent to the plant
site.
Reason. The purpose of the composting
plant is to dispose of refuse in a sanitary,
nuisance-free manner. If paper and other
light refuse are allowed to be scattered, fire
hazards and nuisances are created and the
appearance of the composting plant will
cause depreciation of land value in the
surrounding area.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If the plant site and areas are kept neat
and clean.
4 points
If paper or light refuse is scattered on or
adjacent to the plant site. Q pointg
ITEM 10: Plant Sanitation. All areas within
the plant shall be maintained free of paper,
refuse, dirt and debris.
Reason. A well-maintained plant will con-
tribute to better working conditions and pro-
mote acceptability of the operation, thus
attracting a better class of labor, improving
the occupational environment, and maintain-
ing better health and safety record for the
employees.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If the interior of the plant is continually
maintained free of paper, refuse, dirt,
and debris' 4 points
If the interior of the plant is generally
free of paper, refuse, dirt and debris,
showing only occasional lapses in house-
keeping practices.
2 points
If the interior of the plant shows general
lack of good housekeeping practices.
0 points
ITEM 11: Weighing Facilities. Provisions
shall be made for accurately weighing or
suitably measuring all quantities of refuse
delivered to the composting plant.
Reason. Weighing of incoming refuse is
necessary to establish operating capacity in
relationship to the design capacity of the
plant and provide a basis for establishing fee
schedules, and is an integral part of the
plant operation. Weighing discourages
collectors from making trips to the plant
with half-full trucks.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If suitable fixed or portable scales have
been installed for weighing refuse collec-
tion trucks or if they are continuously
used to record plant quantities.
4 points
If suitable scales for weighing refuse
collection vehicles are located on the way
to the plant and are in use; or other
suitable measuring facilities, * which
accurately measure incoming refuse, are
in continuous use.
2 points
If no weighing or measuring is accomp-
lished or weighing or measuring pro-
cedures are inadequate.
0 points
ITEM 12: Unloading Facilities. Unloading
facilities shall be of sufficient capacity and
design to facilitate rapid and orderly unload-
ing of collection trucks.
Reason. If collection vehicles are delayed
at the unloading facilities, the efficiency
and scheduling of collection services are
disrupted. Confusion at the unloading area
reduces the safety and efficiency of plant
operations.
*Manufacturer's rated capacity for vehicles
is not acceptable.
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Tentative Rating Method for Operation of Composting Plants
This item shall be rated as follows:
If the unloading facilities are adequate,
tru:ks are unloaded without delay,
and traffic is well organized and
supervised.
4 points
If the unloading facility is not adequate
for proper rapid unloading of collection
trucks or the facility is poorly super-
vised so that prompt unloading and re-
lease of collection trucks is not
accomplished.
0 points
ITEM 13: Dust Control. Dust generated by
all components of the composting operation
shall be controlled at all times.
Reason. Dust is a health hazard to plant
employees and collection personnel.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If adequate dust control is in effect at all
times during the unloading operation and
personnel continually exposed to dust
use proper protective equipment.
2 points
If control of dust during the unloading
operation is inadequate but personnel use
protective equipment.
If neither dust control nor protective
equipment is adequate.
0 points
ITEM 14: Capacity and Operation of Storage
Facilities. The capacity of the refuse
storage pit shall be equivalent to at least
the rated capacity of the composting plant
for one day's operation. The unloading
operation shall be organized such that
reserve capacity is retained in the storage
pit.
Reason. In the event of overload or plant
malfunction, reserve capacity in the storage
pit will permit storage of refuse until the
composting plant can catch up or again be-
come operational.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If the storage pit can hold at 1 -ast one
day's collection volume and t/e plant
routinely processes one day's collection
of refuse each working day. . .
& J 2 points
If the refuse storage pit can hold one day's
collection volume of refuse, but the plant
does not process an equivalent volume
on some working days. . . ,
& J 1 point
If the refuse storage pit holds less than
one day's refuse or the plant cannot pro-
cess an equivalent volume each working
day. _ . ,
J 0 points
ITEM 15: Grinding and Separation. For
effective composting, municipal refuse
shall be ground at least once.
Refuse components that cannot be ground and/
or composted, such as metals, tires and
glass, plastics, and masonry shall be re-
moved, and adequate provisions shall be
made for these operations. Materials re-
moved from the refuse shall not be stored
on the premises.
Reason. Grinding of refuse accomplishes
several things: 1) vastly increases the
surface area available to the micro-
organisms to attack; 2) mixes the refuse
into a more uniform mass; 3) breaks down
the cell structure, releases fluids, and in
general, makes the material more suscep-
tible to decomposition; and 4) reduces the
attractiveness of the putrescible material to
insects and rodents. Separation of the
material protects the grinding equipment and
improves the finished compost.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If all noncompostable material is separated
from the refuse and the grinding produces
a particle size which is suitable for the
composting method employed.
If some noncompostable items are apparent
in the finished compost but the grinding
produces a particle size which is
suitable.
1 point
-------
Tentative Rating Memod for Operation of Composting Plants
If the grinding does not produce a
particle size suitable for the composting
method employed.
r J 0 points
ITEM 16: Time and Temperature for Com-
post Curing. The ground refuse shall be
composted by methods in which each and
every portion of the compost material is
subject to a minimum temperature of 140°F
for no less than forty hours.
Reason. In normal composting, temperatures
of 140UF or higher are achieved for several
hours or even days. This time/temperature
exposure is believed to be adequate to des-
troy most, if not all, pathogens in the com-
post. Pasteurization of all of the compost
must be relied upon for maximum protection,
and it is essential that all portions of the
compost be exposed to the minimum of 140 F
temperature for at least forty hours to destroy
pathogens throughout the compost.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If plant design and operation assure that
all compost materials will be consistently
heated to at least 140°F for forty hours
or more, or laboratory examinations of
appropriately selected compost samples
are used as a routine control measure to
certify that occurrence of pathogens is
maintained at a level satisfactory to the
responsible health officer.
^ 10 points
If the above described design and opera-
tion requirements are not fulfilled and
routinely-made laboratory examinations
are not available to assure the adequacy of
the composting operations for pathogen
destruction. . .
0 points
ITEM 17: Compost Quality. Compost shall
be of uniform quality, acceptable from patho-
genic and hygienic viewpoints. Inert materials,
such as glass and metals, shall be finely
ground, intimately mixed and uniformly dis-
persed. Sharp slivers of glass and metal shall
not be contained in the finished product.
Reason. The production of safe high-quality
compost is essential for the successful mar-
keting and utilization of this material. If
successful marketing of compost is vital to
the continued operation of the composting
plant, production of safe high-quality compost
has to be assured.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If the finished compost contains less than
10% inorganic or inert material by weight,
as determined by the standard procedure
listed in the APWA publication Municipal
Refuse Disposal. Appendix A for the
determination of volatile solids in residue;
those inert materials are finely divided
and intimately mixed; the pathogens
in the finished compost have been main-
tained at or below a level approved by
the local health officer; and the compost
is acceptable for favorable marketing.
10 points
If the compost fails to qualify as listed
above.
0 points
ITEM 18: Emission Quality. Gaseous and
particulate emissions or objectionable odor
from compost plant operations, including
those from combustion of refuse shall be of
a quality acceptable to the community where
the plant is established.
Reason. Proper management, facilities,
and control devices can prevent emission
of gases, particulates or objectionable odor
from composting plants. In order for such
plants to maintain acceptability in locations
best suited for the needs of the refuse dis-
posal system, they have to continually com-
ply with local emission limitations. (Recom-
mendations for standards can be obtained
from the National Center for Air Pollution
Control.)
This item shall be rated as follows:
If the emissions from the composting
plant continually comply with the air
pollution standards established for the
area.
8 points
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Tentative Rating Method for Operation of Composting Plants
If the emissions from the composting
plant do not continually comply with local
air '>ollution standards.
0 points
ITEM 19: Sewage Solids, Liquids, and Other
Hazardous Materials. If sewage solids and
liquids (septic tank or cesspool pumpings
and sewage sludge and grit), and other
hazardous materials, are accepted or dis-
posed of in a composting plant, special
provisions shall be made to insure proper
handling.
Reason. Sewage solids or liquids are infec-
tious and create health hazards if not properly
handled. Other materials including oil
sludges, chemicals, magnesium shavings,
and empty insecticide containers, may also
present special hazards. These materials
can endanger plant employees and harmful
elements may persist in the compost unless
proper handling and processing is routinely
employed. When the design and operation of
a composting plant includes special provisions
for the disposal of these hazardous materials,
they can be disposed of safely and need not be
excluded.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If suitable procedures are established and
routinely followed for the disposal of
hazardous materials, all hazardous
materials are excluded from the compost-
ing plant and pathogens do not survive
in the compost.
2 points
If hazardous materials are accepted with
no provision for proper handling or dis-
posal or pathogens survive in the
compost. . .
^ 0 points
ITEM 20: Salvage. Salvaging conducted at a
composting plant shall be so organized that
it will not interfere with the prompt and sani-
tary disposal of the refuse through the com-
posting operation. Personnel shall be
protected from potential health and accident
hazards. Salvaged material shall be stored
in a neat and orderly manner in vermin-proof
containers, if necessary, but excessive
amounts of salvaged materials shall not be
stored upon the premises.
Reason. Nothing can be tolerated that
interferes with prompt sanitary composting
of refuse. Improperly conducted salvaging
delays the composting operation and creates
insanitary conditions. Accumulation of sal-
vaged items at the plant often results in vec-
tor problems and unsightliness, both
detrimental to public acceptance of the opera-
tion. Proper collection, storage, and
disposal of salvaged materials will aid in
maintaining high public health standards and
will increase the efficiency of plant operation.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If the salvaging is well organized,
salvaged material is properly stored and
no excessive quantities of salvaged
material are kept on the premises.
8 points
If the salvaging is well organized and
salvaged materials are stored in a proper
manner, but excessive amounts of sal-
vaged materials have accumulated.
4 points
If salvaging is disorganized, proper
storage is not provided or salvaging
contributes to odor production or the
attraction or production of insects and
rodents. .. . .
0 points
ITEM 21: Disposal of Nonsalvageable
Materials. Materials separated from the
refuse which have no marketable value shall
be disposed of in a sanitary landfill. If
market or other conditions make the salvage
of any particular material impractical, sal-
vaging of the material shall be discontinued
or the material shall be stored elsewhere or
disposed of by sanitary landfill.
-------
Tentative Rating Method for Operation of Composting Plants
Reason. Most noncompostable items which
have no salvage value cannot be incinerated
because of bulk or noncombustible content.
On-site storage or unsatisfactory disposal
of these materials will be unsightly or con-
tribute to vector problems.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If noncompostable items separated from
the refuse are disposed of immediately
in a sanitary landfill or are removed to
proper storage elsewhere. .
^ ^ 8 points
If noncompostable items are allowed to
accumulate at the plant or the disposal
of the items is improper. .
^ ^ 0 points
ITEM 22: Vector Control. Attraction or pro-
duction of insects and rodents shall be pre-
vented by conducting all plant operations in a
systematic well-organized manner. Supple-
mental vector control measures shall be
instituted if necessary.
Reason. Routine operation of a composting
plant according to these standards will pre-
vent or minimize insect and rodent problems.
Any lapse in proper operating procedures
may result in attraction and production of in-
sects and rodents, requiring supplemental
vector control measures.
This item shall be rated as follows:
If vector control is not needed.
2 points
If vector control is properly supplied
when conditions warrant such control.
1 point
If vector control is needed or is not
promptly furnished.
0 points
Suggested Method for Evaluating Numerical
Rating
A-Rated Composting Plant - For industrial
areas. The following items must score
points as follows:
Item 16 (Time and Temperature - 10 points
for Compost Curing)
17 (Compost Quality) - 10 points
18 (Emission Quality) - 8 points
20 (Salvage) - 8 points
Total rating must equal 80 or more points.
B-Rated Composting Plant - For heavy in-
dustrial or rural areas. The following items
must score as follows:
Item 16 (Time and Temperature -10 points
for Compost Curing)
17 (Compost Quality) -10 points
18 (Emission Quality) - 8 points
Total rating must equal 60 or more points.
C-Rated_Composting Plant - For very rural
areas. The following items must score as
follows:
Item 16 (Time and Temperature -10 points
for Compost Curing)
17 (Compost Quality) -10 points
The total rating must equal 40 or more
points.
Any rating less than 40 points regardless of
the ratings of Items 16, 17, 18 or 20 is
unsatisfactory.
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CHECK LIST FOR COMPOST PLANT EVALUATION
COMPOST PLANT
LOCATION
RATER
POINTS
RATING
DATE
CONTACTS
ITEM
1. Access Road
all-weather with parking
all-weather, no parking
undesirable
2. Employee Facilities
satisfactory
limited
none
3. Communications
reliable on-site
none on-site
4. Fire Protection
satisfactory
limited
none
5. Accident Prevention and
Safety_
training, on-site aid
training, nearby aid
no training, remote aid
unsafe practices
6. Operational Records
satisfactory
limited
none
7, Operational Maintenance
routine maintenance and
alternate plan
alternate plan only
routine maintenance only
neither
8. Limited Access
controlled
uncontrolled
POINTS
ALLOTTED
2
1
0
2
1
0
2
0
2
1
0
2
1
0
DEDUCT
5
6
2
0
12
9
3
0
2
0
ITEM
9. Area Sanitation
neat and clean
littered
10. Plant Sanitation
neat and clean
occasional lapses
littered
11. Weighing Facilities
on-site scales continually used
off-site scales continually used
none
12. Unloading Facilities
spacious and supervised
limited and /or uncontrolled
13. Dust Control
controlled, personnel protected
uncontrolled, personnel
protected
no control or protection
14. Capacity and Operation of
Storage Facility
remaining capacity
> 1 day
remaining capacity
< 1 day
available capacity
< 1 day
15. Grinding and Separation
suitable
limited
not suitable
PAGE TOTAL
POINTS
ALLOTED
4
0
4
2
0
4
2
0
4
0
2
1
0
2
I
0
2
1
0
-------
ITEM
16. Time and Temperature
for Compost Curing
suitable
not suitable
17. Compost Quality
suitable
not suitable
18. Emission Quality
meets area standards
does not meet area standards
19. Hazardous Mat erials
special provisions
exclusion
no special provisions
POINTS
ALLOTTED
10
0
10
0
MUST ITEMS AND RATINGS
ITEM
16
17
18
20
RATING
A
10
10
8
8
B
10
10
8
-
c n
10
10
-
-
POINTS
ALLOTED
ITEM
20. Salvage
organized
partially organized
disorganized
2 1. Disposal of Nonsalvage-
able Materials
properly handled
improperly handled
22. Vector Control
not needed
supplied when needed
needed
PAGE TOTAL
POINTS
ALLOTTED
TOTAL POINTS
RATING
SUITABILITY
TOTAL POINTS FOR RATING:
A - 80 or more
B - 60 or more
C : 40 or more
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A SIMPLE KEY TO SOME FLIES FOUND
ASSOCIATED WITH REFUSE
Training Staff*
I FLIES WITH DULL BODIES COLORED
BROWN, GRAY OR BLACK
A Thorax (the part of the body to which legs
and wings are attached) gray, with three
distinct black stripes; abdomen checkered,
usually with tip (tail light) of red or
orange - Flesh Fly (Sarcophaga).
B Thorax with four dark stripes, underside
of abdomen - House Fly (Musca
domestica).
C Thorax with four dark stripes, abdomen
usually spotted. About the same size and
general color as a house fly. Long,
slender piercing mouthparts stick out from
head - Stable Fly (Stomoxys calcitrans).
^Training Branch, Division of Technical
Operations, Solid Waste Management Office,
Cincinnati, Ohio
II FLIES WITH THORAX DULL, AND
ABDOMEN METALLIC OR SHINY
BLUE OR GREEN
A Blue Bottle Fly (Calliphora)
III FLIES WITH SHINING, METALLIC
BODIES COLORED GREEN, BLUE
OR BLACK
A Body metallic, with no stripes, colored
bronze, coppery green, light or bright
green. Garbage or Green Bottle Fly
(Phaenicia).
B Body metallic with no stripes, colored
very dark blue or very dark green. Black
Blow Fly (Phormia regina).
Body shining black, slender, and rather
small size. Dump Fly (Ophyra).
SW.VC.vc. 1.9.67
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VECTOR CONTROL
Training Staff*
I INTRODUCTION
In the almost endless variety of discarded
materials many organisms find food, shelter
from enemies or extremes of weather, and
other comforts which lead to their develop-
ment, or at any rate, concentration, at dis-
posal sites. Most of these organisms are at
least nuisances; many are carriers (vectors
of human or animal disease); and a few,
seagulls for example, present the risk of
accidents. Ordinarily the problems presented
from these insects or animals are inversely
proportional to the care given to proper
refuse disposal. However, supplemental
control measures are occasionally necessary
even at well operated sanitary landfill sites.
II PESTS OR DISEASE VECTORS PRESENT
A Flies
1 Housefly, Musca domestica
2 Stablefly or "Biting Housefly", Stomoxys
calcitrans
3 Flesh Fly, Sarcophaga sp.
4 Greenbottle or Garbage Fly, Phaenicia
sp.
5 Black Blowfly, Phormia regina
B Mosquitoes
1 Yellow Fever Mosquito, Aedes aegypti
2 Brown House Mosquito, Culex pipiens
C Rodents
1 Norway Rat, Rattus norvegicus, and
climbing rat, Rattus rattus
2 House Mouse, Mus musculus
'-Training Branch, Division of Technical
Operations, Solid Waste Management Office,
Cincinnati, Ohio
3 Various native rodents - wood rats,
cotton rats, white-footed mice, etc.
D Miscellaneous Pests, Disease Vectors
1 Seagulls, other flocking birds
2 Cockroaches
3 Dogs, cats
4 Mongooses, nutria, raccoons, bears
III DISEASE TRANSMISSION POTENTIALS
A The fact that domestic flies can carry
many agents of human disease is firmly
established in the laboratory and in one
study houseflies were proven to be impor-
tant in the spread of bacillary dysentery.
B Rodents, similarly, arc carriers of
enteric and other infections.
C Mosquito species associated with open
dumping, including container breeders
and those liking dirty water, may carry
important viral diseases of man, particularly.
IV ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
A Insects, in addition to needs for food and
protection from enemies, are vulnerable to
extremes of temperature and humidity.
Basic needs may be summarized as:
1 Food
2 Warmth
3 Moisture
4 Time to develop
SW.SL.vc. 1.9. 67
-------
Vector Control
B Rodents may or may not require drinking
water (rats do, mice do not). Basic
needs may be summarized as:
1 Food
2 Water (sometimes)
3 Shelter
C Environmental control consists largely of
denying these needs or making them
unsuitable.
V CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CONTROL
A Flies and Other Insects
1 Trapping, screening
2 Attractants, repellents
3 Insecticides
a Pyrethrum
b Chlorinated hydrocarbons
c Organic phosphorus compounds
4 Formulations
a Solid and wet baits
b Fogs, mists, residual sprays
B Rodents
1 Trapping, rodent proofing
2 Rodenticides
a Gassing of burrows
b Red squill, zinc phosphide, ANTU,
norbromide
c Sodium fluoroacetate (1080),
fluoroacetamide
d Anticoagulants - water baits, dry
baits, paraffin blocks
C Birds
1 Trapping, scare devices
2 Poisons, narcotics
VI SUMMARY
Your vector control program should be a
supplement to, not a substitute for, proper
refuse handling procedures. It is always
easier to breed pests than it is to kill them.
REFERENCES
1 Shepard, Harold H. The Chemistry and
Action of Insecticides. McGraw-Hill/
New York, 1951. 504pp.
2 Mallis, Arnold. Handbook of Pest Control.
MacNair-Dorland, New York, 1960.
1132 pp.
3 PHS Communicable Disease Center. Re-
port on Public Health Pesticides, 1600
Clifton Rd. , N.E., Atlanta, Georgia,
1966.
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SOME GUIDELINES FOR CONTROL OF RATS IN DISPOSAL SITES
Training Staff*
Properly operated Sanitary Landfills should
not require supplemental use of rodent poisons
ordinarily, since the operation itself should
deny all food and shelter to vermin. Routine
pesticiding of open dumps is administrative
insanity, and calls to mind Voltaire's com-
ments about the Russian foot soldiers, who
poured perfume in their boots instead of
washing their feet.
Still, there are times when dump poisoning
is clearly indicated: for example, prior to
closing a dump or converting it to a Sanitary
Landfill. Unless the rat population is des-
troyed, the rats may, with the loss of food
and shelter, move into surrounding areas.
There is really no such thing as an absolutely
safe rat poison. Freak accidents have occurred
even with squill and the anticoagulants. It
behooves us therefore, to use the safest pos-
sible pesticides, apply them safely, and guard
the disposal site during the poisoning period.
There are more effective, but more dangerous,
rodent poisons on the market. Only trained
pest control operators should use them.
FORMULATIONS
Red Squill
This product has probably been used for more
than a thousand years, and still has merit.
Its greatest advantage is its safety, because
it contains a natural emetic. Rats do not
vomit, and are poisoned by it. The greatest
disadvantage is its bitter taste, which must
be overcome with tasty baits. Here is a
suggested bait formula:
Fortified red squill
Corn oil or salad oil
Chicken mash or corn meal
Ground beef, horse meat,
or fish
1 Ib.
2 Ibs.
2 Ibs.
5 Ibs.
10 Ibs.
'Training Branch, Division of Technical
Operations, Solid Waste Management Office,
Cincinnati, OhiO
Depending upon availability, you may wish to
substitute ground up returned bakery goods
for some of the grain. Rats also love bacon
grease and you can substitute it for the corn
oil. Cheap canned mackerel and tuna fish
also go well and increase bait acceptance.
The finished baits may be rolled up in 6 inch
squares of wax paper, about a tablespoon to
the bait, or distributed with a tablespoon at
the site on paper squares where there is rat
infestation. Larger "bait stations" of 4 to 8
ounces may be placed, cover with a board so
they will be accessible to rats but screened
from the weather. You would not know how
much to use except by rebaiting on successive
days as the baits are taken until no more
"takes" are seen. Then remove all baits when
the public or pets again have access to the site.
For initial baiting figure for about one bait
for each rat hole or a half pound every hundred
square feet (10 feet by 10 feet).
Zinc Phosphide
Here is another old favorite, still very good
for this kind of work. This rodenticide is a
black powder with a distinct phosphine odor
which makes it unattractive to children and
pets, though the rats accept it. It may be
advisable to add tartar emetic (antimony
potassium tartrate) to your bait formula to
induce vomiting in case the rodenticide is
accidentally eaten by pets or humans. It will,
however, make it a little harder to get the
rats to eat it.
Zinc phosphide 4 oz.
Ground meat, canned fish,
bacon or fresh tomatoes 25 Ibs.
Tartar emetic 1-| oz.
Canned mackerel is a good material for at
least some of the bait. Many operators sub-
stitute oats or corn meal for half or more of
the bait to get a drier and more economical
mixture. Distrubute as was suggested for
SW. VC. re. 5. 10. 67 1
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Some Guidelines for Control of Rats in Disposal Sites
the squill bait. If your dump has a face,
figure; about a pound of bait for each ten
running feet of face on the first application.
If your dumping area is unrestricted you will
have to bait accordingly, and may come to
feel that you are trying to bait the world. At
this point the merits of Sanitary Landfill
become more evident.
Anticoagulants
These rodenticides are comparatively safe
to use where the public may have access to
them. They reduce the clotting properties
of the blood and cause internal bleeding,
which results in death of rats after they have
fed on the bait for 4-10 days. Besides the
safety factor, they are advantageous to use
because the rats accept the bait well, and
cheap dry baits consisting mostly of grain can
be used. The main disadvantage lies in the
amount needed. You must put out about 4
ounces of bait per rat. During the period of
poisoning, birds may eat up a lot of your
grain bait. It would not hurt them but may
cause you to have to use more bait.
In the anticoagulant group are warfarin,
pival, fumarin, and diphacinone. It really
does not matter which one you use. Another
one, PMP, has similar properties but if you
use it you should put in twice as much as
the formula indicates.
Anticoagulant (0. 5%
concentrate)
Corn oil or mineral oil
Powdered sugar
Rolled or ground oats
Corn meal or corn chop
25 Ibs.
25 Ibs.
25 Ibs.
100 Ibs.
325 Ibs.
500 Ibs,
The complete bait may be placed in small
pans not over one-half inch high and inserted
under boards or other protected locations at
the dump site. The bait should be checked
at two-day intervals and replenished until
there is evidence that no more feeding has
taken place.
Most of the anticoagulants mentioned above
may also be purchased as wax treated bait
blocks or rodent cakes with meat or fish
flavor to attract rats.
If you want to try some water baits, try the
water-soluble anticoagulants: warfasol,
fumasol, or pivalyn. Use as instructed on
the package.
For dump poisoning, I personally prefer to
use red squill or zinc phosphide to reduce the
rat population, and follow up with bait stations
of anticoagulant for final cleanup.
Calcium Cyanide
This is a material commonly used for gassing
rats. In the presence of moisture in the air
or soil, this chemical forms hydrocyanic acid
gas (HCN). Both calcium cyanide and the gas
are deadly poisons for animals and man, and
must be handled with extreme care.
Calcium cyanide is commercially available as
a dust and should be applied with a pump made
and sold for this specific purpose. The pump
is so constructed that it may be held in place
with the foot, and both hands are free for the
operation of the pump. A glass jar holds about
three-quarters of a pound of dust, which is
sufficient to treat approximately thirty-six
burrows at one time without reloading. Air
is forced through the glass jar containing the
powder, and the dust-laden air passes through
a hose into the rat burrow. The end of the
hose is placed 10 to 12 inches inside the bur-
row, the entrance closed with earth, and
several strokes are made with the pump. If
the dust comes out of other holes, they should
be covered with soil. The valve on the bottom
of the pump is then switched over to "air"
position and the gas is forced through the en-
tire burrow system.
Control should not be attempted during a
strong wind. In opening cyanide cans or
loading the pump the operator should stand
to windward to avoid exposure to dust or
fumes. He should also be careful to apply
the dust so that it will not drift toward other
individuals in the area.
SOME SUGGESTED SOURCES FOR SUPPLIES
These are merely put forth to give you a start
in looking for materials. The list is by no
means exhaustive, and mention of these
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Some Guidelines for Control of Rats in Disposal Sites
suppliers in no way should be construed as an
endorsement of their products over those of
any not mentioned.
Rat Control Products
American Cyanamid Co., Agricultural
Chemicals Div. , 30 Rockefeller Plaza,
New York 20, New York.
California Spray-Chemical Corp. , Richmond,
California.
Continental Chemiste Corp., 2256 West Ogden
Avenue, Chicago 12, Illinois.
J. T. Eaton & Co. , Inc., SHOW. 65th
Street, Cleveland, Ohio 44102 (squill,
and warfarin bait blocks).
Elco Manufacturing Co. , 2039 Fifth Avenue,
Pittsburgh 19, Pennsylvania.
Hopkins Agricultural Chemical Co. , P.O.
Box 584, Madison, Wisconsin.
Hub States Chemical & Equipment Co. , 2002
N. Illinois Street, Indianapolis, Indiana
46202.
Miller Chemical & Fertilizer Corp. , 2226 N.
Howard Street, Baltimore 18, Maryland.
Niagara Chemical Div. , Food Machinery &
Chemical Corp. , Middleport, New York.
S. B. Penick & Company, 50 Church Street,
New York 8, New York.
John Powell & Company, 10 Light Street,
Baltimore 3, Maryland.
Prentiss Drug & Chemical Co., 101 W. 31st
Street, New York 1, New York.
Pyrrole Chemical Corp., 817 Spring Lane,
Portsmouth, Ohio.
Gallard Schlesinger Chemical Corp., 37-11
29th Street, Long Island City 1, New York.
(zinc phosphide)
Seacoast Laboratories, Inc. , 156 Perry
Street, New York 14, New York.
Selco Supply Co. , 109 Elm Street, Eaton,
Colorado.
Stephenson Chemical Co., P.O. Box 188,
College Park, Georgia.
Wil-Kil Pest Control Co. , 522 West North
Avenue, Milwaukee 12, Wisconsin.
Andrew Wilson, Inc. , Springfield, New
Jersey.
Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation,
506 North Walnut Street, Madison,
Wisconsin.
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CONNECTICUT STATE DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH
SOLID WASTES SECTION
RODENT CONTROL PROGRAMS AT REFUSE DISPOSAL AREAS
When closing a site or converting an open-face
dump to a sanitary landfill type of operation,
it will be necessary to carry out a rodent-
baiting program. The rodents must be
exterminated so that they will not migrate to
surrounding areas when their food supply is
cut off at the refuse disposal site.
A Time Schedule
1 It will be necessary to close the site for
a minimum of three days.
a On the first day, the site must remain
free of activity to allow the rodents to
feed on refuse deposited on the
previous day.
b On the second day, the bait is
distributed in burrows and in
sheltered areas.
c On the third day, the rodents are
allowed to feed on the bait.
2 Dumping may be resumed and heavy
equipment should be brought in on the
fourth day to initiate conversion to
sanitary landfill and/or to spread,
compact, cover and seal the area if
the site is being closed. There should
be no delay in completing this work.
B The Bait
1 Upon agreement with local officials to
bait an area, the Connecticut State
Department of Health will order the
poison and have it sent to the town.
The town should notify this department
when the poison has been delivered in
order that a date for baiting may be
scheduled.
2 The town will be responsible for storing
the poison safely, preferably under lock
and key.
3 The ingredients are to be purchased by
the town and mixed under the supervision
of the staff of the Connecticut State
Department of Health.
4 Ingredients for a 100 pound mix:
a 90 pounds of fish meal cat food.
b 10 pounds of corn meal.
c 25 ounces of zinc phosphide poison
(contains an emetic).
C Distributing the Bait
1 The town will be responsible for the
following:
a Have men with heavy shoes
available for work.
b Provide, for each worker, gloves
which are to be disposed of afterwards.
c Provide a mixing container, hoes for
mixing, and a spade.
d Provide long-handled spoons and
buckets or pails for each worker.
e Provide soap and water for immediate
hand washing after distributing the
poison.
2 There will be no smoking while
distributing the bait.
3 The Connecticut State Department of
Health will supervise the distribution
program.
Baiting should not be done on days when rain
or snow is predicted during the next 24 hours.
On the morning of the day scheduled for the
baiting program, there should be close com-
munications between the state and town
officials to be certain that the weather con-
ditions are favorable for the baiting program.
Rats may contain disease-bearing fleas and
ticks, therefore care should be taken
to assure they are promptly buried in with
the refuse during conversion operations with
minimum of handling.
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#. DATA SHEET 618
_ *
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REFUSE COLLECTION
IN
MUNICIPALITIES
This data sheet was prepared by the Special Projects Section,
National Safety Council, 425 North Michigan Avenue, Chicago,
III. 60611, and is published by the Council.
.EFUSE COLLECTION is di-
rectly related to the preservation,
protection, and the health and wel-
fare of citizens. Problems associated
with collection and disposal of ref-
use must be faced by all communi-
ties regardless of size. It should be
recognized that certain hazards are
inherent in the riature of refuse han-
dling activities and will vary with the
types of equipment used and the
various conditions surrounding the
operations. Experience of various
cities and communities indicates that
these activities are in an area to
which management should develop a
proper amount of attention in order
Figure 1 illustrates a two-wheel hand truck
the type used to haul refuse containers.
to motivate employees to maintain
the highest level of safety. The cir-
cumstances contributing to potential
hazards for employees' injuries will
vary greatly among organizations.
2. This data sheet will discuss the
hazards pertaining to refuse collec-
tion in municipalities and the meas-
ures which should be followed to
avoid them.
3. Some organizations operate on
an incentive program in refuse col-
lection, thereby conceivably putting
an added strain on a safety program.
The incentive system is so ingrained
in some organizations that it would
COPYRIGHT© 1969 NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
-------
Figure 2 is a typical refuse truck with a ser-
rated metal step and hand-hold safety rail.
be extremely difficult to change.
(Certain "bonuses" grant each
worker permission to leave for home
when his route has been completed.
This leads to excessive speed and
"chance-taking.") Some crews may
pick up more refuse per day than
other crews. This added workload
and the speed of operation may add
additional hazards to an already po-
tentially hazardous job.
Hazards
4. Refuse collection requires the
use of large amounts of costly equip-
ment, and sufficient operating, su-
pervisory, and administrative per-
sonnel. Table I analyzes accidents
that have occurred in refuse collec-
tion within a given city operation,
indicative of the type of hazards en-
countered. The analysis of these ac-
cidents, suggests countermeasures
that may be taken.
5.- Employees have had frequent
accidents involving packing blades,
which have caused partial loss of fin-
gers, hands, arms, and feet. Mean-
ingful statistics on accidents in refuse
collections are not numerous, but
the few that are available will illus-
trate the magnitude of the problem.
6. Cities, with a population of
over 100,000 have submitted data
which totaled 16.5 million man-
hours of exposure. The frequency
rate was 60.77 and the severity
2,012 (Table II). This frequency
rate is nine times that of the aver-
age industrial worker! The frequency
rate is the number of disabling in-
juries per million hours worked com-
puted according to the following
formula:
Frequency rate
Number of disabling injuries
x 1,000,000
Employee-hours of exposure
The severity rate is the total days
charged per million hours worked,
as follows:
Severity rate
Total days charged x 1,000,000
Employee-hours of exposure
All fatalities, permanent total disa-
bilities, permanent partial disabili-
ties, total and temporary disabilities
arising out of and during the course
of employment are reportable
whether due to accidental injury or
occupational disease. The number of
lost-time injuries, and not the num-
ber of accidents, is included.
Hazards encountered
7. The hazards encountered in
carrying heavy containers and in
stepping on or off refuse trucks were
reflected in one out of every two
lost-time injuries during a period
under study. This involved a strain,
sprain, or dislocation. (About one-
third of all disabling injuries in Cali-
fornia industries,4 which were taken
as a group, are strains, sprains, or
dislocations.) Back strains repre-
sented the leading single type of in-
jury sustained by refuse collectors,
accounting for about one-fourth of
the injuries recorded. Back strains
in the state of California are just un-
der one-fifth of the lost-time work
injuries. Sprained ankles were re-
corded more frequently for workers
injured in refuse collection than for
all injured workers taken as a group.
Ankle sprains accounted for seven
per cent of the disabling injuries in
refuse collection compared with only
three and one-half per cent of the
lost-time injuries reported.
8. The wide variety of hazards to
employees engaged in refuse collec-
tion is reflected in the industry's
manual of Workmen's Compensa-
tion premium rate, i.e., $8.05 per
$100 payroll. This is four times the
rate for all manual classifications
taken together. (In other industries,
the manual rate may be modified to
individual employers who are eligi-
ble for experience rating. Modifica-
tions may be either upward or down-
ward depending upon the individual
employer's own experience.) The
increasing cost of work injuries to
the employees within industry is
clearly indicated by the fact that the
manual rate per $100 payroll for
Workmen's Compensation insurance
was $8.05 in 1967 compared with
$4.12 ten years earlier. The rise of
95.4 per cent in the manual rate
level for this industry is greater than
the overall raise for all manual clas-
sifications, which was 81.4 per cent
for the same period.4
9. Nationally, some of the con-
tributing factors to hazards encoun-
tered are: narrow streets and alleys,
inadequate, old or poorly main-
tained equipment, faulty design, var-
iation in requirements for size,
weight, type, and contents of refuse
containers and bundles. All of these
contribute to the diversity of acci-
dents within various organizations.
Some of the hazards faced by refuse
collectors arise from the "booby
traps" unwittingly laid by the house-
holders whom they serve. The
householder increases the likelihood
of injury for refuse collectors when
broken glass is placed loose in the
refuse container; when lightweight
trash cans are filled with chunks of
concrete or other heavy objects;
when the outside of a heavy object
is covered with paper or other trash;
or when a garden hose or other ob-
ject is left strewn along the pathway
to a rubbish can. A householder
who continues to use a container
which is rusted through or one with
unserviceable handles also increases
the risk of a job injury for the refuse
collector.
10. Cuts, lacerations, and punc-
tures accounted for 14 per cent of
the lost-time injuries to refuse col-
lectors; whereas, within industry
generally, 17 per cent of the workers
suffered such injuries. As refuse col-
lectors handle sharp or jagged ob-
jects frequently in the course of their
work, it appears that the likelihood
of sustaining cuts, lacerations, and
puncture wounds would have been
minimized through the use of heavy
work gloves.
11. Refuse collectors carry loads
which may exceed safe maximum
loads, and handle heavy and bulky
1
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containers. Sharp edges on garbage
cans, metal splinters, and perfora-
tions add to the injury potential.
Containers often are of makeshift
construction and are frequently not
designed for easy lifting.
12. Street loading should take
place during non-peak traffic hours,
thereby affording the collector free-
dom of movement on the streets
where refuse is collected. The em-
phasis in refuse collection is on
speed; this, however, may lead to a
complete disregard of safety. Listed
below are types of accidents and in-
juries which occur most often during
refuse collection:
a. Accident type: Slips and falls,
over-exertion, struck-by (blades or
motor vehicle), falling objects, fly-
ing objects, animal and insect at-
tacks, and exposure to extreme
temperatures.
b. Injuries: Strains, sprains, back in-
juries, cuts, amputations, bruises,
lacerations, fractures, and eye in-
juries.
Factors in refuse collection
13. Most ordinances regulate the
size, type and material, metal or
plastic, of containers and specify
suitable handles and configurations.1
The guiding principle should be the
weight and bulk that an average man
can lift safely. Many municipalities
specify the use of tapered contain-
ers, made of galvanized steel. Others
have set up their own ordinances so
that they virtually rule out any other
material for containers except that
specified. Disposable paper and
plastic bags are used as well as plas-
tic containers in some areas.
14. A large "carry-barrel," made
of plastic or aluminum, is used by
some organizations to transport the
refuse from the rear of the home to
the trucks, thereby eliminating the
need for carrying the containers to
the collection vehicle. Some proce-
dures include the use of two-wheel
rubber-tire hand trucks (Figure 1),
while in others the collector carries
the load to the truck.
Training
15. Collectors should be trained
in proper lifting techniques and in
the handling of all containers, plas-
tic, aluminum, or steel, etc., used for
backyard carry-out service. In or-
der to avoid injuries, collectors
should not carry containers to the
truck in undue haste. This is partic-
ularly true where stairs, or uneven
walkways are involved.
16. The presence of moving me-
chanical parts on automatic, packer-
type compaction units is potentially
hazardous and could cause severe
injury or amputation. An analysis
of accidents show that "human na-
ture" is responsible for more acci-
dents and injuries than those of
purely mechanical causes. This the-
ory stems from the fact that collec-
tors are often drawn from the most
unskilled segment of the working
force, have little or no experience
with heavy equipment, and receive
little or no initial or subsequent
training and supervision. Therefore,
a training program should be insti-
tuted for new employees and re-
fresher courses for employees re-
quired to operate new equipment.
Some cities use audio-visual aids,
such as a slide presentation during
their training program for collectors.
This could be of great value in ex-
plaining what or indicating how cer-
tain hazards inherent to a job, occur.3
17. Some of the causes of human
failure include insufficient rest, poor
physical condition, personal prob-
lems resulting in lack of proper at-
tention to the job, daydreaming,
faulty observation, negligent atti-
tude, and "chance-taking." Many
accidents result from workers' at-
tempts to salvage articles from a
hopper after the packing motion has
begun. Salvaging refuse from collec-
tion trucks should be forbidden.
"Chance-taking" such as an attempt
to push materials into the hopper by
hand or foot while the blade is de-
scending, should also be prohibited.
18. Containers should be tilted
to check the weight before trying to
lift them, and assistance obtained
whenever necessary.
19. Only approved walks or
routes should be used when collect-
ing on private property. If contain-
ers are not placed in proper location
for pick-up, the supervisor should be
notified. Backyard carry-outs inevi-
tably invite dog-bites. A good dog
repellent should be used when this
possibility exists. (Training classes
on how to understand and control
dogs have been successful in some
areas.)
20. Riding trucks between stops
should be done only on the steps
provided. Sturdy riding steps and
hand-holds are necessary require-
ments. Members of each crew should
keep their arms, limbs, and shovels
and "carry-barrels" within the body
lines of the vehicle and away from
packing mechanisms.
21. Collectors should not jump
on or off moving vehicles during col-
lection. Although the practice of
Figure 3 shows a refuse collector unloading refuse into an escalator conveyor-type truck.
Note bar across hopper. If prevents the possible exposure of the workman to the blades.
-------
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Figure 4 shows a rotary blade pushing refuse into a truck. The control
lever, located on the side above the step, must be depressed a second
time to lower the blade completely.
Figure 5 shows a workman watching closely while the edge of the
blade, which rides against the body of the frame, pushes the refuse
into the storage area of the truck.
I
boarding or dismounting from mov-
ing trucks is widespread, it is ex-
ceedingly dangerous and is con-
demned by safety personnel. Trucks
should be halted when employees
are boarding or getting off. Collec-
tors should exercise extreme care
when dismounting from a vehicle
onto loose or slippery surfaces.
22. Signals to the driver should
be visible and clearly understood
and all back-up operations standard-
ized. The driver should always keep
the loader in view while backing up
his vehicle. Certain municipal regu-
lations concerning back-up opera-
tions state: NO BACKING WITH-
OUT SOMEONE WATCHING
AND SIGNALING TO THE
DRIVER. This statement should be
appropriately posted on all vehicles.
23. When dumping loads, load-
ers should stand clear while empty-
ing truck beds. Rakes should be
used for this purpose. Shovel-out
trucks for refuse service are a make-
shift operation and should be dis-
couraged. In hydraulically operated
self-dumping trucks, the operator
should avoid using erratic or "jer-
ky" movements of the truck while
the body is in the dumping position
and the hopper is raised. Such move-
ments cause severe strains and pos-
sible breakage at the pivot joints.
They may also cause the vehicle to
overturn. Floor chains should be re-
quired whenever and wherever hy-
draulic operated self-dumping trucks
are used. There should be no loos-
ening of turnbuckles en route to
dump areas or while en route. This
causes undue strain on the turn-
buckle and pivot point and may
cause the tailgate to open prema-
turely and injure a workman stand-
ing nearby.
Health provisions
24. Arrangements should be
made for crews to use rest rooms
and washing facilities at service sta-
tions along the route at the collec-
tion site, and particularly before the
lunch period. Locker facilities
should be provided for a collector's
lunch box and for raincoats and pro-
tective equipment. Potable water
should be available at the disposal
site, along with sealed containers,
and paper cups unless, of course,
running water is available. Employ-
ees should be encouraged to shower
and change into clean clothing be-
fore leaving for home.2
NOTE: Flu shots, other immuniza-
tions and innoculations, if
desired, are economically
feasible and should be con-
sidered for a complete health
program.
7
Personal protective equipment
25. Workers should wear safety
shoes or high top boots with safety
toes. No tennis or dress shoes should
be permitted. Sturdy work gloves
should also be worn for handling all
refuse containers. A cotton, latex-
covered (full dip) glove with a
rough gripping area is most accept-
able for use. Rubber shoulder pads
and hip pads will prevent bruises or
cuts from edges of metal containers.
Approved respirators should be
worn when handling loose or dusty
materials and liquids. Employees
wearing prescription eye glasses
should be required to have safety-
type prescription lenses fitted to
safety frames.
26. Workers should wear long-
sleeved shirts, sturdy work clothes,
jackets or sweaters, except during
the summer months. These garments
will retain body heat and prevent
possible muscle strains. Raincoats
and non-slip safety boots should be
worn during inclement weather.
Vehicle design
27. Refuse collection trucks usu-
ally include a cab where one, two, or
three crewmen may ride; in some,
there may be room for a crew up to
five. A well-rounded step of serrated
metal, or one coated with adhesive
material with a handhold and safety
-------
MHM^^^^HBBHBBIBBBBB ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H
Figure 6 shows a safety gate in the UP position. The gate rides up Figure 7 shows a safety gate in the DOWN position. The loading table
and down in a I'/^-inch pipe-sleeve guide. A "dog" holds the gate is two feet, nine inches from the street level. Total vertical travel is
in position. 12 inches.
rail, should be provided on each side
of the body and at the rear for col-
lectors to ride between loading
points. The hand-hold should be lo-
cated in a position where the work-
man can stand on the step and bal-
ance himself against inconsistent
truck movements. This will elimi-
nate a potential hazard where trucks
are required to operate in tight
places (Figure 2). Wherever steps
are used, safety belts similar to those
used on fire trucks, should be pro-
vided for use on long trips. Safety
belts are not practical for riding be-
tween pick-up points. To prevent in-
juries while riding on or driving ref-
use trucks, it is recommended that
workers be taught the proper way to
grip hand-holds on the truck; that
they be cautioned to watch out for
low-hanging wires and tree limbs
while sitting on top of the truck; and
that all employees be encouraged to
ride in the truck whenever possible
(See paragraph 33-h).
Equipment
28. Equipment used in refuse
collection is often designed for a
maximum pay load with insufficient
regard to safety. Consequently,
many cities are using specifications
under which manufacturers are re-
quired to provide safety features.
Often these features become stand-
ard equipment. Care should be ex-
ercised to ensure that the type of
equipment selected is the best suited
for local conditions. The following
equipment features should be con-
sidered: Capacity, size, loading
height, loading speed, compaction,
loading devices, and water tightness.
Other criteria should include maneu-
verability, crew size, number of pick-
ups per mile, nature of refuse ac-
cepted, and the terrain over which
the vehicle is to operate. Important
mechanical features that should be
considered are (a) air brakes, and
power steering, (b) engine suffi-
ciently powerful to pull steep grades,
(c) anti-carburetor overloading de-
vice, (d) hopper designed to prevent
refuse from falling onto the road-
way, (e) pinch points and shear
points protection.
29. There are several types of
refuse collection vehicles:
a. Open trucks.
b. Enclosed non-compactors.
c. Enclosed compactor.
d. Other (new).
30. The open truck is being rap-
idly displaced by other vehicles
which are more sanitary for refuse
collection. The appearance of the
open type vehicles and the losses
due to scattered refuse, overturned
loads, and the extra effort in loading
and stowing make the use of open
trucks uneconomical, compared with
other types of equipment.
31. The enclosed non-compactor
truck completely encloses the refuse
material, except when doors are
open for loading. Refuse may be
loaded by means of an hydraulic
hoist from the front or rear, or man-
ually from the side.
32. The enclosed compactor
truck is the most widely used. Me-
chanical devices load the refuse into
main compartments, and compress
the refuse, then eject it to the rear.
In some batch-type vehicles the
packing mechanism may "double cy-
cle." When the packer-blade (double
cycle mechanism) is actuated, by the
same truck motor, the gear shift of
the truck's automatic transmission
should be placed in "neutral." There
have been instances where the pack-
ing operations accelerated the motor
and the truck moved off. Care should
be taken to keep this possibility from
happening.
33. A brief description of the
types of compactor trucks now used
is listed below:
a. Escalator-conveyor loader. Ref-
use is elevated into the enclosed
body by means, of a continuous
conveyor. Sprockets and caps
are exposed during the continu-
ous travel of the chain-like con-
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veyor. This critical moving ma-
chinery is extremely close to the
point-of-operation and creates a
hazard (Figure 3). Some vehi-
cles have a safety bar across the
hopper to prevent the container
or workmen's hands from being
caught in the exposed mecha-
nism. Refuse is dumped into a
lower hopper at the rear of the
truck. A moving conveyor car-
ries the refuse to the roof and to-
wards the front of the truck and
then deposits it into the main
compartment. Collectors actuate
levers and controls near the load-
loading hopper with power ob-
tained from a take-off unit lo-
cated under the vehicle.
I
Figure 8 shows the safety gate in the upper-
most position. The packer control lever is
activated by a downward movement of the
lever. Upon cycling, the control lever is re-
turned to its normal position.
b. Trough or bucket loader. Refuse
is dumped into a low-loading
height, ll/2 cubic yard trough,
suspended at the rear or side of
the body. When filled, the trough
is raised and dumped into an
opening at the top of the truck.
Side doors for bulky items are
installed on some trucks, while
others have internal compacting
devices. The platform buckets
are about 36 in. from the ground,
making it easier for the collector
to load.
c. Rotary blade type. This equip-
ment is extremely dangerous
since there is direct power and
no release. The close proximity
of the rotating blade to the
worker is a critical hazard (Fig-
ure 4). This unit can be modi-
fied to such a degree that unless
the operator deliberately de-
presses the control lever, the
blade will stop about 4 in. from
the hopper, thus allowing the
employee to remove his hand be-
fore resetting the blade into ac-
tion by depressing the control
lever a second time. Gravity
causes the blade to fall, thereby,
creating a source of injury. An-
other serious problem in this
type of vehicle is double-cycling.
(Refer to paragraph 31.) This
occurs when the packing mecha-
nism is actuated and the blades
complete one cycle. The packing
mechanism continues operating
through a second cycle without
the operator touching the con-
trols. This is quite common when
the vehicle is nearly loaded.
d. The batch-loader. This equip-
ment consists of a rear-end load-
er in which the slope of the
blade is so designed as to pro-
vide an upward packing action.
This type loads and consolidates
in one operation. Refuse is
dumped into a hopper approxi-
mately 30-in. above the pave-
ment. An auxiliary engine is now
used on many of the vehicles to
improve safety operations. The
blade, which follows guide rails
in a sweeping motion within the
hopper, pushes the refuse from
the hopper into a 13-25- cubic
yard truck body. Prior to the for-
ward packing motion, the edge
of the blade, sinks flush against
the body frame (Figure 5).
Sometimes this will catch the
operator's fingers or hand. The
blade will sever objects protrud-
ing over the hopper's edge dur-
ing its downward travel. The
blade may also be equipped with
two-stop operating controls, i.e.,
the blade stops half-way through
its motion and the controls must
be actuated again to complete
the cycle. Equipment of this type
must have manual or automatic
controls to prevent the hazardous
"double-cycling," which can oc-
cur when the unit is nearly load-
ed. When dumping, the hopper
is raised hydraulically from the
truck body, and the vehicle is
driven forward permitting the
refuse to fall to the ground by its
own weight, as the refuse is
ejected hydraulically from the
rear of the load tank. The fol-
lowing steps should serve as a
guide toward understanding
batch-loader equipment and
thereby avoid possible hazards.
NOTE: In the interest of safety, all
new batch-loaders equipped
with the 12-second cycle will
be revised to include a two-
stop operating control. Each
refuse collection vehicle shall
come equipped, when pur-
chased, with a 4-way emer-
gency flasher system.
(1) Personnel should understand the
operation of power equipment on
the trucks and be made aware
of the injury potential before
operating. Workers should learn
the location of all stop buttons
and emergency levers. Hands
should be kept clear of blades and
other hazardous areas.
(2) Collectors should be instructed to
stand clear of truck body and the
hopper when the motor, which
operates the packing mechanism,
is operating regardless of whether
Figure 9 shows small 4-by-4-drive trucks in use hauling refuse.
-------
the mechanism is driven by the
truck motor or auxiliary motor.
(3) One crew member should be sole-
ly responsible for operating the
packing mechanism. The controls
should be located at the rear cor-
ner of the truck where the opera-
tor has a full view of the blade.
(4) A shield may be provided during
the un'oading operations, at the
disposal site, to prevent material
under compaction, from ejecting
to the sides where a worker or a
driver may be standing.
e. Safety gate. Since many accidents
involve "packer-loader" refuse
trucks it is obvious that a safety
gate can provide the mechanical
safeguards which will protect
employees from direct contact
with moving parts. A specially
designed safety gate has been de-
veloped for the packer-loader
type mechanism. With a simple
control, the safety gate is released
to an "up" position which keeps
the worker away from the blade
(Figures 6 and 7). This part of
the operation is "spring-loaded"
and calls for a minimum effort
on the part of the operator. The
blade descends only when the
gate is up and the hopper is
loaded, by a downward move-
ment of a control lever. Safety
gates have been successfully in-
stalled on some packer type
units and it is a relatively simple
device to operate. It consists of
a gate, 1-ft, 4-in. by 6-ft, 11-in.,
and is installed over the loading
area or platform. The gate is
made of an angle-iron frame cov-
ered with expanded metal. The
gate is lightweight and affords a
view of the packing blade while it
is in motion (Figure 8).
f. Hydraulic hopper. Another type
of packer-loader is the hydraulic
hopper which places refuse in a
1 to 2-cubic yard hopper. The
hopper is raised hydraulically by
an auxiliary engine. The refuse
is then swept into a 25-cubic
yard body against an ejector
panel by a packer blade which
operates with a sweeping mo-
tion. Dumping is achieved by
raising the hopper hydraulically
and actuating the ejector panel
which forces the refuse out of
the truck. The body need not be
raised.
g. Movable bulkhead loader. The
body of this loader may be
square or round in transverse
section, with loading through
openings in each side, near the
front. Refuse is moved from
front to rear by an hydraulically
operated plate, which fills and
compacts at the same time. Ejec-
tion is accomplished by opening
the rear of the body and moving
the plate to the rear.
h. Other equipment (new)
(1) Trucks are available with right-
hand-drive chassis and steps
which permit the driver to aid
collectors. One type contains an
hydraulically actuated compact-
or plate, which compresses the
refuse from a one-cubic yard
hopper into a detachable body of
4 to 6 cubic yards, with a force
of 30,000 Ib. The filled container
is brought to a centralized col-
lection point, and replaced with
an empty container. The con-
tents of these containers are then
loaded into a 21- to 30-cubic
yard "mother truck" by means
of a front-end loader.
(2) A relatively new (about 10
years) type of equipment for
bulk containers consisting of a
20-to 24-cubic yard capacity
truck with front-end loaders is
gaining acceptance. Some of
these, however, do have certain
hazardous features, e.g., loader
arms that come past the cab and
can sever an arm. A safer design
has U-shaped arms that do not
pass the driver's window. An-
other design is one in which win-
dows are prevented from open-
ing fully,4 and interlocks in-
stalled to prevent the arms from
operating when the doors are
open.
(3) Another method for refuse pick-
up is the use of a small 4x4-
drive trucks. These pull three
large boxes on wheels, thus form-
ing a "train" (Figure 9). A 20- to
24- cubic yard capacity "mother
truck" removes the contents of
these trains to the disposal site
while the crews and the trains are
engaged in collection. When
moving on thoroughfares these
trains should not exceed 25 to
30 mph, because they may
"whip"at higher speeds. Also,
these trains should be driven
10
with extreme care on hills and
under icy conditions.
(4) Fifty-cubic yard front-end load-
ing collection (front end load-
ers) trucks, serviced by diminu-
tive scooters, are also used. Col-
lection crews consist of a truck
driver, two motorized scooter
operators, and generally a third
crewman, who collects refuse
from locations inaccessible to
the scooters, using a hand-
wheeled metallic container of l/2
cu. yd. capacity. The procedure
is as follows:
a. A giant packer pulls into a city
block and parks. The collectors
drive their scooters up driveways,
and can service up to three homes
before returning to the truck.
They dump their refuse from their
l'/3 cu. yd. hydraulically operated
containers, into the three cu. yd.
collection truck hopper, which
has been lowered to the ground
in front of the truck. The driver
then raises this hopper over the
cab to drop the load into the
truck box. Shields on either side
enclose the debris and prevent it
from scattering. After scooters
have dumped their load, packer-
rams compact each load and the
truck is moved to the next block.
b. The introduction of scooters, in-
stead of the use of large 50 cu. yd.
capacity trucks, has reduced the
incidence of back injuries and
worker fatigue complaints.
Special lights and
reflectorized signs
34. The lights and signs illus-
trated in Figure 10 may be installed
parallel to the ground on the tail-
gate of the refuse collection truck
with the center line of the light six-
feet six-inches above the stand plat-
form. The lights and signs may be
attached to a separate piece of 2 in.
angle iron extending the full width
of the body. The lights are to work
in unison with all other lights. The
turn signals should be located with
the center line of the light 5l/2 in.
from the outside of the body and the
lens not less than 4 in. from the
chassis. The stop lights should be
located with the center line of the
light 15 in. from the outside of the
bed and the lens not less than 7 in.
from the chassis. The signs, 1 by 3
ft, should be centered between the
stop lights and should be placed on
a sheet of aluminum and reflector-
ized with an alternate 2 in. red and
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2 in. white diagonal line. The word
"CAUTION" should be in 4 in. let-
ters and centered on the sign. Local
and state vehicle codes for lighting
should be followed.
Driver responsibility
35. The actions of the driver
greatly affect the safety of the crew.
In most cases the driver is the crew
leader. Therefore, the manner in
which the individual drivers perform
their duties determines the safety of
the crew and mobility of the vehicle.
The driver should be dependable,
alert, sober, steady, ambitious, have
good judgment, and a good mechan-
ical aptitude. The driver should be
taught safety rules and given the
authority to enforce them.
36. The driver should be directed
by a crew member when backing his
truck. The safety of individuals de-
pends upon the condition and proper
use of controls, consequently, correct
usage is mandatory.
37. An unsafe practice among
some packer-loader drivers is to
drive over cardboard or wooden
boxes thereby, flattening them to fa-
cilitate loading into a hopper. A pop-
ular activity of children is to play
with and hide inside cardboard or
wooden boxes. The practice of pack-
er-loader trucks crushing these emp-
ty boxes should be prohibited. Cor-
ollary to the training of drivers,
articles in local newspapers should
instruct citizens to breakdown card-
board and wooden boxes prior to
being placed in trash areas for dis-
posal. Several children have suffered
injury and death because this proce-
dure had been neglected.
Vehicle inspection
38. Daily and weekly routine in-
spections should be conducted by
qualified personnel to locate:
a. Cracks and operating parts to the
packing mechanism.
b. Hydraulic oil leaks.
c. Indications of metal fatigue.
d. Signs of improper truck operations.
e. Potential electrical failure.
f. Any deficiencies that would be in
violation of motor vehicle laws
should be observed by a cursory
inspection of the normal operating
vehicle.
Preventive maintenance
39. Preventive maintenance, as
the name implies, is the means of
detecting and correcting those incip-
ient causes of equipment casualties
before they occur, and the precau-
tions and actions constantly taken to
maintain satisfactory day-to-day op-
erating conditions of the equipment.
Truck maintenance should include
the bleeding off of moistutre col-
lected in the air tank to prevent
brake failure, and keeping wind-
shields clean and signal lights in op-
erating condition at all times. A pre-
ventive maintenance program should
be established and maintained by
qualified personnel. Such a program
should include:
a. Comprehensive testing and clean-
ing of the hydraulic system.
b. Replacement of critical parts at
regular intervals.
c. Cleaning, checking, and adjusting
the electrical controls at defined
intervals.
d. Checking the wiring system for
wear, loose connections, bare wires,
etc.
e. Checking the condition of the load-
ing parts, body, and hopper.
f. Regular lubrication at definite in-
tervals.
Checking and repairing the vehicle
where it affects the proper func-
tioning of the vehicle.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This data sheet was prepared by the
Special Projects Section, National Safety
Council, 425 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago
60611, and is published by the Council.
Material was supplied by the members of
the Executive Committee, Public Em-
ployee Section, American Public Works
Association, U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, Government
Refuse Collection and Disposal Associa-
tion of California, Inc., and other inter-
ested groups. Illustrations courtesy of the
Safety Departments, cities of: Baltimore,
Md., Baton Rouge, La., and Charlotte,
N.C.; shop drawings available through
the National Safety Council, or through
Safety Office, City of Detroit, Michigan.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The American City Magazine, Oct. and
Nov., 1967, 757 3rd Ave., New York,
N. Y. 10017.
Cities and Safety, National Safely News,
Nov., 1967, National Safety Council,
425 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago 60611.
Arkansas Municipalities, Sept., 1967.
Arkansas Muncipal League, 416 Maple
St., North Little Rock, Ark.
DELINEATOR3 FT. X 1 FT. RED AND WHITE OR 4 IN.
BLACK DIAGONAL STRIPES ON TRAFFIC
YELLOW BACKGROUND (REFLECTORIZED).
51/2 IN.
_L
LENS 4 IN.
FROM CHASSIS £
TURN
SIGNALS
BACK-UP .-f
LIGHT (WHITE) /X1
(Also used If
for Night //
pick-up) /
3 FT.
, . \\\\\ .
NCAUTION:
LENS 7 IN. FROM SIGN
15 IN.
STOPLIGHTS
HOPPER OPENING
TAIL
LIGHTS
LSTAND
PLATE
2 IN.
ANGLE
IRON
BACK-UP
LIGHT
(WHITE)
Z
o
STAND
PLATE
SIGNAL
LIGHTS
LNOTE: 12 IN. MORE ADDED TO TAIL STAND TO PRO- -
VIDE BETTER FOOTING FOR COLLECTOR.
Figure 10 is a schematic drawing showing the use and location of lights, reflectors, and
CAUTION signs.
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REFERENCES
1. "Refuse Collection Practice," 1966
edition, American Public Works Associa-
tion, 1313 E. 60th St., Chicago, 60637.
Published by: Interstate Printers & Pub-
lishers, Danville, 111.
2. "Study on the Effects of Work Con-
ditions on the Health of Uniformed Sani-
tation Men of New York City." E.
Scepcevitch, Ph.D., Springfield College,
Springfield, Mass., District (Public Health
Report).
3. "Slide Series," City of Milwaukee,
Milwaukee, Wis. (Available from Nation-
al Safety Council).
4. Work Injuries in California," State
of California, Department of Industrial
Relations, Division of Labor Statistics
Research, P.O. Box 965, San Francisco,
94101.
An Alphabetical Index of all
Industrial Safety Data Sheets
(Stock No. 123.09) is available
from the Council on request.
The information and recommendations contained in this publication
have been compiled from sources believed to be reliable and to
represent the best current opinion on the subject No warranty,
guarantee, or representation is made by the National Safety Coun-
cil as to the absolute correctness or sufficiency of any representa-
tion contained in this and other publications, and tK« National
nor can it be assumed that all acceptable safety measures are con-
tained in this (and other publications), or that other or additional
Treasures may not be required under particular or exceptional con-
ditions or circumstances
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2.5M87009 Rep.
Printed in U.S.A.
Stock No. 123.04-618
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