903R80001
SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
DOCUMENT
to the
Areawide Environmental Assessment
for issuing New Source NPDES Permits
on coal mines in the North Branch Potomac
River Basin, West Virginia
Prepared by:
US Environmental Protection Agency
Region III
Sixth and Walnut Streets
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19106
With the Assistance of:
WAPORA, Inc.
Berwyn, Pennsylvania
December 1980
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\
| UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REG10N "'
6TH AND WALNUT STREETS
PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA 19106
December 1980
TO ALL INTERESTED AGENCIES, PUBLIC GROUPS, AND CITIZENS:
Enclosed is a copy of the Supplemental Information Document (SID) to the
Areawide Environmental Assessment for Issuing New Source Coal Mining NPDES
Permits in the Potomac River Basin in West Virginia. This docunent is one
of seven (the Monongahela and Gauley studies have been revised) to be
published during the Fall of 1980 which encompass the major river basins in
West Virginia where coal mining is projected to occur. Detailed information
on known environmental resources potentially affected by new source coal
mining activity is included in this SID and forms the technical basis for
the designations of the Potentially Significant Impact Areas specified in
the Areawide Environmental Assessment. The Permit Review Program specified
in this document will formally begin with NPDES permit applications received
after December 31, 1980.
Perhaps the most comprehensive impact of this study on potential new mining
is the designation of Biologically Important Areas for aquatic biota as
defined in section 2.2 and the requisite data needed prior to permit
issuance listed in section 5.2. Specific attention should be directed to
these sections.
Due to the continual acquisition of new environmental information from
site-specific permit applications and new federal and state studies, this
document will be updated as new data becomes available. New data may be
submitted to EPA1s Enforcement Divison (3EN23) at any time for consideration
in the new source NPDES permit review process.
Sincerely yours,
George D. Pence, Jr.
Chief, Environmental Impact Branch
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
List of Tables v
List of Figures viii
List of Acronyms xi
1.0. Introduction 1-1
2.0. Existing Conditions 2-1
2.1. Water Resources and Water Quality 2-1
2.1.1. Surface Waters 2-1
2.1.2. Groundwater Resources 2-23
2.2. Aquatic Biota 2-32
2.2.1. Stream Habitats 2-32
2.2.2. Biological Communities 2-32
2.2.3. Erroneous Classification 2-45
2.3. Terrestrial Biota 2-46
2.3.1. Ecological Setting 2-46
2.3.2. Vegetation 2-49
2.3.3. Wildlife Resources 2-55
2.3.4. Significant Species and Features . 2-68
2.3.5. Data Gaps 2-78
2,, 4. Climate, Air Quality, and Noise 2-81
2.4.1. General Climatic Patterns in West Virginia 2-81
2.4.2. Climatic Patterns in the North Branch
Potomac River Basin 2-82
2.4.3. Ambient Air Quality 2-91
2.4.4. Noise 2-103
2.5. Cultural and Visual Resources 2-106
2.5.1. Prehistory 2-107
2.5.2. Archaeological Resources 2-111
2.5.3. History 2-115
2.5.4. Identified Historic and Archaeological Sites 2-119
2.5.5. Visual Resources 2-119
2.6. Human Resources and Land Use 2-131
2.6.1. Human Resources 2-134
2.6.2. Land Use and Land Availability 2-179
2.7. Earth Resources 2-193
2.8. Potentially Significant Impact Areas 2-237
3.0. Current and Projected Mining Activity 3-1
3.1. Past and Current Mining Activity in Basin 3-1
3.1.1. Surface Mining 3-3
3.1.2. Underground Mines 3-3
3.1.3. Preparation Plants 3-9
3.2. Mining Methods in the Basin 3-9
3.2.1. Surface Mining Methods 3-12
3.2.2. Underground Mining Methods 3-30
3.2.3. Coal Preparation 3-38
3.2.4. Abandonment of Coal Mining Operations 3-41
3.2.5. Coal Mining Economics 3-43
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Page
4.0.
5.0.
3.3.
The National Coal Market: Demand Issues
3.3.1. General Trends in Market Demand
3.3.2. Specific Trends in Market Demand by End-Use
3.3.3. Effects of Legislation and Regulations on
the Coal Market
3.3.4. Projected Mining Activity in the Basin
Regulations Governing Mining Activities
A.I.
4.2.
4.3.
4.4.
4.5.
Past and Current West Virginia Regulations
4.1.1. Outline History of State Mining Regulations
4.1.2. Current State Permit Programs
4.1.3. General Framework of State Laws and
Regulations
4.1.4. Specific Permit Applications
Federal Regulations
4.2.1. EPA Permitting Activities
4.2.2. SMCRA Permits
4.2.3. Clean Air Act Reviews
4.2.4. CMHSA Permits
4.2.5. The Safe Drinking Water Act
4.2.6. Floodplains
4.2.7. Wild and Scenic Rivers
4.2.8. Wetlands
4.2.9. Endangered Species Habitat
4.2.10. Significant Agricultural Lands
4.2.11. Historic, Archaeologic, and Paleontologic
Sites
4.2.12. United States Forest Service Reviews
Interagency Coordination
4.3.1. USOSM-EPA Proposed Memorandum of
Understanding
4.3.2. Lead Agency NEPA Responsibility
Other Coordination Requirements
4.4.1. Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act
4.4.2. Local Notification
4.4.3. Lands Unsuitable for Mining
Potential for Regulatory Change
4.5.1. Delegation of the NPDES Permit Program
4.5.2. SMCRA Permit Program
Impacts and Mitigations
5.1.
5.2.
Water Resource Impacts and Mitigations
5.1.1. Surface Waters
5.1.2. Ground water
Aquatic Biota Impacts
5.2.1. Major Mining-Related Causes of Damage to
Aquatic Biota
5.2.2. Responses of Aquatic Biota to Mining Impacts
5.2.3. Sensitivity of Basin Waters to Coal Mining
Impacts
5.2.4. Mitigative Measures
5.2.5. Erroneous Classification
3-58
3-60
3-66
3-69
4-1
4-1
4-1
4-5
4-7
4-8
4-36
4-36
4-40
4-44
4-51
4-52
4-52
4-53
4-53
4-54
4-54
4-54
4-55
4-55
4-55
4-59
4-60
4-60
4-60
4-60
4-62
4-62
4-62
5-1
5-1
5-1
5-13
5-16
5-16
5-21
5-25
5-30
5-38
ii
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5.3. Terrestrial Biota 5-39
5.3.1. Impacts Associated with Mining Activities 5-39
5.3.2. Mitigation of Impacts 5-48
5.3.3. Revegetation 5-60
5.3.4. Long-term Impacts on the Basin 5-61
5.3.5. Data Gaps 5-65
5.4. Air Quality and Noise Impacts and Mitigations 5-69
5.4.1. Air Quality Impacts 5-69
5.4.2. Noise Impacts 5-71
5.5. Cultural Resource and Visual Resource Impacts and
Mitigations 5-82
5.5.1. Potential Impacts of Coal Mining on Historic
Structures and Properties 5-82
5.5.2. Potential Impacts of Coal Mining on
Archaeological Resources 5-85
5.5.3. Potential Impacts of Coal Mining on Visual
Resources 5-88
5.6. Human Resources and Land Use 5-93
5.6.1. General Background 5-93
5.6.2. EPA Screening Procedure for Potentially Signi-
ficant Human Resource and Land Use Impacts 5-94
5.6.3. Special Considerations for Detailed Impact
and Mitigation Scoping 5-103
5.6.4. Employment and Population Impacts and Mitiga-
tive Measures 5-104
5.6.5. Housing Impacts and Mitigations of Adverse
Impacts 5-109
5.6.6. Transportation Impacts and Mitigative
Measures 5-116
5.6.7. Local Public Service Impacts and Mitigations
of Adverse Impacts 5-119
5.6.8. Indirect Land Use Impacts 5-125
5.7. Earth Resource Impacts and Mitigations 5-126
5.7.1. Erosion 5-126
5.7.2. Steep Slopes 5-136
5.7.3. Prime and Other Farmlands 5-139
5.7.4. Unstable Slopes 5-142
5.7.5. Subsidence 5-145
5.7.6. Toxic or Acid Forming Earth Materials and
Acid Mine Drainage 5-152
6.0. EPA New Source NPDES Program NEPA Review Summary 6-1
Water Resources 6-2
Aquatic Biota in BIA's 6-7
Aquatic Biota in Unclassifiable Areas 6-10
Special Vegetation 6-11
Wetlands 6-12
Special Wildlife Feature 6-13
Air Quality 6-14
Noise Levels 6-15
National Register Historic Site 6-16
Non-National Register Site 6-17
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Primary and Secondary Visual Resources 6-18
Macroscale Socioeconomic and Transportation Conditions 6-20
Adjacent Land Uses 6-23
Floodplains 6-24
State Lands 6-25
Federal Lands 6-26
Soil Subject to Erosion 6-27
Steep Slopes 6-28
Prime Farmlands 6-29
Significant Non-Prime Farmland 6-30
Unstable Slopes 6-31
Lands Subject to Subsidence 6-32
Lands Capable of Producing Acid Mine Drainage 6-33
Appendix A. Aquatic Biota A-l
Appendix B. Terrestrial Biota B-l
Appendix C. Reclamation Techniques C-l
Appendix D. Air Quality Impact Review D-l
Appendix E. Acknowledgments and Authorship E-l
Glossary GL-1
Bibliography BB-1
iv
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LIST OF TABLES
page
2-1 Streamflow records 2-4
2-2 West Virginia water quality criteria 2-6
2-3 Proposed West Virginia water quality standards 2-7
2-4 Sources of public drinking water supplies 2-11
2-5 Stream classification in the Basin 2-13
2-6 Sedimentation loads in the Basin 2-16
2-7 Iron, pH, and sulfate data for selected streams 2-18
2-8 Summary of hydrologic data for the Basin 2-26
2-9 Fish species that are indicators of water quality 2-34
2-10 Macroinvertebrate indicator species for BIA's 2-36
2-11 Indicator species of special interest for BIA's 2-40
2-12 Land use/land cover inventory 2-48
2-13 Harvest of game in the Basin 2-64
2-14 Harvest of big game in the Basin 2-66
2-15 Species of plants of special interest 2-70
2-16 Species of animals of special interest 2-73
2-17 Precipitation data from the Bayard Climatological Station 2-85
2-18 Precipitation data from the Petersburg Climatological Station 2-85
2-19 Precipitation data from the Wardensville Farm Climatological 2-86
Station
2-20 Relative humidity data from the Elkins Climatological Station 2-87
2-21 Temperature data from the Bayard Climatological Station 2-88
2-22 Temperature data from the Petersburg Climatological Station 2-89
2-23 Temperature data from the Wardensville Farm Climatological
Station 2-90
2-24 Mean mixing heights for the Basin 2-92
2-25 Ambient TSP concentrations 2-96
2-26 Ambient sulfur dioxide concentrations 2-97
2-27 Monitored dustfall concentrations 2-98
2-28 Ambient concentrations that define the AQCR system 2-101
2-29 Priority classification of AQCR's for TSP and SOX 2-101
2-30 Ambient noise levels 2-104
2-31 Chronology of known prehistoric cultures 2-108
2-32 National Register of Historic Places sites 2-120
2-33 Primary visual resources in the Basin 2-123
2-34 Population by minor civil division 2-135
2-35 Demographic characteristics 2-137
2-36 Population trends 2-138
2-37 Population projections 2-140
2-38 Employment characteristics 2-141
2-39 Amount and source of personal income 2-142
2-40 Income characteristics 2-148
2-41 Labor force and unemployment rates 2-149
2-42 Mining employment 2-151
2-43 Total travel sales 2-152
2-44 Housing characteristics 2-154
2-45 Coal haul road mileage 2-161
2-46 Cost estimates for road improvements 2-162
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2-47 Health care facilities and personnel 2-168
2-48 Health manpower shortage areas 2-169
2-49 Public school enrollment 2-172
2-50 Public sewer and water supply 2-176
2-51 Status of planning 2-180
2-52 Percentage of land by slope class 2-185
2-53 Largest landowners 2-189
2-54 Summary of land development characteristics 2-192
2-55 Soil series 2-201
2-56 Soils considered prime farmland 2-204
2-57 Geologic time scale 2-207
2-58 Criteria for depositional environments 2-208
2-59 Unified stratigraphic column 2-220
2-60 Coal seams associated with acid-forming overburden 2-227
2-61 ASTM classification of coal 2-228
3-1 Sources of coal production data 3-2
3-2 Surface and underground coal production 1977 and 1978 3-4
3-3 Surface coal production 1977 and 1978 3-7
3-4 Underground coal production 1977 and 1978 3-8
3-5 Reserves of minable coal 3-10
3-6 Raw waste characteristics of preparation plants 3-40
3-7 Coal mining cost variation 3-47
3-8 Operating costs and capital investment 3-50
3-9 Cost increaes for specific environmental requirements 3-51
3-10 U. S. coal consumption 1976 3-63
3-11 Projected U. S. coal consumption 1978 3-64
3-12 Bituminous coal prices 3-67
4-1 Current existing source effluent limitations 4-38
4-2 New source effluent limitations 4-39
4-3 New source performance standards 4-45
4-4 Federal ambient air quality standards 4-46
4-5 Nondeterioration increments by area class 4-47
4-6 Emissions subject to PSD revision 4-50
4-7 Overlapping EPA and USOSM responsibilities for resource
protection 4-56
4-8 Circular A-95 clearinghouses in West Virginia 4-61
5-1 Composite characterization of untreated AMD 5-10
5-2 Contaminant levels in drinking water 5-11
5-3 Results of embryo-larval bioassays on coal elements 5-22
5-4 Summary of BIA waters in the Basin 5-27
5-5 Aquatic biological and chemical survey and monitoring
requirements 5-32
5-6 Examples of aquatic biological survey and monitoring programs 5-35
5-7 Adverse and beneficial impacts of coal mining 5-40
5-8 Impact mechanisms on wildlife 5-41
vi
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5-9 Acitivities related to mitigation 5-49
5-10 Mitigations for impacts on terrestrial biota 5-54
5-11 Requirements and values for grasses and herbs 5-56
5-12 Requirements and values for shrubs and vines 5-57
5-13 Requirements and values for trees 5-58
5-14 Estimated emission rates for construction equipment 5-70
5-15 Efficiency of dust control methods for unpaved roads 5-72
5-16 Dust emission factors from coal operations 5-73
5-17 Comparision of intensity, sound pressure level, and common
sounds 5-74
5-18 Measured noise levels of construction equipment 5-76
5-19 Results of noise surveys of coal-related facilities 5-77
5-20 Health impacts of average noise levels 5-78
5-21 Employment thresholds for significant mining impacts 5-98
5-22 Soils with potential limitations for reclamation 5-131
5-23 Examples of AMD treatment processes and costs 5-177
6-1 Aquatic resources data sources 6-4
6-2 Directory of Regional Planning and Development Councils
in West Virginia 6-22
APPENDIX TABLES
A-l Fish collected in the Basin by WVDNR A-l
A-2 Fish collected in the Basin by Stauffer and Hocutt A-2
A-3 Fishes of the Upper Potomac Drainage A-4
A-4 Descriptions of WVDNR sampling stations A-7
A-5 Fish sampling stations of Stauffer and Hocutt A-9
A-6 Fish sampling stations outside the Basin A-ll
A-7 Fish collected outside the Basin A-13
A-8 Aquatic macroinvertebrates found in the Basin A-16
B-l Ecoregions of the Basin B-3
B-2 Comparisons of vegetation classification schemes B-7
B-3 Scientific and common names of plants B-12
B-4 Species of amphibians in the Basin B-17
B-5 Species of reptiles in the Basin B-18
B-6 Species of mammals in the Basin B-19
B-7 Orders and families of birds in the Basin B-22
B-8 Scientific and common names of birds B-23
C-l Habitat requirements of wildlife for reclamation planning C-ll
D-l Sample work sheet D-4
vii
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LIST OF FIGURES
page
1-1 EPA New Source NPDES Permit NEPA Review Process for the
Coal Mining Point Source Category 1-5
2-1 North Branch Potomac River Basin 2-2
2-2 Water quality limited streams in the Basin 2-12
2-3 High quality streams in the Basin 2-14
2-4 Water quality sampling stations 2-20
2-5 Communities with public water supplies taken from the
Basin 2-24
2-6 Sampling stations for fish 2-44
2-7 Land use/land cover (Inside back cover)
2-8 Major forests types of West Virginia 2-51
2-9 Types of forest vegetation in West Virginia 2-53
2-10 Ranges of game species in the Basin 2-67
2-11 Significant species and features 2-69
2-12 Air Quality Control Regions in West Virginia 2-94
2-13 Air quality monitoring stations in the Basin 2-95
2-14 Prinicpal fossil fuel power plants 2-99
2-15 West Virginia air quality non-attainment areas 2-102
2-16 Distribution of Late Middle Woodland cultures 2-112
2-17 Distribution of Late Prehistoric cultures 2-113
2-18 Distribution of cultures having had European contact 2-114
2-19 Historical and archaeological sites 2-121
2-20 Primary visual resources in the Basin 2-125
2-21 Examples of primary visual resources 2-127
2-22 Examples of secondary visual resources 2-128
2-23 Examples of visual resource degradation 2-130
2-24 Human resource and land use impacts 2-132
2-25 Population distribution 2-136
2-26 Coal haul roads 2-159
2-27 Railroads 2-164
2-28 Percentage of land owned by companies or individuals 2-190
2-29 Physiographic provinces 2-194
2-30 Generalized topography 2-195
2-31 Major sub-basins 2-197
2-32 Carboniferous rocks 2-209
2-33 Depositional model for coal environments 2-210
2-34 Coastal and backbarrier deposits 2-211
2-35 Vertical sequence of fluvial rock types 2-212
2-36 Northern and Southern Coalfields 2-213
2-37 Generalized geology 2-215
2-38 Bedrock structure 2-216
2-39 Environmental stratigraphic cross-section 2-218
2-40 Minable coal seams 2-232
2-41 Potentially Significant Impact Areas 2-238
3-1 Surface mine locations 3-5
3-2 Underground mine locations 3-6
3-3 Coal preparation plants 3-11
3-4 Sequence of operations for box cut mining 3-14
3-5 Typical box cut contour mining operation 3-15
3-6 Typical block cut contour mining operation 3-16
3-7 Sequence of operations for block cut mining 3-17
3-8 Modified area mining operation 3-19
3-9 Flow diagram of haulback mining 3-20
viii
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3-10 Haulback mining methods 3-21
3-11 Low-wall conveyor layout plan 3-24
3-12 Low-wall conveyor haulage scheme 3-25
3-13 Auger mining 3-26
3-14 West Virginia head of hollow fill 3-28
3-15 Cross-sections of head of hollow fill 3-29
3-16 Federal valley fill 3-31
3-17 Cross-sections of the Federal valley fill 3-32
3-18 Methods of entry to underground mines 3-33
3-19 Typical room and pillar layout 3-35
3-20 Cut sequence for continuous mining system 3-36
3-21 Typical longwall plan 3-37
3-22 Typical coal cleaning facility 3-39
3-23 Coal preparation plant processes 3-42
3-24 Construction cost vs. capacity for AMD treatment plant 3-53
3-25 Installed pipe costs 3-54
3-26 Filter costs 3-54
3-27 Pond costs 3-55
3-28 Flash tank costs 3-56
3-29 Capital costs of installed pumps 3-56
3-30 Capital costs of lime treatment 3-57
3-31 Capital costs of clarifier 3-57
3-32 U. S. coal consumption by end-use sector 1976 and 1978 3-62
3-33 Selected coal prices 1977 3-68
3-34 Potential coal production 3-74
4-1 Organization of WVDNR, 1979 4-6
4-2 Prospecting permit procedure 4-10
4-3 Unsuitable lands petition procedure 4-12
4-4 Unsuitable lands inquiry procedure 4-13
4-5 Principal WVDNR mining permit review process 4-22
4-6 WVDNR mining reclamation bond release procedure 4-28
4-7 Prevention of Significant Deterioration areas 4-48
5-1 Theoretical hydrographs 5-4
5-2 Leq versus distance from major noise sources
at typical coal mine and preparation plant 5-77a
5-3 Landforms that are highly susceptible to landslides 5-143
5-4 Mean subsidence curves 5-146
5-5 Relationship of surface subsidence/seam thickness
to panel width/depth 5-147
5-6 Acid-base account, Bakerstown Coal 5-155
5-7 Acid-base account, Freeport Coal 5-156
5-8 Plan view of contour surface mine 5-160
5-9 Cross-section views of contour surface mine 5-161-162
5-10 Minimum pH value for complete precipitation of
metal ions as hydroxides 5-175
5-11 Hydrogeologic cycle of mine drainage 5-180
6-1 Regional Planning and Development Councils in
West Virginia 6-21
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APPENDlk FIGURES
page
B-l Ecoregions of West Virginia B-2
B-2 Ecological regions of West Virginia B-5
B-3 Deciduous forests in West Virginia B-8
B-4 Potential natural vegetation In West Virginia B-9
C-l Examples of structural mitigations for terrestrial biota C-2
C-2 Sample planting plan for establishment of cottontail
rabbit habitat on surface-mined areas C-7
C-3 Sample planting plan for establishment of bobwhite
quail habitat on surface-mined areas C-8
C-4 Sample planting plan for establishment of ruffed
grouse habitat on mountaintop removal site C-9
D-l Nomograph for determining ground-level concentrations
from point sources of air pollutants D-8
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ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
AQCR Air Quality Control Region
ARC Appalachian Regional Commission
ARDA Appalachian Regional Development Act
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
BACT Best Available Control Technology
BIA Biologically Important Areas
BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Btu British thermal unit
CAA Clean Air Act
CEQ National Council on Environmental Quality
CFR Code of Federal Regulations
CMSHA Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969
CWA Clean Water Act, P.L. 92-500 (as amended)
dB decibels
dBA decibels (A-scale)
EELUT Eastern Energy and Land Use Team (USFWS)
EIS Environmental Impact Statement
EO Executive Order (of the President)
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency
FHA Federal Housing Administration
FHwA Federal Highway Administration
FHBM Flood Hazard Boundary Map
xi
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FIRE Fire, Insurance, and Real Estate
FIRM Flood Insurance Rate Map
FONSI Finding of No Significant Impact
FPM Floodplain Management
FR Federal Register
FWPCA Federal Water Pollution Control Act
g/dscm grams per dry standard cubic meter
gr/dscf grains per dry standard cubic foot
gpm gallons per minute
HSA Health Systems Agency
mgd million gallons per day
MM million short tons
NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards
NACD National Association of Conservation Districts
NEPA National Environmental Policy Act
NFIP National Flood Insurance Program
NHPA National Historic Preservation Act
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(US Department of Commerce)
NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
NRHP National Register of Historic Places
NSPP New Source Permit Program
NSPS New Source Performance Standards
P.L. Public Law (of the United States)
ppm parts per million
PSD Prevention of Significant Deterioration
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PSIA Potentially Significant Impact Area
RPDA Regional Planning and Development Act
RPDC Regional Planning and Development Council (in West Virginia)
SAM Spatial Allocation Model
SAT Scholastic Aptitude Test
SCMRO Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation Operation
SCS Soil Conservation Service; also listed as USDA-SCS
SEAM Social and Economic Assessment Model
SHPO State Historic Preservation Officer
SID Supplemental Information Document
SIP State Implementation Plan (for Attainment of Air Quality)
SMCRA Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act
STAT Statutes (of the United States)
STORE! Storage and retrieval data base system maintained by EPA
STP Sewage Treatment Plant
SWRB State Water Resources Board (West Virginia)
TDS Total Dissolved Solids
TSP Total Suspended Particulates
TSS Total Suspended Solids
TVA Tennessee Valley Authority
UMWA United Mine Workers of America
USAGE United States Army Corps of Engineers
USACHP United States Advisory Council on Historic Preservation
USBEA United States Bureau of Economic Analysis
(US Department of Commerce)
USBLM United States Bureau of Land Management
(US Department of the Interior)
xiii
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USBM United States Bureau of Mines
(US Department of the Interior)
USBOR United States Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, now the Heritage
Conservation and Recreation Services
(US Department of the Interior)
USC United States Code
USDA United States Department of Agriculture
USDI United States Department of the Interior
USDOC United States Department of Commerce
USDOE United States Department of Energy
USDOT United States Department of Transportation
USEIA United States Energy Information Agency
USERDA United States Energy Research and Development Administration
USFmHA United States Farmers Home Association
USFS United States Forest Service (US Department of Agriculture)
USFWS United States Fish and Wildlife Service
(US Department of the Interior)
USGAO United States General Accounting Office
USGS United States Geological Survey (US Department of the Interior)
USHCRS United States Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service
(US Department of the Interior)
USHUD United States Department of Housing and Urban Development
USICC United States Interstate Commerce Commission
USMSHA United States Mining Safety and Health Administration
USOSM United States Office of Surface Mining
(US Department of the Interior)
USOTA United States Congress Office of Technology Assessment
VA Veterans Administration
vmt vehicle miles traveled
xiv
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WV West Virginia
WVAPCC West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission
WVDC West Virginia Department of Commerce
WVDCH West Virginia Department of Culture and History
WVDE West Virginia Department of Education
WVDES West Virginia Department of Employment Security
WVDH West Virginia Department of Highways
WVDM West Virginia Department of Mines
WVDNR West Virginia Department of Natural Resources; Divisions include:
WVDNR-Reclamation
WVDNR-Water Resources
WVDNR-HTP (Heritage Trust Program)
WVDNR-Wildlife Resources
WVDNR-Parks and Recreation
WVGES West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey; Divisions include:
WVGES-Archaeology Section
WVGS (West Virginia Geological Survey)
WVGOECD West Virginia Governor's Office of Economic and Community
Development
WVGOSFR West Virginia Governor's Office of State-Federal Relations
WVHDF West Virginia Housing Development Fund
WVHSA West Virginia Health Systems Agency
WVPSC West Virginia Public Service Commission
WVRMA West Virginia Railroad Maintenance Authority
WVSHSP West Virginia Statewide Health Systems Plan 1979
WVSMCRA West Virginia Surface Mine Control and Reclamation Act
WVURD West Virginia University Office of Research and Development
xv
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1.0. INTRODUCTION
This Supplemental Information Document presents the comprehensive
technical basis for standard environmental reviews of New Source coal mine
permit applications that are required by NEPA and CWA. EPA will use
information in this document to evaluate New Source coal mine applications.
Specifically, the information in this document will "...provide
sufficient evidence and analysis for determining whether to prepare an
environmental impact statement or a finding of no significant impact
(FONSI)..." [40 CFR 1508.9(1)] before a New Source coal mining permit can be
issued by EPA. A "...Finding of No Significant Impact means a document by a
Federal agency briefly presenting the reasons why an action [EPA's issuance
of the permit]...will not have a significant effect on the human environment
and for which an environmental impact statement therefore will not be
prepared..." (40 CFR 1508.13).
EPA has chosen to comply with NEPA when evaluating New Source coal mine
permits in West Virginia on an areawide basis. The State of West Virginia
has been divided into seven areas which encompass the major river basins
with coal reserves. This document concerns one of the basins, the North
Branch Potomac River Basin. The characteristics of the seven basins vary,
but the manner in which EPA will evaluate and issue New Source permits will
be consistent from basin to basin.
The procedure for reviewing New Source coal mine applications involves
the use of three principal information sources which include: an Areawide
Environmental Assessment (EA) with map, as included in the front of this
document; this Supplemental Information Document; and a series of 1:24,000
scale environmental inventory map sets. For each topographic quadrangle,
quadrangle, in addition to a Base Map, the environmental data are mapped on
three overlays. The SID and environmental inventory map sets were prepared
together. They provide detailed geographical information on known
environmental resources potentially affected by New Source mining activity
and form the basis of the EA.
The EA map divides the North Branch Potomac River Basin into three types
of environmentally sensitive areas. The first type is called "Potentially
Significant Impact Areas" (PSIA's). These areas are the most sensitive to
New Source coal mine impacts. Permit applications for mines in PSIA's
automatically will require detailed NEPA review to evaluate possible
measures or alternatives to prevent or minimize adverse impacts. An EIS may
be required for a New Source coal mine proposed in a PSIA.
Regions shown on the EA map as "Mitigation Areas" contain specific,
sensitive resources that will require careful application of mitigative
measures that may translate into New Source permit conditions. If
mitigative measures appropriate for the sensitive resources are agreed upon
1-1
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by the applicant and EPA, the properly conditioned New Source permit can be
issued under the Basinwide EA/FONSI. Alternatively, if the applicant can
demonstrate that no impact will occur, the permit can be issued without
additional conditions under the Basinwide EA/FONSI.
The third type of area found in the Basin is the "FONSI" area, where
this evaluation process has determined that mining will have no significant
adverse impacts, provided that all other local, State, and Federal permit
requirements are satisfied. These FONSI areas assume that New Source
Performance Standards and other regulations will be adequate to maintain
water quality, associated biota, and other environmental resources.
In each case, notice of the proposed New Source application will be
circulated to the public and to interested agencies. EPA will consider
carefully all comments received prior to issuing the permit, and will
mandate avoidance of adverse impacts in so far as practicable.
The SID is intended to have a user orientation. Section 2. presents
environmental setting information for those functional areas which EPA has
determined can be affected by New Source mining (i.e., resources which are
both significant and sensitive). Section 3. discusses New Source mining
activities ("the proposed action") and highlights mining activity locations
and practices from an historical, current, and future perspective. Section
4. describes the numerous current and proposed regulatory constraints on
mining. Section 5. assesses the impacts of mining on the resources
discussed in Section 2., mitigative measures are put forward to the extent
possible. Section 6. summarizes these impacts and mitigative measures and
translates this information into program guidance for EPA evaluations of New
Source coal mining permits applications. This program guidance is presented
in the form of summary sheets specific to potentially affected resource.
Additional forms and guidelines necessary for EPA to conduct its New Source
permit evaluation program are included with these summary sheets. Specific
contacts, including office names, addresses, and phone numbers needed for
the program also are attached. Mechanisms to update EPA's information base
on a periodic basis are set out. Lastly, appendices have been reserved for
key data files and other auxiliary information referenced in the SID.
The information contained in this SID, in combination with the
l:24,000-scale environmental inventory map sets, is the foundation for an
environmental review process. This process has been designed to avoid
unnecessary delays, to utilize existing information and data files when
available, and to rely upon other in-place mechanisms and regulatory
techniques to implement EPA's congressional mandate under CWA, NEPA, and
other laws. Consequently, the SID user not only is referred to other SID
sections quite frequently, but is directed to other agencies and programs
whenever possible. In this manner, EPA feels confident that its
environmental mission is being furthered, while National energy objectives
are being met and the absolute minimum requirements for additional
information are being imposed on the mining industry.
1-2
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BACKGROUND OF THE NEW SOURCE PROGRAM
With the enactment of P.L. 92-500, the Federal Water Pollution Control
Act Amendments of 1972 (now known as the Clean Water Act), it became a
National goal to achieve "fishable and swimmable" waters throughout the
United States by July, 1 1983. By 1985 there is to be no discharge of
pollutants into navigable waters. To achieve these ends, Section 402 of the
CWA law established the "National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System"
or NPDES.
To implement this system, a permit program was developed which'
established effluent discharge limitations for existing point sources of
pollution, according to category of discharge or industry. The performance
standards for existing sources were followed by stricter limitations for
"New Sources," which also are being issued industry by industry.
Because they are point sources of pollution, coal mines must meet NPDES
standards. All coal mines that begin construction after January 12, 1979
are subject to the New Source Performance Standards. If they propose to
discharge wastewater into surface waters, they must meet these Standards.
New Source coal mines include three basic categories of operation
established by the EPA regulations: new coal preparation plants, new surface
or underground mines, and substantially new mines. First, new coal
preparation plants, independent of mines, are considered New Sources as of
January 21 1979, unless there were binding contractual obligations to
purchase unique facilities or equipment prior to the January 12 promulgation
date. Second, surface and underground mines that are assigned identifying
numbers by the US Mine Safety and Health Administration subsequent to
January 12 1979, automatically are considered to be New Sources, again
unless there were binding contracts prior to that date. Third, other mines
may be regarded by EPA as "substantially new" operations for NPDES permis
if they:
Begin to mine a new coal seam not previously extracted by
that mine,
Discharge effluent to a new drainage area not previously
affected by that mine
Cause extensive new surface disruption
Begin construction of a new shaft, slope, or drift,
Make significant additional capital investment in
additional equipment or facilities, or
Otherwise have characteristics deemed appropriate by the
EPA Regional Administrator to place them in the New Source
category. Numerous existing mines may qualify as
1-3
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"substantially new." The determination of whether a mine
is a New Source will be conducted case by case, based
largely on the information supplied with the permit
application to EPA.
Congress, through the Clean Water Act, has determined that the New Source
Permit Program is a "major Federal action" and falls under the mandate of
the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, Section 102(2)(C), which
states:
[All agencies of the Federal Government shall] include in
every recommendation or report on proposals for legislation
and other major Federal actions significantly affecting the
quality of the human environment, a detailed statement [an
Environmental Impact Statement] by the responsible official
on:
i. the environmental impact of the proposed action
ii. any adverse environmental effects which cannot be
avoided should the proposal be implemented
iii. alternatives to the proposed action
iv. the relationship between local short terms uses of
man's environment and the maintenance and enhancement
of long-term productivity, and
v. any irreversible and irretrievable commitments of
resources which would be involved in the proposed
action should it be implemented.
NEPA binds EPA to a comprehensive environmental permit review process
for coal mining applications in West Virginia, as long as it administers
NPDES permits (Figure 1-1). The New Source NPDES program offers
significantly enhanced opportunity, as compared with the Existing Source
program, for:
Public and inter-agency input to the Federal NPDES permit
review process before mine construction begins
Effective environmental review and consideration of
alternatives that may avoid or minimize adverse effects
Implementation of environmentally protective permit
conditions on mine planning, operation, and shutdown.
Additionally, NEPA reviews can assist substantially in maintaining and
protecting the present environmental, aesthetic, and recreational resources
of the coal regions of West Virginia.
Congress, by enacting the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of
1977, also established a National environmental, public health, and safety
regulatory scheme for surface coal mining and reclamation operations. Under
1-4
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Rgure I-I EPA NEW SOURCE NPDES PERMIT NEPA REVIEW
PROCESS FOR THE COAL MINING POINT SOURCE
CATEGORY
1-5
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the SMCRA, detailed environmental protection performance standards
applicable to the coal industry are to be applied through a phased,
comprehensive regulatory program. The permanent regulatory program (44 FR
15311-15463; March 13, 1979) requires more detailed Federal standards than
those set in the initial, interim program, and they are to be imposed
through a permit system.
The SMCRA permit program for privately owned lands may in the future be
delegated to the States, upon approval by the Secretary of the Interior.
Mining activity on Federal lands will continue to require Federal agency
review. Most coal lands in West Virginia are privately owned.
The EPA is currently working with the US Office of Surface Mining in
the Department of the Interior to develop procedures for coordinating the
New Source NPDES environmental review process for coal mining industry
applications with the similar permit review mandated for those mines
regulated by USOSM under SMCRA. This coordination will reduce potential
duplication of requirements and will contribute to an efficient and
comprehensive review process.
Currently, EPA issues NPDES permits in West Virginia. Section 402(a)5
of the Clean Water Act authorizes the EPA Regional Administrator to delegate
the permit program to any State "which he determines has the capability of
administering a permit program which will carry out the objective of this
Act". The State of West Virginia is working to obtain delegation and may be
ready to issue NPDES permits sometime in 1981.
NPDES permits issued through delegated State programs are not
considered significant Federal actions. Hence they are not subject to NEPA
review. The procedure used by EPA in implementing the New Source NPDES
permit program NEPA reviews in West Virginia, therefore, is expected to be
an interim procedure until the State assumes the program.
The mandated NEPA review has culminated in the attached Areawide
Environmental Assessment of New Source Coal Mining in the North Branch
Potomac River Basin. .The basic goal of this Assessment and any subsequent
environmental reviews associated with NPDES permits is to maximize
compatibility between the mining industry and environmental values. EPA has
determined that for West Virginia "...the most effective way to comply with
NEPA on New Source coal mine permits is to assess new coal activity on an
areawide basis. (An) environmental analysis...will document the full range
of impacts...apply NEPA effectively to new mining operations and at the same
time avoid significant disruption to the permitting of new and needed
operations that are environmentally sound" (41 FR 19840, May 13, 1976).
EPA recognizes the serious pollution problem posed by abandoned mines
in West Virginia. Therefore it expects to expedite its permit review
process to accommodate with priority any application for the re-mining of
abandoned mine sites, so long as the proposal anticipates that wastewater
discharges and reclamation will satisfy all the currently applicable
standards.
1-6
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2.1 Water Resources and Water Quality
-------
Page
2.1. Water Resources and Water Quality 2-1
2.1.1. Surface Waters 2-1
2.1.1.1. Hydrology 2-1
2.1.1.1.1. Climatic Characteristics 2-3
2.1.1.1.2. Streamflow Characteristics 2-3
2.1.1.1.3. Low Flow Frequency 2-3
2.1.1.1.4. Flooding 2-3
2.1.1.2. State Water Uses and Criteria 2-3
2.1.1.3. Stream Classification 2-10
2.1.1.4. Pollution Sources 2-15
2.1.1.5. Coal Mine Related Problems 2-17
2.1.1.6. Water Quality in Selected Streams 2-21
2.1.2. Groundwater Resources 2-23
2.1.2.1. Hydrology of the Basin 2-23
2.1.2.2. Groundwater Quality 2-25
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2.0. EXISTING CONDITIONS
2.1. WATER RESOURCES AND WATER QUALITY
The North Branch Potomac River begins near Kempton, Maryland. It flows
in a northeastward direction to Cumberland, Maryland, and then southeast to
Green Spring, West Virginia, where it joins with the South Branch to form
the Potomac River. The North Branch of the Potomac is 100 miles in length
and drains nearly 300 miles of permanent tributary streams in Maryland,
Pennsylvania, and West Virginia. Figure 2-1 shows the area defined as the
North Branch Potomac River Basin for this assessment. The Basin includes
all of the West Virginia tributary streams of the North Branch that drain
areas containing potential or known coal deposits.
Coal has been mined in the North Branch Potomac watershed for over
160 years. Recent coal production in the Basin in West Virginia has varied
from 0.25 million tons in the years 1961 and 1972 to an average of two
million tons for 1974 through 1977 (WVDM 1974a, 1975a, 1977, FWPCA 1969).
Because of numerous pollution problems, especially acid mine drainage,
water quality in the North Branch Potomac River Basin has received consi-
derable attention over the years. Recent studies include Clark (1969),
FWPCA (1969c), Ross and Lewis (1969), WVDNR-Water Resources (1974, 1976f),
Taylor and Bristol (1977), Flynn and Mason (1978), and Green International
(1979). These reports all concluded that many of the waters in the Basin
are severely polluted as a result of coal mining activities, particularly
AMD. During the 1960's, 130 miles of streams were continuously polluted,
and 30 to 40 miles were intermittently affected by AMD (FWPCA 1969c).
Many of the North Branch streams in the Basin that receive AMD have pH
values that are consistently near 4.O., and during low flow periods they
drop below 3.0. West Virginia contributed 63% of the total measured acid
load to the North Branch in 1965 (FWPCA 1969). Downstream from the mouth of
the Savage River at Westernport, Maryland, the North Branch Potomac receives
effluents from wastewater treatment plants that neutralize the acidity but
greatly increase the organic load in the River.
Because of the highly localized nature of mine pollution, this report
will discuss water quality conditions on a stream-specific basis wherever
possible.
2.1.1. Surface Waters
This section first summarizes hydrologic conditions in the Basin. Then
it reports established water uses, current and proposed State water quality
standards, and stream classifications. It concludes with a review of
pollution problems.
2.1.1.1. Hydrology
The North Branch Potomac drains 875 square miles. Hydrologic data are
available for the first 85 miles of the North Branch Potomac River from its
source near Kempton, Maryland, to Cumberland, Maryland, and its associated
2-1
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Figure 2-1
NORTH BRANCH POTOMAC RIVER BASIN
To identify location with regard to USGS Quadrangles, use acetate
overlay in back of binder for all basin figures in Chapters 2 and 5
2-2
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West Virginia tributaries. Its principal tributaries are New Creek (which
enters at Mile Point [MP] 47.9), Abram Creek (MP 73.6), and Stony River
(MP 81.4). None of the Basin tributaries, including those listed above, has
a drainage area larger than 60 square miles (WVDNR-Water Resources 1976f).
2.1.1.1.1. Climatic Characteristics. Climatic conditions in the North
Branch Potomac River Basin are discussed in greater detail in Section 2.4.
In summary, precipitation shows comparatively little month-to-month
variation at individual stations (NOAA 1977). Precipitation does vary
significantly across the Basin, ranging from about 36 inches annually in the
extreme northeast corner of the Basin to about 60 inches in the extreme
southern section of the Basin (Hobba et al. 1972).
2.1.1.1.2. Streamflow Characteristics. Streamflow data from nine
stations in the Basin show that discharge rates vary greatly. Low flows
approach zero in many of the smaller streams (Table 2-1 )« High flows are
40 to 75 times the mean flows.
2.1.1.1.3. Low Flow Frequency. Lowest flows typically occur during
late summer and early autumn (USGS 1979). The lowest average flow over a
consecutive seven-day period that is expected to recur at ten-year intervals
(7/Q/lO) has been adopted as the basis for establishing the West Virginia
water quality standard. State standards do not apply when streamflows are
below 7/Q/lO values. Empirically derived 7/Q/lO values are not available
for most of the smaller streams, thereby necessitating estimation of this
important parameter.
Flows typically are calculated from graphs based on drainage area,
slope, climate, and geological considerations. Frye and Runner (1970)
reported that the regression equation they developed to predict 7/Q/lO
values for ungauged stations in the North Branch Potomac River Basin had a
standard error of 82%. They concluded that "low flow characteristics at
ungauged sites on natural streams, minor and principal, cannot be estimated
accurately by regression." They further reported that regression equations
were unreliable for drainage areas less than about 50 square miles. Most
Basin subwatersheds are smaller than 50 square miles.
2.1.1.1.4. Flooding. Major floods have occurred in the North Branch
Potomac River Basin in 1899, 1924, 1929, 1932, 1936, 1937, 1938, 1943, 1955
and 1967 (WVDNR-Water Resources 1973). The 1936 flood was the largest on
record. The relationship between coal mining and flooding is discussed in
Sections 2.6., 5.1., and 5.6.
2.1.1.2. State Water Uses and Criteria
For all streams in the Basin, intended uses as designated by the West
Virginia State Water Resources Board (1977) are water contact recreation
(swimming, fishing, etc.), public water supplies, industrial water supplies,
2-3
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Table 2-1. Streamflow records of the North Branch Potomac and tributaries
(USGS 1979, WVDNR-Water Resources 1978, Hobba et al. 1972).
Drainage Area Daily Discharge (cfs)
Station (sq mi) Period of Record Maximum Minimum Mean
Stony River near
Mt. Storm WV 48.8
New Creek near
Keyser WV 45.7
Abrara Creek at
Oakmont WV 42.6
North Branch at
Steyer WV 73
North Branch at
Kitzmiller WV 225
North Branch at
Barnum WV 266
North Branch at
Luke MD 404
North Branch at
Pinto MD 596
North Branch near
Cumberland MD 875
1961 to date
1930-1931
1947-1963
1956 to date
1956 to date
1949 to date
1966 to date
1899-1906
1949 to date
5,340 1.8
3,110 0.4
2,310 0.2
33,400 4.6
27,100 10
39,400 6
1938 to date 37,000 31
1929 to date 88,200 12
97
44.1
66.8
6,900 2.9 172
446
525
704
880
1,246
2-4
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agricultural water supplies, propagation of fish and other aquatic
organisms, water transport (commercial and pleasure boating), hydropower
production, and the transport and assimilation of treated wastes (so long as
the safe passage of fish is assured). New dischargers must not render the
waterways unsuitable for the above uses. The use for transport and
assimilation of wastes was proposed for deletion by SWRB during 1980.
The West Virginia water quality criteria are summarized in Table 2-2.
The current State criteria include only one (pH) of the four parameters (pH,
manganese, iron, and suspended solids) covered by the EPA New Source
Performance Standards (see Section 4.O.).
Six parameters are of special interest because they potentially are
affected by coal mining:
Parameter Acceptable Range in Stream
pH 6.0 - 8.5 (WVSWRB 1977)
Iron less than 1.0 mg/1 (EPA 1976a)
Manganese less than 0.05 mg/1 (EPA 1976a)
Sulfate less than 250 mg/1 (EPA 1976a)
Alkalinity greater than 20.0 mg/1 as CaCOs (EPA 1976a)
Dissolved oxygen 5 mg/1 except in trout waters, 6 mg/1 in
trout waters, 7 mg/1 in trout spawning
areas (WVSWRB 1977)
Of these, only pH and dissolved oxygen currently are regulated by West
Virginia, however, new stream standards were proposed by SWRB during the
summer of 1980 (Table 2-3).
The degradation of water quality is to be avoided, according to the
proposed regulations. Existing high quality waters (including trout
streams, streams designated by the Legislature under the Natural Streams
Preservation Act; streams listed by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources (1979) as
having high quality; Federal Wild and Scenic Rivers; all waterways in State
and National Parks, State and National Forests, and Recreation Areas; and
National Rivers) are to have their high quality maintained, unless limited
degradation is allowed (following public hearing) that will not impair
existing uses, will not violate State or Federal water quality criteria, and
will not interfere with attainment of National water quality goals.
With reference to AMD, the proposed regulations require:
Diversion of surface water and groundwater to minimize the
flow of water into mine workings
The handling of water in mine workings so as to minimize
the formation and surface discharge of AMD
2-5
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Table 2-2. West Virginia water quality criteria for tne North Branch
Potomac River and its tributaries1 (SWRB 1977).
Parameter
Arsenic
Barium
Cadmium
Chlorides
Chromium (hexavalent)
Coliform bacteria^
Cyanide
Dissolved oxygen-*
Fecal coliform bacteria
Fluoride
Lead
Nitrates
PH
Phenols
Radioactivity
Selenium
Silver
Temperature
(daily mean)
Threshold odor
Toxic substances
S tandard
£0.01 mg/1
50.5 mg/1
£0.01 mg/1
£100. mg/1
£0.05 mg/1
£1000. organisms/100 ml, monthly average value
£0.025 mg/1
>5.0 mg/1
£200. organisms/100 ml, 30-day geometric mean
£1.0 mg/1
£0.05 mg/1
£45. mg/1
6.0 - 8.5 pH units, unless naturally otherwise
£0.001 mg/1
£1,000. pCi/1 gross beta activity
£10. pCi/1 Sr-90
£3. pCi/1 dissolved alpha emitters
£0.01 mg/1
£0.05 mg/1
£73°F December-April (22.8°C)
£87°F May-November (27.2°C) and
£5°F above ambient (2.8°C)
£No. 8 at 40° C daily average value
<10% of 96 hour TLm
Applicable for all flows greater than or equal to the 7 consecutive days
drought flow with a 10 year return frequency.
Maximum daily limit: 2,400/100 ml; not to exceed 1,000/100 ml in more than
. 20% of samples per month.
Minimum, 6 mg/1 in trout streams; 7 mg/1 in trout spawning areas.
4
Based on 5 or more samples; no more than 400 organisms/100 ml in 10% of
samples during any 30-day period, as determined by. either most
probable number (MPN) or membrane filter (MF) methods.
Trout waters daily mean temperature: October-April, 50°F; September and
May, 58°F; June-August, 66°F; hourly maximum temperature: October-
April, 55°F; September and May, 62°F; June-August, 70°F.
2-6
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Table 2-3. Proposed West Virginia in-stream water quality standards for
the North Branch Potomac River Basin (SWRB 1980). Where lesser quality
is due to natural conditions, the natural values are the applicable criteria.
Footnotes follow the Table.
Parameter
Standard
Aluminum"1"
Ammonia, un-ionized
Arsenic
Barium
o
Cadmium, soluble
Chlorides ,
Chlorine, total residual'
Chromium, hexavalent ^
Coliform bacteria, fecal
Copper
Cyanide
Fluoride ,
Iron, total"
Lead
Magnesium"
Manganese
Mercury
Nickel7
Nitrate
Nitrite
Odor, threshold
Organics: Aldrin-dieldrin
Chlordane
DDT
Endrin
Methoxychlor
PCB
Toxaphene
Oxygen, dissolved**
PH
Phenols
j<0.05 mg/1
£0.05 mg/1
£1.0 mg/1
£0.8 yg/1 (hardness 0-35 mg/1 CaCO.,)
£2.0 yg/1 (hardness 35-75 mg/1 CaCcL)
<5.0 Ug/1 (hardness 75-150 rag/1 CaCO )
512.0 yg/1 (hardness 150-300 mg/1 CaCOo)
£30.0 yg/1 (hardness >300 mg/1 CaCO.,)
£100 mg/1
£0.01 mg/1
£0.05 mg/1
£200 organisms/100 ml, 30-day geometric mean
£400 organisms/100 ml in >90% of samples over
30 days
£0.005 mg/1
£0.005 mg/1
£l.O mg/1
£l.O mg/1
£0.025 mg/1 (hardness 0-100 mg/1 CaC03)
£0.050 mg/1 (hardness 100-300 mg/1 CaC03)
£0.10 mg/1 (hardness >300 mg/1
£0.05 mg/1
£0.2 yg/1 unfiltered (<_ 0.5 ug/1 body burden)
£10 mg/1
£1.0 mg/1
<8
<0.
0,
0.
0.
0,
0.
0.
>5.
at 40°C daily average
.003 yg/1
.01 yg/1
.001 yg/1
.004 yg/1
.03 yg/1
.001 yg/1
.005 yg/1
.0 mg/1
(0.
(1.
(0.
(0.
(2.
(1.
3
0
1
3
0
0
yg/i
yg/i
yg/i
yg/i
yg/i
yg/i
fish
fish
fish
fish
fish
fish
burden)
burden)
burden)
burden)
burden)
burden)
6-9 pH units
£0.
.005 mg/1
2-7
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Table 2-3. Proposed West Virginia in-stream water quality standards for
the North Branch Potomac River Basin (continued).
Parameter Standard
Radioactivity <1,000 pCi/1 gross beta activity
400 mg/1 CaC03>
In addition to these numerical criteria, the proposed regulations pro-
hibit the following from the waters of the State:
1. Distinctly visible floating or settleable solids, suspended
solids, scum, foam, or oil slides.
2. Sludge deposits or sludge banks on the bottom.
3. Odors in the vicinity of the waters.
4. Taste or odor that would affect designated uses adversely.
5. Concentrations of toxic materials harmful or toxic to people,
aquatic organisms, or other animals.
6. Color.
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Table 2-3. Proposed West Virginia in-stream water quality standards for
the North Branch Potomac River Basin (concluded).
7. Concentrations of bacteria that may impair or interfere with
designated uses.
8. Matter that would entail unreasonable degree of treatment to
yield potable water.
9. Any other condition that alters the chemical, physical, or
biological integrity of the water.
^In trout waters: £0.56 mg/1
^In trout waters: £0.04 yg/1 (hardness 0-75 mg/1 CaCO,)
£1.2 jig/1 (hardness >75 mg/1 CaC03)
3 In trout waters: £0.002 mg/1
4
As determined by mean plate number or membrane filtration on five or more
samples during the 30-day period.
In trout waters: .5.0.5 mg/1
6
In trout waters: £0.005 mg/1
In trout waters: £0.05 mg/1
°>_ 6.0 mg/1 in trout waters and £7.0 mg/1 in trout spawning areas at all times.
9
In trout waters: £0.01 mg/1
In trout waters: October-April £50°F daily mean, 55°F hourly mean
September-May £58°F daily mean, 62°F hourly mean
June-August £66°F daily mean, 70°F hourly mean
In trout waters: £0.54 mg/1
12
Not applicable to permitted surface mines, to agricultural activities, or
to activities covered by CWA Section 208 Best Management Practices.
2-9
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The retention outside of waterways of refuse that produces
a discharge with a pH less than 6.0
Handling of acid-producing overburden to minimize AMD
formation
24-hour flow equalization of discharge
Mine closure methods to minimize AMD
Treatment of AMD where appropriate.
Only three towns in the Basin (Piedmont, Ridgely, and Wiley Ford) are
reported as drawing their water entirely from surface sources (Table 2-4).
2.1.1.3. Stream Classification
The streams of the Basin have been classified in several groups. All
but three streams (Abram Creek, Difficult Creek, and Stony River) are
considered to be effluent limited (WVDNR-Water Resources 1976f). That is,
they now meet or are expected to meet the applicable water quality standards
when reasonable measures have been fully implemented, including the
construction of municipal treatment plants and compliance with NPDES permit
conditions. In such streams, sewage effluents were considered to be the
principal water quality limiting factor on the basis of data collected
during the 1960's and presented in the Section 303(e) basin report
(WVDNR-Water Resources 1976f). The remaining three streams in the Basin
have (Figure 2-2) water quality considered to be unlikely to meet standards
in the foreseeable future even after implementation of the best practical
control technology. These streams are designated by WVDNR-Water Resources
(1975) as water quality limited because of mine drainage. Where more recent
data are available, relatively little weight has been assigned to the
Section 303(e) basin report classifications for this assessment.
High quality streams have been identified by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources
so that consultation with WVDNR-Wildlife personnel can occur before
construction that might damage fish resources takes place. High quality
streams include streams with native or stocked trout plus warm water streams
(more than five miles long) that have both desirable fish populations and
public use. There are seven high quality streams in the Basin (Table 2-5
and Figure 2-3).
Trout waters currently are protected by special water quality criteria
for dissolved oxygen and temperature. New Creek has been designated as a
trout water by the SWRB (1977). Most State-listed trout waters are stocked
by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources. The Statewide list of trout waters was revised
by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources and SWRB during 1980, and the special standards
for such waters were modified and expanded. There was no change in
designated trout streams for this Basin.
2-10
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Table 2-4. Sources of public drinking water supplies in the
North Branch Potomac River Basin (Hobba et al. 1972, WAPORA 1980).
Town
Bayard
Elk Garden
Keyser
Mount Storm
Piedmont
Ridgely
Wiley Ford
Source
Wells and Springs
Springs
Springs and New Creek
Abandoned strip mine fed by springs
Savage River*
From Cumberland (Gordon Lake*)
From Cumberland (Gordon Lake*)
*Not located in the North Branch Potomac River Basin
2-11
-------
Figure 2-2
STREAMS IN THE NORTH BRANCH POTOMAC
RIVER BASIN THAT ARE WATER QUALITY
LIMITED DUE TO MINE DRAINAGE (adapted
from WVDNR- Water Resources 1976)
2-12
-------
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Rgure 2-3
HIGH QUALITY STREAMS IN THE NORTH
BRANCH POTOMAC RIVER BASIN (adapted
from WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1979)
2-14
-------
Nineteen other waters in the Basin reportedly contain trout (Table
2-5). The special water quality standards for trout waters (Table 2-2)
apply to all waters that support trout year-round, whether or not it has
been listed by WVDNR-Water Resources. Many native trout streams are not
listed in order to limit the fishing pressure to which they otherwise would
be subject. Some of the 19 waters may support native trout.
Streams that have very low alkalinity (less than 15 ppm) and low
conductivity (less than 50 umhos/cm) are highly susceptible to pH changes
and therefore are very sensitive to acid mine drainage. Two such lightly
buffered streams in the Basin have been identified by Mr. Donald C. Gasper
of WVDNR-Wildlife Resources and Mr. David Robinson, WVDNR-Water Resources
Division Chief. These are Abram Creek and Stony River. Based on other data
from WVDNR-Water Resources (1974) four other streams (Deep Run, Difficult
Creek, Howell Run, and Red Oak Creek) also are lightly buffered. Skelly and
Loy (1977) reported that alkalinity levels in unpolluted Basin streams in
general were extremely low. Thus, there are undoubtedly other lightly
buffered streams in the Basin, but additional streams cannot be designated
from the available data.
Some streams appear in more than one of the State categories developed
for various purposes over the past decade and appear to reflect contra-
dictory information gathered at different times or in different reaches.
For example, two (Difficult Creek and Stony River) of the three water
quality limited streams with long-term AMD pollution problems (according to
WVDNR-Water Resources 1976f) are considered to be among the seven high
quality streams identified by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources (1979). Also, one of
the water quality limited streams (Difficult Creek) has been designated as a
trout stream. Moreover, for most of the hundreds of small tributary streams
in the Basin there is no information of any kind on water quality.
2.1.1.4. Pollution Sources
AMD is by far the most significant water quality problem in the Basin
(WVDNR-Water Resources 1974, Skelly and Loy 1977, Davis 1978b). The only
other industrial discharge that has significantly affected water quality in
the Basin is the WESTVACO paper mill at Luke, Maryland. The WESTVACO plant
withdraws 60 MGD from the North Branch Potomac and then pumps over 15 MGD of
waste process water to the Upper Potomac River Basin Commission (UPRBC)
sewage treatment plant at Westernport, Maryland, for secondary treatment.
Skelly and Loy (1977) reported that North Branch Potomac water quality was
significantly affected by the plant's discharge and suggested that this
plant's discharge "has masked most of the river's improvements in quality
(with regard to AMD) over the past 20 years." Similiarly Harmon (1978)
reported that the oxygen demanding materials from the municipal and
industrial discharges at Luke, Maryland, prevent the development of normal
benthic communities downstream.
2-15
-------
With the exception of the UPRBC plant mentioned above, sewage treatment
plant discharges have not had a major influence on the quality of the sur-
face water in the Basin. Most of the communities in the Basin provide no
sewage treatment at all (WVDNR-Water Resources 1976f), so it is reasonable
to conclude that localized problems do occur. These problems probably are
obscured by the much more significant problems caused by AMD.
Non-point sources in the Basin include runoff from mining facilities,
timberlands, agricultural lands, roadways, and towns. Sediment concen-
trations in streams increase naturally following heavy rains, particularly
in steep-slope areas, even under undisturbed conditions. The magnitude of
the sedimentation problem can be seen in Table 2-6 (Wark et al. 1963).
Even greater sediment loads characterize the steeply sloping watersheds of
southern West Virginia.
Table 2-6 . Sedimentation loads in the North Branch Potomac River Basin.
Drainage Annual
Area Average Annual Discharge
Stream and Location (sq mi) Sediment (tons) (tons/sq mi)
Abram Creek 47.3 1,100 23
(at Oakmont)
New Creek 45.7 1,600 35
(near Keyser)
North Branch Potomac 225 21,200 94
(at Kitzmiller)
North Branch Potomac 596 78,000 130
(at Pinto)
Timber harvesting operations can be especially significant sources of
sediment, but they are unregulated under the Clean Water Act. The humus
beneath stands of hemlock and other conifers yields organic acids during
storm events and creates low pH values in some undisturbed streams.
Sediment loads typically are high in runoff from cultivated fields and
heavily grazed pastures. Nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations also may be
high because of agricultural runoff. Furthermore, combined storm and
sanitary sewers in urban areas may overflow during intense rains.
With regard to the above non-point source categories, logging appears
to be the most significant problem in the Basin. Only 20% of the Basin's
land use is for crops or pasture. Towns comprise less than 2% of the total
area, and road construction activities are minimal (WVDNR-Water Resources
1976f). Because approximately 73% of the Basin is timberland, logging is of
special concern. Large logging companies usually use environmentally
acceptable harvesting techniques, but small, independent operators in the
2-16
-------
past have demonstrated "a total lack of concern for the problem of sediment
control" (WVDNR-Water Resources 1976f).
2.1.1.5 Coal Mine Related Problems
As stated previously, mining is the major source of water pollution in
the Basin. According to Skelly and Loy (1977), most of the AMD that
currently degrades Basin water quality is associated with recent, but
inactive, mine sites. Active mining operations are regulated as point
source discharges under the NPDES permit program. The Nationwide effluent
limitations for Existing Sources in the coal mining category were last
revised during 1977. They limit the pH level and the concentrations of
iron, manganese, and total suspended solids in the effluent that legally can
be discharged by mines and coal preparation plants. Self-monitoring
requirements are imposed on permittees, who must report the actual values of
regulated parameters in their discharge to WVDNR-Water Resources and to EPA
Region III.
The major problems associated with active and abandoned mine
discharges, other mine facilities, and haul roads are sedimentation, acid
mine drainage, and high levels of iron, manganese and sulfates. Sedimen-
tation from active and abandoned mines historically has contributed to water
quality problems in the Basin. The sediment load from uncontrolled surface
mines may be 2,000 times greater than in runoff from undisturbed forests
(EPA 1976a).
Active mines and abandoned mines represent widespread and significant
sources of non-point pollutants that may affect both surface waters and
groundwater. Where reclamation has not been accomplished to replace topsoil
and vegetation on the surface, fractured overburden material offers an
extensive rock surface area for oxidation and leaching. As a result various
elements can be dissolved and carried into streams along with sediment.
Abandoned mines eventually are to be reclaimed under the direction of
WVDNR-Reclamation using Federal funds allocated pursuant to the Surface Coal
Mining and Reclamation Act of 1977. Some abandoned mines may be reclaimed
by mine operators who undertake remining or mining adjacent to the abandoned
mines. The many abandoned underground and surface mines and coal refuse
piles in the Basin are a major factor responsible for the long-term
pollution problems in Basin streams that have been identified as not meeting
standards because of industrial wastes.
The most recent data available indicate that water quality problems
related to mining are still a significant concern in the Basin (Table 2-7 ,
Figure 2-4 ). Green International (1979) reported that the waters in three
sub-basins exceeded the 1 mg/1 iron and 6.0 pH standards on a continuous
basis: Difficult Creek/Buffalo Creek, Stony River, and Abram Creek
(including: Emory Creek, Glade Run, and Little Creek). Based on the data
presented in Table 2-7, five other streams also regularly violate both pH
and iron standards that would protect established uses (Deakin Run, Lynwood
Run, Montgomery Run, North Branch Potomac, Piney Swamp Run); while
2-17
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2-19
-------
Figure 2-4
WATER QUALITY SAMPLING STATIONS IN THE
NORTH BRANCH POTOMAC RIVER BASIN
(WVDNR-Water Resources 1974, FRIEL etal.
1975)
2-20
-------
Slaughterhouse Run violates pH. High sulfate concentrations also strongly
correlate with mining activity. In streams receiving little mine drainage
(such as Howell Run, New Creek, and Red Oak Creek), sulfate concentrations
are typically between 15 and 50 mg/1; in streams that receive a great deal
of mine drainage, however (Abram Creek, Buffalo Creek, and Piney Swamp Run),
average sulfate concentrations regularly exceed 1,000 mg/1, and maximum
concentrations often exceed 3,000 mg/1 (Table 2-7).
Skelly and Loy (1977) determined that the natural background levels of
iron and sulfate were very low in the Basin. The only streams for which
they report high iron and sulfate were those degraded by discharges from
abandoned underground mines.
2.1.1.6 Water Quality in Selected Streams.
Fourteen sub-watersheds in the North Branch Potomac River Basin have
had sufficient data collected to enable comments to be made on the quality
of their water.
North Branch Potomac River
As described in Section 2.2., the North Branch Potomac River
practically is devoid of aquatic organisms from its headwaters to Luke,
Maryland. This section of the river can be categorized as having low pH
(typically 3-5) and high concentrations of sulfate (100-500 mg/1) and iron
(1-10 mg/1) (Table 2-7 ). Its quality between Luke and Cumberland improves
somewhat but is still poor.
Abram Creek
Abram Creek and many of its tributaries (e.g., Emory Creek, Glade Run,
and Little Creek) are heavily polluted by AMD. Most sections of Abram Creek
have pH values below 4.0, iron concentrations above 10 mg/1, and sulfate
concentrations as high as 8,000 mg/1 (Table 2-7 ) Only Johnnycake Run and
Wycroff Run have good water quality.
Stony River
Water quality is poor in the mainstem of the Stony River because of low
pH values (Table 2-7 ). The River has, in general, no fishable populations
(Ross and Lewis 1969). Data from the 1978 STORET file show that pH values
are still below 5. The two impoundments on the River, Mount Storm Lake and
Stony River Reservoir, also have pH-related problems and support few or no
fish. In contrast to the poor water quality in the mainstem, several
tributaries have good water quality and support native brook trout.
2-21
-------
New Creek
New Creek, the only major stream in the Basin where mining essentially
has been absent, is also the only major stream in the Basin that has good
water quality throughout its length. Few data are available, but its
tributaries also appear to have good water quality (Friel et al. 1975).
Buffalo Creek/Little Buffalo Creek
Buffalo Creek has good water quality upstream from the overpass of the
Virginia Electric Power Company rail spur but is severely polluted
downstream from this point (WVDNR-Water Resources 1974). The bulk of the
pollution comes from the North Branch Mine on Little Buffalo Creek
(WVDNR-Water Resources 1974). The latest STORET data available (1978)
indicate that the lower section of Buffalo Creek still has pH values
regularly below 5.0 (Table 2-7 ).
Deakin Run
During the period 1972-1973, very low pH values were recorded on Deakin
Run. A number of improvements were made, according to WVDNR-Water Resources
(1974), but its current status is unknown.
Deep Run
Although data are sparse, the water quality in Deep Run appears to be
good (Table 2-7 ).
Difficult Creek
Although its watershed was heavily strip mined in the past, the most
recent data suggest that Difficult Creek has good water quality (Table
2-7 ). It is considered to be a trout stream (see Section 2.2).
Elk Creek
Because of the diversion of its flow upstream from a mine-contaminated
area, Elk Creek now has good water quality (WVDNR-Water Resources 1974,
Table 2-7 ) and supports trout (see Section 2.2).
Howell Run
Howell Run has good water quality (Table 2-7). Because it is noted
for its native brook trout population, Howell Run receives close
surveillance (WVDNR-Water Resources 1974).
Lynwood Run/Montgomery Run/Slaughterhouse Run
These three small North Branch Potomac tributaries all are heavily
polluted by AMD and typically show pH values below 5.0 (Table 2-7).
2-22
-------
Piney Swamp Run
The lower section of this stream is heavily polluted by AMD (Table
2-7 ) There is no acid pollution upstream from Mine No. 12, about 2.7
miles from the mouth (WvDNR-Water Resources 1974). WVDNR-Water Resources
reported that approximately 50% of the acid load in Piney Swamp Run comes
from seepage through one haul road that has a coal refuse base.
Powderhouse Run
This is a very small stream with marginal water quality (WVDNR-Water
Resources 1974, Table 2-7 ).
Red Oak Creek
Red Oak Creek occasionally carries a high sediment load but apparently
has acceptable pH and iron values (Table 2-7 ) because it supports a trout
population (see Section 2.2.).
2.1.2. Groundwater Resources
Groundwater is the principal source of most private and public water
supplies in the Basin (Table 2-7 , Figure 2-4 ). This section summarizes
groundwater hydrology and quality in the Basin. Special attention is given
to the relationship between coal mining and groundwater resources.
2.1.2.1. Hydrology of the Basin
The value of groundwater as a resource is related mainly to three
factors: the depth at which the water is found, the rate at which it can
flow into a well, and the quality of the water produced. These
characteristics are governed by geological structures. The geology of the
western half of the Basin is that of the Allegheny Mountain Section of the
Appalachian Plateau. It consists primarily of moderately folded layers of
sandstone, coal, and shale, with occasional limestone (Landers 1976). The
eastern half of the Basin (the Allegheny Front, the New Creek Valley, and
the Knobby Mountain Range) is underlain by a highly folded, complex mixture
of sandstone, shale, and some limestone (Landers 1976). The Allegheny Front
is primarily underlain by sandstone and shale; the New Creek Valley, by
sandstone, shale, and occasionally limestone; and the Knobbly Mountain
Range, by limestone, sandstone, and shale.
Most wells in the Basin are drilled into rock aquifers. In this type
of well, water moves to the well through pores between the grains of the
sandstone or through cracks where the rock is fractured. The sandstones
store large quantities of water, but the delivery of adequate amounts of
water to a well depends on the presence of a network of fractures. Because
the underlying formations vary significantly across the Basin, the quality
and quantity of water delivered varies from site to site. Landers (1976)
reported that wells in the eastern half of the Basin typically yield 50 to
150 gpm, whereas those in western half typically yield 15 to 50 gpm. In the
eastern half of the Basin sandstone formations are generally the best
2-23
-------
Figure 2-5
COMMUNITIES WITH PUBLIC DRINKING
WATER SUPPLIES TAKEN FROM UNDER
GROUND AND SURFACE SOURCES IN
THE NORTH BRANCH POTOMAC RIVER
BASIN(Hobba etal. I972.WAPORA 1980)
UNDERGROUND SOURCE
SURFACE SOURCE
ELK GARDEN
BAYARD
2-24
-------
aquifers, although locally, limestone can be an excellent aquifer. Shale
produces the poorest water yields. Coal seams typically are underlain by
relatively impermeable strata such as shale, and they also serve as
aquifers. The characteristics of all the aquifers in the Basin are
summarized in Table 2-8.
2.1.2.2. Groundwater Quality
Groundwater quality is determined by several factors. Minerals can be
picked up by surface water as it passes through the ground to the water
table. Pumping can draw upward the deep, highly saline water layer beneath
some sections of the Basin. Various materials can be dissolved in the
surface water before it enters the ground, including materials added to the
water by acid mine drainage. Despite localized problems such as high
chloride levels, groundwater in the Basin generally is of sufficient quality
for potable use.
The aquifers of the Basin generally yield calcium carbonate-bicarbonate
water. Water from some of the shales, limestones, and coal-bearing rocks is
nearly a calcium sulfate type. Weak carbonic acid solutions are formed as
calcium carbonate-bicarbonate water infiltrates the ground and comes in
contact with carbon dioxide produced during the natural decomposition of
organic material. Weak carbonic acid solutions infiltrate and then react
with the limestone, shale, clays, and minerals to leach sodium, calcium, and
magnesium. These elements then react further to form bicarbonate ions.
Iron, manganese, and other constituents also are leached by acidic
waters. The dissolved iron content of groundwater is inversely proportional
to pH, being typically about 2 rag/1 at pH 6 and under 0.2 mg/1 at pH 8.
Iron also is present in well water in suspended form, at highly variable
concentrations that may be several times the dissolved iron concentrations.
Total iron concentrations in the range of 10 to 60 mg/1 are found
occasionally under natural conditions, but iron in excess of 0.3 mg/1 is
considered objectionable for household use because it imparts a poor taste
to the water and stains laundry. Manganese typically is dissolved, and
generally is present in the range of 10% to 50% of the dissolved iron
content. Manganese can cause stains and bad taste in drinking water when
present in excess of 0.05 mg/1. Because of taste and staining problems the
Safe Water Drinking Act specifies that iron and manganese concentrations in
public water supplies not exceed 0.3 and 0.05 mg/1, respectively.
Sulfate is also of concern, because at concentrations above 250 mg/1 it
can cause diarrhea. The recharge of aquifers by streams contaminated with
sulfate from acid mine drainage and from nearby underground mining activity
can increase groundwater sulfate levels. The dissolution of local gypsum or
other sulfate minerals also can be a contributing factor. In northern West
Virginia most wells and springs with more than 100 mg/1 sulfate in the water
receive drainage from mines within a few hundred feet, and all wells and
springs with sulfate concentrations greater than 250 mg/1 (the US drinking
2-25
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-------
water standard) are located near sources of acid mine drainage (Rauch 1980).
Rauch suggested that most wells and springs with more than 100 mg/1 sulfate
are being contaminated by mine drainage, and that most wells and springs
with less than 100 mg/1 are either not affected or not significantly contam-
inated. There are insufficient data on groundwater supplies in the North
Branch Potomac Basin to determine precisely the extent to which mining is
affecting groundwater sulfate levels.
Because of the complex nature of the Basin's geology there is no single
set of typical or normal values that can be used on a Basin-wide basis to
establish baseline conditions. Based on data from Hobba et al. (1972), the
Basin was broken down into three sub-areas with the following groundwater
characteristics:
Appalachian New Creek Remainder of
Plateau Valley Basin
Iron (mg/1) 0.5 1.5 0.2
Sulfate (mg/1) 19 473 6-60
The above data suggest that (1) groundwater quality in the New Creek Valley
is poor as a result of excessive natural iron and sulfate levels; (2)
groundwater quality in the Appalachian Plateau (the principal coal-bearing
area of the Basin) is good in terms of sulfate but only moderate in terms of
iron; and (3) elsewhere in the Basin background iron levels are low, and
sulfate concentrations are variable. Another general rule is that
groundwater beneath the ridges in the Basin has lower concentrations of
dissolved minerals than that beneath valleys, because the ridges are mainly
recharge areas and the valleys mainly discharge areas and because the slow
movement of water through the valley shales dissolves larger amounts of
minerals than does the rapid movement of water through the sandstone and
limestone ridges.
Both underground and surface coal mines can disrupt water supplies by
dewatering aquifers that are encountered in the course of mining. For
example, blasting can fracture rock strata and create new flow patterns.
Underground mines constitute major voids where water can flow much more
rapidly than in ordinary fractures and between the grains of overlying
rocks. The water that accumulates in mines is a nuisance or hazard for the
mine operator, who must pump or otherwise drain it to provide access to his
workings, thus insuring a continuing drawdown during active mining
operations. Hobba et al. (1972) suggested that underground drainage due to
mining has occurred beneath part of the Abram Creek watershed.
Surface mines can increase the rate of flow from a hillside by
intercepting water at the highwall. The effect of mining on groundwater
movement varies with distance; this relationship, in turn, is very much
affected by local geologic conditions. The magnitude of the effect depends
both on the rate of change in water movement through the system and on the
presence of water supply wells in the affected zone. Well levels and yields
vary in response to pumpage rates and recharge rates; hence it historically
has been difficult to establish unequivocally the effects of mining on
2-30
-------
nearby water supplies. Full implementation of the Surface Mining Control
and Reclamation Act of 1977 and the West Virginia Surface Coal Mining and
Reclamation Act of 1980 should assure that adequate data on local
groundwater supplies are collected prior to mining, so that probable impacts
can be anticipated and mitigations can be implemented for individual mines
(see Section 4.0).
Groundwater pollution from coal mining can be either direct or
indirect. The water in wells downhill or downgradient from a mine can be
affected directly by groundwater that flows through pits, ponds, or
underground pools and from infiltration through spoil or gob piles.
Blasting can initiate indirect leakage of ponded drainage from old under-
ground mines in the same or different coal seams as those being mined. Acid
mine drainage in groundwater typically undergoes a greater degree of acid
neutralization and iron precipitation than in surface water because it moves
much more slowly away from the mine and has opportunity for contact with
carbonate minerals such as calcite and dolomite. Sulfate ordinarily remains
in solution, is not precipitated, and therefore is often a good indicator
for mine contamination.
Underground mines have been shown to produce drainage characterized by
low pH, high iron, and high sulfate, based on the reaction of pyrite
(FeS2), when exposed to air and water by mining activity. This reaction
produces an iron sulfate-sulfuric acid solution. Such a solution could
enter an aquifer either through fractures or directly where the aquifer is
exposed by the mining activity. The acidic solution can be neutralized
rapidly by materials such as limestone, resulting in an increase in the
hardness of the groundwater, but not affecting the elevated sulfate content.
The iron generally is removed by precipitation as a hydrated ferric oxide or
a ferrous carbonate. Limestone is present over much of the Basin. Its
absence locally can preclude the desirable neutralization of mine acid.
Springs and very shallow wells are more likely to be affected by surface
mine drainage than are cased wells deeper than 30 feet (Rauch 1980).
2-31
-------
2.2 Aquatic Biota
-------
Page
2.2. Aquatic Biota 2-32
2.2.1. Stream Habitats 2-32
2.2.2. Biological Communities 2-32
2.2.2.1. Criteria for Biologically Important Areas 2-33
2.2.2.1.1. Trout Waters 2-33
2.2.2.1.2. Areas of High Diversity 2-33
2.2.2.1.3. Streams Containing Macroinverte- 2-35
brate Indicator Species
2.2.2.1.4. Areas Containing Species of 2-39
Special Interest
2.2.2.1.5. Areas of Special Interest 2-39
2.2.2.1.6. Nonsensitive and Unclassifiable 2-41
Areas
2.2.2.2. Application of the Criteria and Data 2-41
Limitations
2.2.2.2.1. Trout and Other Game Species 2-42
2.2.2.2.2. Fish Diversity 2-42
2.2.2.2.3. Macroinvertebrate Indicator 2-43
Species
2.2.2.2.4. Species of Special Interest 2-45
2.2.2.2.5. Areas of Special Interest 2-45
2.2.3. Erroneous Classification 2-45
-------
2.2. AQUATIC BIOTA
As discussed in Section 2.1., many of the North Branch tributaries are
polluted by AMD. These streams are characterized by pH values between 3 and
5, and have concentrations of iron typically greater than 10 mg/1. Examples
include Dobbin Ridge Run, Piney Swamp Run, Elk Run, Buffalo Creek, Deakin
Run, Abram Creek, Little Buffalo Creek, Glade Run, and Emory Creek. In some
streams low pH was measured a short distance downstream from a mine effluent
discharge, but the watershed above that point maintained good water quality
and a diverse fauna. Streams which are known to have an important community
upstream from the mine discharges in their watersheds are Dobbin Ridge Run,
Elk Run, Howell Run, Buffalo Creek, Red Oak Creek, Difficult Creek, Mill
Run, Johnnycake Run and Wycroff Run off Abram Creek, and the headwaters of
the Stony River. In these streams the important and often diverse
biological community is a good indicator of high water quality. The only
major stream which has good water quality throughout its watershed is New
Creek.
2.2.1. Stream Habitats
Stream habitat data for the Basin were acquired from WVDNR-Wildlife
Resources and from a report by Ambionics (1974). The gravel-rubble-boulder
habitats common in Basin streams not only provide good cover and shelter for
fish but also provide excellent substrates for macroinvertebrates. At 7 of
the 11 stations sampled by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources, personnel the cover was
rated good or excellent; at the remaining four stations it was rated fair.
Aquatic vegetation is sparse in the tributary streams of the Basin, but may
provide habitat in sections of the North Branch Potomac River. Aquatic
vegetation also may provide habitat in Stony River Reservoir, but no infor-
mation was available for this Reservoir. The remaining reservoirs in the
Basin (Mount Storm Lake and Bloomington Lake) have acid conditions which
effectively preclude important communities of aquatic organisms at present.
Other important habitat factors are the percentages of pools and
riffles, the area and depth of the water, and the water temperature. Among
the tributary streams in the Basin only New Creek, Stony River, and possibly
Abram Creek provide large pool areas as a result of their moderate fall
rates (less than 85 feet per mile). Of the remaining six major streams in
the North Branch Potomac River Basin, four have fall rates greater than
137 feet per mile, and two have fall rates greater than 250 feet per mile
(Ambionics 1974). Such streams are likely to provide a predominantly riffle
habitat except near their mouths.
Temperature is dependent upon such characteristics as shading, the
water source (e.g., springs, etc.), and season. Of the streams in the
Basin, only New Creek from its mouth to a point four miles upstream has a
summer temperature consistently over 70°F and therefore is considered a
warmwater stream. All other streams in the Basin, including the upper
reaches of New Creek, provide coldwater habitat.
2.2.2. Biological Communities
In the following sections descriptions are given for the criteria which
were used to determine biologically significant areas in the North Branch
2-32
-------
Potomac River Basin. These criteria are then applied to existing data in
order to categorize the streams.
2.2.2.1. Criteria for Biologically Important Areas (BIA's)
In order to determine aquatic-related impacts which ultimately can be
expected as a result of coal mining in the Basin, it is necessary to
identify both those aquatic resources that are inherently sensitive to coal
mining activities (e.g., trout streams) and those that contain exceptional
or highly diverse faunal assemblages. The areas that warrant the greatest
degree of protection when new sources of wastewater discharge are proposed
are here designated as Biologically Important Areas (BIA's). BIA's are
subdivided into Category I (sensitive) and Category II (extremely sensitive)
types on the basis of sensitivity to mine-related pollutants, stream size,
mine-waste assimilation capacity, and other available information. The
purpose of this classification of streams and their watersheds is to flag
areas where the best available data indicate the presence of significant
biological populations sensitive to mining impacts.
Any system that attempts to establish the environmental worth of an
area or resource is, of necessity, based on scientific judgment and
constrained by available data. For this document, prime reliance was placed
on classification systems that used quantitative data (e.g., diversity
indices) and on traditionally accepted indicators of high value (e.g., trout
streams, rare or unusual species). Areas generally were considered
Biologically Important (either Category I or Category II) if they met one or
more of the criteria defined in the following paragraphs.
2.2.2.1.1. Trout Waters (Criterion 1). Trout require a habitat of
high water quality in which to live and breed, and are highly sensitive to
mining impacts. For example, concentrations of iron greater than 1.37 mg/1
are known to affect trout adversely (Menendez 1979), and trout eggs and
larvae are harmed by pH values of 6.5 or less (Menendez 1976). Increased
sedimentation resulting from mining also has an adverse impact on spawning
by smothering eggs which under natural conditions, are laid in oxygen-rich
gravel substrates. Thus, because the presence of trout is an indication of
high water quality, trout waters, both native and stocked, are designated as
BIA's. In order to protect any stream or lake known to contain trout, it
also is necessary to preserve water quality in all tributaries adjacent to
or upstream from the segment containing trout. Therefore, the entire
watershed above a trout stream or lake is considered to be a BIA.
Table 2-9 presents fish species determined to be indicators of water
quality; these species may not be limited to trout.
2.2.2.1.2. Areas of High Diversity (Criterion (2). To determine the
quality of the aquatic biota at those stations in the Basin for which
quantitative data were available, Shannon-Weaver diversity indices and
equitability indices were calculated. The Shannon-Weaver diversity index
(d) measures both species richness (i.e., the number of species present) and
the distribution of individuals among those speciesthe higher the value of
d, the better the condition of the aquatic environment. The diversity index
theoretically can range from 0 to Iog2 N where N - the total number of
individuals captured. In practice d typically ranges from 0 to 4.0. Values
greater than 3.0 are indicative of unpolluted conditions (Wilhm 1970).
2-33
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Table 2-9. West Virginia fish species determined to be indicators of
water quality as defined by sensitivity to turbidity and sedimentation
(WAPORA 1980; data from Pflieger 1975, Clay 1975, Trautman 1957, and
Scott and Grossman 1973). See footnote for definitions.
Ichthyomyzon bdellium
I. unicuspis
Lampetra aepyptera
L. lamottei
Polyodon spathula
Leplsosteus osseus
Anqutlla rostrata
Alosa chysochloris
A_^ pseudoharengus
Dorosoma cepedianun
D. petenense
Hiodon alosoides
H^ tcrgisus
Salmo galrdneri
S^ trutta
SnivelInus fontinalis
Esox americanus
E. lucius
E^ masqulnongy
Campostoma anoroalum
Cyprinus carpio
Erlcvmba buccata
Hybopsis aestlvalls
H. amblops
H^ dissimilis
H. storeriana
N'ocomis mlcropogon
N. platyrhynchus
Notcmigonus crysoleucas
N'otropis albeolus
Jl^ atherlnoides
N. blennlus
N^ buchananl
N. chrysocephalus
N. cornutus
N. dorsalis
N. hudsonius
N. photogenis
N. rubellus
N. scabrlceps
N^ spllopterus
N^. stramlneus
telescopus
umbratalus
1L.
IL.
N.
volucellus
N. whlpplel
Phenacoblus mirabilis
P. teretulus
Phoxinus erythrogaster
Pimephales notatus
P. promelas
P^ vigllax
Rhlnlchthys atratulus
R^ cataractae
Semotilus atromaculatus
Carplodes carpio
C. cyprinus
C_^ vellfer
Catostomus commersoni
Erimyzon oblongus
Hypentelium nigrlcans
I
I
S
S
U
I
NS
I
I
NS
NS
NS
S
S
S
S
I
I
I
I
NS
I
NS
S
S
NS
I
U
NS
U
NS
NS
S
NS
I
U
I
1
S
S
NS
I
U
I
NS
I
NS
S
S
NS
NS
NS
S
S
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
I
S
Ictiobus bubalus
I. cyrpinellus
I. niger
Minytrema melanops
Moxostoma anlsurum
M. carinatum
M. duquesnei
M. erythrurum
M. macrolepldotum
Ictalurus catus
I. melas
I. natalis
I. nebulosus
I. punctatus
Notorus f lavus
N. miurus
Pylodictus olivaris
Percopsis omiscomaycus
Labidesthes^ slcculus
Morone chrysops
M. saxatilus
Ambloplites rupestris
Lepomis auritus
L. cyanellus
L. gibbosus
L. gulosus
L^ humilis
L. macrochirus
L. megalotis
L. microlophus
Micropterus dolomieui
M. punctulatus
M. salmoides
Pomoxis annular is
P. nigromaculatus
Ammocrypta pellucida
Etheostoma blennioides
E.
E.
caeruleum
camurum
E. flahellare
E. maculatum
E.
nigrum
olmstedi
osburni
tippecanoe
variatum
zonale
E.
E.
Perca flavescens
Percina caprodes
P. copelandi
P_^ evldes
P. macrocephala
P. maculata
P. oxyrhyncha
P_^ sciera
Stizostedion canadense
S. virteum
Aplodinotus grunniens
Cottus bairdi
carolinae
I
NS
NS
S
S
S
I
I
I
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
I
I
NS
I
I
I
S
I
I
NS
I
I
NS
I
I
I
S
I
I
NS
S
S
S
S
S
I
S
NS
I
S
S
S
S
S
S
I
S
S
I
U
I
NS
S
NS
I
I
U
S = Sensitive, defined as highly susceptible; would be extirpated under continuous turbid conditions
or if sedimentation were severe; 36 species identified. I = Intermediate; can withstand periodic
high turbidities and some sedimentation; 42 species identified. NS = Not Sensitive; unlikely to be
affected adversely except in the most severely polluted conditions; 36 species identified.
U » Unknown; 7 species identified.
2-34
-------
Equitability (e) measures the component of diversity affected by the
distribution of individuals among species. In unpolluted habitats most
species are represented by only a few individuals, whereas in polluted
environments there typically are few species but many individuals of each
species. The measure of equitability is calculated by the formula e = S+
where S = number of taxa in the sample and S^ = the hypothetical number^of
taxa as calculated by Lloyd and Ghelardi (1964) using the MacArthur's
(1957) model for "3". Values of e generally range from 0 to 1; those greater
than 0.8 usually indicate unpolluted conditions (Wilhm 1970).
BIA's were identified for this assessment where one or both of the
following conditions were met:
At least 50 specimens and at least 4 species were
captured, and the diversity value was Xi.O
At least 50 specimens and at least 4 species were
captured, and the equitability value was X>.8.
There are certain limitations associated with these indices, but
unusual or atypical events (such as ineffective sampling techniques,
abnormal flow conditions, and equipment malfunctions) all tend to reduce the
number of species captured and thus the values of "d and e. Only through
misidentification, however, can diversity values and equitability values be
increased, because the maximum number of species at any given location is
fixed. High index values can be achieved only as a result of the actual
capture of species. Thus, stream segments having "devalues X3.0 can be
reasonably considered to have highly diversified aquatic populations at the
time of sampling. Conversely, however, a low Shannon-Weaver value is not
necessarily indicative of low diversity, because it may have been the result
of improper sampling. The same considerations apply to equitability values.
Estimates of both parameters increase in reliability as sample size
increases. Estimates derived from samples containing less than 100
specimens should be evaluated cautiously (Weber 1973).
Diversity and equitability measure the environmental quality of a
stream at a given point in time. Because many of the data for sampling
stations in the Basin used to calculate the values shown in Appendix A,
Tables A-l and A-2 are not recent, conditions in these streams may have
changed significantly since the original collections were made. In most
cases, additional monitoring will be required in BIA Category I and Category
II areas and in unclassifiable areas as discussed later in this section.
The nature of the monitoring is specified in Section 5.2.
2.2.2.1.3. Streams Containing Macroinvertebrate Indicator Species
(Criterion 3). Certain macroinvertebrate species are intolerant of toxic
substances, siltation, organic enrichment, and other forms of environmental
disturbance. Thus, the presence of these species in a stream is indicative
of high water quality (Weber 1973). Several classification schemes have
been developed (Mason et al. 1971, Weber 1973, Lewis 1974). A species was
considered to be a reliable indicator for use in this assessment only if the
above three sources all agreed that the species was known to exist
exclusively in unpolluted waters (Table 2-10). Because certain factors can
cause errors in interpretation (e.g., downstream drift), it was decided that
2-35
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Table 2-10. Macroinvertebrate species used as indicators to designate
BIA's. These organisms are identified as intolerant of toxic sub-
stances, siltation, organic enrichment, and other forms of environmental
disturbance by Mason et al. (1971), Weber (1973), and Lewis (1974).
Phylum Porifera
Spongilla fragilis
Phylum Bryozoa
Plumatella polymorpha var. repens
Lophopodella carteri
Pectinatella magnifica
Phylum Arthropoda
Order Hydracarina
Class Crustacea
Order Isopoda
Asellus spp.
Order Decapoda
Cambarus bartoni bartoni
Cambarus conasaugaensis
Cambarus asperimanus
Cambarus acuminatus
Cambarus hiwassensis
Cambarus extraneus
Cambarus cryptodytes
Cambarus longulus longirostris
Procambarus raneyi
Procambarus acutus acutus
Procambarus paeninsulanus
Procambarus spiculifer
Procambarus versutus
Orconectes juvenilis
Class Insecta
Order Diptera
Pentaneura inculta
Pentaneura carneosa
Pentaneura spp.
Ablabesmyia americana
Ablabesmyia mallochi
Ablabesmyia ornata
Ablabesmyia aspera
Ablabesmyia auriensis
Ablabesmyia spp.
Labrundinia floridana
Labrundinia pilosella
Labrundinia virescens
Coelotanypus concinnus
Tanypus stellatus
Clinotanypus caliginosus
Orthocladius obumbratus
Orthocladius spp.
Nanocladius spp.
Psectrocladius spp.
Metriocnemus lundbecki
Cricotopus bicinictus
Cricotopus exilis
Cricotopus trifasciatus
Cricotopus politus
Cricotopus tricinctus
Cricotopus absurdus
Cricotopus spp.
Corynoneura taris
Corynoneura scutellata
Corynoneura spp.
Thienemanniella xena
Thienemanniella spp.
Trichocladius robaki
Brillia par
Diamesa nivoriumda
Diamesa spp.
Prodiamesa olivacca
Chironomus attenuatus group
Chironomus tentans
Chironomus plumosus
Chironomus anthracinus
Chironomus paganus
Kiefferullus dux
Cryptochironomus fulvus
CryptoChironomus digitatus
Cryptochironomus sp. B (Joh.)
Cryptochironomus blarina
Cryptochironomus psittacinus
Chaetolabis atroviridis
Chaetolabis ochreatus
Endochironomus nigricans
Stenochironomus macateei
Stenochironomus hilaris
Stictochironomus devinctus
2-36
-------
Table 2-10. (Continued).
Stictochironomus varius
Xenochironomus xenolabis
Xenochironomus scopula
Pseudochironomus richardson
Pseudochironomus spp.
Microtendipes pedellus
Microtendipes spp.
Paratendipes albimanus
Tribelos jucundus
Tribelos fuscicornis
Harnischia tenulcaudata
Phaenopsectra spp.
Dicrotendipes neomedestus
Dicrotendipes nervosus
Dicrotendipes fumidus
Glyptotendipes senilis
Glyptotendipes paripes
Glyptotendipes lobiferus
Polypedilum halterale
Polypedilum fallax
Polypedilum illinoense
Paratanytarsus dissimilis
Paratanytarsus slmulans
Paratanytarsus nubeculosum
Paratanytarsus vibex
Polypedilum spp.
Tanytarsus neoflavelj^us
Tanytarsus gracilentus
Tanytarsus dissimilis
Rheotanytarsus exiguus
Micropsectra dives
Micropsectra deflecta
Micropsectra nigripula
Calopsectra spp.
Stempellina johannseni
Anopheles punctipennis
Chaoborus punctipennis
Tipula caloptera
Tipula abdominalis
Pseudolimnophila luteipennis
Hexatoma spp.
Telmatoscopus spp.
Simulium venustrum
Simulium spp.
Prosimulium johannseni
Cnephia pecuarum
Tabanus stratus
Tabanus stygius
Tabanus benedictus
Tabanus variegatus
Tabanus spp.
Order Trichoptera
Hydropsychidae simulans
Hydropsychidae frisoni
Hydropsychidae incommoda
Hydropsychg spp.
Macronemum Carolina
Macronemum spp.
Psychomyia spp.
Neureclipsis crepuseularis
Polycentropus spp.
Oxyethira spp.
Rhyacophila spp.
Hydroptila waubesiana
Hydroptila spp.
Ochrotrichia spp.
Agraylea spp.
Leptocella spp.
Athripsodes spp.
Chimarra perigua
Chimarra spp.
Brachycentrus spp.
Order Ephemeroptera
Stenonema rubromaculatum
Stenonema fuscum
Stenonema fuscum rivulicolum
Stenonema gildersleevei
Stenonema interpunctatum ohioense
Stenonema interpunctatus canadense
Stenonema pudicum
Stenonema proximum
Stenonema tripunctatum
Stenonema floridense
Stenonema luteum
Stenonema mediopunctatus
Stenonema bipunctatum
Stenonema candidum
Stenonema carlsoni
Stenonema Carolina
2-37
-------
Table 2-10. (Concluded).
Hexagenia limbata
Hexagenia bllineata
Pentagenla vittgera
Beatis vagans
Caenis spp.
Isonychia spp.
Order Plecoptera
Perlesta placida
Acroneuria arlda
Taeniopteryx nivalis
Isoperla biliueata
Order Neuroptera
Glimacia areolaris
Order Megaloptera
Corydalis cornutus
Sialis infumata
Order Odonata
Hetaerina titla
Argia spp.
Enallagma signatum
Anax junius
Gomphus plagiatus
Gomphus externus
Progomphus spp.
Macromla spp.
Order Coleoptera
Stenelmis crenata
Stenelmis sexlineata
Promoresla spp.
Macronychus glabratus
Anacyronyx variegatus
Microcylloepus pusillus
Tropisternus dorsalis
Phylum Mollusca
Class Gastropoda
Valvata tricarinata
Valvata blcarinata
Valvata bicarinata var. nprmalis
Vivaparus contectoides
Vivaparus subpurpurea
Campeloma decisum
Lloplax subcarinatus
Goniobasis spp.
Amnicola emarginata
Amnicola limosa
Somatogyrus subglobosus
Order Physidae
Physa acuta
Physa fontinalis
Aplexa hypnorum
Lymnaea polustris
Lymnaea stagnalis
Lymnaea s. appressa
Pianorbis carinatus
Planorbis corneus
Pianorbis marginatus
Ancylus lacustris
Ancylus fluviatilis
Ferrissia rivularis
Class Pelecypoda
Margaritifera margaritifera
Proptera alata
Leptodea fragilis
Unio batavus
Unlo pictorum
Lampsilis parvus
Truncilla donaciformis
Truncilla elegans
Anodonta mutabilis
Proptera alata
Leptodea fragilis
Obliguaria reflexa
Corbicula manilensis
Sphaerium moenanum
Sphaerium vivicolum
Sphaerium solidulum
Pisidium fossarinum
Pisidium pauperculum crystalense
Pisidium amnicum
2-38
-------
at least two species of intolerant macroinvertebrate species had to be
present before an area could be considered a BIA for the purposes of this
assessment.
2.2.2.1.4. Areas Containing Species of Special Interest (Criterion 4).
Areas that contain aquatic organisms that have been classified as threatened
or endangered according to the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (16 USC 1531
et seq.) were considered to be BIA's. There is no State act that protects
endangered species in West Virginia. Organisms which potentially qualify
for such protection, however, have been identified by WVDNR-HTP.
The majority of aquatic organisms included in the WVDNR-HTP inventory
are peripheral species at the edge of their geographical range. They are
rare in West Virginia, but may be common or even abundant in other parts
of the US. The State list of fish that are considered rare or of special
interest is currently being revised by WVDNR-HTP personnel in conjunction
with Dr. Jay Stauffer and Dr. Charles Hocutt of the Appalachian
Environmental Research Laboratory (Verbally, Mr. John Delfino, WVDNR-HTP, to
Mr. Greg Seegert, February 6, 1980). A list of species provided by
WVDNR-HTP containing proposed revisions was used to identify areas worthy of
protection for this assessment (Table 2-11).
2.2.2.1.5. Areas of Special Interest (Criterion 5). Areas which do
not fall into any of the above categories, but nevertheless deserve special
attention or protection during New Source permit review also will be
considered on a case by case basis by EPA as Category I or II BIA1s.
Examples may include multipurpose reservoirs, areas known to support a
substantial sport fishery, or areas supporting aquatic communities that, in
the professional judgment of the agency investigator, are especially
susceptible to mining activities.
BIA Category I and Category II
The further differentiation of BIA's, once identified, into Category I
and Category II levels was accomplished qualitatively on the basis of
consultation with technical experts, State agency review, and citizen input.
At the heart of the differentiation was the extreme sensitivity of certain
species to sediment, pH, iron and other mine-related pollutants. Current
regulatory programs under SMCRA and WVSCMRA also were considered. EPA has
determined that because of certain species' extreme sensitivity to
mine-related pollutants that could be expected even with current regulatory
efforts, a special category (Category II) was necessary which would be
associated with special mitigative measures or requirements prior to permit
issuance (see Section 5.2.). The sensitive species identified in BIA
Category I areas would be asssociated with less stringent mitigative
measures because of these species' lesser sensitivity.
All trout waters, whether native or stocked, have been classified as
either Category I or II BIA's (by Criterion 1). Exceptions are allowed for
some of the other criteria, however. For example, there may be waterbodies
which satisfy one or more of Criteria 2 through 5 but are not designated as
Category I or II BIA's on the basis of best professional judgment concerning
the significance of the criterion in the individual case. All BIA's and
2-39
-------
Table 2-11. Species of special interest that were used to designate BIA's.
These species have been classified as rare, threatened or endangered,
and/or in need of special protection (WVDNR-HTP 1980 as revised). This
list incorporates the review of Dr. Jay Stauffer (Verbally, Dr. Jay Stauffer,
University of Maryland, to Mr. Gregory Seegert, February 27, 1980).
Fish
Ichthvomyzon unicuspis
Ichthyomyzon bdellium
Ichthyomyzon greeleyi
Lampetra lamottei
Acipenser fulvescens
Polyodon spathula
Scaphirhynchus platorynchus
Hiodon tergisus
Hiodon alosoides
Notropis ariommus
Notropis dorsalis
Notropis scabriceps
Clinostromus elongatus
Exoglossum laurae
Hybopsis gracilia
Hybopsis storeriana
Nocomis platyrhynchus
Phenacobius teretulus
Pimephales vigilax
Phoxinus erythrogaster
Catostomus catostomus
Cycleptus elongatus
Etheostome longimanum
Etheostome raculatum
Etheostoma osburni
Etheostoma tippecanoe
Percina copelandi
Ammocrypta pellucida
Percina notogramma
Cottus girardi
Notropis buchanani
Silver lamprey
Ohio lamprey
Allegheny brook lamprey
American brook lamprey
Lake sturgeon
Paddelfish
Shovelnose sturgeon
Mooneye
Goldeye
Popeye shiner
Bigmouth shiner
New River shiner
Redside dace
Tonguetied minnow
Flathead chub
Silver chub
Bigmouth chub
Kanawha minnow
Bullhead minnow
Southern redbelly dace
Longnose sucker
Blue sucker
Longfin darter
Spotted darter
Finescaled saddled darter
Tippecanoe darter
Channel darter
Eastern sand darter
Stripback darter
Potomac sculpin
Ghost shiner
Shellfish
Epioblasma torulosa torulosa*
(-Dysonomia)
Lampsilis orbiculata orbiculata*
Tuberculed blossom pearly mussel
Pink mucket pearly mussel
*0n the Federal List of Threatened and Endangered Species
2-40
-------
criteria for the designation of each, are listed in Table 5-4 in Section
5.2. and are shown in Figure 2-41 in Section 2.8.
2.2.2.1.6. Nonsensitive and Unclassifiable Areas. In addition to
identifying BIA's (Category I and Category II), nonsensitive areas (i.e.,
those streams for which the New Source effluent limitations are sufficient
to prevent adverse effects) were identified. These primarily are areas that
are already heavily polluted or where adequate dilution capacity exists to
accept New Source discharges that meet effluent limitations.
Unclassifiable areas are those for which sufficient information did not
exist at the time of this assessment to allow assignment to a category.
Unclassifiable areas could be designated as either BIA's or nonsensitive
areas on the basis of additional data. As new data become available, EPA
could update the information in this document and reclassify these areas as
either BIA's or nonsensitive areas. The sampling data required by EPA for
New Source applications from unclassifiable areas are described in Section
5.2.
2.2.2.2. Application of the Criteria and Data Limitations
In this Section the available data on the aquatic resources in the
Basin are used to categorize the streams. Nearly 40 papers and technical
reports were reviewed during the preparation of this section^ but very few
contained the site-specific, quantitative data necessary for a thorough
areawide assessment. The data in the following text and tables were taken
predominantly from file data supplied by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources and by
WVDNR-HTP under contract to WAPORA, including species management information
from the RUNWILD computer program, computer-stored stream surveys, stream
sampling data for fish and invertebrates, the West Virginia Benthological
Survey (Tarter 1976b), published and unpublished literature on fish fauna
provided by Drs. Stauffer and Hocutt of the University of Maryland (1979,
1980), and other information supplied by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources
personnel.
Biological data by their nature are extremely variable; the data
presented herein are subject to three sources of variation:
o Temporal considerations. Biological sampling provides an
integrated assessment of conditions over an extended
period, in contrast to the instantaneous information from
one-time chemical sampling. The fish and
macroinvertebrate data used for this assessment were
collected over a 20-year period. Most of the stations
were sampled only once, however, and conditions may have
changed significantly in particular streams since sampling
was conducted.
o Sampling efficiency and gear bias. Both the fish and
macroinvertebrate data were gathered using a wide range of
sampling techniques and gear types including
electrofishing, seines, gill nets, hoop nets, poison,
several types of bottom dredges, Surber samplers, and fine
2-41
-------
mesh nets. Each of these gear types has its own inherent
biases. Also, the area sampled varied considerably.
Operator Efficiency. Individuals with varying levels of
expertise were involved in collecting the data included in
this report. It is assumed that all individuals
participating in the collections were trained for their
respective tasks, but the actual level of expertise of
these individuals undoubtedly varied with respect to
operating the sampling gear or identifying the specimens
with accuracy.
2.2.2.2.1. Trout and Other Game Species. Nineteen trout waters in the
Basin are listed in Table 2.5 in Section 2.1. These streams were determined
from WVDNR data and may or may not currently contain trout. Trout are the
fish most frequently sought by sports fishermen in the Basin and are one of
the most important economic and recreational resources of the Basin. Other
species of fish stocked in the Basin include smallmouth bass, channel
catfish, largemouth bass, bluegill, and black crappie. ( Fishermen spent an
estimated 54,700 days during 1975 angling for these and other game species.)
This activity provides an important stimulus to the Basin's economy through
the purchase of food, bait, tackle, gasoline, and other items by fishermen.
Trout streams and their watersheds in the North Branch Potomac River Basin
are designated as Category II BIA's.
Of the stations that had equitability (e) values over 0.8 (Stations 3,
5, 7, 25, 40, and 41; Appendix A, .Tables A-l and A-2), only Station 25 was
not located on a trout stream. Station 25 was not considered to identify
either a Category I or II BIA, because of the size and present water quality
of the North Branch Potomac River.
2.2.2.2.2. Fish Diversity. Only fish data from the Basin were
available for diversity calculations. Fish species found specifically
within the North Branch Potomac River Basin in West Virginia have not been
summarized in the literature. Stauffer et al. (1978) provided a list of the
fishes found in the Upper Potomac River drainage area (Appendix A, Table
A-3) from Pennsylvania, Maryland, and West Virginia upstream from Harper's
Ferry, West Virginia. Additional literature includes Lewis (1974), Jenkins
et al. (1972), Goldsborough and Clark (1908), Davis (1978b), and WVDNR file
data.
There are three large reservoirs within the North Branch Potomac River
Basin: Bloomington Lake, Stony River Reservoir, and Mount Storm Lake.
Juhle (1978) reported that the pH of Bloomington Lake likely is too low to
allow most fish to survive. According to WVDNR-Wildlife Resources (1973),
the Stony River Reservoir also has low pH levels which caused stocking to be
discontinued. Abundant fish populations in the Reservoir were reported
during the late 1960's (Lewis 1970), and continued through the mid-1970's
until recent acid precipitation apparently decreased the fish population by
lowering the pH (Verbally, from Mr. Gerald Lewis, WVDNR-Wildlife Resources,
to Mr. Joseph Andrea, April 2, 1980). Mount Storm Lake is owned by the
Virginia Electric and Power Company (VEPCO), whose adjacent electric
generating plant began operation in 1965. Lewis (1970) reported that a good
trout population previously had existed in the Lake. Waste heat from the
2-42
-------
generating station has since warmed Mount Storm Lake and destroyed its trout
population. In 1968 largemouth bass were being caught regularly, but an
increase in acidity in the lake by 1970 due to surface mining in the
watershed subsequently destroyed this fishery (Lewis 1970). By. 1973 active
surface mining had ceased and fish populations again increased ,in the Lake,
only to be virtually eliminated by abandoned mine runoff in 1978 (Verbally,
from Mr. Gerald Lewis, WVDNR-Wildlife Resources, to Mr. Joseph Andrea,
April 2, 1980).
Stream surveys were conducted by WVDNR personnel during the mid-1960's
and the 1970's, and by Stauffer and Hocutt during the late 1970's. The
stations sampled by WVDNR are described in Appendix A, Table A-4. Table A-5
is a list of stations sampled by Stauffer and Hocutt inside the Basin, and
for comparison Table A-6 lists stations sampled by Stauffer and Hocutt which
are outside the Basin but still within the Upper Potomac drainage of West ',
Virginia. Numbers and species of fish taken at each station are given in
Tables A-l, A-2, and A-7, which correspond to Tables A-4, A-5, and A-6 in
Appendix A. Figure 2-6 shows the location of all sampling stations in. the
Basin.
None of the sampling surveys taken in the Basin had Shannon-Weaver
diversity index (d) values greater than 3.0 (See Appendix A). Only
Stations 3, 5, 7, 25, 40, and 41 had equitability (e) values above 0.8
(Tables A-l and A-2). Half of these (3, 40, 41) are located on New Creek.
In Table A-7, seven of the 33 stations (21%) have either d values X3.0
or e values X).8. This compares to six of 44 stations (14%) in the Basin.
The data in Tables A-2 and A-7 are especially useful for comparative
purposes because they were gathered by the same investigators over the same
general time period using similar levels of effort in the same watershed.
Outside the Basin an average of 10.2 species were captured per station
(Table A-7), compared to only 4.1 species per station inside the Basin
(Table A-2). Further, fish were collected at each of the 33 stations
outside the Basin (Table A-7), whereas no fish were collected at nine (27%)
of the 33 stations in the Basin (Table A-2); stations with no data were
omitted, e.g. 16 and 18). The poor diversity found in the Basin's fish
fauna is undoubtedly related to the very low pH values found in many of the
Basin streams.
2.2.2.2.3. Macroinvertebrate Indicator Species. Aquatic
macroinvertebrate data are not available in a stream specific format for
stations in the Basin. County records were obtained from WVNDR, Tarter
(1976a), Harwood (1973), Faulkner and Tarter (1977), Applin and Tarter
(1977), Hill et al. (n.d.), Watkins et al. (1975), Tarter et al. (1975),
Steele and Tarter (1977), Tarter (1976b), and Harmon (1978).
Of the 53 macroinvertebrate species reported from Grant and Mineral
Counties (Table A-8) only five are recognized as indicators of high quality
waters. This corroborates the data presented in Section 2.1. describing the
overall poor water quality of the Basin. Because no stream-specific data
were available for the streams of the Basin, no areas were designated as
either Category I or II BIA's on the basis of macroinvertebrate indicator
species.
2-43
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Figure 2-6
SAMPLING STATIONS FOR FISH IN THE
NORTH BRANCH POTOMAC RIVER BASIN
(WVDNR - Wildlife Resources I960, Stauffer
and Hocutt 1980, Tarter 1976)
2-44
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2.2.2.2.4. Species of Special Interest. No aquatic organisms which
are classified by the Department of the Interior as threatened or endangered
with extinction have recently been reported in the Basin. A list of fish
species of special concern has been developed by the WVDNR-HTP in
consultation with Drs. Stauffer and Hocutt at the Appalachian Environmental
Laboratory.
In the Basin, only one species on this listthe Potomac sculpin
(Cottus girardi)is present. This fish is restricted to the Potomac,
James, and Susquehanna Rivers (Stauffer and Hocutt 1979). In the Basin it
has been reported at four stations on New Creek (Table A-2). It inhabits
deep, slow riffles, hides under rocks during the day, and feeds at night on
a wide variety of small fish and invertebrates.
2.2.2.2.5. Areas of Special Interest. No areas of special interest
have been identified as BIA's at this time in the Basin.
2.2.3 Erroneous Classification
EPA has based its BIA (Category I and Category II) designations on the
best available information. Nevertheless, this data base is not flawless,
is not always current, and should be updated continuously. EPA expects to
update and improve this data base through cooperative efforts with the State
as well as through inputs from environmental groups, mining concerns, and
any other parties who have collected new data through professionally
acceptable techniques. EPA urges all parties to submit new information
whenever possible. Parties planning to submit new information to EPA should
review data collection techniques with EPA to guarantee that they will be
acceptable. It is possible that the submission of new information will
result in re-classification (e.g., from a BIA Category I to a BIA
Category II and vice versa; from a BIA Category I to a nonsensitive areas
and vice versa, etc.).
2-45
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2.3 Terrestrial Biota
-------
Page
2.3. Terrestrial Biota 2-46
2.3.1. Ecological Setting 2-46
2.3.1.1. Land Use/Land Cover 2-47
2.3.1.2. Ecological Region Classification Systems 2-49
2.3.2. Vegetation 2-49
2.3.2.1. Historical Perspective 2-49
2.3.2.2. Present-day Vegetation 2-50
2.3.2.3. Vegetation Classification Systems 2-50
2.3.2.4. Features of Special Interest 2-52
2.3.2.4.1. Wetlands 2-52
2.3.2.4.2. Virgin Forest 2-54
2.3.2.4.3. Grass Balds 2-55
2.3.2.4.4. Shale Barrens 2-55
2.3.2.5. Floristic Resources 2-55
2.3.3. Wildlife Resources ' 2-55
2.3.3.1. Animal Communities by Habitat Type 2-56
2.3.3.1.1. Oak Woods 2-56
2.3.3.1.2. Cove Hardwoods 2-56
2.3.3.1.3. Red Spruce-Aspen-Pin Cherry 2-57
Forest
2.3.3.1.4. Northern Hardwoods 2-57
2.3.3.1.5. Hard Pine-Oak 2-57
2.3.3.1.6. Hard Pine 2-58
2.3.3.1.7. Wetland and Riparian Habitats 2-58
2.3.3.1.8. Heath Barrens 2-59
2.3.3.1.9. Agricultural Land 2-59
2.3.3.1.10. Early Successional Land 2-60
2.3.3.1.11. Reclaimed Surface Mines 2-60
2.3.3.1.12. Abandoned Surface Mines 2-61
2.3.3.2. Distribution of Wildlife by County 2-61
2.3.3.2.1. Anphibians 2-61
2.3.3.2.2. Reptiles 2-61
2.3.3.2.3. Birds 2-62
2.3.3.2.4. Mammals 2-62
2.3.3.3. Game Resources 2-62
2.3.3.4. Values of Nongame Wildlife Resources 2-63
2.3.4. Significant Species and Features 2-68
2.3.4.1. Endangered and Threatened Species 2-76
2.3.4.1.1. Plants 2-76
2.3.4.1.2. Animals 2-76
2.3.4.2. Species of Special Concern 2-77
2.3.4.2.1. Plants 2-77
2.3.4.2.2. Animals 2-77
2.3.4.3. Other Biotic Features 2-78
2.3.4.3.1. Outstanding Trees 2-78
2.3.4.3.2. Wetlands 2-78
2.3.4.4. Locations of Significant Species and Biotic 2-78
Features
2.3.5. Data Gaps 2-78
2.3.5.1. Flora 2-79
2.3.5.2. Wildlife 2-79
2.3.5.3. Wetlands 2-79
2.3.5.4. Significant Species and Features 2-80
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2.3. TERRESTRIAL BIOTA
2.3.1. Ecological Setting
The North Branch Potomac River Basin is an approximately 277 sq mi
area of low mountains. The majority of the Basin is located to the west of
the Allegheny Front. Approximately 79% of the land is forested. Agricul-
tural lands are located primarily in the eastern section. The gradual trend
of abandonment of these lands and their return to forest cover has intensi-
fied in recent years. A small number of wetlands are present along the
rivers, with a cluster in the southwestern part of the Basin near the Stony
River Reservoir. The vegetation varies with local conditions, but generally
is a hemlock-northern hardwood association throughout most of the Basin and
oak-chestnut forest in the area east of the Allegheny Front. No virgin
forest is known to be present in the Basin because of intensive logging and
subsequent burning prior to about 1920. Forest fires occur more frequently
today than in the past, and the existing trees have not reached the
proportions of their predecessors in the early 1700's. Both the type and
the age of the forests vary throughout the Basin, resulting in a "patchwork"
pattern unlike the generally uniform conditions of the original stands.
Extensive surface mining has removed the forest cover in many areas, and
current reclamation practices result in the replacement of the forest with
large areas of grassland and shrubland. Forest regrowth, especially of
endemic species (native local species) generally has not occurred in surface
mined areas in most of West Virginia.
The elevation, slope, and land cover variations within the Basin result
in many different habitat conditions, and thus many species of wildlife are
present. The diversity in fauna also is due in part to the geographic
position of the State between the northern and southern faunal regions of
the US. The majority of the species are forest animals. Agricultural habi-
tats are present in the bottomlands along the North Branch Potomac River and
scattered patches throughout the Basin. Wetland and riparian (water-edge)
habitats are present primarily in the southwestern part of the Basin and
along major rivers and streams. "Edges" or interfaces between habitats,
shrubland, or successional conditions may be located in areas where
abandoned farmland and abandoned or reclaimed surface mines are present.
The heath barrens, red spruce-aspen-pin cherry communities, sphagnum glades,
arid northern hardwoods in the southwestern part of the Basin comprise a
distinctive area of mountain habitats.
Only a small proportion of West Virginia's game harvest is taken in the
Basin. Hunting demand is high and is expected to increase, but posting of
land also is increasing, especially near developed areas. Populations of
white-tailed deer, turkey, and raccoon are relatively high and are expected
to remain so. Populations of farm game species such as mourning dove and
racoon are low because of the limited amount of farmland. The populations
of species that utilize the successional communities present on abandoned
farmlands and reclaimed or abandoned surface mines, such as ruffed grouse,
2-46
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cottontail rabbits, quail, and woodcock, fluctuate with the availability of
these habitats. Most species of waterfowl are present only during migration
periods because of the limited number of suitable wetland habitats. The
Bloomington Lake and Dam project, presently under construction, will provide
additional habitat and resting places for waterfowl and other species of
birds that use reservoirs. Populations of black bear are low. Increases in
mining, road construction, and development will reduce the habitat potential
for black bear.
The use of non-game wildlife resources for recreational purposes such
as birding and nature photography is increasing. The majority of the
significant terrestrial biological resources in the Basin listed in the
WVDNR-HTP inventory are wetland and riparian habitats and species of plants
and animals associated with these habitats. Some species of plants are
associated with other limited habitats such as heath barrens or shale
barrens. Some species of birds are present only at high elevations in
northern hardwood forests in the southwestern part of the Basin.
2.3.1.1. Land Use/Land Cover
USGS produced computer-plotted land use/land cover overlays to the
standard 1:250,000 scale topographic quadrangle maps for the State of West
Virginia. These maps were based on high-altitude aerial photographs. The
map for the section of West Virginia in which the Basin is located is shown
in Figure 2-7 . Data on the number of acres of each land use/land cover
type for both of the Basin counties are presented in Table 2-12
The built-up land use/land cover types are concentrated primarily on
low-lying, gradually sloping terrain along the North Branch Potomac River
near Keyser, Piedmont, and Ridgely. Other built-up land occurs as small
parcels distributed throughout the Basin. Agricultural lands consist of
small patches scattered throughout the central part of the Basin.
Forested land covers approximately 84% of the Basin. About 65.4% of
the Basin's land area is covered with deciduous forest. Mixed forest
(deciduous and coniferous), which is present primarily at higher elevations
in the southwestern part of the Basin, accounts for 18.1% of the land
cover. Up to a third of the cover in areas delineated as deciduous forest
actually may be evergreens. Conversely, the apparent presence of evergreen
trees in many parts of the Basin is a result of the presence of evergreen
rhododendron thickets below the deciduous trees. These thickets cannot be
distinguished easily from evergreen trees in high-altitude aerial photo-
graphs. Approximately 30% to 70% of the cover of areas delineated as mixed
forest land may consist of evergreen trees.
The wetlands shown on Figure 2-7 surround the old Stony River
Reservoir. Other wetlands are present in the southwestern section of the
Basin, but are not shown on the map because they are too small to be identi-
fied on the high-altitude photographs.
2-47
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2-48
-------
Surface mining and transitional lands are scattered throughout the part
of the Basin west of the Allegheny Front. (Transitional land includes land
that is in a state of incomplete revegetation after mining.) Approximately
3.1% of the land cover in the Basin is known to be included in these two
categories on the basis of the mapped information, but the percentage
actually may be higher because many mines and reclaimed areas are too small
to be identified on the high-altitude photographs.
2.3.1.2. Ecological Region Classification Systems
Two Statewide ecological region classification systems have been
developed for West Virginia. These systems are the ecoregions system
developed by Bailey (1976) and the ecological regions system used by WVDNR-
Wildlife Resources, which is based on Wilson et al. (1951). The ecoregions
system developed by Bailey is based on physical and biological components
that include climate, vegetation type, physiography, and soil. Bailey's
system provides an overview indicating which ecological components are
expected to be located within an area. The system serves as a framework for
handling and organizing data and currently is being used as the framework of
the National Wetland Inventory conducted by USFWS. The Bailey system still
is being developed and needs to be verified by field studies. In the Bailey
system, the general vegetation of the entire North Branch Potomac River
Basin is typed as Appalachian Oak Forest.
The Wilson classification system is used by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources
for preparing wildlife habitat and occurrences descriptions. The system
consists of six ecological regions that roughly parallel the physiographic
provinces of West Virginia described by Wilson et al. The regions differ
from those delineated by Wilson et al. in that the WVDNR-Wildlife Resources
system's region boundaries follow county boundaries. Both ecological region
classification systems (Bailey 1976 and WVDNR-Wildlife Resources) are
described in greater detail in Appendix B.
2.3.2. Vegetation
2.3.2.1. Historical Perspective
The forests of West Virginia have been altered severely since the
arrival of the first settlers from Europe. Early farmers chose land in the
flat, forested river valleys for their homesteads. Most of the forests in
these floodplains contained the best timber in the State and were destroyed
by cutting and burning (Clarkson 1964). Commercial logging began with the
development of steam-powered sawmills in the early 1800's and increased
rapidly after techniques for clearcutting were developed. The construction
of railroads and the introduction of large-band sawmills in the late 1800's
accelerated the deforestation. By 1911, only 10% of the Basin (and 10% of
the State) remained in virgin forest (Brooks 1911).
Much of the land that had been logged was burned and used briefly for
agricultural purposes. The forest soils, which often were steeply sloping
2-49
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and highly erodible, were left without a significant humus layer as a
consequence of the fires, and subsequently were lost in many areas through
erosion. From about 1910 on, large supplies of inexpensive grains from the
Midwest became available on the National market (By interview, Dr. Earl L.
Core, Department of Biology, West Virginia University, with Mr. John Munro,
WAPORA, Inc., January 22, 1980). This factor, coupled with the low-quality,
eroded condition of the farmland in the State, initiated a gradual decline
in agricultural production that has continued to the present.
2.3.2.2. Present-day Vegetation
The report prepared by Wilson et al. (1951) constituted the final
report of a wildlife habitat mapping project conducted jointly by the West
Virginia Conservation Commission (now WVDNR-Wildlife Resources) and USFS.
This study included the first detailed forest mapping of the entire State.
A generalized map of the vegetation of the State in 1950 was prepared from
the more detailed 1:62,500-scale cover maps produced during the study
(Figure 2-8).
Five of the eight cover types in Figure 2-8 occur in the North Branch
Potomac River Basin. Northern hardwood forest, the most common forest type,
occurs primarily in the highlands in the southwestern part of the Basin.
Two small areas of aspen-pin cherry forest also occur in this region. Most
of the steeply-sloping land in the central and northeastern parts of the
Basin are covered with red oak forest. Cove hardwoods are located in a few
narrow valleys in coves and on lower parts of north-facing slopes along the
boundary of the Basin near the North Branch Potomac River.
The valleys and flat lands in the Basin constitute the non-forest cover
type. The non-forest cover type (mostly agricultural and developed land) is
present as narrow strips along river valleys. Naturally treeless areas
occur at higher altitudes as grass balds or heath barrens or as shale
barrens in the lower areas in the eastern part of the Basin.
The 1:62,500-scale cover maps are still valid for areas that have not
been logged or mined since the early 1900's. The maps also provide the most
precise available information on the earlier vegetation of areas that have
been disturbed since 1950. The accuracy of the maps was confirmed by a
comparison of observed forest types in the Kanawha State Forest (located in
the Coal/Kanawha River Basin) in 1910 and 1977 (Sturm 1977).
2.3.2.3 Vegetation Classification Systems
Core (1966) developed a classification system describing the
composition of vegetation in West Virginia. Core's system was based on
classification systems developed for the eastern United States. Two of
these regional vegetation classification systems (Braun 1950 and Kuchler
1974) are described in detail in Appendix B. Core's vegetation classifi-
cation system provides an overview of the types of forest in the North
Branch Potomac River Basin.
2-50
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«^*^
-------
Core classified the floristic elements of the State into two floristic
provinces: the Mountain Forest at higher elevations and the Central Hard-
wood Forest at lower elevations. The majority of the North Branch Potomac
River Basin was included within the Allegheny Mountain and Upland physio-
graphic section and the Northern Hardwood Forest subdivisions of the
Mountain Forest. The predominant species are beech, sugar maple, white
pine, and yellow birch. Associated species include American elm, basswood,
black cherry, red maple, sweet birch, and white ash. Several types of
treeless areas also are present within the Mountain Forest: old fields,
grass balds, heath barrens, and bogs (glades). Core included the areas east
of the Allegheny Front in the Ridge and Valley physiographic section and the
Mixed Hardwood division of the Central Hardwood Forest (Figure 2-9). The
vegetation of the Mixed Hardwood Forest varies and is subdivided locally
according to the gross moisture condition of the soil. The wet (hydric)
subdivision of the Mixed Hardwood Forest occurs on floodplains, in bottom-
lands, and along streams; river birch, silver maple, sweetgum, sycamore, and
willows are typical species. Only remnants of the original floodplain
forests exist in the Basin, primarily along the North Branch Potomac River
and several of the lesser streams. Another researcher, Furry (1978),
further described the various types of floodplain forests. He identified
the frontal forest, which occupies the main bench or terrace along a river
floodplain, as the most common type; the predominant species of trees in
such areas are cottonwood, green ash, honey locust, silver maple, and
slippery elm. The moist (mesic) subdivision includes forests on northfacing
slopes and includes the cove hardwood association. The dry (xeric) sub-
division includes forests in which oaks, pines, and hickories predominate
and typically is located on ridgetops and upper slopes. The species
composition of this subdivision is similar to that of the Oak-Chestnut
Forest described by Braun (1950).
2.3.2.4. Features of Special Interest
2.3.2.4.1. Wetlands. Few wetlands and no natural lakes are located in
West Virginia (Millspaugh 1910). Almost all of the wetlands in the State
are smaller than 100 acres. In the North Branch Potomac River Basin, an
area of approximately 277 sq mi (177,280 acres), there are only 17 known
wetlands (as indicated on Overlay 1). The combined total of these areas is
approximately 423 acres, 0.1% of the total Basin land area. This total is
based on data provided by WVDNR-HTP which mapped the locations of these
wetlands from field data collected during a wetland inventory conducted by
WVDNR-Wildlife Resources personnel. Some of the known wetlands have not yet
been measured and other small wetlands such as those formed by beaver may
exist in the Basin. Thus, the total number of acres of wetlands in the
Basin probably is underestimated.
Most of the known wetlands are located in the highlands of Grant County
near the Grant County-Tucker County line. A much larger concentration of
wetlands is present in the Canaan Valley, located just south of the Basin
boundary in the Monogahela River Basin. Five of the wetlands in the Basin
are located along or at the headwaters of various creeks and rivers. The
2-52
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2-53
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largest wetland in the Basin that has been examined in the field is a
90-acre wooded swamp. Some wetlands also have been formed as a result of
the activities of beaver.
Three types of wetlands or areas with impeded drainage have been
identified by WVDNR-HTP in the Basin. They are bogs, swamps, and alder
thickets. Bogs, known in West Virginia as sphagnum glades, are located at
high elevations in the State. Bogs are poorly-drained areas with slightly
acidic water and are covered primarily with mosses. The species of plants
found in West Virginia bogs are similar to the plants found in the bogs of
the northern part of the US. Swamps may be covered with either herbaceous
vegetation (shrub swamps) or woody vegetation (woody swamps). Alder
thickets are covered with brookside alder or speckled alder. Cattails and
skunk cabbage also may be present in open areas or at the edge of the
alders.
A comprehensive inventory and classification of all wetlands in the
State greater than 5 acres is presently being conducted by WVDNR-HTP in
cooperation with researchers at West Virginia University. The results are
being entered into the computerized information system maintained by
WVDNR-HTP and also incorporated into the National Wetland Inventory
presently being conducted by USFWS. Complete data are not expected for
several years. Additional wetland areas and types may be identified during
the course of the WVDNR-HTP inventory.
Three other types of wetlands may be present in the Basin but have not
been recorded by WVDNR-HTP. These are marshes, fens, and wet meadows.
Marshes are wet throughout the year and contain some standing water.
Typical plants include sedges, rushes, broadleaf cattail, arrowhead,
bur-reed, water plantain, and lizard's tail (Fortney et al. 1978). Marshes
may be present along watercourses or formed as the result of beaver
activity. A fen is similar to a bog, but the source of water in a fen is
groundwater that has moved through mineral soil and thus is slightly
alkaline. Sedges are the predominant species of plants in fens. Wet
meadows are moist spongy areas covered by grasses, rushes, or broad-leaf
plants. Wet meadows are waterlogged within a few inches of the surface but
are without standing water throughout most of the growing season.
2.3.2.4.2. Virgin Forest. Prior to settlement by American colonists
in the eighteenth century, West Virginia was almost totally covered by
forest. The majority of the State's land cover still is forest; however,
current forests differ vastly from the forests of the precolonial period.
The almost complete deforestation of the State by logging, burning, destruc-
tive effects of agricultural practices, and surface mining have changed
vegetation throughout the State. It is estimated that only 200 acres of
virgin forest have survived to the present (WVDNR-HTP 1980). No tracts of
virgin forest are known to exist in the North Branch Potomac River Basin,
but small amounts of virgin forest cover may be present in some areas.
2-54
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2.3.2.4.3. Grass Balds. Grass balds occur on well-drained sites below
the treeline, usually on rounded summits at elevations between 3,800 and
4,800 feet (Core 1966). Most of the relatively few grass balds in the State
are located in counties adjacent to the Basin, but some may be present in
the southwestern part of the North Branch Potomac River Basin. The predomi-
nant species are grasses, particularly mountain oat-gras&. Vegetation
characteristic of grass balds also may be present on the floor of forests of
dwarf, distorted beech, chestnut oak, and hawthorn trees that are adjacent
to grass balds.
2.3.2.4.4. Shale Barrens. Shale barrens are sparsely vegetated,
steeply-sloped areas with outcrops of shale and siltstones on which unusual
and characteristic plant communities have developed. They occur on the
slopes of the Allegheny Front and at several locations along the extreme
eastern edge of the Basin (Figure 2-9 ). Little soil is present, and the
surface is strewn with rock fragments. The substrate is dry and slightly
acidic, and surface temperatures often are high (Keener 1970). Almost all
shale barrens are located on south-facing slopes.
Seventeen species of plants are considered to be endemic to the
barrens. Shale pussytoes is the most notable endemic species in the Basin.
The few trees present are thinly-scattered oaks and pines. Scrub oak,
laurel, and other shrubs also are present. Because of the unstable surface
conditions, shale barren communities are disturbed easily by any alteration
of the surface, such as from excavation, grading, or increased erosion.
Mineable coal seams generally do not coincide with shale barren areas.
2.3.2.5. Floristic Resources
The published flora of West Virginia includes approximately 2,200
species native to the State (Strausbaugh and Core 1978). A list for the
North Branch Potomac River Basin is not available. An examination of range
information in the principal compilation of silvicultural information for
the United States (Fowells 1965) has shown that at least sixty species of
significant trees occur in West Virginia. Significant trees are those
species having a relatively high economic value for silvicultural purposes.
2.3.3. Wildlife Resources
The North Branch Potomac River Basin contains both game and non-game
wildlife resources, although populations of some desirable species are low
in comparison to those in the rest of the State. The economic benefits
associated with the consumptive and non-consumptive use of such resources,
through hunting and wildlife observation experiences, constitute a major
component of the economy of the State and are-further described in this
subsection.
The most important factor in the possible improvement of the diversity
and abundance of wildlife in the Basin is the amount of suitable habitat
available for fulfillment of the food, cover, and reproduction requirements
of each species. A continuation of the present land use trends, combined
2-55
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with anticipated increases in surface mining and timber harvest, could
reduce the availability and quality of certain habitat types in the Basin
over the next few decades.
2.3.3.1. Animal Communities by Habitat Type
West Virginia has one of the most diverse assemblages of wildlife and
wildlife habitats in the eastern United States (Smith 1966). This diversity
is due to the wide altitudinal gradient in the State, its geographical
position between northern and southern biological communities, and its
complex topography. In the North Branch Potomac River Basin, the major
habitat types are forest, open land (including heath barrens, grass balds,
cropland, and pasture), wetland, and disturbed (successional) land
(including logged, burned, and revegetated mined areas). Six upland forest
types and seven other landscape types, excluding developed land, are
described in this section and are distinguished on the basis of their
significance to wildlife.
2.3.3.1.1. Oak Woods. Oak woods constitute the most extensive cover
type in the Basin, and are most prominent at lower elevations east of the
Allegheny Front. Red oak (on moist soils) and white oak (on drier soils)
are the most prominent species. Oak woods can support large populations of
gray squirrels because of the availability of den trees and mast (nuts and
fruits) (Gill et al. 1975, WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1977). As many as 45 to
50 species of songbirds may breed in these forests because of the structural
diversity of the vegetation (Samuel and Whitmore 1979). Songbirds commonly
present in this habitat include the red-eyed vireo, scarlet tanager, red-
bellied woodpecker, downy woodpecker, Carolina chickadee, and many species
of wood warblers (Allaire 1978, USFWS 1978). These areas also are
considered to be prime habitat for wild turkey (WVDNR-Wildlife
Resources 1980a).
2.3.3.1.2. Cove Hardwoods. Cove hardwoods are found in cool, moist
valley bottoms and on lower slopes, (Figure 2-8 , Wilson et al. 1951). In
the North Branch Potomac River Basin, cove hardwoods are restricted largely
to the North Branch Potomac River Valley in Mineral County. Large areas of
forest are interspersed with small areas of open land, and species that use
edges or borders between two types of vegetation may be present only in low
numbers. Because of their position on lower slopes, cove hardwoods form the
upland forest border of some of the agricultural bottomlands along the North
Branch Potomac River.
The predominant species in the cove hardwoods forest type are tulip
tree and beech. The cove hardwoods type also is represented in the Basin by
a tulip tree-red gum association (Wilson et al. 1951). The forest floor
usually is covered by a layer of lush herbaceous vegetation, including many
spring flowers and ferns (USAGE, Huntington District 1974a).
The many layers of vegetation and the lush ground cover make the cove
hardwoods an important habitat type (USFWS 1978). Species of birds
2-56
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typically present Include the wood thrush, Acadian flycatcher, and blue-gray
gnatcatcher. Blackburnian warblers and black-throated green warblers may
inhabit areas of the cove hardwoods forest that contain hemlock and white
pine.
2.3.3.1.2. Red Spruce-Aspen-Pin Cherry Forest. The mountainous area
in the southeastern tip of the North Branch Potomac River Basin supports a
few scattered stands of red spruce forest among more extensive stands of an
aspen-pin-cherry disclimax, which are bordered by northern hardwood forest
(a disclimax forest is one that is maintained by outside influences such as
fire). The spruce association often includes mixtures of hardwoods, such as
yellow birch, sugar maple, and beech. It also may include evergreens such
as hemlock, balsam fir, and white pine. The forests where evergreens are
predominant typically have a very sparse groundlayer, although dense
thickets of great laurel are typical.
The northerly type of climate results in a distinctive fauna. The
black bear, snowshoe hare, beaver, rock vole, long-tailed shrew, red
squirrel, Nashville warbler, Swainson's thrush, hermit thrush, northern
waterthrush, and mourning warbler are typical of the spruce forest and its
associated mountain habitats (Smith 1966).
2.3.3.1.4. Northern Hardwoods. Northern hardwoods are extensive in
the Basin on cool, moist, north-facing upper slopes or ravines where cold
air collects. They are most prominent in Grant County near the Allegheny
Front. The predominant species are beech, sugar maple, red maple, basswood,
and yellow birch, with occasional stands of hemlock or white pine. Beech,
sugar maple, and red maple may be used as den trees (Wilson et al. 1951).
Witch hazel, mountain laurel, striped maple, mountain maple, serviceberry,
rhododendron, spicebush, hobblebush, maple-leaf arrowwood, wild raisin,
deciduous holly, and red elder are the typical understory trees and shrubs
in this community (Wilson et al. 1951). The herbaceous layer is
well-developed and contains many different species.
The northern hardwood forest type supports populations of plants and
animals that are typical of more northern forests. These include the
saw-whet owl, golden-crowned kinglet, olive-sided flycatcher, red-breasted
nuthatch, northern waterthrush (along shaded streams), beaver, northern
flying squirrel, southern bog lemming, long-tailed shrew, and masked shrew
(Smith 1966). The latter two species have not been collected in the Basin
but may be present.
2.3.3.1.5. Hard Pine-Oak. This forest type is located on south-facing
slopes where the moisture level is between that of dry oak woods and very
dry pine woods. It is relatively scarce in the Basin and is present pri-
marily along the southeastern edge of the Basin (Wilson et al. 1951).
Virginia pine and oaks are the predominant species (Bones 1978). Blueberry,
huckleberry, wild rose hawthorn, wild grape, and greenbrier are the common
woody shrubs. The herbaceous ground cover is sparse. This habitat type can
be maintained by controlled burning (Wilson et al. 1951).
2-57
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The mixture of evergreen and deciduous trees makes the hard pine-oak
forest type particularly suitable for white-tailed deer (Gill et al. 1975).
The red crossbill, white-winged crossbill, long-eared owl, pine warbler,
Blackburnian warbler, black-throated green warbler, and red squirrel also
inhabit the mixed pine-oak woods because of their dependence on conifers
for food and cover. Other birds commonly present include the Swainson's
thrush and the ovenbird.
2.3.3.1.6. Hard Pine. Virginia pine and pitch pine are the
predominant species in this dry community. Several other species of pine
are of secondary importance. This forest type occurs principally on south-
facing slopes in the ridge and valley area of the northeastern half of the
Basin. The undergrowth vegetation is relatively sparse. Blueberry,
mountain laurel, and dewberry are the most common species of shrubs (Wilson
et al. 1951).
The value of this habitat to most wildlife is low because of the
limited availability and variety of food plants. Unless the hard pine
community is interspersed with other types of habitat, it provides little
more than cover (USFWS 1978). These dry conifer stands essentially are
inhabited sparsely by the same species of wildlife as those mentioned
previously for the hard pine-oak forest type.
2.3.3.1.7. Wetland and Riparian Habitats. Several types of wetland
habitats are present in the North Branch Potomac River Basin, but all are
scarce. These habitats include swamp forests, shrub thickets, herbaceous
marshes, and bogs or sphagnum glades (Core 1966). These wetland types occur
primarily in the western half of the Basin, with concentrations in the
mountains of the southwestern tip.
Riparian (water edge) ecosystems constitute a transition zone through
which energy, nutrients, and species are exchanged between aquatic and
upland habitats. They have a high water table and distinct vegetation and
soil characteristics, and are especially productive biological communities
in which both species diversity and species densities are high (Warner
1975). Animals that inhabit these wetland habitats include the pied-billed
grebe, mallard, wood duck, blue-winged teal, black duck (which breed in
beaver ponds), green heron, great blue heron, American bittern, spotted
sandpiper, marsh hawk, yellow warbler, red-winged blackbird, kingfisher,
woodcock, ruffed grouse, Louisiana waterthrush, muskrat, raccoon, beaver,
mink, white-tailed deer, star-nosed mole, southern bug lemming, many species
of bats (which feed over water areas at night), hell-bender, mudpuppy, and
several species of turtles and snakes (Smith 1966, USFWS 1978). Periodic
flooding makes some riparian wetlands less useful for the reproduction of
some species, such as the beaver, muskrat, and kingfisher (USFWS 1979_).
The construction of the Bloomington Dam along the North Branch Potomac River
between Elk Garden and Piedmont will provide additional wetland habitat.
Swamp forests in the North Branch Potomac River Basin occur primarily
along the major rivers and areas with drainage impeded by beaver dams. The
2-58
-------
prominent species in this riparian habitat vary and may include American
elm, black ash, red maple, bur oak, sycamore, pin oak, swamp white oak,
river birch, black willow, silver maple, boxelder, hackberry, and sour gum
(Bones 1978, Core 1966, USFWS 1978). The mountain swamp forest includes
species such as hemlock, red spruce, white pine, balsam fir, yellow birch,
black birch, red maple, and black ash (Core 1966). Beneath the canopy there
typically is a lush herbaceous ground cover and a well-developed shrub layer
that may be composed of silky dogwood, steeplebush (spiraea), alder, willow,
buttonbush, bladdernut, ninebark, purple chokeberry, mountain-ash, mountain
holly, and spicebush (Core 1966, USFWS 1978). Shrub thickets occur in some
of the wetland areas and provide valuable habitat for wildlife, especially
when interspersed with swamp forests.
Marshes are rare in the Basin. They are located primarily along
rivers, streams, or beaver ponds, and typically are composed of a dense
growth of sedges, grasses, and other aquatic plants. The vegetation of
sphagnum glades often includes marsh and shrub species, along with
acid-tolerant sedges and shrubs.
f Marshes provide especially valuable habitats for wildlife, and some
species' of animals, such as bitterns and rails, are present in the Basin
only in these scattered wetlands. These species are sensitive to changes in
water quality and could be eliminated from their marsh habitats as a result '
of pollution from mining activities.
2.3.3.1.8. Heath Barrens. Some of the mountaintop areas with thin,
acidic soils in the southwestern end of the Basin are covered with a heath
shrub association composed primarily of huckleberry and blueberries. These
areas typically are located along the crest of Allegheny Front Mountain at
elevations above 3,800 feet. Many of the species present in heath barrens
are characteristic of more northerly regions (Core 1966).
The generally isolated position of the heath barrens, coupled with the
abundance of shrubs that bear edible fruits and the surrounding northern
hardwood forest, makes these areas important habitats for black bear. The
Nashville warbler, Swainson's thrush, hermit thrush, northern waterthrush,
mourning warbler, dark-eyed junco, winter wren, and Canada warbler occur in
the heath barrens as well as in the spruce forests (Smith 1966).
2.3.3.1.9. Agricultural Land. Cropland, hayfields, and pastures are
widely scattered on the limited level land in valleys or on plateaus in the
Basin. Most of the agricultural land is used for pasture or orchards.
Cropland in the North Branch Potomac River bottomlands typically is used for
grain farming, and the associated bare ground, annual weeds, and fencerows
are important elements in this habitat type. Fencerows in the Basin provide
cover and food for wildlife, with species such as blackberry, sassafras,
chokecherry, black locust, sumac, Japanese honeysuckle, greenbrier, and
hickories (Wilson et al. 1951). Pastures may be open, partly wooded, or
completely forested. Improved pastures usually contain a mixture of
cultivated grasses and legumes.
2-59
-------
Species of wildlife commonly associated with agricultural lands include
the cottontail rabbit, red fox, woodchuck, bobwhite quail, mourning dove,
eastern meadowlark, robin, horned lark, grasshopper sparrow, meadow vole,
meadow jumping mouse, and eastern garter snake (Smith 1966, USFWS 1978).
Agricultural lands usually are adjacent to upland forests, and the interface
between the two cover types provides good habitat for many species, such as
the white-tailed deer.
2.3.3.1.10. Early Successional Land. Nearly 80% of the land in the
Basin is covered with forest. Much of the land that was cleared for farming
has been abandoned. Most of the existing forest is mature second-growth
timber, pole-sized or larger, but recently cutover areas or burned areas are
scattered throughout the Basin. Wherever formerly cleared land (farms,
logged areas, or burned areas) has been abandoned, it slowly becomes covered
with forest through the process of natural succession.
These open and brushy habitats are valuable to wildlife because of the
abundance of food plants and the structural diversity of the vegetation.
Species of wildlife that inhabit these successional communities include the
white-tailed deer, cottontail rabbit, ruffed grouse, song sparrow, indigo
bunting, brown thrasher, gray catbird, yellow-breasted chat, cedar waxwing,
prairie warbler, white-eyed vireo, eastern bluebird, goldfinch, rufous-sided
towhee, short-tailed shrew, and black rat snake (Allaire 1978, Samuel and
Whitmore 1979, USFWS 1978).
2.3.3.1.11. Reclaimed Surface Mines. Reclaimed mines often are
planted with grasses and legumes, thus establishing a grassland habitat.
When woody plants such as shrubs, deciduous trees, or conifers are used,
they typically are planted in regular rows or blocks of a single species.
Thus the areas have a low species diversity. Reclaimed mine areas also may
contain sediment ponds, which can be very valuable for wildlife,
particularly reptiles and amphibians (Turner and Fowler 1980). The ponds
also can be used extensively by migratory waterfowl and other species that
require open water (Riley 1977) and could provide recreational opportunities
if stocked with fish (Turner and Fowler 1980).
The types of cultivated vegetation on reclaimed mines vary greatly in
utility to wildlife, depending on the food, land cover, and diversity of
plant species selected for reclamation. The continuous grass-legume meadows
are used by the horned lark, eastern meadowlark, savannah sparrow, grass-
hopper sparrow, vesper sparrow, and bobolink (Allaire 1978, Whitmore and
Hall 1978). Game birds such as the mourning dove and quail may be present
before a thick layer of litter accumulates (Samuel and Whitmore 1979). Wet
depressions on reclaimed mine sites are used by red-winged blackbirds
(Allaire 1978). The populations of small mammals in newly (3- to
5-year-old) revegetated areas may be low in comparison with populations in
adjacent naturally vegetated areas (Kirkland 1976). Revegetation techniques
are described in Appendix B
2-60
-------
Woody plants added within the grassland can provide song perches for
species such as the indigo bunting, prairie warbler, rufous-sided towhee,
and song sparrow. Ruffed grouse also may use such areas because of the
availability of cover (Samuel and Whitmore 1979). White-tailed deer popula-
tions use the browse provided on revegetated mine sites (USDI-BOR 1975_).
2.3.3.1.12. Abandoned Surface Mines. Orphaned mines may support
diverse successional communities that may range in structure between bare
ground and forest, depending on the fertility of the spoil (Bramble and
Ashley 1955, Riley 1977). The process of natural revegetation of abandoned
mine spoil may take more than ten years to provide over 50% ground cover,
even on favorable sites (Bramble and Ashley 1955).
Orphaned mines that support a naturally well-developed growth of
vegetation are considered to provide excellent wildlife habitat (Haigh 1976,
members of the Wildlife Committee of the Thirteenth Annual Interagency
Evaluation Tour, WVDNR-Reclamation 1978a). Some researchers have reported
that, after decades of natural succession, abandoned mines may support
populations of small mammals, cottontail rabbits, woodchucks, reptiles,
white-tailed deer, and many open-land species of birds that equal or exceed
in number and diversity their respective populations in adjacent undisturbed
areas (DeCapita and Bookhout 1975, Jones et al. 1975, Riley 1977).
2.3.3.2. Distribution of Wildlife by County
The species of vertebrates known or likely to be present in the North
Branch Potomac River Basin are listed in taxonomic order by group
(amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals) in Appendix B. All data in
Appendix B were obtained from WVDNR-Wildlife Resources (1978a) unless
otherwise noted. Because at least 221 species of birds may be present, only
the number of species present in each family is indicated for this group.
Species of vertebrates that are considered to be endangered, threatened, or
of special interest in West Virginia are discussed below. The scientific
names for species of birds mentioned in the text are listed in Appendix B.
2.3.3.2.1. Amphibians. Of the 41 species of amphibians within the
State, 26 are known to be present in the Basin, and 20 of these probably
occur in both Basin counties (Green 1978, WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1980b).
Fourteen of the 27 species of salamanders and 11 of the 14 species of frogs
and toads are present. One species, the Jefferson salamander, has been
proposed by WVDNR-HTP for inclusion on the list of animals of special or
scientific interest.
2.3.3.2.2. Reptiles. Twenty-four of the 41 species of reptiles known
to be present in West Virginia have been collected within the Basin (Green
1978, WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1978). Seventeen of these may be present in
both counties. In addition, five of the 14 species of turtles, two of the
five species of lizards, and 17 of the 22 species of snakes in the State
have been collected within the Basin. One species, the mountain earth
snake, is considered to be of scientific interest by WVDNR-HTP.
2-61
-------
2.3.3.2.3. Birds. Of the 263 species of birds that occur in West
Virginia (240 that occur regularly, and 23 that are casual visitors) 221
have been recorded in the Basin (Hall 1971, WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1978a).
This total includes the wild turkey. Ten of the species have been recorded
in only one county within the Basin; the other 211 species breed in, migrate
through, or are present in both counties during some period of the year.
Most of the species with restricted distributions are associated with open
water or wetlands (such as loons, grebes, cormorants, egrets, ducks, rails,
plovers, sandpipers, phalaropes, gulls, and terns), or with large tracts of
undisturbed forest (hawks and thrushes). Twenty-six of the species are
considered by the WVDNR-HTP (1980) to be of special interest within the
State.
The bald eagle and the peregrine falcon may be present in either county
in the Basin during migration. Both of these species are classified as
endangered in the entire United States on the Federal list of endangered and
threatened species (50 CFR 17.11). The scientific names of the species of
birds mentioned in the text are included in Appendix B.
2.3.3.2.4. Mammals. Fifty of the 68 species of mammals that may occur
in the State are likely to be present in the Basin (WVDNR-Wildlife Resources
1978a). Thirty-three of these species may be present in both counties
within the Basin; eight species have restricted distributions. The Basin is
within the known range and suitable habitat is present for nine additional
species. Few data have been collected on nongame mammals within the State.
This is particularly true of species that are reclusive and solitary, such
as shrews and moles.
Ten species of mammals known or likely to be present in the Basin are
considered to be of special interest by WVDNR-HTP, including one endangered
species on the Federal list, the Virginia big-eared bat (50 CFR 17.11). The
eastern cougar (Felis concolor) formerly inhabited parts of West Virginia,
including Mineral County, but has not been sighted in recent years. This
species also is classified as endangered on the Federal list, and has been
proposed for deletion from the WVDNR-HTP list because it may no longer be
present in the State.
2.3.3.3. Game Resources
Game animals are an important economic resource in West Virginia. In
1977, approximately 6% of the total State revenues from the sale of hunting
and fishing licenses were collected from the two counties in which the North
Branch Potomac River Basin is located. Almost a quarter of West Virginia
residents purchase such licenses each year. They spent more than $79
million annually for wildlife-oriented (not including fishing) recreation
(Grimes 1980a), and marketed $3.1 million in furs during the 1979 trapping
season (Grimes 1980b). In an economic survey of wildlife-oriented
recreation in the southeastern United States (Georgia State University
1974a), the following values were allocated for each day of participation,
for evaluation purposes:
2-62
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Activity Value Per Day/Participating Household
Freshwater fishing $10.00
Small game hunting $10.00
Big game hunting $25.00
Waterfowl hunting $20.00
In a survey of West Virginia hunters (Riffe 1971), the most popular
species were ranked as follows, in order of preference: squirrels, deer,
ruffed grouse, wild turkey, raccoon, bear, woodcock, and snowshoe hare.
Trout and other game fish species are discussed in Section 2.2.
In 1970, approximately 79% of the total acreage in the two Basin
counties was open to hunting (WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1970). This included
lands on which hunting was restricted in some manner (to certain species,
seasons, persons, etc.). However, 81% of the land in these counties was
considered to be potential hunting area (total land area minus
urban-industrial area). For comparison, 74% of the total acreage of the
State was open to hunting at that time, and 80% of the total acreage
potentially was available for hunting.
Federally-owned land comprised' approximately 3% of the total acreage of
the Basin, and no lands were owned by the State. Thus nearly all of the
land within the Basin was privately owned. Posting of private land to
prohibit hunting has increased since 1970, particularly near urban areas and
areas where the hunting pressure is high and landowner-hunter difficulties
are likely to occur.
Information on the range, population trends, hunter and trapper
harvests, and stocking program for each species was obtained primarily from
publications and unpublished information obtained from the WVDNR-Wildlife
Resources (Rieffenberger et al. 1978, WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1974a, 1977,
1980a, 1980b). The Division conducts a mail survey at five-year intervals
to obtain estimates of the hunting pressure on game species and the harvest
of these species in the State. Harvest data from the last two surveys are
presented in Table 2-13.
Data on harvest of big game (black bear, bobcat, white-tailed deer, and
wild turkey) are collected for each hunting season. The harvest data for
these species for the last four hunting seasons (1976 thorugh 1979) are
given in Table 2-14 . The range of principal species of game animals within
the Basin is shown in Figure 2-10 . Major game animals are further described
in Appendix B.
2.3.3.4. Values of Nongame Wildlife Resources
Legislation has been introduced in Congress and in many states to
provide funds for the protection and management of non-game resources.
Similar legislation has been introduced in West Virginia, but has not yet
been enacted.
2-63
-------
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2-65
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Table 2-14 . Harvest of big game in the North Branch Potomac River Basin
(Hall 1980, Rieffenberger et al. 1978, WVDNR-Wildlife
Resources 1980a).
County/
Year
Grant
1976
1977
1978
1979
Mineral
1976
1977
1978
1979
Total Harvest
in Counties
1976
1977
1978
1979
Total Harvest
in State
1976
1977
1978
1979
Total Harvest
in Counties
as Percent
of State
Harvest
1976
1977
1978
1979
Black
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17
15
21
0
ND
ND
ND
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17
15
21
0
87
49
98
68
19.5
30.6
2.4
0
b
Bobcat
Gun
ND
5
3
NA
ND
3
4
NA
ND
8
7
NA
ND
187
205
NA
Trap
ND
8
19
NA
ND
1
4
NA
ND
9
23
NA
ND
316
337
NA
Unknown/
Bow
ND
2/0
1/0
NA
ND
0
0
NA
ND
2/0
1/0
NA
ND
44/1
42/4
NA
Total
ND
15
23
NA
ND
4
8
NA
ND
19
31
NA
ND
548
588
NA
White-tailed Deer
Bow
109
117
126
143
34
54
54
38
143
171
180
181
2,323
2,531
4,350
5,461
Gun
1,612
1,489
1,374
1,506
1,064
1,100
986
957
2,676
2,589
2,360
2,463
31,840
33,090
36,736
39,651
Total
1,721
1,606
1,500
1,649
1,098
1,154
1,040
995
2,819
2,760
2,540
2,644
34,163
35,621
41,086
45,112
ND
4.3
3.4
NA
ND
2.8
6.8
NA
ND
4.5/0
2.4/0
NA
ND
3.5
5.3
NA
6.2
6.8
4.1
3.3
8.4
7.8
5.9
6.2
8.3
7.7
6.2
5.9
Wild Turkey
Spring Autumn Total
47
33
20
30
26
32
33
43
73
65
53
73
721
719
566
873
10.1
9.0
9.4
8.4
129
218
148
156
89
113
125
131
218
331
273
287
1,860
2,998
2,803
2,421
11.7
11.0
9.7
11.9
176
251
168
186
115
145
158
174
291
396
326
360
2,581
3,717
3,369
3,294
11.3
10.7
9.7
11.0
C indicates closed season.
NA indicates data collected but not available at this time.
ND indicates no data.
Seasonal harvest only.
Data not available prior to 1977. Data for 1977 are from 1977-1978 hunting season;
data for 1978 are from 1978-1979 hunting season.
2-66
-------
Figure 2-K)
RANGES OF GAME SPECIES IN THE NORTH
BRANCH POTOMAC RIVER BASIN (adapted
from Dotson I960, WVDNR- Wildlife Resources
1974, I960)
SNOWSHOE HARE
PRIMARY WILD TURKEY
...."..:::iiv.-.v:.l
2-67
-------
Allaire (1979a, 1979b) and Whitmore (1978) have shown that man-altered
environments such as reclaimed surface mines can provide valuable recreation
areas for observation, photography, and other non-consumptive use of
non-game birds. Nearly 25% of the wildlife-oriented use-days in National
Forests may be spent on observation of birds and nature photography (Hooper
and Crawford 1969), and nonconsumptive use of such resources is common West
Virginia.
2.3.4. Significant Species and Features
The Heritage Trust Program (HTP) of the WVDNR maintains and
continuously updates a. computerized data bank on the significant natural
features and rare species in the State. The current information on the
nature of the feature or species and its location(s) or distribution in the
State has been obtained from several sources, principally university or
private researchers, museum records, published literature, and theses. A
limited number of field investigations also have been performed by WVDNR-HTP
personnel, and more will be undertaken during the next few years.
The terrestrial biological resource categories included in the system
are:
Species of plants and animals that have been designated as
endangered or threatened at the Federal level
Species of plants and animals of special or scientific
interest in West Virginia
Plant communities of special or scientific interest in
West Virginia
Champion or outstanding individual trees
Wetland areas.
An occurrence index is developed for each species or feature (element)
in the system. The index is the ratio of the number of recorded occurrences
of that element in the Basin to the number of recorded occurrences of the
element in the State. Presently, these indexes are based on a limited amount
of data. The indexes will change periodically as more information is
developed by WVDNR-HTP, and the data are included in this assessment only as
an approximation of the currently known distribution and rarity of the
species. If the number of occurrences for a species becomes large enough,
that species is dropped from the WVDNR-HTP inventory.
The locations at which biotic features have been recorded by WVDNR-HTP
are shown in Figure 2-11 and the elements that constitute each category
within the Basin are described in Tables 2-15 and 2-16 and in the following
sections. The data mapped in Figure 2-11 represent only some of the signi-
ficant natural resources in the State; they do not constitute a systematic,
2-68
-------
Figure 2-11
LOCATION OF SIGNIFICANT SPECIES AND
FEATURES IN THE NORTH BRANCH POTOMAC
RIVER BASIN (adapted from WVDNR-Wild-
life Resources 1978, Hubricht 1980, Aribib
1979, WVDNR - HTP 1980)
PLANT
ANIMAL
2-69
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Statewide inventory of all possible significant biotic resources. Loca-
tional information obtained from the State has been mapped on 1:24,000 scale
Overlays and Base Maps of the Basin for EPA's use.
Some of the records contained in the listing are more than 50 years
old, and the species or features indicated may no longer be present at those
locations. Field checks are being made by WVDNR-HTP personnel and others to
determine the accuracy of this information. Many of the areas in which the
species or features were noted have been relatively undisturbed since the
time of the record, and it is believed that the species or features may
still be present. The former occurrence of one relatively rare species may
indicate the presence of a high-quality habitat for other rare species. The
locations of all occurrences are retained on the WVDNR-HTP list until field
verification of the present occurrence or absence of the species and esti-
mation of the quality of the habitat and possible presence of other rare
species can be performed.
2.3.4.1. Endangered and Threatened Species
2.3.4.1.1. Plants. No species of plants present in West Virginia have
been officially designated by either Federal or State authorities as
endangered or threatened with extinction. Two species with ranges that
include the North Branch Potomac River Basin were identified as candidates
for Federal threatened status in a petition by the Smithsonian Institution
in 1975, the Allegheny sloe and the purple fringeless orchid (44 FR
70796-70797). Information still is being collected on these and other
species. Both of the species subsequently have been included by the
Smithsonian Institution in an expanded list of plants considered to be
endangered or threatened (but not Federally designated) (Ayensu and
DeFilipps 1978). These species have no legal protection or status within
West Virginia, and presently are considered to be of special or scientific
interest within the State.
2.3.4.1.2. Animals. Three of the seven species of terrestrial animals
that have been classified as endangered in West Virginia by the USFWS are
known to be present in the Basin (50 CFR 17.11). The bald eagle and
peregrine falcon may be present in either county during migration periods.
The mountain lion or eastern cougar formerly inhabited parts of the State
(including Mineral County), but has not been seen in recent years, except
for several animals that were thought to have been released from captivity
(WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1978). This species generally is considered to be
extirpated from the State (WVDNR-HTP 1980).
The Virginia big-eared bat (a subspecies of Townsend's big-eared bat)
has been classified as endangered throughout its range, which is limited to
eastern West Virginia, eastern Kentucky, and southwestern Virginia. The
West Virginia population is the largest of the three populations, but only
three nursery colony caves are known in the State. Because of the specific
reproduction and hibernation requirements of the Virginia big-eared bat
(physical structure, temperature, humidity, and air flow) and their
2-76
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intolerance of any human disturbance, the USFWS has designated five caves in
West Virginia as Critical Habitat for this species (44 FR 69208, November
30, 1979). None of these caves are within the North Branch Potomac River
Basin, but the species formerly inhabited caves within Grant County and
individual bats may be present at various times in the Basin near the Grant
CountyTucker County line.
2.3.4.2. Species of Special Concern in West Virginia
2.3.4.2.1. Plants. Currently, 48 species of plants that occur in the
North Branch Potomac River Basin are considered to be of special or scienti-
fic interest by the WVDNR-HTP (1980). These have been mapped for EPA's use
on 1:24,000 scale Overlays and Base Maps of the Basin. Each species has
been assigned to one of four categories on the basis of its distributional
pattern. The number of species in each category is indicated below.
Category Number of Species % of Total
Petitioned 2 4%
Restricted 11 23%
Peripheral 20 42%
Status Undetermined 15 31%
48 100%
Species listed as "Status Undetermined" have been identified by botanists as
rare and in need of protection, but available data are insufficient to
determine the status of these species with confidence. The fact that 31% of
the species considered to be in need of protection in the Basin are
classified as "Status Undetermined" indicates the need for further study to
determine if a distributional classification should be assigned to them, or
if they should be removed from the list. The definition of each category,
the scientific and common names of the species included in each category,
the occurrence index for each species, and a brief description of the
habitats of the species in the four categories are given in Table 2-15.
2.3.4.2.2. Animals. Thirty-eight species of animals on the current
WVDNR-HTP list are known or likely to occur in the North Branch Potomac
River Basin. Locational data have been recorded for seven of these species
(Figure 2-11). Information on the presence of the remaining 32 species was
obtained from WVDNR-Wildlife Resources (1978a) and by letter, Mr. Leslie
Hubricht to Ms. Kathleen M. Brennan, April 22, 1980. The number of species
in each general group of animals, as compared to the total number of
terrestrial animals of special interest in that category, is shown below.
Number of Species on Number of Species on
Group WVDNR-HTP List in Basin WVDNR-HTP List in State
Snails 2 8
Amphibians 1 13
Reptiles 1 16
Birds 25 31
Mammals 9 21
38 89
2-77
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Two species (the bald eagle and the peregrine falcon) are classified as
endangered at the Federal level. The other 37 species are considered to be
of special or scientific interest in West Virginia because they are rare,
near the limit of their range, or occur only in habitats with a restricted
distribution in the State (Table 2-1$. Eleven of the 26 species of birds
also were included on the Blue List for 1980 by the National Audubon Society
(Arbib 1979). Two other species, the cliff swallow and the short-billed
marsh wren were included in a marginal list of potential candidates for the
Blue List. The list is designed as an "early warning list" to indicate
declining, threatened, or vulnerable species on the basis of nominations
from knowledgable observers in all regions of the US.
2.3.4.3. Other Biotic Features
2.3.4.3.1. Outstanding Trees. No outstanding (champion) individual is
located within the Basin. Outstanding trees are those that have attained an
abnormally large size or great height for their species in West Virginia.
At present, the exact locations of 103 such individual trees in the State
are contained in the files of WVDNR-HTP.
2.3.4.3.2. Wetlands. The wetland areas listed in the WVDNR-HTP
system, plus those identified from other sources, are shown in Figure 2-11 .
2.3.4.4. Locations of Significant Species and Biotic Features
The locations of significant terrestrial biotic resources within the
North Branch Potomac River Basin as recorded by WVDNR-HTP are shown in
Figure 2-11. The majority of known locations of significant biotic
resources are scattered throughout the Basin, with the exception of the
cluster of wetlands in the southwestern part. Five of the seven occurrences
of animals of special interest were recorded in the area around Bear Rocks
along the Allegheny Front. The shale barrens in the eastern part of the
Basin constitute a unique natural area and have a number of endemic species
of plants.
2.3.5. Data Gaps
The regional-scale emphasis of this assessment and the physical limit-
ations of the report preclude the provision of all of the detailed informa-
tion known to exist on terrestrial resources within the Basin. The infor-
mation presented in the preceeding sections constitutes a summary of the
available information on biologically and economically significant species
and features. During the compilation and condensation of the available
information, a number of deficiencies were noted in both information on
particular resources within the Basin and in the extent of geographic areas
of the Basin.
2-78
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2.3.5.1. Flora
In contrast to most areas in West Virginia, botanical data are
available for most of the North Branch Potomac River Basin. However, most
of the locations at which data on flora have been collected are adjacent to
public roads, and further investigations need to be performed in more
interior areas.
2.3.5.2. Wildlife
Little is known about the current abundance and distribution of
wildlife within the Basin other than for economically important game
animals. Even information for these species is available only at the county
level, and only on the basis of harvest data. Estimates of the distri-
bution, abundance, and habitat requirements of all species of vertebrates
are available for each county from the RUN WILD EAST-WV computerized inven-
tory of WVDNR-Wildlife Resources (1978a). These are general indicators for
each county as a whole and often are based on only a few old records,
especially in the case of mammals. The population size and distribution of
a species may vary considerably from one part of a county to another,
depending on the availability of suitable habitat and other requirements.
Many species are presumed to be present in a number of counties, although
their occurrence has not been verified. This is particularly true for
reptiles and amphibians, most of which are reclusive and solitary by nature
and are active for only a part of the year. It also is difficult to
estimate the populations and ranges of nocturnal, burrowing, or solitary
mammals such as shrews and moles. The last major study on the distribution
of mammals in the State was done almost 30 years ago (McKeever 1951), and
these are the data on which most of the information on mammals in the RUN
WILD EAST-WV system is based. The distribution and abundance of species of
non-game birds has been documented in more detail as the result of the
efforts of members of the Brooks Bird Club and other organizations of
birders, but most of these data have been collected near urban areas or on
State-owned lands.
2.3.5.3. Wetlands
Knowledge of the number, location, and community composition of
wetlands in the State is in an early stage of development. An initial
inventory of wetlands has been conducted by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources and
incorporated into the WVDNR-HTP data bank. Additional wetlands may be
identified during the course of the aerial photographic survey being
conducted jointly by WVDNR-HTP and researchers at West Virginia University.
At present the flora and fauna of the known wetlands have not been
studied extensively because of the small size and remote locations of these
wetlands. Field investigations are scheduled to be conducted during 1980
and succeeding years. Small mammal trapping, wildlife observation, and
botanical studies will be performed by WVDNR-HTP personnel and other
researchers to obtain information on the plant and animal communities of
these wetlands. Studies also will be performed on nutrient cycling,
2-79
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stratigraphy and soils, water inflow and outflow, and water quality
changes.
2.3.5.4. Significant Species and Features
Information on rare, threatened, and endangered species and biological
features of special interest or uniqueness within the State also is in an
early stage of development. Additional fieldwork is required to confirm
existing data, and a number of researchers are contributing their knowledge
to the WVDNR-HTP information bank.
2-80
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2.4 Climate, Air Quality, and Noise
-------
Page
2.4. Climate, Air Quality, and Noise 2-81
2.4.1. General Climatic Patterns in West Virginia 2-81
2.4.1.1. Precipitation and Humidity 2-81
2.4.1.2. Temperature 2-82
2.4.1.3. Wind 2-82
2.4.2. Climatic Patterns in the North Branch Potomac River 2-82
Basin '"
2.4.2.1. Precipitation 2-83
2.4.2.2. Relative Humidity 2-83
2.4.2.3. Temperature 2-83
2.4.2.4. Wind 2-91
2.4.2.5. Mixing Heights 2-91
2.4.3. Ambient Air Quality 2-91
2.4.3.1. Air Quality Control Regions and PSD Class I 2-91
Areas
2.4.3.2. Air Quality Data and Trends 2-93
2.4.3.3. Classification of AQCR's 2-93
2.4.3.4. Air Pollution Sources 2-103
2.4.4. Noise 2-103
-------
2.4. CLIMATE, AIR QUALITY, AND NOISE
2.4.1. General Climatic Patterns in West Virginia
West Virginia has a continental climate characterized by distinct
seasons. The State is in the path of prevailing westerly winds that move
across the North American continent, bringing weather patterns that develop
in the western and southwestern states. These winds frequently are
interrupted by cool or warm surges from the north or the south.
Weather in summer months is controlled by warm, moist air that moves
into the State from the Gulf of Mexico and produces warm summer temperatures
and frequent rainstorms. Showers and thunderstorms generally are localized
and of short duration. Occasionally they cause local flooding of small
streams.
Winter weather is dominated by low pressure systems that move eastward
through the Ohio River Valley. These systems bring cool temperatures and
often cause precipitation events of long duration which cover extensive
areas. Flooding of large rivers and streams occasionally occurs as a result
of the winter storms. Thaw conditions are common during these periods, and
snow accumulations generally are light.
The mountainous topography of West Virginia significantly influences
local weather conditions in the State. Above 3,000 ft, temperatures
generally are cooler, winds are stronger, and precipitation heavier than in
the valleys or plateaus at lower elevations. Precipitation is generally
greater on windward (west-facing) slopes where rising, moisture-laden air
cools and condenses. Markedly less precipitation occurs on leeward
(east-facing) slopes, especially east of the Allegheny Mountains (NOAA
1977).
2.4.1.1. Precipitation and Humidity
Precipitation in West Virginia averages 43 inches per year Statewide
and varies locally from 30 to 51 inches. Rainfall tends to increase in an
easterly direction from the western border of the State to the Allegheny
Mountains. Immediately east of the mountains, precipitation values are
similar to those observed in the far western sections of the State. Monthly
average amounts are approximately equal, with precipitation only slightly
greater during the summer months. The least precipitation occurs during
autumn. Precipitation falls on an average of 122 days per year, and
thunderstorms occur approximately 40 to 50 days per year (NOAA 1977, Trent
and Dickerson 1976).
Thunderstorms may bring 4 to 5 inches of rain during a 24-hour period,
and amounts greater than 10 inches in 24 hours have been reported in all
parts of the State. The record storm is considered to be a mid-July
thunderstorm which deposited 19 inches of rain in 2 hours at Rockport (Wood
County) in 1889. Values for the 10-year 24-hour design storm range from
2-81
-------
approximately 4 to 5 inches across the State. The values of the 10-year
1-hour storm are approximately 2 inches, lower in the north, and higher in
the southern part of the State (Horn and McGuire 1960).
Average annual snowfall for West Virginia ranges from 20 inches at low
elevations to greater than 70 inches in the mountains. Accumulations are
generally light due to frequent thaws, except at higher elevations where
snow cover may persist for extended periods of time (NOAA 1977, Trent and
Dickerson 1976).
Relative humidity in the western section of the State averages nearly
80% during night and early morning hours, but generally drops to 60% or less
during the early afternoon. Humidity in late summer and early autumn is
slightly higher than the annual average, and spring values are slightly
lower. Night and early morning fog is frequent in valleys at higher
elevations. Although high elevation areas generally are more humid than
areas at lower elevations, mild temperatures prevent the higher humidity
from causing uncomfortable living conditions for persons inhabiting these
areas.
2.4.1.2. Temperature
Summer temperatures in West Virginia average 71.5° Fahrenheit (°F), but
occasionally climb to highs of 100° F or more. Winter temperatures average
33.6° F but may drop to less than -30° F at high elevations. Cold spells,
with near 0° F temperatures, generally occur two or three times during the
winter season but last only a few days. Spring and autumn temperatures in
the State average 50-60° F. The first freeze of the autumn season normally
occurs in late October while the last spring freeze occurs during late
April. The average length of the growing season for the State is 160 days
(NOAA 1977, West Virginia University, Business Research 1965). Locally, the
frostfree period ranges between about 130 and 170 days, depending on
exposure and elevation.
2.4.1.3. Wind
Prevailing winds are from the west and southwest but vary locally in
both speed and direction due to interruption of air flow by mountain ridges
and valleys. Strongest winds generally are associated with the passage of
frontal systems and are most common during early spring. Calm wind
conditions are most evident during late summer and early autumn. Daily,
winds are usually strongest in the late afternoon and are weakest prior to
dawn. Property damage caused by strong winds is rare. (Weedfall 1967, NOAA
1977).
2.4.2. Climatic Patterns in the North Branch Potomac River Basin
NOAA has tabulated data from the one climatological station at Bayard
in the North Branch Potomac River Basin. Data from two stations located
outside but within 30 miles of the Basin (Petersburg and Wardensville) are
2-82
-------
presented to provide an indication of weather conditions similar to those
found in the lower elevations of the Basin (Figure 2-13). The elevation of
the Bayard Station is about 2,400 ft.
2.4.2.1. Precipitation
Average annual precipitation at the three weather stations ranges from
29.9 inches at Petersburg to 47.5 inches at Bayard. Average monthly
precipitation ranges from a low of 1.82 inches at Petersburg to a high of
4.9 inches at Bayard. The greatest accumulation of rainfall for a 24-hour
period at Bayard was 4.25 inches, while the greatest daily accumulations for
Petersburg and Wardensville Farm were 4.90 and 5.37 inches respectively.
Precipitation data for the Basin are presented in Tables 2-17, 2-18, and
2-19.
Average annual snowfall at these stations varies greatly, depending on
elevation. Bayard has the highest average annual snowfall (96.2 inches),
while Petersburg has the lowest (30.6 inches). Generally the first snow
arrives in October, and snowfalls averaging more than one inch per month
occur from November through April. Occasional light snowfalls have occurred
in May at the Bayard Station. Snow cover during the winter months may reach
several feet in the higher elevations, but generally is a few inches or less
at lower elevations.
2.4.2.2. Relative Humidity
Relative humidity data are not available from the Bayard, Petersburg,
or Wardensville Stations. Such data for the weather station at Elkins WV
(about 30 mi. southwest of the Basin) are representative of conditions found
in the Basin's deep valleys (Table 2-20), however, humidity at Elkins at
daybreak averages 87% and during the afternoon is approximately 59%.
Average monthly humidity ranges from 52% to 97%, very similar to the State
average.
2.4.2.3. Temperature
Average annual temperature data are available for Bayard, Petersburg,
and Wardensville Farm are: 47.0° F, 54.0° F, and 51.5° F, respectively.
The warmest averages occur at all three stations during July, when the
temperatures at Petersburg and Wardensville Farm generally average in the
mid 70°'s. Bayard's July temperatures average 66.5° F. Temperatures of
100° F or greater have been recorded at Petersburg and Wardensville Farm.
Bayard's highest recorded temperature is 94° F. January is the coldest
month of the year with average monthly temperatures ranging from the mid
20°'s at Bayard to the low 30°'s at Petersburg. Record low temperatures
range from -27°F at Bayard to -16°F at both Petersburg and Wardensville Farm
(Tables 2-21, 2-22, and 2-23).
2-83
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Table 2-20. Summary of percent relative humidity from the late 1800's to
1973 at the Elkins Climatological Station, West Virginia (NOAA 1977).
Hour Hour Hour Hour
01 07 13 19
January 81 80 64 71
February 78 79 60 67
March 82 81 56 62
April 81 81 52 55
May 85 86 53 59
June 95 91 57 68
July 97 95 60 62
August 97 97 63 78
September 96 96 62 83
October 91 91 53 74
November 84 84 60 73
December 85 83 68 77
Average 87 87 59 70
2-87
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-------
2.4.2.4. Wind
Wind data are not available from weather stations in or near the Basin.
Data for the state indicate that the average annual wind speed is
approximately 6.5 miles per hour, prevailing from the southwest. Because of
the strong local variation in wind conditions, the USOSM Draft Experimental
Permit Application Form requests applicants to supply locally applicable
wind as well as precipitation data. Strong, damaging winds occur
infrequently within the Basin (NOAA 1977).
2.4.2.5. Mixing Heights
Warming of air near the surface produces convection currents which mix
air of different characteristics and disperse air pollutants. On sunny
days the mixed layer may reach a height of 3,000 to 6,500 feet, above which
there is an inversion layer of stable air. The distance between the bottom
of the inversion layer and the ground is called the mixing height. The
depth of this layer of turbulent air determines the volume of air in which
pollutants are diluted, and therefore their ground-level concentrations. An
inverse relationship exists between the depth of the mixed layer and
pollutant concentrations: greater mixing heights are associated with lower
pollutant concentrations. Mixing heights are generally greatest in the
afternoon when surface temperatures are likely to be highest.
Mean morning mixing heights in the Basin range from about 2,015 ft in
the winter to 1,235 ft in the summer, with an annual mean of 1,590 ft. Mean
afternoon mixing heights range from 6,140 ft in the spring to 3,410 ft in
the winter, with an annual mean of 5,077 ft (Table 2-24).
Low-level inversions occur in the Appalachian RAgion 30 to 45% of the
time (NAPCA and WVAPCC 1970). During these inversion episodes, pollutants
become concentrated near the surface and potentially can violate air quality
standards.
2.4.3. Ambient Air Quality
An Air Quality Control Region (AQCR) is the functional unit for which
air pollution control regulations are designed pursuant to the Clean Air
Act. The United States is subdivided into approximately 250 AQCR's, each of
which consists of five to twenty counties. These AQCR's were originally
established to represent geographical areas that include similar sources of
air pollution in an urbanized area, and the receptors that were
significantly affected by them. In later reorganization, some of these
AQCR's were altered for administrative convenience, while others remained
grouped based on similarity of air pollution concentrations and problems.
Primary and secondary National Ambient Air Quality Standards appear in
Section 4.2.
2.4.3.1 Air Quality Control Regions and PSD Class I Areas
There are ten AQCR's in West Virginia, four of which are interstate and
six of which are intrastate. The intrastate AQCR's in West Virginia were
designated on the basis of similarity of topography and/or land use and on
2-91
-------
Table 2-24- Mean mixing heights in feet (ft) for the North Branch Potomac
River Basin (EPA 1972).
Season
Winter (December through February)
Spring (March through May)
Summer (June through August)
Autumn (September through November)
Annual Mean
Morning
2,015
1,950
1,235
1,460
1,590
Afternoon
3,410
6,140
6,012
4,745
5,077
2-92
-------
the basis of political or natural boundaries (Figure 2-12 ). Federal
interstate AQCR's were established to help simplify the problem of
controlling excessive pollution in the individual states (WVAPCC 1978).
AQCR's VII and IX are wholly or partially within the North Branch Potomac
River Basin. Air discharge permits are administered by WVAPCC (Section
4.1.4.13), except for PSD reviews. The latter are performed by EPA Region
III (see Section 4.2.).
2.4.3.2. Air Quality Data and Trends
There are eight air quality monitoring stations operated by WVAPCC
in the Basin (Figure 2-13). WVAPCC's stations monitor concentrations of
total suspended particulates (TSP) and sulfur dioxide (S02). ' Carbon
monoxide (CO), oxidants (03), nitrogen dioxide (N02), and hydrocarbon
concentrations (HC) currently are not monitored. On the basis of previous
monitoring, WVAPCC has assumed that the airborne concentrations of these
pollutants do not violate the secondary standards.
The collected data on TSP and S02 (Tables 2-25 and 2-26) are not
considered to represent the actual air quality of the North Branch Potomac
River Basin accurately due to problems associated with the number and
operation of monitoring stations. It is assumed by the WVAPCC that air
quality is good and does not violate the NAAQS's for TSP and S02.
Monitored dustfall concentrations within the Basin are relatively low
(Table 2-27). Currently there are no Federal or State standards for
dustfall concentrations.
One fossil fuel power plant is located in the North Branch Potomac
River Basin in the vicinity of Mt. Storm Lake (Figure 2-14). There are five
additional fossil fuel power plants within 50 miles to the west of the
Basin. Despite the prevailing westerly winds, the pollutants generated by
these plants have little impact on the Basin's air quality. This is
attributable to the mountainous terrain lying between the power plants and
the Basin.
There is light manufacturing activity in the vicinity of each of the
monitoring stations in the Basin. Based on data from the monitoring
stations, these industries do not appear to have an adverse impact on the
Basin's air quality.
2.4.3.3. Classification of AQCR's
An AQCR is further classified according to monitored or estimated air
pollution concentrations within the AQCR as Priority I, Priority II, or
Priority III. The most heavily polluted regions are Priority I; regions
with less pollution are Priority II; and those with pollution levels below
or only slightly above standard levels are Priority III. A given AQCR may
have different classifications for different pollutants. For example, an
AQCR could be classified as Priority I for S02 and Priority III for CO.
2-93
-------
UJ
2-94
-------
Figure 2-13
AMBIENT AIR MONITORING STATIONS AND
CLIMATOLOGICAL MONITORING STATIONS
(adapted from NOAA 1977, WVAPCC 1978)
LOCAL CLIMATOLOGICAL STATION
AMBIENT AIR MONITORING STATION
SUSPENDED PARTICULATE AIR SAMPLER
SETTLEABLE PARTICULATE SAMPLER
C02 SAMPLER, MODIFIED WEST GAEKE
STRIP TAPE SAMPLER, SOILING INDEX
SULFATION RATE SAMPLER
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The State air monitoring system provides a general overview of the
monitored air pollution concentrations in the AQCR's in summary form. AQCR
classifications are based upon measured air quality where known or, where
not known, on the maximum estimated pollutant concentration (WVAPCC 1978).
Each AQCR is classified separately with respect to sulfur oxides,
particulate matter, and other such pollutants as may have standards and
priority levels.
The most restrictive classification characterizes an AQCR wherever
there is a difference between the values for different pollutants. For
example, if an AQCR is Priority 1 with respect to an annual average and
Priority II with respect to a 24-hour maximum value, the classification will
be Priority I. The ambient concentration limits that define this
classification system are presented in Table 2-25.
The 1971 Priority classifications for the AQCR's within the Basin are
presented in Table 2-29 . Both of the AQCR's meet the primary and secondary
National Ambient Air Quality Standards for SC>2 and TSP.
An air quality non-attainment area is an area within an AQCR that is in
non-compliance with the NAAQS's. In West Virginia the secondary NAAQS's
(see Section 4.0; Table 4-4 ) are used in determining non-attainment areas.
None of the State's non-attainment areas is located within the Basin (Figure
2-15).
A Priority I classification has been assigned to AQCR VII since 1971
for TSP and SC>2. Despite the Priority I classification, the AQCR
currently is considered to have good air quality (Verbally, Mr. Ken McBee,
WVAPCC, to Terri Ozaki, December 4, 1979). The Priority I classification
for TSP was based on data collected at the only station located in the AQCR
prior to 1974. Data collected between 1968 and 1971 at this station
indicated TSP levels were above secondary NAAQS's. The monitoring of SC>2
concentrations did not begin until 1974. The Priority I classification was
assigned on the basis of estimated SC>2 concentrations in the AQCR
(Verbally, Mr. Robert Weser, WVAPCC, to Ms. Terri Ozaki, November 29,
1979).
The WVAPCC monitoring program in AQCR VII has encountered several
problems. The Piedmont monitoring station recorded TSP concentrations
exceeding the secondary NAAQS's between 1975 and 1978. Despite these
figures the ACQR was classified as an attainment area because WVAPCC
collected an insufficient number of samples between 1976 and 1978 due to
manpower restrictions and weather conditions. In 1975 a sufficient number
of samples was collected, but the sampling method was considered to be poor.
Thus, while the samples indicated TSP and S02 concentrations were higher
than secondary NAAQS's, these concentrations were not considered by WVAPCC
to represent air quality accurately in AQCR VII.
Data on AQCR IX indicate good air quality. AQCR IX is classified as
Priority III for both TSP and S02 concentrations.
2-100
-------
Table 2-28. Ambient concentration limits that define the AQCR classification
system [ug/ffl3 (ppm)] (WVAPCC 1978).
Priority
Pollutant
II
III
Sulfur dioxide (S02)
Annual arithmetic mean
24-hour maximum
Particulate matter (TSP)
Annual arithmetic mean
24-hour maximum
>100 (0.04)
>455 (0.17)
>95
>325
60-100 (0.02-0.04)
260-455 (0.10-0.17)
60- 95
150-325
<60 (0.02)
<260 (0.10)
<60
<150
Table 2-29. Priority classification of AQCR's for suspended particulates and
sulfur oxides (Verbally, Mr. Tom Bryant, WVAPCC, to Mr. Sherman Smith,
November 21, 1979).
Priority Classification
Suspended Particulate
SO,
VII (Cumberland - Keyser Interstate)
IX (Allegheny Intrastate)
I
III
I
III
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2-102
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In the revisions to the State Implementation Plan approved by EPA
during August 1980, the two AQCR's were classified in the same categories
with respect to attainment of the NAAQ's. For all of the regulated
pollutants (TSP, S02, N02, CO, 03), both were assigned to the category
"below primary or secondary standards or unclassifiable" (45 FR 159:54052,
August 14, 1980; see Section 4.0. for standards).
2^.4.3.4. Air Pollution Sources
The largest producers of particulates and sulfur oxides in West
Virginia are electric generating facilities, metallurgical furnaces, and
other fossil fuel burning units. There are three major industrial areas in
the State:
Charleston - chemical industries
Huntington - chemical industries
Steubenville-Wheeling-Weirton - coal using industries.
The locations of these three areas and the principal fossil fuel power
plants in West Virginia, eastern Ohio, and eastern Kentucky are presented in
Figure 2-14
Coal mining and coal processing operations may affect air quality by
generating fugitive dust. This pollutant may exacerbate existing TSP
concentrations in both attainment and non-attainment areas. Winds may carry
fugitive dust as far as 12.5 miles from a. mine site in the arid regions of
the western US, where wind speeds tend to be high. In the eastern states,
where high humidity and lower wind speed favor the settling of particles,
most fugitive dust settles close to its source.
2.4.4. Noise
West Virginia has neither State nor regional noise monitoring programs,
and it lacks noise regulations. Thus, specific .information regarding noise
levels in the Basin is not available. Ambient monitored noise data for West
Virginia are presented in Table 2-30 .
One recent study regarding noise levels in Appalachia (WAPORA 1980)
provides further insight into typical noise levels found in the region.
Mean daytime noise levels at all reported sites were calculated to be 59.1
decibels (dBA) with a standard deviation of 7.4 dBA. Mean nighttime levels
were found to be 5.5 dBA lower than the daytime levels. Noise levels did
not differ significantly between different landuse classes within the cities
studied.
A Nationwide EPA program to mitigate noise pollution began in May 1977
pursuant to the Noise Control Act of 1972. This program seeks to reduce
24-hour average noise levels initially to no more than 75 decibels and
eventually to 55 decibels in order to protect against both hearing loss and
interference with human activities resulting from noise exposure. West
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Table 2-30. Ambient noise levels (dBA; WVDH 1979).
LOCATION LIQ X Leq
Large Metropolitan Center 69 59 65
Small Metropolitan Center 68 58 62
Rural Area 59 51 55
L10: That noise level which is exceeded 10% of the time, based on
statistical calculations using monitored data.
X: The average or mean of all the noise levels recorded during a
defined time period.
The equivalent steady-state sound level which during a stated
period of time would contain the same acoustic energy as the
time-varying sound level actually recorded during the same time
period.
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Virginia has not yet availed itself of EPA assistance through the Quiet
Communities Program, which provides technical aid in developing noise
control ordinances and monitoring existing noise sources. No municipalities
in the Basin are actively utilizing the Program.
2-105
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2.5 Cultural and Visual Resources
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Page
2.5. Cultural and Visual Resources 2-106
2.5.1. Prehistory 2-107
2.5.2. Archaeological Resources 2-111
2.5.3. History 2-115
2.5.4. Identified Historic and Archaeological Sites 2-119
2.5.5. Visual Resources 2-119
2.5.5.1. Resource Values 2-122
2.5.5.2. Primary Visual Resources 2-122
2.5.5.3. Basin Landscapes 2-126
2.5.5.A. Visual Resource Degradation 2-126
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2.5. CULTURAL AND VISUAL RESOURCES
Archaeological and historic sites (cultural resources) which are listed
are determined as being eligible for the National Register of Historic
Places are protected by several Federal regulations. Significant cultural
resources are considered to be valuable non-renewable manifestations of
cultural history. Cultural resources are considered eligible for the
National Register of Historic Places according to the following criteria:
If they are associated with events that have made a
significant contribution to the broad patterns of our
history; or
If they are associated with the lives of people
significant in our past; or
If they embody the distinctive characteristics of a type,
period, or method of construction, or represent the work
of a master, or possess high artistic values, or represent
a significant and distinguishable entity whose components
may lack individual distinction; or
If they have yielded, or may be likely to yield,
information important in prehistory or history (36 CFR
800 as amended).
The following sites are ordinarily not considered eligible for the
National Register: cemeteries, birthplaces or graves of historical figures,
properties owned by religious institutions or used for religious purposes,
structures that have been moved from their original locations, reconstructed
historic buildings, properties primarily commemorative in nature, and
properties that have achieved significance within the past 50 years.
However, such properties will qualify if they are integral parts of
districts that do meet the criteria or if they fall within the following
categories:
A religious property deriving primary significance from
architectural or artistic distinction or historical
importance
A building or structure removed from its original location
but which is significant primarily for architectural
value, or which is the surviving structure most
importantly associated with a historic person or event
A birthplace or grave of a historical figure of
outstanding importance if there is no appropriate site or
building directly associated with the person's productive
life
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A cemetery which derives its primary significance from
graves of people of transcendent importance, from age,
from distinctive design features, or from association with
historic events
A reconstructed building when accurately executed in a
suitable environment and presented in a dignified manner
as part of a restoration master plan, and when no other
building or structure with the same association has
survived
A property primarily commemorative in intent if design,
age, tradition, or symbolic value has invested it with its
own historical significance
A property achieving significance within the past 50 years
if it is of exceptional importance (36 CFR 800 as amended).
Mandates and appropriate procedures for identification and protection
of significant cultural resources which may be affected by Federally funded,
licensed, permitted, or sponsored projects are contained in the National
Historic Preservation Act of 1966 (P.L. 89-665 as amended); Executive Order
11593; the Advisory Council Procedures for the Protection of Historic and
Cultural Properties (36 CFR 800 as amended); the Archaeological and Historic
Preservation Act of 1974 (P.L. 93-291); and the National Environmental
Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969 (P.L. 91-190). Compliance with Federal regula-
tions concerning consideration and protection of significant cultural
resources is required when a Federal agency conducts an administrative task
whether or not a NEPA review is indicated and whether or not an EIS is
prepared for a specific Federally-funded or endorsed undertaking. No field
reconnaissance or on-site verification relating to the nature and extent of
recorded sites was conducted.
2.5.1. Prehistory
Table 2-31 presents the prehistoric cultural groups which
archaeologists identify with West Virginia. It is with reference to these
groups, their associated technological assemblages, and a generally accepted
chronology that the incompletely known prehistory of the North Branch
Potomac River Basin can be understood. This review relies primarily on the
works of JMA (1978a), McMichael (1968), and Wilkins (1977).
The first evidence of human habitation in the North Branch Potomac
River Basin relates to the Paleo-Indian period, perhaps as far back as
13,000 B.C. However, no specific habitation sites or butchering stations
attributable to Paleo-Indians have been discovered in the North Branch
Potomac River Basin or in the State of West Virginia. Such sites have been
investigated in Pennsylvania and Virginia. Gardner has investigated the
earliest known structure in the New World at the Thunderbird site in
Virginia (1974) and has associated it with a Paleo-lndian occupation. A
2-107
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nearby butchering station has also been associated with a Paleo-Indian
occupation. Both sites date to about 11,000 B.C.
Radiocarbon dates of 11,300 B.C. and 13,170 B.C. have been recovered
from Meadowcroft Rockshelter in Pennsylvania. This site in the Upper Ohio
Valley may also be attributable to Paleo-Indian occupation (Adavasio et al.
1975; Wilkins 1977). While no camp sites or butchering stations
attributable to Paleo-Indians have been discovered in West Virginia,
isolated artifacts have been recorded.
Paleo-Indian sites are frequently characterized by the presence of a
distinctive type of fluted, lanceolate projectile point. In West Virginia,
fluted points have been found on terraces of the Ohio River and the Kanawha
River and on Blennerhassett Island in the Ohio River near Parkersburg.
Fluted points have been found elsewhere associated with mammoth and mastodon
remains. It is postulated that the Paleo-Indians lived in migratory bands
and subsisted by hunting large game. At the time of the Valders maximum of
the Wisconsin glaciation during the Pleistocene Epoch, the continental ice
sheet advanced to within several hundred miles of the North Branch Potomac
River Valley. Game such as caribou and mastodon grazed in open areas not
covered by ice or meltwater. The large herbivores followed natural game
trails along the watercourses to reach the level grazing areas. It is
believed that the Paleo-Indians utilized the game trails and ambushed the
large mammals at strategic passes and stream fords and at other areas of
game concentration, such as salt springs.
Typical artifact assemblages found at known Paleo-Indian sites include:
fluted, lanceolate projectile points; uniface, blade-like, snub-nosed
scrapers; uniface side blades; gravers; and other blade and flake tools.
Evidence from known occupation sites indicates that individual sites were
occupied temporarily or seasonally over a long period of time.
Paleo-Indian occupation sites have been found on sandy alluvial hill-
ocks at elevations of about 100 feet above major river valleys as well as on
upland flats. Ridge tops, being presumed routes of travel for people as
well as game, have potential for Paleo-Indian sites. Saline springs and
salt licks on terraces attracted large herbivores, serving to draw in the
big game hunting Paleo-Indians. In historic times salt licks have been
associated with coal formations (Cunningham 1970). Additional Basin
Paleo-Indian sites have a high probability of being discovered in areas with
topography and environment similar to that described above.
By about 6000 B.C. the gradually changing climatic conditions resulted
in ecological changes that brought about the extinction of large herbivores
in West Virginia. Evidence from archaeological sites occupied after about
6000 B.C. indicates that a concurrent change occurred in human foodgathering
practices and settlement patterns. The several distinct modes of human
adaptation to changing conditions at this time are manifested in various
cultural assemblages at various locations in West Virginia. It is likely
that the original inhabitants supplemented their diets with available small
2-109
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game, vegetables, grains, and fruits. As the large game became
scarce, however, human populations became more and more dependent upon the
full variety of food resources that could be collected in a given area.
Habitation sites of Archaic cultural groups have been identified
following the Paleo-Indian period in West Virginia. Archaic sites have been
found on the lower terraces of the Ohio and Kanawha Rivers. Large mounds of
clam shells, fish bones, and other refuse were found on the east bank of the
Ohio River. Typical artifacts recovered from the shell middens included
broad stemmed and lanceolate spear points, grooved adzes, atlatl weights,
bone awls, and harpoon points. It is believed that because of their more
constant food supply, the Archaic peoples were able to live in larger, more
settled groups than the Paleo-hunters. They may have changed their
campsites seasonally.
The later Archaic sites contained evidence of increasing dependence on
grain and vegetables as food sources. Pigweed and goosefoot may have been
cultivated. Bowls of the mineral steatite were made prior to the intro-
duction of vessels made of clay. Grave offerings and red ochre often
accompany burials.
The Archaic culture evolved into several cultural forms collectively
referred to as Woodland culture. Pottery making and mound building were
associated with most of the Woodland sites. During the period between 1000
B.C. and 0 A.D., several groups of mound builders occupied the State of West
Virginia. These diverse groups developed from and elaborated upon the late
Archaic cultural traits, such as plant cultivation and burial ceremonialism,
to form distinct cultural configurations. While early Adena groups occupied
the Ohio River and Kanawha River Valleys between 1000 B.C. and 500 B.C., we
have no evidence from the North Branch Potomac River Valley for this period.
These were essentially Middle Woodland groups who constructed mounds with
such artifacts as stemmed projectile points, plain tubular pipes,
cord-marked pottery tempered with grit, and whetstones. Settlements
consisted of groups of circular houses of pole and bark construction.
Late Adena sites contained evidence of cultural influences from groups
to the north and west, known as Hopewell cultural groups. Mounds covered
log tombs, in which one or more burials had been placed, and many tombs were
destroyed during the later construction of a mound. Grave goods included
ornamental offerings such as effigy pipes, pendants, gorgets, copper
bracelets and rings, and grooved stone tablets. Late Adena houses were of
double-post side wall construction.
Hopewell influences occurred in West Virginia by about 100 A.D. The
resultant mixture of Adena and Hopewell cultural elements has been
identified as the Armstrong Culture (McMichael 1968). Scattered villages
were composed of circular houses. Simple agriculture was practiced, and the
tools included small flake knives and corner and side-notched projectile
points made of flint.
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Figure 2-16 indicates the known distribution of Late Middle Woodland
cultures in West Virginia from about 500 A.D. to 1000 A.D. While no
information is available on the Early Woodland in the North Branch Potomac
River Basin, this is a result of the general lack of archaeological coverage
for West Virginia as a whole rather than an indication that the area was
uninhabited during this period. The Montane culture of the Middle and Late
Woodland in the North Branch Potomac River Basin has some apparent
affiliations with better known Hopewell groups farther to the west.
The Monongahela culture of the Late Prehistoric period of 1000 A.D. to
1675 A.D. had a direct association with part of the North Branch Potomac
River Basin and a very late association known as the Late Potomac Extension
with the rest of the Basin. This is illustrated in Figure 2-17.
West Virginia was virtually devoid of indigenous peoples by about 1700
A.D., before direct contact with the Europeans had been made. The reason
for this abandonment is unknown. Very late settlement sites contain
European trade goods which must have been bartered from other Indian groups
(Figure 2-18). Such sites in the North Branch Potomac River Basin have been
archaeologically associated with the historically known Susquehannock
Indians.
Although hunting groups and raiding parties continued to visit West
Virginia after 1700, only a few groups remained settled in the State. These
appear to have been Algonkian speaking people in the Eastern Panhandle. The
extent of their presence or absence in the North Branch Potomac River Basin
has not been demonstrated. Some Shawnee moved into West Virginia during
historic times, and some displaced Delawares also occupied parts of the
State for a brief period.
2.5.2. Archaeological Resources
In the North Branch Potomac River Basin, one prehistoric archaeological
site appears on the 1:24,000 scale Overlay 1. Archaeological remains of one
or more groups of prehistoric inhabitants have been found in virtually every
type of environmental setting in West Virginia: in river valleys, on river
terraces, on hills, and on mountaintops, in rock shelters on mountainsides,
and on cliffs. Because large sections of the Basin have not been subjected
to professional reconnaissance many archaeological sites remain to be
discovered. The lack of known recorded sites for the Basin, therefore,
cannot be interpreted as a comprehensive inventory of the actual
distribution of archaeological sites. Because of extensive gaps in the
prehistoric site record, it is virtually certain that numerous significant
archaeological resources remain to be discovered in the North Branch Potomac
River Basin. It is also certain that many unrecorded sites in the Basin
have been destroyed as a result of land development, coal mining, logging,
and other earth moving activities.
Information for this study was obtained solely from existing
documentary sources and consultation with knowledgeable informants. Sources
2-111
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2-112
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o
2-113
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2-114
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consulted included the National Register of Historic Places and monthly
supplements, the WVGES-Archaeology Section, the State Archaeologist (now in
WVDCH), available published and unpublished survey and excavation reports,
and local informants.
The Archaeology Section at the West Virginia Geological and Economic
Survey maintains a comprehensive central archaeological site file for the
State of West Virginia. At the time of data collection for this study, the
State Office of Historic Preservation in the West Virginia Department of
Culture and History did not employ a full-time archaeologist. Since then
Mr. Roger Wise has been employed as a full-time State Archaeologist. Given
this new position, responsibilities on the State level can be expected to be
adjusted. The WVGES-Archaeology Section has acted in a cooperative
relationship with, and functioned as an archaeological data repository for,
WVDCH. The Statewide archaeological site survey maintained by the WVGES-
Archaeology Section is incomplete, and many recorded sites have not been
professionally inspected and/or evaluated (Verbally, Dr. Jeffrey Greybill,
WVGES-Archaeology Section, to Ms. Elizabeth Righter, November 1979).
Because of the unsystematic manner in which numerous reported sites
have been discovered and documented to the WVGES-Archaeology Section, site
information is of variable quality. In addition, because of time and
budgetary constraints, the staff of the WVGES-Archaeology Section has not
been able to inspect, test, or evaluate each site recorded in the Section's
files. The significance of most recorded sites, therefore, is unknown, and
the unselective mapping of each site known to the WVGES-Archaeology Section
was deemed likely to yield little useful information for mining permit
evaluations. Additionally, there is a high probability that, in some cases,
the frequencies of recorded sites related to certain landforms, altitudes,
and environmental zones are as much a function of former unsystematic survey
and reporting methods as of actual site densities and distributions.
The WVGES-Archaeology Section maintains a policy of confidentiality
with regard to unpublished site locations in order to prevent disturbance of
potential scientific data by pothunters or other vandals. Therefore, in
this report only those sites reported in published documents and sites
listed on or determined eligible for the National Register of Historic
Places have been mapped. In most cases, sites reported in published
documents have been subjected to evaluation by professional or amateur
archaeologists.
2.5.3. History
The Basin consists of parts of Grant and Mineral Counties. Until 1863
the counties and all of West Virginia were part of the Commonwealth of
Virginia. Both Grant and Mineral Counties were formed in 1866 shortly
after the granting of West Virginia's statehood. Grant County was formed
form the western part of Hardy County and named after the Union general,
2-115
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U.S. Grant. Mineral County was split from Hampshire County and named after
the area's mineral resources (North 1979).
Indians were the Basin's first human residents. Indian settlements,
however, were scarce at the time of European exploration of the region in
the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. The scarcity of perm-
anent Indian villages sometimes is attributed to pressure from the powerful
Iroquois tribes located in New York. Despite the scarcity of permanent
villages, the area served as an Indian hunting ground for various tribes.
No major Indian trails were located in the North Branch Potomac River Basin
although the important Seneca Trail was located to the east of the Basin and
ran along the South Branch Potomac River Valley. The Seneca Trail is
believed to have been an important branch of the Warrior Trail which
connected Iroquois lands to the north with the southern lands of the
Cherokee. It passed through the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia and West
Virginia (Rice 1972).
The Basin was part of the huge Fairfax Land Grant during the colonial
era. The land grant encompassed an area of approximately 2,450 square miles
lying between the Potomac and Rappahannock Rivers. Thomas, Sixth Lord of
Fairfax and proprietor of the grant during the eighteenth century, planned
to develop a feudal estate out of the land grant and collect quitrents from
persons residing on his lands. The Fairfax Stone marked the western
boundary of the Fairfax Land Grant. The original stone was placed by a
surveying party in 1746 but disappeared in 1885 and was replaced by the
present Fairfax Stone in 1910. In addition to setting the boundary of the
Fairfax Land Grant, the stone also was used to determine Maryland's western
boundary and thus settle a dispute between Maryland and West Virginia. In
1748, George Washington was employed by Lord Fairfax to serve as one of his
land surveyors (Randolph Co. Historical Society 1969).
Settlement of the North Branch Potomac River Basin by Europeans
occurred shortly before the French and Indian War. The Ohio Company set up
an Indian trading post and a fort around 1747 on the banks of the North
Branch Potomac River opposite the present sites of Cumberland MD. The fort
later was moved across the River and became Fort Cumberland which served as
the westernmost fortification in Virginia's frontier defense system during
the French and Indian War. In 1752, Christopher Beelor received a grant of
387.5 acres from Lord Fairfax. Beelor built a cabin along the banks of New
Creek at the site of present day Keyser (North 1979).
Many actions of the French and Indian War (1754-1763) were fought in
the vicinity of the Basin. Most of the action consisted of French-supported
Indian attacks on colonial frontier settlements. At the time of the War's
outbreak, the Basin marked the western edge of Virginia's frontier. During
the War, however, the line of fortifications planned by George Washington,
then a colonel in the Virginia Militia, was located east of the Basin along
the South Branch Potomac River. With the exception of Fort Cumberland, the
Basin was left unprotected during most of the French and Indian War.
General Edward Braddock of England launched the final leg of his 1755
2-116
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campaign against the French at Fort Duquesne from Fort Cumberland and was
defeated soundly. It was not until 1758 and the capture of Fort Duquesne
that the frequency of Indian attacks on the Virginia frontier settlements
began to decrease (Rice 1970).
The Proclamation of 1763 was issued by King George III of England and
forbade settlement west of the main ridges of the Alleghenies. The boundary
delineated by King George III ran through the North Branch Potomac River
Basin. The English hoped that by halting settlement west of the
Alleghenies, tensions between settlers and the Indian tribes would be eased.
However, the pressure for settlement west of the Alleghenies was great and
the Proclamation served to increase tensions between the English government
and the American colonists. The Proclamation was revoked in 1768 and
settlement west of the Alleghenies resumed (Clark 1969). The paths taken by
settlers on the way to their new lands generally followed old Indian trails.
Due to the absence of major Indian trails in the North Branch Potomac River
Basin, most of this wave of settlement bypassed the Basin on the way West
(Rice 1970).
None of the important battles of the American Revolution took place
within the Basin. Veterans of the Indian wars who lived in the Basin did
serve in the American Army under the command of George Washington. Towards
the end of the Revolution, war weariness began to set in amongst some of the
residents living in the vicinity of the Basin.. A minor tax rebellion broke
out during 1780 in Hampshire County and troops under General Daniel Morgan
were sent to the area to restore order (Rice 1970).
Three major transportation improvements were made in the Basin between
1838 and 1850. The first of these was the completion of the Northwestern
Turnpike between Winchester VA and Parkersburg WV in 1838. The Northwestern
Turnpike, originally proposed by George Washington in 1784, provided the
Basin with access to both the Shenandoah Valley and the Ohio River. The
Turnpike later became present-day US Route 50. The Baltimore and Ohio (B&O)
Railroad reached the Basin by 1842 and was completed to as far west as
Wheeling in 1853. The railroad was the most important of the transportation
improvements made in the Basin in the nineteenth century. Agricultural and
timber products from the Basin were shipped east to Baltimore MD and
Washington DC or west to Wheeling WV and the Ohio River markets via the B&O.
The Chesapeake and Ohio (C&O) Canal, the Basin's third major transportation
improvement, was built along the route of the Potomac River between
Washington DC and Cumberland MD. The C&O Canal originally was planned to
connect to the Ohio River Basin by way of the Monongahela River. However,
by the time the Canal reached the Basin (Cumberland) in 1850, it could not
compete with the railroad for trade west of the Alleghenies. Nevertheless,
the C&O Canal did provide the Basin with water transportation for shipment
of goods until 1924. These three transportation improvements provided the
Basin with excellent access to eastern and Ohio River markets prior to the
Civil War. This was considerably earlier than for most of West Virginia
(Rice 1977).
2-117
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The Basin was actively involved in the Civil War although no major
battles were fought within its boundaries. The B&O Railroad, which passed
through the Basin, was strategically important to the Union Army. Troops
and supplies were shipped to Washington on the B&O Railroad. Confederate
raiders constantly destroyed sections of the railroad througout the War.
Because of the B&O's importance to the Union, the railroad was repaired
quickly after each raid. The Basin's economy was able to remain prosperous
during the Civil War due to the B&O. Coal, which began to be commercially
produced in the 1850's was mined throughout the War and shipped to
Washington. Persons such as Henry G. Davis prospered by supplying crossties
to the B&O to replace the ones destroyed in the Confederate raids (Conley
1960).
Keyser, Piedmont, and Cumberland were Union Army outposts which guarded
the B&O and the North Branch Potomac River during the Civil War. Keyser was
the site of the Union's Fort Fuller and was attacked by Confederates under
General T.L. Rosser in November 1864. The Confederates were able to capture
800 Union soldiers and various supplies. In July 1864 an attack against
Keyser by Confederates led by General John McClausland had failed to take
the town. Piedmont was attacked in May 1864 by Confederate raiders under
Captain Jesse McNeill. McNeill's Raiders captured 100 Union soldiers and
burned two trains at Piedmont. McNeill's Raiders also attacked Cumberland
in 1865 (Cohen 1976).
Claysville Methodist Church was built along the Northwestern Turnpike
at the foot of Allegheny Front Mountain. During the Civil War, church
services for both Union and Confederate armies were held at Claysville
Church.
The Civil War and the B&O Railroad played important roles in the
formation of West Virginia. People supporting the Union cause were able to
organize a loyal Virginia government in Wheeling at the outbreak of the War
in 1861. By 1862 the Wheeling government petitioned President Lincoln and
the US Congress for permission to form a new state from the Northwest part
of Virginia. Statehood was granted to West Virginia on June 20, 1863. The
Basin was included in the new State due to the B&O's desire to be a part of
West Virginia instead of Virignia in case the Confederacy won the War. Thus
the Basin and the Eastern Panhandle counties became part of West Virginia
(Rice 1972). In 1866, Grant and Mineral Counties became the first two
counties formed by the newly established State of West Virginia.
The coal resources of the Basin were developed at an increasing rate
after the Civil War. Development of the Basin's coal was primarily due to
the efforts of Henry G. Davis. Davis organized companies to buy tracts of
land in the Basin, harvest timber resources, mine coal, and ship products
via his companies' railroads which were connected to the mainline of the
B&O. Other commercial mining companies opened up mines in the Piedmont, Elk
Garden, and Mount Storm areas in close proximity to the railroads between
1880 and the end of World War I (Conley 1960).
2-118
-------
Commercial mining activity waned during the postwar years of the 1920's
and the Great Depression of the 1930's. Small mines, however, were
beginning to develop a thriving business during this period. Hard surfaced
roads such as US Route 50 connected the Basin to coal markets in Baltimore
and Washington. Small coal deliveries were made over these paved roads by
trucks (Conley 1960).
One major mining disaster is reported to have occurred in the Basin.
On April 24, 1911, an explosion at the Number 20 Ott Mine took the lives of
23 miners (Conley 1960).
2.5.4. Identified Historic and Archaeological Sites
The State of West Virginia maintains an ongoing survey of significant
historic and cultural resources. The State Survey is compiled and
maintained by WVDCH. However, the SHPO has failed to make available to EPA
any information from the West Virginia survey.
The Fairfax Stone, located on the boundary of Grant, Preston, and
Tucker Counties, is the only culturally (historically and/or
archaeologically) significant site located within the Basin which has been
listed on the National Register of Historic Places (Table 2-32; Figure
2-19 ). It is expected that additional historic and archaeological resources
will be identified and nominated to be placed on the National Register.
Four other historic resources have been identified and located through
a search of published literature sources. It is likely that many additional
unidentified historic and archaeological resources of local, State, and
National significance are located within the Basin. Anticipated sites
include forts from the French and Indian War, American Revolution and Civil
War, settlers' cabins, early industrial sites, and other structures of
historic or architectural significance in addition to the potential
archaeological resources discussed in Sections 2.5.1. and 2.5.2.
2.5.5. Visual Resources
Visual resources in the North Branch Potomac Basin generally consist of
natural landscapes where development has not disturbed vegetation,
topography, and other landscape features. Visual resources are valuable for
their relationship to the overall quality of life for Basin residents, and
also for the Basin's tourist industry. Although current State and Federal
mining regulations have reduced adverse effects of mining activity on these
resources to some extent, adverse impacts during and after mining operations
still may result. Evaluation of potential adverse effects on visual
resources is an appropriate NEPA concern which, therefore, must be
incorporated into the New Source permit process for mining activity.
Limited field investigations have been undertaken by WAPORA, Inc. to
identify additional primary visual resources to assess the overall visual
quality of the Basin and its landscapes, and to observe effects of currently
2-119
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Table 2-32.National Register of Historic Places sites (NR); nominated
sites (N); Civil War sites (CW) (Cohen 1976); West Virginia Historic
Market Program sites (HM); and other historic sites listed in published
sources (HS). All sites listed here appear on the 1:24,000 Overlay 1.
No archaeological sites have been determined.
No.
Significance
Quad
County
1 Claysville Church
2 Fort Ohio
3 Fairfax Stone
4 Fort Fuller
5 Piedmont
HM
HM
NR
CW
CW
Mineral
Mineral
Davis
Keyser
Westernport
Antioch
Cumberland
Grant
Mineral
Mineral
2-120
-------
Figure 2-19
HISTORICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES
(45 FR525I, Cohen 1976, WAPORA 1980)
HISTORICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE
A REGISTERED HISTORICAL AND ARCHAEO-
A LOGICAL SITE
2-121
-------
regulated mining activity on visual resource types. Field investigations
were conducted from primary and secondary roadways throughout the Basin,
concentrating on views from the roadways and major access points.
2.5.5.1. Resource Values
Visual resources include landforms, waterways, vegetation, and other
features that are visible in the landscape and to which scenic values can be
ascribed (USBLM 1980). In rural areas generally, scenic values increase
with naturalness, with land use diversity, and with landform irregularity
(Zube 1973). Rugged, diverse topography typically is assigned high scenic
value, and agricultural areas also produce favorable visual impressions
because of their variety of land uses (Linton 1968). The USFS (1974) has
developed a system which classifies landscapes distinguished by features of
unusual and exceptional quality. USFS applies the term distinctive to this
highest order of visual resources. Distinctive visual resources by
definition are not commonplace and exhibit a variety in form, line, color,
and texture through land forms, vegetation, water courses, rock formations
and the like. Potential for adverse effects resulting from new mining
activities is most serious when dealing with this level of resource.
Other types of visual resources also are valuable. Naturally forested
and mountainous landscapes, for example, offer impressive vistas and
contribute to the tourism potential of the North Branch Potomac River Basin
(see Section 2.6). These visual resources are quite common. They can be
adversely affected by new mining activity but because of their extent, they
are of secondary importance.
2.5.5.2. Primary Visual Resources
Primary visual resources in the Basin are based on existing lists of
public lands and other features of recognized scenic value as provided by
WVDNR-HTP and others. These resources are listed in Table 2-33 and shown in
Figure 2-20. Primary visual resources in the North Branch Potomac River
Basin include:
Unusual geological features such as O'Neal Gap Pits
located along the summit of Knobly Mountain and Dolls Gap,
a wind gap formed in New Creek Mountain east of Laurel
Dale.
Scenic overlooks along roadways, providing major vistas
throughout the Basin
Impoundments such as Bloomington Lake, Mount Storm Lake,
and Stony River Reservoir which provide some water-based
recreational and scenic opportunities in an area with few
natural lakes.
2-122
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Figure 2-20
PRIMARY VISUAL RESOURCES IN THE
NORTH BRANCH POTOMAC RIVER
BASIN (WVDNR - HTP I960, WAPORA
1979)
2-125
-------
All primary visual resources are mapped on the 1:24,000 scale Overlay
1. Figure 2-21 illustrates the types of visual resources considered to be
primary.
2.5.5.3. Basin Landscapes
Although Basin landscapes are secondary in importance when compared to
primary (usually site-specific) visual resources, landscapes are notable and
diverse. Much of the Basin, as seen from roadways, appears to be
undisturbed by mining or other development activity. There is a sharp
contrast in topography within the Basin. The eastern part of the Basin lies
within the Iowa elevation ridge and valley province while the western part
of the Basin is located along the higher elevation of the Allegheny Front
(see Section 2.7. for Physiography and Topography and Section 2.3. for
Vegetation). Figure 2-22 illustrates the types of visual resources
considered to be secondary.
2.5.5.4. Visual Resource Degradation
Development activities already have adversely affected both primary and
secondary visual resources in the Basin (effects on primary values are
limited). In the eastern portion of the Basin agricultural activities offer
relatively pleasant visual experiences that contrast with stands of forest.
In the southwestern portion of Mineral County and much of Grant County,
however, coal mining activities are more extensive and visible. The
residential areas which line the valleys range from relatively attractive
rows and clusters of single family dwellings (including mobile homes) to
ill-kept settlements where no effort to maintain litter-free or cleanly
surroundings is in evidence. In some places well kept and run-down
habitations alternate over short distances. Visible industrial activities
in the Basin include coal mines and preparation plants, electrical
generating stations, factories, and railroad facilities. The coal industry
buildings generally are strictly utilitarian and have no intrinsic aesthetic
interest. Preparation plants are sited in valley bottoms, and typically are
sites for the transfer of coal from trucks to rail cars. The surface
facilities associated with some active and abandoned underground mines also
can be seen along Basin roadways (see Section 2.6. for additional
information on development patterns).
Road scars are characteristic features of the forests in the Basin and
generally detract from the natural appearance. These scars appear to result
chiefly from timbering activities and from the installation and maintenance
of oil and gas wells, pipelines, and electrical transmission lines. Except
for roads on regulated coal mining permit areas, there are no controls on
the proliferation of roads through private lands in the Basin.
In summary, Basin visual resources may be degraded by any of the
following:
Past and current coal mining activities
2-126
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Figure 2-21 EXAMPLES OF PRIMARY VISUAL RESOURCES
Dramatic panoramas as seen from State Parks and other facilities
and scenic turnouts along public roads are of special value visually,
These primary visual resources contribute to the tourism potential
of the Basin.
Primary visual resources may consist of landscapes of exceptional
quality such as this picturesque grist mill situated on a rugged
mountain stream. If these resources are not publicly owned, coal
mine-related impacts may be substantial.
2-127
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Figure 2-22 EXAMPLES OF SECONDARY VISUAL RESOURCES
Basin landscapes such as this river and naturally vegetated bluffs
are common but, nevertheless, important to the overall visual quality
of the Basin.
This brook flowing through stands of laurel, rhododendron, and other
indigenous species is typical of upper reaches of watersheds through-
out the Basin.
2-128
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Manufacturing and industrial districts
Clearcuts of the lumbering industry
Transmission line clearcuts and power plants
Solid waste disposal practices and the lack of regulation
and enforcement programs
Unplanned growth and poorly coordinated development
Dilapidated housing and other structural conditions
Poor water quality.
Figure 2-23 provides examples of visual resource degradation.
2-129
-------
Figure 2-23 EXAMPLES OF VISUAL RESOURCE DEGRADATION
Even modern mining reclamation practices as currently required have
an impact on Basin landscapes through the temporary and permanent
alteration of land forms and vegetation.
Visual degradation occurs in the Basin when coal preparation plants,
as shown here, are constructed in otherwise natural settings with no
buffering or special siting considerations taken.
2-130
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2.6 Human Resources and Land Use
-------
Page
2.6. Human Resources and Land Use 2-131
2.6.1. Human Resources 2-134
2.6.1.1. Population 2-134
2.6.1.1.1. Size 2-134
2.6.1.1.2. Social Characteristics 2-134
2.5.1.1.3. Trends in Population Size and 2-134
Migration
2.6.1.1.4. Projected Population Size 2-139
2.6.1.1.5. Relationships Between Population 2-139
Size and Mining Activity
2.6.1.2. Economy 2-146
2.6.1.2.1. General Characteristics 2-146
2.6.1.2.2. Employment Sectors and Income 2-146
Generation
2.6.1.2.3. Income Levels, Unemployment, 2-147
and Poverty
2.6.1.2.4. Special Economic Issues 2-150
Tourism and Travel
2.6.1.3. Housing 2-153
2.6.1.3.1. Housing Supply 2-153
2.6.1.3.2. General Housing Characteristics 2-153
2.6.1.3.3. Size, Age, and Number of 2-155
Occupants
2.6.1.3.4. Housing Value 2-156
2.6.1.3.5. Presence of Complete Plumbing 2-156
Facilities
2.6.1.3.6. Vacancy Rates 2-157
2.6.1.3.7. Owner-Occupancy Rates 2-157
2.6.1.4. Transportation 2-157
2.6.1.4.1. Special Needs of Coal Mining 2-157
Industry and Availability of
Transportation Modes
2.6.1.4.2. Public Roads 2-158
2.6.1.4.3. Railroads 2-160
2.6.1.4.4. Pipelines 2-165
2.6.1.5. Government and Public Services 2-165
2.6.1.5.1. Institutional Framework 2-165
2.6.1.5.2. Governmental Revenues and 2-166
Expenditues
2.6.1.5.3. Health Care 2-166
2.6.1.5.4. Education 2-170
2.6.1.5.5. Recreational Facilities 2-171
2.6.1.5.6. Availability of Water and 2-174
Sewer Services
2.6.1.5.7. Solid Waste 2-177
2.6.1.5.8. Planning Capabilities 2-178
2.6.1.5.9. Local Planning in the North 2-179
Branch Potomac River Basin
2.6.2. Land Use and Land Availability 2-179
2.6.2.1. Classification System 2-179
2.6.2.2. Land Use Patterns 2-183
2.6.2.3. Steep Slopes 2-184
2.6.2.4. Flooding and Flood Insurance 2-186
2.6.2.5. Forms and Concentration of Land Ownership 2-187
2.6.2.6. General Patterns of Land Use and Land 2-191
Availability Conflicts
-------
2.6. HUMAN RESOURCES AND LAND USE
Coal mining and related activities have a tremendous impact not only on
the natural environment, but also on the human environment. The
environmental impacts that coal mining has on humans have been a subject of
study, and of National concern, for over half a century (President's
Commission on Coal 1980). During the 1960s, concern over the plight of
Appalachia, and especially of coal miners in this region, led to the
creation of the Appalachian Regional Commission (Caudill 1973). The North
Branch Potomac River Basin is located within the ARC's region.
This section describes those aspects of the human environment that are
particularly important in determining the impact of coal mining and related
activities. For the purposes of this study, the human environment is
defined broadly and includes population characteristics, economic
conditions, housing, transportation, governmental services, and intensive
usage of land for urban development. The relationships between coal mining
and the various aspects of the human environment are complex and
interactive. A diagram of these relationships is presented in Figure 2-24.
The baseline inventory presented in this section is designed to provide
data needed to analyze the following types of impacts:
Impacts of the proposed activity on the size and structure
of the local population size and structure:
- Induced population growth
- Reduction of out-migration
- Relation to anticipated changes in the size and
composition of the labor force
Impacts of the proposed activity on local economic
conditions:
- Generation of mining employment in excess of local labor
supply
- Generation of additional commuting and fuel consumption
for transportation of workers to the mine site
- Reduction of chronic local unemployment or
underemployment
- Diversification or concentration in the local economy
- Secondary impacts on local employment and income
- Impact on poverty-level population and welfare
expenditures
- Short-term versus long-term economic benefits
Impacts on local housing supply:
- Availability of standard quality housing in the existing
supply
- Availability and cost of new housing
2-131
-------
New Mining
Activity
1
r
Demand for
Additional
Housing
I
Demand lor
Additional
Infrastructure
Facilities
1
1
P
Demand for
Additional
Developed
Land
-*
^~
Primary
Impact
1
Secondary
Employment
Impact
1
Population .
Growth
I
Demand for
Additional
Public
Services
i
Financial
Impact
on
Government
NOTE: All components also have local welfare impact. Feedback
effects are not specified here.
Figure 2-24 HUMAN RESOURCES AND LAND USE IMPACTS OF
NEW MINING ACTIVITIES (WAPORA 1980)
2-132
-------
Impacts on developed land uses:
- Direct adverse Impacts on adjacent areas
- Availability of land with suitable site characteristics,
especially slope, for additional mine-related population
- Availability of land for purchase on the open market for
additional mine-related population
Impacts on local transportation facilities:
- Availability of roads, railroads, and waterways with
coal haul capacity
- Potential impact of coal hauling on local road
conditions and governmental expenditures for roads
Impacts on governmental facilities and services:
- Potential direct and secondary revenue generation for
local governments versus potential direct and indirect
costs to local governments
- Availability of emergency medical care in close
proximity to mining activity sites
- Availability of long-term medical care and physicians
for treatment of mining-related accidents and illness
- Availability of public safety services
- Availability of sewer, water, and solid waste disposal
services for additional population
Compatibility with State, regional, and local
plans and ordinances:
- development plans
- capital improvements programs
- zoning ordinances
- housing plans and programs
- comprehensive development plans
Compatibility of proposed mitigative measures with the
character and social mores of the local population.
The North Branch Potomac River Basin in West Virginia is located in the
western portions of Grant and Mineral Counties. Most of the data used in
this section were compiled on the basis of the entire portions of both
counties. Because county lines do not follow the Basin's hydrologic
boundaries, a distinction must be made regarding the use of the term
"Basin." For the purposes of this section, except where the data are
specified as related to the hydrologic Basin, all data presented on human
resources and land use have been compiled for the entirety of both Grant and
Mineral Counties. This approach is necessary because specific data about
the hydrologic Basin are unavailable.
2-133
-------
2.6.1. Human Resources
2.6.1.1. Population
2.6.1.1.1. Size and Distribution. In 1970, the population of the
North Branch Potomac River Basin (hydrologic Basin) was approximately 16,616
in 1970. This population represented slightly less than 1% of the total
population of the State of West Virginia. This population count represents
the total of all minor civil divisions (magisterial districts, cities,
towns, and villages) that are wholly or primarily within the Basin (Table
2-34). A complete list of these minor civil divisions is provided in Table
2-34. A portion of the Frankfort District lies within the hydrologic Basin
boundary. This area has been excluded from the hydrologic Basin population
count because most of the district is located outside of the hydrologic
Basin. The Basin population includes 26% of Grant County's total
population and 62% of Mineral County's total population.
The population distribution of the hydrologic Basin is shown on
Figure 2-25- The northern portion of the Basin near Cumberland MD, the
central portion in the vicinity of Keyser, and the valley along New Creek,
are the most densely populated areas of the Basin. This is because of
employment opportunities in Keyser, Piedmont, and Cumberland. The southern
portion of the Basin, Grant County in particular, is sparsely populated
because of few employment opportunities and relatively rugged terrain.
In 1970, the average population density in Grant and Mineral Counties
was approximately 39 persons per square mile. This density was lower than
the average State density of 72 persons per square mile. The population
density was 18 persons per square mile in Grant County and 70 persons per
square mile in Mineral County.
2.6.1.1.2. Social Characteristics. The demographic profile of the
North Branch Potomac River Basin is similar to the general profiles of West
Virginia and Appalachia (Zeller and Miller 1968). When 1970 census data for
the counties in the Basin are compared to data for the Nation, the data show
that the population of the Basin was dramatically more rural, contained far
fewer racial minorities, and had a larger proportion of persons below the
poverty level than the State and the US (Tables 2-35 and 2-40). The Basin
was more similar to West Virginia as a whole than it was to the US. In
terms of age structure and average household size, the Basin is similar to
both the State and the US. Education levels approximate the State levels
but are lower than those for the US. There was, however, variation between
the two counties in the Basin. The variation between the counties in the
Basin reflects a difference in underlying physical and economic conditions.
2.6.1.1.3. Trends in Population Size and Migration.
Trends From 1960 to 1970. Population trends in the North Branch
Potomac River Basin were different from the State trends between 1960 and
1970 (Table 2-36). While West Virginia was experiencing the greatest
decline (-6.2/0 of any state in the Nation, the Basin's two counties grew at
a combined rate of 3.5% (Grant County, 3.6%; Mineral County, 3.4%) during
the period. Both the State and the Basin population growth rates were far
below the Nation's 13.3% population growth rate.
2-134
-------
Table 2-34. North Branch Potomac River Basin population based on minor civil
divisions wholly or primarily in Basin (US Bureau of the Census
1973).
COUNTY
Magisterial District
GRANT COUNTY
Union district
Bayard town
TOTAL OF INCLUDED DISTRICTS
MINERAL COUNTY
Elk district
Elk Garden town
Frankfort district
Ridgeley town
New Creek district
Keyser city
Piedmont district
Piedmont city
TOTAL OF INCLUDED DISTRICTS
BASIN TOTAL
1970
Population
2,227
475
2,227
1,313
291
Not Counted
1,112
9,806
6,586
2,158
1,763
14,389
16,616
2-135
-------
Figure 2-25
1970 POPULATION DISTRIBUTION IN THE NORTH
BRANCH POTOMAC RIVER BASIN (WVDH 1972)
Scale not compatible with other basin maps
because of source information constraints.
DOT 50 PEOPLE
Q CIRCLES ALL INCORPORATED PLACES. ADO ALL
UKINCORPORATEO PLACES OF 1.000 OR
MORE POPULATED (SEE SCALE)
wnnmna CORPORATION LIMITS OF LARCE METROPOLITAN AREAS
STATE LINE
COUNTT LINE
NACISTERIAL DISTRICT LINE
SCALE OF POPULATION
2-136
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2-138
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The decline in West Virginia's population was related to the decline of
the State's coal mining industry. The industry began a rapid decline during
the late 1940's; the industry's decline has had a major impact on the
State's economic and population growth rates. The Basin's moderate
population growth rate is indicative of a more diverse economy that is not
solely dependent upon the coal industry.
Trends Since 1970. Population data from the US Bureau of the Census
since 1970 indicate that the population of the North Branch Potomac River
Basin counties has been increasing at a higher rate than the 1960 to 1970
rate (Table 2-36>By 1977, the two Basin counties together had grown by 9.1%
(Grant County, 5.2%; Mineral County, 10.7%), higher than either the State
rate (6.6%) or the National rate (6.4%). In-migration accounted for 52% of
the Basin's growth, while natural increase (the number of births in
comparison to the number of deaths) accounted for the remaining 48%.
The US Bureau of the Census data also indicate that West Virginia's
trend in population decline had reversed between 1970 and 1977. The
increase in the State's population over the seven year period had almost
replaced the number of persons lost between 1960 and 1970. The State's
population growth is related directly to the resurgence of the West Virginia
coal industry.
2.6.1.1.4. Projected Population Size. WVGOECD prepares the official
population projections by county for the State of West Virginia. The most
recent series of projections was prepared in 1979 (Table 2-37). These
projections were prepared for 1-year increments through 1996. They are much
higher than many previous projections were because the 1979 projections take
into account post-1970 population estimates, which indicate a reversal of
the previous trend of population decline. The official State projections
are not tied to any National projection series developed by the US Bureau of
the Census (Verbally, Mr. Thomas E. Holder, WVGOECD, to Dr. Phillip
Phillips, February 21, 1980). The total population of North Branch Potomac
River Basin counties is projected to increase by 33.8% between 1970 and
1995, with most of this growth occurring in Mineral County.
2.6.1.1.5. Relationships Between Population Size and Mining Activity.
Population growth or decline within a region is largely a reflection of
economic trends. Population growth occurs in areas where the economic base
and employment are growing. The relationship between a particular economic
sector, in this case coal mining, and total population size within a
particular area is affected by many factors, including the importance of
coal mining to the local economy, the growth or decline of other economic
sectors, the availability of labor, and the amount of commuting from other
areas.
In 1977, the mining sector was the third largest employment sector and
the second largest income generating sector in the Basin (Tables 2-38 and 2-39)
The importance of mining activity within the economy of Basin counties and
2-139
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the impact of mining on overall population trends can be described in terms
of location quotients and economic base analysis, discussed below.
A location quotient is a numeric indicator that shows the degree to
which a smaller area is especially dependent upon a particular industry when
the area is compared to a larger area. In this analysis, the larger area is
the Nation. The location quotient is derived by dividing the percentage
that a selected economic sector represents of the total employment within
the local area by the percentage the selected economic sector represents of
the total employment in the Nation. Thus, if 8.0% of local employment is in
mining and only 0.8% of National employment is in mining, the location
quotient is 10. A location quotient of more than 1.0 for a particular
economic sector indicates a greater concentration in the local area than in
the Nation. A location quotient of less than 1.0 indicates a lesser
concentration in the local area than in the Nation.
Both Grant and Mineral Counties have location quotients greater than
1.0 for mining. This indicates a greater concentration in mining employment
within the Basin than in the Nation. The location quotient for the Basin
(1977) was 13.1. Grant County's location quotient was 29.5 and Mineral
County's location quotient was 4.1. These figures indicate that the Basin,
Grant County especially, is economically dependent on coal mining.
Economic Base Analysis is the most common method used to describe
quantitatively the relationship between population size and economic
activity. Economic base analysis involves the delineation of basic and
non-basic employment sectors for a given area and the calculation of a set
of ratios known as multipliers. The basic sector, sometimes termed the
"export sector", is comprised of employment that produces goods and services
to be used outside the local area, thus bringing money into the local
economy. Income generated by the basic sector circulates within the local
economy and supports non-basic sector industries, often referred to as
"service industries", which provide goods and services for local use. Exact
determination of basic and non-basic employment is extremely difficult. For
the purposes of this study, basic employment is comprised of all persons
employed in mining and manufacturing; all farm proprietors, and farm wage
and salary employment; and 50% of all employment in agricultural services,
forestry, and fishing. Non-basic employment includes all other employment.
Employment in mining accounted for 26% of all basic employment in the Basin
in 1977. Manufacturing, however, accounted for 45% of the Basin's basic
employment (USBEA 1979).
Multiplier ratios quantitatively describe the amount of non-basic
employment, total employment, and total population growth that will be
generated by additional basic employment. The multiplier ratios and their
value for the North Branch Potomac River Basin (calculated as described
above) are:
Basic to non-basic employment ratio (B/N ratio) - 1:1.73
Basic to total employment ratio (B/T ratio) - 1:2.73
2-144
-------
Total employment to population ratio (T/P ratio) - 1:3.07
Basic employment to population ratio (B/P ratio) - 1:8.36
Overall, these ratios indicate that each basic job in the North Branch
Potomac River Basin generates 1.73 additional non-basic (service) jobs. The
combination of basic and non-basic employment results in a total of 2.73
jobs for each basic job. Each employed person in the Basin supports a total
of 3.07 persons because of non-working dependents supported by the employed
person. The combination of basic to non-basic (B/N) and total employment to
population (T/P) ratios produces an overall basic employment to population
(B/P) ratio of 8.36. Thus, each basic sector job supports, directly and
indirectly, eight people.
Based on the multipliers calculated here, a number of factors may exert
a dampening effect on employment and population changes. These dampening
effects include the availability of additional workers who are currently
unemployed, commuting, changes in other basic employment sectors,
availability of government welfare, and the limited life span of coal mines.
Because of these factors, an increase or decrease in mining employment will
not necessarily produce the changes in overall employment or population
indicated by the multiplier ratios, especially on a short-term basis (less
than 5 years). Increases in mining employment may be offset by declines in
employment in other basic sectors, and, likewise, decreases in mining
employment may be offset by increases in employment in other basic sectors.
Because of the life span of most mines, typically 20 years for an
underground mine and 5 years for a surface mine, coal miners frequently
commute long distances to work rather than moving closer to their current
. places of employment (President's Commission on Coal 1980 , see Section
5.6.4.). Thus employment and population increases associated with an
individual mine may be diffused over a large area.
An important factor in the impact that increased mining activity will
have on an area is the area's availability of unemployed or partially
employed miners. The coal industry is subject to pronounced cyclical phases
of growth and decline. As a result, many unemployed or underemployed miners
may be available during "slack" periods. Likewise, a decline in mining
employment will not necessarily produce a short-term population decline.
Rather, most of the miners and their families will remain in the area and
will seek alternative employment, accept welfare benefits, dip into savings,
and/or reduce expenditures while awaiting new mining employment
opportunities. This reaction is especially the case with coal mining
because of the specialized skills required of miners and the relatively high
wages paid to miners.
This analysis indicates that long-term (five years or longer) changes
in mining employment will have the greatest impacts on counties that are
most heavily dependent upon mining. In the case of the North Branch Potomac
2-145
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River Basin, Grant County would be greatly impacted by changes in mining
employment. Each new mining job, in addition to those jobs needed to take
up the slack of current high unemployment rates among miners, will generate
approximately two new non-mining jobs and a total population increase of
about eight. Thus, the long-term cumulative effects of changes in mining
employment will have significant impacts on those sections of the Basin in
which mining is currently or potentially a significant portion of the
economic base.
2.6.1.2. Economy
2.6.1.2.1. General Characteristics. The North Branch Potomac River
Basin is rural in nature and shares many of the economic characteristics
generally associated with rural areas. Per capita income in the Basin is
well below National levels and the proportion of the population falling
below the Federal poverty level is well above that found in the US.
However, from 1970 to 1975, per capita income and employment increased more
rapidly in the Basin than in the US, reflecting the growth of the coal
industry.
2.6.1.2.2. Employment Sectors and Income Generation.
Employment sector characteristics of the Basin include:
Agriculture is an important component of the economy,
especially when compared with the State and US
Between 1972 and 1977, agriculture wage and salary
employment decreased dramatically which contributed
substantially to the overall Basin employment decrease.
This Basin decrease contrasts with State and US
increases.
Generally, mining wage and salary employment in the Basin
generally accounts for a large proportion of total
employment and is particularly significant in Grant County
(Table 2-38).
In 1977, government, manufacturing, and services were the
largest employment sectors in the Basin with service
employment concentrated in Keyser, the county seat of
Mineral County
Basin manufacturing employment also is concentrated in
Mineral County, which is the location of 11 of the Basin's
19 manufacturing firms (RPDC VIII 1979). The Basin's
largest manufacturing employer, Westvaco, is located in
Piedmont; it produces paper and allied products. ABL,
Hercules, located in Short Gap, manufactures solid
propulsion rockets and is the Basins' second largest
2-146
-------
employer. The lumber and wood industry; as well as the
paper industry; the furniture industry; and the stone,
clay and glass industries also are prominent within the
Basin.
Transportation and public sector employment in the Basin
is considerably higher proportionally than that in the
State and the US. This fact is primarily a result of the
railroads and railway express industries in Mineral
County.
Recent Basin employment trends reveal an overall decline in wage and
salary employment between 1972 and 1977; declines were particularly acute in
the construction sector. These declines directly are not compatible with
recent population increases and they suggest that jobs have been lost by
persons who work, but do not live, within the Basin. Nevertheless, certain
employment sectors, particularly mining; wholesale trade; and finance,
insurance, and real estate (FIRE); did increase, which reflects the
increasing importance of these sectors in the overall Basin economy.
Incomes in the Basin, as well as in the State, tend to be lower than in
the US (Table 2-40). For example, transfer payments (intergovernmental
revenues, social security payments, and welfare payments) constitute a
significantly larger proportion of total Basin and State personal incomes
when they are compared to the US; this indicates that economic dependency
generally is a problem. In general, manufacturing, mining, and the
transportation sectors account for most of the Basin income. The mining
sector accounted for 11.8% of total wage and salary employment in the Basin,
but accounted for 19.0% of the income, reflecting the relatively higher
wages of the coal mining industry. In 1978, the average hourly wage in the
bituminous coal mining industry in West Virginia ranged from $8.08 for a
mine truck driver to $9.23 for a roof bolter (WVDES n.d.). Furthermore, the
coal industry has the highest wages of the 20 industries surveyed by WVDES
in the 1978 Industrial Wage Survey. Mining sector income was particularly
important in Grant County.
2.6.1.2.3. Income Levels, Unemployment, and Poverty. Levels of
income, rates of unemployment, and incidence of poverty vary widely between
the two counties of the North Branch Potomac River Basin (Tables 2-40 and
2-41). Per capita income levels are generally lower in the Basin than in
the State. The percentage of persons with income below the Federally
established poverty level in the Basin is slightly higher than the State
percentage and considerably higher than the US percentage. Several points
merit special consideration:
The rapid increase in per capita income in Grant County
between 1969 and 1975 can be attributed to the growth in
the coal mining sector employment and wages
Grant County had an especially high percentage of persons
below poverty level.
2-147
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Table 2-40.Income characteristics of the population of the North Branch
Potomac River Basin (US Bureau of the Census 1973, 1979).
County
Grant
Mineral
Basin Total
West Virginia
US
Per Capita
Income 1969
$1,863
2,251
2,146
2,333
NA.
Per Capita
Income 1975
$3,383
3,571
3,522
4,008
NA
Percentage Percentage of Persons
Change with Incomes Below
1969-1975 Poverty Level in 1969
81.6 32.8
58.6 20.6
64.1 23.6
71.8 22.2
NA 13.7
NA - Not available
2-148
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2-149
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In 1979 and 1980, a major issue in the State in 1979 and
1980 has been the reduction of the coal mining labor force
because of reduced demand for coal. The West Virginia
Coal Association estimated that in 1979 and 1980, 10,500
jobs in the State were eliminated as a result of mine
closings and work force reductions. Ralph Halstead, Chief
of Labor and Economic Research for WVDES, estimated that
as of March 1980, 7,400 of these miners remained
unemployed (Douthat 1980). Many additional miners are
working less than full time. As a result, a large pool of
skilled coal mining labor is currently available in the
State. It is anticipated that these employment reductions
are relatively short term and that mining employment will
begin to increase again when the demand for coal rises.
Specific data pertaining to the number of unemployed
miners in the North Branch Potomac River Basin are not
available. Mining employment in the Basin is presented in
Table 2-42.
2.6.1.2.4. Special Economic IssuesTourism and Travel. The tourism
and travel industry represents a major component in the economy of West
Virginia. As an industry, tourism encompasses a variety of the other
employment and industrial sectors, mentioned above (such as, wholesale and
retail trade, services, amusement, and recreation). Tourism and travel
businesses directly include: public and private campgrounds, hotels,
motels, restaurants, gift shops, service stations, amusements, and other
recreation facilities. The indirect impact of the tourism industry has a
positive effect on virtually all economic sectors of the Basin and State,
These positive tourism impacts result from recreational activities of West
Virginians themselves, as well as the recreational activities of non-State
residents.
The effect of tourism and travel on income, employment, and State
revenues is significant (Table 2-43). The Bureau of Business Research at
West Virginia University (1977) estimated that tourism and travel in 1977
produced $715 million in total sales in the State
employed 38,000 people Statewide
generated $46 million in State tax revenues.
WVGOECD emphasizes that money spent on tourism and travel has
proportionately greater local economic impacts than expenditures in other
industries in West Virginia. Approximately 83% of tourism and travel
industry sales dollars remains in the State, compared with only 66% of total
coal mining receipts, and 63% of chemical industry receipts. Tourism
2-150
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2-151
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Table 2-43. Total travel sales, 1977 and 1978 by county and the State
(WVU-BBR 1977 and 1978).
Total Sales (million $)
Location 1977 1978
Grant County 4.5 4.6
Mineral County 2.9 3.3
West Virginia 647.2 715.0
2-152
-------
dollars, therefore, tend to provide greater local economic benefit because
more of these dollars remain in the State (WVGOECD 1980).
In addition, much of the tourism industry receipts in West Virginia are
generated by non-resident travelers. Of the estimated 8.1 million visitors
to West Virginia State Parks and State Forests in 1978, over 2.9 million
(36%) were non-State residents. There has been a significant increase in
the total number of visitors in recent years. Between 1971 and 1978,
visitation at State Parks increased from 4 million to 6.9 million, while
that at State Forests increased from less than 1 million to 1.2 million.
Resident and non-resident tourists travel to Basin and State recreational
centers for camping, hunting, fishing, swimming, canoeing, boating, hiking;
and generally they come to experience the visual, cultural, and natural
resources of the Basin and State. If these "outstanding opportunities for a
primitive and unconfined type of recreation" and other recreational
attractions are maintained, the tourism and travel industry is expected to
grow significantly and become an even more important part of the overall
economy (WVGOECD 1980).
2.6.1.3. Housing
2.6.1.3.1. Problems of Housing Provision. The provision of adequate
housing is one of the most important problems facing the residents of West
Virginia and the North Branch Potomac River Basin today. The Basin and the
State currently are experiencing a severe housing shortage, which is
reflected in the high proportion of residents that are housed in
deteriorated or crowded dwellings. Housing production in the Basin has
lagged substantially behind demand in recent years because of:
Lack of sites that can be developed, as a result of the
high proportion of land with steep slopes, and in
flood-prone valleys
Lack of financing, especially to house lowincome persons
High land and construction costs, particularly because of
the slope and flooding limitations.
2.6.1.3.2. General Housing Characteristics. Data comparing the
housing characteristics of the Basin, the State, and the US are presented in
Table 2-44. Recent (post-1970) increases in population and personal income
have resulted in construction of significant, though not sufficient, numbers
of new dwelling units. The majority of these new units are owner-occupied,
single-family, detached structures (including mobile homes). A large
proportion of these new dwellings have been built outside any Incorporated
city or village.
2-153
-------
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2-154
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In 1976, mobile homes constituted 60% of all new home sales in West
Virginia, and an even higher proportion of new homes in non-metropolitan
areas. The reliance on mobile homes has resulted from current conditions of
the housing market because mobile homes often represent the most readily
available and affordable form of new housing. They are sometimes placed in
mobile home parks, but they often appear in conventional housing
neighborhoods (commonly on substandard lots), in unplanned mobile home
villages, and scattered in rural areas. Generally, regulation of mobile
homes is minimal. West Virginia does not have State safety regulations or
construction standards governing mobile homes. As a result, mobile homes
are struck by fire frequently, often with injury or loss of life; they are
also frequently damaged by windstorms because they lack adequate tie-downs.
Residential development in the past, whether traditional or mobile, has
occurred generally without regulation of location, density, size, or
construction materials. The traditional preference for single-family,
detached homes is not likely to diminish significantly in the near future,
but existing constraints on housing production indicate that new housing
probably will include more multiple-family structures, rental units, and
subsidized housing for low- and moderate-income persons. Recent declines in
average family size also favor multiple family units. Higher density
housing is relatively new to the area, but is well-adapted to the
steeply-sloping terrain.
Existing housing conditions in the Basin vary considerably between
urban and rural areas and between the two counties. Substandard housing
accounts for 29.2% of all units in Mineral County and 13.8% in Grant County.
Generally, lower percentages of substandard housing are found in urban
areas, reflecting higher incomes and more stable economies. Since 1970
housing quality generally has improved. Much of this improvement resulted
from higher family incomes and local efforts to extend public sewer and
water systems.
2.6.1.3.3. Size, Age, and Number of Occupants. Housing unit size,
age, and the prevalence of dwellings with many people are important
indicators of housing quality. For the North Branch Potomac River Basin
these factors can be summarized as follows:
The median number of rooms per dwelling unit in the Basin
is slightly higher than State or US averages
Crowded dwelling units, generally defined as units with
more than one person per room, represent a slightly
smaller proportion of all units for the Basin compared to
the State or US averages. Crowding is an important
measure of the adequacy of housing and an indicator of
overall housing quality because crowded dwellings are
frequently substandard in condition and tend to
deteriorate more rapidly than non-crowded dwellings. A
2-155
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unit with 1.5 or more persons per room is recognized as
being overcrowded by the State (WVHSA 1979).
In 1970, Over 50% of the year-round dwelling units in the
Basin were over 40 years old. This is a considerably
higher proportion of older dwellings than was found in the
US, though it is virtually the same as the Statewide
proportion. The age of dwellings in the housing supply is
an indicator of its condition and adequacy. Older housing
is more often deteriorated and may have obsolete plumbing,
electrical, and other facilities. The prevalence of a
large number of mobile homes in the Basin, which have a
shorter economic life than traditional dwellings,
exacebrates the problems of housing deterioration.
2.6.1.3.4. Housing Value. The value of individual owner-occupied
dwelling units and the monthly rental for non-owner-occupied dwellings are
important indicators of housing quality and of the local population's
ability to pay for available housing. An occupant's ability to maintain a
structure in sound condition is also closely related to the value of the
structure. In 1970, both counties of the North Branch Potomac River Basin
had a median value of owner-occupied dwellings that was considerably lower
than the US median and slightly lower than the State median value.
Unofficial figures indicate that the Basin is a relatively inexpensive
housing market, although no local statistics on the price of
newly-constructed homes are available. The low housing prices could reflect
the fact that proportionately more houses in the Basin are substandard, or
older than the National average. In addition, the North Branch Potomac
River Basin traditionally has been characterized by extremely low median
contract rents (Table 2-44)- While no definitive information on recent
median rental rates was found, it appears that rents have increased
substantially since 1970, especially in areas that have experienced
population growth. Generally, the rental market generally has risen at a
rate commensurate with inflation (Luttermoser 1980).
2.6.1.3.5. Presence of Complete Plumbing Facilites. Presence or
absence of complete plumbing facilities is a major factor in housing
adequacy and value. The proportion of units in the Basin lacking some or
all plumbing facilities was substantially higher than the US average,
although it was slightly lower than the Statewide average (Table 2-44).
Plumbing facilities, as defined by the US Census, include:
hot and cold piped water
flush toilets
inside bath or shower facilities for exclusive use of the
dwelling occupants.
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2.6.1.3.6. Vacancy Rates. The housing vacancy rate is defined as the
ratio of all vacant units available for occupany to the total number of
units in the housing stock. Excessively low vacancy rates hinder mobility
and are otten associated with housing shortages. The following vacancy
percentages reflect a sufficient supply of available, vacant dwellings
(RPDC IV 1978):
1.0-1.5% for single-family dwellings
5.0% for rental units
3.0% for the overall housing stock.
The overall housing vacancy rate in the North Branch Potomac River
Basin was 2.7% in 1970, indicative of a slight housing shortage throughout
the Basin in general and in Grant County, in particular (Table 2-44).
Post-1970 population increases may have reduced the vacancy rate even
further.
2.6.1.3.7. Owner-Occupany Rates. In 1970, levels of owner-occupancy
were higher in the North Branch Potomac River Basin than those for the US or
the State (Table 2-44). The relatively high level of owner-occupancy in the
Basin reflects both the traditional preference for single-family homes and
the rural nature of much of the area. In recent years, the high price of
traditional single-family, owner-occupied housing has forced many persons to
utilize mobile homes rather than traditional housing.
2.6.1.4. Transportation
2.6.1.4.1. Special Needs of the Coal Mining Industry and Availability
of Transportation Modes. The conveyance of coal from mines or preparation
plants to consumption sites (principally electric power and steel
industries) requires transportation modes that are suitable for hauling high
volumes of material at low cost per ton-mile. Within these constraints
three transportation modes, rail, truck, and waterborne barge, currently are
competitive and in use. A fourth mode, pipeline, is potentially competitive
and may be used in hauling coal in the future. This section will describe
the characteristics of rail, truck, barge, and pipeline transport of coal.
The analysis of haulling coal by truck that is presented here includes only
public roads and does not describe mine site roads built by the operator.
The selection of a transportation mode for hauling coal from any
individual mine site to a particular consumer depends largely upon the
availability and relative cost of the competing modes. The selection of
modes also has important consequences in terms of the magnitude and nature
of environmental and human impacts (see Section 5.6.6.).
The extensive nature of the existing public road systems, and the
relatively low per-mile construction costs of mine site roads that connects
mine sites to existing public roads, make truck hauling a widely available
2-157
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form of coal transportation. However, the construction of mine site roads
and the purchase of trucks does represent a very large "front end" cost of
coal mining.
Major rail lines within the Basin are located along the North Branch
Potomac River. These rail lines have not formed an extensive transportation
network. Construction costs for new rail lines are high, and right-of-way
acquisition problems may be severe. As a result, mines that are not located
on existing rail lines generally rely on truck transportation to haul coal
to the nearest rail loading facility.
Within the North Branch Potomac River Basin, there are no navigable
waterways. Thus, coal transport via waterways is not a consideration.
Per ton-mile cost of coal hauling is the second major factor in
selecting a transportation mode for coal. Cost advantages in coal hauling
generally reflect the limits on available route and thin flexibility.
Hauling coal by barge is the least expensive mode per ton-mile, but it is
also least flexible in terms of available routes. Truck hauling, while most
flexible, is much more expensive per ton-mile than rail or barge hauling.
Extra rail tariffs are allowed to be imposed under US1CC regulations when
coal trains are switched from one rail carrier to another. These switching
charges vary from one rail carrier to another. Due to switching charges,
coal generally is moved by a single rail carrier once it enters the rail
system.
2.6.1.4.2. Public Roads. The terrain of the Basin has imposed great
limitations on the development of the road system. Both valley and ridge
top roads are found within the Basin. Major US highways include US Route
50, which runs in an east-west direction through the middle of the Basin and
US 220, which runs north-south alongside New Creek. State highways include
Routes 28, 42, 46, 90 and 93. No Interstate highways are located in the
Basin although 1-70 is located just north of the Basin in Maryland. The
major coal haul routes within the Basin are shown in Figure 2-26-
Coal haul trucks in West Virginia are regulated on the basis of length,
height, and weight limitations that vary with public road classification.
On the principal primary roads, the maximum vehicle allowances are 55 feet
in length, 13 feet 6 inches in height, and 80,000 pounds in gross weight.
On many primary roads, however, height is limited to 12 feet 6 inches and
weight is limited to 73,500 pounds. On secondary roads, the maximum
allowances are 50 feet in length, 12 feet 6 inches in height, and 65,000
pounds in gross weight. Special, posted weight and height restrictions are
also found on many roads.
Coal is the primary commodity transported by highway in West Virginia.
Coal trucks may be operated either directly by the mining company or by a
separate motor carrier under contractual agreement. Intrastate coal traffic
is not subject to economic regulation by either the US1CC or the WVPSC.
Very little coal is hauled interstate by trucks. In most cases, coal is
2-158
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Figure 2-26
COAL HAUL ROADS IN THE NORTH BRANCH
POTOMAC RIVER BASIN (adopted from WVDH
1979)
2-159
-------
moved by truck for only a few miles, from the mine site to the nearest rail
transfer point, or to a nearby final consumer (such as the Virginia Electric
and Power Company power plant at Mt. Storm Lake).
Existing public roads that are used as coal haul roads in West Virginia
were identified in the 1979 Coal Haul Road Study, prepared by WVDH in
cooperation with the USDOT (Table 2-45). Coal haul roads were identified in
this study on the basis of known locations of surface and underground mines,
and known location of customers, rail transfer points, barge transfer
points, and preparation plants serving each mine. The most direct haul
roads between these origins and destinations were designated as coal haul
roads (WVDH 1979). Because coal is usually hauled a short distance by truck
and the terrain limits roads in the coalfield areas, there is generally only
one feasible route from mine to consumer. Data on origins, destinations,
and haul routes summarized in the 1979 Coal Haul Road Study also were
plotted on county highway maps (scale 1:63,560).
The existence and nature of deficiencies in current coal haul roads and
the cost to remedy these deficiencies were also calculated in the Coal Haul
Road Study. Based on USFHA standards, a total of 2,562 miles (95%) of all
coal haul road mileage had one or more deficiencies. Major deficiency
categories, in order of the number of miles of deficient roadway, were lane
or roadway width, shoulder width or type, and alignment for safe speed. The
deficiency data were used to determine types and costs of needed
improvements (Table 2-46). All road construction and maintenance in West
Virginia is paid for by the State.
An initial estimate of improvement needs for coal haul roads was
calculated on the basis of criteria and standards established by the USFHA.
This produced a total cost estimate of approximately $2.7 billion, of which
73.1% (nearly $2.0 billion) was for reconstructing roads to improve
alignment for safe speed (Table 2-46). An alternative calculation of needed
improvements and costs also was made by WVDH. This alternative estimate was
based on the assumption that all of the reconstruction required to meet
USFHA standards was not necessary when it was for roadway alignments for
higher than currently posted safe operating speeds. Rather, the WVDH
alternative was based on the assumption that the most necessary and
economical improvements were to strengthen and reconstruct pavement sections
in order to withstand coal truck load weight. The total cost of
improvements using the WVDH alternative methods of calculation was $1.15
billion, or 42.7% of the cost using USFHA standards (Table 2-46)-
2.6.1.4.3. Railroads. Coal is the major commodity transported by rail
in West Virginia. Approximately 74% of the coal transported in the State is
hauled by rail (West Virginia Railroad Maintenance Authority 1978). There
are two major types of rail freight traffic are found in West Virginia. One
major source of traffic is coal, originating at mines within the State, and
terminating at consumption sites and transloading facilities within the
State. The second major source of traffic is interstate, through the
hauling of industrial commodities that include coal.
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Table 2-45.Coal haul road mileage in counties of the North Branch
Potomac River Basin (WVDH 1979).
Miles by Volume Classification
Grant
Mineral
Over
500,000
Tons
Per Year
0.0
0.0
250,000 to
500,000
Tons
Per Year
6.2
0.0
50,000 to
250,000
Tons
Per Year
8.4
13.7
Under
50,000
Tons
Per Year
10.5
14.6
Total Miles
25.1
28.3
Basin Total
State Total
% of State Total
0.0
125.1
0.0
6.2
334.0
1.9
22.1
1129.5
2.0
25.1
1095.9
2.3
53.4
2684.5
2.0
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Table 2-46. Alternative cost estimates for improving coal haul roads in
West Virginia (WVDH 1979).
A. USFHA METHODOLOGY
Improvement Type
Reconstruct roadway
Minor widening
Major widening
Reconstruct alignment
Construct on new location
Spot improvements
Railroad protection and
other structures
TOTAL
Z of
Miles Cost ($000) Total Cost
134.5
256.5
60.8
1,812.7
86.4
115.3
212.0
2,678.45a
54,000
100,000
131,000
1,976,000
299,000
54,000
88,000
2,702,000
2.0
3.7
4.8
73.1
11.1
2.0
3.3
100.0
B. WVDH METHODOLOGY
Improvement Type
Widen and pave unpaved roads
Stabilize or pave unpaved roads
to existing width
Widen and rebuild light or
medium duty paved roads
Rebuild light or medium duty
paved roads to existing width
Widen and resurface paved roads
Resurface paved roads to
existing width
Railroad protection and
other structures
TOTAL
5.4
567.9
48.7
1,650.5
15.1
1,737
81,054
42,357
524,569
7,682
7.4
b
2,295.0
340
496,710
1,154,499
Does not add to total due to rounding error.
No mileage indicated.
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Most rail lines with the highest traffic density (over 30 million tons
per year) run through West Virginia in a general east-west direction
(Figure 2-27). The State is served by five Class I railroads (annual gross
receipts $10 million or more) and nine Class II railroads (annual gross
receipts less than $10 million). There are a total of 3,931 miles of rail
lines in West Virginia. The density of rail branch lines is greatest in the
coalfield areas of the State. The pattern of rail lines generally follows
drainage patterns, especially in the central and southern sections of the
State.
Two Class I railroads operate within the North Branch Potomac River
Basin. There are no Class II railroads operating within the Basin. The
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company, and the Western Maryland Railway
Company are the two Class I railroads.
The major flow corridor through the North Branch Potomac River Basin
(over 30 million annual gross tons) is that of the Baltimore and Ohio, which
runs through Parkersburg, Keyser, and Martinsburg. This corridor is a
portion of the general, high-volume rail corridors extending from the Great
Lakes to the Atlantic coast. The Baltimore and Ohio, and the Western
Maryland systems also provide service, through branch lines, in coal
producing areas of the Basin. Both lines are located along the North Branch
Potomac River. Passenger rail service also is available in the Basin. Both
Keyser and Cumberland, MD (located just north of the Basin) are served by
Amtrak.
Some rail lines in West Virginia, as elsewhere in the United States,
are experiencing economic difficulties; their operators are proposing to
discontinue their service. Because rail line access is an important factor
in the transportation and marketing of coal, the potential future use for
coal hauling is an important aspect of West Virginia State policy in
determining whether a line should remain in active service, be placed in a
"rail banking" plan, or be completely abandoned. The 1978 annual State Rail
Plan, prepared by the WVRMA, stated that the major goals of the Plan are to
maintain a viable State rail system through adequate return on investment
for the railroads, and to maintain essential rail services that will benefit
economic development within the State WVRMA 1978).
Adequate maintenance of rail access to coal reserves is one of eight
major policy guidelines formulated by WVRMA. The Authority stated that it
would "plan to insure that railroad lines serving these [coalfield] areas
will not be abandoned if potential future use for movement of this resource
[coal] is indicated." In accordance with this policy, little rail mileage
has been abandoned recently. As of 1978, there were before either US1CC or
WVPSC, no additional petitions for rail service abandonment in the Basin.
Federal assistance funds (matched by State funds) are available to
retain the rights-of-way of abandoned rail lines ("rail banking") in West
Virginia. These funds are provided through Title VIII of the Federal
Railroad Revitalization Regulatory and Reform Act of 1976.
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Figure 2-27
RAILROADS IN THE NORTH BRANCH POTOMAC
RIVER BASIN (adapted from WVRMA 1978)
RAILROADS-MILLIONS OF ANNUAL GROSS TONS
30 - ABOVE
20-30
10-20
5- 10
I - 5
0- I
BO
WM
BALTIMORE AND OHIO
WESTERN MARYLAND
2-164
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2.6.1.4.4. Pipelines. There are no known coal slurry pipelines
presently operating in the North Branch Potomac River Basin. Currently,
West Virginia is one of seven states that have granted the right of eminent
domain specifically for the construction of coal slurry pipelines. The
right of eminent domain allows potential pipelines to cross railroad rights-
of-way. Without the right of eminent domain, railroads could block the
construction of slurry pipelines, which serve as a competing transportation
mode.
2.6.1.5. Government and Public Services
This section is designed to provide an overall description of State and
local government in West Virginia, with particular emphasis on the aspects
of government that would receive the most significant impact from new coal
mining or processing facilities. Four major areas are covered. Section
2.6.1.5.1. provides a general description of the institutional frameworks
of State and local government in West Virginia. Section 2.6.1.5.2.
describes local governmental revenues and expenditures. Sections 2.6.1.5.3.
to 2.6.1.5.7. describe in more detail government revenues and expenditures,
health care, education, recreation, water and sewer, and solid waste
disposal services and facilities in the Basin. Sections 2.6.1.5.8. and
2.6.1.5.9. describe planning capabilities in the Basin in more detail.
2.6.1.5.1. Institutional Framework. The following five levels of
government are significant in assessing human resource and land use impacts
in West Virginia. These are:
The State government
Regional Planning and Development Councils (RPDC's)
Counties
Special districts and school districts
Municipalities.
West Virginia has no general sub-county units of government that would be
similar to the towns or townships found in other states. As a result,
county governments perform a wider range of functions in West Virginia than
they do in many other states. The rural nature of most areas in the State
and the limited extent of incorporated municipalities also increase the
importance of counties as governmental units. Education is provided by
county-unit school districts, but these are separate from county government
(see Sections 2.6.1.5.2. and 2.6.1.5.4.). Services such as airports and
public health facilities also can be provided by special districts, under
the auspices of the county commissioners of the area for which services are
provided. All roads are financed at the State rather than county level.
The functions and nature of the RPDCs are described in Section 2.6.1.5.8.
below.
2-165
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2.6.1.5.2. Governmental Revenues and Expenditures. In the North
Branch Potomac River Basin, local governments in the North Branch Potomac
River Basin generally have low per capita levels of both revenues and
expenditures, when compared to the United States. This is largely a
reflection of the rural nature of the Basin, which requires less expenditure
for governmental services, and the relatively low income levels in the
Basin, which provide less taxable wealth.
In the 1971-1972 period, West Virginia had total county revenue per
capita that was only 22.6% of the US. Intergovernmental revenue transfer
payments, tax revenues and charges, and miscellaneous revenues per capita
were only 6.5%, 30.7%, and 43.8% of the US average, respectively.
The low level of tax revenues in the counties and municipalities of the
Basin, and the limited amount of taxable wealth present in the Basin, will
increase the difficulties when local governments wish to supply the
facilities and services required by coal mining-induced growth (see Section
5.6.).
In many cases, however, counties have not utilized all of the tax
resources currently available to them. A program of real estate tax
reappraisal, especially for lands owned by coal mining interests, was begun
by the Internal Operations Group of WVDH's Division of Local Government
Relations in 1974. This reappraisal was designed to produce more reasonable
valuations of coal bearing lands based on the value of mineral resources.
New mining facilities, increased income generated by mining, and increased
residential and commercial development associated with mining would also
increase the available tax base, generating potential new revenue for
additional services and facilities provision. However, there is a
substantial lag-time between when new services and facilities are needed and
when new tax revenue becomes available (See Section 5.6.).
2.6.1.5.3. Health Care. West Virginia has traditionally fallen below
National norms both in the provision of health care facilities and personnel
and in health status indicators. The deficiencies in health care that are
found in West Virginia and the North Branch Potomac River Basin are typical
of Appalachia; they reflect the rural nature of much of the area, as well as
the low levels of income and education. In many areas, problems of
inadequate health care facilities and personnel are compounded by rugged
topography and poor roads that hinder access to those medical services that
are available.
Recent measures designed to improve the level of health care in West
Virginia have been instituted as a result of the WVHSA, which was formed to
implement Public Law 95-641, the National Health Planning and Resource
Development Act of 1974. The mandate of the WVHSA is to plan a health care
system that will improve the quality, accessibility, and continuity of
health care in West Virginia. To do this, the Agency gathers information on
State health care needs, financial barriers to meeting those needs, and
economic alternatives to achieve improved health care.
2-166
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WVHSA issues a Health Systems Plan and Annual Implementation Plan in
order to help achieve its goals. This plan describes the characteristics of
the existing health care system, determines goals for improving the existing
system, and describes the alternatives and the appropriate actions to reach
the improvement goals. Unless otherwise noted, the most recent (1979)
edition of the Plan serves as the basis for the following presentation. The
presentation considers two aspects of health care in West Virginia described
are: general levels of health service and health status indicators; general
deficiencies in the existing health care delivery system, along with those
issues that are especially relevant to the coal industry (such as the
availability of emergency care and the incidence of coal workers
pneumonoconiosis [black lung]).
Health Status Indicators. Infant mortality, heart disease death rate,
and cancer death rate are health status indicators that show that health
care performance in West Virginia falls below National norms. In 1975, the
infant mortality rate for West Virginia was 11.2% higher than the infant
mortality rate for the US.
Diseases of the heart are the leading cause of death in West Virginia,
accounting for approximately 40% of all deaths in 1976, more than twice the
proportion of the second leading cause of death, cancer. Heart diseases are
also the leading cause of death in the US, although the US death rate (339
per 100,000 population) in 1975 was significantly lower than the West
Virginia rate (437 per 100,000 population). Cancer is the second leading
cause of death in both West Virginia and the US. In 1975, the cancer death
rate in West Virginia (198 per 100,000 population) was considerably higher
than the cancer death rate for the US (174 per 100,000 population). Health
data specific to the North Branch Potomac River Basin are not available.
In 1975, Lung diseases were the seventh leading cause of death in West
Virginia, but were not among the ten leading causes of death in the US for
that year. Of the lung disease deaths in West Virginia in 1975, 69 were a
result of pneumonoconiosis (black lung). Available information on
disability caused by lung disease is provided by the Workman's Compensation
Fund. The data for insured workers indicate that West Virginia has the
highest disability rate for lung disease of any state, nearly twice that of
the second ranking state (Kentucky). However, the standards for receiving
Workman's Compensation in West Virginia are considered to be much more
lenient than in most other states which makes interstate comparisons
impossible.
Availability of Health Care Facilities and Personnel. The deficiencies
in the health care system are analyzed in several ways. The North Branch
Potomac River Basin has fewer hospital beds per 1,000 population than the
US, and fewer doctors and dentists per 1,000 population than the US (Table
2-47). Shortage areas in health manpower have been designated for West
Virginia under Sections 329(b) and 332 of the Public Health Service Act
(Table 2-48). Both Grant and Mineral Counties have been designated as
partial primary care shortage areas for physician and dental manpower.
2-167
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2-168
-------
Table 2-48. Federally designated health manpower shortage areas in the North
Branch Potomac River Basin, 1978 (WVHSA 1979)a.
KEY:
Primary care physician, dental, pharmacy, and vision care manpower
status - Full shortage area o - Partial shortage area x - Not a
shortage area
Areas greater than 30 minutes from primary care physician o - Part of
county included x- Not part of county included
County
Grant
Mineral
Care
Physician
Manpower
0
o
Dental
Manpower,
o
o
Pharmacy
Manpower
0
x
Vision
Care
Manpower
x
X
Areas Greater
than 30 Minutes
From Primary
Care Physician
x
x
Designated under Section 329(b) and 332 of the Public Health Service Act
2-169
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Pharmacy manpower is considered adequate in Mineral County, but Grant County
has been designated as a shortage area. Vision care manpower is adequate in
both counties in the Basin. Areas where it takes more than 30 minutes
travel to reach a primary care physician have been designated by WVHSA.
Neither Grant nor Mineral County falls into this category.
Availability of emergency medical care is especially important to the
coal mining industry because of the large number of accidental injuries and
deaths associated with coal mining. In 1977 there were 29 fatalities, 5,450
non-fatal disabling injuries, and 3,415 non-disabling injuries at coal mines
in West Virginia. These incidences of death and injury, while high,
represent a significant improvement over historic death and injury rates.
The total number of injuries at coal mines declined from 11,197 in 1972 to
8,894 in 1977. During this same period fatal injuries declined from 48 to
29. Earlier in the State's history, coal mining was far more dangerous.
During 1908, when the total number of coal miners in the State was roughly
equal to the number in 1977, 625 miners were fatally injured, as compared to
29 in 1977. In 1977, the objective of 0.30 deaths per million employee
hours in coal mining, established by the USMSHA, was achieved in West
Virginia. West Virginia's fatality rate of 0.30 deaths per million employee
hours was slightly below the US average (0.33) and substantially below the
averages in Kentucky (0.61) and Virginia (0.54).
2.6.1.5.4. Education. Education in West Virginia is divided into
three administrative categories. These are: kindergarten through grade 12
public schools (K-12), vocational education, and higher education (college
and university).
K-12 Public Schools. K-12 public schools are organized and operated by
separate county boards of education and are financed by local property tax
revenues. WVDE influences the quality of education by establishing
standards and by setting goals. At both the 3rd and 6th grade levels, West
Virginia students scored at or above the National median in all achievement
areas measured by the "Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills". In 5 out of 6
subject areas at the 9th grade level, West Virginia students scored at or
above the National average. West Virginia high school students score
considerably above the National average on the Scholastic Aptitude Test
(SAT). SAT scores for the 1977-78 school year indicate that West Virginia
students scored well above the National average in both verbal and
mathematical ability. This above average performance occurred in every
school year from 1968-69 to 1977-78. This level of testing performance was
achieved despite the fact that West Virginia ranks 40th among states in
educational expenditures (WVDE 1978 ).
West Virginia had an actual increase in educational achievement test
scores from 1968-69 to 1977-78. This was in marked contrast to general
National trends of declining test scores. Moreover, West Virginia's above
average levels of educational achievement contrast with the low levels of
median years of education found among adults in the State as well as with
2-170
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the low educational levels found in Appalachia. West Virginia's performance
apparently reflects an increased emphasis on education.
The high school dropout rate is also a significant measure of
educational achievement. West Virginia falls below the US rate by this
measure; 23.7% of West Virginia students fail to complete high school, as
compared to 25.0% of students in the US (WVGOECD 1979 ).
A comparison of seating capacity and net enrollment for public shcools
in the North Branch Potomac River Basin (Table 2-49 ) suggests that there is
an excess seating capacity for students in both Basin counties. These data
appear to indicate that overall there is an adequate number of school
facilities to meet the needs of existing students as well as reasonable
future growth. Within the Basin, however, localized shortages of necessary
facilities have occurred as a result of shifting population. Such shortages
are indicated by the fact that no rooms were vacated, but 32 additional
rooms were needed, to accomodate local school-age populations. The need for
additional facilities is espcially notable in Mineral County. Future
population shifts caused by mining or other factors potentially could create
additional localized shortages. These shifts should be monitored closely.
Vocational Education. Vocational education includes technical and
adult education. The State's Bureau of Vocational, Technical, and Adult
Education assists the county boards of education in providing programs and
the developing new programs. These programs are available at the secondary,
post-secondary, and adult levels. Vocational education facilities are
located strategically throughout the State to provide maximum program
availability. In 1976-77, vocational education programs were utilized by
125,000 persons, and adult basic education programs were utilized by an
additional 16,000 persons. The placement rate for vocational and technical
graduates into the labor force is above 90% (WVGOECD 1979 ).
Higher Education. Higher education in West Virginia includes private
colleges, and public colleges and universities that are regulated by the
West Virginia Board of Regents. Currently, the State has two public
universities, fifteen public colleges, and ten private colleges. The
principal higher education institution in the North Branch Potomac River
Basin is Potomac State College in Keyser. Both State universities and
several of the State colleges have developed programs that are oriented
toward serving the needs of the coal industry.
2.6.1.5.5. Recreational Facilities. This section discusses
recreational facilities in the North Branch Potomac River Basin, which are
administered by State, local, and private agencies. There are no Federally
administered recreation facilities in the Basin. However, the USAGE
currently is constructing the Bloomington Dam on the North Branch Potomac
River near Elk Garden. Plans for the project are not finalized; however,
USAGE is contemplating recreational facilities, such as camping, boating,
and picnicking when the project is complete. Water contact recreation
(swimming, fishing, water-skiing) has specifically been excluded because of
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the elevated acid levels projected by the USAGE for the impounded water
(Verbally, Mr. Robert Gore, USAGE [Baltimore District], to Mr. Richard
Loughery, July 14, 1980). Economic ramifications of recreation, and related
tourism and travel are discussed in Section 2.6.1.2.4.
State Facilities. WVDNR-Parks and Recreation administers one small State
Park within the Basin. Fairfax Stone Historical Monument in Grant County is
one of several State Parks in West Virginia that are designated and managed
as an Historical Areas. Located on four acres along the Grant County/Tucker
County border, this park is operated on a day-use basis for its significant
historical interest (WVGOECD 1980). West Virginia law prohibits mining
within State Parks, and it prohibits surface mining activity within 300 feet
of any public park (West Virginia Code 20-4-3, 20-6-22).
Local Facilities. Counties and municipalities in West Virginia actively are
involved in providing local facilities for outdoor recreation areas. State
legislation enables both county and municipal governments to provide
recreational services (West Virginia Code 10-2). Within the North Branch
Potomac River Basin, only Mineral County has an established park and
recreation commission.
Specific data for county and municipal recreation facilities are not
available. What data are available are grouped according to RPDC's. The
North Branch Potomac River Basin is within RPDC Region VI11. According to
the State Recreation Plan (WVGOECD 1980), 32 local agencies administer
almost 700 acres of recreational land in Region VIII.
Both State and USOSM regulations prohibit new surface mining activities
that can be shown to have an adverse effect on a publicly-owned park; this
prohibition extends to a maximum of 300 ft from the publicly-owned site.
Joint approval by the regulatory authority and the local park commission is
required (West Virginia Code 20-6-22, SMCRA Section 76l.llc,f).
Private Facilities. Privately-operated facilities provide a significant
portion of the recreational resources of West Virginia. Their importance is
highlighted in the State Recreation Plan (WVGOECD 1980) as follows:
The State recognizes the necessity and desirability for
private enterprise to complement and supplement public
outdoor recreation services and areas. Private investments
not only increase the opportunity for participation in
outdoor recreation experiences but also have the secondary
benefit of broadening the economic base of the State through
the development of a tourist industry.
Specific data on private facilities is not available by county. In
1974, the National Association of Conservation Districts (NACD) completed a
Statewide inventory of private outdoor recreational facilities. This survey
grouped data according to RPDC Regions. Region 8, which includes the North
Branch Potomac River Basin, contained 71 private recreation enterprises.
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Private facilities in the Basin include camps, campgrounds, golf clubs,
tennis clubs, hunting and fishing clubs, swimming pools, and hiking trails.
The recreational value of these facilities for game and non-game animals is
discussed in Sections 2.3.3.3. and 2.3.3.4.
2.6.1.5.6. Availability of Water and Sewer Services. Studies and
plans made by Federal, State, and local governmental agencies have
consistently identified improved water and sewage systems as a basic neces-
sity for furthering economic development in West Virginia. Nearly all of
the State's priority needs, such as improved housing, industrial/commercial
expansion, and economic diversification, are contingent on the provision of
adequate water and sewer service.
The rural portions of the North Branch Potomac River Basin are faced
with a two-pronged problem: existing systems are inadequate to accommodate
future growth, and a large proportion of the population is unserved by
existing facilities. In the more urban sections of the Basin, such as
Keyser, a higher proportion of the population is served by existing water
and sewer facilities, but both Grant and Mineral Counties fall below State
and National percentages for structures with public water and sewer service.
These services are especially lacking in Grant County. Several supply
availability in the Basin, including:
Limitations on the use of septic tank systems.
Excessive slopes of mountains and hillsides, shallow soils
in many areas, prevalence of clay soils, and minimal
alluvial deposits in valleys make a high percentage of the
land unsuitable for septic tank systems. Despite these
problems approximately 50% of the State's population
presently are served by septic tank systems, by sanitary
pit privies, or by discharge directly into streams. In an
effort to overcome the problems associated with unsewered
areas, the West Virginia Board of Health instituted a
major revision in its requirements for jmall sewage
disposal systems in 1971. Included Wits a requirement that
all new subdivisions be served by a sewer system, unless
the West Virginia Department of Health determines that
such systems are not feasible because of rugged
topography, low population density, geographical barriers,
or other overriding factors. This requirement has
resulted in a shift by real estate developers in West
Virginia to the use of package treatment plants (WVGOECD
1979 ).
Water supply needs of additional and high-density housing
developments. Most existing piped water systems in this
area are small, with little capacity for additional
loading. Many persons obtain water from private wells.
Coal mining activity has aggravated water supply problems
locally by degrading both surface and groundwater quality,
2-174
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and, in some cases, by greatly reducing groundwater
quantity. Reduction in groundwater quantity also occurs
as a result of the disruption of aquifers and the lowering
of the water table as a result of underground mining.
Lack of funding. The rugged topography of much of the
Basin often requires elaborate pumping systems which, in
turn, increase the cost of such systems. The EPA has
estimated that the cost of facilities construction in West
Virginia is twice the National average (WVGOECD 1979 ).
Also, multiple sources of Federal funding, including
USHUD, USFMHA, USEDA, EPA, and ARC, each with its own
criteria and priorities, have caused delays and cost
increases in facilities provision. Specific problems in
dealing with multiple agency requirements include
differences in funding requirements, differences in
regulations, and lack of synchronization in the timing of
applications.
Low population densities in many sections of the Basin.
The rural nature of many communities often prevents
development of cost-effective service. Regional systems
designed to serve clusters of communities often encounter
geographical barriers that make such alternatives
prohibitively expensive.
Lack of management and maintenance personnel. Although
package treatment plants often are a viable solution to
service the needs of small communities or subdivisions,
inadequate maintenance of these facilities frequently
reduces their operating life and effectiveness. Small
towns often have difficulty in finding and supporting a
trained operator to maintain technologically sophisticated
systems adequately. In some areas, these problems have
been alleviated by the implementation of regional
management systems with costs shared among several
jurisdictions. In other areas, countywide public service
districts have been established.
Characterization of the current availability of public water and sewer
services in the Basin is limited by the lack of up-to-date information on a
Basin-wide basis. Data for the Basin (compiled from the 1970 Census of
Housing) indicate that the availability of centralized sewer and water
service is correlated highly with urban population (Table 2-5Q). Rural
counties, such as Grant County, have extremely low percentages of structures
with centralized sewer and water service.
Within the Basin, there is an effort to upgrade water and sewer
service. Currently, Keyser is participating in the EPA 201 construction
grant program for wastewater facilities.
2-175
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2.6.1.5.7. Solid Waste. There is solid waste collection service to
approximately 55% of the residents of West Virginia (WVGOECD 1979 ). This
includes approximately 110 towns that provide refuse collection, as well as
nearly 180 private haulers that offer services in both urban and rural
areas. Additional services and technical assistance are supplied by a
variety of other agencies and institutions including WVDH, WVDNR, WVGES,
boards of education, hospitals, and universities.
Unfortunately, much of the State has no solid waste collection service.
In addition to the lack of collection facilities, disposal practices for
solid waste that is collected are often inadequate. The West Virginia
Department of Health estimated that the 75 permitted landfills and over 150
other authorized landfills serve only a small portion of the State's need.
Consequently, much of the solid waste is disposed of on other lands, often
in an unsatisfactory manner. In these unserviced areas, waste accumulates
in backyards and vacant lots or is deposited at informal dumps along
roadways. Open dumps and burning contribute to air and water pollution, and
provide havens for insects, rodents, and other disease-carriers. Moreover,
these illegal dumps are noisome and unsightly, and very often reduce
neighboring property values.
There are several constraints exist to the development of effective
measures to address solid waste problems. A major constraint is the
incomplete and fragmented levels of authority and responsibility among State
and local authorities. Another institutional constraint is public
opposition to treatment, recovery, and disposal facility siting. Concern
about illegal dumping seems largely limited to only those who are directly
affected. Also, because of the implementation of environmental control
requirements, land disposal costs will increase in the future. The
willingness and ability to pay for these additional costs may be an
additional constraint to the development of an effective management system.
Finally, because of the rugged terrain, weather conditions, and low
population density throughout much of the State, transportation of solid
waste is complicated and time consuming. This transportation difficulty
creates a barrier to an efficient solid waste disposal system and to the
operational resource recovery systems; such systems are costeffective only
when large amounts of refuse are delivered to a central facility for
processing into useful commodities.
Land for solid waste disposal in sanitary landfills generally is
available in the Basin. The use of abandoned surface mines for disposal is
a common practice. Private ownership of solid waste disposal operations is
encouraged by State and local governments. The West Virginia Solid Waste
Act requires that prior to the opening of a sanitary landfill, a plan for a
solid waste site, including a site survey and operating plan, must be
prepared under the supervision of a registered professional engineer and
approved by the Sanitary Engineering Division of the West Virginia
Department of Health. Not all currently operating disposal facilities
comply with this regulation, and enforcement of the regulation is sometimes
inadequate (Regional Intergovernmental Council 1977). In rural areas, open
2-177
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dumping is a common practice, and open dumps are used and tolerated by many
residents. Open dumps are difficult to control because many rural areas are
remote and because there is a lack of practical disposal alternatives.
2.6.1.5.8. Planning Capabilities
Institutional framework. The planning function in West Virginia has
usually been carried out by ad hoc boards and commissions, which are not
integrated into local policy development or decision making. Their members
are typically private citizens who have earned a reputation in the local
business community, and who usually act on the premise that planning and
development essentially means increased business growth. Traditionally,
elected city officials are only peripherally involved, as ex-officio
members, on these planning boards (Brown 1974).
Planning has not been internalized as a central policy or program
concern of local government. There is, in fact, little orientation toward
institutional or social change among the traditional planning organizations.
Community concern usually is manifested only when highly sensitive issues
are involved, such as zoning, land use regulations, and annexation
referenda. Sectionalism is encouraged, and an overall planning strategy is
neglected. This lack of objectivity results in haphazard development and
piecemeal projects. Consequently, it is important for each community to
formulate and adopt a plan that reflects the goals and objectives of the
local residents.
The Department of Planning and Development consists of two divisions,
"State Planning" and "Community Affairs." State Planning provides technical
advisory services to local and RPDC personnel when they prepare their
respective development plans. Also, it assists in the establishing of
Statewide planning practices and programs. Community Affairs functions as
the liaison between the RPDC's and the State. Also, it performs research
functions, providing the RPDC's with material0 to prepare their programs.
The Regional Planning and Development Act (RPDA) was passed in 1971 and
represented the first regional effort by the West Virginia Legislature for
Statewide planning and development. The Act may be analyzed on the basis
of:
the responsibilities of the Governor
the establishment of regional councils (RPDC's)
the functions, powers, and responsibilities of the councils.
The Legislature designated the Governor as having overall
responsibility for planning and development. He delineates the boundaries
of RPDC's and provides for their organization. By law, he is charged with
the responsibilities of preparing an Annual State Plan (submitted to the
Legislature), providing technical assistance to RPDC's, and coordinating the
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State's participation in Federal programs. The most significant event
following the enactment of the RPDA was the defining of the regional
boundaries and RPDC's, and the attendant public hearings. These hearings
provided the first opportunity for public feedback on the regional program
in West Virginia. Reactions ranged from enthusiastic support to passive
acceptance to high opposition (Brown 1974). Both of the North Branch
Potomac River Basin counties are located within the RPDC Region VI11.
Region VIII's offices are located in Petersburg (Grant County).
2.6.1.5.9. Local Planning in the North Branch Potomac River Basin.
The Basin lacks local planning. A summary of the status of planning in the
counties and major cities within the Basin is presented in Table 2-51. This
Table reveals an acute need for the direction and control of development
activities.
2.6.2. Land Use and Land Availability
Potentially serious conflicts exist between mining land uses and urban
land uses in the North Branch Potomac River Basin due to competition for the
limited amounts of developable land and also from induced population growth
resulting from mining activity. These indirect impacts are made more severe
by steep slopes and floodprone areas found in many parts of the Basin.
These two factors intensify the competition for available, developable land.
This section describes the distribution of land uses, land use constraints,
and potential conflicts within the Basin and indicates where problems are
likely to be most severe.
2._6.2.1. Classification System.
Mapping (Figure 2-7, Section 2.3.) and inventory (Table 2-12, Section
2.3.) of land use-land cover patterns in the North Branch Potomac River
Basin in this report are based on a 12-category classification system. The
system used here is a modification of the Level II land use-land cover
classification system developed by USGS (Anderson 1976). The USGS system
has been simplified in two ways in order to facilitate the interpretation of
coal mining and related impacts. First, categories of land use that do not
occur in the Basin (e.g. glaciers and dry salt flats) have been eliminated.
Second, the 22 Level II categories that do occur within the Basin have been
combined into 12 more general categories.
The land use categories used in this study, the USGS category or
categories to which they are equivalent, and brief definitions of these
categories are presented below. These land uses are mapped in (Figure 2-7
Section 2.3.). A more detailed description of the Level II classification
system and its uses is provided by Anderson (1976).
Residential (USGS category 11, Residential). Uses within this category
range from high density urban core areas to low density suburban areas.
Linear residential developments along transportation routes, commonly found
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Table 2-51 .Status of planning in the counties and cities in the North Branch
Potomac River Basin (WVGOECD 1979#)
KEY:
Status of Planning Commission x-None «-Yes, staff o-Yes, no staff
Status of Comprehensive Plan, Zoning Ordinance, and Subdivision Regulation
x-None o-Not adopted/under review ^-Adopted p-Partially adopted
Status of Capital Improvements Program x-None o-Yes, prepared »-Yes,
adopted p-Yes, not adhered to
Status of Housing Authority x-None »-Yes
Capital
Counties Planning Comprehensive Zoning Subdivision Improvements Housing
Cities Commission Plan Ordinance Regulation Program Authority
Grant County x o o x
Mineral County x x x x x x
Keyser x x
Piedmont x x x x x
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in the North Branch Potomac River Basin, are included in this classifi-
cation. Rural recreational and residential subdivisions also are included.
Commercial (USGS category 12, Commercial and Services). These areas
are devoted primarily to the sale of products and/or services. Included are
central business districts, shopping centers, and commercial "strip"
developments along highways. Educational, religious, health, correctional,
and military facilities also are included in this category.
Industrial, Transportation, Communications, and Utilities (USGS
categories: 13, Industrial Land; 14, Transportation, Communication, and
Utilities; and 15, Industrial and Commercial Complexes).
"Industrial Land" includes both light and heavy industry.
Surface structures associated with mining operations are
assigned to this category. These include access roads,
processing facilities, stockpiles, and storage sheds.
"Transportation, Communication, and Utilities" uses
include highways, railways, airports, pipelines, and
electric transmission lines. These uses are often linear
in nature and are of such a small scale that they are
included with the other urban and non-urban uses with
which they are associated.
"Industrial and Commercial" complexes include industrial
parks and closely associated warehousing and wholesaling
facilities.
Mixed and Other Developed Areas (USGS categories: 16, Mixed Urban or
Built-up Land and 17, Other Urban or Built-up Land).
"Mixed Urban or Built-up Land" includes other developed
uses (described above) where the pattern of Individual
uses is too complex to be portrayed at the mapping scale
"Other Urban or Built-up Land" includes urban parks,
cemeteries, golf courses, and waste dumps.
Agricultural (USGS categories: 21 Cropland and Pasture; 22, Orchards,
Groves, Etc.; 23, Confined Feeding Operations; and 24, Other Agricultural
Land).
"Cropland and Pasture" includes harvested cropland, idle
cropland, land on which crop failure has occurred, pasture
land, and land in pasture-crop rotation
"Orchards, Groves, Etc.," includes fruit and nut crop
areas, vineyards, and nurseries
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"Confined Feeding Operations" are large, specialized
livestock production enterprises.
"Other Agricultural Land" includes farmsteads, farm roads
and ditches, corrals, small ponds, and similar uses.
Deciduous Forest (USGS category 41, Deciduous Forest Land) includes
forested areas with a crown closure of 10% or morej in which most of the
trees lose their leaves during winter.
Evergreen Forest (USGS category 42, Evergreen Forest Land) includes all
forested areas in which trees are predominantly those that retain their
leaves all year. This includes both needleleaf evergreens (e.g. pines and
spruce) and broadleaf evergreen shrubs (e.g. rhododendron).
Mixed Forest (USGS category 43, Mixed Forest Land) includes areas where
more than a one-third intermixture of either evergreen or deciduous trees
occurs within a given forested area (Section 2.3.).
Water (USGS categories: 51, Streams and Canals; 52, Lakes; and 53,
Reservoirs). Included are all persistently water-covered areas at least
600 feet wide and 40 acres in area.
Wetlands (USGS categories: 61, Forested Wetlands and 62, Nonforested
Wetlands) includes areas where the water table is at, near, or above the
land surface for a significant part of most years. Aquatic or hydrophytic
vegetation is usually established (Section 2.3.).
Surface Mines, Quarries, and Gravel Pits (USGS category 75, Strip
Mines, Quarries, and Gravel Pits) includes active strip mines.
Transitional Areas (USGS category 76, Transitional Areas) includes all
areas in transition from one use to another. This transition phase includes
clearance of forest lands for agriculture or -i 'an development. This
category also includes surface mines after minxug activity has ceased and
before revegetation has been accomplished.
USGS utilized aerial photographs and other remote sensing data as the
primary source in compiling the land use-land cover maps and acreage
tabulations. The maps were prepared at a scale of 1:250,000. The minimum
parcel size that could be interpreted for inclusion in these maps was 10
acres in developed areas (residential; commercial; industrial;
transportation, communication, and utilities; mixed and other developed) and
in surface mined areas. The minimum parcel that could be interpreted in
other areas was 40 acres (USGS 1978 ). As a result of this scale of
resolution, the land use maps presented in Figure 2-7 (Section 2.3.) should
be considered as generalized. Many small scale features, especially those
representing urban development and water areas, are not included. As a
result, the data in Table 2-12 (Section 2.3.) probably somewhat
underrepresent the extent of urban uses and water area in the Basin.
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2.6.2.2. Land Use Patterns
This section describes land use patterns associated with intensive
human occupancy. These uses include residential; commercial; industrial,
transportation, communication, and utilities; and mixed and other land uses
in urban areas. Also discussed in this section are surface mining use and
transitional uses. Transitional uses generally represent an intermediate
phase in the development of urban or surface mine uses. All land use
patterns not associated with intensive human occupancy (woodlands, wetlands,
water areas, etc.) are described in Section 2.3. These non-intensive uses
often are termed "land cover." The county-specific data, presented in
Table 2-12, (Section 2.3), and referred to below, represent only the
portion of each county that is within the hydrologic boundary of the North
Branch Potomac River Basin.
A total of approximately 5 square miles (3,453 acres) of the hydrologic
Basin is classified as having urban land uses (Table 2-12 Section 2.3.).
This represents only 1.9% of the Basin area. Residential uses are the
predominant developed land use. Most of the residential areas are located
in the Mineral County portion of the Basin. No large areas of residential
use are found within the Grant County portion. Several relatively large
areas of urban development exist in the hydrologic Basin, all located in
Mineral County:
Keyser City on the south bank of the North Branch Potomac
River, where the River makes a sharp change of direction
Wiley Ford, in the extreme northern section of the Basin,
across the North Branch Potomac River from Cumberland
Piedmont-Westernport area, on both sides of the North
Branch Potomac River, northwest of Keyser City.
Surface mining use occupies approximately 5,337 acres of the Basin.
This represents approximately 8 square miles, or 3.0% of the total area.
The majority (75%) of surface mine uses are located in the Grant County
portion of the Basin. Throughout that area several large concentrations of
surface mine uses exist, including one located south of Steyer and another
located south of Bismarck. Several small pockets of surface mine uses are
located in the Mineral County portion of the Basin. All of these are west
of the Allegheny Front (Figure 2-7 , Section 2.3.). Transitional areas,
associated with surface mining in the Basin, represent only 168 acres of
land.
The greatest potential for either direct or indirect adverse impacts of
new mining activity on urban areas is found in areas with relatively high
proportions of either urban or surface mine land uses. Such areas are found
within the two counties in the Basin. Currently, there exists an inverse
relationship between the proportion of land devoted to urban uses and that
devoted to surface mine use in the North Branch Potomac River Basin. In the
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Grant County portion of the Basin the proportion of urbanized uses is small
(0.7%) while the proportion of surface mine uses is relatively large (4.5%).
Conversely, in the Mineral County portion of the Basin, the proportion of
urban uses is large (3.3%), while that of surface mine uses is relatively
small (1.5%). Potential adverse impacts of mining on urban areas are
described in Section 5.6.
2.6.2.3. Steep Slopes
In some areas of the North Branch Potomac River Basin, potential
negative impacts of mining on urban land uses and urban populations are
increased by the predominance of steep slopes. Steep slopes not only limit
the amount of land available for urban development, but also increase the
potential for negative impacts of mining activity upslope from urban
development. Among those negative impacts that become more severe are those
that result from downslope runoff (flooding and sedimentation), blasting,
and landslides.
The potential of various classes of slopes in the North Branch Potomac
River Basin for urban development has been described as follows (RPDC III
1978):
Level Land (0 to 8% slope) can accommodate any type of development with a
minimum amount of earth moving. This slope class is necessary for typical
industrial or manufacturing methods using one-story, single line production
methods. Periodic flooding and poor drainage are problems associated with
this slope class in the Basin.
Rolling Land (9 to 16% slope) can be developed for residential and, in some
cases, commercial use without severe difficulty. This slope class is also
suited generally to pasture, forage crops, and some grain plantings.
Hilly Land (17 to 24% slope) is land suited fr residential uses if careful
site planning is used to fit the development l' the topography. This slope
class is generally uneconomical for high density development because of the
high costs of providing basic public services and utilities.
Steeply Sloping Land (greater than 25% slope) is generally considered
unsuitable for any type of urban development or for cultivation. Permanent
tree cover should be established or maintained in order to prevent erosion.
Optimum uses of this slope class are outdoor recreation, wildlife
management, and watershed protection. This slope class is valued for its
scenic quality.
No data for the specific slope classes defined above are available.
General slope class data (Table 2-52) do indicate that approximately 60% of
the land in each of the counties in the Potomac River Basin has less than a
20% slope. Thus, at least 40% of each county is excluded from urban
development. Specific locations within the Basin are more steeply sloping
than the County averages in Table 2-52 suggest, particularly along the
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Table 2-52.Percentage of land by slope class, North Branch Potomac
River Basin (Cardl 1979b).
County
PERCENTAGE OF AREA BY SLOPE CLASS
0 to
2.5%
2.5 to
10%
10 to
20%
20 to
30%
Over Total, less
30% than 20%
Grant
Mineral
3.4
2.9
24.3
18.9
31.4
40.2
19.9
22.5
21.0
15.5
59.1
62.0
2-185
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Allegheny Front which bisects the Basin. In addition, some of the less
steeply sloping areas are flat-top mountains, which are often too
inaccessible to be developed.
Much of the gently sloping land in the Basin is found in the valley
floors of the North Branch Potomac River and its tributaries. As a result,
most of the settlement is concentrated in the valley floors. Also, much of
the gently sloping land that is available is highly prone to flooding.
2.6.2.4. Flooding and Flood Insurance
The scarcity of land that can be built upon in many sections of the
North Branch Potomac River Basin has resulted in development on the
floodplains of the North Branch Potomac River and its tributaries.
Concentration of settlement in floodplain areas increases the potential for
flood disasters, such as the one that occurred at Buffalo Creek (Logan
County), West Virginia, in February 1972.
The relationship of surface mining land use to flooding is an issue
that has been debated heatedly. Those who believe that surface mining does
promote flooding state that "rapid runoff and sedimentation generated by
strip mining operations have been the cause of numerous floods in the
Appalachian Region....areas of the Country which are floodprone should be
permanently protected against the practice of strip mining for coal"
(statement of Jack Spadaro, representing the Appalachian Alliance, to
hearings of the Committee on Government Operations; US House of
Representatives, 1977).
Representatives of the coal industry disagree. They contend that
increased surface infiltration allowed by surface mining, especially in
steeply sloping areas with thin soils, reduces runoff. They conclude that
"surface mining substantially reduces, rather than aggravates, water runoff
during heavy rainfalls" (statement of Michael "% Heenan, on behalf of the
National Independent Coal Operator's Association, to hearings of the
Government Operations Committee; US House of Representatives, 1977).
Empirical studies have indicated that surface mining does result in
increased storm runoff peaks (Curtis 1977).
Construction of houses, commercial, industrial, and other facilities in
floodplain areas, is discouraged by Executive Order 11988, "Floodplain
Management." As a result of this order, all Federal agencies are mandated
to work to reduce flood losses and to minimize the impacts of flooding on
human safety, health, and welfare (42 FR 101, May 25, 1977). Guidelines for
implementing Executive Order 11988 have been promulgated by the US Water
Resources Council (A3 FR 29, February 10, 1978). The basic thrust of these
guidelines is to require all Federal agencies to avoid construction within
at least the 100 year floodplain, unless there is no other practicable
alternative.
2-186
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Insurance for flooding losses is provided by the National Flood
Insurance Program (NFIP). This Program was administered by the Federal
Insurance Administration of USHUD until 1979. Since 1979, it has been
administered by the Federal Insurance Branch of FEMA.
Participation in the NFIP is voluntary. Both counties in the North
Branch Potomac River Basin participate, providing coverage for unincorpor-
ated areas. Within the Basin, incorporated communities that participate in
the NFIP include Bayard (Grant County), and Keyser and Piedmont (Mineral
County). Participation is divided into two phases, "emergency" and
"regular."
Under the emergency program, limited flood insurance protection is
available to local property owners. After a community applies for flood
insurance, FEMA compiles and publishes a Flood Hazard Boundary Map (FHBM).
Residents of the flood hazard areas delineated on this map are eligible for
flood insurance.
In order to maintain insurance eligibility for local property owners
under the emergency program, a community also must adopt and enforce
floodplain management measures designed to reduce flood hazards. Floodplain
management measures typically include the following:
Zoning, subdivision, or building requirements, or a
special floodplain ordinance to assure that construction
sites are reasonably free from flooding
Proper anchoring of structures
Use of construction materials and methods designed to
minimize flood damage
Provision of adequate drainage for new subdivisions.
When a community moves from the emergency to the regular flood
insurance program, additional insurance coverage becomes available. The
basis for entry into the regular program is the preparation by USFEMA of a
Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM). The FIRM shows flood elevations and
outlines flood risk zones. The regular program also requires more
comprehensive floodplain management measures than the emergency program.
These include elevation, or "floodproofing," of structures in the
floodplain, and measures designed to prevent obstruction of the floodway
(FEMA 1980).
2.6.2.5. Forms and Concentration of Land Ownership
The separation of surface and subsurface land ownership in some
sections of the North Branch Potomac River Basin could have a significant
impact upon urban development and settlement patterns. Information
regarding ownership (fee-simple, surface, mineral, etc.) can be obtained at
2-187
-------
the respective county tax assesor's office. Three forms of land ownership
are found in West Virginia:
Fee simple (absolute) ownership, which includes all legal
rights to surface use, subsurface use, subsurface
activities, and timber
Surface ownership, which applies to surface uses such as
housing, agriculture, etc.
Mineral or timber rights, which can include one owner for
all resources, or separate owners for each of a variety
of resources.
In many coal producing areas, the surface and subsurface ownership
rights are held by different individuals and/or corporations. This
characteristic of "overlapping ownership" has caused numerous conflicts over
the right of use for property. Before 1960, surface mining was uncommon in
West Virginia. Coal rights that were sold or leased were assumed to be
intended for underground mining. Since 1960, surface mining has become
common in many areas, leading to conflict between surface and subsurface
owners because removal of coal and other minerals entailed destruction of
surface uses and structures. The Federal Surface Mining Control and
Reclamation Act definitively has established that the permission of the
surface owner must be obtained as a prerequisite to the processing of a
surface mine permit application by USOSM (see Section 4.O.).
Statewide concentration of land ownership is a significant issue (Table
2-53). However, concentration of land ownership in the North Branch Potomac
River Basin is not as severe a problem as it is in other parts of West
Virginia (Figure 2-28). Chessie System, Inc. is the major landholder within
the Basin, owning 23,416 acres in Grant County and 10,222 acres in Mineral
County. All together, six companies own 51,170 acres of land in Grant
County, or 17% of its total land area and thr->.^ companies own 19,008 acres
of land in Mineral County or 9% of its total land area. However, virtually
all known coal deposits are found within the hydrologic Basin portion of
these counties. It is highly probable that most, if not all, of the land in
concentrated ownership is within the hydrologic Basin. If this is the case,
then up to 57% of the hydrologic Basin in Grant County, and up to 22% in
Mineral County, is controlled by a very small number of companies.
Two important factors in the issue of concentrated land ownership are
the scarcity of land capable of being developed in some sections of the
Basin and the dominance of coal mining interests in ownership of land that
is capable of being developed. It is in the interest of coal mining
concerns to own or control large blocks of land in order to justify future
large scale investments for mining. Also, in most cases, the value of
underlying coal is greater than the possible return from surface development
of land for industrial, commercial, or residential uses (Miller 1974).
2-188
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Table 2-53. Largest land owners in West Virginia (Miller 1974).
Number of Counties in Total Acreage
Owner Which Land is Owned Owned
Continental Oil Company 10 554,097
Chessie System, Inc. 18 517,636
Norfolk and Western Railway
Company 6 441,331
Georgia-Pacific Corporation 10 377,308
Columbia Gas System 4 326,605
Westvaco Corporation 14 272,262
Eastern Gas and Fuel Associates 13 263,025
Cabot, Inc. 13 136,995
Bethlehem Steel Corporation 12 128,050
The Pittston Company 5 124,623
2-189
-------
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2-190
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Thus, companies or individuals owning mineral rights to a parcel of land
will frequently try to prevent surface development.
Conflicts between coal companies wishing to preserve subsurface rights
and residents of areas with highly concentrated land ownership have become
very intense in many areas of West Virginia. In Mingo County, the State of
West Virginia has sued the Cotiga Land Company in order to develop a housing
project. The State has won initial court judgements in this case, which has
been appealed to Federal District Court. A bill was introduced by Governor
Rockefeller in the 1980 session of the State Legislature to give WVHDF the
right of eminent domain for development of housing projects. The bill was
not passed (Grimes 1980a).
2.6.2.6. General Patterns of Land Use and Land Availability Conflicts
As described above, various areas of the North Branch Potomac River
Basin are subject to land use and availability constraints. The major
constraints described are:
extent of current surface mining activity
extent of current urban development
extent of steeply sloping land
extent of concentrated land ownership
concentration of buildable land in floodplain areas.
Of the five constraints listed above, all except concentration of
buildable land in floodplain areas can be summarized in numerical form.
Table 2-54 indicates how the two counties in the Basin compare in terms of
percentage of land devoted to surface mining, urban development, steep
slopes, and concentrated ownership. Both Grant and Mineral Counties rank
high in two of the four constraints. Neither county ranks highly in terms
of steeply sloping land although, as mentioned previously, slopes in the
hydrologic Basin portion of the counties appear to be more steep than each
county's average.
2-191
-------
Table 2-54. Summary of land development characteristics in the North Branch Potomac
River Basin.
Proportion of Area
~~>1% active >"3% urban < 20% not > 25% in concen-
Countyl surface mining development steeply sloping2 trated ownership
Grant
Mineral
t
iRefers only to the portion of the county which is actually in the Basin
20ver 20% slope
2-192
-------
2.7 Earth Resources
-------
Page
2.7 Earth Resources 2-193
2.7.1. Physiography and Topography 2-193
2.7.1.1. Valley and Ridge Physiographic Province 2-193
2.7.1.2. The Appalachian Plateau Province 2-196
2.7.2. Steep Slopes and Slope Stability 2-198
2.7.2.1. Steep Slopes 2-198
2.7.2.2. Unstable Slopes 2-198
2.7.3. Floodprone Areas 2-200
2.7.4. Soils 2-200
2.7.5. Prime Farmland 2-203
2.7.6. Geology 2-206
2.7.6.1. Geology of the North Branch Potomac River 2-214
Basin
2.7.6.2. Structural Features of the North Branch 2-214
Potomac River Basin
2.7.6.3. Stratigraphy 2-217
2.7.6.4. Coal Measures 2-225
2.7.6.5. Toxic Overburden 2-230
-------
2.7. EARTH RESOURCES
2.7.1. Physiography and Topography
The North Branch Potomac River Basin of West Virginia encompasses
sections of two physiographic provinces. The eastern half of the Basin is
within the Valley and Ridge Physiographic Province, and the western half is
within the Appalachian Plateau Physiographic Province (Figure 2-29). These
two provinces are separated by a prominent escarpment along the western
margin of the Allegheny Front Section of the Valley and Ridge Province.
Physiographic provinces are distinguished by the sequence of rocks
which lie beneath their surface that is, (by their stratigraphy) and by
their geologic structure for example, folding and faulting. Along with
climate, these two basic characteristics most strongly determine the
evolution of the landscape features, or geomorphology of an area. These
characteristics help to determine the slope of hillsides and the pattern and
density of surface drainage.
Elevations found within the North Branch Potomac River Basin range from
4,000-plus feet above sea level peaks of the Allegheny Plateau in the
southwest section of the Basin to the 840-foot elevations found in the
floodplains of the North Branch Potomac River near Keyser. Elevations in
the Basin decline generally from the southwest toward the northeast in a
regular manner (Figure 2-30). The North Branch Potomac River drops 2,580
feet in elevation in the 88 miles from its headwaters to its departure from
the Basin at Buckwheat Hollow.
2.7.1.1. The Valley and Ridge Physiographic Province
The Valley and ridge Physiographic Province includes the Valley and
Ridge Province proper and one major subdivision, the Allegheny Front
Section. The Province is characterized by narrow ridges with flat peaks and
numerous lateral spurs. In the Allegheny Front Section, the ridges are
longer and more continuous than in the remainder of the Province. The
major trend of the ridges in this Province is northeast-southwest.
The lateral spurs of the ridges are divided by gorges which were cut by
small streams. The spurs thus form the knobs found along Knobbly Mountain
and Foreknobs Ridge.
Trellis drainage is the predominant surface water drainage pattern in
the Province. In this pattern, many small streams feed directly into the
major branch in a pattern that appears like a ladder or trellis in plan
view.
The terrain found in this province is rugged and very steep. The major
streams (New Creek, Limestone Run, and Ash Cabin Run) flow northeastward,
parallel to the ridges, in moderately wide (500 to 3,000 ft) valleys. The
North Branch Potomac River also flows to the northeast, except for the
2-193
-------
Figure 2-29
PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROVINCES OF THE NORTH
BRANCH POTOMAC RIVER BASIN (Cardwell et
al. 1968)
VALLEY AND RIDGE PROVINCE
ALLEGHENY FRONT SECTION OF THE
VALLEY AND RIDGE PROVINCE
ALLEGHENY MOUNTAIN SECTION OF THE
APPALACHIAN PLATEAU
-TRACE OF THE ALLEGHENY ESCARPMENT
2-194
-------
Figure 2-30
GENERALIZED TOPOGRAPHY OF THE NORTH
BRANCH POTOMAC RIVER BASIN (adapted from
WVDNR-Water Resources 1976, USAGE 1974) *
UNDER 1000 FEET
1001 TO 2000 FEET
2001 TO 3000 FEET
30a TO 4000 FEET
* ABOVE MEAN SEA LEVEL
2-195
-------
section from Piedmont to Keyser where it flows to the southeast as it passes
through the Allegheny Front Section.
Slopes of 25% and greater are nearly ubiquitous, except for the
floodplains found along the North Branch Potomac River and New Creek, and
the narrow, gently sloping ridgetops. The smaller streams have steep,
narrow valleys with no extensive floodplain.
Two major sub-basins dominate this half of the Basin (Figure 2-31).
The northeast panhandle from Keyser to Cumberland is in the North Branch
Potomac River sub-basin. In this section, the river has a swift current and
few meanders.
The other sub-basin is the New Creek sub-basin. New Creek rises in
northern Grant County and flows to the northwest through Mineral County.
New Creek drops at a rate of 68 ft/mi through its 15 mile course from its
origin to Keyser, where it joins the North Branch Potomac River. To the
east, New Creek Mountain rises abruptly from the Creek and there is little
or no floodplain present. A fertile floodplain 1/4 to 3 mi wide extends
along New Creek, parallel to the Knobbly Mountain ridge.
2.7.1.2. The Appalachian Plateau Province
The western section of the Basin is within the Allegheny Mountain
Section of the Appalachian Plateau Physiographic Province. Here, the
bedrock is relatively flat-lying and the surface water drainage pattern is
dendritic. The stream valleys have deeply dissected the raised plateau,
leaving narrow (200 to 1,000 ft wide) floodplain flanked by steep valley
walls. The upland surface between streams gradually evolves to wide rolling
interstream areas in the western section of this Province.
In the southwest section of this Province, the land surface is composed
of gentle slopes and undulating ridges. There are numerous small freshwater
wetlands near the headwaters of creeks entering the North Branch Potomac
River. To the northeast wider valley floors (floodplains) and steep valley
walls characterize the Plateau. Local relief also increases toward the
northeast. The valley walls represent the only steep slopes in the
Appalachian Plateau section of this Basin.
The Abram Creek sub-basin is about 45 sq mi in extent. Abram Creek
is 19 mi long, and falls 1,565 ft at a rate of 83 ft/mi. The valley walls
are steep, and the floodplains along the Creek have a maximum width of 1,000
ft. The interstream ridges are relatively wide and flat, with steep slopes
averaging 1,000 ft in width along their flanks.
The Stony River sub-basin encompasses 60 sq mi. Stony River flows
25 mi from Mt. Storm Lake and falls 1,655 ft (66 ft/ mi). The upper valley
of Stony River is similar to that of Abram Creek, as wide as 1,000 ft but
lacking smooth bottom lands. Near its mouth, the Stony River valley is
extremely steep and relatively straight.
2-196
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Figure 2-31
MAJOR SUB-BASINS IN THE NORTH BRANCH
POTOMAC RIVER BASIN (WAPORA 1980)
NORTH BRANCH POTOMAC SUB-BASIN
ABRAM CREEK SUB-BASIN
NEW CREEK SUB-BASIN
STONY RIVER SUB-BASIN
2-197
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2.7.2. Steep Slopes and Slope Stability
2.7.2.1. Steep Slopes
Steep slopes are the places where the mass movement of earth material
is most likely to occur following mining or other disturbances. Landslides
along West Virginia highways are most common where slopes range between 20%
and 35% (Hall 1974, Lessing et al. 1976). In many areas, more severe slopes
already have been stabilized through slides and other earth movements,
whereas these lesser slopes (20% to 35%) remain unstable and sensitive to
mine-related disturbances. Furthermore, a steep slope has been defined by
EPA as an area where the average slope is greater than 25% (14°).l
According to Rowe (1975), the median slope in West Virginia is 25%
(14°). In Grant and Mineral Counties, 30% of the land exceeds 25% slope
(Cardi et al. 1979). Most of the steep slopes occur east of the Allegheny
Front in noneoalbearing rocks outside the Basin. The majority of past
surface mining within the Appalachian Plateau section of the Basin has
occurred along the minor tributaries of the North Branch Potomac on the
steep slopes west of Keyser.
On Overlay 2 slopes of 25% or greater were identified where they
extend over a distance of at least 160 ft (on maps with a 20 ft contour
interval) or 320 ft (on maps with a 40 ft contour interval).
2.7.2.2. Unstable Slopes
In West Virginia, most slope failures are confined to the thin layer of
soil, colluvium, or weathered rock that develops on the steep valley slopes.
Rockfalls are usually associated with the excavation activities of man, but
they also may occur on natural cliff faces where meandering streams erode
soft rocks which underlie more resistant sandstone bluffs. Any construction
activity that involves:
removal of vegetation
increased loading on a slope
undercutting the slope, or
alters the hydrologic balance (surface water and groundwater)
may induce slope failure. Coal mining and its related activities commonly
involve all of these. Other factors which increase the potential for slope
failure are (Lessing et al. 1976):
defined in "Best Practices for New Source Surface and Underground Coal
Mines," issued in a September 1, 1977 memorandum to Regional Administrators
that provides interim guidelines on the application of NEPA to New Source
coal mines. These guidelines are expected to be updated in the near future
and made compatible with USOSM regulations.
2-198
-------
Bedrock Factors - The red shales of the Monongahela and
Conemaugh Groups are naturally weak and incompetent
(see Section 2.7.6.). These red shales weather rapidly,
especially when exposed, and are the rock type most
commonly associated with landslides in West Virginia.
Soil Factors - Easily erodible soils are thin, clayey
soils weathered from shales. These soils are usually on
steep inclines, impede groundwater infiltration, and are
easily erodible.
Slope Configuration - Naturally occurring or artificial
concave slope configurations concentrate water, which
lubricates joints to cause slope failure. Of the
landslides studied in Virginia, 69% occurred on concave
slopes.
Climate - West Virginia typically experiences numerous
heavy precipitation events of limited duration during the
winter and spring. High soil moisture content, frozen
ground, and steep slopes add to surface runoff problems by
reducing the infiltration rate.
Groundwater saturation as a result of precipitation events
increases the load on the slope, increases water pressure,
and lowers soil cohesion.
Most of the known severe landslides in the vicinity of the North Branch
Potomac River Basin have occurred on the rainswept western slopes of the
non-coalbearing rocks east of the Allegheny Front outside the Basin. Long,
continuous precipitation events or sudden heavy rains may reduce the shear
strength of soils and colluvium and load these materials sufficiently to
produce landslides on steep dip and talus slopes in the Basin (Springfield
and Smith 1956). Future New Source coal mining activity is likely to occur
on steep slope areas west of the Allegheny Front within the Basin (see
Section 3.3.). During coal mining on 25% to 36% slopes, spoil placed on the
downslope, even temporarily, is highly susceptible to slope failure,
especially during the spring rainy season (Lessing et al. 1976).
WVDNR-Reclamation (1975) reported that the uncontrolled placement of
spoil on mine sites historically produced slopes ranging from 65% to 100%.
In the Coal River Basin the maximum stable (uncontrolled) spoil outslopes
were about 66% on sandstone and 50% on shale. As discussed at length in
subsequent sections, current regulations do not allow the uncontrolled
placement of spoil.
Maps of slope failure areas in West Virginia are being prepared to
guide future land use planning. Such maps are not yet available for USGS
quadrangles in the North Branch Potomac River Basin, but several quadrangles
west and south of the Basin were mapped by Lessing et al. (1976). The
2-199
-------
mapped landslide-prone areas indicate that most steep slopes exhibit evi-
dence of old, inactive landslides. The geology, soils, and physiography of
the mapped quadrangles are similar to those of the North Branch Potomac
River Basin.
2.7.3. Floodprone Areas
Floodprone areas are the lands bordering a stream that are expected to
be inundated during a flood at least once every hundred years. The major
streams in the Basin have floodplains of limited areal extent. In general,
floodplains comprise less than 10% of the total area in the Basin (Cardi
et al. 1979), and narrow valley floors less than 1,000 ft wide are typical.
East of the Allegheny Front, the non-coal bearing and less resistant
Devonian or older shales and limestones have allowed the development of more
extensive floodplains along New Creek and along the North Branch Potomac
River downstream from Keyser than in other areas.
The relatively low permeability of many geologic formations and steep
slopes are important factors in accounting for high runoff values and subse-
quent flooding following the removal of timber or surface mining in the
North Branch Potomac River Basin (Springfield and Smith 1956).
The maximum elevations of 100-year floodplains along Abram Creek, New
Creek, Stony River, the North Branch Potomac River, and their tributaries
are from 10 to 20 ft above the normal water surface (Reger and Tucker 1924).
Older terraces found along the North Branch Potomac River and its
tributaries generally are located at an elevation sufficiently high to
escape even the highest recorded flood levels (Cardi et al. 1979, WVDNR
1977, Springfield and Smith 1924).
The Federal Emergency Management Administration has contracted with
USGS to map the floodprone areas of West Virginia on 1:24,000 scale
topographic quadrangles for use in administering the Federal Flood Insurance
Program. Pursuant to the Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973, USAGE and
other private and public agencies also have delineated special flood hazard
areas in many communities that participate in the Federal Flood Insurance
Program (see Section 2.6.). Flash floods cause problems in the Basin
because of the extensive areas of steep valley slopes with thin and erodible
soils, narrow valley floors, development on the floodplains, and timbering
and coal mining activity on the slopes (Cardi et al. 1979, Tug Valley
Recovery Center 1979). The North Branch Potomac mainstem floodplain
generally experiences a more gradual rise in flood water levels than the
narrow tributary valleys (Cardi et al. 1979).
2.7.4. Soils
Throughout West Virginia, soils have developed on the land surface as a
result of the interactions between climate, vegetation, bedrock type, and
slopes. A summary table of the major soils series mapped by USDA-SCS is
included in Table 2-55. The major soils on the gently sloping to steep
2-200
-------
Table 2-55. Soil series of the North Branch Potomac River Basin (USDA-SCS
1978). Information is based on a modern soil survey legend for
Mineral County and a partially completed legend for Grant County.
Allegheny
Atkins
Bushea
Belmont-Calvin
Beneuola
Berks
Berks-Weikert
Blago
Braddock
Brinkerton
Brookside
Buchanan
Calvin
Cavode
Chagrin
Clarksburg
Clarksville
Clymer
Dekalb
Duffield
Dunning
Edgemont
Edom
Elliber
Ernest
Landes
Laidig
Lehew
Linden
Lindside
Lobdell
Massanetta
Melvin
Monongahela
Murrill
Opegum
Pope
Purdy
Payne
Rushtown
Schaffenaker
Shuns
Tuscorawas
Tygart
Tyler
Weikert
Wharton
Frankstown
Frederick
Gilpin
Hagerstown
Huntington
2-201
-------
uplands in the Appalachian Plateau Province are the Gilpin, Dekalb, and
Wharton Series. Wharton and Dekalb soils commonly overlie coal seams and
frequently have been surface mined in the Basin. Most footslopes are
dominated by soils of the Andover, Brinkerton, Buchanan, Ernest, and Laidig
Series. These soils occur in topographic situations between bottomlands and
uplands. The bottomland or gentle slope are usually areas characterized by
the Atkins, Philo, and Pope Series.
Appalachian Plateau soils were formed in acidic material weathered from
shale, siltstone, and sandstone (USDA-SCS 1978). Yellow to brown, acidic
soils are found on hills and steep slopes. Small areas of rough, stony land
and bare rock crop out along these slopes. These soils are generally of low
fertility and high acidity.
Moderately deep, well drained Calvin, Lehew, and Dekalb soils form in
the uplands along the east slope of the Allegheny Front (USDA-SCS 1978).
These soils occur on mountain slopes and a few benches and flats in Mineral
and Grant Counties. Buchanan and Laidig soils occur on footslopes, with
stony areas occurring frequently on uplands along the Allegheny Front.
Low, rolling foothills, lower mountain slopes, footslopes, and flood-
plains in the Valley and Ridge Province are characterized by the same soils
as corresponding topographic situations in the Appalachian Plateau Province.
Allegheny, Monongahela, and Tygart soils are found on stream terraces;
Dekalb, Edom, and Lehew are the principal series on uplands.
Soils of the Monongahela, Pope, and Tygart Series predominate on the
floodplains and terraces along New Creek and the North Branch Potomac River
in Mineral County. These soils are nearly level to gently sloping and range
from deep and well drained to poorly drained. The Monongahela and Tygart
Series are predominant on stream terraces, where Allegheny and Braddock
soils also occur. These soils may be used for cropland or pasture. The
upland soils are shallow to moderately deep overlying weathered sandstone,
limestones, and shales. Steep upland soils in the Basin are characterized
by thin beds of calcareous acid shales, gray shales, and sandstone.
Colluvial soils, that is, soils that form from material that has moved
downslope, are especially susceptible to erosion when disturbed. The soils
recognized as highly erodible soils in the Basin are (Lessing et al. 1976):
Brookside (a colluvial soil)
Clarksburg (a colluvial soil)
Ernest (a colluvial soil)
Wharton.
2-202
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2.7.5. Prime Farmland
Prime farmland is agricultural land on gentle slopes with textural,
chemical, and organic characteristics such that, given a proper growing
season and moisture supply, sustained high yields of economic crops can be
produced (Table 2-56). Prime farmland is well suited for producing food,
feed, fiber, oilseed, and forage. EPA deems this land worthy of protection
from long-term conversion to non-farmland uses (EPA 1979).
According to the 1979 WVDNR Surface Mining and Reclamation Regulations
(Section 20-6.11.), land is not to be considered prime farmland with respect
to topsoil management and post mining land use requirements if the applicant
can show that at least one of the following conditions exists:
Cultivated crop production on the land has occurred during
fewer than five of the last 20 years preceding the date of
the application
The slope of the land is greater than or equal to 10%
The land is not irrigated or naturally sub-irrigated or
lacks a developed water supply of suitable and dependable
quality and the average annual rainfall is 14 inches or
less
The land is rocky, is frequently flooded, or has other
conditions that exclude it as a prime agricultural
resource
Soil analysis or USDA Soil Survey information shows that
the land does not qualify as prime farmland.
These provisions for prime farmland were developed to implement the USOSM
permanent program regulations pursuant to SMCRA.
Very little of the North Branch Potomac River Basin land can be
classified as prime farmland for special protection under SMCRA and WVSCMRA,
primarily because it is too steep. The prime lands are not concentrated in
any particular part of the Basin but are scattered along the gently sloping
grades of floodplains, stream terraces, and valley slopes and to a limited
extent on gentle hills and flat-topped interstream areas. Most of the prime
farmland occurs west of the Allegheny Front and outside of the coal mining
area, except for the floodplain area along New Creek.
Prime farmland in the Basin was delineated for this assessment on
Overlay 2 based on maps from the published soil survey of Mineral County
(USDA-SCS 1978). Modern soil mapping is in progress for Grant County.
Partial soil information for Grant County exists in the District
Conservation Office at Petersburg.
2-203
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Table 2-56. Soils considered to be prime farmland in the North Branch
Potomac River Basin (USDA-SCS 1978).
Series
Allegheny
Type
Slope (%)
Braddock
Chagrin
Duffield
Frankstown
Frederick
Gilpin
Hagerstown and
Frederick
Huntingdon
Pope
1
fsl
sil
si
col
gl
si
1
1
fsl
gsl
sil
sil
shsil
gl
sil
ctsil
ctl
sil
sil
ctsil
sil
fsl
fsl
1
sil
sicl
sil
fsl
fsl
gsl
gsil
1
Is
sil
si
3-8
3-8
0-8
0-8
3-8
3-8
3-8
2-8
3-8
2-8
3-8
3-8
3-8
3-8
3-8
0-8
2-6
0-5
0-10
0-3
Low bottom
0-6
Other Characteristics
Shale substrate
Gravelly variant
Thick surface
Soft shale substrate
Sand subsoil variant
2-204
-------
Table 2-56. Soils considered to be prime farmland (concluded).
Series
Monongahela
Murrill
Muskingum
Philo
Type
sil
gsil
gl
chl
sil
chsil
gl
1
gsl
sil
sil
Slope (%)
0-3
3-8
3-8
3-8
3-10
3-8
Other Characteristics
High bottom
Types are:
chfsl, channery fine sandy loam
chl, channery loam
chsil, channery silt loam
col, cobbly loam
ctfsl, cherty fine sandy loam
ctl, cherty loam
ctsil, cherty silt loam
fsl, fine sand loam
gl, gravelly loam
gsil, gravelly silt loam
gsl, gravelly sandy loam
1, loam
Is, loamy sand
shsil, shaly silt loam
sicl, silty clay loam
sil, silt loam
si, sandy loam
2-205
-------
2.7.6. Geology
The Appalachian Basin of the eastern United States was a site of
sediment accumulation for most of the Paleozoic (approximately 570 to 225
million years ago) geologic era (Table 2-57). During this time, a large
accumulation of sediments were deposited in the Basin. The coal-bearing or
carboniferous rocks of the central Appalachian Mountains (including West
Virginia) accumulated from approximately 300 to 250 million years ago,
during the Pennsylvanian and early Permian periods.
These carboniferous rocks were deposited in coastal and nearshore
environments of an inland sea that covered sections of the several eastern
and southern states. The present distribution of the coal bearing rocks is
shown in Figure 2-32.
The carboniferous rocks include beds of coal, limestone, shale, sand-
stone and conglomerate. The coastal and nearshore environments responsible
for deposition of these rocks included rivers, deltas, marshes, swamps,
backbarrier lagoons and barrier island sequences where large accumulations
of carbonaceous material occurred (Figure 2-33). Each of these depositional
environments produced a characteristic sequence of sedimentary rocks, or
facies (Table 2-58). Figure 2-34 is a schematic representation of the
spatial relationships between various rock types in a typical modern back-
barrier coastal environment.
The ancient coastline migrated in response to fluctuations in sea
level. As sea level rose (or as the Basin slowly settled), the coastal
environments would migrate eastward (a transgression of the sea over the
land). As sea level fell, the coastal environments would migrate westward
(a regression). The sediments desposited as a result of the migrations of
the shoreline were preserved in the rock record. They were deposited and
preserved in a cyclical sequence of rocks including, from oldest to
youngest, coal, siltstone, conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, coal, etc.
Figure 2-35 is a generalized vertical sequence of the fluvial rock types
found in southern West Virginia.
Large, contiguous sections of the coastline were subjected to varying
rates of sedimentation and subsidence, changes in sediment sources, and sub-
sequent folding and faulting. Roof rock stability, concentrations of
pyritic material, and coalbed thickness and quality have been affected by
this history of deposition.
Folding of the pre-Pennsylvanian rocks produced northeast-trending
ridges. One structural fold known as the hinge line separates the Dunkard
and Pocahontas Geologic Basins of West Virginia. These Basins are char-
acterized by differences in the total thickness of their rocks, as well as
by the orientation and distribution of their ancient swamps,
lacustrine-marine environments, and alluvial deposits (Arkle 1974). The
Dunkard and Pocahontas Basins approximately coincide with the Northern and
Southern Coalfields (younger and older mining districts, respectively) of
West Virginia (Figure 2-36). The dashed line on this figure indicates a
projection of the hinge line through the North Branch Potomac River Basin.
2-206
-------
ERA
CENOZOIC
o
M
0
O
crt
§
0
H
O
NJ
O
W
O,
PERIOD
Quaternary
Tertiary
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic
Permian
Pennsylvanian
Mississippian
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian
DURATION MILLIONS
IN MILLIONS OF
OF YEARS YEARS AGO
EPOCH (APPROX.) (APPROX.)
Recent
Pleistocene
1 o
Pliocene 3.2
5n
. u
Miocene 17.5
TI r
I.L. k 3
Oligocene 15.0
Eocene 16.0
c-> q
3 J . J
Paleocene 11.5
r c
Ji "
Precambrian
Table 2-57. Geologic time scale.
2-207
-------
CRITERIA FOR RECOGNITION
I. Coarsening upward
A. Shale and Siltstone
sequences
1. Greater than 50 feet
2. 5 to 25 feet
B. Sandstone sequences
1. Greater than 50 feet
2. 5 to 25 feet
II. Channel Deposits
A Fine grained abandoned
fill
1. Clay and silt
2. Organic debris
B. Active sandstone fill
1. Fine grained
2. Mediun and coarse
grainea
3. Pebble lags
4. Coal spar
III. Contacts
A. Abrupt (scour)
B. Gradational
IV. Bedaing
A. Cross beds
1. Ripples
2. Ripple drift
3. Festoon cross beds
4. Gradea beds
5. Point bar accreMon
6. Irregular bedding
V. Levee Deposits
VI. Mineralogy of sandstones
A. Ltthic greywacke
B. Orthoquartzi tes
VII. Fossil-,
A. Marine
B. Brack i oh
C. Fresh
D. Burrow structure's
DEPOSITION ENVIRONMENTS
FLUVIAL AND
UPPER DELTA
PLAIN
C-R
N
C-R
R-N
N
R
R
R
R
A
C
A
A
A
A
C-R
A
C
C-A
A
R
A
A
A
A
N
N
R
C-R
R
TRANSITIONAL
LQWcR DELTA
PLAIN
r.
R-N
C-A
R-C
;i
R-C
C-R
C-R
C-R
C
C
C-R
A
A
A
C
A
C-A
C
A-C
R
C
C
A-C
A
N
R-C
C
R-C
C
LOWER DELTA
PLAIM
A
C-A
r
C-A
C-A
C-A
A-C
A-C
A-C
C-R
C-R
R
C
C
C
C-A
A
A
C-R
C-A
C-A
R-N
R-C
R-C
A-C
N-R
C-A
C
R-N
A
BACK-BARRIER
C-A
C-A
C-A
C
R
C
C
C
C-R
C-R
C-R
R
C-R
C-R
C
C
A-C
A
R-C
C
R-C
R-N
R-C
R
R
A-C
A-C
C-R
N
A
BARRIER
R-C
R-C
R-C
C-A
C-A
C
R-C
R-C
R
C
C
C-R
R-C
R-C
C-A
C
A-C
A
R-C
C-A
R-C
R-'l
R-C
N
R
\
A-C
C-R
N
A
KEY
A = Abundant
C = Common
R = Rare
N = Not Present
Table 2-58. Criteria for recognizing depositional environments (Ferm 1974)
2-208
-------
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2-209
-------
AREA INFLUENCED BY
.MARINE TO BRACKISH WATER-
AREA INFLUENCED
BY FRESH WATER
A'
BAR-1
RIER1
BACK- |
BARRIER)
LOWER (TRANSITIONAL)
DELTA PLAIN | LOWER_,
UPPER
DELTA PLAIN-
FLUVIAL
rrrri ORTHOQUARTZITE
fciiij SANDSTONE
I 1 GRAYWACKE
I I SANDSTONE
SCALES
0 IO
KILOMETERS
MILES
IO
Figure a-33 DEPOSITIONAL MODEL FOR PEAT-FOR MING (COAL)
ENVIRONMENTS IN WEST VIRGINIA. UPPER PART OF
FIGURE IS PLAN VIEW SHOWING SITES OF PEAT
FORMATION IN MODERN ENVIRONMENTS-, LOWER
PART IS CROSS-SECTION SHOWING, IN RELATIVE
TERMS, THICKNESS AND EXTENT OF COAL BEDS
AND THEIR RELATION TO SANDSTONES AND
SHALES IN DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS (Home et
ol. 1978, offer Ferm 1976)
2-210
-------
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2-211
-------
COAL WITH CLAY SPLIT
SEATROCK,CLAYEY
SANDSTONE AND SILTSTONE,
CLIMBING RIPPLES,ROOTED
SANDSTONE, MEDIUM TO COARSE
GRAINED, FESTOON CROSS-BEDDED
COAL WITH SEATROCK SPLITS
SEATROCK, SILTY
SANDSTONE AND SILTSTONE
CLIMBING RIPPLES,ROOTED
SANDSTONE MEDIUM TO COARSE
GRAINED FESTOON CROSS-BEDDED
CONGLOMERATE LAG.SIDERITE PEBBLES
SLUMPS
SILTSTONE THIN-BEDDED
COAL WITH CLAY SPLITS
BACKSWAMP
LEVEE
CHANNEL
FLOOD PLAIN
BACKSWAMP
LEVEE
CHANNEL
«=rr LAKE
FLOOD PLAIN
BACKSWAMP
Figure 2-35 GENERALIZED VERTICAL SEQUENCE THROUGH
UPPER DELTA PLAIN AND FLUVIAL DEPOSITS OF
SOUTHERN WEST VIRGINIA (Ferm 1978)
2-212
-------
NORTHERN
COALFIELD
SOUTHERN
COALFIELD
P OCA HO NT AS BASIN
WAPORA, INC.
Figure 2-36 NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN COAL FIELDS OF WEST VIRGINIA
(Mining Informational Services 1977)
2-213
-------
The coal-bearing strata thin toward the north across the North Branch
Potomac River Basin.
2.7.6.1. Geology of the North Branch Potomac River Basin
The North Branch Potomac River Basin is considered to be in the
Northern Coalfield of West Virginia, because its coal-bearing strata in gen-
eral are stratigraphically equivalent to typical Northern Coalfield strata.
At the same time, the quality of specific coal seams locally more closely
resembles that of the Southern Coalfield. The Northern Coalfield includes
Pennsylvanian-age and younger rocks which have a thinner sequence of
coal-bearing formations than those of the Southern Coalfield.
2.7.6.2. Structural Features of the North Branch Potomac River Basin
The coal-bearing sedimentary rocks in the North Branch Potomac River
Basin are found only in the Appalachian Plateau Physiographic Province west
of the Allegheny Front (Figure 2-37). Over long periods of time, the
essentially horizontal strata gently were thrust upward and folded into
northeast-trending anticlines and synclines (Figure 2-38). The intensity of
the folding generally decreases westward and upward through the strata in
the Basin.
Northwest of the Allegheny Front some of the fold structures are con-
fined to the subsurface. The coal-bearing strata exhibit a gentle (l°to 2°)
regional slope (dip) to the northwest, with local dips along the flanks of
ridges exceeding 14°. The dip of a coal seam has a significant impact on
planning for underground mine drainage and also affects the distance into a
hillside that a surface mine can be excavated before overburden removal be-
comes economically prohibitive.
The area west of the Allegheny Front can be considered one broad geo-
logic basin of minor structural relief. It is bounded on the northwest by
an uplifted region through Randolph, Tucker, and Preston Counties in West
Virginia, and Garrett and Allegheny Counties ii Maryland. To the southeast,
it is bounded by a region of upheaval through southeastern Grant and Mineral
Counties. The Pennsylvanian-age strata display steplike, gentle, sym-
metrical folds, of comparatively slight disturbance. The coal-bearing
strata are nearly horizontal except for the flanks of the major folds axes.
Here, the maximum dip of the strata may reach 20° locally (Reger and Tucker
1924, Arkle et al. 1979).
From west to east the northeast trending folds are: North Potomac
(Georges Creek) Syncline, Blackwater Anticline, and Stony River Syncline.
The North Potomac Syncline is fairly symmetrical, and the dip of the strata
is comparatively gentle. In general, there is a southwestward rise of the
strata along the synclinal basin (Reger and Tucker 1924).
The Blackwater Anticline originates in the vicinity of Chaffee in Min-
eral County and parallels the North Potomac Syncline to the southwest
2-214
-------
Figure 2-37
GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC MAP OF COAL RELDS
IN THE NORTH BRANCH POTOMAC RIVER BASIN
(WVGES 1973)
POTTSVILLE GROUP
ALLEGHENY FORMATION
MONONGAHELA GROUP
CONEMAUGH GROUP
PRE-POTTSVILLE ROCKS
2-215
-------
Figure 2-38
BEDROCK STRUCTURE OF THE NORTH BRANCH
POTOMAC RIVER BASIN (adapted from Cardwelt
et al. 1968)
}|( SYNCLINE
ANTICLINE
NORTH POTOMAC
SYNCLINE
STONY RIVER SYNCLINE
LAURELDALE
ANTICLINE
WILLS MOUNTAIN
ANTICLINE
BLACKWATER
ANTICLINE
2-216
-------
until approximately 1 mi southeast of Gormania. Thence it turns southward
and resumes the southwest trend at the Grant County-Tucker County Line. At
its northern end, it forms a nose, and the west flank strata have a steeper
dip to the northwest toward the North Potomac Syncline. In general, the
strata along the fold axis rise to the south at a gradient greater than 175
ft/mile (3% grade).
The surface rocks along the Blackwater Anticline include the Conemaugh
and Pottsville Groups and the Allegheny Formation. The resultant topography
is rough and boulder strewn, except for upland areas where the soft shales
of the Conemaugh Group are found.
The Stony River Syncline includes coal bearing strata. It branches from
the North Potomac Syncline 1 mi northeast of Shaw in Mineral County and
passes southwestward through the Basin, generally paralleling the Blackwater
Anticline to the west. The Stony River Syncline is fairly symmetrical about
its axis throughout the Basin. Between Stony River and Difficult Creek, the
flat structural surface usually found only along the fold axis becomes wider
to the west. The strata rise nearly uniformly to the southwest along the
axis of this synclinal basin and dip less than 2% to the northeast. The
surface rocks along this structure are primarily of the Monongahela and
Conemaugh Groups. In Grant County the younger Monongahela Group has been
eroded, leaving the Conemaugh strata along the axis and the underlying
Allegheny Formation to the east and west.
The folded strata east of the Allegheny Front are not coal-bearing.
Orogenic disturbances have been severe, and the strata are vertical in some
localities and elsewhere overturned and faulted (Cardi 1979). The numerous
folds parallel the principal mountains, but the Wills Mountain Anticline is
the only structure that extends across the entire Basin. This anticlinal
structure forms New Creek Mountain throughout most of the Basin. East of
the Allegheny Front the structural folds in the Basin include the Fort Hill
Anticline, Nosewad Anticline and Syncline, Rawlings Syncline, Laurel Dale
Anticline and Syncline, and the Wills Mountain Anticline.
2.7.6.3. Stratigraphy
The various formations of sedimentary rocks of the North Branch Potomac
River Basin exhibit local differences in strata north or south of the hinge
line in response to different depositional environments. For example, the
Allegheny and Conemaugh Formations in the Dunkard Basin represent a sequence
of marine and coastal environments, including deltaic, offshore, and
alluvial depositional conditions (Figure 2-39). In the Pocahontas Basin,
these formations predominantly include the alluvial facies of non-marine
sandstone, shales, and channel deposits that generally include only limited
coal seams. The distribution, quantity, and quality of the coal measures
are directly related to their depositional environments and subsequent
tectonic history.
2-217
-------
a 2 2 31 * * 85
S w 5 5 -» ^ o
2-218
-------
The general stratigraphy of the North Branch Potomac River Basin may be
addressed in terms of a unified stratigraphic column (Table 2-59) keyed to
the geologic map of the Basin (Figure 2-37). Local depositional
environments and regional compressive forces, however, typically modified
the details of local stratigraphy. The geologic formations are described in
the sections that follow, beginning with the oldest.
Pre-Pottsville Rocks. The pre-Pottsville rocks of the North Branch
Potomac River Basin include Ordovician to Mississippian-age limestones,
shales, and sandstones. These rocks occur in thin, northeast-trending bands
parallel to the major fold axes east of the Allegheny Front. Ordovician
rocks occur at the surface along the crest of New Creek Mountain. The
softer Devonian shales occur at the surface throughout the New Creek
watershed. From east to west along the eastern slope of the Allegheny
Front, the pre-Pottsville Pocono, Greenbrier, and Mauch Chunk Groups of
Mississippian-age occur at the surface. Youngest and uppermost of these,
the Mauch Chunk Group unconformably underlies the coal-bearing Ppnnsylvanian
rocks and crops out to the west along the Potomac River between Piedmont and
Keyser. The pre-Pottsville strata include by definition no coal beds and
are not listed in Table 2-59. The Mauch Chunk Group is of hydrogeologic
interest as a source of domestic and agricultural water supplies (Friel
et al. 1967).
Pottsville Group. This group of rocks is stratigraphically equivalent
to the Pocahontas, New River, and Kanawha Formations of southern West
Virginia, which are undivided in northern West Virginia. It extends from
the underlying Mauch Chunk Group to the top of the Homewood Sandstone.
Thickness ranges from 350 to 450 ft in the Basin with nearly 315 ft of the
Kanawha Formation and 70 ft of the New River Formation tentatively
recognized in parts of Mineral and Grant Counties (Reger and Tucker 1924,
Arkle et al. 1979). The Pottsville Group is composed of conglomeratic,
quartzose sandstone members interbedded with subgraywacke, sandy shales,
argillaceous beds, underclays, and thin, impure, and irregular or lenticular
coals. The Pottsville Group includes as many -.3 six coal seams, of which
three are considered minable in parts of the Uorth Branch Potomac River
Basin.
The topography associated with the Pottsville Group in the two counties
is generally rough. The Pottsville rocks dip northwestward and crop out
along the North Branch Potomac River and along the great mountain scarp of
the Allegheny Front (Cardwell et al. 1968, Reger and Tucker 1924). On the
western slope the rocks dip northwestward towards the Stony River and the
North Branch Potomac. On the eastern rim of the Front, the Pottsville
strata form cliffs as a result of the erosive action of the New Creek.
Allegheny Formation. The Allegheny Formation consists of cyclic
sequences of thin to massively bedded sandstone, siltstone, shale, and lime-
stone intercalated with coal and underclay. The dominant beds are massive,
light gray, fine to medium grained, quartzose sandstones. Exposures of the
Allegheny Formation are confined to the middle slopes in Grant and Mineral
Counties and are limited to the lower slopes in tributary river valleys of
2-219
-------
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-------
the Potomac River (Arkle 1979, Cardwell et al. 1968). The thickness of the
Allegheny Formation ranges from 150 ft to 200 ft in the Basin. The
Formation extends from the top of the underlying Pottsville Group (Homewood
Sandstone) to the top of the Upper Freeport Coal (Arkle 1979, Reger and
Tucker 1924).
Conemaugh Group. The Conemaugh Group occurs at the surface throughout
Grant and Mineral Counties in the valleys of tributaries of the Potomac
River. These strata are mostly non-marine cycles of thin to massively
bedded red and gray sandstone, variegated green to orange to reddish-blue to
gray shale and siltstone, and thin beds of limestone and coal. The Cone-
maugh Group extends from the top of the Upper Freeport Coal to the base of
the Pittsburgh Coal and attains a maximum thickness of 850 ft in the Basin
(Arkle 1979). In the eastern part of the Basin, outcrops of the Conemaugh
Group generally are approximately 0.5 mi to the northwest of and parallel to
the Allegheny Front (Reger and Tucker 1924, Cardwell et al. 1968).
Monongahela Group. The Monongahela Group crops out to a limited extent
on isolated ridgetops in the northern part of Mineral County. It is
composed of non-marine cycles of red and gray shale and siltstone, reddish-
tan sandstone, limestone, and coal. The Monongahela Group extends from the
base of the Pittsburgh Coal to the top of the Waynesburg Coal. In the
Basin, only the lower 200 ft has not been eroded (Cardwell 1968). The
thickness of the Group in the Basin ranges from less than 175 ft to more
than 200 ft (Reger and Tucker 1924, Arkle 1979).
2.7.6.4. Coal Measures
Traditionally the most actively mined seams in the North Branch Potomac
River Basin are the Upper Freeport, Lower Freeport, Lower and Upper
Kittanning (Number 5 Block), Upper Bakerstown, Bakerstown, Elk Lick, and
Pittsburgh Coals (see Section 3.1.; Table 3-2 ).
Coal seams were formed by the accumulation and burial of the dying
plant material to form peat. The physical and -hemical properties of the
coals and surrounding sedimentary rocks are related directly to the
depositional environment in which peat beds accumulated, and to the
structural stresses exerted on the peat beds during and after their
deposition and burial.
Numerous swamps, river deltas, tidal deltas, and backbarrier marshes
existed in the coastal area of the ancient inland sea. The thickness and
lateral extent of the swamp partially depended on the topographic surface on
which the swamp developed (Home et al. 1978). The extent and duration of
each swamp determined the regional extent and thickness of individual coal
seams. Discrete depositional events lasting millions of years, coupled with
local and regional uplift, folding, and erosion, produced numerous coal
seams. Influxes of coarse-grained clastic sediments form the shaly
partings, impure coals, and want areas commonly found in the Basin coal
seams. Stream channel migration within the shifting fluvial and deltaic
2-225
-------
drainage systems may have eroded some of the coal deposits. Other ancient
stream channels were filled with fine-to coarse-grained clastic sediments.
These ancient areas of erosion and deposition in the swamp are represented
by local thinning and lateral interruption of the seams. Differential
compaction and slumping of the newly deposited clastic sediments also formed
irregularities in the underlying swamp deposits. Such irregularities in
coal seams often control the choice of mining methods and also are
associated with the unstable mine roof conditions characteristic of some
coal seams.
The thickness, continuity, lateral extent, and quality of the coal
seams in the North Branch Potomac Basin relate directly to the depositional
environment of each swamp and the sediments that accumulated on top of the
peat which was transformed into coal (Home et al. 1978). The heating and
compaction produced by the depth and duration of burial of the swamp
deposits also affect the quality of the coal seam and overlying material.
The acid-forming, iron disulfide minerals known as pyrite and marcasite and
various trace elements occur chiefly in depositional environments which were
associated with slowly subsiding delta plains and back bays (Figure 2-33).
Most of the coal seams and overburden in the North Branch Potomac River
Basin were deposited under these conditions and frequently are associated
with acid-forming overburden (Table 2-60).
The Northern Coalfield seams in West Virginia generally rank as medium-
to high-sulfur (>1.5%), medium- to high-ash (>6%), and medium- to high-
volatile coals (ASTM values to volatility, Btu content and fixed carbon
ratings appear in Table 2-61). Locally some low- sulfur, low volatile coals
may occur.
Coal seams in the Southern Field of West Virginia generally are thicker
and of higher quality (low sulfur and low ash) and frequently are podshaped
and less regular than the Northern Field seams. The older seams of the
Pocahontas and New River Formations become thinner to the north
(Figure 2-37) and are generally considered unminable in the North Branch
Potomac River Basin (Lotz 1970).
Low concentrations of acid-forming iron disulfide minerals and trace
elements occur locally in the Basin as a result of the sporadic but rapid
subsidence of the coal-producing delta plain and back bay depositional
environments. The presence of locally excessive amounts of pyrite, impure
coal, shaly partings, and low volumes of alkaline materials in the
overburden can produce acid drainage problems in the generally low- to
medium-sulfur coals of the Basin.
The North Branch Potomac River Basin is unique in respect to the
general character and rank of coals in West Virginia. Numerous localized
areas of low- to medium-sulfur coals are the general rule rather than the
exception in this Basin. Differential tectonic stresses along the eastern
margin of the Basin produced coals which are marked by considerable
localized differences. For example, the eastern outliers of the Lower
Kittanning and Upper Freeport Coals are low-volatile bituminous coals; in
2-226
-------
Table 2-60. West Virginia coal seams commonly associated with
acid-producing overburden, listed youngest to oldest (WVDNR-Surface
Mining Regulations, 2.04, 1978).
Geological Unit
Dunkard Group
Monongahela Group
Conemaugh Group*
Allegheny Formation
Pottsville Group
Kanawha Formation
Coal Seams
Washington Coal
Waynesburg
Sewickley
Reds tone
Pittsburgh
Elk Lick
Freeport Coals
Upper Kittanning
Middle Kittanning
Lower Kittanning (No. 5 Block)
Stockton-Lewis ton
Peerless
Campbell Creek (No. 2 Gas)
Upper Eagle
*Conemaugh Group - The Bakerstown Seam is potentially acid-producing,
especially in the Northern Coalfield (Renton et al. 1973).
2-227
-------
Table 2-61. ASTM classification of coal by rank (WVGES 1973).
Fixed
Carbon %
Volatile
Matter %
Btu
> < > < > <
Class
Anthracitic Semianthracite 86 92 8 14
Bituminous Low vol. 78 86 14 22
Med. vol. 69 78 22 31
High vol. A 69 31 14,000
High vol. B 13,000 14,000
High vol. C ' -- 11,500 13,000
10,500 11,500
2-228
-------
other parts of the Basin these coals are moderately volatile with a
correspondingly lower percentage of fixed carbon (Haught 1964). The
principal coal seams that have had localized areas of low-sulfur coal mined
within the Basin are the Lower Kittanning, Upper Freeport, Bakerstown,
Pittsburgh, and Redstone. The irregular occurrence of the Lower and Upper
Kittanning, Lower and Upper Freeport, Mahoning, Brush Creek, and Bakerstown
Coals in the Basin has hindered mining activity in the past.
Some Basin coals are of metallurgical grade and can be used as coking
coals. These high-rank coals are most abundant in the Allegheny and
Conemaugh Formations.
The underlying Kanawha Formation, the youngest formation of the
Pottsville Group, contains more coal seams than any other coal-bearing
geologic formation in West Virginia. Most of these coals are considered
unminable in the Basin (Table 2-59).
The Lower Kittanning and Upper Freeport Coals are extensively mined
(surface and underground) in the Allegheny Mountains section of the Basin
(Arkle et al. 1979). The mining section is usually more than 8 ft thick.
The coal seam commonly is separated into benches by shaly partings of
irregular thickness. Within the Basin, the Allegheny Coals generally are
medium-volatile to low-volatile coals, and locally some exposures of coal
are low- to medium-sulfur «2.0% Arkle et al. 1979).
The Conemaugh Group coals also have been extensively mined in the
Basin. Like the underlying Allegheny Coals, they show differential contents
of volatile matter (Arkle et al. 1979). The Mahoning and Bakerstown Coals
which normally are less than 6 ft thick have been mined underground, and the
Mahoning, Brush Creek, Bakerstown, Harlem, Elk Lick, Little Clarksburg, and
Little Pittsburgh Coals have been surface mined in the Basin. Conemaugh
Coals of northern West Virginia are characterized as blocky, bright and dull
banded, high-volatile (>35% volatile matter), medium- to high- sulfur (>2%)
and rated at 14,000 Btu (Lotz 1970, Arkle et - 1979). Volatility
decreases to 15% in the Basin, where most of tne Conemaugh Coals are low- to
medium- sulfur. Only the Elk Lick Coal generally shows a high sulfur
content. The Bakerstown Coal locally has low- sulfur «1%) along the North
Branch Potomac River in Grant County. Elsewhere in the Basin the sulfur
content generally is low to medium- sulfur with local areas of high sulfur
coal (Lotz 1970, Reger and Tucker 1924).
In West Virginia, the Monongahela Coals are characterized as blocky
with bright and dull bands. The Pittsburgh and Redstone Coals are usually
high-volatile and high-sulfur (>2%) coals rated at 14,000+ Btu. Only the
basal section of the Monongahela Group bears coal on isolated ridgetops in
Mineral County. In the North Branch Potomac River Basin, both the Pitts-
burgh and the Redstone Coals occur locally as low-sulfur «1.5 %), metallur-
gical grade coals (Arkle et al. 1979). The younger and similar Sewickley
Coal generally has a high-sulfur content (>3%) in West Virginia. The
Sewickley and Pittsburgh Coals both are low-volatile in the Basin (Lotz
2-229
-------
1970). All the minable coals in the Basin can be regarded as potentially
acid-producing seams with potentially toxic overburden (Smith et al. 1974).
2.7.6.5. Toxic Overburden
Toxic overburden is earth material situated above a coal seam that has
the potential to produce adverse chemical and biological conditions in the
soil, surface water, or groundwater if it is disturbed by mining (the term
toxic here is defined as capable of causing water pollution by chemical
reactions which produce increased acidity lowered pit, and/or increased
levels of dissolved iron and other metals; toxic does not necessarily
suggest human effects or lethal effects). It is defined as any layer or of
material which has a deficiency of 5 tons CaC03 equivalents or more for
each 1,000 tons of material or has a pH of 4 or less (WVDNR-Reclamation
Regulations 1978:20-6). Toxic overburden also may contain elements that are
poisonous to plants and animals, acid-producing, or both. Excessive amounts
of sodium, salt, sulfur, copper, nickel, and other trace elements in the
water or the soil derived from mined overburden have a detrimental effect on
plants and may hinder revegetation (Torrey 1978). Arsenic, boron, and
selenium are other elements that may be present in overburden. If they
enter the food chain in elevated concentrations, these elements may be
concentrated to toxic levels in the tissues of animals at higher levels of
the food chain. Extremely acidic material or material with the potential of
becoming acidic upon oxidation (pH 4.0 or less; chiefly the minerals pyrite
and marcasite) have the capability to cause water pollution by chemical
reactions resulting in increased concentrations and toxicity of dissolved
iron and other metals at low pH.
Iron disulfides (FeS2) occurring as marcasite or pyrite in the coal
and associated strata are exposed to the atmosphere during mining
operations. These iron compounds readily oxidize to form a series of water-
soluble hydrous iron sulfates. Only framboidal pyrite, one of several forms
in which the mineral is found, oxidizes and decomposes rapidly enough to
produce severe acid mine drainage problems (Caruccio 1970). The other types
of pyrite dissolve at a slower rate. Relatively small amounts of calcium
carbonate in the overlying strata generally can neutralize the amount of
acidity produced by the non-framboidal types of pyrite.
Coal itself has the potential for producing acid water independent of
the overburden material (Table 2-60). Acid producing coal seams are
especially troublesome when they function as aquifers, and this condition is
fairly common in the Basin. The problem is compounded if the strata
underlying the coal are relatively impermeable or toxic or both. Any one of
these conditions, either separately or in combination, may require special
mining and drainage control practices. They also may require special
handling, placement, or blending of overburden during surface mining,
backfilling, and reclamation operations. Severe acid mine drainage problems
associated with these coals occur locally in the North Branch Potomac River
Basin.
All the younger Allegheny Formation seams have acid-producing potential
and are associated with acid-producing overburden locally within the Basin.
Reportedly only the Lower Kittanning (Number 5 Block) Coal has acid mine
drainage problems in the North Branch Potomac River Basin (see Section
2-230
-------
2.7.6.5.). The other Kittanning Coals may be minable in the Basin (Lotz
1970) and are regarded as potentially acid producing seams and overburden
(WVDNR-Reclamation 1978).
The knowledge and experience of WVDNR-Reclamation, the West Virginia
University Department of Agronomy, the West Virginia Surface Mining and
Reclamation Association, and the WVDNR-Reclamation/Surface Mining and Recla-
mation Association Acid Mine Drainage Task Force were relied upon to
identify which of the 14 coal seams associated with toxic overburden are
known to have toxic overburden in the North Branch Potomac River Basin
(Figure 2-40). Information also was supplied on the variability and trends
of toxic overburden in the Basin. Other essential data were obtained from
published reports and maps.
The outcrop lines of the acid-producing coal seams and underclays
recognized by WVDNR-Reclamation were mapped on Overlay 3 for this assessment
of the North Branch Potomac River Basin. Toxic overburden associated with
these coal seams was considered to be an indeterminate amount of material
overlying the coal seam due to local variations in orientation and dip of
the coal seam. As a conservative approach to delineating areas of
potentially toxic overburden, all the overburden associated with these coal
seams throughout the Basin was mapped, even though many areas in the Basin
may be locally non-toxic. Other toxic or non-toxic coal seams that occur
above identified toxic coal seams may be included within the toxic over-
burden delineated on the Overlay 3 due to uncertainty concerning the actual
thickness of the toxic strata. The names and number of mapped coal seams
vary from Grant County to Mineral County because the coal seam outcrop lines
were drawn only where the seams are considered minable and were based on the
most detailed, though dated, County geologic report (Reger and Tucker
1924).
Due to the unique geology of the North Branch Potomac River Basin as
discussed in the previous Section, the evaluation of toxic overburden
includes information on both West Virginia coalfields. In the Basin most of
the coal-bearing rocks and coal seams are those of the West Virginia
Northern Coalfield, but generally with large, localized areas of better
quality (low-sulfur, low-volatile, bituminous and metallurgical grade) coal
as opposed to the typical, medium- to high-sulfur, medium- to high-volatile
bituminous coals elsewhere in the Northern Coalfield west of the Basin
(Arkle 1979).
Toxic overburden in the Southern Coalfield (older mining district) of
West Virginia is laterally discontinuous, highly irregular in toxicity, and
reportedly limited to coal seams in the Kanawha and Allegheny Formations.
The coal-bearing strata of the older Pocahontas and New River Formations in
southern West Virginia generally are low in sulfur (<1 %; Smith et al.
1976). Low concentrations of both pyrite and alkaline materials occur
throughout the stratigraphic section. The coal in the Kanawha Formation in
southern West Virginia commonly is low in sulfur content. Pyrite is not a
ubiquitous mineral in this formation, but concentrations of framboidal
pyrite in the coal and associated rocks occur locally.
2-231
-------
Figure 2-40
EXTENT OF MINABLE COAL SEAMS IN THE
NORTH BRANCH POTOMAC RIVER BASIN
THAT ARE CONSIDERED TO HAVE POTEN-
TIALLY TOXIC OVERBURDEN (Lotz 1970)
2-232
-------
The potentially acid-producing coal seams in the Northern Coalfield, in
order of decreasing acid potential, appear to be:
Pittsburgh Coal
Upper Freeport Coal
Bakerstown Coal.
The acid-producing potential of the Upper Freeport Coal is more variable in
the Northern Coalfield than that of the other two seams. Therefore, acid
drainage problems associated with this coal are especially difficult to pre-
dict (Renton et al. 1973). In the Northern Coalfield the proportions of
carbonate, pyrite, and alkaline materials generally increase from east to
west. The alkaline materials and carbonates increase where the sandstone
beds and size of the sand grains decrease, the limestone deposits increase,
and the carbonate content of the numerous shale and mudstone units in-
creases .
Acid mine drainage is a potential problem anywhere in the Basin,
because alkaline overburden with high buffering capacity is scarce and dis-
continuous, and unweathered zones in the massive sandstones overlying the
coal seams are frequently pyritic with a high potential for acid production
(Smith et al. 1976). In the Northern Coalfield, mining practices as well as
the local variability of the thickness and lateral extent of limestones and
other carbonate-rich materials affect mine drainage quality. The variabil-
ity in acid drainage problems may be compounded when:
more than one coal seam is rained or
the coal seam splits into two or more benches locally.
The material separating two splits or seams may be toxic when the material
overlying the upper coal is neutral or alkaline.
High concentrations of sulfur including the framboidal form of pyrite
may occur even if the parting interval is 20 ft thick (Smith et al. 1976).
This probably occurs because the parting material includes the roof of the
lower coal, which was the dying swamp, and the root zone of the upper coal
swamp. Both of these environments were places where sulfur became concen-
trated as the coal seams and associated rocks were deposited.
An example of the variability in the potential toxicity of a coal seam
and associated overburden is the Pittsburgh Coal. Wherever bone coal under-
lies the Pittsburgh Coal and the overlying massive Redstone Limestone is
absent or thin, serious acid drainage problems occur when the underlying
bone coal is disturbed, especially by underground mining. Where the Pitts-
burgh Coal is surface mined and the massive Redstone Limestone is present,
however, acid mine drainage problems are rare, provided that the operator
employs overburden blending techniques and appropriate drainage control.
2-233
-------
In the experience of WVDNR-Reclamation, acid mine drainage problems
associated with Freeport Coals are ubiquitous in West Virginia, including
the North Branch Potomac River Basin. Where the Redstone Coal is mined
underground, it also has acid mine drainage problems in many locations inde-
pendent of mining techniques.
Based on the County geologic report (Reger and Tucker 1924) and several
more recent descriptions of coal seams and overburden in the Allegheny
Mountain section of northern West Virginia (Arkle 1979, 1974, Haught 1964,
Smith et al. 1976), the Elk Lick and Sewickley Coal seams appear to be the
only seams in the North Branch Potomac River Basin which consistently have a
medium- to high-sulfur content. Higher sulfur content does not equate to
greater AMD problems, but the greater percentage of sulfur may be associated
with larger quantities of framboidal sulfur (Renton et al. 1975). The
high sulfur content in the Elk Lick Coal probably is due to the frequent
occurrence of carbonaceous shale and bone coal partings in the Basin. The
localized occurrences of low-volatile, low-sulfur coals are common in the
Basin. The Bakerstown Coal and Upper Freeport Coal may have local
occurrences of high sulfur content in the Basin.
The potential problems of AMD in the Basin are usually in the areas
where the coal seams are overlain by medium- to coarse-grained, weakly
cemented, pyritic sandstones (e.g., Mahoning and Homewood Sandstone). The
weathered zones of these pyritic sandstones usually are devoid of signifi-
cant amounts of acid-producing pyritic minerals, but the unweathered zones
of these sandstones pose a serious problem of acid mine drainage (Smith
et al. 1976).
Other environmental and mining conditions in the Basin which add to the
occurrence of acid drainage are:
Insufficient alkaline overburden available to blend in
order to neutralize the acid or toxic material
Excessively large volumes of potentially toxic material
that must be blended, isolated and buried, or disposed as
excess spoil
Long exposure of potentially toxic materials to air and
water due to delays in reclamation
Where surface and underground mining occurs below seasonal
high water or interrupts a perched water table, the
sandstone or other potentially toxic overburden acts
either as an aquifer or a confining layer for groundwater.
These environmental considerations may be localized or may affect large
areas. Effective pre-mining determinations of the local geologic and
hydrologic setting in accordance with SMCRA and WVSCMRA regulations are
necessary to avoid potential adverse environmental impacts and expedite the
permitting and mining of coal in West Virginia.
2-234
-------
Many coal seams and overburdens have moderately high concentrations of
sulfur in the North Branch Potomac River Basin. Local concentrations of
carbonate-rich limestones and mudstones between coals often are more than
sufficient to neutralize the acidity caused by the pyritic minerals (Smith
et al. 1976). In this case, the thorough blending of alkaline and acidic
materials is critical to maintain the quality of the mine drainage.
In the North Branch Potomac River Basin, coal has been mined by many
small underground mines which have ceased operations and left numerous piles
of spoil, including toxic overburden, exposed to the air, surface water, and
groundwater. The drainage from these mine operations was not controlled or
treated to avoid the production of acid mine water. These old, abandoned,
acid-producing mine sites still contribute to the poor water quality in the
region. Because these old abandoned mines may not have employed curently
regulated mining techniques, it is questionable to extrapolate the present
or potential toxicity of surface and underground mining of these coal seams
and overburden under the current regulations and mining methods. Site
specific information must be available for each permit application in the
Basin.
2-235
-------
2.8 Potentially Significant Impact Areas
-------
2.8. POTENTIALLY SIGNIFICANT IMPACT AREAS
Based on the available inventory information, EPA has identified
Potentially Significant Impact Areas in the North Branch Potomac River
Basin. These are the areas where there is the greatest potential for
adverse impacts as a result of New Source coal mining activity, taking into
account the mining methods used (Section 3.0), the current regulatory
controls on new mining (Section 4.0), and the likely remaining impacts on
Basin resources (Section 5.0). Consequently these are the areas where EPA
expects to conduct the most detailed NEPA review of permit applications
(Section 1.0). The decision whether a full EIS is necessary prior to
permit issuance will be made on a case-by-case basis. EIS's are expected to
be needed most frequently on applications from Potentially Significant
Impact Areas.
In the North Branch Potomac Basin, the Potentially Significant Impact
Areas are the same as the Category II BIA watersheds (Figure 2-41). In
other Basins, other resources may enter into the designation of Potentially
Significant Impact Areas.
2-237
-------
Figure 2-41
POTENTIALLY SIGNIFICANT IMPACT AREAS IN
THE NORTH BRANCH POTOMAC RIVER BASIN,
WEST VIRGINIA. These areas are the water-
sheds of Category II Biologically Important Areas.
2-238
-------
3.0. CURRENT AND PROJECTED MINING ACTIVITY
The North Branch Potomac River Basin is relatively small in areal
extent when compared with the other West Virginia river basins for which EPA
has prepared areawide environmental assessments. Furthermore, coal reserves
are not so significant in the North Branch Potomac Basin as elsewhere. Even
when adjusted for its lesser size, the Basin has only about one third of the
total production and only about 20% of the total reserves of the Guyandotte
or the Coal/Kanawha River Basin, for example. Nevertheless, the
coal-bearing rock formations of the North Branch Potomac River Basin are
those of the Southern Coalfield and are of a higher quality than those
elsewhere in northern West Virginia. Therefore, a significant amount of new
mining activity can be expected in the North Branch Potomac River Basin.
The coal-bearing formations of the Monongahela Group, Conemaugh Group,
and Allegheny Formation occur at the surface only in those sections of Grant
and Mineral Counties within the North Branch Potomac River Basin (see
Section 2.7.). Coal reserves in the southeastern part of Grant County in
the Basin are characterized by low to medium sulfur content «1.5% to 3%),
low ash content «6%), low to medium volatility with 60% to 86% fixed carbon
rated at 12,000 to 15,000 Btu. Coal measures in the northwest part of Grant
and Mineral Counties are characterized as medium to high in sulfur (1.5% to
>3%), medium ash content (6 to 12%), and low to medium volatility with 55%
to 86% fixed carbon rated at 12,000 to 15,000 Btu. A small area of
semi-anthracite coal with over 86% fixed carbon occurs on either side of the
Grant-Mineral County Line immediately west of the Allegheny Front. The coal
reserves of the Basin, then, tend to be relatively low in sulfur content
with high Btu ratings. As discussed later in this section, these are the
types of coal which currently are in greatest demand for the steam coal
(power plant) market as well as the metallurgical market.
3.1. PAST AND CURRENT MINING ACTIVITY IN THE BASIN
Data on mining activity are available from several sources, including
WVDM, WVDNR, WVGES, WVHD, USBM, USDOE, and USMSHA. These data vary in
quality, quantity, and currency. To maximize the utility of these data, the
most current data were used, provided that all of the necessary data were of
comparable quality.
Table 3-1 lists the data sources and types of data available. The data
marked with an asterisk were used for analysis in this section. USMSHA
location data for surface and underground mines were found to be incorrect
too often to be useful, and the numbers of mines and locations reported by
USMSHA were smaller than those reported by WVDNR. Some of the WVHD data
were compared to other available data, but were found to provide no
additional information. The types of loading and transportation facilities
at preparation plants, however, can be determined most accurately from WVHD
maps. Production data from USDOE were tabulated conveniently but were not
used because they were in a preliminary form.
3-1
-------
Table 3-1. Sources of data used to analyze raining activity in the Basin.
Type of Data Source
USDA-
WVDM WVDNR WVGES WVHD USGS SCS USBM USDOE USMSHA
Location
Surface mines * * 4- * +
Underground mines * * + * f-
Preparation plants + * * *
Refuse piles * * * *
Production and Permits
Surface mines * * +
Underground mines * +
Reserves
Surface mines *
Underground mines *
+ Available but not used
* Data used in analysis.
3-2
-------
Total coal production in the North Branch Potomac River Basin during
1977 and 1978 was 2.0 and 1.8 million tons, respectively, from eight seams
(Table 3-2). Nearly twice as much coal was mined by underground methods in
1978 than by surface methods.
3.1.1. Surface Mining
Data on the location and production of surface mines are available from
WVDNR, WVGES, USGS, and USMSHA. The locations of surface mines permitted
since 1971 were plotted on l:24,000-scale maps based on data that were
updated to October 1, 1979 by WVGES. WVDNR-Reclamation permit numbers were
used to identify lands currently or previously mined. Areas not permitted
currently but shown as surface mines on USGS topographic maps also are
outlined. Surface mines also are depicted at a Basin scale in Figure 3-1.
In 1977 and 1978, eight companies had 23 active mining operations in
the Basin (Table 3-3). The Island Creek Coal Company, one of the leading
coal producers in West Virginia, had active underground coal mining
operations in the Basin in 1977 and 1978 (WVDM 1977 and 1978). In 1977 and
1978 there were active surface mines in all of the six quadrangles having
mines with permits. The quadrangle in the Basin with the largest number of
surface mines permit as of October 1, 1979 was Mt. Storm (9).
The Basin contains in excess of 30 million tons of surface minable coal
reserves. The Harlem, Upper Bakerstown, Bakerstown, and Upper Freeport Coal
Seams each contain more than 4 million tons of surface minable reserves.
The Upper Freeport Coal Seam contains 33% of all surface minable reserves.
In 1977 coal production from the Elk Lick and Pittsburgh Seams
accounted for 62% of surface production, and 55% of the 1978 surface
production occurred from the Elk Lick and Bakerstown Seams. Overall,
surface mining accounted for only 7.1 and 6.0 x 10^ tons (37% and 33%) of
the coal produced in the Basin in 1977 and 1978, respectively (Table 3-3).
3.1.2. Underground Mines
The approximate location of underground mines is shown on the
1:24,000-scale maps of the Basin and in Figure 3-2. The data include all of
the mines identified by USGS, WVGES, and WVDM. Many of the recently
permitted mines were identified by WVGES (they are plotted on the 1:24,000
scale maps as 3/32" diameter dots). All WVDM mine location data that were
current as of November 1, 1979 were used to identify abandoned and active
mines (larger dots [1/8"] on the 1:24,000-scale maps).
Underground methods used in the Basin include conventional, continuous,
longwall, and shortwall mining. The longwall method is prevalent. About
1.2 million short tons were produced by two companies at five active coal
mines that utilized underground mining methods. This production tonnage
accounted for 63% and 67% of total production in 1977 and 1978,
respectively (Table 3-4). The underground mines in each quadrangle, mine
3-3
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operator, permit number, USBM seam numbers, 1977 and 1978 production, and
seam thickness can be correlated with the 1:24,000-scale maps for mine
locations.
Of the eight coal seams being mined in 1977 and 1978, three seams
accounted for all of the underground production: the Bakerstown, Upper
Freeport, and Lower Freeport (Table 3-4). Most production (47% and 43% in
1977 and 1978, respectively) occurred from the Lower Freeport. According to
USBM data in Table 3-5, however, there are no minable reserves of Lower
Freeport Coal in this Basin. This apparent anomaly in the data suggests
that generalized data files such as those of USBM are not wholly accurate.
Localized variations may be significant.
There are 532 million tons of deep minable coal reserves in the Basin;
59% are in Grant County (Table 3-5). The Upper Freeport Seam contains the
most deep reserves (300 million tons). The remaining seams with more than
30 million tons of reserves are Elk Lick, Harlem, Bakerstown, and Mahoning.
3.1.3. Preparation Plants
The locations of coal preparation plants were obtained from USGS and
USMSHA (Figure 3-3). The USMSHA data indicated that there were no
preparation plants operating in 1978, but three preparation plants were
located from the USGS information in the Davis, Greenland Gap, and Mt. Storm
Lake quadrangles. The 1:24,000 scale maps also shown quarries, tailings
ponds, and mining-related refuse piles.
3.2. MINING METHODS IN THE BASIN
This section briefly describes the predominant mining methods currently
used in the North Branch Potomac River Basin, with emphasis on environmental
considerations. Several constraints affect the selection of coal mining
methods and techniques to minimize environmental degradation. Because coal
mining traditionally has been a hazardous occupation, the primary concern in
the mining of coal is the health and safety of the individual coal miner,
according to Federal law (Federal Mine Safety and Health Act of 1977, as
amended, Section 2 (a); PL 95-164, effective March 9, 1978). Environmental
effects of the various methods and techniques also are of major concern
because of past destructive practices. Other important concerns include the
use of mining methods and abandonment practices which will achieve the
maximum recovery of the coal resource with the least expenditure of energy
and labor.
The decision to mine coal by surface or underground techniques gener-
ally is based on site-specific factors. Among the most important site fac-
tors are the depth of cover and coal seam thickness across the proposed
permit area. Development costs for underground mines are significantly
higher than for surface mines. This differential, together with higher
labor inputs, results in a higher cost per ton for coal mined by underground
methods as compared to surface mined coal. To amortize the higher
3-9
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3-10
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Figure 3-3
LOCATION OF COAL PREPARATION PLANTS
IN THE NORTH BRANCH POTOMAC RIVER BASIN
(adapted from US6S, USMSHA 1979)
3-11
-------
development costs, underground mines generally produce coal over a longer
term than surface mines. Surface mining techniques are appropriate where
overburden is too fragmented and weak to form a safe roof above underground
tunnels and the seam is at a relatively shallow depth (generally <150 ft).
The following discussion of mining methodologies currently employed in
the Basin is intended to establish the connection between sensitive environ-
mental resources and mining in the Basin. For more detailed descriptions of
surface mining methods, the reader is referred to Chironis (1978); Grim and
Hill (1974); and Skelly and Loy (1975, 1979). For more detailed descrip-
tions of underground mining methods, the reader is referred to EPA (1976)
and NUS Corporation (1977). The President's Commission on Coal (1980), EPA
(1979a, 1979b), Schmidt (1979), and USOTA (1979) also provide general
information.
3.2.1. Surface Mining Methods
As described in Section 2.7, West Virginia coal frequently occurs as
more or less horizontal bands of varying thickness between layers of various
kinds of rock. Typically the coal seams are exposed at the surface along
mountainsides, where they can be mined using surface methods. To remove the
coal by surface methods, access roads must be built to get equipment to the
coal. Then the vegetation on the surface, the soil, and the associated rock
must be removed, before the coal itself can be transported to a prepara-
tion plant or user. The mine site then must be placed in a suitable
long-term condition by regrading and the reestablishment of vegetation.
Throughout the operation, environmental standards pursuant to SMCRA and
WVSCMRA must be met.
Contour surface mines typically are long, narrow operations that undu-
late through the landscape in response to topography, often high above
the valley bottoms. Historically, contour mining involved the "shoot and
shove" technique where overburden, blasted loose by explosives, was bull-
dozed downslope from the coal outcrop. Coal then was loaded onto dump
trucks by shovels and bucket loaders, as the mine operation continued around
the mountain, following the outcrop along the contour. Often the mine
operation was abandoned with little or no post-mining reclamation (EPA
I979a).
Contour surface methods at present have grown more sophisticated and
can be categorized by the manner in which overburden, rock, and coal are
moved about. In the Basin several different mining methods are employed due
to the varied topography. The modified area and controlled direct placement
contour methods are utilized in the rolling and hilly regions. Haulback is
the principal method for new contour mining in steeply sloping areas.
Augering also is practiced. Mountaintop removal involves cross-ridge mining
and head of hollow fills. Regardless of the method employed, some over-
burden material generally must be placed downslope from the mine pit in a
controlled manner. Current regulations prohibit uncontrolled downslope
3-12
-------
overburden dumping. Because of the importance of overburden disposal,
current practices are discussed separately in Section 5.7.
3.2.1.1. Box Cut and Block Cut Contour Mining Methods
Box cut and block cut methods are traditional forms of contour surface
mining. In a box cut operation, after the timber and soil have been
removed, an initial cut is made into the uppermost rock material with dozers
to form a drill bench (Figure 3-4). The consolidated overburden then is
drilled, blasted, and removed to storage areas. The cut is a rectangular
area that extends to the limits of the highwall (Figure 3-5). No outcrop
barrier of coal typically is left behind in West Virginia. After the
initial "box" has been cut, the pit can be expanded outward.
If the coal on both sides of the pit then is mined and the spoil is
placed in the middle, the method is labeled block cut mining (Figure 3-6).
In this case the sequence of operations is more complex (Figure 3-7).
The final USOSM permanent program regulations, and some states such as
Pennsylvania, require that a band of undisturbed coal be left along the
outcrop as an aid in water retention on the bench and to reduce the
potential for downslope movement of regraded overburden after the mine is
reclaimed. Under West Virginia conditions the weathered coal has been found
to be a poor road base for trucks and to break down under traffic. Hence
operators frequently remove the weathered outcrop coal (the "blossom"), even
though it generally is not marketable, and replace it with controlled fill
material that provides greater stability and a superior road base.
3.2.1.2. Modified Area Mining
Modified area mining is an adaptation of box cut area mining to the
rolling and hilly terrain of the North Branch Potomac River Basin. An
initial long, rectangular cut is generally established at a point where the
coal seam crops out. The spoil from this first cut is then either placed
selectively, stabilized, and seeded on the immediate outslope (in a virgin
area) or placed selectively on an abandoned bench, (if the operation is
located in a previously mined area). After removing the exposed coal from
the initial cut, a parallel interior cut is made and its spoil material is
placed in the previous cut. The lengths of these cuts are limited by
property lines and regulations; where conditions are favorable, some
operations mine from outcrop to outcrop. Successive parallel cuts are
continued in this same manner until the maximum stripping ratio or the
property line limit is reached. In those operations where the limiting
factor is the stripping ratio, auger mining then can be employed to extract
additional tonnage from the highwall face prior to backfilling and final
regrading. With the modified area mining technique it is possible to mine
entire hilltops with total resource recovery. Final regrading for this
method is to approximate original contour.
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Draglines are by far the predominant primary overburden movers,
although shovels, scrapers, and front-end loaders also are used in this
Basin. Reclamation is concurrent. Dozers contour-regrade the spoil mounds
as mining progresses, and scrapers, dozers, or trucks place topsoil on the
regraded areas directly from advancing cut areas (Figure 3-8).
3.2.1.3. Haulback Methods
The haulback technique, also termed lateral movement or controlled
placement mining, can be adapted effectively to the steep slopes of the
North Branch Potomac River Basin. Its environmental advantages include
flexibility in meeting two critical regulatory provisions: 1) reclaiming
mined land to approximate original contour; and 2) eliminating the need for
uncontrolled downslope spoil deposition (which now is prohibited). As a
replacement for older, conventional contour methods, the haulback method is
an adaptation which may use box cut or modified block cut operational
sequencing. Haulback is a more delicate operation which handles overburden
material more effectively and efficiently.
The initial cut is a small box cut or block cut at a point where the
coal seam crops out. Because many of these operations are located in
previously mined areas, old, abandoned benches are frequently available for
storage of initial cut overburden. In virgin areas, the initial cut is
generally located adjacent to a hollow. In this manner, a readily
accessible area is provided for controlled placement of the initial cut
spoil material. A head of hollow fill then can be constructed with this
initial cut spoil in accordance with State and Federal regulatory
requirements.
After the exposed coal is removed from the first cut, mining proceeds
around the contour of the coal outcrop. Overburden, as the mining name
implies, then is hauled laterally along the mine bench and is placed
selectively in the mined-out pit area. Generally, overburden from the
second rained area is used to fill the first area, the third area fills the
second, and so on. The operation ordinarily proceeds in only one direction
from the initial cut. Complicated logistical planning and scheduling for
drilling and blasting, overburden removal, coal removal, and hauling
sequences, as well as reclamation operations, must precede the actual mining
operation, if costs and environmental impacts are td be minimized while coal
recovery is maximized. These steps can be illustrated in a flow diagram of
unit operations (Figure 3-9).
Haulback methods differ mainly in the equipment for overburden loading
and haulage. Hence haulback is distinct from conventional contour methods
which employ direct placement or pushing of overburden. The three basic
types of equipment used in haulback are: 1) front-end loader or shovel/
truck combinations which are presently the most popular; 2) scrapers; and
3) loader (shovel)/truck combinations in concert with scrapers. These three
different equipment combinations create mine pits of somewhat differing
appearance (Figure 3-10).
3-18
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3-19
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Haulback operation using trucks and loaders.
Haulback operation using scrapers.
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Haulback operation using combination loader/truck and scrapers.
Figure 3-10 HAULBACK MINING METHODS (adapted from Chironis 1978)
3-21
-------
The site preparation, coal loading, coal hauling, augering, and
reclamation unit operations of the haulback method are similar to
conventional contour mining practices. Overburden preparation in the
haulback method, however, does involve a change in drilling and blasting.
For haulback methods, special deck loading and delayed blasting procedures
are utilized to prevent outslope spoil deposition. The blasting is designed
to lift the overburden upward, but not outward. One procedure, devised by a
West Virginia firm, consists of delaying the blast shots in curvilinear
rows, so that overburden is thrown laterally back into the open pit by the
blast.
Overburden loading and hauling unit operations in the haulback method
also vary from conventional methods. The front-end loader (shovel)/truck
system usually is utilized and is effective if properly managed. Pit
congestion can become a problem due to the narrow working benches resulting
from steep slopes. Dozers may be utilized to construct haul roads and ramps
and generally to push the overburden down to the loader. In this way,
excavation is facilitated for the loader, which then readily can segregate
and deposit spoil material with the use of trucks. Lateral haulage by
trucks gives flexibility to the process and permits ancillary operations,
such as augering, to be conducted without interfering with other mining and
reclamation operations. Augers can be operated close enough to the
stripping area (active pit) so that the augered coal can be stockpiled on
the seam, thus eliminating the need for a separate haul unit to transport
the augered coal to the main stripping and loading site.
Where geologic and topographic conditions permit, scrapers sometimes
are used in the overburden loading and hauling operation because scrapers
can offer cost advantages over truck transport on short haul distances.
With rippers and other dozers functioning as auxiliary equipment for loading
hard, blocky spoil material, the scraper system has wide-ranging flexibility
and capability to compete with the loader (shovel)/truck system. Further-
more, because scrapers can excavate, readily transport (even over steep
slopes with full loads), deposit, and compact spoil material, their use
offers the advantages of decreased pit congestion, greater production per
hour (at least for short haul distances), and less complicated planning and
scheduling.
The third system sometimes used, a combination of the two previous
equipment types, also offers distinct advantages. Scrapers can remove the
less consolidated material near the surface, while loader (shovel)/trucks
excavate the hard, blocky spoil near the coal seam. In this manner, scra-
pers can traverse the top of the highwall and reduce pit congestion. At the
same time, loader (shovel)/trucks can transport the blocky material along
the pit floor, minimizing truck haulage on steep grades for which trucks are
not well suited.
A recent fourth development in the haulback method uses conveyor
systems designed primarily to reduce the inefficient pit congestion which
results from the numerous pieces of coal removal and overburden handling
3-22
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equipment necessary in the other three haulback methods. Figures 3-11 and
3-12 illustrate a mine layout plan with a low-wall conveyor haulage system
and an artist's depiction of a low-wall conveyor haulage scheme. There are
disadvantages to the conveyor systems, but conveyor usage probably will
increase due to advantages such as: 1) more continuous transfer and
placement of material; 2) reduced haulage costs per ton of overburden
removed; 3) reduction in equipment (and energy) requirements, thereby
relieving congestion, reducing safety hazards, and increasing production;
and 4) more rapid reclamation, thus minimizing environmental degradation.
3.2.1.4. Augering
Augering is the process of drilling or boring horizontally into the
coal seam. The auger reams out coal to distances of about 200 feet by using
large cutting heads. The diameter of the cutting head is limited by the
thickness of the coal seam and can be as large as 7 feet. Because the auger
tends to sag into the coal seam and may enter strata below the coal seam as
the mining proceeds to greater horizontal distances, cutting heads generally
are undersized by about 30%. Because of this problem, as well as the fact
that coal is left unmined between auger holes (which often are not parallel
due to irregular highwalls), auger mining usually provides a poor percentage
recovery of the total coal reserve. Figure 3-13 illustrates auger hole
spacing as well as the pie-shaped blocks of coal left between the holes.
Augering is used following the lateral haulback method after the
maximum stripping ratio has been reached. Augering recovers additional coal
resources by using the open bench area and exposed highwall as a working
face, with little or no additional excavation of overburden. Augering also
is used by itself to mine coal resources in areas too steep to accommodate
conventional mining methods (that is, generally >60%). In such cases, a
roadway and a narrow bench must first be excavated along the hillside at the
coal seam outcrop to provide access and a working bench area for the
augering equipment.
Auger mining provides relatively cheap coal recovery and is quite
useful in obtaining coal resources not economically recoverable at present
through other surface or underground methods. Where augering is used,
however, the technique generally precludes the possibility of future
recovery of coal not mined, even as technologies are improved to mine
economically from the surface at greater distances and depths. For this
reason, industry leaders and others increasingly argue against augering in
many areas. Reclamation generally consists of plugging the auger holes with
noncombustible and impervious material and backfilling in front of the
highwall face to approximate original contour.
3.2.1.5. Head of Hollow Fills
When overburden is fractured and removed so that coal can be extracted,
overburden occupies a larger volume than when undisturbed. Typically, the
increase in volume of overburden is greater than the volume of coal removed.
3-23
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Unrecoverable
Unrecoverable
AUGER HOLE PATTERN - IRREGULAR HIGHWALL
LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF AN AUGER HOLE
HIGH
WALL
HOLE DIAMETER = 2/3 X
COAL SEAM
AUGER HOLE
120' TO 150'
SPACING OF AUGER
HOLES DRILLED FROM THE HIGHWALL
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Figure 3-13 COAL LOSSES FROM AUGER MINING (adapted from Grim and
Hill 1974)
3-26
-------
Hence the disposal of excess overburden is a key problem for West Virginia
surface mines. During the years when surface mines were unregulated, the
overburden simply was pushed downslope in an uncontrolled manner. Current
practice is to minimize the volume of fill placed downslope and to place it
in a carefully controlled and stabilized manner.
A controlled overburden storage method known as head of hollow fill can
be utilized in all types of surface mining methods presently being employed
in the steeper areas of the North Branch Potomac River Basin. Topographic
and hydrologic restrictions by the State of West Virginia include permitting
head of hollow fills only in narrow, "V-shaped" hollows near the ridge top
which do not contain underground mine openings or wet-weather springs.
Generally, the proposed dimensions of the fill are such that the hollow can
be completely filled to at least the elevation of the mine bench. In
addition, the toe of the hollow fill must be at least 100 feet from a
permanent stream.
Prior to site preparation, a sediment basin is constructed below the
proposed toe of the fill. The fill then is initiated at the toe by clearing
the area of all vegetation. Next, a haul road is constructed within the
disposal area to the projected toe of the fill. A rock core chimney drain
then is started at the toe and is progressively constructed through the fill
mass, from the original valley floor up to the top of the fill bench,
maintaining a minimum width of 16 ft.
Actual fill construction is concurrent with placement of the core and
proceeds in uniform horizontal lifts approximately parallel with the
proposed finished grade. The massive rocks of the core, however, extend
well above the remainder of the fill surface. In accordance with regulatory
requirements, all spoil designated for the fill must be transported to the
active lift, where it is placed and compacted in maximum four-foot thick
layers.
A terraced appearance is created on the fill outslope by recessing each
successive 50-foot lift. Each resultant bench (or terrace) is constructed
to slope into the fill, as well as toward the rock core in accordance with
West Virginia requirements. Upon completion, the top of the fill is graded
to drain toward the head of the hollow, where a drainage pocket is located
to intercept surface water runoff and direct it into the rock core. During
the final outer slope grading, dozer cleat depressions generally are left to
serve as seed traps. In a one-step operation, a hydroseeder is usually used
to apply nutrients, seed, water, and mulch for revegetation (Figures 3-14
and 3-15).
The typical West Virginia head of hollow fill is allowed by USOSM
standards without restrictions when the fill volume is less than 250,000
cubic yards. For those fills greater than 250,000 cubic yards, however,
USOSM requires that the crest of the fill extend to the elevation of the
ridgeline. In instances where large fills are to extend only to the
elevation of the coal seam, a recently defined USOSM "valley fill" must be
3-27
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FILL SURFACE
RGE POND
FILL MASS '^r^^l^^M^^'^
'"^g^M^^^^C^^^'^'^* ORIGINAL GROUND
HEAD OF HOLLOW
SECTION A-A'
FILL SURFACE
FILL OUTSLOPE
BENCH
ROCK CORE DRAIN
BENCH
NATURAL HOLLOW SLOPE
SECTION B-B
FIRST BENCH
ORIGINAL GROUND
ROCK CORE DRAIN
FILL MASS
SECTION C-C'
Figure 3-15 CROSS-SECTIONS OF HEAD OF HOLLOW FILL (adapted from
Skelly and Loy 1979)
3-29
-------
constructed (Figures 3-16 and 3-17). The primary difference is that an
underdrain system is utilized in the valley fill instead of the rock core
(chimney type) drain. One definite advantage of an underdrain system over a
typical West Virginia rock core relates to post-mining land use. The rock
core that extends several feet above the surface of the center of the fill
severely restricts the land-use potential of the completed fill site,
because horizontal movement (farm machinery, livestock, etc.) across the
fill virtually is precluded. Conversely, a disadvantage to the valley fill
is that underdrains create a difficult water handling problem for surface
drainage by concentrating large volumes of water on the unconsolidated spoil
material. Ultimately, this water drains over the very steep outslope of the
fill face and along the line of contact with undisturbed ground. This can
result in severe erosion and sedimentation, as well as a continuing
maintenance problem on the fill face and at the line of contact at the edges
of the fill.
3.2.2. Underground Mining Methods
Underground mines are developed by excavating entryways into a coal
seam. Underground mines in the North Branch Potomac River Basin can be
classified in terms of the type of entryway or access to the coal seam:
drift, slope, or shaft (Figure 3-18). Drift mines, the cheapest entry
method, enter the coal seam at the coal outcrop and provide nearly
horizontal access to the mine workings. Slope mines are developed when the
coal seam is located at a distance from the land surface and at an
intermediate depth. Slope mines are driven at a maximum angle of 17° from
the surface entry point to the coal seam. Shaft mines are utilized for coal
seams located a substantial distance under the ground surface or where slope
lengths would be uneconomic. Vertical entryway shafts are driven to the
coal seam from the ground surface, and elevators provide access to the
workings.
The coal seams of West Virginia typically dip at only a slight angle
from the horizontal. An underground mine can advance either in an up-dip or
in a down-dip direction. The choice between up-dip and down-dip operations
has a significant effect on considerations of water handling during and
after the raining operation, as discussed in Section 5.7.7. Water management
during and after mining underground is a complex aspect of mine engineering
and has great potential for long-term as well as short-term environmental
impacts.
The actual mining methods employed in an underground mine are not
necessarily dependent on the type of entryway in use or the dip of the coal
seam. Rather, methods differ in the manner by which coal is removed and the
mine is laid out. The two basic mining layouts are room and pillar, the
more popular, and longwall. In a room and pillarmine, parallel series of
entries or main headings are driven into the coal seam. Secondary headings
or cross-cuts connect these main tunnels in a perpendicular direction at
specified intervals. The configuration of the cross-cuts is planned
carefully to permit adequate ventilation, support of headings, and drainage
3-30
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CROWN FILL SURFACE
RIP-RAP DRAIN
ORIGINAL GROUND
UNDERDRAIN
B
B
BENCH »^^
LOPE 3%-5%J\|
SECTION A-A'
BB
BB'
FILL OUTSLOPE
SLOPE 2M
NATURAL HOLLOW SLOPE
UNDERDRAIN
SECTION B THRU BB
FIRST BENCH
RIP-RAP DRAIN
SLOPE 3 %-5 %
RIP-RAP DRAIN
SLOPE 3 %-5 % -
UNDERDRAIN
ORIGINAL GROUND
SEE TEXT
SECTION C-C'
Figure 3-I7
CROSS-SECTIONS OF THE FEDERAL VALLEY FILL
(adapted from Skelly and Loy I979)
3-32
-------
Coal
SHAFT ENTRY
Coal
DRIFT ENTRY
SLOPE ENTRY
Figure 3-18 METHODS OF ENTRY TO UNDERGROUND COAL
MINES (adapted from Michael Baker 1975)
3-33
-------
of the workings and to facilitate coal haulage. Blocks of coal then are
extracted in a systematic pattern along both sides of the headings. Pillars
of coal remaining between the mined-out rooms act as roof supports
(Figure 3-19). About half of the coal resource typically is left in place
to support the roof during mining.
The two predominant coal extraction techniques currently employed in
room and pillar mines are conventional and continuous mining systems. Both
systems can be used within a single mine under appropriate circumstances.
Conventional mining consists of a repeated series of steps used to advance a
series of rooms concurrently by blasting. The procedure basically entails
the rotation of mining equipment from one room to another in order to keep
all pieces of equipment working with minimal idle time. The mining
operation consists of the following operations: 1) cutting the coal face
(at the bottom and sides on an appropriate angle) with a cutting machine
having chain-saw type cutter bars, so that the direction of the coal
movement is controlled upon blasting; 2) horizontally drilling the coal face
at predetermined intervals to permit placement of explosives; 3) blasting
the coal face; 4) loading the coal onto haulage vehicles or a conveyor belt;
and 5) roof bolting or timbering to support overburden material where the
coal has been removed. A typical cut sequence for conventional mining in a
five entry heading is presented in Figure 3-20.
The more popular method currently is a continuous mining system which
utilizes a single mechanized unit with rotating chisels to break or cut the
coal directly from the coal face and load it onto haulage vehicles or con-
veyor belts. In this manner, the conventional equipment and operating
personnel for the cutting, drilling, and blasting operational steps are
eliminated. A typical cut sequence for the continuous mining system is very
similar to that for room and pillar mining using conventional blasting
techniques. The continuous system eliminates several of the more hazardous
steps, and less experienced supervision and labor are required. A
disadvantage of continuous mining is its inability to mine effectively
those coalbeds with high hardness ratings, large partings, and undulating
roof and floor planes. Such coalbeds can be mined by conventional blasting
methods.
The longwall mining layout differs from the room and pillar approach in
both equipment usage and mining method (Figure 3-21). In original mining,
parallel headings of variable length are driven into the coal with a
cross-heading subsequently driven between the headings at their maximum
length, which may be as long as 4,000 ft. This cross-heading serves as the
longwall or working face, which usually is between 300 and 600 ft long. The
working face in room and pillar mining systems usually is limited to about
30 ft maximum. A traveling drum shearer or plow advances across the coal
face under the protection of self-advancing, hydraulic-power roof supports.
The cut coal falls onto a chain conveyor beneath the traveling cutting
mechanism and parallel to the coal face. This conveyor then transports the
coal to a perpendicular entry, where the coal is transferred to the mine
haulage system. Upon reaching the end of the coal face, the traveling
3-34
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Rgure 3-20 CUT SEQUENCE FOR CONTINUOUS MINING
SYSTEM FIVE-ENTRY HEADING (adapted from NUS Corp. 1977)
3-36
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Face length j
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feEnfry take-off conveyor
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Figure 3-21 TYPICAL LONGWALL PLAN (adapted from Michael Baker 1975)
3-37
-------
cutter mechanism reverses direction and moves back across the coal face in
the opposite direction. As mining progresses, the supports are advanced,
allowing controlled roof collapse behind the support line. The subsidence
is predictable, and the system can be used at great depths.
The longwall system substantially increases the recovery of coal,
increases labor productivity, and is safer than room and pillar mining,
particularly where roof conditions are poor. Longwall is, however, an
expensive method requiring high capital investment and costly equipment
moves. Longwall also generally is limited to large, level, straight blocks
of coal free from obstructions.
Shortwall mining is essentially a variety of longwall mining. A con-
tinuous mining machine such as that used in room and pillar mining usually
substitutes for the shearer or plow. The self-advancing roof supports
extend over the top of the continuous mining machine as the operation pro-
ceeds along the coal face. The scale of the operation typically is smaller
than in longwall operations. The face may be 150 ft long and the heading
may extend 1,000 ft. Shortwall mining is a technique with flexibility, and
it can be adapted to variations in the presence of coal, to unsuitable roof
conditions, or to obstacles such as oil and gas wells.
3.2.3. Coal Preparation
Coal preparation includes the crushing and/or cleaning of coal (EPA
1979b). Preparation of coal which is low in impurities only requires
crushing and sizing. When impurities in coal occur in quantity, however,
cleaning also is required. Impurities may include clay, shale, other rock,
and pyrite. Coal cleaning processes vary in complexity and may produce
several types of wastes. The types and quantities of waste products pro-
duced by coal preparation facilities depend upon the size of the facility,
the chemical properties of the coal, and the extent and method of coal
cleaning. Depending on the amount of impurities in the raw coal, refuse
volume will range to as much as 25% of the total coal processed (USDI
1978).
The simplest coal preparation plant utilizes crushing and screening to
remove large refuse material (Figure 3-22). Because this usually is a dry
process, wastes consist of coal dust, solid waste refuse, and surface runoff
from ancillary areas, including coal storage piles and refuse disposal
areas. Other preparation plants are more complex and perform additional
cleansing processes. These processes may utilize water, thermal dryers, and
various separation procedures. Such preparation facilities produce waste-
water, process sludges, and additional air emissions. The characteristics
of wastewater from coal storage, refuse storage, and coal preparation plant
ancillary areas generally are similar to the characteristics of raw mine
drainage at the mine supplying the preparation plant (Table 3-6). The
principal pollutant in coal preparation wastewater is suspended solids (coal
fines and clays) which may be removed by clarification processes (EPA
1979).
3-38
-------
0
ex
O
o
£
>-
H
_J
LJ
O
I
O
Q.
CM
CM
i
fO
£
o»
3-39
-------
Table 3-6. Raw waste characteristics of coal preparation plant process
water (EPA 1976). Data are mg/1 except as indicated.
Standard
Parameters Minimum Maximum Mean Deviation
pH (standard units) 7.30 8.10 7.70
Alkalinity
Total iron
Dissolved iron
Manganese
Aluminum
Zinc
Nickel
TDS
TSS
Hardness
Sulfates
Ammonia
62.00
0.03
0.00
0.30
0.10
0.01
0.01
636.00
2,698.00
1,280.00
979.00
0.00
402.00
187.00
6.40
4.21
29.00
2.60
0.54
2,240.00
156,400.00
1,800.00
1,029.00
4.00
160.00
47.80
0.92
1.67
10.62
0.56
0.15
1,433.00
62,448.00
1,540.00
1,004.00
2.01
96.07
59.39
2.09
1.14
11.17
0.89
0.19
543.90
8,372.00
260.00
25.00
1.53
3-40
-------
Typical coal preparation operations can be described as a five stage
process (Figure 3-23):
Stage 1: Plant feed preparationMaterial larger than 6 in
diameter is screened from the raw coal on a grizzly
(rectangular iron bar frame). The uniform feed coal is
ground to an initial size by one or more crushers and fed
to the preparation plant.
Stage 2: Raw coal sizingPrimary sizing on a screen or a
scalping deck separates the coal into coarse and
intermediate-size fractions. The coarse fraction is
crushed again if necessary and subsequently is re-sized
for cycling to the raw coal separation step. The
intermediate fraction undergoes secondary sizing on wet or
dry vibrating screens to remove fines, which may undergo
further processing. The intermediate fraction then is fed
to the raw coal separator.
Stage 3: Raw coal separationMost raw coal subject to
separation undergoes wet processes, including dense media
separation, hydraulic separation, and froth flotation.
Pneumatic separation is applied to the remaining raw coal.
The coarse, intermediate, and fine fractions are processed
separately by equipment uniquely suited for each size.
Refuse (generally shale and sandstone), middlings
(carbonaceous material denser than the desired product),
and cleaned coal are separated for the dewatering stage.
Stage 4: Product dewatering and/or dryingCoarse and
intermediate coals generally are dewatered on screens.
Fine coal may be dewatered in centrifuges and thickening
ponds and dried in thermal dryers.
Stage 5: Product storage and shippingSize fractions may
be stored separately in silos, bins, or open air
stockpiles. The method of storage generally depends on
the method of loading for transport and the type of
carrier chosen.
More detailed descriptions of coal preparation processing and its
environmental consequences can be found in EPA (1979b).
3.2.4. Abandonment of Coal Mining Operations
Recent legislation places great emphasis on the obligation of the coal
mine operator to conclude his activities in such a manner that the potential
long-term adverse impacts on human safety and the environment in general are
minimized. It is possible to reduce adverse post-mining environmental
effects from surface mines and coal preparation facilities to a large exEent.
3-41
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1.
PIANT FEED
PREPARATION
SIZE REDUCTION
I1UM OF MIN£ STORAGE
3
PRIMARY
SI2E CHECK
1
INTERMEDIATE
SECONDARY
SIZE CHECK
2
INTERMEDIATE
FINE SIZE
RcFUSE
MIDDLE
REFUSE
COARSE
REFUSE ^ SEPARAT|ON
1
SEPARATION
3
SEPARATION
2
COARSE PRODUCT
INTERMEDIATE PRODUCT
FINE SIZE PRODUCT
SEPARATION
DEWATERING
1
DEWATERING
2
2.
RAW COAL
SIZING
PRODUCT WATER
DEWATERING
5.
PRODUCT
STORAGE
AND SHIPPING
FINISHED I PRODUCT
{
STORAGE
i
FINISHED
SHIPPING
2
Figure 3-23 COAL PREPARATION PLANT PROCESSES
(adopted from Nunenkamp 1976)
3-42
-------
Timely reclamation of surface mines and preparation plant sites in
accordance with current standards is designed to return the mine site to a
topographic condition and vegetation that bear some resemblance to
pre-mining conditions or that are appropriate to more intensive land uses.
If reclamation is unsuccessful, barren spoil banks, eroded refuse piles, and
neglected haul roads can generate waters laden with sediment and chemicals
toxic to aquatic organisms. In mountainous West Virginia, haul roads
generally are maintained as permanent features following mining. In some
cases haul roads become part of the public road network.
As discussed in Section 4.1, the State of West Virginia relies on per-
formance bonds to assure compliance with reclamation requirements. Part of
the bond is released after inspection of the regraded spoil; the remainder
is not released until vegetation and runoff water quality are judged likely
to be acceptable in the long term based on actual post-mining experience.
EPA does not require performance bonds to insure compliance during mining,
but relies on the Federal court system as the basic mechanism for insuring
compliance with Federal law. NPDES permit jurisdiction over surface mining
operations ends when the regrading phase of reclamation is completed.
The surface working of underground mines currently are treated
essentially as surface mines with respect to reclamation requirements.
Long-term problems from underground mines originate principally from surface
subsidence and from water collected by the underground passageways. Shallow
underground mines (depth 200 ft or less) are likely eventually to cause
surface subsidence as the overlying strata cave into the voids under the
force of gravity. Subsidence may disrupt surface land uses, and it
typically contributes to the increased flow of water into mine workings.
Groundwater resources can be reduced locally, and groundwater quality can be
degraded. If the underground mine water drains to the surface, it may
create surface water quality problems. At present the placement of alkaline
material such as fly ash in underground mines to neutralize acid mine
drainage is not a common practice in the Basin.
3.2.5, Coal Mining Economics
Cost data pertaining to coal mining, reclamation, and pollution control
technology generally are drawn either from very site-specific case histories
of actual mines or from very general computer modeling studies. Neither
category can accurately reflect the multitude of variables which affect the
economics of mining. Available studies are of very limited practical value
for characterizing the basic variables of costs related to mining and
pollution control. In each real-world case, the optimization of costs for
a proposed mine is an exercise in applied engineering.
3-43
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The following discussion summarizes some of the variables which affect
mine economics and presents some of the documented cost ranges from the
literature on mining economics. Generalized cost estimates of reclamation
techniques as discussed in Section 5 of this assessment also are presented.
Crude approximations are available for costs resulting from already required
mitigative measures as well as for those additional measures which EPA will
require under the New Source NPDES program. Actual costs can be expected to
be extremely variable in specific instances.
Variables which influence surface mining economics include (but are not
limited to):
Pre-mining slope
Drainage area above mine
Annual rainfall and snowfall
Amount and composition of overburden (sandstone vs. shale;
toxic vs. non-toxic; amount of colloidal material)
Coal seam thickness, stripping ratio, quality of coal
(thermal value, ash, sulfur, volatility characteristics),
and market selling price
Presence or absence of previous mining benches on permit
area
Proximity to housing and other sensitive land uses and
structures (pre-mining blast, water, and groundwater
surveys; restrictive blasting practices; special
protection of water resources)
Exploration (geologic prospecting of coal outcrop vs.
random drilling vs. concentrated pattern drilling)
Mine planning, engineering, and development (mine
operation sequencing and equipment matching; maximizing
efficiency and minimizing equipment dead time)
Mining method
Mine size
Permit costs (consultant or in-house staff; application
and bonding fees)
Equipment usage, leasing-depreciation schedule, and
maintenance
3-44
-------
v Market or tipple distance, mode of coal haulage, and
outside contract vs. in-house haulage
Type of reclamation (approximate original contour vs.
mountaintop plateau)
Physical, chemical, and structural root-zone soil
characteristics (soil amendments for revegetation)
Seedbed preparation and type of revegetation (grasses and
legumes vs. seedling trees; outside contract vs.
in-house)
Pollution control (erosion and sedimentation, acid mine
drainage, dust)
Union vs. non-union labor
Equipment operator skills
Amount of supervision and administration
Royalty payments
Payroll overhead
Taxes and insurance
t Interest on loans
Building and other facility construction and maintenance
Operating supplies
Power and communication costs.
Each mine site is unique in terms of these different aspects, and
associated costs differ radically for the same unit operations, as well as
for the percentage of total mine costs these represent. For example,
overburden stripping costs will vary greatly depending upon the stripping
ratio, overburden composition, slope of terrain, mining method and equipment
usage, and equipment operator skills.
In one cost study of contour surface mining and reclamation in
Appalachia, overburden removal costs per ton of coal ranged from $1.39 to
$4.14, which represented 28% and 53% of the total operating mine costs,
respectively (Nephew et al. 1976. The only variables considered in this
study were terrain slope (15°, 20°, or 25°), highwall height (60 ft or 90
ft), and mining and reclamation methods. Backfilling and grading costs to
approximate original contour ranged from $0.80 to $4.64, which represented
3-45
-------
18% and 38% of the total operating mine costs, respectively (1974 dollars).
Backfilling and grading costs for truck haulback mining to approximate
original contour ranged from $1.26 to $4.64, which correlated to 22% and 38%
of the total mine operating costs, respectively.
Even for an overall minor cost operation, such as haul road
construction, costs vary significantly. For truck haulback mining with
reclamation to approximate original contour, haul road costs varied from
$0.05 to $0.16 per ton of coal. Again, the only variables were slope (15°
vs. 25°, respectively) and highwall height (90 ft vs. 60 ft, respectively).
The total operating costs for these methods varied from $4.92 to $12.31
(Nephew et al. 1976).
The unit operation costs per ton of coal mined for various contour
methods reclaimed to approximate original contour were as listed below, (the
figures in parentheses represent the respective percentage of total cost per
ton of coal mined):
Haul road construction - $0.05 to $0.16 (0.7% to 2%)
Clearing and grubbing - $0.01 to $0.03 (0.1% to 0.3%)
Topsoiling - $0.07 to $0.36 (1% to 3%)
Drilling and shooting - $1.17 to $1.88 (24% to 18%)
Overburden removal - $1.39 to $3.73 (28% to 35%)
Loading and hauling - $0.34 (3% to 8%)
Backfilling and grading - $0.80 to $4.64 (18% to 38%)
Revegetation - $0.05 to $0.21 (0.7% to 2%)
Auxiliary - $0.27 (2% to 6%)
Excess fill storage - $0 to $1.40 (0% to 11%).
Production, reclamation, and total costs per ton of coal mined for
contour mining to approximate original contour under various terrain slope
and stripping ratio conditions based on the Nephew et al. (1976) data were
computed by USDI (Table 3-7). Only a few of the total variables encountered
at actual mine sites were considered, yet the cost differences are quite
substantial under each category. Reclamation costs contributed from 17% to
50% of the total costs for these model mines and were sharply higher on the
30° slope than on the 15° and 20° slopes.
At three Appalachian mines the total costs per ton ranged from $11.50
to $15.99, and operation costs per ton of coal mined by each major unit
operation were (1974 dollars):
Exploration - $0.03 to $0.39
Planning and development - $0.30 to $0.53
Topsoil removal and reclamation - $0.99 to $2.88
3-46
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Table 3-7. Coal mining cost variation per ton of coal mined for surface
contour mining (USOI - Office of Minerals Policy and Research Analysis
1977).
Terrain
Slope
15° (27%)
15° (27%)
15° (27%)
15° (27%)
20° (36%)
20° (36%)
20° (36%)
20° (36%)
30° (58%)
30° (58%)
30° (58%)
30° (58%)
Stripping
Ratio
15:1
20:1
25:1
30:1
15:1
20:1
25:1
30:1
15:1
20:1
25:1
30:1
Production
Costs($)
9. 10
10.00
11.50
12.75
1.60
10.80
12.65
13.95
10. 90-
12.25
13.85
15.70
Reclamation*
Costs($)
1.90
2.40
2.50
3.00
4.00
3.85
5.45
5.85
10.61
11.75
13.58
15.50
Total
Costs($)
11.00
12.00
14.00
15.75
13.60
14.65
18. 10
19.80
21.51
24.00
27.43
31.20
*Assumes return to approximate original contour.
3-47
-------
Overburden stripping - $8.02 to $11.58, with annual cost
per vertical foot of overburden ranging from $11,910 to
$140,264
Coal fragmentation and loading - $0.17 to $0.84
Coal haulage - $0.90 to $2.10, with cost per mile ranging
from $2.25 to $4.38 (Skelly and Loy 1975).
Operating costs per ton of coal mines ranged from $12.07 to $31.09
(1975 dollars) at seven small West Virginia mines employing the same contour
mining method in similar topography (Skelly and Loy 1976).
The following variables influence underground mine costs:
Geologic conditions (acid vs. non-acid strata and coal;
fractures, fissures, joint, and fault zones)
Depth to coal seam (mine entry, coal haulage to surface)
Coal seam thickness, quality, and market selling price
Variability or consistency of coal seam (varying seam
dimensions and heights; partings)
Mining method (room and pillar vs. longwall; up-dip vs.
down-dip)
Roof and floor conditions (soft vs. hard floor; stable vs.
unstable roof conditions; undulating roof and floor)
Past area mining history (flooded abandoned workings above
and adjacent to mine; abandoned workings below mine)
Groundwater hydrology (aquifers; water influx)
Pollution control (sediment and acid mine drainage water;
air pollution)
Gas emissions (ventilation)
Surface land use (subsidence control)
Mine size
Mine planning, engineering, and development
Permit and bond costs
Exploration
3-48
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Surface site preparation
Market or tipple distance
Degree of coal preparation
Union vs. non-union labor
Equipment operator skills
Amount of supervision and administration
Union vs. non-union labor
Royalty payments
Equipment usage, leasing depreciation schedule, and
maintenance
Payroll overhead
Taxes and insurance
Interest on loans
Buildings and other facility construction and operation
Operating supplies
Power and communication costs
Mine closure costs (mine sealing, reclamation, and
revegetation).
Few underground mine cost studies of a comprehensive nature have been
performed. The same basic equipment, mining method and mine plan, percent
coal recovery rate, wages, depreciation schedules, and other factors were
used to compute costs under similar mine conditions in two recent analyses
(Katell et al. 1975a, b). The significant variables were mine size and coal
seam thickness. Operating costs ranged from $8.08 to $9.52 and capital
investment costs ranged from $23.83 to $36.36 per ton. Per ton operating
and capital costs were higher at the mines with smaller production in
thinner seams (Table 3-8 ) In underground mines using continuous miners in
longwall mining units, operating costs per ton of coal mined ranged from
$7.18 to $8.27, and capital investments ranged from $31.31 to $38.51 (Duda
and Hemingway 1976a, b).
Both surface and underground mine operators also encounter a wide range
of environmental pollution control costs. Incremental costs per ton
expected as the result of implementing USOSM regulations range from $4.61 to
$22.51 for surface mines and from $0.52 to $3.39 for underground mines
(Table 3-9).
3-49
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Table 3-8. Summary of estimated operating costs and capital investment
for underground mining methods (see text for sources).
Data are in 1975 dollars.
Coal seam
thickness
(inches)
48
M
rH
rH
H
PH GO
C
*"U *H
c a
CO -H
s
o
0
es
48
48
72
72
72
72
H M
ct) C
W> C
C -H
0 S
^
48
48
84
84
Production
per year
(million tons)
1.03
2.06
3.09
1.06
2.04
3.18
4.99
1.3
2.6
1.5
3.0
Operating costs
(dollars/ton)
$9.52
8.79
8.61
9.38
8.48
8.18
8.08
8.27
7.48
7.93
7.18
Capital
investment
(dollars/ton)
$36.36
31.16
30.10
33.34
27.23
25.48
23.83
38.51
34.91
34.87
31.31
3-50
-------
Table 3-9. Summary of reported incremental cost increases by specific
requirements ($/Ton)*. These data were derived from a joint survey of
65 coal operations by Skelly and Loy and the National Coal Association/
American Mining Congress, 1979.
Requirement
Permit preparation
Blasting
Prime farmland
Topsoil handling
Mine closure
Runoff and stream diversions
Sedimentation ponds
Re vegetation
Cover for acid and toxic materials
Coal waste embankments and impoundments
Hydrologic monitoring
Fugitive dust control
Backfilling and regrading
Stability analyses
Valley fill drainage
Valley fill construction
Road construction
Underground subsidence control and
monitoring
Effluent limitations
Exploration performance standards
Overburden clearing
Total ranges
Surface
Mines
0.19
0.01-0.03
0.45
0.27-5.50
NR
NR
0.44-3.05
0.02
0.04
0.01-0.45
0.06-0.50
0.36
1.48-2.32
0.02
0.10-1.51
0.39-5.56
0.08-1.83
NR
0.04
0.15
0.50
4.61-22.51
Underground
Mines
NR
NR
NR
0.01-0.60
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
0.14-1.26
0.37-1.53
NR
NR
NR
0.52-3.39
*Values rounded from actual estimates
NR = Not reported
3-51
-------
The economic aspects of water pollution control technology were
documented by EPA (1976) in developing the effluent guidelines and New
Source Performance Standards for surface and underground coal mines.
Treatment costs vary greatly with mine water quality and quantity.
Construction costs for acid mine drainage treatment plants decline as
capacity increases (Figure 3-24).
Information was developed for USDOE regarding the probable incremental
costs of SMCRA regulations (Table 3-9). These data especially are of
interest in this assessment because of EPA's reliance on the SMCRA permanent
regulatory program (see Section 5.0. discussions on impacts and mitigative
measures; Section 5.1, 5.3, and 5.7 largely reflect SMCRA requirements).
Capital investment costs for water pollution control facilities are quite
variable, because specific mine site conditions dictate the type and extent
of facilities needed. Included in the more sophisticated plants can be
holding or settling ponds; neutralization systems (usually lime) comprised
of such components as tanks, slurry mixers, and feeders (with associated
instrumentations, pumps, and appropriate housing); reverse osmosis
desalination, clarifiers; flocculant feed systems; filtration systems;
aerators; and pumps, pipes, ditching, fences, and land. Figures 3-25
through 3-31 contain graphs developed by EPA which delineate cost range
figures (in 1974 dollars) for some of these components (EPA 1976). The EPA
Development Document for Interim Final Effluent Limitation Guidelines and
New Source Performance Standards for the Coal Mining Point Source
Category (1976) presents more detailed information. Sediment pond- related
costs for various structures or modifications, as well as coagulant costs,
are discussed by Hutchins and Ettinger (1979). Actual sediment pond
excavation costs vary with site conditions, pond sizes, and pond types.
Pollution control measures employed at underground mines are summarized
with associated cost data in another EPA study (Michael Baker 1975):
Grouting fissures, fractures, permeable strata and for
mine seals: $35 to $80 per linear foot for vertical grout
curtains and $12,000 to $20,000 per acre for horizontal
curtains
Borehole seals: $20 to $40 per linear ft
Dry seals: $2,500 to $5,000 (masonry block) and $2,500 to
$4,500 (clay) per seal
Air seals: $4,000 to $6,000 per seal
Hydraulic seals: $10,000 to $30,000 per seal (double
bulkhead); $5,000 to $10,000 per seal (single bulkhead);
$2,000 to $4,500 per seal (clay)
3-52
-------
10
s
Q
w
CU
CO
rt
w
u
H
CD
D
U
H
U
U
10'
us;
321
Im1
TT
finr
10
3 '
10
Hi:
ite
$10
$100
COST/UNIT CAPACITY
DOLLARS PER CUBIC METERS A DAY
$1,000
Figure 3-24 CONSTRUCTION COST VS. CAPACITY FOR ACID
MINE DRAINAGE TREATMENT PLANT
(adapted from EPA 1976)
3-53
-------
S S
o oi oo r*. ID in
T3
0)
s.
o
p
CO
O
O
or
LU
H
to
CM
I
rO
o>
0>
(OOO'IS) 1500
E
tr
UJ
H
UJ
5
D
05 h-
O O>
O
LJ Q_
Q. UJ
UJ
in
CO
i
PO
-------
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
9
8
o 7
§ 6
5 5
H 4
8
0 3
1.0
.9
.8
.7
.6
DEPTH=3m
DEPTH=2m
I I L
JU_
I I II I i I I I 1 i
J 1 i 1 I i i
.2
.3 .4 .5 .6 .7 8 91.0
2 3 45678910
VOLUME (1,000 m3)
20
30 40 50G070SOPO
Figure 3-27 POND COSTS (adapted from EPA I976)
3-55
-------
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
o 9
D 8
3 -
I I I I I I I I
I
.3 .4 .5 .6 .7 8 .9 1
3 4
6 7 8 9 10
20 30 40 50 CO 70 8090100
VOLUME (m3)
Figure 3-28 FLASH TANK COSTS (adapted from EPA 1976)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
< 6
.2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8.9.1.0
3 4 56789 10
20 30 40 GO 60 708090100
FLOW RATE (1000 liler/minute}
Figure 3-29 CAPITAL COSTS OF INSTALLED PUMPS
(adapted from EPA 1976)
3-56
-------
120
110
100
90
1 80
w
H
Cfl
O
o
70
60
50
40
30
20-
10-
I
I
I
I
I
I
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
DAILY WASTEWATER FLOW (1000 m3)
Figure 3-30 CAPITAL COSTS OF LIME TREATMENT
(adapted from EPA 1976)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
0,0
LI I I
I
I
I I I I
.01
.02
.03 .04 .05 .OG 07 080'J.l
.2 .3 4 .5 G .7 8 .9 1
CLARIFIER VOLUME 11000 m3|
9 10
Figure 3-31 CAPITAL COSTS OF CLARIFIER (adapted from EPA 1976)
3-57
-------
Hydraulic shaft seals: $7,000 to $35,000 for backfilling
shafts (100 to 500 ft deep); $20,000 to $25,000 per
concrete seal.
Some of the variables which affect these mine sealing costs
include:
Type, size, and condition of entry opening
Site preparation required
Expected hydraulic head
Method of construction and required materials, equipment,
and labor
Grouting requirements
Amount of backfilling, grading, and revegetation required.
Perhaps the single greatest cost item which can be estimated and which
EPA will require as the result of its New Source regulatory program is
the aquatic biological pre-mining survey and ongoing biological monitoring
program (see Section 5.2). Basic costs for these items have been estimated
at $6,000, although considerable local variation can be expected.
More stringent iron limitation standards than the Nationwide New Source
limitations also will add to mining costs (see Section 5.7), but these
limitations will be necessary to meet the currently proposed State in-stream
criteria. Hence, these costs are not attributable to EPA's New Source
program. Other aspects of the EPA program, not already required by SMCRA
and WVSCMRA, may increase mining costs to some extent.
EPA has attempted to minimize cost to operators whenever possible
through full utilization existing information for EPA permit reviews. The
net cost effect of the New Source program requirements are not expected to
be significant in the Basin. To the extent that timely reviews can be
expedited by interagency coordination, applicants may realize cost savings.
3.3. THE NATIONAL COAL MARKET: DEMAND ISSUES
The preceding sections basically have involved coal supply issues:
location of seams, seam quality, location of recent activity, mining
methods, and so forth. In Section 2.7, the concept of minable coal reserves
was advanced, defined solely in terms of coal (supply) characteristics.
Some Basin coals that now are considered "unminable" could be mined in the
future if market demand were to increase along with the relative price
of coal. Clearly, if costs to obtain alternative energy sources such as
crude oil were to increase dramatically, the market demand for Basin coal
could be reinforced substantially. Therefore, issues involving market
demands are extremely important in assessing the future of coal in the
Basin.
3-58
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The market demand for coal in the North Branch Potomac River Basin and
throughout West Virginia generally is dispersed and difficult to isolate.
Coal may be purchased locally for power generation or exported outside the
State to US and foraign metallurgical coal users. Because natural gas is
abundant locally, relatively little coal is used directly for home heating
in West Virginia.
Market demand is influenced by numerous factors. For example,
geographical proximity to coal users affects coal demand in the Basin.
Basin coal is purchased for use in the Basin, for use elsewhere in the
State, for use elsewhere in the US, and increasingly for foreign export.
Basin coal is utilized not only as an energy source for large coal-fired
power plants and a few individual residential units, but also for coking and
for metallurgical purposes in the steel industry.
Determinants which are important for different end-use sub-markets
differ. For example, cyclical swings in domestic steel production produce
commensurate changes in metallurgical coal demand, whereas the steam coal
market demand is affected to a greater degree by weather and costs of
transport.
Indirectly, Basin coal demand is affected by numerous variables such as
the location of the coal, available transportation facilities, ease of
extraction, and unionization of labor force, all of which influence price.
In addition, the coal market can be affected when world oil prices are
increased, when Federal emission standards under the Clean Air Act are
altered for electric utility power plants, when new synthetic fuel
technologies are developed successfully, and when economic recession cycles
reduce auto and thus steel production, reducing the demand for metallurgical
coal.
In terms of market projections, the following influencing factors must
be taken into account:
National economic growth rate
Electricity demand growth rate
Compliance standards for air pollution from
coal-combusting facilities as well as adequate and
economical technologies to meet these standards
Implementation of mandatory conversion from oil-burning
to coal-burning power plants and other aspects of
National energy policy
Success of domestic energy conservation programs
Social and environmental acceptability of nuclear power
Development of Western US and other competing coalfields
3-59
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Implementation of Federal coal lands leasing programs
Cost of compliance with mine reclamation regulations
Development of commercially viable, competitively priced
synthetic gas and liquid fuel from coal
World oil prices and other substitute energy source costs
Expansion of coal transportation facilities including
slurry pipeline technology
Federal railroad rate regulation.
3.3.1. General Trends in Market Demand
The use of coal as an energy source in the US has decreased since World
War II, and the industry has been characterized by boom and bust cycles.
Currently, less than 20% of the cotal National energy supply comes from
coal, whereas during World War II, 50% of the US energy was produced from
coal. Since World War II, US dependence on oil and gas for energy
production has doubled, with oil and gas imports now constituting 23% of the
US energy market (President's Commission on Coal 1980). Coal clearly has
declined in relative importance as an energy source, forcing widespread mine
closings and creating substantial unemployment among coal miners Nationwide.
During the past several years coal demand has declined even further, causing
substantial coal inventories in many areas. These forces have been felt in
both the State and the Basin.
As of mid-1980, this overall declining trend in the demand for coal
appeared to be changing. A recently published World Coal Study contends
that coal demand will increase substantially during the next two decades and
suggests that the United States, with more than one quarter of world coal
resources, will become the "Saudi Arabia of coal exporters." The Study
projects 5% annual increases in coal demand because of rapidly escalating
prices of substitute goods such as oil and nuclear energy (Wilson 1980). The
President's Commission on Coal (1980) also argues that, because of rising
oil and natural gas prices, total US production of coal will increase by 50%
from 620 million tons/year in 1977 to 1 billion tons/year in 1985 and to
nearly to 1.3 billion tons/year in 1990. The National Coal Model similarly
supports these conclusions (USDOE 1978). Using several energy models, the
Energy Information Administration concluded that total world consumption of
coal (including lignite) will increase by 73% to 129% by 1995 from 1976
levels (USDOE 1979).
The potential for coal as an energy source has also been cited at
recent meetings and conferences such as the 1979 ARC Conference in
Binghamton, New York. One of President Carter's major energy initiatives
has been to promote the use of domestic coal, in lieu of imported oil,
whenever possible. At the first US-Japanese Coal Conference (Norfolk,
3-60
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Virginia, August 1980), Japanese spokesmen projected a dramatic rise in
Japanese steam coal imports during the 1980's. The overall market for
metallurgical coals, hard-hit by current domestic recession trends in the
auto and steel industries, is being buoyed by increasing participation in
international steel markets.
These many developments suggest a possible restructuring of the
National coal market and a potential reversal in recent market declines.
The rate or ultimate extent of increased market demand, particularly in West
Virginia and the North Branch Potomac River Basin, cannot be assessed
accurately , given the multitude of factors affecting both steam and metal-
lurgical coal demand. An increase in demand is presaged by very recent
permit data in the State, indicating an increase of 46% in surface mine
permits in the period ending April 1, 1980 over the comparable period ending
April 1, 1979. Whether this trend will continue is impossible to predict,
given the influence of so many exogenous factors.
3.3.2 Specific Trends in Market Demand by End-Use
Electric utility power plants have been the largest users of coal in
the country, accounting for 76% of all US coal consumption in 1976
(Figure 3-32). Power plant coal use is projected to increase from 455
million tons in 1976 to 677 million tons in 1985 (Tables 3-10 and 3-11).
Industrial coal consumption declined during the past ten years. Neverthe-
less, industry Nationwide consumes more total energy than any other type of
user, has increased its consumption most rapidly in the recent past, and is
projected to increase energy consumption more rapidly than transportation,
residential, and commercial uses. Because of this overall outlook,
industrial coal consumption is projected to expand between 1976 and 1985,
especially as prices increase for oil and gas.
Reliance on electric utility power plant demand is of such a magnitude
that a more detailed evaluation of the use of coal in the electric utilities
industry is warranted. The future of electric utility power plant demand is
affected by several major factors:
The growth in the rate of the demand for electricity
The development of nuclear power plants.
Enforcement of Clean Air Act emission standards restricting coal use
to low sulfur coals
Federal requirements to convert to coal from oil and gas
The total US demand for electricity currently is expected to grow at a rate
of 3.4 to 4.4% per year through 1985, representing a significant decline
from the historical growth rate of 6.3% per year. This increase in demand
for electricity is expected to be met by the construction of either new
nuclear power plants or new coal-fired power plants. Such new plants will
not be operational for ten years at minimun in most cases. Few new oil- and
3-61
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MILLION TONS
1200 r~
1000
800
600
400
200
,546
- 19%
1144 million tons.
1947 1950
1955
1960
1965
1970
1975 77 1980
1985
1990
Note: Percentage figures represent percent shares of total consumption.
Figure 3-32 US CONSUMPTION OF COAL BY END-USE SECTOR
(USDM 1976, USDOT 1978)
3-62
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Table 3-10. US coal consumption by region and sector, 1976, in thousand
tons (USBM 1976).
SHIPMENTS TO ,J
Region and State of
I NORTHEAST
H SOUTHEAST
in EAST NORTH
CENTRAL
IV WEST SOUTH
CENTRAL
V WEST
U.S.
Electric
Destination Utilities
Massachusetts
Connecticut
Me., N.H., Vt., R.I.
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Total
Percent of Region
Delaware and Maryland
District of Columbis
Virginia
West Virginia
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia and Florida
Kentucky
Tennessee
Alabama and Mississippi
Total
Percent of Region
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
Total
Percent of Region
Arkansas, Louisiana,
Oklahoma and Texas
Percent of Region
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
North and South Dakota
Nebraska and Kansas
Colorado
Utah
Montana and Idaho
Wyoming
New Mexico
Arizona and Nevada
Washington and Oregon
California
Alaska
Destination not revealable
Total
Percent of Region
Total
Percent of U.S.
4
816
5,980
2,484
37,249
46,533
57%
5,458
15
5,307
28,115
19,886
5,509
20,665
24,968
21,034
19,428
150,385
83To
50,130
29,239
35,011
21,197
10,978
146,555
73°-i
13,782
gOTo
10,448
6,547
20,768
9,808
5,148
7,570
1,805
2,452
8,796
8,089
11 ,784
4,087
254
50
97,606
85°i
454.861
76° i
Coke and
Gas Plants
_
_
5,157
23 , 28 1
28,438
35%
4,309
8
5,295
I
811
17Z
6,691
17,286
lOTo
12,505
12,450
2,735
4,493
268
32.451
16?-i
627
4%
647
289
1,110
1,968
1,905
62
5,981
5%
84,783
14%
Retail
Dealers
9
_
I
20
192
222
- 1%
9
_
254
110
168
85
15
169
142
7
959
< 1°;
092
363
537
248
308
2,148
1%
2
< l»i
90
35
103
80
6
31
121
127
38
7
26
8
14
686
1%
4,017
1 "n
All
Others*
62 ,
15 i
22
2,405
13
3,870
6,387
8%
199
188
1,901
2,960 i
1,177 ,
1,159 i
499
1,372 ;
1,743 1
1,527
12,725
vr,
7,637
3,785
3,172
3,867
2,017
20,478
10%
2,812 :
16Ti
1,137
1,312
1,635
472
602
490
593
596
946
7
437
823
621
444
106
10,221
9%
52,623
9°;
Total
71
19
839
13,562
2,497
64,592
81,580
9,975
203
7,470
36,480
21,231
6,753
21,179
27,320
23,091
27,653
181,355
70,964
45,837
41,455
29,805
13,571
201,632
17,223
12,322
7,894
22,795
10,360
5,756
9,201
4,487
3,175
9,780
8,096
12,228
4,936
2,526
706
232
114,494
596,284*
Destinations and/or Consumer Uses Not Available
GREAT
LAKES
MOVEMENT
TIDEWATER
MOVEMENT
RAILROAD
FUEL
Canadian Commercial Dnrks
VessH Fuel
U.S. Dork Storage
Overseas Exports
United States Companies
Canadian Companies
COAL USED A I MINKS AND
SALES TO EMPLO'r
F rS
NET CHANtir IN INVKJ10KY
TOTXL
DISTRIBUTION
_
_
_
~
~
41
74
351
-- 59,400
- -- - 277
1.362
- - - 2.1 1J
,.«.,
* Includes industrial.
** Excludes railroad fuel, Canadian Great Lakes commercial docks, US
Great Lakes and tidewater dock storage, coal used at mines or sold
to employees, net change in mine inventory and overseas exports.
3-63
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Table 3-11. Projected US coal consumption by region and sector, 1985, in
thousand tons (USDOT 1978).
Region and State
I NORTHEAST
n SOUTHEAST
HI EAST NORTH
CENTRAL
IV WEST SOUTH
CENTRAL
V WEST
U.S.
Massachusetts
Connecticut
Maine
New Hampshire
Vermont
Rhode Island
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Total
Percent of Region
Delaware
Maryland
District of Columbia
Virginia
West Virginia
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia
Florida
Kentucky
Tennessee
Alabama
Mississippi
Total
Percent of Region
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
Total
Percent of Region
Arkansas
Louisiana
Oklahoma
Texas
Total
Percent of Region
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
North Dakota
South Dakota
Nebraska
Kansas
Colorado
Utah
Montana
Idaho
Wyoming
New Mexico
Arizona
Nevada
Washington
Oregon
California
Alaska
Total
Porcont of Rpgion
Tot.il
Percpnt of U.S.
Electric
Utilities
17
4
935
13
18
12,004
2,256
44,6ZO
59,867
50%
2,508
6,572
79
3,870
30,946
2,255
5,564
16,812
12,165
37,104
22,233
26,623
1,545
187,276
70%
64,959
41,279
43,556
24,744
20,266
194,804
59%
8,448
4.320
11 ,840
16,791
41,399
80%
20,485
13,629
26,439
4,898
3,087
6,190
16,830
18,044
10,311
7,820
13,393
12,290
9,800
12,476
7,044
2,000
9,000
NA
193,736
86%
677 ,082
68%
Coke and
Gas Plants
_
6,408
26,669
33,077
27%
4,256
_
5,924
1,621
196
7,729
19,726
7%
15,181
15,786
3,596
4,449
278
39,290
12%
_
1,019
1,019
2%
842
335
1,286
Z.Z17
NA
7,172
3%
100,284
10%
All
Others*
277
211
182
32
14
7,253
488
19,459
27,916
23%
77
3,467
592
8,495
15,356
5,419
4,748
1,073
7,436
7,621
8,202
168
61,654
23%
40,180
16,388
15,748
15,789
8,279
96,384
29%
392
_
604
8,058
9,051
18%
3,586
4,521
5,557
1,201
33
1,096
488
1,762
2,323
198
1,268
1,677
25
39
436
941
496
124
NA
25,771
11%
220,779
22%
Total
294
215
182
967
13
32
25,665
2,744
90,748
120,860
(48%)
2,585
13,295
671
12,365
5Z,226
Z6,674
10,312
17,885
1Z.165
46,161
30,050
42,554
1,713
268,656
(48%)
120,320
73,453
62,900
44,982
28,823
330,478
(64%)
8,840
4,320
12,444
25,868
51,472
(99%)
24,913
18,150
3Z.331
6,099
3,120
7,286
17,318
21,092
14,851
8,018
1,268
15,070
12,315
9,839
12,912
10,477
2,496
9,124
NA
226,679
(Q8%)
998,145
( ) = Percent increase, 1976-1985.
* Includes industrial, retail, residential, and commercial.
NA = Not available.
3-64
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natural gas fired plants are expected to be built because of the rising
costs of these fuels. Furthermore, recent developments in the nuclear power
industry suggest that coal-fired power plants may be considered much more
seriously by the utility industry as an alternative to nuclear plant
construction. Construction of new coal-fired plants will affect coal market
demand favorably in the Basin and State (President's Commission on Coal
1980), but these effects will not be felt in the near future.
Conversions of existing non-coal fossil-fuel, electricity generating
facilities to coal-fired plants are not expected to be significant in number
unless the Federal government makes conversion mandatory, other fuel costs
increase dramatically, for Federal Clean Air Act provisions regulating power
plant emissions are relaxed. The costs of conversion and the costs of
compliance with New Source Performance Standards may discourage voluntary
changeover to coal-fired plants, unless subsidies are provided to facilitate
conversion or other direct and indirect interventions are put forth by the
Federal government. The costs of conversion include the installation of
scrubbers and coal washing facilities for high-sulfur coals, which currently
cannot be burned economically as the result of Clean Air Act emission
standards. If subsidies are provided for conversion, demand for the Basin's
relatively low-sulfur coals can be expected to increase significantly. If
scrubbers and other NAAQS-related technologies are subsidized, market demand
for lower quality coals will be stimulated.
Power plant demand is particularly important to the Basin and State,
because these coalfields are relatively close to large population centers
and to existing and future power plants. Coal transportation costs,
therefore, are advantageous for mines in the Basin. In the more distant
future, coal demand in the Basin may be positively affected by the
development of new technologies such as coal gasification and liquefaction
processes that involve the breaking or cracking of heavy hydrocarbon
molecules into lighter molecules, which then are enriched with hydrogen.
Gasification processes are categorized by reactor configurations and
include:
Fluidized bed
Entrained bed
Fixed bed
Molten salt.
Liquefaction processes include:
Dried hydrogenation
Solvent extraction
Pyrolysis
Indirect liquefaction.
Experimental applications of these new technologies, several of which
are being sponsored by USDOE and others in the State, are being undertaken
at the present time. On July 31, 1980 President Carter joined the Japanese
3-65
-------
and West German ambassadors to sign an agreement to build a $1.4 billion
coal liquefaction plant near Morgantown. Other new technological innovation
relates to facilitating coal use at the utilization site. New flue gas
desulfurization processes, for example, will be critical to electric utility
consumption, given current SC>2 regulations by EPA. New "scrubber"
technologies include:
A dual alkali process utilizing sodium-based scrubbing
solutions, disposed directly or regenerated with
limestone
A magnesium oxide slurry process, whereby magnesium
sulfite is formed and further processed to yield sulfuric
acid and other marketable by-products and magnesium is
recycled
Use of nahcolite (sodium bicarbonate in natural mineral
form) as a dry sorbent for S02 removed
USDOE advanced, closed loop, regenerable systems with no
waste discharge (President's Commission on Coal 1980).
These and other technologies may facilitate compliance with the S02,
NOX, and particulate NAAQS's and other requirements and may enable the use
of lesser quality (i.e. higher sulfur) coals in the future.
3.3.3. Effects of Legislation and Regulations on the Coal Market
As stated before, market demand directly and indirectly is influenced
by a variety of factors which ultimately are reflected in the price of coal.
Recent State and Federal legislation and regulations promulgated under these
laws (see Section 4) have served to increase the cost to produce coal,
reducing demand as a consequence. Health and safety costs and reclamation
costs for underground and surface mines were estimated to increase the cost
of delivered coal to buyers from $0.90 to $1.00 per million Btu during 1977
(National Academy of Sciences 1977). The Appalachian Regional Commission
(1974) and other agencies have found substantial cost increases as the
result of pollution control requirements.
Possibly most important, market demand has been reduced as the result
of the Clean Air Act. Because electric utility facilities have been
required to use low-sulfur coal to achieve NAAQS's and because this coal is
not abundant or cheap, overall coal demand has been reduced.
Costs of runoff control, mine-safety precautions, employee benefits,
unionization of workers, and general reclamation efforts negatively affect
the coal industry in West Virginia by causing prices higher than those for
coal produced in Kentucky, Virginia, and most other States (Table 3-12 and
Figure 3-33). Because of high labor costs, complex coal seam
characteristics, State reclamation requirements, and other factors, West
3-66
-------
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3-67
-------
1977V TON
35
30
25
20
15
10 |-
r
WEST VIRGINIA
i$1.23)*
OHIO (S0.77)*
ILLINOIS (S0.75)*
._ WYOMING (S0.41)"
MONTANA (S0.3D*
J 1 ! I I I I
II i i
I I I I
1955
1960
1965
1970
1975 76
* 1976 Btu-adjusted price (1977$/million Btu) assuming
State average Btu contents:
West Virginia 13,000 Btu/pound
Illinois: 11,200 Btu/pound
Ohio: 11,300 Btu/pound
Wyoming: 9,000 Btu/pound
Montana: 8,300 Btu/pound
Figure 3-33 SELECTED COAL PRICES (USEIA 1977)
3-68
-------
Virginia coal prices at the mine are much higher tha prices for Western
intermountain coal for which extraction costs can be minimized using
large-scale, state-of-the-art techniques in flat terrain. West Virginia
coal, however, is much closer to eastern domestic markets and export
terminals.
Current price data are important because the data suggest that the coal
market in West Virginia appears to be relatively marginal. Increased
regulatory costs may affect the vulnerable West Virginia market more readily
than Western markets which enjoy coal prices that are substantially lower.
Conversely, reduction in additional regulatory costs through subsidization
or modification of the regulations themselves might be especially beneficial
to Basin coal producers.
3.3.4. Projected Mining Activity in the Basin
To determine areas that will be disturbed by mining in the future and
where EPA can expect to receive the greatest number of New Source permit
applications, current coal production data (1977 and 1978) were tabulated by
quadrangle, permit number, coal seam, and seam thickness (underground only).
Also, mine and preparation plant locations were plotted on USGS 7.5-minute
topographic maps, and other more generalized Basin maps. This mapping
delineates areas currently and formerly disturbed by mining as well as the
type of mining used in each area. Current mining was used as an indicator
of where coal seams occur in sufficient quality and quantity to be mined
economically. These areas then were extrapolated on the basis of quantity
and quality of remaining reserves to give an indication of where future
mining will occur. Variations in coal quality and quantity are discussed in
Section 2.7.
Coal reserve data were compiled by county, mining method, and sulfur
content to determine areas with large, high-quality reserves. Mining rates
and reserves were compared to determine whether any coal seams or areas soon
would be depleted. Finally, coal reserves and current mining were compared
to projected areas of future mining activity. The results of the future
mining projection process are intended to be interpreted as gross relative
rankings of potential coal production on an annual basis.
The methodology primarily involves coal supply factors in contrast to
demand or market factors. Clearly these demand factors are critical and
will influence coal production to a large degree. Due to their highly
variable and complex nature, however, demand factors have not been included
in the projection model (see Sections 3.3.1. through 3.3.3. for a review of
demand and overall coal market considerations).
This section addresses the reserves of coal that can be mined feasibly
by prevailing surface and underground methods as indicated by recent
production. The objective of this projection process is to identify areas
(not specific future mining sites) where mining is likely to varying degrees
and where EPA can expect New Source permit applications with cumulative
environmental effects.
3-69
-------
Future mining projections in this analysis were based on the location
of reserves, the quality of the reserves, and their accessibility to mining
companies. A method of assessing the quality of the remaining reserves and
the ease with which mining companies can mine these reserves was developed
so that areas with a high potential for mining could be delineated.
The projection was accomplished by comparing existing mining rates to
the amounts of remaining reserves for each minable coal seam (see
Section 2.7). Past mining in the Basin partially has depleted four coal
seams minable by surface methods and one seam minable by underground
methods. These seams are marked with a (+) on Table 3-5. Comparison of
total reserves to total production at 1978 mining rates, by mining method,
indicates that there are at least 50 years of surface minable reserves and
450 years of underground minable reserves in Basin seams. The projection
methodology assumes that the depositional environment has influenced the
quantity and quality of coal in a particular area. The projection
methodology also assumes that present mining is occurring in the "best" coal
seams, defined as those relatively thick, low in sulfur content, and high in
thermal value. These seams offer mining companies the highest return on
investment at current prices.
Because no seams have been depleted substantially and because seam
quantity and quality are not likely to change over short distances given the
depositional environment constraint, the projection methodology assumed
further that there is more of the same or nearly the same quality coal in
areas currently being mined. (This assumption reflects the rule of gradual
changes as stated by Popoff [1966]). In short, future mining will tend to
follow previous and existing mining. Clearly, if coal reserves exist in
areas adjacent to current mining activity, these reserves will be mined
first as the result of various mining economies (shorter equipment moves,
familiarity with labor force, knowledge of local geology).
The best available and most recent coal reserve estimates utilized in
the projections are those of the USBM (1977) for 1974 (Table 3-5). The
total coal reserves for the Basin are approximately 560 million tons in 13
coal seams. Over 50% of these reserves are in the Upper Freeport Coal Seam
(see Section 2.7). USBM data provide reserve estimates and average sulfur
content by seam by county.
Another factor generally considered in the projection process was
preparation plant location. Generally the location of coal preparation
plants is an indication of extensive current and future mining and reserves.
Preparation plants are constructed near coal mines to reduce transportation
costs. The plants are constructed with local knowledge of the extent of
remaining reserves taken into account. Mining companies typically want to
make sure that the substantial capital outlays required for plant
construction will be defrayed over an extended period during which coal can
be produced. Thus, a large number of preparation plants can be interpreted
as an indication of an increased likelihood of future mining. Small
operators tend to open new mines in coal seams near existing preparation
3-70
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facilities to reduce coal transport costs. The projection methodology
employs weighting factors specific to a given area based on the number of
preparation facilities located in the vicinity.
Finally, the sulfur content of reserves was used to weight the quality
of the reserves. As the result of environmental regulations, power plants
and other coal burning facilities are required to use only those coals with
low sulfur content. Consequently, the projection methodology assumes that
low sulfur coals will be mined more extensively than high sulfur coals.
Because 1977 and 1978 production data were used in the projection
process, all factors influencing mining during those years can be said to
influence the projection results to some extent. A process to designate
lands unsuitable for mining, for example, has been in WVDNR regulations
since 1971, but this process has had no effect on the location of surface
mining in the past and so has not affected the projection process
significantly. In future, the designation of lands unsuitable under SMCRA
and WVSCMRA may have more substantial effects in West Virginia.
Reopening of abandoned surface and underground mines also has occurred
in West Virginia. Surface mine operators employing this practice have an
advantage in that these operators have a place to store initial cut spoil.
This recutting of surface mines was practiced extensively in West Virginia
in 1977 and 1978 and so has influenced the model. Recent data provided by
WVDNR-Reclamation indicate that recuts are becoming increasingly prevalent,
thereby reinforcing the validity of the projection methodology. Reopening
of underground mines is a complicated process and is assumed to offer fewer
advantages to mine operators for the projection methodology.
The projection process commenced by rating each coal seam by sulfur
content. Low sulfur reserves were increased in value according to a formula
which is based on the fact that low sulfur coals command a higher selling
price and thus are potentially more profitable to mine. A formula was
derived from information contained in the Energy Data Report (1977):
4.8-Yi? where:
1.9
4.8 is the maximum percent sulfur content by weight for coal shipped in the
US; 1.9 is the average percent sulfur content by weight for coal shipped in
the US; and Yi is the average percent sulfur content by weight of the coal
seam.
This straightforward formula allows for a weighting to be applied to
the coal reserves summed by county. This summation indicates amount and
quality of reserves within the county.
Next, a means to compare smaller areas was prepared. This method used
current production by 7.5-minute USGS quadrangle as an indicator of economic
reserves. Economically minable reserves are those for which the selling
price of the coal exceeds the costs to mine by a certain percentage, usually
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16% (called the rate of return). Economic reserves are high-quality, thick
seams that are in areas easily or already accessed by transportation
facilities, have an experienced work force in the area, and have other
favorable conditions.
In projecting future mining activity, current production by quadrangle
has been used as an important indicator of future economically minable
reserves. This assumption has been made not only because seam quality,
including thickness, is less likely to change over short distances, but
also because mining companies generally own properties adjacent to their
existing operations. Therefore, economically minable deposits by definition
tend to be near existing mines. The production data used here were for 1977
and 1978. These data are the most recent available and the most
representative of economic seams.
Production by quadrangle was calculated using WVDM's Annual Report and
Directory of Mines for 1977 and 1978 weighted by the number of preparation
plants per quadrangle. The weighting factor was
0.83
(1.83)Pi
where the 0.83 coefficient is based on the fact that 83% of mined coal was
sent to preparation plants in the US in 1977 (data for West Virginia and the
Basin were not available); N^ is the number of preparation plants in a
quadrangle; and P. is coal production in tons during 1977 and 1978. The
model was constructed so that production by quadrangle (Tables 3-3 and 3-4)
was factored to include remaining reserves by county (Table 3-5).
The analysis took the form:
Weighting Factor = Quadrangle Production Factor X County Reserves Factor
V
X
/ 0.83 P, Nk+( 1-0.83) PJ
where:
= weighting factor indicating future production by quadrangle k,
to be applied to current Basin production tonnage
= 1977 and 1978 production from seam i in a quadrangle k (short
tons)
= reserves in seam i in county j (short tons)
= number of preparation plants in a quadrangle k
= percent sulfur in seam i in county j
= number of seams in the quadrangle
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^~ ^ pfci = the total Basin production
k-l 1=1
0.83 = the percent of coal mined in the US that requires preparation
4.8 = the highest percent sulfur in shipped US coals
1.9 = the average percent sulfur in shipped US coals
s = the number of quadrangles in the Basin.
The factor Z^ is multiplied by the constant 6.3 x Ifl3 to get an
indication of expected production/year for a quadrangle. This factor was
arrived at through interpolation of present production statistics.
The Z^ data showing potential future production were plotted and
interpolated to form Figure 3-34, which shows potential future production in
tons/sq mi/year. In general the area (approximately 89 sq mi) having a
potential future production of 8 to 16 x Ifl3 tons/sq mi/year has an
average current production of 12 x K)3 tons/sq mi/year. In the areas
having potential future production of 0.8 to 8 x K)3 and less than 0.8 x
Ifl3 tons/sq mi/year, production averaged 2.0 x 103 and 0.5 x 103
tons/sq mi/year, respectively. Areas were approximately 69 sq mi and 36 sq
mi, respectively. The remaining area had little or no current production.
This projection process was performed to indicate zones of relative
potential for future mining, holding all exogenous factors constant. This
projection process is not sensitive to the many factors influencing the
economics of mining such as market conditions, variation in overburden
characteristic, coal ownership, seam variations, roof and floor variation,
aquifer occurrence. The production projections are intended only to
approximate areas of future mining activity and should be interpreted only
as approximate indicators of mining potential as well as New Source permit
application frequency. The projection process is not intended to predict
specific sites or yields of surface and underground operations.
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Figure 3-34
POTENTIAL ANNUAL COAL PRODUCTION OF
AREAS IN THE NORTH BRANCH POTOMAC
RIVER BASIN (WAPORA I960)
8,000 TO 16,000 TONS/SQ Ml
800 TO 8,000 TONS/SQ Ml
LESS THAN 800 TONS/SQ Ml
NO PRODUCTION
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4.0. REGULATIONS GOVERNING MINING ACTIVITIES
The mining of coal is a stringently regulated activity. Both the State
of West Virginia and the Federal Government have enacted laws and published
regulations aimed at eliminating past abuses and guiding future mining acti-
vities so as to minimize future adverse effects. This chapter outlines the
framework through which new coal mining activities are regulated. The
emphasis throughout is on environmental considerations, rather than mining
safety.
4 1. PAST AND CURRENT WEST VIRGINIA REGULATIONS
This section briefly describes the history of mining regulations in
West Virginia during the past 40 years. It then focuses on specific current
permit requirements.
4.1.1. Outline History of State Surface Mining Regulations
The State of West Virginia enacted its first surface mining control
legislation in 1939. This law recognized the disruptive environmental
effects of surface mining operations and therefore required backfilling of
spoil so as to minimize flooding, pollution of waters, accumulation of stag-
nant water, and destruction of soil for agricultural purposes. It also
required a permit and bond of $150 per acre of coal to be mined (but the
bonding did not include all acreage disturbed). The West Virginia
Department of Mines was given sole regulatory authority over surface mines,
as well as underground mines.
This initial legislation was amended and broadened in 1945, 1947, and
1959. The 1945 legislation established a registration fee of $50 and
increased bonding to $500 per acre of coal mined with a minimum total of
$1,000 per operation. Authority for the revocation of permits and
forfeiture of bonds was also provided, as well as for requiring specific
minimum information on the permit application. A method for approving the
regrading of a mining site was also developed. Specific reclamation
measures mandated were:
Cover the coal face after mining
Bury pyritic shales
Seal breakthroughs to underground mines
Drain surface water accumulation
Divert runoff to natural drainageways with as little
erosion as possible
Remove all metal, lumber and refuse from site after
completion of mining
4-1
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Regrade and refill ditches, trenches, or excavations to
minimize flood hazard
Plant trees, shrubs, grasses, or vines as approved by the
regulatory authority.
In 1947, a special fund for registration fees and forfeited bonds was
established to be used for administration and certain reclamation work. A
waiver was provided from the mandatory covering of the coal face, if a drift
mine was proposed. The 1959 legislation defined surface mining to exclude
auger mining as a method and created five surface mining administrative
divisions within the State, with one inspector assigned to each division.
Registration fees were raised to $100, and an annual permit renewal fee of
$50 per year was established. Both fees were to be deposited into a General
Revenue Account. A Bond Forfeiture Fund was established, to be used
exclusively for the reclamation of areas affected by surface mining.
In 1961, reclamation responsibilities were assigned to the newly
established West Virginia Department of Natural Resources and subsequently
to the Division of Reclamation within the Department. Responsibility for
bonding also was transferred to the West Virginia Department of Natural
Resources. This resulted in a dual-agency responsibility with the West
Virginia Department of Mines, which remained as the principal enforcement
authority concerned with active operations. The Division of Reclamation's
responsibility was broadened in 1963 legislation, and the definition of
surface mining was expanded to include auger mining operations. Also in
1963, a Reclamation Board of Review (an appeals council) and a Special
Reclamation Fund and Program were created. The latter was financed by the
industry through a $30 per disturbed acre fee. The program's objective is
the rehabilitation of abandoned surface mined areas. During the same year,
a requirement that proof of bond deposit ($150 per acre with a minimum total
of $1,000 per operation) was initiated; this bonding was for the entire
disturbed acreage rather than for only the acres from which coal is removed.
Moreover, the 1963 legislation specifically mandated operators to regrade in
accordance with the Department of Natural Resources regulations and to:
Regrade spoil peaks and cover the bottom of the final cut
Remove all rocks which roll beyond toe of spoil pile and
locate them at the toe
Seal all underground mine openings encountered
Obtain regulatory approval to retain ponds after mining is
completed.
Regulatory authority was consolidated in 1967, when all surface mining
enforcement responsibilities were transferred to the Division of Reclama-
tion. At that time, the following additional measures were implemented:
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Requirement for a prospecting permit with an application
procedure and reclamation bond ($150 per acre)
Establishment of a thirty-day frequency for inspections of
each mine site
Determination of bonding rate between $100 and $500
(The Director set the rate at $300 per acre.)
Inspector's authority to close an operation in violation
of regulations
Triple damages protection to any person whose property was
damaged by an operation
All runoff to be impounded, drained, or treated so as to
reduce erosion and pollution of streams.
By this transfer of power, reclamation could be considered not only
after mining, but also during both the pre-planning procedure and the active
mining phase. Consequently the complexity of permit applications
increased.
A multi-division application review process was initiated within WVDNR
during 1971 to include the technical expertise of the Divisions of Water
Resources and Planning and Development. Subsequently the review process was
expanded further to include other agencies in WVDNR, such as the Forestry
Division, Wildlife Resources Division, and Division of Parks and Recreation.
The Surface Mining and Reclamation Act of 1971 and associated regulations
also contributed to the complexity of regulatory responsibility by including
the following:
Requiring that all drainage be controlled in approved
structures installed prior to mining
Mandating topsoil segregation and subsequent replacement
after backfilling in acid-producing overburden areas
Providing for control of all blasting activity
Limiting bench widths for contour mining and prohibiting
fill benches on slopes greater than 65%
Requiring that all highwalls be eliminated if original
slopes were less than 30%; for those slopes greater than
30%, mandating highwall reduction to a maximum of 30 feet
of exposed highwall
Providing for standards to keep reclamation current with
mining
4-3
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Requiring that grasses as well as trees must be planted on
completed areas and stipulating minimum survival rate
standards for revegetation
Increasing inspection frequency to once every 15 days
Providing for newspaper public notification, adjacent
landowner certified mail notification, and the opportunity
to file protests for any given application
Increasing the bond range from $600 to $1,000 per acre
(originally set administratively at $750 per acre but
increased to $1,000 per acre during 1975)
Increasing the Special Reclamation Tax from $30 to $60 per
acre
Increasing the registration fee to $500 and annual renewal
fee to $100.
Prohibiting expansion of surface mining into 22 counties,
which essentially lacked surface mining as of 1971, and
which were designated as "Moratorium Counties" for several
years.
In early 1973, an administrative policy revision was enacted in
response to the most notable problem regarding reclamation, that of fill
slope creation in terrain which exceeded an original steepness of 50% (27°).
This policy revision required that mining operations in such steeply sloping
areas propose a method of mining that would not create a fill slope.
Lateral haulback (or controlled spoil placement) methods were developed in
response to this mandate and continue to be refined in response to
environmental concerns.
In 1976, the Reclamation Division's regulatory responsibility was
broadened to include the surface effects of underground mines. This was
followed by State legislative changes in 1977 that provided for final
regrading to approximate original contour, with all highwalls, spoil piles,
and depressions eliminated. Fill slopes in areas having original slopes of
20° or greater were prohibited; an exception was made for initial cut
downslope spoil placement, but only under certain conditions. These
provisions were specifically qualified as 1) not precluding or limiting the
authority of the Director to modify these requirements in order to bring
about more desirable land uses or watershed control, and 2) permitting
mountaintop removal and valley fill techniques, provided prior written
approval of the Director is obtained.
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In 1978, the Director and the State Reclamation Commissionl were
given authority to implement the Federal Surface Mining Control and Reclama-
tion Act of 1977 (P.L. 95-87) through rule-making. This was followed in
early 1980 by the West Virginia Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation Act
(West Virginia Code, Chapter 20, Articles 6 and 6C, and Chapter 22, Articles
2, 6, and 6C), which is to bring the State statutes into conformity with
Federal guidelines. As of August 1980 WVDNR had not yet promulgated
regulations based on this new law to form a complete regulatory package to
become the basis for USOSM delegation of the SMCRA permanent program. The
United States Secretary of the Interior was expected to issue a decision
during September 1980 on regulatory procedures submitted during March and
revised during April (Verbally, Ms. Christine Struminski, USOSM, to Dr.
James Schmid, August 25, 1980). If approved by the Secretary of the
Interior, the West Virginia Department of Natural Resources will assume
regulatory primacy from the United States Office of Surface Mining
Reclamation and Enforcement for regulation of surface mining activities in
accordance with State and Federal law following promulgation of
regulations.
4.1.2. Current State Permit Programs
In West Virginia the coal mining industry is regulated principally by
two cabinet departments. Underground mining operations, mine safety, and
miner certification are regulated by the West Virginia Department of Mines.
Surface mines, the surface operations associated with underground mines, and
coal preparation facilities are regulated by the West Virginia Department of
Natural Resources.
WVDNR is the principal State agency charged with environmental
protection and with the management of natural resources, recreation, and
State lands (Figure 4-1 ). Within WVDNR the Division of Reclamation is
responsible for regulating surface mining through permit review, enforcement
and inspection, and abandoned mine reclamation programs. The Division of
Reclamation is also the administrative agency that has been charged with
execution of State regulatory functions pursuant to the Federal Surface
Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (P.L. 95-87). During the 1978-
1979 fiscal year the Division of Reclamation issued 135 surface mining
permits covering 12,005 acres, 44 prospecting permits, and 122 underground
opening approvals. Division personnel made 8,400 mine inspections (WVDNR
current (1980) membership of the Reclamation Commission consists of
the Director of WVDNR (Chairman), the Water Resources Division Chief, the
Reclamation Division Chief, and the Director of the Department of Mines.
Members receive no compensation. The Commission has rule-making and
investigation powers. It also acts on petitions to designate lands
unsuitable for mining (Section 4.1.4.2.). Staff assistance is provided to
the Chairman by the West Virginia Attorney General (WVSCMRA 20-6-7, 1980).
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Wonderful WV Magazine
Public Information
Environmental Analysis
Natural Resources Commission
Reclamation Commission
Public Land Corporation
DEPUTY DIRECTOR
Environmental Protection
DEPUTY DIRECTOR
Recreation & Land
Management Services
February 1979
Figure 4-1 ORGANIZATION OF WVDNR, 1979
4-6
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1979). The Division is to administer the rules and regulations promulgated
by the Reclamation Commission (WVSCMRA 20-6-7, 1980).
The Division of Reclamation heretofore has been assisted by the
Division of Water Resources, also a line agency in WVDNR, in permit review
of water quality aspects of surface mining. The Water Resources Division
also supplies technical services including laboratory analyses to assist the
monitoring and enforcement activities of the Division of Reclamation. The
Division of Water Resources issues permits for coal preparation facilities.
During the 1978-1979 fiscal year 15 plants were proposed or under con-
struction, and 29 new or modified plants were put into operation. All of
the 84 active and 294 inactive coal preparation plants in West Virginia are
inspected periodically by Division of Water Resources personnel. This
Division is implementing several Federally sponsored programs in accordance
with the Clean Water Act, and it eventually will be responsible for admini-
stration of the NPDES permit program. In the future, NPDES effluent
limitations will be incorporated into the SMCRA and WVSCMRA permit issued by
WVDNR-Reclamation, possibly following review by WVDNR-Water Resources.
The Water Resources Division establishes baseline water quality data
pursuant to Section 303(e) of CWA and develops stream water quality
standards to protect the uses which it establishes in conjunction with the
State Water Resources Board. The NPDES New Source permit program can be
tailored to achieve a desirable level of protection of the established water
uses by applying, where appropriate, discharge limitations more stringent
than the Nationwide New Source Performance Standards.
The West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission, an independent
agency, is charged with air quality regulation pursuant to the State Air
Pollution Control Act. It also discharges the duties prescribed by the
Federal Clean Air Act pursuant to the revised State Implementation Plan,
which has received conditional approval from EPA (45 FR 159:54042-54053,
August 14, 1980).
4.1.3. General Framework of State Laws and Regulations
The coal mining industry in West Virginia is regulated pursuant to
Chapters 20 (surface mining) and 22 (underground mining) of the West
Virginia Code. The West Virginia Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation Act
amended these sections of the West Virginia Code during March 1980.
The State does not have a comprehensive environmental protection law.
It relies on various permit programs, certain of which entail performance
bonds, to assure that reclamation is performed. The ensuing paragraphs
describe the principal State permits required for new mining activities as
of early 1980. Revisions in the regulations as a result of the WVSCMRA are
anticipated. Special attention is given to the environmental information
that must be supplied as part of each permit application, because such
information may be of use to EPA in administering the New Source NPDES
permit program.
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4.1.4. Specific Permit Applications
There are several State permits and procedures that affect new mining
in West Virginia. Which permits are necessary for a specific facility
depends largely on the nature of the proposed operation. The descriptions
presented here are based on the 1978 edition of the West Virginia mining
statutes; the WVSCMRA; regulations, application forms, and checklists
provided by WVDNR as of early 1980; and the preliminary State regulatory
program submitted to the US Department of the Interior for administration of
the 1977 Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act during March 1980.
Mining exempt from WVDNR permits includes:
Extraction of coal by a landowner for his own
non-commercial use from land owned or leased by him
Extraction of coal by a landowner engaged in construction,
where the landowner has first demonstrated that
construction will occur within a reasonable time after
disturbance, and not more than one acre of private land is
to be disturbed
Removal of borrow and fill grading material for Federal
and State highway or other construction projects, provided
that the construction contract requires a suitable bond to
provide practicable reclamation of the affected borrow
area (WVSCMRA, 20-6-29).
4.1.4.1. Prospecting Permit
Before a major coal mine is initiated, particularly in areas that have
not undergone extensive previous mining, it is likely that the area will be
subjected to intensive prospecting as part of mine planning. Prospecting
can entail considerable surface disturbance. In accordance with the State
surface mining statute (WVSCMRA 20-6-8; formerly West Virginia Code 20-6-7),
the WVDNR-Reclamation is empowered to require a permit to excavate overbur-
den from coal deposits for exploration or other purposes in any area not
covered by a current surface mining permit. Application forms (DR-3)
require identification and bond revocation history of the applicant, the
identification of reclamation measures to be used, and information on the
proposed revegetation. A performance bond at $500 per acre must be posted,
and the quantity of minerals allowed to be removed for testing, without
special permission, is limited to 250 tons. Prospecting permit bonds are
released following satisfactory reclamation in accordance with permit
requirements, and the prospecting operation must conform with any
regulations on haul roads, blasting, drainage, underground water protection,
operating requirements, and revegetation that are applicable to surface
mining generally. Prospecting permits are valid for one year.
The WVSCMRA (20-6-8) revises prospecting permit procedures. It
provides that a prospector file with WVDNR a notice of intent to prospect at
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least 15 days prior to the commencement of prospecting operations. The
notice is to identify the area to be prospected, the period of prospecting,
the cropline and name of seam(s) to be prospected, and other information as
required by WVDNR. The WVDNR can deny or limit permission to prospect
where:
The proposed operation will damage or destroy a unique
natural area
The proposed operation will cause seriou.s harm to water
quality
The operator has failed to reclaim other prospecting
sites
There has been an abuse of prospecting previously
in the area.
Prospecting operations are subject to inspection, closure, revocation of
approval, and bond forfeiture if the operations, reclamation, and
revegetation are not in accordance with the surface mining performance
standards of WVDNR. Reclamation of prospecting disturbances, however, may
be postponed if the operator obtains a regular surface mining permit and
begins actual mining.
The prospecting permit application must be accompanied by a map that
shows existing oil and gas wells, cemeteries, and utilities. The
reclamation plan must specify the future post-mining land use, drainage
control measures, regrading methods and timetable, and plans for
revegetation in the event that actual mining does not occur promptly. The
special State reclamation tax is not applied until the prospecting area is
approved for actual mining.
The prospecting permit application is reviewed first for completeness
and technical adequacy by a district permit review team with expertise in
engineering, geology, and hydrology. Following on-site inspection, changes
in the proposed plans can be mandated to the applicant. The application
then is processed in Charleston, where special attention is given to
administrative aspects. The WVDNR-Reclamation publishes notices of approved
applications in local newspapers. The procedure is outlined in Figure 4-2 ,
as it is expected to function in the near future.
4.1.4.2. Procedure for Identifying Lands Unsuitable for Mining
Operations
Section 20-6-22 of the WVSCMRA provides for the designation of lands
unsuitable for mining and incorporates a public participation mechanism in
the designation process. This section replaces Section 20-6-11 of the West
Virginia Code. The Reclamation Commission upon petition is to designate an
area as unsuitable for new surface mining, if it determines that reclamation
of the area is not technologically and economically feasible. The criteria
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Prospecting Permit Application Procedure
Figure 4-2 PROSPECTING PERMIT PROCEDURE (WVDNR I960)
4-10
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established by the Legislature for surface areas that may be designated as
unsuitable for certain types of surface mining operations include:
Areas where operations are incompatible with existing
State or local land use plans
Areas with fragile or historic resources where operations
could significantly damage important historic, cultural,
scientific, and aesthetic values and natural systems
Renewable resource lands (including aquifers and recharge
areas) where operations could result in substantial loss
or reduction of long-term productivity of water supply,
food, or fiber products
Natural hazard lands where operations could substantially
endanger life and property
Lands with frequent flooding or unstable geology.
The Reclamation Commission is to develop a review capacity and data base to
support the designation process. The Commission is to prepare a detailed
statement on the potential coal resources, demand for coal resources, and
impact of designation on the environment, the economy, and the supply of
coal before designating an area as unsuitable for mining. The designation
of an area as unsuitable is not to prevent prospecting operations, but it
eliminates the value of the coal for purposes of taxation for as long as the
designation is in effect (unless the coal can be mined by underground
methods).
The Legislature repeated the prohibitions on classes of lands
automatically to be considered unsuitable that were mandated by Congress in
the SMCRA, but authorized WVDNR to grant variances upon an affirmative
finding that positive environmental benefits would result from such mining.
The petition procedure for designation of lands unsuitable for mining is
outlined in Figure 4-3).
When inquiries concerning specific parcels are received from coal
operators or from the public, WVDNR will ascertain whether the parcel has
been reviewed for its suitability for mining using its computerized data
bank. Where no apparent conflicts exist, the inquiry from an applicant is
forwarded to State and Federal agencies with responsibilities for historic
and public lands. Where an apparent conflict exists, the applicant, inter-
ested agencies, and WVDNR-Reclamation personnel hold a coordination meeting,
so that the applicant can begin immediately to address impact avoidance and
mitigation measures. The inquiry process is to precede the remaining permit
application procedures for surface mining permit processing by WVDNR (Figure
4-4 )
EPA will not review New Source NPDES permit applications for mining
facilities proposed in any area being considered for designation as
unsuitable for mining until the designation process has been completed. No
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Unsuitable Lands Petition Procedure
(Petition A
Submit io d J
/Notify P«IHion«r\
la Terminate Process/
Circulate Petition to Olher
Agencies B Notify Public
of Petition's Rcciipt
Maximum Time From
£ morani
Figure 4-3 UNSUITABLE LANDS PETITION PROCEDURE
(WVDNR I960)
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Unsuitable Lands Inquiry Procedure
Figure 4-4 UNSUITABLE LANDS INQUIRY PROCEDURE
(WVDNR I960)
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New Source NPDES permit will be issued to proposed facilities in lands
designated as unsuitable for mining.
4.1.4.3. Incidental Surface Mining Permit
Coal mining on small tracts of land where coal is to be removed
incidentally to the development of commercial, industrial, residential, or
civic uses is regulated by the WVDNR-Reclamation pursuant to Section 20-6-31
of the WVSCMRA. A streamlined permit review procedure applies to tracts
smaller than five acres and also may be used for the reprocessing of
abandoned coal waste piles. Tracts larger than two acres will require the
regular surface mining permit.
The review process is essentially the same as that for prospecting
permits (Figure 4-2 ). A reclamation bond of $3,000 per acre is required,
together with the $60 per acre special reclamation tax. A pre-plan map
(1:6,000 scale) must be submitted, as for a regular surface mining permit,
showing existing and proposed features, together with detailed plans for the
mining and reclamation activities. Plans for blasting, drainage control,
and the proposed post-mining uses also must be detailed, together with an
explanation of why the coal must be removed as a part of the proposed
development.
The information submitted with the application form (DR-4) must include
the following plans, maps, and drawings for site preparation, development,
and reclamation:
Pre-plan map, color coded and certified by registered
engineer or other qualified professional
-probable limits of adjacent underground mines within 500
feet
-probable limits of inactive mines and mined-out areas
within 500 feet
-boundaries of surface properties within 500 feet
-names of surface and mineral owners within 500 feet
-names and locations of all streams and water bodies
within 500 feet
-roads, buildings, and cemeteries within 500 feet
-active or abandoned oil wells, gas wells, and utility
wells on disturbed areas or within 500 feet
-boundary and acreage of land to be disturbed
-coal crop line
-drainage plan (direction of flow, existing waterways to
be used for drainage, constructed drainways, and
receiving waters)
-location of overburden acid-producing materials that may
cause spoil with pH <3.5
-method for revegetation for acid spoil
Description of site preparation and mining sequence, with
time periods
4-14
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Methods and procedures for removing and disposing trees
and brush
Blasting plans and necessary approvals
Method of drainage control
Method of removing and stockpiling topsoil material
Methods for handling and replacing overburden including
toxic (acid-forming) materials
Methods for control of overburden after placement
Total acreage of development and specific acreage for coal
removal
Description of proposed development, including schedule by
phases
Other governmental approvals
Reclamation procedures, equipment, and time schedule
Typical cross-section of regraded area
Methods to replace topsoil and expected thickness.
4.1.4.4. Surface Mining Permit
The principal West Virginia surface mining permit application procedure
is a complex process with opportunity for public comment and review.
Detailed mining and reclamation plans are to be prepared by personnel
approved by the Division of Reclamation and then signed and attested as to
accuracy. They are submitted first to the district Surface Mining
Reclamation Inspector for review. This 30-day initial review addresses both
the completeness of the application and the technical adequacy of the
plans.
At the initial review stage the mine plans must include the following
kinds of environmental and engineering information on maps, drawings, and
application forms:
Limits of proposed permit area, area to be disturbed, crop
line of coal seam, strike and dip of coal seam
Limits of adjacent active underground mining operations
within 500 feet
4-15
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Probable limits of adjacent inactive or mined-out
underground mines within 500 feet
Boundaries of surface properties within 500 feet of
proposed disturbed area
Names and addresses of surface and mineral owners within
500 feet
Names and locations of streams or other public
waters, roads, buildings, cemeteries, active or other oil
and gas wells, and utility lines on or within 500 feet
Natural waterways, constructed drains, and receiving
streams for drainage, with the direction of flow for all
waterways
Location of significant quantities of acid-producing
overburden material that can result in spoil with pH less
than 3.5
Method for treatment of acid-producing spoil for
revegetation and stabilization of surface
Location and extent of access and haul roads, stockpiles,
landfills, observation wells, and other operations
currently under bond, with permit numbers
Cross-sectional scale drawing of disturbed area before,
during, and after mining
Operable equipment to be used for regrading
Method to spread topsoil or other surface material after
regrading, and approximate thickness
Drainage control methods for final regraded area
Map (1:24,000 scale) showing all structures within 0.5
mile of permit area
Evidence of right to affect structures within 300 feet of
disturbed area
Type of proposed mining operation
Premining and postmining land uses
Average pH of soil before mining
4-16
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pH and iron concentration in any active discharge from
abandoned underground mine on proposed permit area
Proposed mining sequence and duration
Procedure for constructing and maintaining roadways
Typical cross-section and profile of proposed roadways in
accordance with WVDNR design specifications
Indication of any proposed mining within 100 feet of
public roadway or any need to relocate a public road
(
Detailed site preparation procedure including removal and
disposal of trees
Location of off-site reference areas for judgment of
successful revegetation
Detailed blasting procedure and calculations according to
WVDNR formulas and requirements
Method for removing and stockpiling soil or upper horizon
material, with stockpile location(s)
Method for placement of overburden
Method for control of overburden after placement (including
haulageways; emphasis on outer slope)
9 Procedure for final mechanical stabilization of
overburden
Plans to develop cross-sections derived from coreborings
to show:
-Location and elevation of borings
-Nature and depth of overburden strata
-Location and quality of subsurface water
-Nature and thickness of coal and rider seams
-Nature of stratum immediately below coal to be mined
-Mine openings to the surface
-Location of aquifers
-Estimated elevation of water table
-Results of overburden analysis in watersheds of lightly
buffered (critical) streams, except where there is
documentation of absence of past acid problems
-Plans for handling and final placement of toxic strata
Surface water monitoring program plans to develop (during
the period of mine operation):
4-17
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-Data adequate to describe daily and seasonal discharges
from disturbed area (flow volume, pH, total iron, total
suspended solids)
-Daily monitoringl of precipitation using rain gauges
-Daily monitoringl and written records of total iron, pH,
and volume of discharge water
-Monthly report of all measurements and immediate
notification of WVDNR of violations
-Daily monitoring (flow volume, total iron, total
suspended solids) following regrading and seeding to
demonstrate acceptable postmining runoff quality and
quantity without treatment and allow the removal of
control systems (a one year record of meeting effluent
limitations is acceptable evidence that surface water
quality has stabilized)
Groundwater monitoring procedure to provide:
-Data on background groundwater levels, infiltration rates,
subsurface flow and storage, and quality, from bonded
wells
-Data on effects of mining on groundwater quantity and
quality
Data on prime farmlands and plans to restore such
farmland
Identification of slopes in excess of 20° (36%)
Percent original slope at 200-foot intervals along the
contour
When the site has been inspected by the district Surface Mining
Reclamation Inspector and the application has been revised or appealed as
necessary, the application is filed with the Charleston Office of
WVDNR-Reclamation, and a Surface Mining Application Number is assigned. The
applicant then must repeatedly publish a legal advertisement locally, must
notify adjacent landowners, and must provide a copy of the permit appli-
cation package for public inpsection in the local courthouse. Thirty days
are allowed for public comments. Copies of the completed permit application
are reviewed by the Division of Water Resources as well as by the Division
lExcept where operator demonstrates by sufficient data that there is a
reasonable expectation that no violation of State or Federal discharge
standards will occur.
-------
of Reclamation.1 During the final review of the permit application all
required information must be present. In addition to the information
ordinarily present during the initial review stage, the following data must
be provided:
If a mountaintop removal operation or any change from premining to
postmining land use is proposed, then the applicant must supply:
Written evidence of any necessary agency approval
regarding zoning or other land use controls
Specific plans that show the feasibility of the proposed
land use related to needs, and that the use can be
achieved and sustained within a reasonable time after
mining without delaying reclamation
Provision or commitment to provide necessary public
services.
Provision or commitment to provide financing and
maintenance of the proposed land use
Demonstration that the proposed use will not threaten
public health, public safety, water flow diminution, or
water pollution
Approvals of any proposed measures to prevent or mitigate
adverse effects on fish and wildlife resources
For changes to postmining cropland uses that require
continuous maintenance, a firm written commitment to
provide the necessary crop management, plus evidence to
show sufficient water and sufficient topsoil to support
the proposed crop production
Background analytical data from natural waterways upstream
and downstream from the disturbed area and from
tributaries to affected streams concerning pH, total hot
acidity, total mineral acidity, total alkalinity, total
aluminum, total manganese, total iron, total sulfate,
total dissolved solids, and total suspended solids prior
llhe draft submission to USOSM by WVDNR procedurally allows for comments
to the Division of Reclamation during WVSCMRA permit review. The weight
that will be given to issues raised by WVDNR-Water Resources and other
agencies by WVDNR-Reclamation is not yet certain, and the detailed
regulations are not yet available.
4-19
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to mining operations, with location of sampling stations
shown on the map
Locations of proposed water monitoring stations for use
during mining
Locations of proposed rain gauges
Treatment facilities for water discharges
Detailed plan for restoration of prime farmland,
including:
-Description of original undisturbed soil profile
-Methods and equipment for removing, stockpiling, and
replacing soil to preserve separate layers, prevent
erosion from stockpiles, scarify graded land, avoid
overcompaction, insure productive capacity, maintain
permeability of at least 0.06 inch per hour in
uppermost 20 inches, prevent erosion of final surface,
and establish vegetation quickly
-Evidence to show that equivalent or higher postmining
yields can be attained as compared with pre-mining
yields
-Evidence to support alternative measures to obtain
equivalent or higher yields, if alternative measures
are proposed
-Plans for seeding or cropping the final graded land for
the first year after reclamation
Plan for revegetation, including:
-Substantiated prediction of mine soil taxonomic class
following regrading
-Treatment to neutralize acidity
-Mechanical seed bed preparation
-Rate and analysis of fertilization
-Rate and type of mulch
-Perennial vegetation seeding rate and species
composition proposed
-Areas to be seeded or planted to trees and shrubs
-Land use objective
-Maintenance schedule
-Responsible party for revegetation
Plan for drainage, including:
-Proposed impoundments with adequate storage capacity and
proper design
-Diversion ditches above highwall, if any
-Diversion ditches below spoil, if any
-Method to lower water from bench to drainage control
structures
4-20
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Plan for blasting, including:
-Survey of dwellings, schools, churches, hospitals, and
nursing facilities within 1,000 feet of blasting areas
-Survey of underground utilities, overhead utilities, gas
wells, and abandoned underground mines within 500 feet
of blasting areas
-List of residents, local governments, and utilities
within 0.5 mile
-List of landowners within 1,000 feet.
Notice of receipt of the completed application is given by WVDNR to:
-Federal, State, and local agencies with jurisdiction or
interest in the permit area, including fish and
wildlife and historic preservation agencies
-Governmental planning agencies with jurisdiction over
land use, air quality, and water quality planning
-Sewer and water treatment authorities and water
companies concerned with the permit area
-Federal and State agencies with authority to issue any
other permit or license known to be needed by the
applicant for the proposed operation.
Following opportunity for an informal conference, the Division of
Reclamation completes its technical review and prepares the written findings
to support its decision on the permit. The recommendations of the Division
of Water Resources are considered in this process. After the decision is
issued and interested individuals and agencies have been notified, there is
a 30-day period for initiation of appeal. The manner in which this process
is expected to work in the near future is outlined in Figure 4-5
Valid permits are to be renewed by WVDNR at least once during their
term (WVSCMRA, 20-6-19), and permit rights can be transferred following
written approval by WVDNR of an application (DR-19). Permits can be
renewed, if application (DR-17) is made 4 months in advance of expiration,
provided that:
The terms of the existing permit are being met
The operation complies with current reclamation
requirements (or will be in compliance within a reasonable
period of time)
The renewal does not jeopardize the operator's
responsibility on existing permit areas
The performance bond will remain in effect
The applicant provides any other information required by
WVDNR.
4-21
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4.1.4.5. Permit for Mine Facilities Incidental to Coal Removal
Mine faciliites incidental to coal removal include non-exclusive haul
roads, coal preparation facilities, tipples, unit train loadouts, sidings,
equipment maintenance areas, sanitary landfills, bath houses, mine offices,
and ancillary structures. For such facilities the application form (DR-23)
must include standard information on the identity and past mining activity
of the applicant, together with proof of notice to landowners within 500
feet. Bond for the disturbed area (including haul roads and drainage
system) is $1,000 per acre, with a $10,000 minimum for tipples, coal
preparation plants, and refuse sites. No special reclamation tax is
required. The procedure is the same as that for regular surface mining
permits (Figure 4-5 ).
In addition, the following types of information must accompany the
application:
Prior land use of site
Post-reclamation land use of site
List of residents, local governments, and utilities
within 0.5 mile
Approvals from local, other State, and Federal agencies
needed for the facility
List of landowners within 1,000 feet
Sequence and schedule for clearing and grubbing
Location and method for disposal of trees, brush, and
debris
Location, design, and specifications for construction and
maintenance of underdrains, channels, diversions,
culverts, etc.
Site layout drawings (regrading, revegetation, structures,
parking areas, refuse areas, water courses and
drainageways, all color coded)
Plans and procedures for construction and maintenance of
haulageways and access roads, including cross-sections and
profiles
Detailed blasting procedures and pre-plans where
applicable (including surveys of structures within 1,000
feet)
4-23
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Plans for topsoil removal, stockpiling, and reapplication
(with special provisions for prime farmland, if
applicable)
Plans for overburden placement and toxic material
handling
Methods for control of overburden after placement
Procedure for final mechanical stabilization of
overburden
Cross-sections to show original topography, surface
configuration after development, and final regrading and
topsoiling
Method for final mechanical stabilization
Revegetation plan for temporary cover, interim cover
during site use, and post-reclamation cover, including
-seed bed preparation
-soil preparation and treatment
-revegetation species and rates
-mulch
Maps (1:6,000 minimum scale) showing;
-all facilities requiring surface disturbance
-ownership of all lands within 500 feet of disturbance
-location of the permit area in the surrounding area
-percentage slope of original surface at 200-foot
intervals
-occupied dwellings, churches, schools, public buildings,
community buildings, institutional buildings, and
public parks within 300 feet
-cemeteries within 100 feet
-adjacent surface mines, underground mines, haul roads,
stockpiles, landfills, oil and gas wells, and
utilities
-hydrologic data as for regular surface mining permit
-drainage plans
-surface and mineral ownership
Plans for control of discharge water quality and
WVDNR-Water Resources permit number for water discharge
Ambient water quality analyses as for regular surface
mining permit
Runoff storage facilities and capacities
Plans for future monitoring of rainfall and water quality.
4-24
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One copy of this permit application is routed to the Division of Water
Resources.
4.1.4.6. Permit for Other Mining Activities on Active Surface Mine
When an applicant seeks to construct additional haulageways,
underground mines, sanitary landfills, stockpiles, or industrial facilities
(such as tipple buildings) on an active surface mine site, he can do so
without paying a filing fee or special reclamation tax. He must complete an
application form (DR-21), describe the need for the permit, and post a
performance bond of $1,000 per acre. No copy of this application is routed
to the Division of Water Resources, but the approval of that Division is
required for any proposed sanitary landfills. The review procedure is the
same as that for regular surface mining permits (Figure 4-5 ). The required
information includes the following:
Topographic map with lands to be disturbed and haulageways
indicated (1:6,000 scale)
Extent and location of all adjacent operations currently
bonded by WVDNR, including
-surface mines
-underground mines
-haulroads
-stockpiles
-landfills
-other operations
Ownership and location of landowners within 500 feet
Pre-plan map, color coded and certified by registered
engineer or other qualified professional
-probable limits of adjacent underground mines within 500
feet
-probable limits of inactive mines and mined-out areas
within 500 feet
-boundaries of surface properties within 500 feet
-names of surface and mineral owners within 500 feet
-names and locations of all streams and water bodies
within 500 feet
-roads, buildings, and cemeteries within 500 feet
-active or abandoned oil wells, gas wells, and utility
wells on disturbed area or within 500 feet
-boundary of land to be disturbed and acreage
-coal crop line
-drainage plan (direction of flow, existing waterways to
be used for drainage, constructed drainways, and
receiving waters)
4-25
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-location of overburden acid-producing materials that may
cause spoil with pH <3.5
-method for revegetation for acid spoil
Location map showing permit area in its surroundings
Slope of original surface as measured at 200-foot
intervals along the contour
Evidence of notification of landowners within 500 feet
Scaled cross-sections showing proposed backfill method
Drainage plan in accordance with WVDNR Handbook showing
pre-plan drainage map features noted above, plus
-sediment control structures (0.125 acre feet capacity per
disturbed acre; possibly less, where controlled
placement of fill, concurrent reclamation, on-site
sediment control, and accessible maintenance are
provided)
-proposed alterations to natural drainways
-proposed surface disturbance within 100 feet of streams
-diversions above highwalls (unless waived by WVDNR)
-diversions on benches
-diversions below spoil slopes
-stream channel diversions
-procedure for abandonment of drainage control structures
Permission to enter upon lands controlled by parties other
than the applicant, if applicable
Inspection by district Surface Mining Reclamation
Inspector
4.1.4.7. Drainage Handbook for Surface Mining
The WVDNR-Water Resources Handbook (1975) is intended for use in
designing surface mine facilities so as to minimize adverse effects. The
principal pollutant addressed in the Handbook is sediment, but other
concerns include acid mine drainage, slope stability, and water disposal
measures. Surface mining drainage measures must be designed in accordance
with the Handbook, and the design engineer must certify to WVDNR-Reclamation
that the facilities have been constructed in accordance with the approved
pre-plan.
4.1.4.8. Bond Release
Bond release is a major step in the mining permit process administered
by WVDNR pursuant to the WVSCMRA (and in the future as the regulatory
4-26
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authority pursuant to SMCRA as well). Bonds are released only after appli-
cation has been made to WVDNR, the application has been advertised weekly in
a local newspaper by the permittee for no less than four weeks, the WVDNR
has inspected the site, and objections by commenting individuals or agencies
have been resolved. The procedure is outlined in Figure 4-6. Where
reclamation and revegetation are judged unsatisfactory, performance bonds
are not released by WVDNR.
4.1.4.9. Underground Mining Permit
Underground mines, except those producing 50 tons of coal or less
annually for the operator's own use, must obtain a permit from WVDM before
they can be opened or reopened (West Virginia Code 22-2-63). The
application fee is $10.00, and the approval must be renewed annually.
Renewal is granted automatically if monthly reports on employment, tonnage
produced, and accidents have been filed promptly. Certificates of approval
are not transferable. The surface reclamation bond required by WVDM is
$5,000 per disturbed acre (including haulageways and drainageways) to
guarantee the removal of unused surface structures, the sealing of abandoned
mine openings, and the reclamation of surface disturbance that does not
result in an operational underground mine.
The mine map (1:6,000 to 1:1,200 scale) and overlays submitted to WVDM
must contain, in addition to the name and address of the mine:
Property boundaries
Shafts, slopes, drifts, tunnels, entries, rooms,
crosscuts, and all other excavations, auger areas, and
surface mined areas in the coalbed being mined
Drill holes that penetrate the coalbed being mined
Dip of coalbed
Outcrop of coalbed within property of mine
Elevation of tops and bottoms of shafts and slopes, and of
floor at entrance to drift and tunnel openings
Elevation of floor at 200-foot intervals in
-at least one entry of each working section and mine and
cross entries
-the last line of open crosscuts of each working section
-rooms advancing toward or adjacent to property boundaries
or adjacent mines
Contour lines for coalbed being mined (10-foot intervals
except for steeply pitching coalbeds)
4-27
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Outline of existing and extracted pillars
Entries and air courses with direction of air flow
Locations of all surface,ventilation fans
Escapeways
Known underground workings in the same coalbed within
1,000 feet of workings
Location and elevation of any body of water dammed or held
in the mine
Abandoned section of the mine
Location and description of permanent base line points and
bench marks for elevations and surveys
Mines above or below the current operation
Water pools above the current operation
Locations of principal streams and water bodies on
surface
Producing or abandoned oil or gas wells within 500 feet
Location of high-pressure pipelines, high voltage power
lines, and principal roads
Railroad tracks and public highways leading to the mine
and permanent buildings on mine site
Where overburden is less than 100 feet thick, occupied
dwellings above the mine
Other information as required.
The mine map must be updated semiannually to show
* Locations of working faces of each working place
Pillars mined and other second mining
Permanent ventilation controls constructed or removed
Escapeways.
Timbering also is to be indicated in the application form (A-7). Mine maps
and updatings may be kept confidential, but must be filed with WVDM and be
available to authorized inspectors. Following mine abandonment, the final
4-29
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map must be filed with WVDM and the Federal mine inspector (WV Code
22-2-1).
Old or abandoned mines cannot be reopened until 10 days written notice
has been given to WVDNR-Water Resources, if mine seepage may drain into a
waterway upon reopening. WVDNR personnel are to be present at the time of
reopening, with authority to prevent any flow in a manner or quantity
judged likely to kill or harm fish in any waterway (WV Code 22-2-71).
4.1.4.10. Underground Mining Reclamation Plan
The WVDNR-Reclamation requires a completed application form (DR-14),
and a bond in the amount of $1,000 per acre for access roads, haul roads,
and drainage system. The Department of Mines requires a $5,000 bond for all
other proposed disturbed surface acres. Where the total length of
disturbance at the outcrop is greater than 400 feet, commercial operations
must post a regular surface raining reclamation bond in addition to the
underground mining reclamation plan bond. Copies of the application are
filed with WVDNR-Water Resources and with WVDM. The sequence of steps for
underground mining permit approvals is the same as that for surface mining
applications (Figure 4-5 ). Information required by WVDNR includes:
Pre-plan map (1:6,000 scale), color-coded and certified by
registered engineer or other qualified professional
showing
-probable limits of adjacent underground mines within 500
feet
-probable limits of inactive mines and mined-out areas
within 500 feet
-boundaries of surface properties within 500 feet
-names of surface and mineral owners within 500 feet
-names and locations of all streams and water bodies
within 500 feet
-roads, building, and cemeteries within 500 feet
-active or abandoned oil wells, gas wells, and utility
wells on disturbed area or within 500 feet
-boundary of land to be disturbed and acreage breakdown
(haulageways, access roads, drainage and sediment
structures, underground opening sites and excavations,
overburden storage areas, and other facilities)
-coal crop line
-drainage plan (direction of flow, existing waterways to
be used for drainage, constructed drainageways, and
receiving waters)
-locations of overburden acid-producing materials that may
cause spoil with pH <3.5
-method for revegetation for acid spoil
Location map showing permit area in its surroundings
4-30
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Slope of original surface as measured at 200-foot
intervals along the contour
Evidence of notification of landowners within 500 feet
Drainage plan in accordance with WVDNR Handbook showing
features noted above, plus
-sediment control structures (0.125 acre feet capacity per
disturbed acre; possibly less, where controlled
placement of fill, concurrent reclamation, on-site
sediment control, and accessible maintenance are
provided)
-proposed alterations to natural drainageways
-proposed surface disturbance within 100 feet of streams
-diversions above highwalls (unless waived by WVDNR)
-diversions on benches
-diversions below spoil slopes
-stream channel diversions
-procedure for abandonment of drainage control structures
Extent and location of all adjacent operations currently
bonded by WVDNR within 300 feet:
-surface mines
-underground mines
-haulroads
-stockpiles
-landfills
-other operations
Off-site reference area to be used to measure revegetation
success
Detailed reclamation plan, with scaled cross-sections at
100-foot intervals along the cropline showing topography
-prior to mining
-during mining
-after mining
Approval to enter upon lands not controlled by the
applicant, if applicable.
4.1.4.11. Underground Mine Drainage Water Pollution Control Permit
Pursuant to Section 20-5A of the West Virginia Code, the Division of
Water Resources requires a permit to discharge wastewater to streams from
coal mining operations. During on-site inspection by WVDNR-Water Resources
personnel, water samples are taken from the stream and from discharges near
the proposed discharge for analysis by the applicant and by WVDNR. The
application (WRD-3-73) must include the following information, prepared by a
4-31
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professional engineer, in addition to standard data on the applicant and
site location:
Receiving stream name, stream to which it discharges,
major drainage basin, receiving stream flow (estimate or
measurement), probability of flooding of treatment plant,
means to be used for flood protection, and probable
frequency that treatment plant will be out of service
because of flooding
Mine activity status, type, coal seam name and dip,
location of main portal
Coal thickness; acres owned, leased, and to be mined;
production (tons/day); surface area to be affected
Status and type of any adjacent mines
Solid coal barrier thickness between proposed mine and
outcrop, adjacent surface mines, auger holes, and adjacent
underground mines
Whether adjacent workings contain water, and whether water
is to be discharged through adjacent workings from
proposed mine or through proposed mine from adjacent
workings
Whether operation will intercept water table
If pumps will be used, pump capacities and discharge rate,
control type, backup equipment
Storage time in mine sumps
Type of discharge (borehole, mine opening, abandoned
workings)
For abandoned workings, discharge, name of abandoned mine,
volume of discharge from tunnel, acreage of abandoned
operations tributary to drainage tunnel
If wells to be drilled within mine, description of
purpose, method of sealing after abandonment, and method
to protect wells against mine drainage
Number, design, and locations of mine seals with
cross-sections
4-32
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Percentage of workings to be Inundated after
stabilization
Probability of mine having discharge after completion of
mining, probability of pollution from the discharge, and
basis for estimate
Provisions to insure funds adequate for seal construction
after mining
Expected head of water on barriers at lowest point of
mine
Highest expected elevation of mining
Elevation of all portals, fanways, and breakthroughs
Location of waterbearing strata with reference to coal
seam and elevation of water table
Method of constructing and sealing surface refuse piles
Method of replacing refuse in mine
Plans for drainage treatment facilities and time needed to
construct
Map to show
-location of owned and leased coal reserves
-owners of adjacent surface and mineral rights
-all mine openings (drifts, shafts, fanways, boreholes)
-boundaries of mining operations
-extent of present mining and projected headings
-points where drainage is likely
-public and private roads on mine property
-gas, oil, and water wells
-known faults and test drill holes
-extent of prevous auger or surface mining
-location and thickness of all barriers
-elevation of entries, fanways, and boreholes
-location of treatment facilities
Water quality analysis of raw mine water from the new
opening or a nearby discharge from the same seam (Fe, Mn,
Al, Na, Cl, S04, total alkalinity, total acidity, total
solids, suspended solids, pH)
Water quality analysis of receiving stream sample.
4-33
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4.1.4.12. Coal Preparation Plant Water Pollution Control Permit
If a coal preparation plant is to have a discharge to the waters of the
State, application for a discharge permit must be made to WVDNR-Water
Resources (Form WRD 5-64 as revised). Information to be included consists
of the following:
Plant type
-wet washing (equipment type, sizes washed, capacity)
-air cleaning (equipment type, sizes cleaned, dust
recovery equipment, disposition of water from dust
collection)
-thermal drying (type, design capacity, sizes dried, dust
recovery equipment, disposition of dust, dispositon of
water from dust collection
Coal seam from which product is derived
Water supply
-source
-average use volume
-height, design, material, spillway, volume, drainage area
of impoundment dam, with drawings, if applicable
Water treatment works
-volume of effluent
-suspended solids in untreated waste to impoundments
-suspended solids in treated effluent to stream
-equipment type or facilities, with dimensions and
capacities
-description and drawings of impoundments
-description of worked out mine used for disposal, with
maps
-description of settling ponds, with drawings
-emergency ponds description
-drainage and runoff control measures
-abandonment plans.
4.1.4.13. Air Quality Permits for Coal Preparation Plants
WVAPCC requires that permits be obtained for various facilities in coal
preparation plants that may function as stationary sources of air pollution.
Section 16-20-11B of the West Virginia Code authorizes the West Virginia Air
Pollution Control Commission to regulate and issue permits for air pollution
sources. In addition to standard information on the identity of the
applicant and the location of the plant, the application (WVAPCC/72-PA 36)
is to include:
Type of plant
Proposed startup date for each source
4-34
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Sources for which a permit is required and other (e.g.,
emergency) emission points
Pollution control devices and emission points, with design
data for each
Description of sources of fugitive dust emissions
Schematic diagram of plant operations
For each affected source
-name, type, and model of source
-description of features that affect air contaminants,
with sketches
-name and maximum rate of materials processed
-name and maximum rate of materials produced
-chemical reactions involved
-type, amount, sulfur, and ash in fuels combusted
-combustion data
-supplier and seams of coal to be fired
-projected operating schedule
-projected pollutant emissions without control devices
(NOX, S02, 00, TSP, HC, others)
-data on mechanical collectors of particulates
-data on wet collectors of particulates.
Public notice in a local newspaper must be published by the applicant
within five days of filing with WVAPCC for a permit. Additional
requirements for the design, equipment, and operational procedures of coal
preparation plants, including measures to minimize dust, are included in
Section 22-2-62 of the West Virginia Code. These provisions are
administered by WVDM.
4.1.A.14. Mineral Wastes Dredging Operations Permit
Coal that is lost into the waterways of West Virginia becomes the
property of the people, and title is vested in the Public Lands Corporation
in the WVDNR. Recovery of this coal can be undertaken only after approval
is granted by the Public Lands Corporation and a permit is issued by the
Division of Water Resources. The permit application (WRD-10-79) must
include a description of the method, duration, and season of the proposed
dredging operation and the manner in which coal will be transported to the
preparation facility. The length, width, depth, and volume of the dredging
site, the stream cross-section, location, and nearest downstream water
supply intakes must be specified, along with details of the preparation
facility, impoundments for wastes, maintenance, and abandonment plan.
Drawings are a part of the application. The following parameters must be
analyzed as part of the water and sediment information unless other analyses
are mandated:
4-35
-------
Benthos sampling, one sample every 300 feet along the
length of dredged area (three samples minimum)
Shallow bottom sediments, one upstream, one downstream,
and one for each 50,000 sq ft of dredged area
-sieve test
-if >20% fine material passing No. 200 sieve, then results
of elutriate test (804, Fe, Hg, Cd, As, Pb, Cu, Zn,
Se, Cr, Ni, Al, Mn, pH, Total Alkalinity, Total
Hardness, and additional organic and other pollutants
if required)
Bottom core analysis (new dredging), one for each 50,000
sq ft (minimum two, maximum five) to depth of dredging;
sieve and elutriate tests (as for shallow sediments) for
each 5-foot interval.
Water quality upstream (one station) and downstream (two stations) must
be monitored after the initiation of approved dredging during February, May,
August, and November, plus monthly samples during periods of dredging.
Parameters to be reported include total suspended solids, turbidity,
dissolved oxygen, and pH. Shallow bottom sediments also are to be analyzed
quarterly.
4.2. FEDERAL REGULATIONS
This section describes the four major Federal programs which regulate
the coal mining industry in West Virginia. These include the EPA National
Pollutant Discharge Elimination System permit program created under the
Clean Water Act (33 USC 1251 et. seq.), the Prevention of Significant
Deterioration provisions of the Clean Air Act (USC 7401-7642, as amended by
88 Stat. 246, 91 Stat. 684, and 91 Stat. 1401-02), the Surface Mining
Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (P.L. 95-87, 30 USC 1201 et.seq.), and
the Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969. Because this assessment in its
entirety deals with the application of NEPA to the New Source NPDES permit
program by EPA Region III, this section focuses on Federal environmental
regulations other than NEPA. EPA intends to minimize regulatory overlap
with other Federal agencies, so long as every reasonable effort is made to
preserve and enhance the quality of the human environment.
4.2.1 EPA Permitting Activities
The CWA was the vehicle by which Congress established the primary goals
1) to make the waters of the Nation swimmable and fishable by 1983, and 2)
to eliminate water pollution by 1985. The National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System permit program was created by Section 402 of CWA.
Section 306 of CWA directs EPA to establish New Source Performance Standards
for 27 industries, including coal mining. At present EPA administers the
NPDES program in West Virginia. EPA also administers the PSD provisions of
the Clean Air Act (Section 4.2.3.).
4-36
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4.2*1.1« Existing Source NPDES Permits
For several years, NPDES permit review focused upon the attainment of
Existing Source Effluent Limitations, based on the best practicable
treatment technology currently available (Table 4-1 ) Discharges are
exempt from the limitations when they result from any precipitation event at
facilities designed, constructed, and maintained to contain or treat the
volume of discharge which would result from a 10-year 24-hour precipitation
event.
The publication of the final New Source Effluent Limitations for coal
mining point sources (44 FR 9:2586-2592, January 12, 1979) activated the New
Source NPDES permit program for the industry. Until the New Source Effluent
Limitations became effective on February 12, 1979, all coal mine discharges
were treated as existing sources.
4.2.1.2 New Source NPDES Permits
Classification of a mine discharge as a New Source is determined on a
case-by-case basis. EPA review is based largely upon information supplied
by the permit applicant to WVDNR and to EPA directly. Effective February
12, 1979, coal mining activities requiring New Source NPDES permits are
defined as those which meet one or more of the following criteria:
Coal preparation facilities that are constructed on or
after February 12, 1979, independent of coal mine permit
areas
Surface and underground mines that are assigned
identifying numbers by USMSHA on or after February 12,
1979
Surface and underground mines with earlier USMSHA numbers
that meet one or more of the following criteria:
-begin to mine a new coal seam
-discharge effluent to a new drainage basin
-cause extensive new surface disruption
-begin contruction of a new shaft, slope, or drift
-acquire additional land or mineral rights
-make significant additional capital investments
-otherwise have characteristics deemed appropriate by the
EPA Regional Administrator to place them in the New
Source category.
All coal mines defined as New Sources must meet the National New Source
Effluent Limitations (also referred to as New Source Performance Standards)
for the industry (Table 4-2 ). These effluent limitations apply only to
wastewater discharged from active mining areas prior to the completion of
regrading operations. Discharges resulting from any precipitation event are
exempt from the New Source limitations at facilities designed, constructed,
and maintained to contain or treat the volume of discharge which would
result from surface runoff from the 10-year 24-hour precipitation event.
4-37
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Runoff solely from lands undergoing revegetation is considered a subcategory
separate from active mines and coal preparation plants, and no effluent
limitations have been applied by EPA to this subcategory. The Best
Practices guidelines for coal mining (issued on September 1, 1977 in a
memorandum to EPA Regional Administrators and incorporated by reference in
the New Source Effluent Limitations) mandate that mine plans must prevent,
minimize, or mitigate the discharge of any noxious materials that would
adversely affect downstream water quality or uses following the temporary or
permanent closing of a mine. Applicants are to secure New Source permit
approval prior to the beginning of construction of the proposed mining
facility.
EPA administers the NPDES permit program in West Virginia, including
the New Source NPDES permit program. Congress defined the issuance of a New
Source NPDES permit by EPA to be a major Federal action [CWA Section
511(c)]. The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (42 USC 4321
et seq.) mandates the consideration of all environmental factors by Federal
decisionmakers during the evaluation of major Federal actions which may
significantly affect the environment. EPA thus must conduct NEPA reviews
when processing NPDES permits for the construction and operation of New
Source coal mines and coal cleaning facilities.
4.2.2 SMCRA PERMITS
Title V of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977
(P.L. 95-87, 30 USC 1201 et seq.) produced the first comprehensive Federal
program intended:
To set a National standard and define a detailed program
for mining coal and reclaiming mined land
To prohibit mining from areas where reclamation is not
feasible
To balance the agricultural productivity of land against
coal resources and ensure adequate agricultural production
following mining
To allow the public to participate in decisions when
the environment might be affected by coal mining
To achieve reclamation of previously mined and abandoned
lands.
SMCRA encourages State administration of the Title V program under the
supervision of the US Department of Interior, Office of Surface Mining.
SMCRA regulates all surface mines, together with those underground mines
which will disturb more than two acres of surface lands, including haul
roads. SMCRA also regulates freestanding coal preparation plants located
outside the permit areas of active mines, and substantial coal exploration
activities.
4-40
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Federal regulations which implement SMCRA establish both minimum
performance standards describing how coal must be mined and reclamation
activities which are required to protect the environment and public health.
State-issued SMCRA Title V permits are not considered to be major Federal
actions, and thus are not subject to the requirements of NEPA.
Nevertheless, the permanent program performance standards address many
environmental issues that would also be raised by EPA during a NEPA review
of a New Source NPDES permit application. The following paragraphs briefly
summarize general and special performance standards and lands unsuitable
provisions of the Act which provide protection to the environment. More
detailed discussions are presented in the Section 5.0. discussions of
specific impacts and mitigations.
4.2.2.1. Mining Operations
USOSM, with input from EPA, has developed performance standards for
surface mining operations which include standards for signs and markers to
identify the various working areas of the mine, permit area boundaries, and
buffer zones. Other operational standards discuss nearly every aspect of
coal mining which is generally applicable to the industry. These standards
include coal recovery, disposal of non-coal wastes, and use of explosives in
coal mining, to name a few. They are codified in Title 30 CFR, Chapter VII,
Parts 700 through 899.
4.2.2.2. Protection of Surface Water and Groundwater Resources
Surface water and groundwater resource protection is mandated by
pre-mining study requirements together with performance standards
promulgated under several topics, especially Hydrologic Balance. The
performance standards address surface water and groundwater diversions,
sedimentation ponds, and other surface and subsurface discharge structures.
Dams and embankments of coal wastes are regulated, as are the casing and
sealing of wells and other underground openings. The standards also define
water rights of neighboring groundwater users. SMCRA requires replacement
of legitimate water supplies which have been affected by contamination,
diminution, or interruption resulting from surface mining activities.
4.2.2.3. Protection of Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems
Aquatic ecosystems are not provided direct protection under SMCRA.
They are protected indirectly through Section 515(6)(24), which requires
that the best available control technology be used to minimize disturbances
to aquatic biota, and through the prohibition of mining on lands where
reclamation is not feasible. This includes fragile lands, lands containing
non-renewable resources, and lands containing natural hazards. Terrestrial
ecosystems are protected directly under Section 515(6)(24), which requires
that the best available technology be used to minimize disturbance.
Critical habitats of organisms that have been Federally classified as
threatened or endangered are further protected by the Act in a requirement
that these critical habitats be reported to the SMCRA regulatory agency so
that review procedures established under the Endangered Species Act can be
followed.
4-41
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4.2.2.4. Protection of Specific Land Uses
SMCRA prohibits outright any new surface mine operations within 300
feet of any public park or within National Parks, National Wildlife Refuges,
the National System of Trails, Wilderness Areas, Wild and Scenic Rivers, and
National Recreation Areas. It also requires that all new coal mining
operations that may affect a public park first be approved by the agency
with jurisdiction over the park. Surface mining activities may be excluded
from Federal lands in National Forests, if the Secretary of Agriculture
finds that multiple uses of the National Forest would be impaired by the
proposed mining. The public notice provisions of the SMCRA provide
opportunity for owners of private recreational facilities to comment on coal
mine permit applications that may affect the operations of such facilities.
No new coal mines can be permitted that may affect publicly owned
places that are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, unless
such mining is approved by the State Historic Preservation Officer. The
regulatory authority's discretionary power to prohibit mining includes those
areas where mining may affect historic lands of cultural, historic, scienti-
fic, or aesthetic value.
SMCRA sets special performance standards for mining on prime farmlands.
Prime farmland is defined as land with suitable resource characteristics (as
determined by USDA-SCS) that also has been used as cropland for at least
five of the ten years before its proposed use for mining purposes. The
SMCRA standards require that soil removal, stockpiling, replacement,
reclamation, and revegetation methods return mined prime farmland to a level
of productivity equal to that which it had before disturbance.
Within the discretionary provisions for designating areas as unsuitable
for mining, the regulatory authority can prohibit surface mining which would
affect lands subject to hazards, including areas subject to frequent
flooding. The regulatory authority also may prohibit mining activities in
areas with unstable geologic characteristics, and it may impose special
standards for such areas related to woody material disposal, topsoil
handling, downslope spoil disposal, head-of-hollow and valley fills, and
pre-existing underground mines. The regulatory authority may designate an
area as unsuitable for mining based on the incompatibility of mining activi-
ties with existing land use plans of local governments. The general perfor-
mance standards of the Act also set forth requirements for mining roads and
require that post-mining land uses on mined sites be compatible with
adjacent land use policies and plans.
During March 1980 USOSM Region I in Charleston WV issued a "Draft
Experimental Permit Application Form for Surface and Underground Coal
Mining." If adopted in essentially its present state, this form would
require the development of additional information not required at present in
the West Virginia permits outlined in Section 4.1. of this assessment.
Because the form has not yet been adopted, it is not reviewed here, but its
information requirements are noted in the Section 5.0 discussions of
impacts.
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4.2.2.5. Protectionist Air Quality
Air quality protection is provided through standards for the control
and reduction of fugitive dust emissions from haul roads and areas disturbed
during mining. The USOSM regulations at present do not consider pollutants
other than fugitive dust, but SMCRA requires compliance with all other
applicable air quality laws and regulations.
4.2.2.6. Noise and Vibration
The USOSM performance standards require that noise and vibration from
blasting operations be controlled to minimize the danger of adverse effects
from airblast and vibration to humans and structures. The Act requires
pre-blast surveys, resident notification of blasting schedules, limits on
air blasts, explosives handling rules (including requirements for
blasters-in-charge), and recordkeeping requirements.
4.2.2.7. Community Integrity and Quality of Life
SMCRA prohibits new mining operations within 40 feet of any roadway, or
within 100 feet of a public road right-of-way (except where a mine haul road
enters or adjoins the right-of-way) without public notice. The public has
opportunity to comment and ensure that it is adequately protected from the
potentially adverse effects of additional traffic and right-of way
acquisition. SMCRA also prohibits outright any surface mining operations
within 300 feet of an occupied dwelling without the owner's consent; within
300 feet of any public, institutional, or community building, church, or
school; or within 100 feet of a cemetery.
SMCRA includes a general public notice provision to facilitate public
involvement in the permit evaluation process before a permit is issued.
Public comments may lead the regulatory authority to revise, condition, or
deny permit applications.
4.2.2.8. Special Performance Standards
The general performance standards summarized above are Nationwide
minimum standards for controlling the surface effects of coal mining. To
address the special considerations of certain geographical areas or coal
mining methods, USOSM has developed a set of special performance standards.
These standards address auger mining, mining in alluvial valley floors,
mining on prime farmlands, mountaintop removal, bituminous coal mining in
Wyoming, steep slope mining, concurrent surface and underground mining,
anthracite mining in Pennsylvania, regulations for underground mining,
independent coal processing plants and support facilities, and in-situ coal
utilization.
4-43
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4.2.3. Clean Air Act Reviews
The regulatory program designed to achieve the objectives of the Clean
Air Act is a combined Federal/State function. The role of each State is to
adopt and submit to EPA a State Implementation Plan for maintaining and
enforcing primary and secondary air quality standards in Air Quality Control
Regions. The West Virginia SIP has been approved for overall administration
by the State except for PSD reviews, which still are performed by EPA
(45 FR 159:54042-54053; August 14, 1980). The SIP must be revised from time
to time to comply with EPA regulations. The SIP contains emission limits
that may vary within the State due to local factors such as concentrations
of industry and population.
Coal cleaning operations producing 200 short tons of coal or more per
day and that utilize a thermal dryer or air tube must meet the New Source
Performance Standards promulgated by EPA pursuant to the Clean Air Act
(USC 7401-7642 as amended by 88 Stat. 246, 91 Stat. 684, and 91 Stat.
1401-02). This permit program is administered by the West Virginia Air
Pollution Control Commission (WVAPCC) under the State Implementation Plan
approved by EPA. The standards reflect levels of control that can be
achieved by applying the best available control technology taking cost into
account (Table 4-3; 40 CFR 60.250; 41 FR 2233, January 15, 1976). Permits
are not to be issued for facilities that would degrade air quality in
violation of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS's) that are
applicable for areas located downwind from the proposed New Source.
Currently there are no National air pollution performance standards which
directly apply to atmospheric emissions from New Source underground or
surface coal mines.
Ambient air quality standards (40 CFR 50) specify the ambient air
quality that must be maintained outside a project boundary or within the
boundary where the general public has access (Table 4-4). Standards
designated as primary are those necessary to protect the public health with
an adequate margin of safety; secondary standards are those necessary to
protect the public welfare from any known or anticipated adverse effects.
In 1974, EPA issued regulations for the prevention of significant
deterioration of air quality under the 1970 version of the Clean Air Act
(Public Law 90-604). These regulations established a plan for protecting
areas with air quality that currently is cleaner than the National Ambient
Air Quality Standards. Under EPA's regulatory plan, clean air areas of the
Nation could be designated as one of three classes. The plan allows
specified numerical increments of air pollution from major stationary
sources for each class, up to a level considered to be significant for that
area (Table 4-5 ). Class I areas need extraordinary protection from air
quality deterioration, and only minor increases in air pollution levels are
allowable (Figure 4-7"). Under this concept, virtually any increase in air
pollution in Class I (pristine) areas would be considered significant.
Class II increments allow for the increases in air pollution levels that
usually accompany well-controlled growth. Class III increments allow
increases in air pollution levels up to the NAAQS's.
4-44
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Table 4-3 . New Source Performance Standards for bituminous coal
preparation plants and handling facilities capable of processing more
than 181 metric tons (200 short tons) of coal per day (40 CFR 60.250,
Subpart Y).
Particulate
Equipment Opacity Limitation Concentration Standard
% g/dscm gr/dscf
Thermal dryers 20 0.070 0.031
Pneumatic coal
cleaning equipment 10 0.040 0.018
Coal handling and
storage equipment 20
4-45
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Table A-5 . Nondeterioration increments: maximum allowable increase by
class (P.L. 95-95, Part C, Subpart 1, Section 163).
Data are ug/m3.
Class I1
Pollutant* Class I Class II Class III exception
Particulate matter:
Annual geometric mean 5 19 37 19
24-hour maximum 10 37 75 37
Sulfur dioxide:
Annual arithmetic mean 2 20 40 20
24-hour maximum 5** 91 182 91
3-hour maximum 25** 512 700 325
*0ther pollutants for which PSD regulations are to be promulgated include
hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, photochemical oxidants, and nitrogen
oxides.
**A variance may be allowed to exceed each of these increments on 18 days
per year, subject to limiting 24-hour increments of 35 ug/m3 for low
terrain and 62 ug/m3 for high terrain and 3-hour increments of 130
ug/m^ for high terrain. To obtain such a variance both State and EPA
approval is required.
4-47
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4-48
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Sections 160-169 were added to the CAA by Congress during 1977. These
amendments adopted the basic concept of the procedure that had been
developed administratively to allow incremental increases in air pollutants
by class of receiving area. Through these amendments, Congress also pro-
vided a mechanism to apply a practical adverse impact test which did not
exist in the EPA regulations. EPA revised its regulations concerning the
prevention of significant deterioration (PSD) during August 1980.
The PSD requirements apply to new or modified stationary sources of air
pollution that exceed significance thresholds established with reference to
potential tonnage of pollutants emitted following application of control
measures, to potential damage to Class I areas, and to the attainment status
of the construction site. Significant increases in any of fifteen
pollutants would render the facility subject to PSD review (Table 4-6 ).
Any major new stationary source that would be constructed within 16 miles of
a Class I area and would have a 24-hour average impact at ground level of
1 ug/m^ or greater also would require PSD review. If the area where any
major New Source is to be built has been classified by the State as
"attainment" or "unclassifiable" for any pollutant regulated by a NAAQS,
then the PSD review is triggered (40 CFR 52.21; 45 FR 154:52676-52748,
August 7, 1980). Coal preparation plants with thermal dryers that
potentially can emit more than 100 tons per year of any pollutant regulated
under the CAA are to undergo PSD review as major stationary sources.
Coal facilities are expected seldom to qualify as major sources that
require PSD review. In general, any facility that will emit 250 tons or
more per year of any regulated pollutant following application of control
technology may require PSD review as a major stationary source, but fugitive
dust and mobile-source emissions are not counted toward the 250-ton
threshold (except for preparation plants with thermal dryers). WVAPCC
directs applicants for State permits to EPA Region III when there is a
potential that PSD review will be triggered (Verbally, Mr. Robert Blaszczak,
EPA Region III, to Dr. James A. Schmid, September 4, 1980).
In the 1977 CAA Amendments Congress designated certain Federal lands as
Class I for prevention of significant deterioration. All International
Parks, National Memorial Parks, and National Wilderness Areas which exceed
5,000 acres, and National Parks which exceed 6,000 acres, are designated
Class I. In West Virginia the Dolly Sods and Otter Creek Wilderness Areas
in the Monongahela National Forest are Class I areas. These areas may not
be redesignated to another class through State or administrative action.
The remaining areas of the country are initially designated Class II.
Within this Class II category, certain National Primitive Areas, National
Wild and Scenic Rivers, National Wildlife Refuges, National Seashores and
Lakeshores, and new National Park and Wilderness Areas which are established
after August 7, 1977, if over 10,000 acres in size, are Class II "floor
areas" and are ineligible for redesignation to Class III.
Although the earlier EPA regulatory process allowed redesignation by
the Federal land manager, the 1977 CAA amendments place the general
redesignation responsibility with the States. The Federal land manager only
has a role in the redesignation advisory to the appropriate State or to
Congress.
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Table 4-6 . Emission tonnages of pollutants that indicate significant
potential impacts subject to PSD review (40 CFR 52.21;
45 FR 154:52676-52748, August 7, 1980).
Significant
Pollutant Annual Tonnage
Carbon monoxide 100
Nitrogen oxides 40
Ozone (volatile organic compounds) 40
Sulfur dioxide 40
Particulate matter 25
Hydrogen sulfide 10
Total reduced sulfur (including H2S) 10
Reduced sulfur compounds (including H2S) 10
Sulfuric acid mist 7
Fluorides 3
Vinyl chloride 1
Lead 0.6
Mercury 0.1
Asbestos 0.007
Beryllium 0.0004
4-50
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In order for Congress to redesignate areas, new legislation would have
to be introduced. Once proposed, this probably would follow the normal
legislative process of committee hearings, floor debate, and action. In
order for a State to redesignate areas, the detailed process outlined in
Section 164(b) of the CAA is to be followed. This process includes an
analysis of the health, environmental, economic, social, and energy effects
of the proposed redesignation, followed by a public hearing.
Class I status provides protection to pristine areas by requiring any
new major emitting facility (generally a large point source of air
pollutionsee Section 169[1] of CAA for definition) in the upwind impacting
region to be built in such a way and place as to insure no adverse impact on
the Class I air quality related values. A PSD permit may be issued if the
Class I increment will not be exceeded, unless the Federal land manager
demonstrates that the facility will have an adverse impact on the Class 1
air quality related values.
The permit must be denied if the Class I increment will be exceeded,
unless the applicant receives certification from the Federal land manager
that the facility will not adversely affect Class I air quality related
values. Then the permit may be issued even though the Class I increment
will be exceeded, (up to the Class 1 increment exception [Table 4-5 ]). PSD
permits are administered by EPA until a State is approved for program
delegation.
4.2.4. CMHSA Permits
The Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969 (CMHSA) is Federal
legislation intended to improve mine safety. The Act was implemented by
regulations requiring approval of mining plans and detailed operational and
design standards for underground and surface mines and coal preparation
plants. Principal health concerns covered by the extensive safety standards
relating to coal industry operations include:
Ventilation
Roof Control
Rock Dusting
Electrical Power Distribution Systems
Clean-up.
Extensive information on these aspects of underground mines in particular
must be submitted during the permit process implementing CMHSA. To enforce
the National Standards, Mine Safety and Health Administration (USMSHA)
inspectors may shut down either one section or an entire mine if sufficient
danger exists.
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The concerns of CMHSA relate to miners' health and safety and primarily
are non-environmental. Of particular interest to EPA for the NPDES New
Source program is the assignment of an identifying number to plans reviewed
by USMSHA inspectors. USMSHA identifying numbers issued after February 12,
1979 may be used by EPA to identify New Sources among operations that seek
NPDES permits.
4.2.5. The Safe Drinking Water Act
On December 16, 1976 (The Safe Drinking Water Act P.L. 93-523) was
signed into law. This Act amended the Public Health Service Act by
inserting a new title concerning the safety of public water systems.
In brief, the Act authorizes EPA to set Nationwide minimum standards
for public drinking water (including bottled water). Enforcement of the
standards and other EPA regulations is to be accomplished primarily by the
States, and Federal funding to the States for this purpose is authorized.
EPA also is authorized to sponsor research, train personnel, and provide
technical assistance to State and local governments to advance the goals of
the Act. Citizen suits are authorized to compel enforcement of the Act.
To protect underground drinking water resources EPA was authorized to
promulgate regulations to protect the quality of recharge water that may
endanger drinking water. As part of this enterprise, EPA can determine that
an area has an aquifer that is the sole or principal source of its drinking
water, and that the aquifer if contaminated would constitute a significant
hazard to public health. EPA can act on its own initiative or upon
petition. After publication of such a determination, EPA is to review all
proposed commitments for Federal financial assistance (through grants,
contracts, loan guarantees, or otherwise). Assistance is to be denied to
those projects that create a significant public health hazard by aquifer
contamination through the recharge zone [Section 1424(e)]. Groundwater use
is not regulated under the Act. Final Nationwide regulations are still in
preparation.
4.2.6. Floodplains
Undeveloped floodplains are protected by Executive Order 11988 as
implemented by the guidelines of the Water Resources Council (43 FR
29:6030-6055, February 10, 1978). Under these guidelines, an application
for a Federal permit that proposes the structural modification or control
(such as channelization) of a stream or other body of water is subject to
review by the US Fish and Wildlife Service and the US Army Corps of Engi-
neers as mandated by the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act (16 USC 661
et seq.) and Section 10 of the River and Harbor Act of 1899. These agency
reviewers and the general public may identify additional Federal authori-
zation or specific mitigative measures that are necessary to ensure an
adequate permit review and a sufficient level of environmental protection.
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EPA, under the provisions of Executive Order 11988, must avoid wherever
possible the long- and short-term impacts associated with the occupancy and
modification of floodplains and avoid direct and indirect support of flood-
plain development wherever there is a practicable alternative. The Agency
also must incorporate floodplain management goals into its regulatory
decisionmaking processes. To the greatest extent possible EPA must:
Reduce the hazard and risk of flood loss, and wherever it
is possible, to avoid direct or indirect adverse impact on
floodplains
Where there is no practical alternative to locating in a
floodplain, minimize the impact of floods on human safety,
health, and welfare, as well as the natural environment
Restore and preserve natural and beneficial values served
by floodplains
Identify floodplains which require restoration and
preservation, recommend management programs necessary to
protect these floodplains, and include such considerations
in on-going planning programs
Provide the public with early and continuing information
concerning floodplain management and with opportunities
for participating in decisionmaking including the
evaluation of tradeoffs among competing alternatives.
4.2.7. Wild and Scenic Rivers
The Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (16 USC 1274 et seq.) provides that the
Secretary of Agriculture or Interior and the State of West Virginia review
and comment on permit applications for proposed facilities that would affect
lands in the Federally designated Wild and Scenic River System or rivers
that are being considered for such designation. EPA cannot assist, through
permits or otherwise, the construction of a mining facility that would have
a direct and adverse effect on rivers designated as wild or scenic under
Section 3 of the Act or those designated as having potential for inclusion
under Section 5 of the Act. If, after proper consultation with the
Secretary of Agriculture or Interior, an action is found to have a direct
and adverse impact, EPA and the applicant must provide mitigative measures.
No action may be taken if the adverse effect cannot be avoided or
appropriately mitigated.
4.2.8. Wetlands
Executive Order 11990, entitled "Protection of Wetlands", requires EPA
to avoid, to the extent possible, the adverse impacts associated with the
destruction or loss of wetlands and to avoid support of new Federal
construction in wetlands if a practicable alternative exists. The EPA
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Statement of Procedures on Floodplain Management and Wetlands Protection
(January 5, 1979) requires that EPA determine whether proposed permit
actions also will occur in or will affect wetlands. If so, the responsible
official must prepare a wetlands assessment, which will be part of the
overall environmental assessment or environmental impact statement. The
responsible official is either to avoid adverse impacts or minimize them if
no practicable alternative to the action exists.
In addition, Section 404 of CWA requires USAGE permit approval for
activities that would result in the placement of fill in wetlands. The
USDA, USFWS, USAGE, and the public have opportunity to review and comment on
NPDES permit applications that propose activities that may affect wetlands.
These comments may address the identification of impacts, mitigations, and
additional regulatory activities on a case-by-case basis.
4.2.9. Endangered Species Habitat
The EPA is prohibited under the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (16 USC
1531 et seq.) from jeopardizing species in danger of extinction or
threatened with endangerment and from adversely modifying habitats essential
to their survival. If listed species or their habitat may be affected,
formal consultation with USFWS under Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act
is required. If the consultation reveals that the action will affect a
listed species or habitat adversely, acceptable mitigative measures must be
undertaken or the proposed permit will not be issued.
4.2.10. Significant Agricultural Lands
It is EPA policy to encourage the protection of environmentally
significant agricultural lands from irreversible conversion to uses which
result in their loss as an environmental or essential food production
resource. This policy is stated in EPA's Policy to Protect Environmentally
Significant Agricultural Lands (Draft memorandum from Douglas Cos tie,
Administrator, to Assistant Administrator, Regional Administrators, and
Office Directors, undated). Significant agricultural lands include the
prime, unique, and additional farmlands with National, statewide, or local
significance, as defined by USDA-SCS. EPA also has a special interest in
protecting those other farmlands that: (1) are within or contiguous to
environmentally significant areas and that protect or buffer such areas; (2)
are suitable for the land treatment of organic wastes; or (3) have been
improved with significant capital investments for the purpose of soil
erosion control.
4.2.11. Historic, Archaeologic, and Paleontologic Sites
EPA is subject to the requirements of the National Historic
Preservation Act of 1966 as amended (16 USC 470 et seq.), the Archaeological
and Historic Preservation Act of 1974 (16 USC 469 et seq.), and Executive
4-54
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Order 11593, entitled "Protection and Enhancement of the Cultural Environ-
ment." These provisions and regulations establish review procedures which
EPA must follow when significant cultural resources are or may be involved.
Under Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act and
Executive Order 11593, if an EPA undertaking affects any property with his-
toric, architectural, archaeological, or cultural value that is listed or
eligible for listing on the National Register of Historic Places, the
responsible official shall comply with the procedures for consultation and
comment promulgated by the US Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (36
CFR Part 800). The responsible official must identify properties affected
by new coal mining that are potentially eligible for listing on the National
Register and must request a determination of eligibility from the Keeper of
the National Register, Department of the Interior (36 CFR Part 63). Under
the Archaeological and Historic Preservation Act, if an EPA activity may
cause irreparable loss or destruction of significant scientific, prehis-
toric, historic, or archaeological data, the responsible official or the
Secretary of the Interior is authorized to undertake data recovery and
preservation activities (36 CFR Parts 64 and 66).
In general, EPA will not issue a New Source NPDES permit for a mining
operation which would affect a National Register site prior to the
completion of formal interagency coordination. EPA relies on applicants to
supply on-site data to document the presence or absence of cultural
resources and the State Historic Preservation Officer to make determinations
of eligibility for the National Register and recommendations for mitigative
measures.
4.2.12. United States Forest Service Reviews
USFS has lead NEPA authority in reviewing permits for coal mining on
Federally owned lands, but may delegate this authority to another agency
such as EPA. There are presently no National Forest lands in the North
Branch Potomac River Basin of West Virginia, so it is not anticipated that
USFS reviews would be required in this area. The USFS will be afforded the
opportunity to comment on EPA permits applications for facilities that might
affect its areas of responsibility, even though the National Forest land is
outside the Basin.
4.3. INTERAGENCY COORDINATION
This section first addresses coordination between EPA and USOSM. Then
it discusses NEPA lead agency coordination during the environmental review
process and EPA response to the designation of lands unsuitable for mining
pursuant to SMCRA.
4.3.1. USOSM-EPA Proposed Memorandum of Understanding
SMCRA regulatory provisions largely overlap many of the environmental
review responsibilities required of EPA pursuant to NEPA. Table 4-7
4-55
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indicates the various areas of responsibility for each agency and the
authorizing legislation. Sections 503(a)(6) and 504(h) of SMCRA require
coordination between USOSM and other agencies to avoid duplication of the
Title V permit program review activities with other applicable Federal or
State permitting processes.
A proposed Memorandum of Understanding between USOSM and EPA provides
for coordination of the permanent SMCRA Title V and NPDES permit programs
for surface coal mining and reclamation operations (SCMRO's). The agreement
will apply only in states where EPA is the NPDES permitting authority (44 FR
187:55322-55325, September 25, 1979). EPA encourages states with approved
NPDES programs to coordinate with USOSM in a similar manner. The major
provisions of the agreement as proposed are outlined below:
EPA will issue one or more Statewide NPDES special coal
mining permits covering SCMRO's which are subject to both
Title V and NPDES permit requirements
In States where USOSM primacy has been delegated, EPA may
issue two separate NPDES special coal mining permits.
Once special permit will apply to all SCMRO's which are
New Sources as defined by the CWA and would provide for
NEPA obligations. The other special permit will apply to
all other SCMRO's.
The applicable NPDES special coal mining permit will take
effect for a particular SCMRO upon the issuance of an
effective Title V permit covering the discharging facility.
If EPA's environmental review under NEPA results in a
determination that a particular New Source SCMRO cannot be
regulated adequately by the NPDES special coal mining per-
mit, EPA may issue an individual NPDES permit to that
SCMRO. If EPA recommends that a SCMRO's Title V permit
include certain permit conditions to carry out the
provisions of the CWA and the SMCRA regulatory authority
decides not to include those conditions, EPA may issue an
individual NPDES permit containing those conditions.
Except where EPA has indicated that it will issue an indi-
vidual NPDES permit, the standard NPDES permit conditions
and requirements will be incorporated into the Title V
SMCRA permit
The SMCRA regulatory authority will be responsible for
permit decisions and monitoring. EPA will have the oppor-
tunity to review and suggest appropriate modifications to
each permit application.
4-58
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Where USOSM and EPA both have NEPA responsibilities for a
particular New Source, USOSM will be the designated lead
agency.
Where a State is the SMCRA regulatory authority and only
EPA has NEPA responsibilities, EPA will comply with its
environmental review requirements by performing either a
Statewide or regional review of all non-Federal lands
where coal mining may occur. On the basis of this review,
EPA may decide: (1) to issue the Statewide NPDES special
coal mining permit; (2) to issue the NPDES special (area-
wide) coal mining permit only to certain classes of
SCMRO's; (3) to issue the NPDES special coal mining permit
subject to certain conditions; or (4) not to issue the
NPDES special coal mining permit. The exclusion of some or
all classes of SCMRO's from coverage by a special NPDES
coal mining permit will not preclude the issuance of an
individual NPDES permit to such SCMRO's following site-
specific environmental reviews.
This proposed MOU has not yet been implemented. Discussions are
continuing between EPA and USOSM concerning the detailed regulations
necessary for its implementation (Verbally, Mr. Frank Rusincovitch, EPA
Office of Environmental Review, to Dr. James Schmid, August 25, 1980).
Another MOU1 between EPA and USOSM became effective on February 13,
1980. It deals with procedures for EPA to review State SMCRA programs prior
to their delegation. USOSM will not delegate regulatory authority to any
State until EPA has approved the State program.
4.3.2. Lead Agency NEPA Responsibility
Under the present regulatory framework, USOSM or the approved State
regulatory authority has the major responsibility and expertise under SMCRA
to regulate the methods and environmental effects of coal mining (Section
4.2.2.). As discussed in Section 4.3.1., proposed memoranda of under-
standing between USOSM and EPA establish USOSM as the lead NEPA agency in
those situations where both agencies are involved. If the State assumes
NPDES responsibility, no Federal actions would be involved and NEPA would
not apply to issuance of New Source NPDES permits for coal mining or other
industries.
On Federal lands or Federally administered land the Federal agency
responsible for land management would be the lead NEPA agency for SMCRA
1"Memorandum of Understanding Regarding Implementation of Certain
Responsibilities of the Environmental Protection Agency and the Department
of the Interior Under the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of
1977," signed by EPA Deputy Administrator Blum (for Administrator Cos tie)
and by USDI Secretary Andrus.
4-59
-------
permits. The administering agency may delegate NEPA responsibility to EPA
or USOSM if a New Source NPDES permit is involved.
4.4. OTHER COORDINATION REQUIREMENTS
Several other interagency coordination requirements affect EPA when it
issues NPDES permits. EPA will combine these coordination requirements with
NEPA reviews for proposed New Sources of wastewater discharge.
4.4.1. Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act
The Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1958 requires that all
Federal permit actions be reviewed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service to
evaluate the biological effects of alterations to streams and other water
bodies. USFWS also is to coordinate with USOSM or the State regulatory
authority in the evaluation of reclaimed surface mining lands, if the post
mining land use is to be wildlife habitat. Before its review of permit
actions is complete, USFWS must coordinate with WVDNR-Wildlife Resources.
4.4.2. Local Notification
Through Office of Management and Budget (USOMB) Circular A-95, the
Federal Government established a procedure for coordination of projected
Federal actions with Statewide, areawide, and local plans and programs. In
Part II, Section 4 of Circular A-95, Federal agencies responsible for
granting permits for development activities which would have a significant
impact on State, interstate, areawide, or local development plans are
strongly urged to consult with State and areawide clearinghouses and to seek
their evaluations of such impacts prior to granting such permits
(41 FR 8:2052-2065, January 13, 1976). In certain situations, EPA will
utilize the A-95 clearinghouse mechanism in special ways to notify local
governments concerning New Source NPDES permits.
The State clearinghouse in West Virginia is the Governor's Office of
Economic and Community Development in Charleston. Other areawide
clearinghouses are identified in Table 4-8 .
4.4.3. Lands Unsuitable for Mining
The proposed WVDNR-Reclamation procedure for designating lands as
unsuitable for mining pursuant to SMCRA, WVSCMRA, and the USOSM permanent
program regulations was described in Section 4.1.4.2. As soon as EPA
receives notice that an area is being reviewed by the SMCRA regulatory for
suitability, all New Source permit applications from that area will be held
in abeyance pending completion of the suitability review. No New Source
NPDES permit for mining activities will be issued in lands designated as
unsuitable pursuant to SMCRA and/or WVSCMRA.
4-60
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4.5. POTENTIAL FOR REGULATORY CHANGE
The administration of the EPA New Source NPDES permit program in West
Virginia will be affected most significantly by two potential regulatory
changes. These are, first, the delegation of the NPDES program to West
Virginia, and second, the ultimate disposition and content of the SMCRA
permit program.
4.5.1. Delegation of the NPDES Permit Program
The CWA provides that States may assume responsibility for the
administration of the NPDES permit program upon approval by EPA. No time
frame was specified by Congress for delegation of this program. West
Virginia has adopted a Water Pollution Control Act (West Virginia Code
Article 20-5A), which authorizes takeover of the NPDES permit program. EPA
Region III continues to work with the WVDNR-Water Resources toward the
eventual approval of the State-administered NPDES program, which as of
August 1980 was expected to occur by October 1, 1981, provided that interim
milestones are met. West Virginia is the only State in Region 111 which
does not administer its own program.
Should West Virginia be approved to administer the NPDES program, New
Source permits will become State rather than Federal permits. Hence NEPA
will no longer apply.
4.5.2. SMCRA Permit Program
The permanent regulatory program for implementation of SMCRA also is
designed for administration by the states (outside Federal and Indian
lands). West Virginia has drafted a State program, which is under review at
this time. USOSM regulations detail at length what features must be present
in the State programs in order to qualify for approval by USOSM. EPA also
must approve the State program before USOSM can delegate authority to West
Virginia.
Several features of the USOSM program implementing SMCRA may change.
During recent months litigation has been underway in various Federal courts
to determine the extent of USOSM powers to regulate mining under SMCRA.
Moreover, during 1979 the so-called "Rockefeller Amendment" was passed by
the Senate (S.1403, 96th Congress, 1st session). Essentially this amendment
would give additional time for the development of State programs and would
enable the States (rather than USOSM) to declare their regulatory programs
in compliance with SMCRA. It is possible that the West Virginia program
could diverge from the proposed USOSM mandate for State programs, if this
amendment should be enacted into law.
4-62
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5.1 Water Resource Impacts and Mitigations
-------
Page
5.1. Water Resource Impacts and Mitigations 5-1
5.1.1. Surface Waters 5-1
5.1.1.1. Geohydrology 5-1
5.1.1.2. Erosion and Sedimentation 5-5
5.1.1.3. Water Quality 5-8
5.1.2. Groundwater 5-13
5.1.2.1. Availability of Groundwater 5-13
5.1.2.2. Groundwater Quality 5-14
-------
5.0. IMPACTS AND MITIGATIONS
5.1 WATER RESOURCE IMPACTS AND MITIGATIONS
5.1.1 Surface Waters
This section addresses the potential impacts of coal mining on surface
waters in the following categories:
Geohydrology: physical alterations in volume, direction,
and flow of surface waters
Erosion and Sedimentation: alterations in water quality
through turbidity, sedimentation, and siltation
Water Quality: alterations in water chemistry, especially
from acid mine drainage.
General mitigative measures are presented here for each impact
category related to future coal mining in the North Branch Potomac River
Basin. The actual effects of coal mining activities will vary with
particular site characteristics, with pollution control methods employed at
each site during and after active mining, and with the water quality
regulations that apply together with their accompanying degree of compliance
and enforcement.
5.1.1.1. Geohydrology
Surface mining activities disturb the topographic, hydraulic, and
geologic characteristics of each permit area. Surface mining activities
also affect both the quantity and the rate of runoff from the mined area.
During mining, the protective vegetation is stripped from the mine surface,
topsoil is translocated, and overburden rock is shattered and transported.
After the coal has been removed, the overburden is regraded, topsoiled, and
replanted. The impacts of rainfall during mining can be minimized by
keeping reclamation current and minimizing the extent of exposed areas, as
required by SMCRA and WVSCMRA (Section 4.0).
The impact of current surface mining methods on water runoff rates and
the resulting effect on flooding are the subject of considerable contro-
versy. To minimize flood potential, the maximum amount of water should be
retained on a permit area for the longest possible period, with a gradual
release to waterways. This objective must be attained with due consider-
ation of other significant regulatory goals including reestablishment of
approximate original contour, achievement of slope stability, and prevention
of AMD. Large amounts of overburden and other mine waste historically were
lost by landslides during and after mining operations. Stream blockage due
to landslides may cause upstream flooding and as a consequence, the further
effect of downstream flooding when the loose material suddenly gives way.
Because most mining and related construction occur on steep slopes in West
5-1
-------
Virginia, accelerated runoff, erosion, and sedimentation may affect adjacent
and downstream floodplains.
Extensive coal mining may generate the need to construct support
facilities, such as coal preparation plants. These facilities are generally
constructed on floodplains, which typically are the only low-slope areas in
the Basin (except for some flat hilltop areas and gentle valley slopes in
the Appalachian Plateau Province). If operators construct flood control
dikes or fills to protect floodplain structures, the downstream flooding
potential may be increased due to the reduced flood storage capacity.
One of the first attempts to evaluate the hydrologic impact of surface
mining was made on Beaver Creek in southeastern Kentucky (Musser 1963,
Collier et al. 1964, 1966). In this study, streamflow was measured in three
watersheds, one without mining and two with mining. Flow in the mined
watersheds was found to be more variable than in the control watersheds and
tended to be higher during storms and during dry periods. Because data on
runoff characteristics of the watersheds for the period before mining were
not available, and because of the relatively short period of record, the
results of the study were inconclusive.
A more recent study, also in Kentucky, compared peak flows before
surface mining with flows after surface mining and reclamation (Curtis
1972). One hundred fifty storms were monitored in several small watersheds
where surface mining was conducted between 1968 and 1970. Flood heights
doubled in one watershed where 30% of the area was stripped, and two
watersheds, which were 40% and 47% stripped, each produced a five-fold
increase in flood heights. The study concluded that surface mining does
increase flooding in the Appalachians. Another study of the effect of
contour surface mines on flooding in a large river basin showed similar
results. Five percent of the 400 square mile upper New River Basin in
Tennessee was surface mined between 1943 and 1973. During this period, the
height of a one-year, frequency flood increased 21% (Minear and Tschants
1974). For this reason, the State of West Virginia requires an emergency
spillway to allow twice as much water to flow from a settling basin serving
an area 50% surface-mined, as from a spillway serving an undisturbed area
(WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1975).
On the other hand, Curtis (1977) reported that during one major storm
in Breathitt County, Kentucky, and Raleigh County, Vest Virginia, the
streamflow from surface-mined watersheds peaked lower than that from nearby
unmined watersheds. However, this study did not compare the streamflows
between pre-mining and post-mining conditions in the same watershed.
Instead, it compared the streamflows between the mined and unmined
watersheds. Because it was not established whether the hydrologic
characteristics of the watersheds were similar, the general conclusion that
mining reduces stormflow peaks was not demonstrated unequivocally.
Runoff increases when a forested site is mined. However, sediment
ponds, which are required to maintain water quality, also serve to attenuate
peak runoff flows leaving the mine site. Hence downstream flood levels will
5-2
-------
not necessarily increase as a result of the mining of a forested site if
current regulations are adhered to during the mining operation.
The extent to which streamflow and flooding are affected by surface
mining in individual streams depends upon hydrologic characteristics of the
specific watershed such as slope steepness, vegetation, and proportion of
impermeable surface before, during, and after mining. The degree to which
reclamation is kept current and the success of revegetation efforts
following regrading also affect flooding. Clear-cut timblerlands and
clean-cultivated cropland without erosion control measures may produce less
runoff following mining and reclamation than prior to mining.
The USOSM permanent program requires that runoff be calculated in
detail by applicants for surface mining permits, and that measures be
adopted that will minimize changes to the existing hydrologic balance in the
area covered by the mine plan and in adjacent areas [30 CFR 816.4l(a)].
Drainage facilities must be constructed to safely handle the peak runoff
from a 10-year, 24-hour storm, and embankments must be designed with a
static safety factor of 1.5 to preclude failure and the release of ponded
water that could raise flood levels downstream (30 CFR 816.43, .45). The
area disturbed at any one time is to be maintained at the smallest practical
size through progressive backfilling, grading, and prompt revegetation.
Backfill is to be stabilized to reduce the rate and volume of runoff and
minimize off-site effects [30 CFR 816.45(b), .101(b)(2)]. Sedimentation
ponds must be designed and maintained to contain the runoff that enters
during a 10-year, 24-hour storm for not less than 24 hours, unless a shorter
detention time is approved by the regulatory authority upon a detailed
demonstration by the applicant that water quality and other environmental
values will be protected [30 CFR 816.46(c)).
Compliance with the USOSM permanent program regulations means that new
mines will be designed and maintained to minimize potential downstream flood
impacts as a result of increased runoff, erosion, slope failure, and dam
failure. Positive benefits may be realized during mining (Figure 5-1 ).
However, following reclamation and the removal of sediment ponds runoff may
or may not increase above premining values, depending on the success of
revegetation.
EPA will rely on SMCRA and WVSCMRA to make certain that these aspects
have been addressed by the applicant in his surface mining permit
application. Only in cases where initial permit review indicates that
potential flooding of downstream uses is a serious issue will EPA request
further measures from applicants beyond those imposed under SMCRA and
WVSCMRA. If these measures should be unenforceable by the surface mining
regulatory authority pursuant to SMCRA and WVSCMRA, EPA independently will
implement them pursuant to NEPA and the Clean Water Act.
Measures designed to minimize flooding are built into current
reclamation requirements (Section 4.0). Typical flood control measures
include:
5-3
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RUNOFF FROM 10-YEAR, 24-HOUR STORM IN PERMIT AREA (SHOWN ABOVE)
BEFORE MINING
150
« 100
50
,peok = 140 cfs
DURING AND AFTER MINI
SEDIMENT POND OR ~
MINED LAND
DURING MINING WITH SEDIMENT POND BUT
WITHOUT REVEGETATION
INCREASED RUNOFF AS A RESULT OF
MINING WITHOUT REVEGETATION
I 2
Hours after storm begins
Figure 5-1 THEORETICAL HYDROGRAPH ILLUSTRATING RUNOFF FROM A
PERMIT AREA ON THE KENTUCKY-WEST VIRGINIA BORDER (Ward.Haan and
Taap 1979) The 120-acre site has slopes ranging from 20 to 60% (average
45%) and is on Muse-Shelocta (hydroiogic type B) soils with 50% of acreage
in dense forest,30% in thin forest, and 20% in poor pasture. Post-mining
uses were projected to be 40% dense forest- 30% thin forest; 20% bare,
regraded mined land; and 10% poor pasture. Revegetation according to State
and Federal requirements would reduce the runoff shown in this worst-case
example.
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Settling basins constitute an effective mitigative measure
for flooding (Minear and Tschantz 1974, Corbett 1969,
Curtis 1972). These and other drainage control measures
must be in place prior to the start of mining.
The best contour surface mine drainage system for con-
trolling flooding involves the temporary storage of all
runoff on the bench. This practice can only be used where
no spoil has been pushed below the bench. The diversion
of runoff around mines, an important pollution control
measure required on all drainage systems, may increase
flood heights (Minear and Tschantz 1974).
Reclamation of surface mines may increase runoff. Sedi-
ment ponds are to be removed following mining, unless the
regulatory authority approves their retention. Also,
retained ponds may become filled over time. Surface
grading itself temporarily increases flooding, especially
during extensive wet periods (Minear and Tschantz 1974).
The uncontrolled flow of water over the edge of regraded
mountaintops can be prevented by sloping the finished
grade away from the downslope edge of the bench. Special
discharge channels can be armored with rock or otherwise
protected against erosion. The energy of the water can be
dissipated by appropriate structures, if necessary, where
the water is discharged to a stream.
Hardwood forests, which typically cover mine sites in the Basin prior
to mining, transpire significant amounts of water. After mining, the
forests generally are replaced by grasses and crown vetch that transpire
less water. Much or all organic topsoil that helps retard runoff can be
lost if mining does not follow current State and Federal requirements for
soil removal, storage, replacement, and revegetation (Section 4.O.). The
breakup of underlying bedrock and the provision of underdrains in spoil and
valley fills may speed up drainage of groundwater into streams. Factors
such as these may combine to increase flooding from surface mines that are
reclaimed to approximate original contour.
The soil material eroded from mountainsides is transported by runoff to
floodplains, where it can reduce the temporary flood storage capacity of the
channel. Hence erosion control upslope can benefit flood levels down-
stream. Revegetation is the primary method to slow runoff from slopes.
5.1.1.2. Erosion and Sedimentation
Underground mines and coal preparation plants result in relatively
little direct surface disturbance and hence cause only minor physical
pollution other than the siltation from haul roads, surface rock dumps, mine
waste piles, and tailings piles. Tailings piles historically have been
particularly vulnerable to erosion because of their siting (often in or
adjacent to waterways), their inability to support vegetation, and their
5-5
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fine particles (EPA 1975). Current USOSM and State regulations prevent
placement of such piles in floodplains and mandate their reclamation and
revegetation following mining.
Surface mining, however, typically results in open cuts and large
amounts of spoil. The construction of roads to facilitate mining and
prospecting, the removal of vegetation, and the loosening and breaking up of
overburden may degrade stream water quality and the aquatic habitat.
Surface mining may also entail erosion and as a consequence, downslope
effects such as stream channel modifications (widening or filling),
diversion or loss of permament stream flow, significantly increased
turbidity caused by massive quantities of silt and sediment, loss of fish
spawning gravels by burial or removal, and compaction of stream bottoms.
Cast overburden and increased surface runoff also may cause accelerated
erosion in surface-mined areas.
Erosion and sedimentation resulting from stormwater runoff are affected
by four primary factors: (1) rainfall intensity and volume; (2) flow charac-
teristics as determined by slope steepness and length; (3) soil characteris-
tics; and (4) vegetation densities and protective effects. (Hill and Grim
1975, Hill 1973, Spaulding and Ogden 1968).
Surface mining alters all of these factors except rainfall. Flow
characteristics are altered by the creation of highwalls, access roads,
spoil piles, and water handling structures. Soil structure characteristics
are changed greatly. Topsoil, subsoil, and substrate rock fragments may be
intermingled, and less fertile and sometimes highly acidic soil can result
if current State and Federal reclamation requirements are not met. Acidic
soil material with sparse vegetation seldom can withstand the forces of
rainfall or stormwater movement. Vegetation is absent during the mining
process, and can be absent for several to many years after regrading if not
replanted in accordance with current State and Federal requirements (Section
4.O.).
The rate of sediment loss as a result of uncontrolled surface mining
may increase one thousand times over natural levels (Spaulding and Ogden
1968). In one study of pre-SMCRA and WVSCMRA surface mining in the Elk
River Basin of West Virginia, active mines near Webster Springs were found
to have contributed a high level of suspended solids (Landers and Smosna
1974).
The specific sediment control measures currently required by surface
mining regulations are described in Section 5.7. of this assessment. A
summary of these measures follows:
Diverting offsite runoff around the surface mine, passing
mine runoff through settling basins, regrading to minimize
disturbed areas, and revegetation minimize erosion. Where
these requirements have been followed, sedimentation has
been reduced (Light 1975). Unacceptable sedimentation
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still may occur when surface mines employ these control
measures (Phares 1971).
Settling basins detain runoff polluted by sediment.
Settling pond size should be based on a calculation of the
storage space needed to hold the runoff expected to be
discharged by a surface mine and for the efficient
settling of the sediment. The State of West Virginia
requires settling basin capacity to be 0.125 acre-foot
volume per acre of disturbed land, but this sizing
criterion alone may not be sufficient to reduce
concentrations of suspended solids during heavy rainstorms
(Light 1975). West Virginia regulations also have
required that the capacity of the basin be maintained by
removing accumulated sediment when it is 80% filled,
although the WVDNR-Water Resources Drainage Handbook
recommends cleanout when 60% capacity is reached. Some
basins can fill up after only one moderate storm.
Therefore, doubling the size of settling basins was
recommended in a report commissioned by the West Virginia
Legislature (Schmidt 1972). The USOSM permanent program
requires cleanout at 60% of capacity [30 CFR 816.46(h)].
It is theoretically possible to construct settling basins
large enough for all surface mines, but site availability,
road access, and cost are major problems in West Virginia
terrain. In the steeply sloping areas where need is
greatest, space is most constrained. The effectiveness of
settling basins can be enhanced by using baffles to
maximize water retention time and by adding flocculants to
maximize sediment deposition.
Another efficient means to remove sediment from large
volumes of runoff is to capture and store water
temporarily on the mine bench. Sediment settles on the
bench, and the water is released to a settling basin at a
rate slow enough to allow adequate treatment. This method
is fully applicable only on contour or mountaintop removal
surface mines where spoil has not been pushed downslope
and valley fills have not been used.
Sediment is most difficult to control when surface mine
spoil has a high clay content. Due to its electrical
charge, clay particles resist physical means of settling
and coagulation/flocculation treatment systems are
necessary (McCarthy 1973). Problem soils in the Basin are
identified in Section 5.7.
Landslides historically have been the source of much of
the sedimentation which occurs after completion of surface
mining. Engineered valley fills, modified block cut
5-7
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raining, mountain top removal, and compaction of spoil
during regrading in accordance with current regulations
should reduce sedimentation resulting from landslides.
Permanent erosion control can be provided by the estab-
lishment of healthy vegetation over the entire area.
Since 1970, revegetation requirements in West Virginia
have required fertilization and liming, with the main-
tenance of vegetation for two growing seasons prior to
release of a reclamation bond. USOSM requires that
eastern surface miners be held responsible for effluent
from a mine site for five years after their last seeding
to make sure that revegetation is permanent. Settling
basins must be maintained to control sedimentation until
revegetation is complete.
5.1.1.3. Water Quality
Chemical pollution occurs when soluble or leachable compounds present
in mine wastes enter streams, lakes, or reservoirs. Most chemical pollution
results from oxidation of sulfide minerals, resulting in acid mine drainage
(EPA 1973). During surface mining for coal, the removal of overburden often
exposes rock materials containing iron sulfide (marcasite and amorphous
pyrite). As the following equations indicate, the oxidation of iron sulfide
results in the production of ferrous iron and sulfuric acid (Equations 1 and
2); the reaction then proceeds to form ferric hydroxide and more acid
(Equations 3 and 4), which reduce the pH level in the receiving streams and
potentially affect aquatic biota.
2FeS2 + 2H20 + 702 * 2FeS04 + 2H2S04 (1)
(pyrite) + (water) + (oxygen) > (ferrous acid sulfate) + (sulfuric acid)
FeS2 + 14Fe+3 + 8H20 » 15Fe+2 + 2S04-2 + 16H+ (2)
(pyrite) + (ferric iron) + (water) >(ferrous iron) + (sulfate) + (hydronium ion)
4FeS04 + 02 + 2H2S04 -> 2Fe2(804)3 + 2H20 (3)
(ferrous iron sulfate) + (oxygen) + sulfuric acid) > (ferric sulfate) + (water)
Fe2(S04)3 + 6H20 > 2Fe(OH)3 + 3H2S04 (4)
(ferric sulfate) + (water) ^(ferric hydroxide) + (sulfuric acid)
The amount and rate of acid formation and the quality of water discharged
are functions of the amount and type of iron sulfide in the overburden rock
and coal, the time of exposure, the buffering characteristics of the
overburden, and the amount of available water (Hill 1973 , Herricks and
Cairns 1974, Hill and Grim 1975). Framboidal pyrite generally poses the
most serious AMD potential. Mining areas underlain by limestone rather than
5-8
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dolomite are less susceptible to damage from AMD because limestone is more
readily soluble than dolomite and hence provides more effective buffering of
the acid formed.
The quality of Basin water affected by acid mine drainage is variable,
but Appalachian streams that have received mine drainage generally are
characterized as follows (Herricks and Cairns 1974):
pH < 6.0
Acidity > 3 mg/1
Alkalinity Normally 0
Alkalinity/Acidity < 1.0
Iron > 0.5 mg/1
Sulfate > 250 mg/1
Total suspended solids > 250 mg/1
Total dissolved solids > 500 mg/1
Total hardness > 250 mg/1
Physical changes in water quality from AMD result both from the
deposition of ferric hydroxide floes on the substrate and from the
hydroxides that may remain suspended within the water column where they
reduce light penetration. Chemical changes in water quality result from
reduction in the receiving water pH, alteration of the bicarbonate buffering
system, chemical oxygen demand (if the mine drainage is poorly oxidized),
and the addition of many metal salts (Herricks 1975, Gale et al. 1976,
Huckabee et al. 1975).
As a result of the low pH of acid mine runoff, the dissolved solids may
contain significant quantities of iron, aluminum, calcium, magnesium,
manganese, copper, zinc, and other heavy metals, depending on the
mineralogical composition of the coal deposit and associated strata (Table
5-1). There are few actual data relating heavy metals pollution and coal
mining in West Virginia. During December 1979, USOSM analyzed water samples
from an unnamed tributary to Panther Fork in Upshur County (Buckhannon River
drainage of the Monongahela River Basin). The cadmium concentration
increased by two orders of magnitude, from 0.01 mg/1 upstream to 1.34 mg/1
downstream from a coal mine. At a point 0.5 mi farther downstream, the
cadmium was measured at 0.05 mg/1. At the same three stations iron
concentrations varied from <0.10 to 0.5 to <0.10 mg/1; manganese values were
0.40, 31.00, and 0.90 mg/1; and sulfate values were 4.0, 412.32, and 9.0
mg/1. The mine was not demonstrated to be the source or the only source of
the cadmium or other elevated parameters. No fish were reported from the
Panther Fork, and long-term studies of the water quality were recommended
(G. E. Hanson and J. D. Generauz, memorandum to J. A. Holbrook, USOSM,
Charleston WV, January 24, 1980).
The following discussion summarizes general water quality impacts from
coal mining in terms of individual water quality constituents. Most of the
levels discussed below will not occur if the New Source Performance
Standards are met. Thus the effluent limits mandated by the NSPS should be
an effective means of protecting human health. As pointed out in Section
5.2., however, the New Source standards are not necessarily sufficient to
protect aquatic organisms.
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Table 5-1. Composite characterization of untreated acid mine drainage
(Nessler and Bachman 1977).
Constituent
pH
Acidity
Alkalinity/Acidity Ratio
Specific Conductance
Total Dissolved Solids
Total Suspended Solids
Total Solids
Hardness
Sulfate
Total Iron
Aluminum
Magnesium
Manganese
Chloride
Calcium
Zinc
Lead
Copper
Sodium
Potassium
1.1-7.3
0-35,000 mg H2S04/1
Less than 1
1,400-12,000 umhos/cm
Greater than 500-5,500 mg/1
Greater than 250 mg/1
1,000-11,000 mg/1
250-13,600 mg CaC03/l
20-31,000 mg/1
0.5-7,600 mg/1
30-500 mg/1
150-2,990 mg/1
5-675 mg/1
10-270 mg/1
20-500 mg/1
0-18 mg/1
0-0.5 mg/1
0-0.7 mg/1
15-70 mg/1
3-16 mg/1
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Table 5-2. Contaminant levels in drinking water (USPHS 1962).
Element Maximum^ Desirable^
Arsenic 0.05 0.01
Barium 1.0
Cadmium 0.010
Chromium (Cr+6) °-05
Copper 1.0
Iron 0.3
Lead 0.05
Manganese 0.05
Mercury 0.002
Selenium 0.01
Sulfate 250
Zinc 5.0
Ifiased primarily on health considerations
^Based primarily on taste, odor, or aesthetic considerations.
5-11
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Water hardness becomes objectionable at about 150 mg/1 and generally
makes water unusable for certain domestic or industrial uses at concen-
trations greater than 300 mg/1. High hardness levels shorten the life of
pipes and water heaters and greatly increase the amount of soap that is
needed for cleaning. Water can be softened by treatment, but this is
expensive and may be inadequate (Light 1975).
Excessive iron, manganese, and sulfate concentrations can cause
objectionable taste and staining. In addition, sulfate levels greater than
250 mg/1 can produce a laxative effect (EPA 1976c).
Some of the tolerance levels recommended in Table 5.2 are based more on
aesthetic than toxicological considerations, for example iron, manganese,
and zinc. A specific limit has not been established for nickel because it
is considered relatively non-toxic to man (EPA 1976c). With the exception
of possible high sulfate levels, effluents from New Source mines should pose
little threat to public health.
With respect to most of the Basin, the New Source limitations will be
sufficient to maintain existing water quality. The limitations govern four
of the most important constituents of mine effluents (iron, manganese, pH,
and suspended solids). Three of these (iron, pH, and suspended solids) have
been the principal cause of damage to the aquatic biota of the Basin
(Sections 2.2 and 5.2.). Additional limitations will be necessary in
certain areas to protect aquatic organisms. Significant improvement in the
water quality of degraded streams in the Basin will not occur until the
numerous abandoned mines in the Basin are reclaimed.
Generally, iron is precipitated as yellow ferric hydroxide (FeOH3).
Occasionally red ferric oxide (Fe203) is precipitated. Both of these
precipitates form gels or floes that may be detrimental, when suspended in
water, to fishes and other aquatic biota. Dissolved iron is also toxic to
certain aquatic organisms. A detailed discussion of the effects of iron on
aquatic organisms is presented in Section 5.2. To insure that the concen-
tration of iron in the stream does not exceed 1 mg/1 as mandated by the
State stream standard proposed by WVDNR-Water Resources (1980) and
recommended by EPA (1976c), the mine operator may elect to retain his
discharge during low flow conditions or to treat the discharge to iron
concentrations less than 3 mg/1. In trout waters, the State has proposed a
0.5 mg/1 maximum in-stream iron limitation, and the State may require more
stringent discharge limitations than the NSPS or other measures to protect
the quality of trout waters.
The NSPS effluent limitations do not apply under all weather
conditions. Any overflow, increase in volume of a discharge, or discharge
from a by-pass system caused by precipitation or snowmelt in excess of the
10-year, 24-hour precipitation event is not subject to the limitations. In
addition, discharges during small precipitation events also are not subject
to the NSPS, provided that the treatment facility has been designed,
constructed, and maintained to contain or treat the volume of water that
would fall on the area subject to the NSPS limitations during a 10-year,
24-hour or larger precipitation event (44 FR 250:76791, December 20, 1979).
One important aspect of the exemption described above is suspended
solids concentrations. That is, properly designed and operated ponds will
5-12
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remove large (settlable) solids, but not fine, colloidal material. Where
clay colloids are present, chemical or physical treatments such as those
described below may be required in order to meet the NSPS and protect
designated water uses.
Of the various advanced treatment techniques developed primarily for
large-scale treatment of salt water, over the past two decades the reverse
osmosis desalinization technique has been most successfully applied to acid
mine drainage (ARC 1969). Another chemical treatment method for colloidal
material is flocculation. Both of these techniques are applicable in the
Basin to promote the settling of a significant proportion of fine suspended
clay particles during the sedimentation process. These techniques
particularly are appropriate in conditions of steep slopes, soils containing
colloidal materials (clayey soils) or mine soils formed from weathered
shales, and anticipated slow revegetation (low nutrient soils, acidic soils,
etc.). Removal of these fine particles also reduces metals impacts, because
metals are usually associated with colloidal material and thus are removed
along with the suspended solids. Best Available Control Technology and the
NSPS apply to total metal concentrations, which consist of metals in
solution (dissolved) plus metals in suspension as part of the solids
loading. The choice of specific methods for meeting the NSPS is left to
applicants by EPA. Information regarding costs and effectiveness of these
and other techniques is presented in Section 3.2.
Other abatement techniques that have been used and proven practical for
mine drainage treatment in the Basin are listed in Section 5.7. These
include techniques that can be used for underground as well as surface
mining operations (ARC 1969). The abatement of acid mine drainage in the
North Branch Potomac River Basin could involve the use of a variety of
techniques.
The application of specific abatement techniques will depend upon the type
of mining (surface, underground, or both), whether the mining operation is
active or temporarily inactive, the characteristics of the mine drainage,
the desired resultant water quality, its suitability for the uses intended,
and the secondary effects of the abatement technique on the environment (see
Section 5.7).
5.1.2. Groundwater
5.1.2.1. Availability of Groundwater
Pumping or draining water from an aquifer during mining activity can
lower the water level in nearby wells drawing from the same aquifer. The
amount of lowering of the water level and how far away an effect can be
found are functions of the rate at which the water is withdrawn and the
hydraulic characteristics of the aquifer. The extent of the effect may be
short-term, as when water drains into a cavity until it is filled, or it may
be long-term, if the water continues to drain or is pumped.
There is a scarcity of evidence documenting well failure resulting from
mining activity in the Basin. Historically there have been few accurate
measurements of nearby well capability before mining activity begins.
Consequently, it has been hard to confirm whether well failures are caused
5-13
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by mining activity or are caused by gradual deterioration or other natural
causes.
One recent study of the major aquifers (the Allegheny, Conemaugh,
Monongahela, and Dunkard Formations) in Monongalia County, which, except for
the Dunkard, also are major aquifers in the North Branch Potomac River
Basin, concluded that vertical air shafts were responsible for groundwater
drainage and well dewatering (Ahnell 1977). Where the air shafts were not
pregrouted prior to construction, some were found to affect groundwater
levels for a distance of at least 1.5 miles from the shafts. Wells located
near pregrouted air shafts experienced no noticeable reduction in levels.
Wells located above underground mines with less than 300 feet of overburden
between the bottom of the well and the coal mine commonly lost water. The
geological similarity between the Basin and the Monongalia County study area
indicates that similar effects can be anticipated in the Basin.
Surface mining can affect the relationship between surface water flow
and groundwater flow. Unconsolidated, cast overburden has a greater
porosity than the undisturbed bedrock which existed before mining (Spaulding
and Ogden 1968). Hence, there is likely to be increased infiltration from
surface water to ground water. The cast overburden may assume the
characteristics of an aquifer with a relatively greater groundwater storage
capacity than existed under the premining conditions (Corbett 1965).
Current reclamation regulations, however, require the compaction and
regrading of spoil to minimize the penetration of water below the topsoil
layer. The compaction is necessary both to insure that the overburden
remains stable on the slope (rather than becoming fluid because of
infiltrating water) and to reduce the amount of water that reaches toxic
material in the overburden. The temporary storage of water within the spoil
of regraded New Source mines is expected to be of insignificant volume
relative to that flowing across the surface.
5.1.2.2. Groundwater Quality
As with groundwater availablility, there is a scarcity of documented
information on the effect of mining activities on groundwater quality in the
Basin. Rauch (1980) reported that severe contamination of groundwater
supplies is generally restricted to groundwater located within about 200 ft.
horizontally of underground mine drainage sources. The intrusion of mine
drainage into rock-strata aquifers can be expected to result in higher
sulfate, hardness, and iron concentrations in the groundwater, as well as
lowered pH. Low pH and high iron concentrations, however generally have
little effect on groundwater, because they usually are neutralized by the
carbonates in the aquifers, precipitated, or filtered out in tiny passages
through the rocks.
There is some indication that underground mining may cause an increase
in sulfate and hardness content, but the amount of increase is not usually
so great as to restrict the utility of the water, based on information
obtained from similar situations outside the Basin and from statistically
derived inferences. More information on the relationship between
groundwater availability and quality and mining activities within the Basin
is needed.
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Information regarding sulfate, iron, and hardness concentrations is
insufficient to determine whether mining activities have increased the con-
centration of these constituents in the Basin's groundwater. Skelly and Loy
(1977) reported that groundwater has become severely degraded throughout the
Upper North Branch Potomac River Basin, but they provided no data to support
this contention. Friel et al. (1975) reported several instances of
contamination of wells by mining activities, but again data either to
calculate precisely the magnitude of the contamination or to determine the
extent of the problem are lacking.
Rauch (1980) recommended that groundwater should be directed away from
mine sites both during and after mining. In contour mines, drainage pipes
can be installed at the foot of the highwall just prior to reclamation.
This will result in a lower water table after reclamation and less ground-
water contact with fill material. The groundwater can then be piped to a
nearby stream channel. Another approach recommended by Rauch is to install
an impermeable barrier in the backfill material a few feet below the
surface. This has the effect of directing infiltrating rainfall downslope
away from the mine and buried toxic overburden.
Additional recommendations of Rauch are that (1) surface mining be kept
at least 200 feet away from any well or spring water supply, especially
those supplies located downhill from the mine, and that (2) all bore holes
created by coring operations and all old abandoned wells be filled with
concrete grout at the mine site during mining to prevent polluted mine
drainage from recharging aquifers underlying the mine. Other mitigative
measures are discussed in Section 5.7.
The USOSM permanent program regulations address in detail the measures
necessary to protect groundwater supplies and quality (30 CFR 816.51, .52,
817.51, .52). Pre-mining monitoring data must be supplied with the permit
application (30 CFR 779.15, 783.16), and recharge capacity must be restored
to a condition that (1) supports the approved post-mining land use, (2)
minimizes disturbance to the hydrologic balance of the permit area and to
adjacent areas, and (3) approximates the pre-mining recharge rate. Mine
operators must replace the water supply of users whose supplies are affected
by mining activities (30 CFR 816.54; 817.54).
Compliance with the USOSM permanent program regulations means that new
mines will be designed so as to minimize adverse impacts on groundwater
quality and quantity. EPA will check to see that groundwater aspects have
been addressed by applicants in their surface mining permit applications.
If these measures should be unenforceable by the regulatory authority
pursuant to SMCRA and WVSCMRA, EPA independently will implement them
pursuant to NEPA and CWA.
5-15
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5.2 Aquatic Biota Impacts and Mitigations
-------
Page
5.2. Aquatic Biota Impacts and Mitigations 5-16
5.2.1. Major Mining-Related Causes of Damage to Aquatic 5-16
Biota
5.2.1.1. Impacts of Sedimentation and Suspended 5-17
Solids
5.2.1.2. Impacts of Acid Mine Drainage 5-17
5.2.1.2.1. Iron Impacts 5-17
5.2.1.2.2. pH Impacts 5-19
5.2.1.3. Impacts of Trace Contaminants 5-21
5.2.2. Responses of Aquatic Biota to Mining Impacts 5-21
5.2.2.1. Fish 5-23
5.2.2.2. Benthic Macro invertebrates 5-24
5.2.2.3. Other Organisms 5-25
5.2.3. Sensitivity of Basin Waters to Coal Mining Impacts 5-25
5.2.4. Mitigative Measures 5-30
5.2.5. Erroneous Classification 5-38
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5.2. AQUATIC BIOTA IMPACTS AND MITIGATIONS
Water pollution from mines occurs when dissolved solids, suspended
solids, or other mineral wastes and debris enter streams or infiltrate the
groundwater system. Mine drainage includes both the water flowing from
surface or underground mines by gravity or by pumping and runoff or seepage
from mine lands or mine wastes. This pollution may be physical (sediments)
or chemical (acid, heavy metals, etc.; EPA 1973, Hill and Grim 1975). In
subsequent sections, the effects of sediment and acid mine drainage on
aquatic biota, the response of the biotic community to sediment and acid
mine drainage, and measures to reduce sediment and acid mine drainage are
discussed in turn.
5.2.1. Major Mining-Related Causes of Damage^ to Aquatic Biota
The major causes of damage to the biota of an aquatic system are:
1) destruction of habitats through direct physical alteration; 2) reduction
or elimination of any component of the physical, chemical, or biological
system that is essential for continued biotic function; and 3) destruction
or injury of the biota by the addition of toxic materials (Herricks 1975).
In the eastern United States, aquatic biota usually are affected adversely
by mineral mining through the following mechanisms (Mason 1978, Hill 1973):
Excess acidity
Silt deposition on streambeds and in ponds, lakes, and
reservoirs
Turbidity
Heavy metal contamination of waters and sediment
Secondary impacts such as decreased dissolved oxygen
concentrations, decreased plankton populations (which
provide food for fish and macroinvertebrates), increased
water temperatures, and decreased reproductive capacities
of fish and macroinvertebrates
Synergistic effects of mining wastes acting in combination
with other types of pollutants.
The effects of acid mine drainage include fish kills, reduction in fish
hatching success, failure or inhibition of fish spawning, reduction in the
numbers and variety of invertebrate organisms, elimination of algae and
other aquatic plants, and inhibition of bacterial growth and consequent
retarding of decomposition of organic matter (Stauffer et al. 1978).
5-16
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5.2.1.1. Impacts of Sedimentation and Suspended Solids
Sediment eroded from surfaces exposed by mining may cover the stream
substrate. Apart from any acutely toxic effects, sedimentation decreases
substrate heterogeneity, fills interstices with silt, severely reduces algal
populations, and directly affects the bottom-dwelling invertebrates (Ward et
al. 1978, Matter et al. 1978). Secondarily, sedimentation may reduce fish
populations by reducing habitat (filling pools), by eliminating food
supplies (algae and benthos), by eliminating spawning sites, by smothering
eggs or fry, or by modifying natural movements or migrations (Branson and
Batch 1972, EPA 1976C). The ecological effects of suspended solids include:
1) mechanical or abrasive effects, (clogging of gills, irritation of
tissues, etc.); 2) blanketing action of sedimentation; 3) reduced light
penetration; 4) availability as a surface for growth of bacteria, fungi,
etc.; 5) adsorption and/or absorption of various chemicals; and 6) reduction
of natural temperature fluctuations (Cairns 1967).
Mechanical or abrasive effects resulting from increased suspended
solids are of particular importance in the higher aquatic organisms such as
mussels and fish. Gills frequently are clogged and their proper function
impaired (Cairns 1967). Herbert and Merkins (1961) exposed rainbow trout to
suspensions of kaolin and diatomaceous earth and found that concentrations
of 30 ppm had no observable effect. A few fish died at 90 ppm; at 270 ppm,
more than half of the fish died in two to twelve weeks. They also observed
considerable cell proliferation and fusion of lamellae in the gills of the
exposed fish. The gills are important not only in respiration but also in
excretion; gills may remove six to ten times as much nitrogenous wastes from
the blood as the kidneys (Smith 1929).
The reduction of light penetration by increased suspended solids may
restrict or prohibit the growth of photosynthetic organisms that form the
base of the aquatic food chain. Any significant change in the populations
of these organisms has widespread effects on the organisms dependent upon
them for food (e.g., filter-feeders such as gizzard shad, various insects,
etc.). Non-nutritive suspended particulate matter may affect the feeding
efficiency of many aquatic organisms adversely. In addition, because a
number of aquatic predators such as trout and darters depend on sight to
capture their prey, any increase in the turbidity of the water will lower
prey capturing efficiency (Cairns 1967).
5.2.1.2. Impacts of Acid Mine Drainage
In streams receiving acid mine drainage, microbial growth is minimal
as a result of low pH (Koryak et al. 1972). Likewise at low pH, many
inorganic elements and compounds enter receiving water bodies in a
non-adsorbed or non-absorbed state, and may exert toxic effects on the
resident organisms.
5.2.1.2.1. Iron Impacts. Coal mine effluents typically contain large
amounts of ferrous iron that oxidize into insoluble ferric compounds (mostly
ferric hydroxide) as mine effluents are oxygenated and neutralized by
receiving waters. Much of the ferric hydroxide precipitates onto the stream
5-17
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substrate and blankets the substrate in a manner analogous to ordinary
sediment (Gale et al. 1976, Ward et al. 1978).
Ferric iron affects plants by reducing light penetration, by coating
the surface of algal cells and macrophytes, by precipitating algal cells,
and by reducing the substrate heterogeneity necessary for periphytic algae
to attach and grow successfully. By increasing turbidity and by coating
outer plant surfaces, ferric iron (in concentrations ranging from 1.65 to
6.49 mg/1) effectively decreases the amount of light available for
photosynthesis. Besides shading the phytoplankton, ferric hydroxide floe
may carry algal cells out of the water column as it settles to the bottom.
This settling effectively reduces phytoplankton density in a receiving
stream. Periphytic algae are especially vulnerable to ferric iron, because,
in addition to being shaded, they may be prevented from attaching to a
stable substrate by the ferric coating on the streambed. Outer layers of
this coating tend to be loose, and cells attached to it may be dislodged by
slightly elevated stream discharges (Gale et al. 1976).
Ferric compounds affect benthic organisms by decreasing habitat
heterogeneity, reducing available food, coating the organisms directly, and
exerting an oxygen demand, thus reducing oxygen availability. Iron precipi-
tates also fill small crevices in the substratum that ordinarily are used by
various invertebrates. Probably of greater significance, however, precipi-
tating iron reduces the standing crop of algae and vascular plants that
serve as food for many benthic invertebrates. Burrowing organisms are
affected if the oxidation of ferrous iron occurs in interstitial waters in
the stream sediment, thereby depleting the dissolved oxygen concentration.
Similarly, precipitated iron may seal the substrate and prevent the exchange
of dissolved oxygen between the stream water and the interstitial water.
Respiration by macro!nvertebrates or their eggs may be upset by heavy
coatings of iron (Gale et al. 1976, Koryak et al. 1972, EPA 1976). The
reduction in the diversity of benthic invertebrates is well documented
(Parsons 1968, Koryak et al. 1972).
Fish are impacted by iron compounds as the result of reduced algal and
invertebrate food supplies. Iron also reduces spawning success because the
increased concentrations of ferric hydroxide flocculants reduce the ability
of fish to locate suitable spawning sites, blanket suitable substrates, and
smother the eggs and embryos (Gale et al. 1976, Sykora et al. 1972).
The toxicity of iron to fish and macroinvertebrates is directly
proportional to acidity. Menendez (1976) reported the survival of brook
trout exposed to various iron concentrations. He found that the "no effect"
level of iron for brook trout was 1.37 mg/1 at pH 7.0. In later bioassays
using brook trout exposed to iron, Menendez (1977) found the 96-hour
LC5Q (lethal concentration for 50% of test animals) for iron to be 2.3,
3.3, and 8.4 mg/1 at pH 5.0, 6.0, and 7.0, respectively. Carp may be killed
by concentrations of iron as low as 0.9 mg/1 when the pH is 5.5 (EPA 1976).
Trout and pike were found to die at iron concentrations of 1 to 2 mg/1 (EPA
1976).
5-18
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Sykora et al. (1972) evaluated the toxicity of suspended ferric
hydroxide to two invertebrates. Crustacean and aquatic insect larvae
(Gammarus minus and Cheumatopsyche sp., respectively) were tested at iron
concentrations of: 100, 50, 25, 12, 6, 3, and 20, 10, 5, 1.75, 0.80 mg/1.
The crustaceans, especially younger specimens, were especially susceptible
to ferric hydroxide. The safe concentration of iron for reproduction and
growth of Gammarus minus is less than 3 mg/1. The insect larvae, however,
were more tolerant to suspended ferric hydroxide. Adults emerged from the
highest concentration tested (20 mg/1).
For mayflies, stoneflies, and caddisflies, which are important stream
insects in West Virginia, the 96-hour LC5Q values were found to be 0.32
mg/1 iron (EPA 1976). These macroinvertebrates are important when
considering the impacts of iron in mine effluent, because they form an
integral link in the aquatic food chain, utilizing plants and microfauna and
providing a major food source for fish.
Based upon the variable sensitivity of aquatic organisms to iron,
EPA (1976) suggested a limit of 1.0 mg/1 iron in natural waters to protect
freshwater biota. The West Virginia State Water Quality Board (1980) is
also establishing a 1.0 mg/1 maximum iron in-stream standard to be met
Statewide, except where more stringent standards are necessary (or natural
iron values exceed 1 mg/1).
5.2.1.2.2. pH Impacts. Concomitant with the addition of acid mine
drainage to a receiving water body is the depression of pH, a measure of
hydrogen ion activity. The impact of low pH, in the absence of other
parameters normally associated with acid mine drainage, was evaluated under
field conditions by Herricks and Cairns (1974) and by Ettinger and Kim
(1975), and in the laboratory by Bell (1971). Bell performed bioassays with
nymphs or larvae of caddisflies (two species), stoneflies (four species),
dragonflies (two species), and mayflies (one species). The 30-day LC5Q
values ranged from pH 2.45 to 5.38. Caddisflies were the most tolerant;
mayflies, the least tolerant. The pH values at which 50% of the organisms
emerged ranged from pH 4.0 to 6.6, with increasing percentages emerging at
the higher pH values.
Ettinger and Kim (1975) evaluated the invertebrate fauna of Sinking
Creek, Pennsylvania, a stream receiving acid water from a bog, but lacking
high concentrations of ferrous or ferric iron and sulfate. They observed
that the number of benthic insect species present decreased as the pH
decreased. The insects affected most adversely were beetles, mayflies, and
stoneflies. Dragonflies and caddisflies were affected less severely. True
flies seemed unaffected, and the number of taxa of alderflies, fishflies,
and dobsonflies increased in the more acidic waters of the stream.
Herricks and Cairns (1974) experimentally acidified a reach of Mill
Creek, Virginia, and recorded the response of the benthic invertebrate
community to pH. Two days after acidification, benthic invertebrate density
and diversity were reduced in the acid-treated reach, as compared to a
5-19
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reference reach. Herricks and Cairns concluded that the low invertebrate
density resulted from loss of benthic algae and diatoms, a source of energy
for benthic invertebrates, and, through the food chain, for fish.
Pegg and Jenkins (1976) identified 13 stress symptoms during a study
that evaluated the physiological effects of sublethal levels of acid water
on fish. The species evaluated were the bluegill, pumpkinseed, and brown
bullhead. When exposed to acidified tap water or water acidified with coal
mine drainage, the following stress symptoms were noted:
rapid movement of pectoral fins
dorsal fin fully depressed or fully erect
pectoral fin pressed against body
hemorrhagic region at base of pectoral fin
mucus frilling on fins, body, and opercular regions
coughing reflex (gill purging movements)
mucus coagulation on eyes (opaque cornea)
gill congestion (thick mucus accumulation on gill
surfaces)
alternate swimming to top and bottom of respiration
chamber
few swimming movements, resting on bottom of chamber
shallow ventilation movements
intermittent ventilation movements (2 to 10 second pauses
for sunfish; extended pauses of 5 to 10 minutes for brown
bullhead)
increase in ventilation rate (from <50 to 100
movements/minute).
Species differences were apparent, particularly between the brown bullhead
and sunfish. The sunfish displayed an increased rate of swimming and
opercular movement, but brown bullheads slowed or ceased activity and
opercular movements. When the acid water conditions are maintained for
several days or longer, long-term effects such as reduced growth or even
death result.
As mentioned later under acid mine drainage mitigations, State and
USOSM regulations require the pH of mine discharge waters to be between 6.0
5-20
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and 9.0. This is adequate to protect the aquatic resources of the Basin
from pH-related mining impacts.
5.2.1.3. Impacts of Trace Contaminants
Many contaminants remain in wastes or process by-products as a result
of the mining, processing, and utilization of coal. Over sixty elements
have been identified from coal, coal mine spoils, mining waste dumps, coal
preparation plant wastes, sludge resulting from acid mine drainage neutrali-
zation, flyash recovered from precipitators in coal-burning plants and
bottom ash, and solid reaction products recovered from flue gas scrubbers on
coal burning power plants. Metallic elements in coal can be assumed to be
solubilized into the environment as these materials oxidize after exposure
(Grube et al. n.d.), and many of the trace contaminants originating from
coal and other fossil fuels are known to exert toxic effects on aquatic
animals.
Birge et al. (1978) conducted embryo-larval bioassays on 11 metals
that commonly affect aquatic habitats. The test organisms used during this
study included rainbow trout, largemouth bass, and the marbled salamander
(Table 5-3). Coal trace metal contaminants that proved most toxic to trout
eggs and alevins included mercury (Hg), silver (Ag), nickel (Ni), and copper
(Cu), which had median lethal concentrations (LCso) of 0.005, 0.01,
0.05, and 0.09 ppm, respectively. Bass eggs and fry were most sensitive to
silver, mercury, aluminum (Al), and lead (Pb), which had LC5Q values of
0.11, 0.15, 0.24, and 0.42 ppm respectively. Trout eggs and alevins were
considerably more susceptible to coal elements than were embryo-larval
stages of bass and salamander. Teratogenic defects were common among
exposed trout larvae, less significant for bass, and generally infrequent
for the salamander. Percentages of anomalous survivors were higher for
cadmium (Cd), copper, mercury, and zinc (Zn; Birge et al. 1978).
5.2.2. Responses of Aquatic Biota to Mining Impacts
The recovery of stream communities from mine discharges or other
chronic stress can be related both to distance from the point of stress and
to a time-related decrease in stress intensity to levels where aquatic
community structure and function are re-established following cessation of
discharges. In general, recovery from chronic pollutional stress can occur
if: (1) the stress is reduced and damaged habitats are restored; (2)
sources of recolonizing organisms are available; and (3) seasonal
variability in stream conditions does not preclude maintenance of stream
communities (Herricks 1975). Because AMD problems tend to be permanent,
unless costly cleanup is successful, recovery of biota historically has not
been widespread.
Streams and rivers subjected to acid mine drainage respond in
predictable ways based on both the interaction between physical, chemical,
and biological components of the stream system and the type, intensity, and
duration of the stress. Chronic discharges have the highest potential for
5-21
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Table 5-3, Results of embryo-larval bioassays on coal elements (Birge et al. 1978).
Element
AG
(AgN03)
Al
(A1C13)
As
(NaAs02)
Cd
(CdCl2)
Cr
(Cr03)
Cu
(CuS04)
Hg
(HgCl2)
Ni
(NiCl2)
Pb
(PbCl2)
Sn
(SnCl2)
Zn
(ZnCl2)
Animal
Species
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
LC50a
(PPm)
0.01
0.11
0.24
0.56
0.17
2.28
0.54
42.1
4.45
0.13
1.64
0.15
0.18
1.17
2.13
0.09
6.56
0.77
0.005
0.13
0.11
0.05
2.02
0.42
0.18
0.24
1.46
0.40
1.89
0.85
1.06
5.16
2.38
Confidence
Lower
0.01
0.04
0.16
0.40
0.07
1.53
0.42
21.2
2.89
0.10
1.41
0.10
0.07
0.85
1.34
0.05
5.66
0.52
0.004
0.09
0.07
0.04
1.46
0.28
0.10
0.12
1.00
0.23
0.77
0.54
0.75
4.58
1.60
Limits
Upper
0.02
0.23
0.34
0.70
0.40
3.29
0.67
84.9
6.66
0.18
1.88
0.20
0.31
1.58
3.34
0.15
7.54
1.11
0.005
0.17
0.15
0.06
2.77
0.59
0.32
0.46
2.05
0.67
4.32
1.32
1.39
5.78
3.44
UC-^
(ppb)
0.2
3.7
7.1
256
1.0
67
40
4601
63
6.1
89
8.1
19
11
17
1.8
1592
21
0.2
9.7
3.7
0.6
9.7
15
2.5
2.1
64
16
8.6
4.8
20
966
71
Confidence
Lower
0.1
0.1
2.0
53
0.1
17
16
63
14
1.8
57
2.5
0.4
4.5
3.0
1.0
893
5.8
0.1
3.0
1.0
0.2
3.7
4.2
0.2
0.2
18
2.1
3.9
1.0
5.7
671
18
Limits
Upper
0.4
14
16
371
5.1
155
72
12086
161
13
127
17
56
22
48
4.5
2234
49
0.3
19
8.3
1.2
20
32
8.1
7.5
138
43
43
13
33
1266
164
aLCso = mec*ian lethal concentration
bLCi = lethal concentration for 1% of the population.
5-22
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causing damage, and recovery is related to reduction of stress to levels at
which normal structure and function can be re-established. Generally, the
chronic stress caused by a point source is reduced in the receiving stream
as a function of the distance from the discharge source. The relationship
between recovery and distance can be described by an expression that
includes parameters relating to physical factors (discharge, watershed
morphology, and geology), chemical factors (water quality), and biological
factors (presence and abundance of biota, toxicity, and sources of
recolonizing organisms) affecting the receiving stream and the
characteristics of the discharge or event that increased stress and caused
damage. This expression also should include time-related parameters that
may affect both the physical, chemical, and biological nature of the
receiving stream (e.g., seasonal changes in flow, oxygen, or biological
conditions) and those characteristics of the stress whose effect is changed
through time (e.g., degradable compounds), (Herricks 1975).
The response of the biotic community to traditional point sources of
acid mine drainage is readily identifiable and well documented. For streams
receiving acid mine drainage, three longitudinal zones are recognizable: an
undisturbed zone upstream from the source of acid mine drainage, together
with unaffected tributaries; a pollution zone where mine drainage enters;
and a zone of recovery downstream from the pollution zone (Parsons 1968,
Roback and Richardson 1969, Herricks 1975, Warner 1971, Koryak et al. 1972,
Dills and Rogers 1974, Winger 1978, Matter et al. 1978). In the undisturbed
zone, the biota typically are rich in species, have a high diversity, have
many species intolerant of mine drainage, and may have high standing crop
biomass (see Section 2.2.; Tables 2-9 , 2-10, and 2-11 for lists of indica-
tor species for undisturbed zones). In the pollution zone, species richness
is depressed; diversity is generally reduced; only species tolerant of low
pH and high iron concentrations are present; and standing crop biomass may
be given to extremes (most populations will be low but densities of tolerant
species will be high).
The following paragraphs discuss taxa in various major biotic groups
(fishes, macroinvertebrates, and other organisms) that can tolerate gross
pollution by acid mine drainage. Aquatic biota that are sensitive to low pH
and high iron concentrations and generally are reduced in the pollution zone
associated with acid mine drainage also are identified. In addition, the
interdependence of aquatic biota is discussed for each group of organisms.
5.2.2.1. Fish
-*
The diversity, richness, and bioraass of fish are reduced in streams
affected by acid mine drainage (Winger 1978, Branson and Batch 1972). Fish
generally do not inhabit waters severely polluted by acid mine drainage
(Warner 1971, Nichols and Bulow 1973). Surveys conducted in Roaring Creek,
West Virginia, revealed that fish inhabited only those reaches of the stream
where the median pH was 4.9 or higher. Nichols and Bulow (1973) reported
extirpation of fish along 40 miles of the Obey River, Tennessee that
5-23
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received acid mine drainage. This reach had pH values ranging from 3.3 to
8.0 and iron concentrations ranging from 0.0 to >300.0 ppm.
Trout and gamefish are among the most sensitive fish species.
Federally threatened or endangered fish and State fish species of concern
are also usually either very sensitive to pollution or only found in
restricted habitats where they are very susceptible to any type of habitat
destruction. These fish are usually the first to suffer from mine-related
impacts and the last to recover.
Repopulation of pollution zones by fish occurs by migration or
recolonization from upstream unaffected zones, from tributaries, or from the
downstream recovery zone. Physical barriers (waterfalls and culverts) may
be effective in preventing the upstream migration by fishes from downstream
populations (Vaughan et al. 1978).
5.2.2.2. Benthic Macroinvertebrates
These biota are extremely important components in the diets of nearly
all fish species in the State. Changes in the species composition and
relative numbers of individuals in the macroinvertebrate community can
greatly affect feeding and growth in the fish species that prey upon them.
These fish include trout, gamefish, and darters.
Roback and Richardson (1969) studied the effects of both constant and
intermittent acid mine drainage on the insect fauna of selected western
Pennsylvania streams. Under conditions of constant acid mine drainage, the
dragonflies, mayflies, and stoneflies were eliminated completely. Caddis-
flies, fishflies, alderflies, dobsonflies, and true flies were also reduced
in number. A caddisfly (Ptilostomis sp.), an alderfly (Sialis sp.), and a
midge (Chironomus attenuatus) were tolerant of the conditions produced by
acid mine drainage. Non-benthic true bugs and beetles were affected only
slightly and developed large populations in the stations with acid mine
drainage. Under intermittent acid mine drainage, a diverse but slightly
depressed insect fauna was able to develop.
In other studies of Pennsylvania streams receiving acid mine drainage,
Tomkiewicz and Dunson (1977) and Koryak et al. (1972) reported that the most
numerous invertebrates in the stream sections exhibiting high acidity and
low pH were midge larvae (especially Tendipes riparius), an alderfly
(Sialis sp.), and a caddisfly (Ptilostomis sp.). The number of insect
groups increased steadily with progressive neutralization in the recovery
zone until crustaceans and aquatic earthworms appeared, indicating
considerable improvement in water quality.
Parsons (1968) found Pantala nymenea, Procladius sp., Probezzia sp.,
Spaniotoma sp., and Sialis sp. to be tolerant of severe mine drainage
conditions in Cedar Creek, Missouri. In the Obey River of Tennessee,
Nichols and Bulow (1973) found that Chironomus sp. and Sialis sp. were the
only acid-tolerant genera collected in abundance; Chironomus sp. was closely
5-24
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associated with the algal species Euglena mutabilis. In the New River of
Tennessee, Winger (1978) found that fishflies and midges dominated the
invertebrate fauna stressed by acid mine drainage and sedimentation.
Caddisflies (particularly Cheumatopsyche sp. and Hydropsyche sp.) and may-
flies (mainly Stenonema sp.) were tolerant of moderate stress from acid mine
drainage and sedimentation. The alderfly (Sialis sp.), the midge
(Chironomus plumosus), other midges, and dytiscid beetles were reported to
tolerate high concentrations of acid mine drainage in Roaring Creek, West
Virginia (Warner 1971). Warner reported that these forms were abundant in
severely polluted reaches; up to 16,675 individuals m2 of the midge (C.
plumosus) were collected from a swamp having a median pH of 2.8. During
summer, the caddisfly (Ptilostomis sp.) also was present. These more
pollution tolerant macroinvertebrates generally do not provide as good a
food source for fish as do the more sensitive orders of insects such as
stoneflies, mayflies, and dragonflies.
5.2.2.3. Other Organisms
Microflora and zooplankton form the base of the aquatic food chain and
perform important biological functions. These functions include photosyn-
thesis and the assimilation of nutrients and detritus into plant and animal
tissue. Therefore, changes in the community composition of these biota can
affect the feeding behavior and hence the growth and survival of organisms
at higher trographic levels.
Parsons (1968) found large zooplankton populations that were composed
of relatively few species in mine drainage-polluted areas of Cedar Creek,
Missouri, and small populations composed of many species in the nearby
undisturbed zone. During that study a total of 16 taxa were collected,
of which 13, 5, and 12 taxa were collected from the undisturbed zone,
pollution zone, and recovery zone, respectively.
5.2.3. Sensitivity of Basin Waters to Coal Mining Impacts
The sensitivity of the Basin's aquatic resources to coal mining is
demonstrated by the fact that many of the Basin's waters support little or
no aquatic life (Ross and Lewis 1969, Davis 1978, Juhle 1978). Davis (1978)
characterized the North Branch Potomac between Kempton and Luke, Maryland,
as having no measurable alkalinity, low pH, and high iron, acidity,
sulfates, and conductivity. In reference to the fish population in this
reach, Davis stated:
"No fish are found in this area of the River at the present
time, nor have they been present for many years. Absence of
fish above Luke will continue until mine drainage abatement
programs have significantly reduced the acid in the North
Branch."
Davis also considered it doubtful that permanent populations of fish inhabit
the North Branch Potomac between Luke and McCoole, Maryland, and suggested
5-25
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that the segment between McCoole and Cumberland, Maryland, is only a
marginal fish habitat. Fish kills caused by acid mine drainage have been
reported as far downstream as Oldtown, Maryland (Juhle 1978). At 22 (79%)
of the 28 stations listed in Table 2-7 (Section 2.1.), the average pH was
below 6.0.
The high degree of sensitivity shown by the Basin's waters is related
to two factors. Most important is the small size of the streams in the
Basin, which have only a small volume of water for dilution of toxic mine
wastes. The second factor is lack of buffering capacity in many of the
Basin's streams. Gasper (unpublished 1980 data) classified the Stony River
and Abram Creek systems as lightly buffered (alkalinity <15 mg/1 and con-
ductivity <50 umhos/cm). Deep Run, Difficult Creek, Howell Run, and Red Oak
Creek also appear to have poor buffering capacity (WVDNR-Water Resources
1974). Because so many of the streams in the Basin are polluted by AMD, it
is difficult to determine precisely the normal background alkalinities. The
low alkalinities of those streams not affected by AMD suggest that they are
the norm, and that most streams in the Basin are highly susceptible to AMD.
The sensitivity of streams in the Basin is further increased because many
are native trout streams. The rigorous spawning requirements of trout (pH
>6.0, dissolved oxygen >7 mg/1) mean that the small streams utilized by the
trout must be closely protected against AMD and sedimentation, if the trout
are to survive.
BIA Category I and Category II Waters
On the basis of all information collected for this report and the BIA
criteria outlined in Section 2.2., EPA has classified Basin areas as either
unclassifiable, nonsensitive, or a BIA. BIA Category I and Category II
differentiations have been based on the best professional judgement of
technical experts consulted, following public and State agency review.
Applicants must comply with different requirements depending upon the permit
area's classification.
No BIA Category I streams have been identified at this time. Eighteen
Basin streams that should receive special protection as BIA Category
II's are listed in Table 5-4 and are shown in Figure 2-41. General
mitigative measures that can be used during mining activities in all BIA1 s
are listed in Section 5.7. Specific EPA requirements for both BIA Category
I and Category II streams are described in Section 5.2.4. Given the
extreme sensitivity of BIA Category II streams in the Basin to mine
effluents and the documented adverse impacts that have previously been
caused in the Basin by coal mining, these general mitigative measures
are not expected to be sufficient to prevent significant adverse impact
on the aquatic biota in the 18 BIA Category II streams listed in
Table 5-4. Therefore, before mining takes place in the BIA Category II
watersheds, EPA will require that current data be provided from biological
assessments in order to define the species composition, assess the
susceptibility to mining of those species found, and determine those
mitigative measures that will protect the aquatic biota of these streams
adequately. The scope of these biological assessments will be determined by
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Table 5-4 Summary of BIA waters in the North Branch Potomac River Basin,
West Virginia, 1980.
BIA* Waters
Fairfax Run
Wilsonia Run
Elk Run
Dobbin Ridge Run
Red Oak Creek
Buffalo Creek (above confluence
with Little Buffalo Creek)
Difficult Creek
Un-named Stony River Tributary
Un-named Stony River Tributary
Un-named Stony River Tributary
Un-named Stony River Tributary
Un-named Stony River Tributary
Wymer Run
Wycroff Run
Johnnycake Run
New Creek Dam #14
Howell Run
New Creek
Reason for
Designation
Trout stream
Trout stream
Trout stream
Trout stream
Trout stream
Trout stream
Trout stream
Trout stream
Trout stream
Trout stream
Trout stream
Trout stream
Trout stream
Trout stream
Trout stream
Trout stream
Trout stream
Data in:
Table Station(s)
A-l, A-2 5, 6, 43
A-l
A-2
A-l
A-l
Trout stream
Presence of
WVDNR-HTP
species,
Potomac sculpin A-2
34
1
3
38-41
*A11 BIA waters are Category II (see Section 2.2.2.1. for description of
Category II BIA's).
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EPA on a case by case basis in conjunction with the applicant. For all of
the streams listed in Table 5-4 EPA probably will require biological and
chemical monitoring during mining and use of mitigative measures such as
those that will insure maximum total iron concentrations in the receiving
stream not to exceed 1 mg/1 (as currently proposed by SWRB). Additional
requirements may be made by EPA, depending upon the biological assessment
findings.
Table 5-4 lists the reasons each BIA Category II area was so
designated. The specifics of the biological assessment required will vary
from site to site according to stream size and especially according to the
resources that are being assessed. The assessment and any required sampling
program should be designed to address the reasons used for BIA Category II
identification.
Again, no streams have been designated as BIA Category I in the North
Branch Potomac River Basin at this time. When the lightly buffered streams
in the Basin are exposed to AMD, they quickly become acidic and only the
most acidic-tolerant biota can survive in them. The biota in the majority
of the streams which have not been exposed to AMD are highly sensitive to
low pH values and high iron concentrations; therefore, these streams and
their watersheds have been designated BIA Category II1s.
Non-sensitive Areas
Listed below are twelve streams in the Basin that have been severely
degraded by mining wastes.
Stream
Buffalo Creek (below confluence
with Little Buffalo Creek)
Glade Run
Little Buffalo Creek
Little Creek
Stony River (below US Rt. 50)
Abram Creek
County
Grant
Grant
Grant
Grant
Grant
Grant and Mineral
North Branch of Potomac
(headwaters to Luke, Maryland) Grant and Mineral
Emory Creek
Lynwood Run
Montgomery Run
Piney Swamp Run
Slaughterhouse Run
Mineral
Mineral
Mineral
Mineral
Mineral
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These streams presently support comparatively small (or in some cases
no) fish populations, and the fishes that are present are primarily
undesirable and/or pollution tolerant species. Given extensive
rehabilitation, most or all of these streams have a potential to become high
quality aquatic environments. In their present condition, however,
additional limitations beyond those mandated by the New Source regulations
are not necessary.
Unclassifiable Areas
All areas not identified as sensitive or non-sensitive were
unclassifiable. These are waters for which either there are no data or the
data are not sufficient to determine accurately the appropriate category.
Examples of such areas include many of the small tributaries to Mount Storm
Lake and Stony Reservoir and several of the North Branch Potomac tributaries
in the northern half of Mineral County (e.g., Ashcabin Run, Thunderhill
Run). Additional studies are necessary before these areas can be assigned
to a specific category.
The procedure EPA will follow for determining the sensitivity of the
aquatic biota in the unclassifiable areas is as follows: EPA will examine
available data on iron concentrations and pH in any unclassified stream
proposed to receive New Source mine effluents. This information will be
obtained from copies of one of the following State permit forms: WRD-3-73,
Mine Drainage Water Pollution Control Permit Application, or Application for
Mine Facilities Incidental to Coal Removal (see Section 4.O.). If the data
on the forms indicate stream pH to be at or below 5.0 or iron concentrations
to be at or above 3.0 mg/1, the stream will be considered degraded and the
applicant will follow the standard New Source effluent limitations and not
have to conduct any subsequent sampling. If the pH of the stream or streams
is between 5.0 and 9.O., and the iron concentration is less than 3.0 mg/1,
the applicant will be asked to conduct an original field survey to determine
the sensitivity of the aquatic biota present.
A one-time, intensive fish and macroinvertebrate sampling is to be
conducted under the auspices of a professional aquatic biologist. Aquatic
habitat types are to be sampled at one station upstream and one station
downstream from each site where mine effluent or drainage will enter the
stream(s). Habitat might include pools, riffles, boulders, large rocks,
gravel, clay, and soft mud. Streams may range in size from intermittent
creeks to large rivers. Sampling is to be conducted during any season other
than winter and during any non-flood period (for intermittent streams, the
streams must be flowing).
Sampling methods and gear types are to be utilized that will collect
thoroughly all possible species of fish and macroinvertebrates from the
stream. For example, to collect fish, backpack shockers and seines should
be used in small streams. In large streams and rivers, fish should be
collected by gill nets, seines, and boom shockers mounted on a boat. To
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collect macroinvertebrates, Surber or similar samplers should be used for
hard substrates, and dredge- or grab-type samplers should be used to sample
soft substrates. In general for fish, at least two gear types should be
used. Estimated costs for this intensive one-time sampling are
approximately $750 to $1,000.
Upon the completion of this intensive, one-time stream sampling, the
supervising biologist is to prepare a brief report documenting the numbers
of individuals by species of fish and macroinvertebrates captured. The
report also is to describe all station locations and their proximity to the
proposed mine, the aquatic habitat at each station; conditions when the
sampling took place; the methods used; and the qualifications of the
personnel who conducted the sampling including name, education, and
experience. The content of the report generally should cover the
information outlined in Table 5-5, in so far as possible based on the
one-time sampling.
In lieu of the original field investigation outlined here, the
applicant may supply EPA with equivalent data collected by WVDNR-Wildlife
Resources, together with a statement from that agency that the data are
believed to represent current conditions.
State High Quality Streams
Streams listed by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources as "high quality" with
respect to their recreational fishery are not necessarily flagged as BIA1s.
For those "high quality" streams not considered to be BIA's, EPA will
contact WVDNR-Wildlife Resources district biologists to solicit comments
during New Source NPDES permit review. Comments received will be considered
carefully during permit review, and may form the basis for special permit
conditions, designation as a BIA Category I or Category II, and so forth.
5.2.4. Mitigative Measures
As stated in Section 2.2., the essential difference between BIA
Category I and Category II areas is that mitigative measures (pre-mining
biological and chemical surveys, ongoing mining biological and chemical
monitoring, permit conditions, etc.) can be advanced in Category I areas
which will protect the sensitive aquatic biota identified. However, in
Category II areas, these mitigative measures may not be adequate because of
the extreme sensitivity of the biota to mining-related pollutants.
Consequently more detailed investigations (biological assessments) must be
undertaken initially to evaluate the extent and nature of the biological
community in detail as well as the effects of the proposed mining action (or
alternative mining techniques). These evaluations may indicate that BIA
Category I-type mitigative measures are adequate or may indicate that more
stringent state-of-the-art-type mitigative measures must be required or may
indicate that mitigation is not possible (permit denial).
Because technologies presently do not exist to guarantee complete AMD
and erosion control, pre-mining biological and chemical surveys will be
required both prior to permit approval and during mining for all mining
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operations planned in those areas designated as a BIA Category I (Table
5-4), At present there are no streams designated as BIA Category I in the
Basin. BIA Category II streams, if permitted, also are likely to require
this program, depending upon the results of the required biological
assessment discussed in the following section. BIA Category II requirements
may be more extensive, however.
When the pre-mining survey information called for in Table 5-5 has
been provided by the applicant, EPA will determine those mitigative measures
that will be necessary to protect Basin streams from future coal mining.
This determination can be expected to be made in BIA Category I areas and
may occur in BIA Category II areas, depending upon biological assessment
results. (It is possible that biological assessment results in BIA Category
II's may indicate that no mitigative measures entirely are adequate and that
the New Source permit must be denied.) Based on the available information,
mitigative measures for BIA Category I areas and possibly for BIA Category
II areas include:
Prompt follow-up action. When biological and chemical
monitoring detects apparent degradation during mining
quick response is necessary to ensure that possible
irreversible environmental damage will not occur. As soon
as an apparent downward trend is identified in any of the
appropriate indicators (e.g., biomass, species diversity,
species numbers, etc., depending upon the reasons for BIA
Category I or Category II classification of the stream),
more intensive sampling is to be initiated promptly by the
applicant to determine whether environmental damage has
actually occurred or whether the observed downturn was a
result of a sampling anomaly or statistical error. If
significant environmental damage is verified, mining
activities either must be modified or halted if further
harm is to be prevented.
Iron limitations. Appropriate measures can be taken to
ensure that in-stream iron concentrations regularly do not
exceed 1.0 mg/1. The West Virginia stream standard for
trout waters proposed during 1980 is a more restrictive
0.5 mg/1, and may be imposed by the State (WVSWRB 1980).
Control measures with generalized cost estimates are
discussed in Section 5.7. and include chemical treatment,
flocculation, and isolation of iron-containing refuse from
ground and surface waters, and controlled release of
effluent discharges during low-flow periods. EPA will
require that all applicants within BIA Category I areas
control iron concentrations in their effluent so that
30-day average in-stream iron concentrations are not more
than 1 mg/1. The 1 mg/1 standard for total iron also
probably will be required in BIA-Category II areas,
following evaluation of biological assessment information
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Table 5-5. Aquatic biological and chemical water quality pre-mining survey
and mining monitoring requirements for proposed New Source coal mines in
BIA Category 1 areas. These requirements and other requirements may be
required in BIA Category II areas, if permitted.
A report prepared by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources under the direction of
the Director of the Division of Wildlife Resources which contains data for
this area equivalent to that required in this program may be submitted to
EPA in lieu of conducting this aquatic biological and chemical water quality
pre-mining survey and ongoing mining monitoring program. Applicants are
advised to confer with EPA prior to initiating field investigations. For
mine sites adjacent to or discharging into EPA BIA Category I streams, the
NPDES New Source Coal Mining permit applicant's baseline aquatic biological
survey of fish and macroinvertebrates must be provided prior to permit
approval. For each permit site, the exact details of the survey will vary
according to the size and type of mining, steepness of slope, size and
number of receiving streams, and the chemical and biological makeup of the
receiving streams. The sampling program is to be conducted under the
auspices of a professional aquatic biologist, as described below.
An ongoing mining monitoring program alsc is required in BIA Category I
areas, and may be required in BIA Category II areas, if permitted. The
nature of the monitoring program is similar to the pre-mining survey, as
described below. Table 5-6 provides additional examples of aquatic
biological premining survey and ongoing mining monitoring programs in
different contexts.
1. Sampling Locations for Aquatic Biota
At least one control and one downstream station are to be sampled for
aquatic biota in each potentially affected stream. Each station is to
include all the habitat types found in the stream near the mine, such as
pools, riffles, boulders, large rocks, gravel, sand, and mud. Wherever
possible the control station should be located so that it is not affected by
confounding influences (e.g. effluents from a sewage treatment plant,
adjacent to an active logging site, etc.) that may be present above the mine
site.
2. Time of Year and Frequency for Sampling Aquatic Biota
Aquatic biota sampling will be conducted during the period April to
November for a 20 week period before a mining permit is issued. Further
sampling of similar intensity is to continue throughout either active mining
or until it can be determined that no detrimental effects have or are likely
to occur. If the applicant documents the absence of adverse effects on
aquatic biota, a reduction in aquatic biota sampling frequency may be
warranted, but aquatic biota sampling will not be discontinued completely.
3. Methods for Collecting Biota
Intensive sampling of both fish and macroinvertebrates will be con-
ducted for the habitat types within the affected stream using appropriate
gear. Examples are the use of backpack shockers and seines for fish in
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Table 5-5. BIA monitoring requirements (continued).
small streams and boat-mounted boom shockers, gill nets, and seines for fish
in pools and riffles in larger streams and rivers. For fish a minimum of
two gear types and a number of repetitive applications of the gear are to be
used to collect the greatest number of individuals and the greatest diver-
sity of species in every stream or river sampled. Gear for macroinverte-
brates should include Surber or similar samplers for hard substrates and
dredges or grab samplers for soft substrates. Artificial substrate samplers
(e.g. Hester-Dendy, rock-filled baskets)also should be used.
4. Pre-Mining Chemical Water Quality Survey and Ongoing Mining Chemical
Water Quality Monitoring
Chemical monitoring is to accompany the aquatic biological survey
described above. The same stations are to be sampled as for the biological
data, at minimum one upstream and one downstream from proposed discharge.
Significant tributaries also should be sampled. Measured parameters are to
include temperature, specific conductance, pH, total dissolved solids, total
suspended solids, total iron, dissolved iron, total manganese, sulfate,
hardness, acidity, alkalinity, and heavy metals that exist in the toxic
overburden at levels that could potentially be toxic. Samples are to be
collected weekly during the low-flow period and monthly at other times for
one year prior to mining. Water quality data collected to accompany any
other State or Federal permit application may be submitted to EPA, so long
as it includes the requisite information.
During mining the same chemical water quality monitoring program is to
be conducted as specified for the pre-mining survey. Again, if these data
already are being supplied to other State or Federal agencies, they can be
submitted to EPA and not additional monitoring is required.
5. Reports
Upon the completion of the 20-week intensive pre-mining aquatic
biological sampling surveys, the supervising biologist will prepare a brief
report documenting the numbers of individuals by species of fish and
macroinvertebrates and showing the diversity and equitability index values.
This report is to describe all station locations and their proximity to the
proposed mine; the aquatic habitat at each station; when the sampling took
place; the methods used; and the qualifications of the personnel who
conducted the sampling, including name, education, and experience. All
water quality data also will be included in this report.
Once mining has begun EPA will require the prompt submission by the
applicant of a report, after each aquatic biological sampling effort, that
quantitatively compares the baseline data to the data obtained subsequent to
mining. This report also will compare data from stations upstream from the
mine site with those downstream from the site. Similarly, chemical water
quality data collected during ongoing mining monitoring must be submitted to
EPA.
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Table 5-5. BIA monitoring requirements (concluded).
Specifically, each pre-mining survey report is to (1) describe sampling
methodology (equipment, station locations, sampling dates, organisms
reported to be of concern), (2) summarize biological habitat conditions,
(3) report chemical water quality parameters, (3) identify organisms present
with emphasis on organisms of special concern, (4) assess overall quality of
aquatic ecosystem using qualitative information and quantitative analyses
(diversity, equitability, etc.), (5) forecast susceptibility to coal mining
impacts, and (6) identify measures to avoid or minimize adverse impacts.
Each biological monitoring report is to cover the same topics as the
pre-mining survey report, and in addition is to: (7) compare survey baseline
data with available monitoring data, (8) evaluate professionally any
apparent habitat trends and mining impacts, (9) assess the effectiveness of
any measures actually implemented to avoid or minimize adverse impacts on
aquatic resources, and (10) recommend modifications in the monitoring
program, if appropriate. Reports ordinarily will be expected to be about 10
text pages in length and are to include supporting tables and figures as
needed. Each report is to highlight the significance of any changes or
trends that are apparent in the data, with due consideration to the relative
importance of mining and non-mining influences on the stream ecosystem.
6. Costs
Costs for a 20 week biological monitoring program (such as the one
described in Table 5-6, Example 1) are estimated to be approximately $9,000
annually. Laboratory analyses for the water quality data will not add
additional costs; these analyses currently are required under SMCRA
permanent program regulations.
7. Coordination
WVDNR - Wildlife Resources should be contacted prior to commencing a
pre-mining biological monitoring program to obtain the proper permit
or approval to sample.
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Table 5-6. Examples of aquatic biological pre-mining survey and ongoing
mining monitoring programs.*
EXAMPLE 1 Pre-Mining Survey
A 20 week program designed to assess fish and macroinvertebrates, and
composed of the following elements should be developed.
Station Number:
For each stream affected one upstream from and at least
one downstream from the mine.
Station Length: Sufficient to characterize the stream accurately.
Habitat: All habitat types (pool, riffle, run, etc.) must be
sampled.
Gear: Fish - At least two types. Seining and electrofishing
will be sufficient in most small and medium streams.
Additional gear types (e.g., hoop nets, gill nets, etc.)
will be necessary in large rivers and lakes.
Macroinvertebrates - Gear should include Surber or similar
samplers for hard substrates and dredges or grab samplers
for soft substrates. Artificial substrate samplers (e.g.
Hester-Dendy, rock-filled baskets) also should be used.
Frequency: Fish - A survey should be conducted at the beginning,
middle, and end of the 20 week program. Each survey
should be conducted for two consecutive days and
repetitive applications of each gear type should be used
each day.
Macroinvertebrates - Triplicate ponar and Surber samples
should be taken at the beginning and end of the 20 week
program. Triplicate artificial samplers should be used
for six week periods at the beginning and end of the 20
week period.
Time of Year: April - November
EXAMPLE 2 - Trout Stream
WVDNR-Wildlife Resources should be contacted to determine whether (1)
the stream is still considered a trout stream, (2) the stream supports a
reproducing population of trout, and (3) the location of known spawning
areas. If WVDNR confirms the presence of trout, the biological sampling
program should be designed to determine exactly which sections of the stream
contain trout. Backpack electrofishing gear would be the method of choice.
If the section of the stream potentially affected by mining is downstream
from the stream section containing trout, the NSPS should be sufficient
protective measures. For streams containing naturally reproducing
populations, the sampling program also should attempt to determine the
principal spawning areas through a combination of visual observations and,
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Table 5-6. Examples of aquatic biological pre-mining survey and ongoing
mining monitoring programs (concluded).
EXAMPLE 2 - (cont.)
where appropriate, seining with a fine mesh net. Sampling should be
conducted at least three times during the year and should be correlated with
the critical periods determining trout survival (e.g., summertime low flow
period, and high temperatures, spawning season, etc.).
EXAMPLE 3 - Presence of WVDNR-HTP Species
If the presence of a WVDNR-HTP species is the sole basis for classing
an area as a BIA, then the sampling program should be directed towards con-
firming the presence of that species and assessing its population. The gear
type(s) used and the habitat examined should be appropriate to the species
in question. If, for example, the investigator is looking for a darter,
appropriate gear types would be seines (kick seining techniques should be
employed) and electrofishing. Gill nets, hoop nets, etc. would be inappro-
priate. Similarly, the investigator would concentrate his sampling in
preferred darter habitat; riffles and runs, not pools. Conversely, for
species preferring sluggish currents (e.g., bullhead minnow), the
investigator should concentrate on pools and backwater areas.
*These examples are designed to illustrate several situations that might
typically be encountered. They do not attempt to cover all possible
situations. Further, the above examples should not be construed as limiting
the professional biologist in his design of a pre-mining survey and mining
monitoring program for aquatic biota. They illustrate several approaches to
answering the issue in question; other approaches may be equally valid.
5-36
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and stream buffering capacity. When the ambient concen-
tration of iron in the stream receiving the mine discharge
is higher than 1.0 mg/1 but less than 3.0 mg/1, the State
stream standard will be set at the stream's low-flow,
30-day average ambient iron concentration in BIA-Category
I areas and, where appropriate, in BIA-Category II areas,
consistent with the proposed (1980) State water quality
standards promulgated by WVDNR-Water Resources. EPA will
require that the applicant's effluent quality will be such
that the State stream standard will be met. At no time is
the 30-day average total iron concentration in the New
Source discharge to exceed 3.0 mg/1.
Special measures. Whatever measures are taken to minimize
the adverse effects of mining on aquatic resources, there
is likely to be some measure of adverse impact in BIA
Category I and Category II (if permitted) areas even
following the application of the best available water
pollution control technology as a result of unavoidably
increased sedimentation, AMD, and toxic substances.
Various mitigative measures can be implemented to offset
such unavoidable adverse impacts. Some of these concepts
have been applied in West Virginia; some have not. EPA
encourages applicants for New Source permits to propose
and, in appropriate instances, may require through special
NPDES New Source permit conditions that one or more such
mitigations be implemented in BIA Category I and Category
II (if permitted) areas after a detailed, case-by-case
review. These state-of-the-art mitigative measures may be
applicable especially in BIA Category II areas, if EPA
deems that the permit can be issued following biological
assessment issues.
In some instances it may be appropriate that an applicant
reclaim nearby abandoned mines to current standards when New
Source mining is undertaken. In this way the unavoidable
adverse effects of the new mining can be offset by the bene-
ficial results of reclaiming an existing pollution source
thus producing a long-term net environmental benefit on
aquatic habitats. Regrading and revegetation can reduce
erosion from barren sites. Forest along streambanks can be
re-established to shade the waterway and reduce sediment
influx by filtering runoff. Some AMD sources can be
eliminated, or the AMD can be treated. Stream flow can be
augmented to improve water quality, particularly during
low-flow periods. Although State and Federal programs
envision the eventual reclamation of abandoned mine lands
using publicly administered funds, applicants doubltess could
accelerate the reclamation process through private
initiative. It is the policy of EPA Region III that New
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Source applications that propose reclamation of abandoned
mines receive priority consideration during permit
review.
0 Restocking and other special restorative programs. Aqua-
tic habitats affected by past or by New Source mining, if
free of continuing, long-term pollution by AMD or other
toxic substances, can be expected eventually to regain
some or all of their pre-mining biota. The pace and the
extent of biological rehabilitation can be benefited
significantly by appropriate interventions, once favorable
habitats have been created. Applicants can undertake
restocking programs aimed at restoration of a diverse
aquatic fauna. At present there is only limited knowledge
concerning the reestablishment of communities that contain
the myriad organisms present in undegraded natural water-
ways. Research has focused almost exclusively on the
propagation of a handful of game fish. Hence applicants
could mitigate adverse impacts by funding both the
development and the implementation of stream
rehabilitation techniques.
Special mining practices. Finally, because natural
recolonization is most probable and most rapid where there
is an undisturbed upstream source for organisms, appli-
cants can propose sequences of mining activity that will
maximize the probability of biological recovery. Small
subwatersheds can be set aside and protected as
sanctuaries while mining proceeds nearby. Then, when the
mined streams have recovered a viable and diverse fauna,
the sanctuaries themselves can be mined. Applicant-
sponsored research aimed at minimizing the time needed for
restoration of the aquatic biota will reduce the waiting
period before mining can proceed in such sanctuaries.
5.2.5. Erroneous Classification
EPA recognizes that biological conditions change over time and that
some of the data available for this assessment may no longer reflect ambient
conditions. Applicants may develop original data or provide current data
from State or other souces to challenge the EPA classification of any
watershed as a BIA. If EPA and WVDNR-Wildlife Resources and Water Resources
personnel concur in the erroneous classification of an area as a BIA, then
the requirements that otherwise would apply to the BIA may be relaxed with
respect to the stream reach in question. Either chemical or biological data
may be considered adequate to challenge the BIA classification, so long as
the data are adequate to demonstrate with confidence that no significant
aquatic biota are present.
Likewise, areas not currently classifiable as BIA's may in future
qualify for such designation. EPA will consider all available evidence
during each permit review, and will extend the BIA designation to additional
streams in the future where appropriate.
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5.3 Terrestrial Biota Impacts and Mitigations
-------
Page
5.3. Terrestrial Biota 5-39
5.3.1. Impacts Associated with Mining Activities 5-39
5.3.1.1. Prospecting 5-39
5.3.1.2. Road Construction 5-39
5.3.1.3. Mining 5-42
5.3.1.3.1. Contour Surface Mining 5-43
5.3.1.3.2. Auger Mining 5-44
5.3.1.3.3. Mountaintop Removal 5-45
5.3.1.3.4. Room and Pillar Underground 5-45
Mining
5.3.1.3.5. Longwall and Shortwall Mining 5-45
5.3.1.4. Transportation of Coal and Coal Refuse 5-46
5.3.1.5. Coal Preparation 5-46
5.3.1.6. Reclamation 5-46
5.3.1.7. Secondary Impacts 5-48
5.3.2. Mitigation of Impacts 5-48
5.3.2.1. Pre-mining Mitigations 5-50
5.3.2.2. Mitigations During Mining 5-51
5.3.2.2.1. Prospecting 5-51
5.3.2.2.2. Road Construction 5-51
5.3.2.2.3. Mining 5-51
5.3.2.3. Post-mining Mitigations 5-59
5.3.3. Revegetation 5-60
5.3.3.1. Factors that Control Revegetation 5-60
5.3.4. Long-term Impacts on the Basin 5-61
5.3.4.1. Overall Landscape and Ecosystem Changes 5-61
5.3.4.2. Potential Impacts on Known and Unknown 5-64
Significant resources
5.3.5. Data Gaps 5-65
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5.3. TERRESTRIAL BIOTA
5.3.1. Impacts Associated with Mining Activities
Coal mining impacts on terrestrial ecosystems have been reduced in
scope and intensity in recent years. State and Federal regulations have
been issued to control the coal mining industry (see Section 4.O.).
Advances have occurred in mining and reclamation technology, and the
industry itself has taken an active interest in environmental protection and
the return of mined areas to productive use. Impacts from clearing of
vegetation, excavation, blasting, placement of spoil, sedimentation,
fugitive dust, and acid mine drainage have been reduced. In the section,
the potential direct and indirect impacts on terrestrial biota are described
for each step of the coal mining process, from prospecting to reclamation.
An overview of the major beneficial and adverse impacts associated with
each activity is given in Table 5-7. The relationships that each major
"impact mechanism" or influencing factor may have on various biotic
components of the ecosystem are summarized in Table 5.8. This table is
taken from Moore and Mills (1977), and was prepared as part of a document on
the effects of surface mining in the western US., The majority of the infor-
mation presented also is applicable to mining in the eastern US, because
there is a general similarity in the phases of a mining operation and the
basic ecological relationships involved. The emphases on wild and feral
ungulates, fencing, and competition with livestock are distinctly western.
5.3.1.1. Prospecting
Prospecting is conducted by drilling of core samples or by excavation
of trenches to reach the minable coal seam (Grim and Hill 1974). A
prospecting permit is required by WVDNR-Reclamation (see Section 4.1.4.1.).
The immediate impacts from drilling are localized noise and dust. Trenching
with bulldozers has greater immediate impacts on vegetation and wildlife,
because the vegetation is removed from the area of the trench or buried
under spoil, and because an uncovered or incompletely filled trench acts as
a pitfall for animals. Exploration may be a temporary intrusion into
undisturbed or remote habitat (Grim and Hill 1974). If the coal seam
subsequently is mined, the impacts from exploration would be redundant with
those of mining. Therefore, the impacts from exploration would be
insignificant (Streeter et al. 1979).
5.3.1.2. Road Construction
The impacts on terrestrial biota from construction of an access road or
haul road would depend on the length and distribution of the road and the
coincidence of road construction with other mining activities. USOSM
requires applicants to control adverse impacts from road construction and
use (see Section 4.2.2.). If the coal mine, the coal preparation facili-
ties, and existing public roads all are proximate, the extent of private
5-39
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Table 5-8 Effects of changes in ^
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IMPACT MECHANISMS
A. Airborne Contaminants/Emissions
Gaseous effluents
Fugitive dust
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Toxic materials
Nutrients
Pathogens
Other Chem./Phys. Parameters (Temp, Ph, TOS, SS)
C. 6 Surface Water Quality
Toxic materials
Nutrients
Patnogens
Other Chem./Phys. Parameters
0. A Water Supply
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Instream flow changes
Removal of creation impoundments
E. A Soils
Direct loss (removal, erosion, etc.)
Change in soil flora/fauna
Change in soil moisture
Change in soil structure
Change in soil nutrients
F. A Vegetation
Direct removal
Modification of species composition
A food value
A in cover/density
G. A Topography
Removal/change in natural shelters
Microclimate
Watershed (see water supply)
Barriers to wildlife movement
H. A Land Use Practices (dependant on postmining land use plan)
Increased competition witn livestock
Change in wildlife food sources (see vegetation)
A fencing
A wildlife habitat enhancement
I. Solid Waste Disposal
Direct substrate inundation
Indirect effects via other categories e.g., water qual.
J. Fires direct or indirect
K. Direct wildlife mortality
L. Human Presence, Noise, and Ground Shock
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access roads will be less. Access roads and haul roads that coincide with
existing or future mine benches have negligible impacts.
The major adverse effects of road construction include removal of
vegetation (discussed in detail in Section 3.2.); temporary disruption of
wildlife behavior (including daily or seasonal movements) because of noise
and intrusion; localized fugitive dust deposition on vegetation, which may
reduce photosynthesis and palatability of roadside plants; and mortality of
less mobile animals during grading and excavation activities (£ardi 1973
Dvorak et al. 1977, Lerman and Darby 1975, Michael 1975, Rawson 1973, USDOE
1978). Coal haul roads also are a source of sedimentation, which could bury
downslope vegetation and microfauna. This problem largely could be
eliminated with proper design and maintenance described in Sections 3.2. and
5.7. (Grim and Hill 1974, Scheldt 1967, Weigle 1965, 1966).
The beneficial effects of coal mine road construction include possible
improved access for hunting, fishing, and fire control, although accessi-
bility also can lead to abuse (Boccardy and Spaulding 1968, Rawson 1973,
Thomas et al. 1976). In addition roadside vegetation often is used for
browse by whitetailed deer, and the open corridor formed by road
construction adds diversity to the forest habitat, thus resulting in a
richer variety of bird species in the area (Bramble and Byrnes 1979, Michael
1975). These roads also could be used as travel corridors by deer and other
wildlife,
5.3.1.3. Mining
All coal mining operations are subject to the State and USOSM
regulations described in Sections 4.1.4. and 4.2.2., respectively.
Regardless of the technique used to remove coal at a specific mine, the
following information should be considered to determine the significance of
the terrestrial resource and potential adverse mining impacts at the site
(Smith 1978):
The current protection status of the resource - is it
under Federal or State protection?
The particular role and function of the species within the
ecosystem - are there other species more tolerant in the
vicinity that can perform those functions, or will the
reduction in number or loss of this species adversely
affect other components of the ecosystem in the area?
The relative uniqueness of the resource in the State - are
there only a few locations known for this resource?
The tolerance to disturbance and manageability of the
resource - can it recover and reinhabit the area (with or
without human help), or is it fragile, easily damaged,
with strict habitat or reproduction requirements (such as
5-42
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a critical population size, or a plant community or
wetland that cannot be replaced)?
The size and quality of the population of the resource at
that site, as compared to others of that resource in the
State.
The location of signficant terrestrial resources can be determined from the
1:24,000 scale environmental inventory maps and overlays. Some of this
information also is to be provided by the permit applicant on the USOSM
Draft Experimental Form.
After information on significant terrestrial resources has been
obtained, the site must be evaluated. Questions such as: "will the area or
adjacent areas fulfill the habitat and other requirements of the element
during and after mining?" "Are there other populations of the element
nearby that can repopulate the area?" must be answered. Habitat
requirements are presented in Tables 2.3-4, 2.3-5, and 5.3-8 and should be
consulted to answer the first question. Information on the populations of
species in the surrounding area is available from WVDNR-HTP. In some
instances, a species may be included in the WVDNR-HTP listing as having been
present some years previously, but it is not known whether it still is
present in that area. Because of this uncertainty, and because of the value
of the habitat for this species and possibly for other species, WVDNR-HTP
continues to keep the information on that location on file until such time
as more information is known about the status of the resource in the State
or the presence of other rare species at that location.
The major impacts of various mining techniques employed in West
Virginia are described in the following sections.
5.3.1.3.1. Contour Surface Mining. The major direct effects of
surface mining excavations and spoil placement are removal of vegetation and
disruption of the soil (Cardi 1973, Rawson 1973, Smith 1973, Streeter et al.
1979, USDOE 1978, WAPORA, Inc. 1979). Vegetation is the basic food source
and energy-gathering medium for the ecosystem. Vegetation also is a
climate modifier; plants intercept direct sunlight, wind, and precipitation,
and increase humidity. The vertical stratification and horizontal mosaic of
plant communities provide diverse wildlife habitats (Balda 1975, McArthur
and Whitmore 1979, Willson 1974).
Mining removes tree-, shrub-, and groundlayer nesting sites, including
snags, fallen logs, rock dens, humus, and burrows. Less mobile animals can
be killed because they are not able to avoid the disturbance (Dvorak et al.
1977, Streeter et al. 1979). Species able to migrate to adjacent habitats
survive only to the extent that adjacent habitats are able to support them.
Displaced individuals then compete with resident individuals for food,
cover, mating grounds, and brooding sites. Species that exhibit strong
territorial behavior would be stressed more than those that do not. The
increase in populations of vertebrate consumers exaggerates the high and low
5-43
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points of population cycles in higher- and lower-order consumers, although a
natural balance eventually will be attained. The net effect is a loss of
those individuals that exceed the carrying capacity (ability to support
wildlife) of the adjacent habitats (Dvorak et al. 1977, Streeter et al.
1979). With the exception of white-tailed deer, turkey, and raccoon, the
populations of most species in the North Branch Potomac River Basin are
limited by the lack of suitable habitats (WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1980).
Noise from operation of equipment and from blasting temporarily dis-
turbs some species of wildlife, although most authors have indicated that
acclimatization eventually occurs. Man-made noise may alter the behavior of
animals and interferes with communication among individuals (Memphis State
University 1971, Streeter et al. 1979), but the most severe reaction of
wildlife to noise actually noted has been localized avoidance (Fletcher and
Busnel 1978). Some species may abandon nests and/or young to avoid noise or
ground shock (Moore and Mills 1977).
Although the major impacts of sedimentation are directed at the aquatic
environment (see Section 5.2.) sedimentation has both direct and indirect
impacts on terrestrial biota. Slides of improperly placed or insecure
spoil, which can bring vegetation on downslopes and valley floors under
alluvium, are the most severe example (Cardi 1973, Rawson 1973). The
terrestrial ecosystem is affected indirectly when the aquatic ecosystem is
affected. Many species of terrestrial animals are dependent on the surface
water system or on wetland and riparian vegetation for drinking water, food,
dwelling space, travel corridors, and mating and brooding areas.
Sedimentation beyond the buffering capacity of riparian or wetland plant
communities can damage these uncommon community types (Cardi 1979, Rawson
1973, Streeter et al. 1979). Among the species closely linked to the
aquatic system are furbearers such as raccoons, opossums, muskrats, skunks,
minks, and beavers; game animals such as wild boar, wild turkeys, woodcock,
and ducks; wading birds and shorebirds such as herons, bitterns, rails, and
sandpipers; many reptiles; and most amphibians (Cardi 1979, Rawson 1973).
Because wetlands in the Basin generally are small and rare, any adverse
impacts that would reduce their quality should be considered significant.
Alteration of the topography of an area by contour mining has both
beneficial and adverse effects on terrestrial biota. Excavation and grading
impinges on microhabitats and temporarily isolates upslopes from downslopes.
This isolation protects areas from human intrusion (WVDNR-Reclamation 1978),
but has the adverse consequence of interference with wildlife movements
(Anonymous 1976, Knotts 1975). Depressions become filled with water and
provide new aquatic habitats. North-facing or southfacing slopes can be
converted to new aspects to create new habitat types, as a result of the
different amounts of insolation (solar radiation) received (Streeter et al.
1979).
5.3.1.3.2. Auger Mining. This method of mining usually is conducted
concurrently with contour surface mining. The only effects not similar to
those resulting from contour surface mining are effects from acid mine
5-44
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drainage discussed in Section 5.1. These effects occur if groundwaters are
intercepted and the auger holes are not sealed. Acid mine drainage seepage
and surface runoff also could affect the terrestrial environment directly by
limiting the species of flora and fauna to those that can tolerate acid
conditions (see Section 5.1.; Blevins et al. 1970, Card! 1979, Rawson 1973).
This especially could affect wetland biotic communities.
5.3.1.3.3. Mountaintop Removal. This method of area mining has the
same major impacts from clearing of vegetation, noise, dust, erosion, intru-
sion, and displacement of wildlife as contour mining. Mountaintop removal
differs in the amount of topographic alteration and in the fact that
orphan mines often are involved. Conversion of a mountain peak to a flat or
rolling plateau results in a radical conversion of plant communities, habi-
tat types, and resident wildlife, especially if there is a concomitant
change in the post-mining use of the land (see Section 3.2.). A mountaintop
removal operation on an orphan mine might reduce problems attributable to
exposed toxic spoil or inadequate revetegation. The new mining operation
would ensure revegetation and proper handling of spoil through conformance
with State and Federal regulations. However, some researchers have
suggested that, where natural succession has provided excellent native
wildlife habitat on orphan mines, it would be a negative impact to replace
the natural successional stage with cultivated vegetation (Haigh 1976, Smith
1973, WVDNR-Reclamation 1978). The time required for various stages of
natural succession varies considerably within the State and the Basin. The
timing and extent of natural succession is dependent on specific
environmental factors (i.e., moisture, altitude, soils, topography, amount
of available sunlight, etc.) at a particular site, and thus cannot be
determined on any basis other than a site-by-site basis.
5.3.1.3.4. Room and Pillar Underground Mining. This type of
underground mining leaves the terrain generally intact, with no major
alteration of wildlife habitats. The principal disturbances result from
subsidence, disposal of mine refuse, and acid mine drainage (Aaronson 1970,
Dvorak 1977).
Subsidence can affect terrestrial vegetation and wildlife moderately or
not at all, depending on the individual circumstances. In more severe
cases, trees can be toppled and sinkholes appear within one day. Subsidence
also can occur sporadically for years after closure of the mine (Grim and
Hill 1974). In general, however, subsidence is gradual and little wildlife
mortality results.
The disposal of mine refuse from room and pillar underground mines
involves some commitment of land if the refuse is not placed on a mine site.
Besides resulting in the removal of vegetation, the reconstruction of a mine
refuse pile could be a source of dust or toxic runoff (Dvorak et al. 1977,
Rawson 1973, USDOE 1978).
5.3.1.3.5. Longwall or Shortwall Mining. In this type of underground
mining, subsidence is immediate and controlled (Moorman et al. 1974), in
5-45
-------
contrast to the sporadic subsidence during subsequent years that is
associated with room and pillar underground mining (Grim and Hill 1974,
Moorman et al. 1974). Thus any impacts on the surface vegetation and
wildlife associated with subsidence are temporary.
5.3.1.4. Transporation of Coal or Coal Refuse
The major modes of coal transport are truck, belt conveyor, railroad,
barge, and slurry pipeline (Dvorak et al. 1977, Hummer and Vogel 1968).
Each mode of transportation has some impact on terrestrial biota as a result
of the construction and operation of loading and storage facilities and
rights-of-way (Dvorak et al. 1977). Transportation of coal by truck results
in roadkills of wildlife, noise, and dust, but these impacts are minor
compared to the overall effects on terrestrial biota from mining operations.
Impacts from the construction of linear facilities, such as conveyors or
pipelines, are similar to the impacts associated with road construction
previously discussed.
5.3.1.5. Coal Preparation
The construction of a coal preparation or processing plant involves a
commitment of land and results in the generation of noise and dust. If the
plant is located on the mine site, these impacts are negligible in compari-
son to mining activities (see Section 5.4.). Cleaning processes used in
coal processing plants are listed in Section 3.2.
If coal is used for fuel in the processing plant, emissions of sulfur
dioxide can affect sensitive species of plants. The potential effects of
these emissions include reduced productivity, physical injury, reduced
forage and habitat for wildlife, and selective extirpation of sensitive
species in the fumigation area (Cardi 1979, Dvorak et al. 1977, Glass 1978,
Mudd and Kozlowski 1975, Nunenkamp 1976). These impacts are unlikely if
appropriate control technology, described in Section 5.4., is used (Dvorak
et al. 1977).
5.3.1.6. Reclamation
The impacts from the regrading and revegetation of mined areas on the
terrestrial environment generally are beneficial, although some adverse
effects also can result. Regrading restores integrity to the landscape, and
creates a variety of microhabitats, including new aquatic habitats
(Allaire 1979). In addition, slopes are reduced to control erosion and
sedimentation (Glover et. al. 1978). When acid-forming spoil is
consolidated and buried, both the direct and indirect effects of acid mine
drainage are minimized (Brown 1975, Hill and Grim 1975).
Among the potential negative impacts on terrestrial biota from
regrading is spoil compaction which especially is evident in spoil with
greater than 15% clay (Chapman 1967). Although spoil compaction controlls
erosion and sedimentation, compaction reduces moisture retention and retards
5-46
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the establishment of plant seedlings (Glover et al. 1973, Potter et al.
1951, Riley 1963, Vimmerstedt et al. 1974). Some mountaintop removal
operations and head-ofhollow fills create level land that replaces the
previous natural habitats (Bennett et al. 1976, Bogner and Perry 1977,
Jones and Bennett 1979). The non-native herbaceous species, commonly
planted because of their tolerance to the possible limiting factors of mine
spoil, provide habitat that would be inferior to that provided through
natural succession (Haigh 1976, WVDNR-Reclamation 1978). Smith (1973) has
indicated that herbaceous cover is not a suitable replacement for
commercially valuable forest. However, Bones (1978) stated that forest area
and volume are increasing in West Virginia, despite revegetation with
herbaceous cover on some mine sites.
There are several viewpoints on whether the conversion of unbroken
forest to combinations of meadow, shrubland, and forest has beneficial or
adverse effects on wildlife populations. Allaire (1979a and 1979b), Cardi
(1979), Holland (1973) and Whitmore (1980) have ascribed benefits to this
diversification, both for the provision of new habitat and the increase in
species and numbers of grassland fauna. Approximately 21,700 acres of new
grassland were created in West Virginia during the period 1972-77, mostly in
small patches (Whitmore 1980). Populations of birds on these patches have
been shown to fluctuate rapidly and to have high turnovers, and it has been
suggested that reclaimed areas larger than approximately 100 acres would be
more suitable for grassland species (Whitmore 1980). Remining in previously
reclaimed areas, mining of extensive areas, and the coalescence of small
reclamation sites may provide such larger-sized habitats. This could
benefit species such as the grasshopper sparrow, which has been declining in
population in recent years (Whitmore 1980). Balda (1975), Haigh (1976), and
members of the Wildlife Committee of the Thirteenth Annual Interagency
Evaluation of Surface Mine Reclamation (WVDNR-Reclamation 1978_) recognized
the possible loss of native forest-dwelling species and the subsequent
introduction of exotic plant species as a negative impact. Fragmentation of
forested areas and subsequent replacement of neotropical migrant birds (that
use the forest interior) by less migratory species (that use edge areas) has
been identified as a significant problem in the eastern US, particularly
around urban areas (Lynch and Whitcomb 1980, Whitcomb 1977). Populations of
some species of forest birds begin to decrease when the size of the parcel
in which they reside is reduced to 750 acres, depending on the degree of
isolation and the intensity of human-related disturbance (Lynch and Whitcomb
1980, Robbins 1979). Likewise, if forestland is replaced with an extensive,
unbroken grassland suitable primarily for grassland species, the diversity
of species of birds has been found to decline radically as forest bird
species are replaced by grassland bird species (Whitmore and Hall 1978). A
decrease in diversity does not necessarily result in a direct decrease in
total population.
Whether revegetation has a beneficial or an adverse effect depends to a
great extent on the type of vegetation previously present on a site and the
vegetation present on surrounding areas. Revegetation that results in a
different type of cover, such as grassland openings in a forested area or
5-47
-------
shrubland or forest in a pasture or agricultural setting, will provide addi-
tional diversity and increase the carrying capacity. Revegetation with
grasses in a previously forested site that is surrounded by grassland areas
results in a reduction in diversity from the premining condition, and thus
constitutes an adverse impact, whereas, replacement of part of a grassland
area with another grassland area has little long-term effect
(WVDNR-Reclamation 1978).
The potential beneficial effects of revegetation include: further
consolidation of spoil and reduction of sedimentation, increased vertical
stratification and provision of edge that would enhance wildlife habitat,
provision of multiple food sources and breeding areas that would increase
the carrying capacity for many species of wildlife, and increased potential
for desirable species of game animals or commercially valuable plants
(Barnhisel 1977, Bennet et al. 1976, Brenner et al. 1975, DeCapita and
Bookhout 1975, Jones and Bennett 1979, Riley 1977).
5.3.1.7. Secondary Impacts
Impacts associated with temporary and/or permanent increases in human
population resulting from inmigration of miners, construction and
road-building crews, and their families constitute indirect effects of
mining-related activities. The land area required for housing and
transportation of this increased population and for the development of
associated community infrastructure (public services and facilities) may be
significant in terms of their effects on wildlife and wildlife habitat.
Other sociologically-related impacts (Streeter et al. 1979), such as
increases in human presence and recreational activities, hunting pressure,
poaching, predatory domestic pets, and road kills, may create additional
stress on resident wildlife populations and further reduce the availability
and suitability of habitats in the area. The long-term secondary impacts
associated with the major changes in land use, population, and economic
growth that may accompany mining are discussed further in Section 5.6.
5.3.2. Mitigation of Impacts
Measures to mitigate adverse impacts from mining on the terrestrial
environment can be incorporated before, during, and after mining activities.
The pre-mine plan as required by the State includes comprehensive
information on baseline conditions, sensitive terrestrial resources, mining
operations, mitigative measures suited to the type and scale of impacts
anticipated to occur at the particular site, and appropriate reclamation
plans. Thus the pre-mine plan contains the major compilation of mitigative
measures, which are identified and approved before mining begins.
Mitigative measures also are to be identified by the applicant on the USOSM
Draft Experimental Form. An overview of the factors to be considered and
steps that can be taken In each of the three stages (before, during, and
after mining) is presented in Table 5-9.
5-48
-------
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5-49
-------
5.3.2.1. Pre-mlning Mitigations
Careful land use planning as well as State and Federal regulations
require identification of physical limitations (toxic overburden, erodible
soils, groundwater systems), the biotic resources (including rare or
endangered species and unique plant communities or habitats), and the
desired postmining land use(s) at a particular site prior to the initiation
of mining.
The description of the post-mining land use(s) for the site should
include detailed revegetation plans complementary to existing and proposed
land uses for adjacent areas. For example:
Pasture should not be proposed as a post-mining land use
where slopes are steep (greater than 20%)
Restoration to original contour should net be proposed for
a mountaintop removal site where level land for
development is needed
Level land for development should not be proposed for a
remote site where access is difficult
Wildlife habitat should incorporate all of the habitat
components necessary for the desired species.
Several of the members of the Fourteenth Annual Interagency Evaluation
(WVDNR-Reclamation 1980) commented that many incompatible land uses are
being proposed because the planning decisions are made somewhat arbitrarily,
on the basis of limited information and without knowledge of the management
techniques, technical information, and assistance available as well as the
ecological relationships involved. Input from professional landscape
architects, wildlife ecologists, and plant ecologists was recommended to
disseminate this information. For a wildlife habitat land use, target
species should be identified and their respective habitat requirements
should be provided. The members of the Wildlife Committee of the
Interagency Tour also suggested that planning be performed on a watershed
basis so that cumulative impacts can be assessed and that plans developed
for specific sites are made compatible with a regional scheme.
Reclamation plans that feature wildlife habitat as a final land use
should consider the value of the pre-mine habitats. Both Federal and State
regulations require that a mine site be returned to a use as good as or
better than that of its pre-mine state. However, neither the Federal or
State regulations require that the pre-mine wildlife habitats be evaluated
to ensure that the post-mining habitats are of equal or higher value. Many
techniques are available for pre-mining assessment of existing habitat
values (Bramble and Byrnes 1979, Farmer 1977, Barker et al. 1980, Lines and
Perry 1978, Norman 1975, Whitaker et al. 1976). Non-game birds,
particularly songbirds, can be valuable indicators for habitat evaluations
because many species are associated with a single habitat or stage of
succession and their high visibility facilitates the counting of individuals
5-50
-------
(Eddleman 1980, Graber and Graber 1976). West Virginia and USOSM '
regulations require that the revegetation on the reclaimed site conform to
that on a similar reference area. No reference areas have been designated
in West Virginia, and the requirement is not expected to be included in the
final regulatory program (Verbally, Mr. William Chambers, WVDNR-Reclamation,
to Ms. Kathleen M. Brennan, April 24, 1980).
5.3.2.2. Mitigations During Mining
Mitigative measures are available for most impacts of mining on the
terrestrial environment and only a few of these impacts are unavoidable or
irreversible. In some cases, the impact can be mitigated by the replacement
of lost resources with resources of equal value (such as replacement of one
type or area of wildlife habitat with another, or restocking of some species
after mining). The latter mitigative measures will be described under
post-mining mitigations and would require the type of pre-mining evaluation
techniques referenced previously.
5.3.2.2.1. Prospecting. The impacts associated with prospecting
include noise, dust, intrusion into undisturbed wildlife habitat, and small
excavations. Because most of these impacts probably would be similar to
those of eventual mining activities, they are not considered to be
significant. However, there are cases where the impact of prospecting could
be significant. For example, in instances where the noise and intrusion
would disrupt seasonal mating and brooding of significant species of
wildlife, a mitigative technique would be necessary to avoid the performance
of these operations during these periods. Prospecting activities are
regulated by WVNDR-Reclamation (see Section 4.1.).
5.3.2.2.2. Road Construction. The impacts associated with road
construction include removal of vegetation, disruption of wildlife activi-
ties, generation of dust, and increased sedimentation. These adverse
impacts are mitigated somewhat by the beneficial effects of road construc-
tion. Additional mitigative practices include watering exposed ground and
spreading wood chips or salt to control dust (Grim and Hill 1974, Williams
1979). Sedimentation can be controlled with proper design measures
(see Section 5.7; Weigle 1965, 1966). Besides using the prescribed grades
and drainage controls, proper design includes removal of overhanging
vegetation so that the roadway is exposed to the sun and thereby dries
faster after a rain, constructing the road during dry weather,
contemporaneous revegetation, and using filter strips of vegetation between
the road and the side ditches (Barfield et al. 1978, Grim and Hill 1974).
5.3.2.2.3. Mining. Impacts from mining include loss of vegetation,
displacement of wildlife, alteration of topography, degradation of water
resources, fugitive dust, noise, acid mine drainage, and creation of toxic
spoils. Adherence to State and Federal regulations reduces many of these
adverse effects. However, the emphasis on protection or enhancement of
wildlife habitat in the USOSM regulations generally is not carried through
to the actual mining operation, as noted by members of the Wildlife
5-51
-------
Committee of the Fourteenth Annual Interagency Evaluation (WVDNR-
Reclamation 1980). Remedies include enhancement of adjacent undisturbed
habitats with nest boxes, wildlife food plantings, or other acceptable
management techniques that increase the ability of the adjacent habitats to
support wildlife displaced from the mine site.
Additional mitigative measures include limiting the extent of the
actively-mined area. This is particularly relevant to mountaintop removal
operations, where large areas are disturbed and left unvegetated until a
large-scale revegetation effort is performed. Members of the Wildlife
Committee recommended more contemporaneous revegetation of smaller areas of
active mining. This practice would reduce dust and sedimentation, as well
as replace the lost habitat more rapidly.
Allaire (1978) recommended a buffer area of undisturbed vegetation at
least 100 meters wide to protect bird breeding grounds from active mine
sites. Blasting, regulated by WVDNR-Reclamation and USOSM (see Section
4.O.), should be conducted on a regular schedule, so that wildlife can
become acclimated. Dust would be less of an impact if blasting were
performed only on still days or on days when the wind was blowing away from
the adjacent undisturbed vegetation (Allaire 1978).
Federal regulations also require that the location, design, and
construction of electric transmission lines meet criteria set by USDOI
(1970). These criteria were developed to minimize the impacts of power
lines in rural areas, and stress preservation of the natural landscape.
Examples of the criteria are:
Only vegetation that presents a possible hazard should be
cleared
Brush blades rather than dirt blades should be used on
bulldozers to preserve the ground cover
Cleared vegetation should be piled to provide habitat for
small animals
Native vegetation should be preserved or planted for
screening
Natural features should be protected from damage during
construction
Construction activities should be avoided during critical
periods for wildlife
Temporary roads should be restored to original slopes and
planted with native ground cover
Restored vegetation should be maintained in rights-of-way.
5-52
-------
If it is likely that the mining operation would affect a significant
terrestrial resource, such as a wetland, remnant forest, or rare species of
plant or animal, mitigations should be agreed upon by the applicant before a
permit is issued (Table 5-10). If locational data on the sensitive
terrestrial resource are fragmentary, State agencies should be contacted to
verify the existence of a significant terrestrial resource.
If an examination of the requirements of the terrestrial resource or
the factors required for its presence (Table 5-11, 5-12 & 5-13)
shows that mitigative measures are known and available and that these
measures will allow preservation and/or protection of the resource, a
determination will be made as to the feasibility and practicality of these
measures at the particular site and the willingness of the mine operator
(and sometimes the surface owner) to implement them or to work with the
appropriate State agency personnel to implement them. In some cases this
may not be feasible for technical or economic reasons, or not agreeable to
the parties involved. A judgment must then be made as to whether to issue
or deny the permit or to place a restrictive condition on the permit that
would require the use of the measure or action.
Water quality related impacts on terrestrial resources may be mitigated
by standard prescribed methods for sediment control and water quality
treatment (see Sections 3.2. and 5.1.). Other mitigative measures can be
applied specifically to restore affected elements of the terrestrial
ecosystem. For example, to reestablish vegetation, acid-tolerant plants can
be used to replace aquatic plants lost because of acid mine drainage
(Chironis 1978). Members of the Wildlife Committee of the 1979 Interagency
Evaluation Tour (WVDNR-Reclamation 1980) indicated that sediment ponds and
other artificial impoundments that are scheduled to be filled in conformance
with State and USOSM regulations can be preserved and used to replace or
enhance degraded aquatic habitats, particularly on mountaintop removal
sites. Any variation from State regulations will require a variance from
WVDNR-Reclamation.
Allaire (1979__) recommended several low-cost improvements to provide
water-related diversity in the landscape. These included the maintenance of
a rolling topography, where water may collect to form shallow puddles or
mudflats that would attract shorebirds, and leaving farm ponds for small
flocks of ducks and geese that also would provide water for amphibians,
reptiles, deer, or other wildlife. He also recommended the development of
multipurpose ponds and cattail swamps. These are described in
Appendix C.
Biologists from the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) presently are
conducting research on the use of sediment ponds by amphibians, reptiles,
and other species of wildlife in cooperation with the USFWS Eastern Energy
and Land Use Team (TVA 1980). Reports of these investigations are expected
to be available in late-1980.
5-53
-------
estrial biota (Allaire 1979a; Frischknecht
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-------
5.3.2.3. Post-mining Mitigations
Most post-mining mitigations are encompassed within required reclama-
tion procedures (Section 4.O.). However, some of these reclamation efforts
have adverse impacts, such as soil compaction, alteration of the structure
of native plant communities, replacement of native species of plants with
non-native species, replacement of forest-dwelling species of wildlife with
open-land species, and removal of successional plant communities from
abandoned mine sites.
Federal regulations require avoidance of compaction and creation of a
rough surface. Spoil handling techniques have been developed that leave the
seedbed rough and friable (Glover et al. 1978). Soil amendments and mulches
also can be used more effectively to improve reclamation results, however,
members of the 1979 Interagency Evaluation Tour noted a lack of
individualized attention to detailed spoil characteristics
(WVDNR-Reclamation 1980). Fertilizers and mulches were being used
indiscriminately. Soil amendments, final grading, and mulches should be
used only where an analysis of soil characteristics has shown a need for
such measures. Federal and State regulations contain only general
requirements for the use of mulches and fertilizers.
The replacement of native forest with grass-legume herbaceous communi-
ties must be viewed from a regional perspective. If a proposed mountaintop
removal or valley-fill operation is proposed for an area in which many
similar operations have been performed, and thus large tracts of forest are
to be replaced with grassland, the impact will be more severe than the
impact from an isolated operation creating a small woodland opening. In the
former case, some reforestation should be prescribed, or the extent of
mining in a watershed should be controlled so that recently mined areas are
reclaimed and allowed to begin succession back to forest cover before addi-
tional extensive areas are mined. Control of the amount, extent, and
frequency of mining helps maintain forest communities and reservoirs of
desired species of wildlife to repopulate reclaimed areas. In the latter
case, the change to a grassland area might diversify the forest habitat with
maintained grass-legume-shrub openings, provide new sources of food and a
new "edge" habitat, and thus be beneficial for wildlife.
The introduction of non-native species of plants can be mitigated by
revegetation with some native species, but commercial availability of native
species is limited at present. State regulations stipulate species mixtures
and rates, and many of the recommended plants are non-native species.
Another approach to encourage the reestablishment of native species
would be to selectively plant species to provide a ground cover that would
not impede natural succession. This could be accomplished by thinly
planting non-agressive species. If an abandoned mine is to be reopened, the
successional vegetation already developed on the site should be evaluated
for its potential for wildlife. If the potential is high, as much as
possible of this vegetation should be preserved. Compliance with State and
Federal regulations that require return to approximate original contour
results in a regrading process on reopened mines in which most or all of
5-59
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this natural vegetation is removed. Stands of native vegetation can be
preserved on new mine sites to provide seed sources for more rapid
reestablishment of native vegetation. Artificial structural features such
as nest boxes can be placed on the site to replace the original structural
features such as snags and den trees. Seeds of shrubs can be included in
the seed mix to be used in hydroseeding to add both diversity and to provide
additional sources of food (Samuel and Whitmore 1978). A summary of the
types of mitigative measures that could be taken to alleviate the major
adverse impacts on terrestrial biota is given in Table 5-10.
5.3.3. Revegetation
5.3.3.1. Factors That Control Revegetation
Revegetation is controlled largely by the following:
State and Federal regulations (Section 4.O.), especially
the provisions of the pre-mine plan, as required by the
State
The physical conditions at the site.
The State and Federal regulatory frameworks differ regarding specific
regulations. However, both sets of regulations address revegetation to a
great extent. Where the frameworks vary, the stricter requirements are
discussed herein. Seeding and mulching are required after the abandonment
of fill sites, access roads, and drainage systems. During the mining
operation, topsoil must be separated and stockpiled for later resurfacing of
the mine site. Toxic overburden must be buried under at least four inches
of non-toxic material. All land must be returned to a condition suitable
for its pre-mining use or for a higher use. State regulations require that
herbaceous plantings must achieve at least 80% ground cover before the
performance bond is released. Woody plantings must exceed 400 stems per
acre (600 per acre on steep slopes), with at least 60% herbaceous ground
cover. The Federal regulations stress wildlife habitat considerations more
than do the State regulations. For example, the Federal regulations contain
specifications that wildlife values should be protected to the greatest
extent possible, and enhanced when practicable by the following:
Locating and operating haul roads to minimize impacts to
significant species of wildlife
Protecting fauna from toxic waters
Restoring unique habitat
Restoring, enhancing, or maintaining riparian vegetation
and other wetlands
5-60
-------
If wildlife habitat is a designated post-mining land use,
the vegetation to be used must provide cover, have proven
nutritive value, and be capable of supporting and
enhancing wildlife populations after the bond is released
Wildlife plantings must optimize edge effects
Land for row crops or development must have cover belts
for wildlife.
Furthermore, the State regulations contain specifications of the species of
plants to be used and the combinations of species and rates of planting for
particular physical situations. The WVDNR-Reclamation pre-mine plan
contains specifications for the post-mining land use and the revegetation
plan. It should take into account both the physical conditions of the site
and the adjacent land use (Anonymous 1974_, Wahlquist 1976).
Because of these regulations, no special conditions for vegetation in
New Source NPDES permits are envisioned by EPA, unless the Federal or State
reclamation requirements were to become unenforceable. In that event, EPA
will require an EPA-approved reclamation plan as a condition for granting a
New Source permit.
The physical site factors that influence revegetation efforts include
(Bennett et al. 1976, Berg and Vogel 1973, Deely and Borden 1973, Goodman
and Bray 1975, Schimp 1973):
Slope Friability
Stoniness Fertility
Soil color Stability
Moisture availability Reaction
Aspect Toxicity.
Elevation
These factors are discussed in greater detail in Sections 2.7. and 5.7.
Other factors that affect the rate and success of revegetation include pH,
nutrient supplies, soil microorganisms, and surface temperature.
In addition, ions of metals such as aluminum are particularly inhibitory to
plant growth (D'Antuono 1979). Information on state-of-the-art wildlife and
vegetation management techniques that should be utilized in reclamation
plans is included in Appendix C
5.3.4. Long-term Impacts on the Basin
5.3.4.1. Overall Landscape and Ecosystem Changes
The removal of an entire ecosystem in an area and the disruption of
biological communities in adjacent areas are unavoidable during surface
mining. Some adverse effects also are associated with deep mining and other
mining-related activities such as coal transportation and coal processing.
5-61
-------
Additional surface mining in the Basin can be beneficial for some species
and detrimental to others, depending on the sensitivity to disturbance and
habitat requirements of the species, the type and extent of mitigation and
reclamation techniques employed, and the post-mining use of the area. Most
species of plants, reptiles, and amphibians are affected adversely because
of their lack of mobility. Stable native plant communities with a diversity
of species that are best suited to the area's particular conditions will be
lost. Many associated components of the ecosystem, such as invertebrates
and soil organisms, also will be eliminated. Species that require
undisturbed wilderness, such as black bear and turkey, may abandon areas
temporarily or permanently. In some cases, the change to a simpler plant
community with fewer species will reduce the natural diversity of habitats
in an area and, as a result, the number of species of wildlife. In others
the creation of openings in the forest cover will provide increased amounts
of edge area for various successional plant communities and also enhance the
structural and species diversity of the area.
The removal of forest cover and change in landform over large areas of
the Basin also affect drainage patterns, water quality, soil moisture
levels, and local climatic conditions. The long-term effects of acid mine
drainage, erosion, and siltation on terrestrial ecosystems are not well
known. Fragmentation of ecosystems can produce islands of various habitat
types, including artificial prairies of reclaimed grasslands, that are not
large enough nor diverse enough to satisfy the needs of many species. Some
of these areas might not be located near "continents" or corridors of
similar habitats that could serve as reservoirs or migration routes,
respectively, for the continued colonization of the islands by the species
that have been destroyed or driven away.
Most secondary or sociologically-related impacts that occur as a conse-
quence of mining can be detrimental to terrestrial biota. This is
especially significant in areas where coal mining activity may induce
development to occur in response to the needs of the increased human
population. The induced development can remove wildlife habitat, and
increased hunting pressure as well as recreational activity adversely can
affect wildlife populations.
The long-term effects of mining on the terrestrial biota of a particu-
lar site depend on the conditon of the site and the surrounding land prior
to mining, the post-mining land use of the site and the adjacent area, the
type and uniqueness of the biological communities affected, and the amount
of additional disturbance in the watershed. The long-term effects on the
watershed depend on the percentage of the total amount of each type of
community that is lost or degraded, the magnitude and extent of other
stresses on these communities, and the size of the areas that are segmented
and separated from areas with similar biotic components. Habitats of
limited extent generally are considered to be more "valuable" than those of
greater extent because of their scarcity, the fact that they tend to contain
more unique or rare species, and their limited capability to recover from
damage because of the lack of a suitable adjacent reservoir of replacement
5-62
-------
individuals. In the North Branch Potomac River Basin, the types of
communities of limited extent are primarily wetlands, riparian habitats,
shale barrens, heath barrens, stands of relatively undisturbed cove hardwood
forests, and other communities that also are restricted in other parts of
the State. Individual mine permit applications should be examined in the
light of past and present mining in the same area of the watershed to
evaluate the amount of each community or habitat type that will remain and
the cumulative effects of mining on proposed buffer areas and the Basin as a
whole. This information can be augmented and verified by contacting the
WVDNR-Reclamation officer responsible for overseeing the particular mining
operation involved.
In the North Branch Potomac River Basin, the other known stresses on
the ecosystem include the effects of logging practices, air pollution
(including acid rain), and fires. Increased coal mining could have
long-term adverse consequences due to both the initial extraction of coal
and its combustion as fuel. The potential for terrestrial resource damage
within the Basin by atmospheric pollutants such as SC>2, NOX, and acid
precipitation are just beginning to be realized. The observed effects of
acid rain on forest ecosystems have included loss of productivity, reduced
photosynthesis because of leaf injury, decreased soil fertility, decreased
uptake of nitrogen and its fixation by legumes, reduction in species
diversity, decreased resistance to pests and diseases, reduced height,
inhibited bud formation and seed germination, soil acidification, leaching
of calcium from the soil, and increased solubilization of aluminum and heavy
metal ions (which are known to be toxic to plants in more than minimal
concentrations; Bucek 1979, Glass et al. 1979, Kozlowski 1980, Likens et al.
1979, Miller and McBride 1975, Vitousek 1979). These effects are more
pronounced where soils contain relatively low levels of nutrients and thus
cannot adequately buffer increased acidity. The podzolic soils in eastern
deciduous forests in the Appalachian area are included in this category.
Major air pollution sources are discussed in Section 2.4.
The leaching of nutrients from the soil also may adversely affect the
success of revegetation in some areas, especially if monoculture plantings
of one or only a few species are used. Revegetated areas also may be
affected adversely if the species used are susceptible to particular air
pollutants, if these are present in significant concentrations. The species
composition of certain areas may change because the different levels of
tolerance of the various species may give some a competitive advantage over
others.
Conversely, the nitrogen content in acid rain may have a slightly
positive effect on soil fertility that might offset the other adverse
effects. However, nitrogen generally is stored in the lower (B) horizon of
forest soils, and the release of stored nitrogen after clearcutting or
forest fires also causes increased acidification of soil and water
resources. The overall economic benefits available from forest resources in
the Basin (timber, recreation, and wildlife production) could be lessened as
the quality of the forest resources declines.
5-63
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In summary, the overall response of an ecosystem to a disturbance such
as mining can be separated into two components: resistance (the relative
magnitude of the system's response to the disturbance) and resilience (the
relative rate of recovery after the disturbance [Vitousek 1979]). In the
case of coal mining in the North Branch Potomac River Basin, the ecosystem
may have considerable resistance because of the complexity and patchwork
effect of the various types of biological communities. The resilience,
however, may be low for a number of reasons: the extent of damage, the loss
of many structural and functional components of that complex system, and the
complexity of the replacement and repair process, especially when altered by
the introduction of non-native species and the inhibiting effects of other
stresses on the system mentioned previously. The time required for various
stages of natural succession would vary considerably in different parts of
the Basin and with particular site conditions, and some areas may require
considerably longer to return to pre-disturbance conditions (such as remnant
forests requiring nearly a century to recover). These effects would not be
as severe in the case of retaining of previously mined areas because the
systems still would exhibit evidence of disturbance and would be less
complex. Fewer and less extensive mitigative measures would be required in
these areas, although disturbance of successful revegetation, especially
natural succession, should be limited where this provides valuable wildlife
habitat.
The use of Federal and State required mitigation, reclamation, and
management techniques and procedures can benefit both wildlife and human
populations. Species not previously sighted or common in the Basin, such as
various types of grassland birds, could increase in number because of the
new type of habitat, the "artificial prairie", that would be developed as a
consequence of revegetation of surface mine sites. While not specifically
required by Federal or State regulations, populations of desirable species
of both game and nongame animals, particularly birds, can be increased after
surface mining if reclamation plans include topographic diversity,
structural and species diversity of the vegetation, and water sources
necessary for their existence. The retention of sediment ponds in
particular would provide significant opportunities for enhancement of
wildlife populations and consequent provision of additional recreational
opportunities (Turner and Fowler 1980). This measure would have special
value because of the current and projected levels of hunting pressure and
recreational usage of land and the high potential for the development of
mountaintop removal sites. The addition of numerous sediment ponds would
supplement the limited availability of wetland habitats within the Basin.
5.3.4.2. Potential Impacts on Known and Unknown Significant Resources
Species that are considered to be rare, threatened, or endangered
usually are those associated with habitats that presently are of limited
extent in the Basin, such as caves, wetlands, and riparian areas. Rare
species of mammals and birds require a relatively large area of a climax
community (the most advanced successional stage possible under the physio-
graphic, climatic, and soil conditions at a particular site). These species
5-64
-------
usually inhabit the interior of such areas; are less tolerant of
disturbance; have specific food, cover, activity, or reproduction
requirements; reproduce more slowly; and care for their young for longer
periods than do more opportunistic species that inhabit the edge areas where
two types of communities meet. Black bear, tuckey, and various species of
warblers are examples of the former "wilderness" species. The latter
"weedy" species, such as the cottontail rabbit, have high reproductive
potentials, can colonize an area quickly if conditions are favorable, and
can use a wider variety of habitats. Rare species of invertebrates and
plants, on the other hand, often are limited to very localized areas because
of their requirements for specific food plants, soil types, or microclimatic
conditions, such as those found on shale barrens, on sandstone or limestone
cliffs, or in wetlands. Any mining approved in areas of limited habitat or
previously undisturbed areas within the Basin should be conditioned and
monitored carefully to avoid adverse impacts on significant or sensitive
resources, especially those that are endemic (restricted in distribution to
the State).
Because of the potential extent of coal mining in the North Branch
Potomac River Basin, it may be possible, preferential, and time- and cost-
effective to mitigate effects on significant or sensitive resources on a
Basin-wide basis, at the locations where assistance would benefit the
resource most, rather than at each individual mine site. This would provide
the flexibility necessary to adjust to fluctuations in game and non-game
wildlife populations, other environmental conditions or stress factors, and
the general patterns and timing of mining activities and land use changes.
In such a system, mine operators would comply with the State and Federal
requirements for reclamation of a particular mine site, including implemen
tation of measures for the protection and enhancement of species previously
present. More importantly, mine operators primarily would concentrate
mitigation activities or funds in areas where they would be most effective,
as determined by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources or other appropriate State agency
personnel on the basis of current information on conditions within the
Basin. The high proportion of lands in private ownership in the Basin,
however, could present problems in the implementation of such a system
unless adequate information distribution to, and communication with, the
public were developed and maintained.
5.3.5. Data Gaps
During the preparation of the information presented on impacts,
mitigations, and revegetation, various gaps were noted in existing informa-
tion. These deficiencies, including those reported by other investigators,
are described briefly by topic below.
The long-term effects of acid mine drainage on watersheds,
and particularly on terrestrial biota, are not known
(Wildlife Committee, Fourteenth Annual Interagency Evalua-
tion, WVDNR-Reclamation 1980)
5-65
-------
Few data are available on the rates at which wetlands or
riparian areas perform various water purification
functions, such as absorption of non-point source pollu-
tants and groundwater recharge (Clark and Clark 1979).
The data on threshold levels of nutrient loading are
extremely limited, except for a few studies on assimila-
tion of sewage effluent. Most studies have focused on
plant uptake of heavy metals and have not considered
subsequent effects on wetland and terrestrial food chains
or the long-term effects of pollutant loads on the species
composition and functions of wetland communities.
The "ripple" effect of displacement of wildlife into
unmined areas and the resistance and resilience of those
communities needs additional investigation, particularly
in regard to the number and magnitude of the stresses in
the same locality (Risser 1978)
As indicated by Anderson et al. (1977), the data base
available for use in assessing the impacts of energy
development in eastern ecosystems on terrestrial wildlife
populations and their habitats is meager. The information
is scattered among many sources and is incomplete or
lacking for most topics or groups of organisms. A
preliminary discussion of alternative methods proposed to
fulfill data requirements for such assessments is
contained in Anderson et al. (1977).
Few, if any, studies have been done on wildlife popula-
tions on the same mine site before, during, and after
mining. Some studies have been done on abandoned mine
sites (Chapman et al. 1978, Karr 1968, Riley 1952, 1957,
1977), others on the use of reclaimed sites several years
after mining (Allaire 1979_, DeCapita and Bookhout 1975,
Jones 1967, Whitmore and Hall 1978, Yahner and Howell
1975), and others on the use of abandoned or reclaimed
areas by a particular species, such as grouse (Kimmel and
Samuel 1978), turkey (Anderson and Samuel 1980), fox
(Yearsley 1976), and white-tailed deer (Knotts 1975).
However, no comprehensive baseline inventory and
subsequent follow-up has been done for an entire mine site
with its various biological communities. Those studies
performed several years after mining ceased generally do
not contain descriptions of premining conditions, mining
history, and post-mining land use (Vogel and Curtis 1978).
Little information has been published on the changes in
species diversity, community composition, population size,
food habits, and vigor of terrestrial and aquatic biota,
or on the effects of changes in land use patterns on
wildlife species composiiton and human use of the area.
5-66
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This information would be helpful in the determination of
appropriate mitigations and reclamation plans. Current
research by TVA biologists, who are conducting a five-year
research project, is expected to fill some of the data
gaps on wildlife populations (TVA 1980).
The cumulative effects of multiple or sequential mining in
a watershed on terrestrial biota have not been examined
The concept of mitigation as employed in this section is
relatively recent, and most of the literature on
mitigation measures for terrestrial biota has been
developed for large-scale water resource development
projects in the Western US, where large areas of
alternative lands can be acquired with Federal funds for
mitigation of habitat and population losses. Information
on techniques for mitigation of impacts on individual
species has been developed primarily for raptors, large
grazing animals, and large populations of waterfowl.
Little information is available for the more complex
forest ecosystems in the eastern US with their diversity
of vegetation types and species, particularly non-game
mammals, songbirds, reptiles, and amphibians. The
information available primarily has been prepared for the
enhancement of populations of game animals such as deer,
turkey, cottontail rabbit, and grouse.
Additional work needs to be done to identify native
species of plants that can tolerate conditions at
reclaimed mine sites, have significant value to wildlife,
and are economically feasible to plant (Wildlife
Committee, Fourteenth Annual Interagency Evaluation,
WVDNR-Reclamation 1980).
Methods should be developed for commercial production of hawthornes,
other species in the rose family, and any other multivalue species
that may be identified. Species should be classified according to
their suitability for the various physiographic areas and
altitudinal zones within the State.
Methods should be developed for the transfer of available
information on reclamation procedures that would benefit
wildlife resources to permit-granting agencies, reclama-
tion planners, and mine operators. This would include
information on wildlife habitat requirements and manage-
ment practices and suitable native vegetation (Wildlife
Committee, Fourteenth Annual Interagency Evaluation,
WVDNR-Reclamation 1980)
5-67
-------
Little information is available on the establishment,
increase, and management of wildlife populations on
reclaimed surface mines, particularly non-game species, as
indicated previously. Recent research by Samuel and
Whitmore (1979) and Whitmore (1979, 1980) in West
Virginia, by Allaire (1979a) in Kentucky, and by TVA
biologists in Tennessee (TVA 1980) has been designed to
provide data in this area. This type of information
should be distributed as widely as possible when it
becomes available. General information on wildlife
management for many species of game animals currently is
available from WVDNR-Wildlife Resources.
5-68
-------
5.4 Air Quality and Noise Impacts and Mitigations
-------
Page
5.4. Air Quality and Noise Impacts and Mitigations 5-69
5.4.1. Air Quality Impacts 5-69
5.4.2. Noise Impacts 5-71
-------
5.4. AIR QUALITY AND NOISE IMPACTS AND MITIGATIONS
5.4.1. Air Quality Impacts
Coal-related impacts on air quality occur principally as a result of
the combustion of coal to generate electricity and to fuel industrial
operations. The point and non-point emission of air pollutants from surface
coal mining and coal preparation operations can affect air quality for
relatively short distances downwind from mine sites. The principal and
significant impacts on local air quality result from the particulate matter
and fugitive dust generated by coal mining, hauling, and storage. Emissions
from vehicles on mine sites generally are relatively minor in magnitude
(Table 5-14) and remote from sensitive receptors.
Point-source emissions from coal mining (that is, emissions through
smoke stacks) are associated principally with thermal dryers that may be
used in coal preparation plants. Thermal dryers and any other emission
sources in preparation plants must receive prior approval by WVAPCC
according to the State Implementation Plan, and information on thermal
dryers must be provided also in the State water pollution control permit for
preparation plants (Section 4.1.)
EPA has not yet delegated administration of the Prevention of
Significant Deterioration program to West Virginia. Hence EPA will review
in detail those coal preparation plants that meet the threshold criteria for
PSD analysis as presented in Section 4.2. It is unlikely that proposed
mining facilities other than preparation plants with thermal dryers will
trigger PSD reviews, because their emissions of regulated pollutants are too
small.
Dust control measures are mandated by the USOSM permanent program
regulations. A plan must be prepared by the applicant to control dust, and
the plan as approved by the regulatory authority must be implemented by the
operator during mining (30 CFR 816.95, 817.95). On-site monitoring data may
be required by the regulatory authority for use in developing the plan
(30 CFR 780.15, 783.15). Dust control measures such as the following are to
be included as appropriate:
Periodic watering of unpaved roads, with an approved minimum
frequency
Stabilization of unpaved roads with nontoxic chemicals
Paving of roads
Prompt, frequent grading and compaction of unpaved roads to
remove debris and stabilize the surface
Restriction of vehicle speed
Revegetation and mulching of areas adjoining roads
Restricting travel by unauthorized vehicles
5-69
-------
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5-70
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Enclosing, covering, and watering loaded trucks and rail
cars
Substituting enclosed conveyors for haul trucks
Minimizing the disturbed land area
Prompt revegetation of regraded lands
Restricting dumping and wetting disturbed materials during
handling
Planting of windbreaks at critical locations
Using water sprays or dust collectors to control drilling
dust and dust at coal and spoil transfer points
Restricting areas blasted at one time
Limiting dust-producing activities during episodes of
stagnant air
Inspecting and extinguishing areas of burning coal.
EPA estimates of the efficiency of dust control measures applicable to
unpaved roads range from 25% to 85% (Table 5-15). Industry sources suggest
that dust from other sources in coal operations can be reduced by 50% to 90%
by appropriate control measures (Table 5-16).
EPA will check to see that appropriate dust control measures have been
incorporated into permits issued pursuant to SMCRA and WVSCMRA. In the
event that the USOSM practices are not enforceable by the regulatory
authority, EPA independently will implement them pursuant to NEPA and CWA
WVAPCC also requires a dust control plan as past of its air pollution
control permit for preparation plants (Section 4.1.4.13). Should air
quality issues other than dust control be determined to be potentially
significant during the review of a New Source permit, EPA will utilize the
resources of its in-house staff to determine such significance and to
develop appropriate permit conditions.
5.4.2. Noise Impacts
The major sources of noise impacts associated with coal mining include
blasting, equipment operation, and coal transportation. Table 5-17 presents
a comparison of sound intensity, pressure level, and common sounds to
provide a frame of reference for the following discussions.
Blasting noise is the most intense noise associated with the operation
of a New Source coal mine. Blasting is the most annoying type of noise and
has the greatest potential for damaging structures near this site. The
USOSM permanent program performance standards require that noise and
vibration from blasting operations be controlled to minimize the danger of
adverse impacts (30 CFR 816.61-68; 817.61-68).
5-71
-------
Table 5-15. Efficiency of dust control methods for unpaved roads (EPA
1975).
Control Method Approximate Control Efficiency,(%)
Paving 85
Treating surface with penetrating chemicals 50
Working soil stabilizing chemicals into roadbed 50
Speed control ("uncontrolled" speed is 40 mph)
30 mph 25
20 mph 65
15 mph 80
5-72
-------
Table 5-16. Dust emission factors from coal operations compiled by
D'Appolonia (1980).
Emission Source
Reported
Emission Factor
Reduction Factor if Control is
Utilized
Achievable Emission Factors
for Controlled Processes
Drilling
Coal
Overburden
Topsoil Removal
Overburden Removal
Blasting
Coal
Overburden
Coal Removal
Raw Coal Dump Hopper
Coal Crushing
0.22 Ib/hole
1.5 Ib/hole
0.38 lb/yd3
0.07 Ib/ton
72.4 Ib/blast
85.2 Ib/blast
0.0035 Ib/ton
0.02 Ib/ton
0.18 Ib/ton
Enclosed operation: 90%
1.8 x 10~2 Ib/ton
Conveyor Transport:
Raw Coal
Crushed Coal
Clean Coal and
Coal
Refuse
Raw Coal Stacker
Clean Coal Stacker
Refuse Chutes
0.02 Ib/ton
0.02 Ib/ton
0.02 Ib/ton
0.0004 Ib/ton
1.32 Ib/ton
Stored
1.32 Ib/ton
Stored
0.02 Ib/ton
Cover conveyors: 907,
Cover conveyors: 90%
Cover conveyors: 90%
Wet process coal: 85%
Arrange stacker to provide
enclosure: 90%
Wet process coal: 85%
Arrange stacker to provide
enclosure: 90%
Wet refuse in process: 85%
2 x 10~3 Ib/ton
2 X 10 Ib/ton
2 x 10~3 Ib/ton
3 x 10~* Ib/ton
1.3 x 10"1 Ib/ton
Stored
2.0 x 10~2 Ib/ton
Stored
3.0 x 10~3 Ib/ton
Coal Refuse Storage
Bin
0.20 Ib/ton
Enclose storage bin: 90%
Wet refuse In process: 85%
3 x 10"3 Ib/ton
Refuse Dumping 0.02 Ib/ton
Haul Roads (Unpaved) 0.45 Ib/vmt
Train Loadout 0.20 Ib/ton
Reclamation &
. Maintenance
Wind Erosion
16 Ibs/hr
0.25 ton/acre
Wet refuse in process: 50%
Spray water on road: 50%
Wit process coal: 85%
1 x 10~2 Ib/ton
2.2 x 10~J Ib/vmt
3.0 x 10~2 Ib/ton
5-73
-------
Table 5-17.
Comparison of intensity, sound pressure level, and common sounds
(USAGE 1973).
Relative
Energy Intensity (units)
1,000,000,000,000,000
100,000,000,000,000
10,000,000,000,000
1,000,000,000,000
100,000,000,000
10,000,000,000
1,000,000,000
100,000,000
10,000,000
1,000,000
100,000
10,000
1,000
100
10
1
Decibels
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Loudness
Artillery at 500 feet
Jet aircraft at 50 feet
Threshold of pain
Near elevated train
Inside propeller plane
Full symphony or band
Inside auto at high speed
Conversaction, face-to-face
Inside general office
Inside private office
Inside bedroom
Inside empty theater
Threshold of hearing
5-74
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Air blast must be controlled so that it does not exceed the following
values at any dwelling, public building, school, church, commercial
structure, or institutional building that is not owned by the operator
(30 CFR 816.65, 817.65):
Low frequency limit of Maximum level
measuring system (Hz) dB
^0.1 (flat response) 135 peak
<_2 (flat response) 132 peak
^6 (flat response) 130 peak
C-weighted, slow response 109 C
The limitations also apply to buildings owned by the operator and leased to
others, unless the lessee signs a waiver. In addition, blasting must be
conducted between sunrise and sunset (except in hazardous situations)
according to a well-publicized schedule. The operator must maintain
extensive records, and must limit the maximum weight of. explosives that can
be detonated within any 8-millisecond period to specified maximum values
based on distance to the nearest sensitive receptor.
EPA regrads the USOSM requirements as adequate to control blasting
noise and vibration so long as the USOSM regulations are in force, no
further measures will be mandated by EPA.
Heavy equipment and coal haul trucks are the other major sources of
noise from surface coal mining and preparation. They are not addressed by
the USOSM persuant program regulations. Table 5-18 presents the measured
noise levels of various pieces of heavy mining equipment along with the
specific noise sources. Table 5-19 and Figure 5-2 present results of noise
surveys conducted at coal-related facilities in eastern Kentucky.
This type of noise is generally not a problem except for residences,
schools, or recreational facilities less than 1 mile from the mine site.
Table 5-20 presents impacts associated with various noise levels averaged
over a 24-hour period. The Ldn value weights noise during the period
10 pm-7 am more heavily than noise levels during the remaining hours; the
Leq average weights noise levels at all hours equally.
The noise associated with coal mining and transport activities other
than blasting can be illustrated approximately by a series of hypothetical
worst-case examples using the data presented in Tables 5-18 through 5-20.
In the near vicinity of sensitive receptors (parks, schools, residences)
mining noise can have deleterious effects on quiet human activities such as
outdoor camping, particularly if the mines are worked during two or three
shifts.
Example 1. Surface Mining Worst-Case
To calculate non-blasting noise, assume that the following equipment
(from Table 5-18) is operated at peak level at the edge of the mine nearest
the sensitive receptor throughout the working shift(s):
5-75
-------
Table 5-18. Measured noise levels of construction equipment (EPA 1971b).
Equipment
Noise Level
in dBA at 50 ft
Equipment
Noise Sources
(in order of importance)
Earthmoving
Front loaders
Backhoes
Dozers
Tractors
Scrapers
Graders
Trucks
Pavers
Stationary
Pumps
Generators
Compressors
Impact
Pile drivers
Jack hammers
Rock drills
Pneumatic tools
Other1
Saws
Vibrators
1
Sources:
C Engine Casing
E Engine Exhaust
F Cooling Fan
H Hydraulics
79
85
80
80
88
85
91
89
76
78
81
101
88
98
86
78
76
E C F I H
E C F I H
E C F I H
E C F I W
E C F I W
E C F I W
E C F I T
E D F I
E C
E C
E C H I .
W P E
P W E C
W E P
P W E C
W
W E C
I Engine Intake
P Pneumatic Exhaust
T Power Transmission Systems, Gearing
W Tool-Work Interaction '
5-76
-------
Table 5-19. Results of noise surveys of coal-related facilities (Watkins
and Associates 1979). Measured noise levels can be expected to
decrease by 6 dB for each doubling of distance from the source,
but terrain features can modify this general decay rate.
of , Measurement
Plant/Source Distance (ft) Noise Level
Coal preparation 150 81.4
Mine vent fan 270 63.0
Coal preparation 250 69.5
Mine vent fan 1,500 59.2
(24) - ;The equivalent steady state sound level which in a 24-hour period
of time would contain the same acoustic energy as the time-varying
sound level actually measured during the same time period, in dBA.
5-77
-------
90
80
70
60
50
40
\
T
\
COAL
PREP
PLANT
MINE
VENT
FAN
200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200
DISTANCE FROM SOURCE-FT
1,400
Figure 5-2 Leq VERSUS DISTANCE FROM MAJOR NOISE SOURCES AT
A TYPICAL COAL MINE AND PREPARATION PLANT
(Watkins and Associates 1979)
5-77a
-------
Table 5-20. Typical public reaction and health impacts associated with
various 24-hour average noise levels.
24-hour Leq 24-hour Ldn Typical Effects or
(dBA) (dBA) Health and Welfare
51-54 55-58 Few problems except in unusual
nighttime situations.
54-57 58-61 Sensitive individuals may
become annoyed and
sporadically complain,
especially concerning
nighttime noise.
57-60 61-64 A substantial number of people
become annoyed and begin to
have difficulty conversing
outdoors.
60-63 64-67 Many people are unable to talk
or relax outdoors and
experience considerable
stress.
63-66 67-70 Most people experience severe
emotional stress, finding
outdoor areas totally unusable
for work or play. Strong
official complaints.
66-69 70-74 Individuals with sensitive
hearing may begin to suffer
temporary hearing loss.
>70 >74 EPA suggested limit to prevent
permanent hearing loss,
including factor of safety.
5-78
-------
Equipment Noise Level at 50 ft
2 front loaders @ 79 = 82
2 dozers @ 80 = 83
2 graders @ 85 = 88
2 scrapers @ 88 - 91
4 trucks @ 91 = 9]_
Total 99 dBA; round to
100 dBA for calculations
Also assume background noise levels [15-hr L6q] of 55 dBA during the
hours 7 am-10 pm and [9-hour Leq] of 45 dBA during the hours 10 pm-7 am.
This is a background L(jn of 55 dBA.
Noise levels decline away from the noise source at the rate of 6 dB(A)
per doubling of distance. Weighted day/night noise levels (L(in) that
will result from a noise source of 100 dBA are as follows, based on the
formula:
10 + 10
7am-10pm 10pm-7am
where Len'l) is the 1-hour noise level assumed to prevail throughout
the shift(s):
One 8-hr shift Two 8-hr shifts _,, a , ,,,_
ao \ /-; 1 1 \ Three o-hr shifts
am- 3 pm) (7 am-11 pm) -
f
Distance (ft)L (]) L, L (24) L, L (24) L. L (24)
eq dn eq dn eq dn eq
50 100 95 95 100 98 106 100
100 94 89 89 94 92 100 94
200 88 83 83 88 86 94 88
300 85 80 80 85 83 91 85
400 82 77 77 82 80 88 82
800 76 71 71 76 74 82 76
1,600 70 65 65 70 68 76 70
3,200 64 60 60 65 62 71 64
6,400 58 54 54 59 56 65 58
EPA recommends that yearly averaged outdoor L&n values not exceed 55
dBA in order to protect public health and welfare with an adequate margin of
safety where there are sensitive land uses. Examples include residential
districts and recreational areas. The worst-case situation in Example 1
would produce noise levels in excess of the EPA-recommended limit at
sensitive receptors located within about 1 mile of the source.
Given the temporary nature of surface mining operations, it is not likely
that the hypothetical worst-case values will be experienced at a given
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sensitive receptor for an entire year. Moreover, SMCRA bans mining within
300 ft of sensitive receptors.
Example 2. Underground Mine Vent Fan
Assuming the same background conditions and computation methods as in
Example 1, the noise impacts produced by a underground mine can be
illustrated. The dominant surface noise source at the underground mine can
be assumed to be the vent fan, which must be operated continuously, 24 hours
per day until the mine is abandoned (unless a special permit is granted to
shut down the fan). Assuming that the vent fan generates 59 dBA at 1,500 ft
(Table 5-19), then:
Distance (ft) Leq(24) Ldn
188 77 83
375 71 77
750 65 71
1,500 59 65
3,000 53 59
6,000 47 53
In Example 2 the noise levels at sensitive receptors surrounding the mine
may exceed the averaged yearly L^n of 55 dBA recommended by EPA within
about 1 mile of the mine fan site.
Example 3. Coal Preparation Operations
Assuming the same background conditions and computation methods as in
Examples 1 and 2, the noise impact from coal preparation activities can be
assessed hypothetically based on a noise level of 81 dBA at 150 ft (Table 5~
19):
One 8-hr shift Two 8-hr shifts ,, 0 , LJJ.
/-7 o \ i-i , ! \ Three 8-hr shifts
(7 am-3 pm) (7 am- 11 pm) -
Distance L L, L, L
eq dn dn dn
150 81 76 81 87
300 75 70 75 81
600 69 65 69 75
1,200 63 59 64 69
2,400 57 56 57 64
4,800 55 55 56 61
As in the two preceding examples, the EPA-recommended yearly average
Ldn [55 dBa] would be exceeded at sensitive receptors less than 1 mile
from the preparation plant, particularly if the plant operates two or three
shifts every day during the year.
All of the illustrative calculations are approximate, and modifications
in the assumptions concerning background noise levels and the behavior of
noise with distance would be appropriate in actual cases. Mobile equipment
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will be dispersed across a surface mine site, rather than concentrated in a
tight circle at the boundary. Vegetation and intervening ridges will reduce
the noise experienced at a receptor to levels less than those expected on
the basis of distance decay. Conversely, highwalls may serve as sound
reflectors, increasing the values actually measured above those expected at
a given distance.
As part of the New Source NEPA review process, EPA will check to see
whether any sensitive receptors (such as residences, parks, campgrounds, or
schools) are present within a 1-mile radius of the proposed facility. If
so, EPA will request the applicant to furnish data concerning his proposed
noise sources and to project noise levels at the sensitive receptors.
During the public notice period affected persons will have the opportunity
to express concerns regarding future noise levels to EPA.
On a case-by-case basis EPA may condition New Source NPDES permits to
insure that noise levels do not cause unacceptable levels. Measures that
may be imposed include limitation of operations to one or two shifts and/or
to seasons when impacts would be least (surface mines and coal preparation
plants), specification of maximum permissable noise ratings or less exposed
locations for mine vent fans (underground mines), or additional buffer zones
beyond those mandated by SMCRA.
Off-site haul truck noise on public roadways will not be regulated as
part of the NPDES permit process. Pursuant to the Noise Control Act of
1972, EPA has set maximum noise standards for trucks of 10,000 Ibs gross
vehicle weight or larger that are used in interstate commerce (40 CFR 202,
38 FR 144: 20059-20221, July 27, 1973). The passby standards are 86 dB(A)
at 50 ft and 35 mph posted speed and 90 dBA at 50 ft and 55 mph. For the
stationary runup test, EPA uses a standard of 88 dBA at 50 ft.
The most appropriate governmental level at which local truck traffic
noise can be addressed is that of the municipality, which can set local
speed limits to control both noise and vibration. EPA provides technical
assistance both to the States that seek to develop intrastate standards and
to municipalities through its Quiet Communities Program.
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5.5 Cultural and Visual Resource Impacts and
Mitigations
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Page
5.5. Cultural Resource and Visual Resource Impacts and Mitigations 5-82
5.5.1. Potential Impacts of Coal Mining on Historic 5-82
Structures and Properties
5.5.1.1. Primary Impacts 5-82
5.5.1.2. Secondary Impacts 5-83
5.5.1.3. Mitigation 5-83
5.5.2. Potential Impact of Coal Mining on Archaeological 5-85
Resources
5.5.2.1. Primary Impacts 5-85
5.5.2.2. Secondary Impacts 5-85
5.5.2.3. Data Available and Need for Supplementation 5-85
5.5.2.4. Mitigation 5-87
5.5.3. Potential Impacts of Coal Mining on Visual Resources 5-88
5.5.3.1. Mining Impacts 5-88
5.5.3.2. Mitigative Measures for Impacts on Primary 5-89
Visual Resources
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5.5. CULTURAL RESOURCE AND VISUAL RESOURCE IMPACTS AND MITIGATIONS
5.5.1. Potential Impacts of Coal Mining on Cultural Resources - Historic
Structures and Properties
5.5.1.1. Primary Impacts
Primary impacts on historic resources are those that would result from
construction or operation of coal mines or related facilities. These
resources may include historic sites, properties, structures, or objects
that are listed on or determined eligible for the National Register of
Historic Places. Should coal mining activities result in primary impacts to
known historic properties presently listed on or determined eligible for the
National Register of Historic Places, or to sites that are determined
eligible as a result of mitigative investigation, Section 106 proceedings,
as outlined in the US Advisory Council Procedures for the Protection of
Historic and Cultural Properties, must take place. These requirements must
be met, regardless of NEPA and USOSM requirements (see Section 4.2.).
Primary or direct impacts of New Source coal mining on historic
resources may be beneficial or adverse. Beneficial effects of New Source
coal mining activities are those which improve the aesthetic setting of
historic structures, or enhance the surrounding landscape. Adverse effects
are more common and may consist of one or more of the following (36 CFR 800
as amended):
Destruction or alteration of all or part of a property
Isolation from or alteration of its surrounding environment
Introduction of visual, audible, or atmospheric elements
that are out of character with the property or alter its
setting
Transfer or sale of a Federally-owned property without
adequate conditions or restrictions regarding
preservation, maintenance, or use
Neglect of a property resulting in its deterioration or
destruction.
To date, few surveys have been conducted in the Basin to identify those
historic places that presently are not listed on but may be eligible for the
National Register of Historic Places. Cultural resources on a mine site not
listed on or nominated for the National Register and not recognized during
the permit review process are likely to be destroyed during any mining
activity that significantly alters the land surface.
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,5.5.1.2. Secondary Impacts
Secondary impacts are those beneficial or adverse affects that may
occur indirectly as a result of New Source coal mining activities.
Secondary adverse impacts of a proposed project on historic resources can
include the indirect impacts that result from induced related growth, such
as subsidiary industrial development, development related to distribution
and marketing of coal, or housing development. Development related to coal
mining or alteration of open space surrounding known historic structures and
constituting an integral part of their historic setting potentially may
diminish the historic integrity of such properties. Similarly, alteration
of the character of designated or potential historic districts by the
introduction of structures, objects, or land uses that are incompatible with
the historic setting and buildings of the district constitutes an adverse
impact on the historic quality of the district. Occasionally, induced
growth and industrialization increase pressures to demolish historic
buildings in order to make way for new development. Should coal mining
activities result in indirect effects on historic resources that are listed
on or eligible for the National Register, compliance with Section 106 of the
National Historic Preservation Act is required.
5.5.1.3. Mitigation
In order to identify all historic structures, properties, and places
that may be eligible for the National Register of Historic Places and that
may be adversely affected by coal mining operations, a mechanism is needed
to ensure that any necessary visual surveys will be conducted, and that
significant resources will be identified prior to issuance of New Source
NPDES permits. The present Federally (partially funded by USHCRS) supported
State Historic Preservation Plan in West Virginia is incomplete. Only a few
of the potentially significant historic places in the North Branch Potomac
River Basin have been surveyed, evaluated, and/or nominated to the National
Register of Historic Places. Thus the mapping of known historic resources
may not be sufficient to guarantee adequate consideration and protection of
all historic resources that may be eligible for the National Register of
Historic Places and may not satisfy requirements of Executive Order 11593.
Additional studies may be required to assure recognition and protection of
all significant historic resources.
The State Historic Preservation Officer is the mandated administrator
of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended, in the State
of West Virginia. As such, the SHPO maintains responsibility for National
Register and National Register eligible sites as well as substantial file
data not made available for EPA use (see Section 2.5.). Hence EPA Region
III will contact the SHPO concerning each application for New Source NPDES
permit. This SHPO contact immediately will follow EPA's examination of
their 1:24,000 scale environmental inventory maps sets to determine
proximity to and potential impact on mapped sites. The SHPO will then
advise EPA of (1) the possibility that important historic resources will be
impacted by the coal mining activities proposed for a Federal permit (based
on EPA data, State files, or any other information), and (2) whether
on-the-ground surveys will be required to locate and evaluate such resources
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if data are lacking. The SHPO will evaluate whether an historic place that
satisfies Criteria of Eligibility for the National Register of Historic
Places in and adjacent to the permit area for the mining operation will be
significantly impacted. This finding will be considered carefully by EPA
during NPDES permit review to comply with Section 106 procedures.
Recommendations made here are adequate to satisfy requirements of the USOSM
regulatory programs as well (i.e. the SHPO will provide the same information
to both EPA and USOSM).
Early notification of New Source coal mine permit applications received
by EPA will be accomplished through monthly publication in EPA ALERT. This
notification will be sent directly to Mr. Clarence Moran (SHPO) and Mr.
Roger Wise (State Archaeologist). Also, EPA formally will alert the SHPO
and State Archaeologist of the proposed action (the draft NPDES permit)
during the 30 day public notice period. If a reply is not received prior to
the close of the public notice period, EPA will assume that the SHPO and
State Archaeologist have reviewed the proposed action and have no comments
on potential cultural resource impacts.
The SHPO is familiar with the amount of survey work previously
conducted in the vicinity of each potential minesite in West Virginia, for
which a permit is sought. Should there be insufficient available informa-
tion about historic resources of the area, the SHPO may recommend that a
historic resources survey be conducted by the applicant. The SHPO also is
authorized under the US Advisory Council Procedures for the Protection of
Historic and Cultural Properties (36 CFR 800 as amended) to delineate the
area of impact of any New Source coal mine.
Such surveys may be expedited in several ways. Applicants for coal
mining NPDES permits may wish to retain cultural historians as consultants.
Thus, should the need for a survey arise, such work could be initiated by
the applicant without time-consuming contract negotiations. Additional
Federal grant monies may be applied for by the SHPO's office to support
State-appointed regional cultural historians. Such experts could be
supported by Federal monies authorized to the State of West Virginia under
the National Historical Preservation Act of 1966. Regional cultural
historians, which act for the SHPO's office, could be available for brief
reconnaissances of coal mine sites.
If the applicant is required by the SHPO and EPA to conduct a survey of
a mine site and if resources that may be eligible for the National Register
of Historic Places are identified, concurrence with such a determination
should be sought by the applicant from the SHPO. If the SHPO concurs,
nomination forms should be submitted by the SHPO to the US Secretary of the
Interior for a determination of eligibility for the National Register of
Historic Places. The Secretary's opinion will be final.
If significant resources are identified that will be affected by coal
mining operations, several options are available as mitigation. The SHPO,
the appropriate EPA officials, and the Executive Director of the US Advisory
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Council are required under US Advisory Council Procedures (36 CFR 800) to
confer and decide upon appropriate mitigations on a case-by-case basis.
Such mitigations can range from permit conditions that require the avoidance
of disturbance to the historic structure (if demolition is indicated) to
planting of trees and shrubs to screen the mining activities from the
historic property in order to retain its historic setting. When mitigations
have been agreed upon, a Memorandum of Agreement will be formally executed
concerning the necessary NPDES permit conditions. If mitigations either
cannot be identified or if the applicant will not accede to permit
conditions required, the New Source permit will not be issued by EPA.
5.5.2. Potential Impact of Coal Mining on Cultural Resources -
Archaeological Resources
5.5.2.1. Primary Impacts
Primary impacts to archaeological resources may occur wherever the
ground surface will be disturbed by construction activities associated with
coal mining facilities. Any activity that will result in total or partial
destruction, disturbance to, or disruption of information contained within
or related to an archaeological site may be considered to be a primary
impact on the archaeological resource.
Historic and archaeological resources are highly susceptible to damage
by the mining of coal, particularly by surface mining that entails an
extensive modification of large surface areas. Mine pits, roads, and fills
frequently encompass several landforms, all or any of which may contain
archaeological sites.
Site accessibility may be reduced when spoil heaps accumulate over
sites. Surface or near-surface sites will be destroyed. More deeply buried
sites may not be disturbed significantly by stratification from waste
dumping, but such inaccessibility is tantamount to destruction.
5.5.2.2. Secondary Impacts
Beneficial impacts of coal mining may include road construction that
provides greater access to archaeological resources for scientific
investigation, and a possible increase in the site location data base, if
surveys are made during the permit application process. Enhancement of the
positive aspects can be accomplished if archaeological sites adjacent to
coal mine permit areas are formally registered with the SHPO. If
unrestricted access is provided to looters and vandals, however, the
potential scientific benefits from the added roads can be negated.
5.5.2.3. Data Available and Need for Supplementation
Comprehensive archaeological surveys have not been conducted on a
Statewide basis. The WVGES-Archaeology Section maintains a central State
file of previous surveys undertaken in the North Branch Potomac River Basin.
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Limited information has been published, and other archaeological data may be
on file at some universities.
With some exceptions, archaeological resources recorded by the WVGES-
Archaeology Section have not been field tested or evaluated for their
National Register potential. No prehistoric archaeological sites in the
North Branch Potomac River Basin have been listed on the National Register-
of Historic Places.
Site distributions and variability for the North Branch Potomac River
Basin are considered moderately to poorly known because of the limited
amount of survey work conducted in the Basin and in the State.
Site-specific surveys may be required by the SHPO and EPA to supplement
existing data for the following reasons:
West Virginia's known and registered archaeological sites
represent only a small fraction of the potential total
number of prehistoric and historic archaeological sites
that are believed to exist. Entire classes of site types,
such as ridge-top and "bear wallow" sites, are almost
unrepresented in the catalogs. Obviously, it is possible
that many more archaeological sites exist but are not
listed in National, State, or any other files. Data gap
areas cannot be treated as areas with no resource values;
they therefore require additional field investigations,
application of substantial local insight, and/or use of
predictive models to evaluate potential adverse impacts
(at this time application of predictive models is not
practicable).
Only those cultural resources that satisfy Criteria of
Eligibility for the National Register of Historic Places
and ultimately have been determined eligible by the
Secretary of the Interior warrant protection under current
Federal historic preservation legislation. Evaluated
sites and unevaluated sites are mapped in the State files
and by inference, accorded equal protection. A
substantial number of known recorded cultural resources
may not be of National Register quality. At the same
time, there is a high probability that numerous,
significant, unrecorded resources, potentially eligible
for the National Register of Historic Places, occur in the
North Branch Potomac River Basin. Because these State
files were not made available to and were not reviewed,
serious data base questions remain.
No mechanism is provided for identifying unknown
resources. There is a need for case-by-case professional
evaluation of identified cultural resources when such
resources may be affected by a proposed mine and selection
of only those that warrant protection.
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There is a high probability that, in many cases, the frequencies of
recorded sites related to certain landforms, altitudes, and
environmental zones are as much a function of former unsystematic
survey and reporting methods as of actual site densities and
distributions.
5.5.2.4. Mitigation
The EPA review procedure for potential impacts on archaeological
resources is similar to that used for historic structures and properties.
Upon receipt of a New Source permit application, EPA will examine the
1:24,000 scale environmental inventory map sets that show the locations of
known archaeological sites listed on (or eligible for) the National Register
of Historic Places. Early notification of New Source coal mine permit
applications received by EPA will be accomplished through monthly
publication in EPA ALERT. This notification will be sent directly to Mr.
Clarence Moran (SHPO) and Mr. Roger Wise (State Archaeologist). The SHPO
will be expected to identify potential impacts on known archaeological
resources, to recommend special NPDES permit conditions to protect
significant archaeological resources, and/or to recommend on-the-ground
surveys to identify unknown archaeological resources, as appropriate. If a
reply is not received from the SHPO and State Archaeologist during the
public notice period, EPA will assume that the SHPO and State Archaeologist
have reviewed the proposed action and have no comments on potential cultural
resource impacts.
In general EPA recommends to applicants that an on-ground survey by a
qualified archaeologist be conducted early in the mine planning process.
Such a survey may minimize potential processing delays, if the SHPO requires
an original survey, and if significant resources are identified on or
adjacent to a permit area.
If archaeological resources that may be eligible for the National
Register of Historic Places are identified during surveys, nomination forms
should be submitted by the applicant to the SHPO. Resources considered
eligible by the SHPO then are forwarded by him to the US Secretary of the
Interior for a determination of eligibility. If eligible, mitigation
measures probably will be necessary where significant National Register
archaeological resources potentially would be affected by proposed mining
operations. EPA officials, the US Advisory Council, and the SHPO are
required to confer and develop appropriate mitigation measures on a
case-by-case basis. If mitigations either cannot be identified or if the
applicant will not agree to the permit conditions required, the New Source
permit will not be issued by EPA.
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5.5.3. Potential Impacts of Coal Mining on Visual Resources
5.5.3.1. Mining Impacts
Impacts of coal mining on visual resources are influenced by the type
of mining activity proposed, the natural characteristics of the site, and
the proximity of primary visual resources. The potential for adverse impact
is especially important to recognize, especially if coal mining activities
increase significantly, more areas are disturbed, and more expensive lands
closer to developed areas (and therefore more visible) can be affordably
mined as the price of coal increases.
Historically, unregulated mining activities of all types (surface and
underground) have affected visual resources adversely. Where old surface
mines were abandoned prior to the implementation of current laws, the
long-term scars from mining are quite apparent. Highwalls are prominent;
spoil may be heaped in irregular piles on the downslopes below the
excavation bench; and little or no vegetation may have recolonized the area.
In the past improper abandonment of strip mining sites, coal preparation
plants, and tipple sites have created:
Disturbed landscapes from improper reclamation or lack
of reclamation
Improperly handled waste stock piles
Abandoned and derelict equipment and structures.
Requirements of WVDNR-Reclamation and USOSM (return to approximate original
contour, for example) have reduced the potential for significant adverse
impacts. Furthermore, many areas that can be expected to be mined in the
future will be in areas not accessible or visible to tourists or to local
residents. These lands, privately owned, often are posted against trespass.
During mining operations the public is excluded for safety reasons; before
and after mining exclusion of the public is a prerogative of the surface
landowner. Nevertheless, currently regulated mining activity, particularly
surface mining, can adversely affect visual resources in areas that are near
public roadways and are within view of scenic overlooks.
Surface mining typically is conducted along the contour of the
mountainsides high above the valley floor and takes place in side hollows,
removed from major public roads. The actual pit operations are not
attractive, and all vegetation is removed before the overburden is stripped
from the coal. Sites reclaimed and revegetated in accordance with current
State and Federal standards typically resemble grassy pastures with somewhat
steeper slopes than those originally present. The return of scrub and
forest vegetation to mined lands is a slow process. In a few places,
surface mines are visible at a considerable distance from public roads that
extend along high ridges. Currently, mountaintop removal operations in the
Basin are not readily observable but they can bring substantial topographic
changes with visual resource impacts. Often, mining activities cannot be
seen from adjacent or nearby roads situated in steeply slopes vallyes, but
are visible from more distant roadways, overlooks or other viewpoints.
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The storage and disposal of the mining wastes is another visual
intrusion created by surface mining. Mine dumps, tailing ponds, and spoil
piles cause disturbances of land form and vegetation creating visual
contrasts. These waste areas tend to be located near the coal-preparation
plants that may be located along public roadways. These plants also cause
visibility problems resulting from the emission of fugitive dust and exhaust
fumes. Dust and fumes create localized haze and discoloration of the
atmosphere, visible from long distances as well as from the site vicinity.
Structures associated with these plants also cause some intrusion because of
their height and possible poor state of repair. Conveyor systems and
transmission lines leading in and out of the preparation plants traverse the
landscape, disturbing vegetative cover.
5.5.3.2. Mitigative Measures for Impacts on Primary Visual Resources
The sensitive area that is associated with a prime visual resource is
defined by the vista that is presented to visitors to the resource. In many
cases in the Basin, vistas extend beyond the limits of public lands and into
private lands with coal resources. Furthermore, the severity of these
impacts is a function of the amount of time needed for the mining site to
return to the point where it is similar to its original state and blends in
with the surrounding landscape.
When New Source permit applications for new mining operations are
reviewed by EPA personnel, consideration will be given to potential impacts
on primary visual resources at minimum. Table 2-33 (Section 2.5) will be
consulted to determine existence of primary visual resources and potential
adverse impacts on these resources. To determine the potential adverse
impact on primary visual resources, an assessment of visibility will be
required. This assessment is executed in a straight-forward manner through
topographic analysis. All proposed mining activity, including pits, spoil
areas, coal haul roads, preparation plants, conveyors, tipples, and so
forth, are first located on the topographic base map and then evaluated in
terms of primary visual resource points of access or user potential. In
effect, EPA will ascertain if these primary visual resources are "down
basin" or "down slope" from proposed mining activity and judge whether or
not these activities will be visible from these primary visual resources
(and their access points such as State Park roads, overlooks, and so forth).
This assessment of visibility assumes no special mitigations, buffering, or
special circumstance and serves to identify potential adverse impact.
If the determination of visibility indicates potential for adverse
impact, the permit applicant is responsible for demonstrating that signifi-
cant adverse impacts will not accrue. This demonstration may be accom-
plished by the applicant's detailed analysis of proposed mining activity and
potentially affected primary visual resources. The applicant's detailed
analysis may indicate that, because of specific attributes of the mining
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proposal and site (timing, buffering of deciduous and evergreen vegetation,
and effective use of mitigations on a long and short-term basis) as well as
attributes of the primary visual resources (patterns of use, for example),
significant adverse impacts will not result. This requirement essentially
is a request for additional information from the applicant. Because of the
relative scarcity of primary visual resources in the Basin, this requirement
should be made by EPA relatively infrequently. The applicant's additional
information also should be supplied or copied to the agency/entity
responsible for the primary visual resource (WVDNR-Parks and Recreation,
WVDNR-HTP, and so forth) for notification of and concurrence with potential
adverse impacts and their mitigation. If no such agency/entity has been
designated, special mention of this potential impact issue should be
included in the advertisement for the public notice period. If potential
adverse impacts either can be avoided or mitigated without disagreement, EPA
will proceed with permit issuance. The permit may require conditioning, if
the applicant proposes the use of specific mitigative measures to minimize
primary visual resource impacts. Examples of specific mitigative measures
are given below. If the applicant is unable or unwilling to demonstrate
mechanisms to avoid potential adverse impacts on these resources and/or
responsible agencies/entities do not concur with avoidance of potential
adverse impacts, then EPA will require additional detailed evaluations,
meetings, mitigations, and alternatives to the proposed action.
Although it would not be appropriate for EPA to dictate the specific
approach to be used in the applicant's demonstration of no significant
adverse impact or of effective mitigation, applicants may choose to utilize
all or a portion of the following:
Use of a landscape architect to undertake recommended
detailed studies
Preparation of photographic inventories from primary
visual resource perspectives for all seasons
Preparation of profiles for analyzing visibility of
proposed mine activity locations from resource points
Clarification of long-term versus short-term primary
visual resource impacts
Introduction of mixed vegetative species to avoid a
monoculture effect
Use of native species to reduce the color and texture
contrasts of incompatible species
Design of irregular clearing edges to avoid unnatural
appearing straight lines and opening configurations
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Introduction of woody plants other than grasses to serve a
variety of functions such as to provide wind breaks;
provide wildlife habitats; absorb solar radiation;
attentuate noise; control circulation; provide shade;
separate incompatible uses; modify vegetative edges for
smooth visual transition; screen undesirable features from
view; mask visual contrast in form, line, color or
texture; and many more (Tuttle 1980)
Use of shoreline configuration of sediment basins with
flowing irregular lines, rather than geometric shapes as
is common practice, whenever possible. Natural vegetation
should be planted at the water's edge
Siting of structures in accord with existing topography
and vegetation; natural screening is preferable and should
be investigated as an inexpensive technique
Selection of rights-of-way for transmission towers and
conveyor systems that are sited to preserve the natural
landscape and minimize conflicts with present and future
land use schemes
Use of joint rights-of-way should be utilized in a common
corridor whenever feasible
Design of rights-of-way to avoid heavily timbered areas,
steep slopes, proximity to main highways, shelter belts
and scenic areas
Placing of overhead lines and conveyors beyond the ridges
or timbered areas where ridges or timber areas are
adjacent to public view
Consideration underground placement
Use of long spans when crossing roadways to retain natural
growth and provide screening from view in forested areas
Design of power line rights-of-way to approach highways,
valleys, hills, and ridges diagonally
Placing of transmission lines and conveyors part way up
slopes to provide a background of topography and/or
natural vegetation as well as to screen them from public
view whenever possible
Avoidance of placing towers and conveyors at the crest of
hills and ridges
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Use of irregular patterns of rights-of-way through scenic
forest or timber areas to prevent long corridors
Use of right-of-way clearings that maximize preservation
of natural beauty, conservation of natural resources, and
minimize scarring the landscape (USDI and USDA 1970).
This proposed process requires no special mechanism for treating
unrecorded primary visual resources (data gap areas) or secondary visual
resources such as Basin landscapes. During the required public notice
period, EPA may receive comment on these issues, potentially requiring use
of special mitigative measures on the part of the applicant (i.e.
designating the area as a Mitigation Area) or, in the extreme, requiring a
PSIA designation.
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5.6 Human Resource and Land Use
Impacts and Mitigations
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Page
5.6. Human Resources and Land Use 5-93
5.6.1. General Background 5-93
5.6.2. EPA Screening Procedure for Potentially Significant 5-94
Human Resource and Land Use Impacts
5.6.2.1. Macroscale Socioeconomic Impacts 5-95
5.6.2.2. Transportation Impacts 5-99
5.6.2.3. Land Use Impacts 5-100
5.6.3. Special Considerations for Detailed Impact and 5-103
Mitigation Scoping
5.6.4. Employment and Population Impacts and Mitigative 5-104
Measures
5.6.4.1. Boom and Bust Cycles in Coal Preparation 5-108
5.6.5. Housing Impacts and Mitigations of Adverse Impacts 5-109
5.6.5.1. Direct Corporate Mitigations 5-112
5.6.5.2. Indirect Corporate Mitigations 5-112
5.6.5.3. State, Federal, and Local Governmental 5-114
Mitigations
5.6.6. Transportation Impacts and Mitigative Measures 5-116
5.6.6.1. Roads 5-116
5.6.6.2. Railroads 5-118
5.6.7. Local Public Service Impacts and Mitigations of 5-119
Adverse Impacts
5.6.7.1. Health Care 5-119
5.6.7.2. Education 5-121
5.6.7.3. Public Safety 5-122
5.6.7.4. Recreation 5-122
5.6.7.5. Water and Sewer Services 5-122
5.6.7.6. General Community Fiscal Impacts 5-123
5.6.8. Indirect Land Use Impacts 5-125
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5.6. HUMAN RESOURCES AND LAND USE
This section first describes the probable nature of coal mining
impacts on human resources and land uses in the North Branch Potomac River
Basin. Then, it outlines a method whereby EPA can identify or screen
proposed operations that may entail adverse effects if no coordination
(mitigative) measures are undertaken. Next, EPA special notification
procedures for use in such cases are indicated. If, after all notification
and coordination actions are taken by EPA for those operations screened as
potentially adverse, there remains substantial concern regarding potential
adverse impacts, more detailed analyses (e.g. potential EIS's) will be
undertaken. Finally, potential impacts and mitigations are discussed in
greater detail, for the purposes of scoping these analyses.
5.6.1. General Background
In general, the expansion of the coal industry in the Basin should not
bring serious negative social and economic impacts those that as have
occurred in the West, where major new coal mines and other energy-related
projects bring sudden change to sparsely populated areas (USGAO 1977 ).
Eastern coal areas such as the North Branch Potomac River Basin will derive
relatively great net human resource benefits from increased coal development
because of their traditionally high unemployment and depressed economies.
The overall economic situation can be expected to improve, at least
temporarily, as new mining and mining-related jobs are created. This is an
important step toward reducing the socioeconomic problems that the area has
experienced (USGAO 1977 ). For example, coal development that occurred
during the 1970's resulted in significant relative income gains for the
North Branch Potomac River Basin although income levels are still below the
National average (USOTA 1978; Section 2.6.).
Local conditions greatly influence the impacts of new coal mining and
processing facilities (Van Zele 1979). Local familarity is estimated as by
far, the most important factor in forecasting the nature and magnitude of
potential impacts. This was shown by a recent model of the local
socioeconomic and fiscal impacts of new mining activity in Wayne County
(southern West Virginia), conducted by Argonne National Laboratory
(Verbally, Mr. Dan Santini, Argonne National Laboratory, to Phillip D.
Phillips, May 6, 1980).
Three major factors that affect the nature and severity of the local
impacts of increased coal mining were described in a report prepared by the
USOTA (1979 ):
The current residual deficit in community facilities
The problem of continued uneven coal demand as it
affects particular communities or sub-State areas
The rapidity of coal development.
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The study concluded that "the social, political, and economic effects of
coal mining have been most severe where communities were totally dependent
on coal, where the terrain was inhospitable to other activity, and where
mining was the principal socializing force in community life" (USOTA 1979 ).
Various other studies also have indicated that the negative impacts of new
coal mining typically are more severe:
In sparsely populated areas (USGAO 1977 , Argonne National
Laboratory 1978)
In areas with low levels of urban population (USGAO 1977 )
In areas where the number of employees in the new mine or
mines is large in relation to the existing populations
(Cortese and Jones 1979)
In areas where the buildup in employment in the new mine
is rapid, the period of mine operation is short, or the
mine shutdown is rapid (Cortese and Jones 1979).
Communities that have had a long history of economic and population
decline generally welcome a major new development, at least initially. As
negative impacts become apparent, however, community attitudes may become
less enthusiastic (Gilmore 1976). Moreover, the ability of a community to
benefit from coal related development depends to a great extent on the
nature of the community's existing economic and fiscal problems. Where
existing problems already are evident, coal related development will
generally produce the most serious negative impacts (USQTA 1979 ). An
especially serious problem for sparsely populated areas and areas with
long-standing economic problems, is how to find another economic base after
the mine or processing plant reaches the end of its lifespan and closes
(Cortese and Jones 1979).
Early notification to the local government concerning coal development
plans is a major factor in helping communities to prepare for such
development (Cortese and Jones 1979). To the extent that coal operators
recognize the value of advance community planning for impacts, they will
seek to inform local communities of proposed development projects (USGAO
1977 ). In addition to the problems caused by the lack of prior
information, many communities are handicapped by the lack of local planning
capabilities (see Section 2.6.).
5.6.2. EPA Screening Procedure for Potentially Significant Human Resource
and Land Use Impacts
This section first describes how EPA can screen significant adverse
socioeconomic impacts on a macroscale. Then, it sketches the screening
procedure for microscale (site-related) impacts on transportation and
adjoining land uses.
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5.6.2.1. Macroscale Socioeconomic Impacts
Impacts of new coal mining and processing facilities on overall
employment, population growth, provision of housing, need for developed
land, and governmental expenditures for services and facilities are closely
related, as indicated by Figure 2-24 in Section 2.6. Based on the data
presented in Section 2.6 and the information about impacts that is detailed
in this section, equations can be formed. The maximum potential impact (in
dollars) of a new mining operation on employment, population, housing, land
use, and governmental expenditures in the North Branch Potomac River Basin
may be represented by the following equations:
(Em) (B/T) = TE (1)
(TE) (T/P) = P (2)
P/0 = DU (3)
(P) (0.21) = LU (4)
(P) (C) (i) - G (5)
where:
Em = new employment in the proposed mine or processing
plant, as adjusted for existing unemployment. An
estimate of employment at full operation is to be
obtained from the applicant.
B/T = the basic/total employment ratio, which is 1:2.73 in
the North Branch Potomac River Basin (derived in
Section 2.6.)
TE = total new employment generated by a new mine or
preparation plant
T/P = the total employment/population ratio, which is 1:3.07
for the North Branch Potomac River Basin (derived in
Section 2.6.)
P = total potential population increase generated by a new
mine or preparation plant
0 = the occupancy rate for dwellings in the North Branch
Potomac River Basin, which is 3.1 persons per
dwelling (presented in Section 2.6.)
DU = the total additional demand for dwelling units
generated by a new mine or preparation plant
0.21 = the acres of additional developed land that is
required for each new resident (land absorption
coefficient derived based on information in Section
2.6.)
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LU = the total acres of developed land that is required
for the total potential population increase
C = the cost of government services and infrastructure
per capita for a new mining operation or preparation
plant (in 1975 dollars, the cost per capita is
$3,121)
i = an inflation factor, which is the current consumer
price index divided by the 1975 consumer price index
(values for this factor may be obtained from the
USBLS)
G = the total potential for additional governmental
expenditures.
This sequence of equations is easier to understand if they are used on an
example of a new mining operation. Assume that a new mine will employ 700
persons at full operation (this number is provided by the permit applicant,
on NPDES Short Form C). Also assume that for this example the inflation
factor (i) is 1.5. Thus, E^ = 700, and
Total new employment (TE), using Equation 1 =
(700)(2.73) = 1,911
Total potential population increase (P), using Equation 2 =
(1,911)(3.07) = 5,867
Total additional demand for dwelling units (DU), using
Equation 3 =
5,867 = 1,893
3.1
Total potential demand for additional developed land (LU),
using
Equation 4 = (1,893)(0.21) = 398 acres
Total potential for additional governmental expenditure, with
assumed 50% increase in consumer price index 1975 to date of
analysis, (LT), using Equation 5 = (5,867)(3,121)(1.5) =
$27,466,360.
The calculations presented above indicate the maximum potential
financial impact must be reduced to reflect the following offsetting
factors: the increase in mining employment (Em) should be discounted by
the number of currently unemployed miners in the host county. Mr. Ralph
Halsted at WVDES, will provide an estimate for the number of unemployed
miners at the time of analysis. In the example above, if there were 300
unemployed miners in the host county, EUJ would be reduced from 700 to
400.
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The current unemployment that exceeds 4% (the assumed frictional
unemployment level) for non-miners in the host county should be subtracted
from the total potential new employment (TE) generated. In the example
above, if the host-county, non-mining labor force were 10,000 of whom 1,000
(10%) were unemployed, a total of 600 (1,000 - 400 = 600) unemployed persons
should be considered as available to fill jobs stimulated by the new mining
operation. Mr. Ralph Halsted at WVDES will provide the most recent data on
non-mining unemployment.
EPA will consider a single new mining operation to have potentially
significant impacts on human resources if it generates a 5% or greater
increase in population, employment, dwelling units, or need for developed
land within a given county. This criterion is intended to provide a rough
estimate of the size of mining operation that may produce significant
adverse impacts. The cutoff values for new mine employment that generates
total employment, as well as population, dwelling unit, and land use demands
which all result in potentially significant impacts are presented in Table
5-21; these values were derived using the equations presented in this
section. These cutoff values assume that 80% of all employment and other
impacts will occur in the host county.
Cumulative impacts will also be analyzed on the basis of this
framework. Thus, if two or more permit applications create the potential
for new employment that will exceed the threshold value, during a 12-month
period, EPA will consider these impacts as potentially significant. In an
area like West Virginia, which has traditionally been characterized by many
small mines (as compared to the western US), cumulative significant impacts
may occur frequently, even though individual mines or processing plants
rarely exceed the threshold values presented in Table 5-21
When an identified threshold is exceeded (and, thus, when potentially
significant adverse impacts on human resources have been screened), EPA will
notify the appropriate Regional Planning and Development Council (see
Section 4.4.) and request their knowledge about the severity of the
potential adverse impacts, the conformance of the potential project with
local plans and policies, as well as specific mitigative measures that may
be undertaken by local agencies or recommended as New Source NPDES permit
conditions. This notification will be undertaken by EPA in writing (see
Section 6.0. for notification form). These councils will be given ample
time to exercise their A-95 responsibilities.
EPA's primary objective in notifying RPDCs is to verify the nature and
extent of the potential human resource impacts as well as to specify
mitigative measures or permit conditions recommended for issuing permits.
These permit conditions may require that the applicant commit himself to
mitigations directly or indirectly, for example, if a housing shortage is
exacerbated, the applicant may commit himself to providing additional
housing units directly or may present a demonstration from a relevant
agency/party that such housing is committed. In any case, EPA will have
more detailed information upon which to evaluate the permit.
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Table 5-21. Employment thresholds for potentially significant mining
impacts in the North Branch Potomac River Basin (see text for method of
calculation). The minimum threshold value of estimated employment for
each county is underlined.
ADDITIONAL MINE OR PREPARATION PLANT EMPLOYMENT REQUIRED TO
PRODUCE A SIGNIFICANT IMPACT ON:
Total Population Dwelling Units Developed
County Employment (1970) (1970) Land
Grant 98 64_ 69 84
Mineral 259 172 182 153
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If the screening process suggests potentially significant adverse human
resource effects, if council coordination corroborrates this showing, and if
mitigations cannot be or are not committed by the applicant, a PSIA has been
determined and additional detailed study must be required. Sections 5.6.4.
through 5.6.8. provide information that should help planning these detailed
studies. A good example of a detailed study is the evaluation of the
socioeconomic impacts of two new coal mines in Wayne County, which was
conducted by Argonne National Laboratory in conjunction with the ARC
(Argonne National Laboratory 1978). In the case of the Wayne County study,
the original request for the study was made by the Wayne County Board
through the WVGOECD; funding was provided by the ARC.
5.6.2.2. Transportation Impacts
Off-site transportation impacts are to be. expected from new mining
operations, but these impacts are not addressed currently in the State or
Federal regulations. In EPA's review of New Source permit applications, the
major concern for transportation impacts is based on human health, safety,
and general welfare.
EPA will contact the appropriate transportation agencies on a case-by-
case basis when significant transportation issues have been identified
during the public comment period. Typically, this identification of
potential transportation impacts that are adverse may be accomplished
through written or oral comments from citizens, special interest groups, and
public agencies. When a New Source coal mine application has had potential
adverse transportation impacts identified, the applicant will be requested
to provide the following information:
Origin point of coal shipments to market by public road,
railroad, or waterway
Destination point(s) of shipments by public road, rail-
road, or waterway (when known)
Route(s) of shipment (when known)
Volume of shipment by route and destination, in tons per
year average (when known).
EPA personnel then will contact the appropriate transportation
agencies, will provide all information about transportation that was
submitted by the applicant to these agencies, and will request that these
agencies evaluate potential significant adverse impacts. Contacts with
agencies will be done on a case-by-case basis, depending upon the issues
identified. The transportation agencies that may be contacted to evaluate
impacts include:
Railroads West Virginia Rail Maintenance Authority
Roads West Virginia Department of Highways.
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Again, if either the authorized transportation planning and management
agencies or councils verify potential significant adverse impacts that the
applicant cannot or will not mitigate, additional detailed analyses
(potential EIS's) will be required by EPA. An extended discussion of
potential transportation impacts and mitigations of adverse impacts is
provided in Section 5.6.6. and is provided for the purposes of planning
these analyses.
5.6.2.3. Land Use Impacts
Potential land use impacts associated with New Source coal mining
include both direct impacts of the mining activity itself and indirect
impacts associated with the possible induced population growth that is
associated with a new mine. The nature and severity of these impacts
reflect a variety of factors, including:
The type of mining activity. Short-term surface mining
generally has a larger potential to produce direct land
use impacts on surrounding areas than long-term
underground mining with a comparable production tonnage
does, unless there is damage from subsidence. Underground
mining operations may produce greater induced population
growth impacts, because of the larger number of workers
required to produce a given tonnage.
The physical characteristics of the specific site on which
the mine is located. Generally, impacts on surrounding
areas are potentially more severe when the site is steeply
sloping or is upslope or upstream from developed areas.
The general land use characteristics of the area in which
a mine is located. Adverse secondary impacts of induced
population growth will be especially severe in areas of
steeply sloping terrain and concentrated land ownership
(Section 2.6.).
Direct mining impacts on land use occur where the proposed mining
operation is incompatible with surrounding land uses. SMCRA permanent
program regulations are designed to minimize these impacts by prohibiting
mining:
Within 100 feet of a cemetery
Within 300 feet of public buildings (schools, churches,
and community or institutional buildings)
Within 300 feet of occupied residences (unless the consent
of the owner is given)
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Within 100 feet of public roads except where the mine road
joins the public road, (exceptions are allowed following a
public hearing)
Within National Parks, National Wildlife Refuge lands, the
National System of Trails, Wilderness Areas, the National
Wild and Scenic River System, and National Recreation
Areas
On prime farmlands, without special reclamation to restore
productivity following mining
In State Parks (disallowed by State law)
In State Forests (except by underground methods)
On State Public Hunting and Fishing Areas (except by
underground methods)
In areas where the mining would adversely affect National
Register-eligible or listed historic sites (unless full
coordination is accomplished)
In areas where a public park would be affected adversely
(unless the consent of the agency administering the park
is given).
Under SMCRA permanent program regulations where mining may be banned at
the discretion of the regulatory authority where the regulatory authority
determines that the mining would:
Be incompatible with land use plans
Be damaging to important or fragile historic, cultural,
scientific, or aesthetic values (see Section 5.7.)
Result in substantial loss of water supply or food or
fiber productivity
Affect natural hazards that could endanger life and
property, including areas subject to frequent flooding and
areas of unstable slopes.
Mining activities may be incompatible with surrounding uses and
generate negative impacts, however, even if they are in conformance with
existing regulations. Factors that may lead to such incompatibility
include but are not limited to:
Excessive noise from machinery, haul trucks, or blasting
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Excessive vibration from machinery, haul trucks, or
blasting
Fugitive dust
Rockfall and other forms of earth movement in the vicinity
of the mine site
Aesthetic intrusion of mining in residential and
recreational areas or high quality natural landscapes.
Certain uses are especially sensitive to mining impacts. Such uses
include educational institutions, both public and private primary and
secondary schools, colleges and universities, and institutions designed for
exceptional populations (e.g. schools for those with learning disabilities
or other impairments). Other sensitive uses are:
Health care facilities, including hospitals, clinics, and
nursing homes
Public and private recreational facilities, including
parks, playgrounds, campgrounds, and fishing areas
Governmental facilities, including all local, State or
Federal offices or installations
Public meeting places, including churches, auditoriums,
and conference centers.
Because of the potential for significant adverse impacts to these
facilities, even when existing State and Federal mining regulations are
satisfied, EPA will request that the applicant identify (by name, address,
phone number, etc) all sensitive uses and facilities (as described above)
within 2,000 ft of the boundary of the proposed operation. Then EPA will
notify all owners, managers, or other individuals responsible for the
operation of these sensitive facilities. (To avoid duplication of effort,
evidence of previous notification to these persons in connection with other
mining permits is acceptable to EPA.) This special notification process is
designed to ensure that operators of all such facilities are aware of the
proposed mining activity and are given the opportunity to make responses to
the mining proposal directly to EPA. Notification by EPA is to contain all
information found in the general public notice required pursuant to SMCRA
and WVSCMRA (see Section 6.0. for a draft of this notice).
The use of this notification process will provide EPA with information
in addition to that received during the public comment period that is in
regard to permits that may impact sensitive facilities. Moreover, the list
of sensitive facilities within 2,000 ft of the proposed mining activity will
provide EPA with an adequate current database for potential land use and
human resource impacts even in the event that no public response is received
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and the EPA permit reviewer determines that potential significant adverse
impacts may result.
5.6.3. Special Considerations for Detailed Impact and Mitigation Scoping
The assessment of specific human resource impacts of new coal related
facilities and the development of mitigative measures for adverse impacts
are made difficult by a variety of factors, including:
Secondary as well as primary impacts make assessment
difficult. For example, increased employment in mining
operations will generate additional, secondary employment
in service industries.
Significant positive as well as negative impacts also
contribute to difficulty in making assessments. In an
area with high unemployment, especially in the mining
sector, new mining activity substantially can reduce
unemployment. The additional income generated by new
mining employment also serves as a boost to the entire
economy of an area because of its secondary impacts.
Another factor is the "spread effect" of human resource
impacts. Many human resource impacts are regional in
nature. Frequently, mine workers commute as much as 50
miles (one way) to work. As a result, economic,
demographic, and land use impacts associated with mine
operation are typically spread over a wide radius. This
necessitates a regional approach to impact analysis.
Short-term variability in demographic, economic, and
financial characteristics is another factor. Rapid
changes are common in migration patterns, unemployment
rates, governmental financial conditions, and other human
resource characteristics.
In addition lag times and lead times make assessment
difficult. These make prediction and interpretation of
impacts difficult. Mitigative strategies, especially in
local governmental finances (see Section 5.6.7.), may be
necessary.
Yet another factor is the subjective nature of many human
resource impacts which involve measurement of conditions
that are difficult to quantify, such as quality of
housing, adequacy of public services, and local fiscal
capability.
The large number of institutional mitigations that are
potentially available to overcome negative human
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resource Impacts, especially in housing supply and
government finance.
The final factor is the need to look at cumulative impacts
of more than one proposed mine or processing plant both or
all of which may affect a single locality. The adverse
impacts of an individual facility may not be significant,
but the cumulative impacts of several facilities may be
significant. Cumulative impacts must also be examined on
a regional, as well as a local basis because of the
"spread effect" described above.
The complexity and interactive nature of human resource impacts has led
to the development of sophisticated analytical models, including the Social
and Economic Assessment Model (SEAM) and the Spatial Allocation Model (SAM).
The implementation of these models is not necessary for the routine permit
review process to be conducted by EPA but it may be useful in planning EIS's
or detailed analyses in which socioeconomic issues require thorough
evaluation.
5.6.4. Employment and Population Impacts and Mitigative Measures
Potential employment and related economic impacts of coal mining
operations are strongly influenced by three factors:
General boom and bust cycles in the coal industry
The mix of surface and underground mining, which have
distinctly different labor requirements for given levels
of production
Trends in miner productivity (tons of coal mined per
worker day).
The largest economic gains from coal related growth go to young workers
with needed skills, who will constitute the largest fraction of the expanded
labor force. The biggest losers in areas with coal related growth will be
persons on fixed incomes, whose incomes cannot keep pace with local
inflation, and marginal businessmen, who cannot pay higher wages in
competition for the remaining local labor force (Paxton and Long 1975,
Mountain West Research 1975).
Eastern coalfields have received much less attention than western coal-
fields as potential recipients of coal mining impacts, despite the fact that
over 85% of the nation's additional mining employment needs will occur in
the East. Moreover, employment growth in coal mining in the East expanded
much more rapidly during the mid-1970's than by either the Edison Electric
Institute or the USBM predicted (USOTA 1978).
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An important factor in forecasting community impacts of increased coal
production is the local ratio of underground to surface mining. Underground
mining now requires roughly 550 miners to produce 1 million tons of coal per
year; surface mining requires only about 160 miners for the same level of
production (USOTA 1979 ). Thus, this difference must be considered when
potential employment impacts are analyzed.
One of the most serious impacts of coal mining is the cyclic problem of
boom and bust periods. Perhaps the best example of the impacts of cyclic
coal development during the post-1970 period is the Raleigh County (Beckley)
area. Beckley grew rapidly during the mid 1970's, as a regional center for
the metallurgical coalfields of southern West Virginia. Employment,
population, and incomes rose rapidly. During 1978, however, Raleigh County
experienced a severe economic slump, with slack demand for local
metallurgical coal (USOTA 1978). Between 1978 and 1980, a total of 2,243
coal miners were laid off in work force reductions (see Section 2.6.1.2.2.).
According to new coal mining workers may come from a variety of
sources, including:
Unemployed workers with previous experience in coal mining
and related occupations
Persons formerly employed in mining, but now employed in
other occupations
New entrants to the local labor force
Commuters into the area
In-migrants to the area.
Impacts will be less severe to the extent that persons already living
in the local area can be employed. To the extent that new mining operations
can provide employment to miners laid off during earlier periods, mining
will have beneficial local economic and employment impacts.
Commuters to new mining operations in the North Branch Potomac River
Basin from areas relatively distant from those operations are a significant
factor in the mining labor force. A common consequence of new mine
development, especially in small towns and rural areas, is the development
of an extensive commuter field. A survey of commuting patterns to one large
coal mining operation revealed the following pattern of commuting distances
(Bain and Quattrochi 1974):
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Residence Distance from Mine (miles) Percentage of Workers
0-15 32
16-29 40
30-44 17
45 or more 11
According to a study by Argonne National laboratory (1978) of distance of
hours of job applicants for a large new coal mine to be operated by the
Monterey Coal Company in Wayne County, West Virginia revealed the following
potential distances:
Percentage of Workers
Residence Distance from Mine (miles) Urban Rural
0-15 37 40
16-20 20 23
21-30 20 23
31-39 8 11
40 or more 15 3
100 100
Coal miners tend to commute long distances to work for the following
reasons:
Limited life-span of mines, making a permanent move to the
mine area undesirable
Inability of workers to find suitable housing sites in the
mine area (see Section 2.6.)
Inability of workers to sell houses that they already own
that are relatively distant from the mine.
Commuting over long distances has a variety of impacts, both negative
and positive. These include:
The consumption of large amounts of fuel for commuting
(negative)
Reduction of worker reliability (negative)
"Leakage" of wages and taxes outside the host community
and county in which the mine is located (negative)
Reduction of the disruption of socioeconomic stability in
the community that otherwise could result from
in-migration (USGAO 1977 ) (positive)
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Reduction of increased loads on host community
infrastructure that otherwise would result from
in-migration (positive).
Argonne National Laboratory 1978 described the characteristics of
potential new coal mine employees in a. study of applicants for jobs at a
proposed new coal mine to be operated by the Monterey Coal Company in Wayne
County, West Virginia. This study revealed that the 1,565 applicants for
the 1,540 anticipated jobs had the following characteristics:
Incomes were near local averages, but well below mine
worker averages
86% of all applicants had no previous mining experience,
which may reflect the fact that Wayne County is not a
traditional coal mining area
91% of all applicants were male
81% of all applicants for whom information was available
were 18 to 35 years of age
98% of all applicants were white
88% of all applicants for whom information was available
were at least high school graduates, making the applicants
better educated than the general population of the area.
The low incidence of previous mining experience among the applicants,
indicated that new employees could be drawn from people having a relatively
wide range of previous occupations. This would be especially pronounced in
areas that traditionally have not had high levels of mining activity. Many
non-mining workers are willing to switch to mine employment because of the
high salaries offered.
The primary employment impacts of mining are amplified by the
"multiplier effect" described in Section 2.6.1.1.5. An overall multiplier
ratio of 2.73 service (non-mining) jobs to one basic (mining) job was
calculated for the North Branch Potomac River Basin. Because coal mining is
a basic occupational sector, this ratio indicates both a significant
multiplier effect and a significant generation of secondary impacts.
Tt is highly unlikely, however, that the full multiplier effect will be felt
because of "dampening" factors, such as current high levels of unemployment
among miners, commuting, and the limited life span of coal mines. Thus, use
of the stated employment multipliers developed in this analysis probably
will tend to produce a high, or "worst case", estimate of employment and
population growth. This estimate also will indicate the maximum potential
demand for additional housing, transportation facilities, government
services, and developed land.
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Employment and population growth potentially have favorable impacts as
well as adverse impacts. Beneficial impacts include:
The reduction of unemployment in areas of chronically high
unemployment
The reduction in the poverty-level population, especially
in areas with a high proportion of poverty level
population (see Section 2.6.1.2.3; Table 2-40)
Potential for former out-migrants (see Section 2.6.1.3.)
to return to the area, if desired
Re-employment of coal miners who have been laid off during
recent work force reductions and mine closings.
The direct employment and population growth consequences of increased
coal production that are described above produce three major categories of
negative impacts that may require mitigation. These impacts and their
mitigations follow:
5.6.A.I. Boom and bust cycles in coal production and lack of
compensating economic base. The local economic base of coal producing areas
should be diversified. This may be accomplished by developing industrial,
commercial, and recreational areas. This development can be undertaken by
municipalities, counties, KPDC's, and the State, primarily through the
WVGOECD and the WVEDA. Coal mining companies may aid in these efforts by:
Encouraging their personnel to donate time and expertise
to local industrial development efforts
Providing "seed money" for local development through
grants, and low-interest loans
Providing services in kind (e.g., earth-moving equipment)
to sites for industrial, commercial, and recreational
areas
Planning mine development so as to provide additional land
suitable for post-mining commercial and industrial use,
especially in areas with less land capable of being
developed.
Generation of additional employment that will induce in-migration,
population growth, and additional demand for land and governmental
services. To the extent that new local miners can be found, in-migration
and its potential impacts will be reduced. Mining companies can work to
increase local employment through:
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Supporting mining-related vocational education (primarily
a responsibility of county boards of education as assisted
by the State Bureau of Vocational, Technical, and Adult
Education)
Providing of on-the-job training
Planning intensive job advertising campaigns to seek local
workers, including women and minority group members.
Increased long distance commuting to mining areas and associated
excessive energy consumption. Coal companies, and/or local governmental and
quasi-governmental agencies may seek to reduce long-distance commuting by
either facilitating the construction of housing near new mine locations or
through providing alternative transportation strategies, such as carpools,
vanpools, and bus service. Alternative strategies could be coordinated
through the WVGOECD, the WVDH, and the RPDC's.
The employment and population impacts described here are cumulative for
the various coal mining activities that have an impact on any local area.
As a result, individual permit-by-permit analysis is not sufficient to
determine all impacts. A cumulative record of increased employment and
population is needed. The most useful method of maintaining such data is
both on a county-by-county basis and on a Basin-wide basis. The accumulated
total additional employment and population for all permitted facilities
within the Basin and each of its constituent counties will be monitored by
EPA on a continuous basis as new permit applications are received. This
monitoring is necessary in order to detect overall changes, and local
concentrations of employment and population impacts that may be significant
based on the criteria presented in Section 5.6.2.
5.6.5. Housing Impacts and Mitigations of Adverse Impacts
The USOTA (1979 ) calls housing "the most severe coal impact that
communities have been unable to resolve." Problems of housing quantity and
quality can be greatly increased by the impacts of new mining activity. The
recent slump in demand for coal temporarily has reduced the need for new
housing in the North Branch Potomac River Basin. However, increased coal
mining activity in the Basin will exacerbate the housing shortage.
Housing impacts are complicated by the age of the existing housing
stock and the increase in population during the 1970's (see Section 2.6.).
The existing vacancy rates in the Basin are very low and allow little
absorption of additional population. Failure to provide adequate additional
housing can result in the overcrowding of the existing housing stock,
the development of substandard housing, which creates potential reductions
in the availability and productivity of coal mine workers.
Housing for employees is an important factor in the financial success
of a mine (Metz 1977). Housing conditions affect the productivity of miners
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especially then they are aspiring towards higher living standards. Many
mining companies have come to accept the fact that a convenient, desirable
housing supply is needed in order to attract a stable workforce, to raise
productivity, and to decrease downtime. It has been found that the
investment of time and money in developing of adequate housing is more than
compensated by more efficient mine operation for companies that help to
provide housing for their workforce (Metz 1977).
There are impediments to providing adequate housing in the North Branch
Potomac River Basin; the effort is subject to physical and institutional
constraints. Inherent physical limitations resulting from steep slopes and
flooding, and limitations resulting from concentration of land ownership are
described in Section 2.6. Among the many institutional factors that limit
availability of housing in the Basin are (President's Commission on Coal
1979).
Regional capital shortages. Banks are generally small,
rely on local depositors for funds, and are very
conservative in their lending policies.
The high risks and uncertainties of boom and bust cycles
have reinforced the conservatism of local lending
institutions. Lending institutions do not want to risk
foreclosure on a house in a mining region during the
downside of a coal cycle because the house will have
little resale value.
Regulatory constraints, especially on branch banking,
restrict the flow of funds to smaller towns and rural
areas
The inability of local governments to obtain the necessary
funds to provide public service support for needed housing
- especially roads and water and sewer facilities
Federal programs have generally had limited success in
meeting needs in rural areas. Little USHUD money has gone
to rural areas and USFMHA programs have experienced
cutbacks.
Program cost standards, particularly for USHUD and FHA, do
not adequately take into account high site development
costs in steeply sloping areas
Federal housing program standards often require
development and construction practices that are suited to
densely populated urban areas
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Land development controls and building codes that are
suited to local environmental factors and construction
practices are often non-existent
Housing assistance staffs in Charleston or Philadelphia
are often too far away to benefit rural areas.
Knowledgeable local observers report that the lack of
local administrative staff has effectively prevented
maintenance of a USHUD Community Development Block grant
program in the coalfield areas.
The area's history of limited and cyclical housing demand
has reflected the cyclical nature of coal development. As
a result, high volume, low cost development has not been
undertaken.
Few local builders have the resources, either in working
capital or available credit, needed for large scale
development
There are shortages in the types of skilled labor
necessary for major residential development
Scattered sites also have prevented the use of
cost-reducing "industrial" housing construction
techniques
Subsidence, water contamination, and reduced well water
availability all resulting from previous mining activity
limit housing development in some areas.
The constraints on housing supply described above and in
Section 2.6.1.3. make it difficult to provide adequate new housing for the
substantial increases in population that might be associated with new mining
activity.
New housing that is required in coalfield areas may be provided by the
coal companies themselves; local, regional, State, and Federal agencies;
nonprofit corporations, and quasi-governmental agencies. As a result, the
roster of potential mitigative techniques for adverse impacts is long.
Also, the problems that make housing provision difficult are closely
related. For example, the high cost of site development on steep slopes
usually makes it difficult to obtain sufficient capital for housing
development.
Because of the complex and interrelated nature of the impacts and
their mitigations, this section has been divided into three parts. The
first part, describes mitigations that may be undertaken directly by the
coal mining companies, and is arranged in sequence, from the least direct to
the most direct corporate intervention in providing housing. Examples of
recent corporate housing aid in West Virginia also are provided. The second
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part Section 5.6.5.2., describes measures that may be undertaken by public
and quasi-public corporations, often with the assistance of mining
corporations. The third part Section 5.6.5.3., addresses actions to be
undertaken by governmental agencies.
5.6.5.1. Direct Corporate Mitigations
Direct corporate mitigations include the following (Metz 1977):
Provision of Professional Advice and Guidance. Professional advice or
guidance can be offered to local governmental agencies by the corporation
proposing a new mining development. A company can lend staff and provide
staff or consultant time in developing housing plans, untangling legal
issues, and preparing applications for grant assistance. This is especially
helpful in rural areas where governmental units have no professional staffs
with experience in housing matters; few, if any, ordinances regulate growth
(Section 2.6.), and little knowledge exists about available State and
Federal grants.
Provision of Equipment and Manpower. The company proposing a mining
development can lend equipment and manpower, when this available, to aid in
housing site clearance and grading, and to aid in community projects.
Provision of Financial Aid. The company proposing a development can "prime
the pump" with regard to housing development by providing either temporary
or permanent financial aid to developers, municipalities, or individual
employees. The company that gives financial assistance may expect total
monetary recoupment of investment or a limited direct monetary loss, to be
recouped through trade-off benefits. "Trade-off" benefits to the company
may include lower employee turnover, reduced absenteism, higher
productivity, and easier employee recruitment.
5.6.5.2. Indirect Corporate Mitigation
Numerous options are available to a mining company that wants to
provide financial assistance for housing. The magnitude of financial aid,
the degree of risk entailed, and the degree of anticipated financial
recoupment will vary with the corporation's philosophy about the expected
trade-off benefits. Options available to a company include the following
(Metz 1977):
Mining companies can offer aid in the purchase of land
and/or in infrastructure development; proceeds from a
possible land sale could be returned to the company or
placed in a revolving fund for future land and/or
infrastructure ventures. A company also can provide
collateral to a bank making possible a loan to a developer
for subdivision preparation.
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Mining companies can guarantee a builder/developer that a
certain number of housing units will be purchased during a
specified time period. The housing units would be either
purchased on the open market (the company buying the
unsold difference) or directly by the company, for resale
or rental to its employees (possibly discounted). Such
guarantees by a company often are sufficient to secure a
developer's loan application approval with no monetary
outlay.
Mining companies can offer inducements in various forms to
employees in house rental or purchase subsidies and
discounts. They can offer interest free or monthly
reduced loans for down payments, closing cost absorption,
sale of house at cost, house cost not reflecting land
and/or infrastructure costs, payment of several points on
FHA, VA, and even conventional mortgages, and
company-sponsored mortgage insurance programs.
Direct Provision of Housing. A mining company may want to direct a housing
development part or all of the way from initiation to the unit sale or
rental stage. The direct provision of housing units for sale or rent or
provision of mobile home pads for rent allows a company wide latitude in
land development. The company also then has control over the housing
development's layout, recreation facilities, open areas, commercial sector,
landscaping, protective covenants, government involvement, and services.
Two major decisions a company involved in the direct provision of housing
must make sooner or later are the percent of investment it seeks to recoup
and when it should extricate itself from the housing development's operation
(Metz 1977).
Options in the direct provision of housing include:
A company or consortium of companies may set up or use a
subsidiary to handle the whole housing development from
project initiation through operation.
A company may hire an outside firm to manage the project,
deal with the subcontractors, and ultimately sell or rent
the units for the company.
Many coal companies have been reluctant to enter the housing field
because of the hatred and bitterness arising from the company towns of
earlier eras. A few companies have begun to make housing available again,
often in conjunction with Federal, State, and local agencies. Rarely does a
coal company assume responsibility for provision of housing (Metz 1977).
Examples of direct provision of housing in West Virginia are provided
by the Eastern Associated Coal Company, which built two subdivisions and a
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mobile home park for its workers in West Virginia during the coal boom of
the mid-1970's. These developments included (Metz 1977):
A subdivision near the Federal #2 mine in Marion County.
Eastern bought the land, developed the infrastructure, and
sold lots to a house builder at cost. Eastern did not
find this subdivision successful and concluded that
isolated, suburban-style subdivisions that were near
mines, but separated from surrounding public sector
facilities and nearby communities, would not be
successful.
A subdivision in Raleigh County, West Virginia. Eastern
provided financial support, and the Appalachian Power
Company made 1,200 acres of land available for development.
A mobile home park in Boone County, West Virginia. This
park was initiated by the company because workers were
having difficulty finding suitable home sites in Boone
County and because many young miners could not afford
conventional housing. The Mobile Home Manufacturers
Association aided in the layout of this 35-unit park.
Eastern committed several hundred thousand dollars for a
sewer and water system, blacktopped streets, underground
power and telephone lines, cable television, landscaping,
and pad construction. The monthly pad rentals do not
cover the park's operating costs, but Eastern feels that
the investment is easily recouped in mine efficiency.
Coal companies also can work through non-profit housing development
consortia. An example of such a corporation is the Coalfield Housing
Corporation (CHC) in Beckley. CHC is a joint venture of seven large coal
producing companies (US Steel, Consolidated, Georgia-Pacific, Eastern, Armco
Steel, Westmoreland, and Beckley Mining) and the United Mine Workers of
America. CHC was founded in 1976 to help identify and purchase suitable
housing sites and then bring together potential developers and public and
private agency lenders. No other similar agencies have been instituted
elsewhere in West Virginia (USOTA 1979).
5.6.5.3. State, Federal, and Local Governmental Mitigations.
A wide variety of Federal, State, and local programs is available to
provide housing. These include:
USFmHA Section 601 Energy Impact Assistance Grants. This
is a USDOE program admininstered by the USFmHA. It is
applicable to coal and synfuel impacts in West Virginia.
The Governor's Office is responsible for designation of
impact areas, with the approval of USDOE. Impact areas
should either have had an 8% population growth over the
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past year or be projected to have 8% growth per year for
the next three years. An energy Impact growth management
plan, which will become part of the State Development
Plan, is now in preparation. Funding under Section 601 is
for land acquisition and site development costs; it does
not cover actual dwelling unit construction costs.
Community facilities, such as parks, hospitals, schools,
and sewage treatment plants, are covered. Grant and
Mineral Counties are both in USFmHA Region I.
ARC Section 207 grants. This program encompasses most of
ARC's housing assistance and provides catalyst money
through three mechanisms. (1) "Up-front" risk capital
is available for low and moderate income housing and for
site engineering and preparation. The 207 program provides
80% of funding; local sources (including other Federal
grants) must provide the remaining 20%. (2) Outright
grants of 10% (up to 25% under pending legislation) help
reduce site preparation costs in areas with steep terrain
and/or high infrastructure costs. (3) Technical
Assistance Grants help in program development. The State
implementing agency for this program is the West Virginia
Housing Development Fund.
ARC Section 302 grants. These are research and
demonstration grants. Through this program, guidelines
for other housing programs can be waived for
energy-impacted areas.
USHUD Community Development Block Grants. Block Grants
were provided in 14 counties in fiscal 1980 and are
scheduled to be provided in 19 counties in fiscal 1981.
The State implementing agency for this program is the
WVHDF.
USHUD/USDA Rural Demonstration Programs
The WVHDF provides assistance for low and moderate income
housing through bond sales as well as serving as the State
implementation agency for the ARC and USHUD programs
described above
Regional Planning and Development Council in Region VIII,
based in Petersburg, serving Grant and Mineral Counties
Local public housing authorities.
The sponsoring agencies will provide detailed information about program
specifications, eligibility, and current funding levels for their programs.
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The President's Commission on Coal (1979) recommended improving the
skills of construction workers to improve housing availability. Manpower
training programs in construction skills could be developed through the
State Bureau of Vocational, Technical, and Adult Education. The Commission
also urged reexamination of Federal housing program standards to bring them
more in line with conditions in areas like the North Branch Potomac River
Basin.
5.6.6. Transportation Impacts and Mitigative Measures
Transportation impacts and potential mitigations for adverse impacts
differ substantially among the various coal hauling modes. The discussion
below first describes impacts for the major haul modes in use in the Basin
(road and rail), and then presents mitigative strategies for each mode. No
descriptions of the impacts and mitigations of slurry pipeline haulage are
presented because no slurry pipelines are known to exist currently or to be
planned for construction within the Basin. Also, no description of impacts
of barge hauling of coal is presented, because the North Branch Potomac
River Basin contains no navigable waterways.
5.6.6.1. Roads
A variety of adverse impacts is associated with coal haulage using
public roads. The major categories of negative impacts described by the
USDOT (1978) and the USOTA (1979 ) are:
Safety of other vehicles using the roads. Coal trucks
often travel on roads originally intended only for
farm-to-market access. Vehicle weights often exceed road
weight limits (USDOT 1978). The resulting deterioration
of the roads makes passage by lighter vehicles both unsafe
and difficult. Passing, whether by coal trucks on
downhill grades or by non-coal vehicles on uphill grades,
may be extremely dangerous on many narrow, winding roads
in the Basin.
Noise from coal hauling vehicles. For example, at an
assumed density of 100 vehicles per mile of roadway,
automobiles generate a median sound level of 69 dB(A) at a
distance of 100 feet from the edge of the roadway. If 20%
of the traffic is coal trucks, sound levels would rise to
75 dB(A). This increase in noise levels is equivalent to
quadrupling the number of automobile sound sources. FHA
design level noise standards for residences, schools,
libraries, hospitals, and parks provide that a level of
70dB(A) not be exceeded more than 10% of the time (USDOT
1978).
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Vibration from passing coal traffic, especially when coal
roads are in poor condition or contain potholes, cracks,
etc. (USDOT 1978)
Dust and spillage of coal on roadways
Increased traffic congestion that is associated with mine
employment and induced secondary employment, and
population growth. These impacts are especially severe
during shift changes at the mines. Beckley, in Raleigh
County, is a good example of the problems that arise from
the increased local population associated with the growth
of mining employment. Despite the fact that Beckley is a
relatively small city (population about 35,000), some
employees face more than three hours of driving time to
and from work because of traffic congestion (USOTA 1978).
Increased costs of road maintenance. The estimated cost
of improving existing public coal haul roads in West
Virginia ranges from $1.15 to $2.30 million dollars (see
Section 2.6.). Additional coal haul vehicle traffic will
increase the cost of road maintenance, both by increasing
wear on roads currently utilized for coal hauling and by
increasing road repair costs when roads not currently used
for coal hauling are utilized. Impacts will be especially
severe on roads not currently used for coal hauling. Not
only will they require increased maintenance but also
widening, realignment, and construction of new bridges
also may be required if the roads are to meet State or
Federal standards.
The USDOT (1978) has stated that "Appalachia's coal road problems could
well become so severe as to become a bottleneck on coal production."
Transportation impacts are likely to be most severe in towns and cities
currently experiencing little coal truck traffic. Impacts are likely to be
especially significant if the town Itself is not a coal production center
but rather, only a pass-through point between coal production sites and coal
preparation or use sites (USDOT 1978).
Mitigative measures include:
Improvements in road width, alignment, pavement quality,
and bridges that will improve highway safety and reduce
the levels of noise, vibration, and dust generation from
coal trucks
Stricter enforcement of weight limits
Rerouting of coal truck traffic around urban centers to
reduce noise and vibration impacts in populated areas
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Restrictions on the hours during which coal trucks may
operate to eliminate noise and vibration impacts at those
times when they cause greatest problems.
In West Virginia no local funds are used for road construction or
improvement. State responsibility lies with the WVDH. Planning functions
are handled by WVDH's Advance Planning Section.
5.6.6.2. Railroads
If rail movements of coal increase, impacts will be less than if the
coal moves by truck.
Disruption of traffic on local streets. This impact is
especially severe because rail lines pass through most
towns at grade level. Passing trains temporarily sever
towns, disrupting traffic on local streets, and delaying
essential hospital, fire, and police services. The
severity of this impact depends upon the frequency of
train movements, the length of trains, and the speed of
trains.
Increases in grade-crossing accidents. More than 1,900
persons were killed and 21,000 persons were injured in
rail accidents Nationwide during 1974. Most of these
accidents occurred at grade crossings. The USOTA (1979)
estimated that approximately 15% of all rail accidents
involved coal hauling. The proportion of coal hauling
related rail accidents can be expected to increase in the
Basin, if coal hauling by rail increases. No Basin-
specific statistics on coal hauling related rail accidents
were found during this assessment.
Increased coal hauling also will have significant impacts on the need
for railroad maintenance. These needs will be balanced by increased carrier
revenues. Overall, increased coal hauling traffic is expected to have
significant positive effects on the financial condition of railroads (USOTA
1979 ).
Mitigative measures for adverse impacts include:
Provision of grade separation at critical rail crossings
to reduce the potential for accidents and reduce the
degree of disruption of community life from frequent train
movements
Provision of improved crossing signals to reduce the
potential for accidents.
Responsibility for these programs is the concern of WVRMA and WVDH.
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5.6.7. Local Public Service Impacts and Mitigations of Adverse Impacts
The impacts of energy development fall most heavily on local govern-
ments. This is the case not only because employment and population grow,
thus creating a demand for government services in a particular area, but
also because local governments generally have limited financial and manpower
capabilities to deal with these impacts (Argonne National Laboratory 1978).
Two major themes recur throughout all analyses of the mining impacts on
local public services and the potential mitigations of adverse impacts:
That advance information and advance notification of
development plans by mining companies is the key to
successful local governmental response
That local governments should have initial financing.
The remainder of this section reviews both the need for key services
health care, education, public safety, recreation, water and sewer, and
solid waste disposal and also the need for local planning. The current
status of these services and planning within the Basin was presented in
Section 2.6. This section also reviews standards for service delivery and
suggests mitigative measures designed to allow local governments to plan
adequately for development and to achieve or maintain desirable standards of
service.
Local public services that would be most significantly affected by new
mining development include health care, education, public safety,
recreation, and water and sewer services. New coal mining activity also
will have overall fiscal impacts on local governments.
5.6.7.1. Health Care
Health care impacts are a result of both primary impacts caused by
increased mining with its potential for mine-related accidents and diseases
and of secondary impacts caused by general population increase and need for
additional health care facilities and personnel. These impacts are made
more serious because much of the Basin is rural in nature and because of the
existing health care deficiencies, as described in Section 2.6.
Additional coal mining employment will produce the following direct
impacts:
Immediate need for increased availability of emergency
care facilities to deal with accidental injuries in mines.
This will include not only increased emergency care
personnel, but also improved emergency transportation
facilities.
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Longer term need for increased medical personnel and
facilities to deal with coal related occupational
illnesses, especially pneumoconiosis (black lung).
An indirect impact will be an increased need for the full range of health
care facilities proportional to any induced population growth.
The most serious impacts will occur when a proposed new mine is located
in health care manpower shortage areas, as designated under Section 329(b)
and 332 of the Public Health Service Act (see Section 2.6.; areas with
manpower shortages in primary care physicians, pharmacists, and vision care
specialists are listed in Table 2-48).
Detailed goals, objectives, and strategies for achieving adequate
health care are contained in the Health Systems Plan and Annual
Implementation Plan for West Virginia (WVHSA 1979). No mitigations should
be undertaken by EPA unless they are within the framework of the Plan and
are coordinated with the State Health Department. A recent report by the
USOTA (1979 ) suggested the following options, designed to either improve
the provision of health care in coalfield areas or to reduce the demand for
health care facilities by mine workers by reducing on-the-job health
hazards:
Institute a rural health care system for coalfields
Reassess the inherent safeness of the current respirable
dust standard
Consider alternatives to current dust sampling, including
continuous in-mine monitoring, and possibly more effective
ways of carrying out sampling, such as miner-or USMSHA-
control of the program
Encourage the establishment of health standards for
nonrespirable dust, trace elements, fumes, etc., that are
now unregulated
Consider lowering the Federal noise standard for mining
Promote occupational health training for miners
Consider the feasibility of requiring or encouraging
conversion to the "safest available mining equipment"
(adjusted to individual mine characteristics), consistent
with the intent of the 1969 and 1977 Federal safety
standards for mine equipment
Establish Federal safety standards for mine equipment
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Require 90-day apprentice training before a miner is allowed to
operate an unfamiliar piece of mobile mine equipment
Clarify the right under Federal law, of individual miners
to withdraw from conditions of imminent danger.
Establish Federal limits on fatality and injury frequency
for different kinds of mines (substantial penalties could
be levied against mine operators exceeding those limits).
Establish performance standards for USMSHA.
5.6.7.2. Education
Adverse impacts of new mining activity on schools can arise because of
possible increases in enrollments that result from induced population
growth. It has been calculated that each family attracted to an area brings
0.70 school age persons, consisting of 0.23 high school age students and
0.47 elementary school age students (Argonne National Laboratory 1978).
Thus, concentrated population growth resulting from mining activity can
result in the overcrowding of schools.
Moderate increases in school enrollment may have significant positive
impact as well. In West Virginia, as in the rest of the Nation, school
enrollments have been declining, forcing teacher layoffs and school
closings. Moderate increases in school enrollment beyond what would be
expected without coal induced growth will help to prevent teacher layoffs
and school closings in many areas. Also, a large proportion of school funds
comes to local districts from the WVDE. These funds are allocated on a per
student basis. As school enrollment goes up, so does State aid, thus
reducing the burden on local school districts.
West Virginia has made significant gains in educational attainment
within the last two decades (see Section 2.6.). A variety of measures may
be taken to help minimize any problems created by induced population growth
that results from New Source coal mining. These include:
Prepayment of taxes by coal mining companies so that
educational facilities will be available as they are
needed (USGAO 1977 )
Use of programs such as USFmHA grants, ARC Section 207
grants and Section 302 grants, USHUD Community Development
Block Grants, and WVHDF grants, as described in Section
5.6.5.3., to help provide for schools as infrastructural
facilities associated with new residential development
Development of additional school programs for energy
impacted areas through the WVDE.
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5.6.7.3. Public Safety
Impacts of increased mining activity on police and fire protection
include increases in personnel and equipment needs because of induced
population growth. The USGAO estimated additional costs of fire and police
protection to range from $71 to $148 (in 1975 dollars) for each new resident
of a coal impacted area.
No specific mitigative measures for the impacts of coal on public
safety services were found during this review of existing literature.
5.6.7.4. Recreation
Induced population growth associated with new mining activity will
generate additional need for local recreation facilities. Each additional
1,000 persons within an area require approximately 4 acres of additional
public playground area and 3 acres of additional community park area, based
on currently accepted standards (Argonne Nations:! Laboratory 1978).
Those housing programs designed to provide infrastructure facilities as
well as housing (see Section 5.6.5.) can be used to help provide
recreational facilities. Additional facilities might be developed with the
help of donated land, services, advice, or equipment use by mining
companies.
5.6.7.5. Water and Sewer Services
The problems of inadequate existing water and sewer facilities and the
difficulties that the topography and settlement patterns of the North Branch
Potomac River Basin present for the provision of additional water and sewer
facilities were reviewed in Section 2.6. Increases in population that may
be induced by additional mining activity will create adverse impacts because
of:
Overloading of existing systems that are often already
outmoded and inadequate
High costs of providing sewer and water facilities to new
residences
New residences being built in areas that do not have, and
are not programmed to have, centralized sewer and water
services, and that do not have soil characteristics
suitable for septic tank systems or aquifer
characteristics suitable for wells
The provision of government aid for constructing of water
and sewage treatment facilities on the basis of
determining of prior need. As a result of governmental
restrictions on funding, many programs such as EPA Section
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201 (CWA) water and sewer grants are not available for
growth-induced housing in mining areas with rapid
population increases. Most rural areas in the Basin must
rely on a limited number of USFmHA grants and loans, which
pay only 50% of costs rather than the 75% provided by EPA
grants (President's Commission on Coal 1979).
Problems that result from the overloading of existing water and sewer
systems, high density development in areas where centralized water and sewer
development is not cost-effective, and low-density development in areas
where the use of individual wells or septic tanks is not feasible can be
mitigated by:
Development and enforcement of local zoning and building
codes
Use of various housing development programs described in
Section 5.6.5. to help the development of centralized
water and sewer systems
Prepayment of taxes by companies that propose to develop
new mines, so that needed facilities can be in place
before population growth occurs
Reworking for eligibility requirements EPA Section 201
(CWA) construction grants program to make it easier for
coal impacted rural areas and small towns to qualify.
5.6.7.6. General Community Fiscal Impacts
Estimation of potential fiscal impacts on local governments for
providing of additional facilities and services may be accomplished through
a variety of fiscal analysis methods. Standard methods in use for such
estimation include (Burchell and Listokin 1977):
Per capita multipliers
Service standards
Proportional valuation
Case study
Comparative study
Employment anticipation.
Each method has advantages, but for a simple "first cut" analysis of
potential impacts of new source mining facilities on local governmental
expenditures, the per capita multiplier method is the simplest and most
effective way to estimate the general magnitude of impacts.
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USGAO (1978) developed the following range of per capita costs for coal
induced development of new community facilities:
COSTS (IN 1975 DOLLARS)
Type of Facility or Service
Streets and roads
Water
Sewage and solid waste
Education
Recreation
Fire and police protection
Libraries
Health care
Other
Total
Study A
(Low Estimate)
$730
625
500
888
130
148
46
54
0
$3,121
Study B
(High Estimate)
$1,144
583
613
T,678
118
71
45
241
399
$4,892
Local governments in West Virginia can meet these costs through a
variety of sources of revenue (see Section 2.6.). The primary sources of
revenue to local areas are property taxes, Federal revenue sharing, State
aid for schools, and fines and charges for services.
The State also levies a coal severence tax at a rate of $3.85 per
$100.00 of gross sales of coal. Of this, $3.50 is retained by the State as
general revenue and the remaining $0.35 is allocated to local governments.
Of the $0.35 returned to local governments, 75% ($0.26) is returned to
counties on a proportional basis relative to the percentage of State coal
production occurring in each county. The remaining 25% ($0.09) is returned
to counties and municipalities, based on their population. Thus, some
increased coal severence tax money does go to local areas on the basis of
increased coal production or possible induced increases in population
resulting from increased coal production. This compensates local areas
somewhat for increased costs incurred as a result of increased coal
production.
Two negative fiscal aspects of coal production on local units of
government have been noted widely:
Most coal mining corporations (especially the larger
corporations) are headquartered, and their stockholders
reside, outside West Virginia. Therefore, corporate
profits leave the State and cannot serve as a source of
State or local revenue (Cortese and Jones 1979).
Many mine workers live in mobile homes (see Section 2.6.)
that require local services. These mobile homes
contribute little, however, to the local property tax
base.
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The programs designed to help meet specific community impacts, as
described above, represent a partial solution to the more general problems
of providing adequate assistance to mitigate the adverse impacts of new
mining activity on community finances and services. The $3,121 to $4,892
per capita costs (1975 dollars) calculated by USGAO for all new community
facilities and services indicate that, overall, more impact mitigation may
be needed. Several options for such general mitigation techniques were
described in the USOTA study, The Direct Use of Coal (1969 ). Among these
suggestions were to:
Enact a National Severance Tax on coal to help finance
needed improvements in impacted communities
Provide loans or subsidies for services through a public,
non-profit coalfield development bank
Requirre operators to submit a community impact statement
to local and Federal officials before mining begins.
It must be recognized that the mitigation of adverse coal mining
impacts is not the sole priority of State or local governments or the
RPDC's. The mitigations described here should reflect more general State
and local governmental goals, objectives, and strategies. A comprehensive
discussion of the full range of State development policies is not
appropriate for this EPA assessment, but can be found in the West Virginia
State Development Plan 1980.
5.6.8. Indirect Land Use Impacts
Demand for additional developed land to accommodate the population
growth induced by a new mining facility represents a significant potential
impact. Many areas of the Basin have very poor potential to accommodate
substantial additional urban development (see Section 2.6.2.). Major
constraints on additional development include large proportions of steeply
sloping land, and relatively high levels of current mining development and
existing urban development. Grant County within the North Branch Potomac
River Basin is especially constrained in its land for additional urban
development.
Existing population and land use (see Section 2.6.1.) patterns in the
North Branch Potomac River Basin indicate an overall land absorption
coefficient of approximately 0.21 acres. This land absorption coefficient
provides a reasonable estimate of additional developed land needed on a per
capita basis to accommodate housing, streets and roads, schools, commercial
areas, and other facilities for potential induced population growth
that occurrs as a result of new mining activity.
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5.7 Earth Resource Impacts and Mitigations
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Page
5.7. Earth Resource Impacts and Mitigations 5-126
5.7.1. Erosion 5-126
5.7.1.1. USOSM Permit Information Requirements 5-126
5.7.1.2. USOSM-Mandated Erosion Control Measures 5-127
5.7.1.3. Buffer Strips 5-128
5.7.1.4. Prompt Reclamation 5-128
5.7.1.5. USOSM Regrading and Revegetation 5-129
5.7.1.6. Drainage and Sediment Pond Design 5-133
5.7.1.7. Roadway Construction 5-135
5.7.1.8. Steep Slope Mining Standards 5-136
5.7.1.9. Coal Processing Plant Requirements 5-136
5.7.!. Steep Slopes 5-136
5.7.3. Prime and Other Farmlands 5-139
5.7.3.1. Prime Farmlands 5-139
5.7.3.2. Other Significant Farmlands 5-141
5.7.4. Unstable Slopes 5-142
5.7.5. Subsidence 5-145
5.7.6. Toxic or Acid Forming Farth Materials and Acid Mine 5-152
Drainage
5.7.6.1. Coal Overburden Information Requirements 5-152
5.7.6.2. Surface disposal of Acid-Forming 5-158
Materials
5.7.6.3. Underground i'isposal of Spoil and Coal 5-164
Processing Wastes
5.7.6.4. Coal Preparation Plant and Other Refuse 5-1 o5
Piles
5.7.6.5. In-Situ Coal Processing 5-170
5.7.6.6. Exploration Practices 5-171
5.7.6.7. Other AMD Control Measures 5-172
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5.7. EARTH RESOURCE IMPACTS AND MITIGATIONS
Earth resource impacts and mitigations are addressed at length in the
permanent regulatory program performance standards mandated by USOSM pursu-
ant to SMCRA. The final program performance standards are codified in Title
30 of the Code of Federal Regulations in Chapter VII under Parts 816 and 817
for surface and underground mines, respectively. These standards eventually
may be administered by WVDNR-Reclamation in accordance with SMCRA and
WVSCMRA following approval of the State program by USOSM.
This chapter summarizes the performance standards which New Source coal
operators are expected to meet in order to avoid or minimize adverse impacts
on earth resources Special standards that affect selected types of mines
or areas are discussed following the general rules for all mines. The
general performance standards typically are identical for surface mines and
for the surface aspects of underground mine operations.
5.7.1. Erosion
Erosion (and the subsequent deposition) of disturbed soil materials is
the principal physical impact of the surface disturbance caused by coal
mining. Wind is secondary to water as a cause of erosion in West Virginia.
The most fertile and productive topsoil layers are eroded first after a
mine site is exposed by clearing and grubbing operations. After the
topsoil, the subsoil and finally the underlying weathered or shattered rock
materials are removed from the surface. The surface of the site is subject
to erosion until a dense vegetation has become reestablished following the
mining and regrading activities.
Post-mining erosion following regrading and seeding can create gullies,
which in turn speed up the rate of continuing erosion locally, and leave
only the least mobile soil or rock materials for subsequent attempts to
restore vegetation. Historically, erosion has devastated hillsides in the
North Branch Potomac River Basin and throughout Appalachia. West Virginia
for years has regulated surface mining operations to reduce the effects of
erosion, as discussed in Chapter 4.1. of this assessment. Following the
enactment of SMCRA, USOSM (with the assistance of EPA) also has developed
stringent performance standards to minimize erosion from new mines
5.7.1.1. USOSM Permit Information Requirements
The USOSM regulations require that maps and descriptions of existing
soil types, present and potential productivity, and the results of tests on
overburden material proposed for use as topsoil be a part of every applica-
tion (30 CFR 779.21). Slopes, waterways, and previous mining activity in
the permit area must be mapped and described in detail (30 CFR 779.24).
Mine operation plans must identify proposed topsoil storage areas and water
pollution control facilities (30 CFR 780.14). The reclamation plans must
detail spoil backfilling, compacting, and regrading; replacement of topsoil
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or other surface materials; surface soil evaluation measures; methods for
revegetation (schedule, species and quantities of plants to be installed,
planting methods, mulching techniques, irrigation if appropriate); and
methods to determine revegetation success. They also must describe plans
for water control, for water treatment if required to meet applicable
standards, and the expected impact of mining on suspended solids
concentrations in receiving waters (30 CFR 780.22; 784.14). Essentially the
same requirements apply to underground mining applications (soil
information, 30 CFR 783.22; slopes, 783.24; topsoil storage areas,
backfilling, topsoiling, revegetation, and water quality impacts, 784.11;
sedimentation ponds, 784.16). In short, the permit applications must show
in detail how the operator plans to meet the performance standards for
erosion control.
5.7.1.2 USOSM-Mandated Erosion Control Measures
The performance standards are intended to minimize the opportunities
for erosion and sedimentation, and thus keep possible downslope impacts on
lands and waters due to surface disturbance related to coal mining at the
lowest possible level (30 CFR 816.45; 817.45). The basic directives for
erosion control are the following
Minimize the amount of bare soil exposed at one time
Minimize the length of time that soil is barren
Protect soil with mulch temporary cover, and permanent
vegetation
Optimize conditions for the regrowth of vegetation (soil
porosity, structure, fertility, etc.)
Minimize the development of rills and gullies
Minimize slippage of r-.graded spoil material and maximize
stability of the surface
Divert water that otherwise would flow across unprotected
slopes
Provide non-erodible channels or pipes for collected water
with outlets capable of accepting flows
Capture runoff from disturbed slopes and allow suspended
material to settle in basins of adequate volume and
retention time
Retain sediment within disturbed area using straw dikes,
check dams, mulches, vegetated strips, dugout ponds, or
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other means to reduce overland flow velocity and runoff
volume
Enhance precipitation of sediment in basins by adding
chemical coagulants and flocculants to the collected
runoff water.
5.7.1.3. Buffer Strips
Buffer strips at least 100 ft wide adjacent to all perennial streams
and to any other streams inhabited by two or more species of
macroinvertebrates are mandated to be left undisturbed during mining
(30 CFR 816.57; 817.57). The buffer strips must be marked in the field and
shown on mining plans (30 CFR 816.11; 817.11). Disturbance within the
buffer strip can be authorized by the regulatory authority, provided that
the stream is restored following mining and that water quality within 100
feet of the mining activities is not affected adversely. If a stream is
diverted, then contributions to suspended solids from the channel must be
prevented, and the natural habitat conditions and riparian vegetation must
be restored following mining (30 CFR 816.44 817.44). Where buffer strips
are preserved, they provide a means of protection against the escape of
eroded sediment into waterways.
5.7.1.4. Prompt Reclamation
The duration of the surface disturbance governs the opportunity for
erosion. The general performance standards require prompt topsoil removal
after vegetation has been cleared, before any other mining-related
activities may proceed [30 CFR 8l6.22(a); 817.22(a)]. The topsoil is to be
reused or stockpiled and protected, so that it does not wash from the mine
site (30 CFR 816.23; 817 23). Where the exposure of the disturbed land
otherwise may result in erosion-caused air or water pollution USOSM
authorizes a limitation on the size of the area disturbed at any one time,
directs that the topsoil be placed at a time when the topsoil can be
protected and erosion minimized, and authorizes the imposition of any other
discretionary measures which the regulatory authority may judge necessary
[30 CFR 8l6.22(f); 8l7.22(f)].
Specific timing requirements for rough backfilling and grading
following the removal of the coal are found in 30 CFR 816.101(a) and
817.101(a). For contour mines, rough backfilling and grading must follow
coal removal by not more than 60 days or 1,500 linear feet along the
mountainside. Open pit mines with thin overburden are to be backfilled on a
schedule proposed by the operator and approved by the regulatory authority
Area strip mines must be rough backfilled and graded within 180 days
following coal removal and be not more than four spoil ridges behind the
active pit. The operator is given the opportunity to justify a request for
additional time by submitting a detailed written analysis showing that
additional time is required.
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There is no prescribed time limitation on final grading and redistri-
bution of topsoil following coal removal in the general performance
standards. The operator is not eligible for the release of 60% of his
performance bond, however, until backfilling, topsoiling, regrading, and
drainage control have been completed. This provides a substantial financial
incentive to conclude these operations expeditiously. Moreover, topsoil and
other subsoil materials are allowed to be stockpiled only when it is
impractical to redistribute these materials promptly on other regraded areas
[30 CFR 816.23(a); 817.23(a)]. Lateral haulback, modified area mining, and
controlled direct placement contour methods offer greatly enhanced
opportunity for prompt reclamation than uncontrolled mining techniques.
5.7.1.5. USOSM Regrading and Revegetation
The post-mining surface configuration of reclaimed areas is specified
in 30 CFR 816 101(b) and in Subsection 102, along with the corresponding
sections of Subchapter 817. These standards require elimination of high-
walls, spoil piles and depressions, and the return of mined areas to their
approximate original contour. The elimination of highwalls means that
spoils are regraded to the approximate original slope. If a permanent road
is proposed to be retained on the bench (a common practice in West
Virginia), the final slope must be steeper than the original slope, if the
highwall is to be eliminated. Subsection 816.102 also specifies conditions
where cut and fill terraces may be substituted for approximate original
contour.
Section 816 102(a)(2) mandates a static safety factor of 1.3 to insure
the stability of backfilled materials. Terrace benches are to be no wider
than 20 ft unless specifically approved as necessary for stability, erosion
control, or approved permanent roads. The vertical distance between
terraces is to be specified by the regulatory authority. Terrace outslopes
are not to exceed 50%, unless stability, erosion control, and conformance
with pre-mining slopes are assured [Subsection 102(b)]. Final grading,
preparation of overburden before topsoiling, and placement of topsoil are to
minimize subsequent erosion, instability, and slippage. Stabilizing or
regrading rills and gullies that may exacerbate erosion is required when
they exceed 9 in in depth. Hills or gullies shallower than 9 in also may be
required to be eliminated (Subsection 106), if the regulatory authority
determines that they are disruptive to the approved post-mining land use.
Topsoil and subsoil must be removed and segregated from other materials
prior to drilling, blasting, or mining (30 CFR 816.21; 817.21). It is pref-
erable that the soil be relocated to areas that are ready to receive it
following mining; otherwise it must be stored and protected from erosion
until ready for replacement on the mine surface. Subsoil must be segregated
from topsoil and replaced as subsoil if the regulatory authority determines
that such measures are necessary or desirable to achieve post-mining produc-
tivity consistent with the approved post-mining land use.
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Twenty-eight of the 52 soil series in the North Branch Potomac River
Basin (54%) present limitations for use as topsoil in reclamation
(Table 5-22). The SMCRA regulatory authority is empowered to approve
selected overburden materials for use as substitutes for or supplements to
topsoil, if the operator provides evidence demonstrating that the substitute
material is more suitable for the growth of vegetation than the original
topsoil. In such cases it may not be necessary to stockpile topsoil
separately.
If neither soil nor the overburden can support satisfactory plant
growth, then it may be necessary to borrow soil material from elsewhere. In
this case, reclamation of the borrow area also must be considered, and the
material remaining at the borrow site must be evaluated for its suitability
to grow vegetation.
The regraded overburden material must be treated as required by the
regulatory authority to eliminate slippage surfaces and to promote root
penetration prior to (or, upon approval, following) topsoiling
(30 CFR 816.24; 817.24). The topsoil is to be replaced in uniform, stable
layers consistent with the approved post-mining land uses, contours, and
surface drainage system. Excessive compaction is to be prevented, and
protection is to be provided from water and wind erosion before and after
the topsoil is planted. Nutrients and other amendments are to be provided
in accordance with soil tests in amounts that will assure revegetation in
accordance with the approved post-mining land use (30 CFR 816.25; 817.25).
A number of requirements are designed to maximize the success of
revegetation following mining so that long-term erosion can be minimized.
At least 4 ft of the best available nontoxic cover material must be placed
on top of materials exposed, used, or produced during mining
(30 CFR 816.103; 817.103). Where necessary, the regulatory authority may
require thicker cover, special compaction, isolation from groundwater
contact, or acid neutralization of the cover to minimize adverse effects on
vegetation or provide sufficient depth for plant growth (Subsection 103).
A permanent vegetation must be established capable of stabilizing the
soil surface from erosion (Subsection 111). Anchored mulches are required
to facilitate revegetation unless the operator can demonstrate to the regu-
latory authority that alternative measures will achieve success (Subsection
114). Successful revegetation is defined as coverage and productivity at
least 90% of that on a designated, undisturbed reference area within the
permit area with 90% statistical confidence (80% confidence on shrublands),
and must be maintained for no less than five years in humid regions such as
West Virginia (Subsection 116). Vegetation reestablished on previously
mined areas must be adequate to control erosion and no less than that
present before the remining. Adequate erosion control, as determined by the
regulatory authority, also must be established on lands to be used for resi-
dential or industrial purposes less than two years after regrading is
complete. On areas to be used for fish and wildlife management or forestry,
the vegetation must satisfy the regulatory authority as adequate to control
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Table 5-22. Soils with potential limitations for reclamation in the North
Branch Potomac River Basin. Variability of soils is such that site-
specific data are necessary to determine the suitability of soils on
specific permit areas for use in reclamation. Information is based on
a modern soil survey legend for Mineral County and a partial legend
for Grant County, West Virginia, provided by USDA-SCS.
Series
Allegheny
Atkins
Belmont-Calvin
Berks
Berks-Weikert
Blago
Braddock
Brinkerton
Brookside
Buchanan
Calvin
Cavode
Clarksville
Clymer
Dunning
Edom
Elliber
Gilpin
Laidig
Lehew
Silt loam
Silt loam
Extra stony silt loam
Channery silt loam
Shaly silt loam
Silt loam
Gravelly loam
Silt loam
Channery very stony loam
Gravelly very stony loam
Sandy loam
Variable very stony
silty clay loam
Channery silt loam
Very stony loam
Silty clay loam
Silt loam, silty clay
loam, shaly clay
Very cherty loam
Silt loam, very stony
silt loam
Gravelly extra stony loam
Channery fine sandy loam
Potential Limitation
for Reclamation
Acidity
Wetness
Stoniness
Stoniness, droughtiness
Stoniness
Wetness
Stoniness
Wetness
Too clayey
Stoniness
Stoniness
Too clayey
Stoniness
Acidity, droughtiness
Wetness
Thinness
Stoniness
Acidity
Stoniness
Stoniness
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Table 5-22. Soils with potential limitations for reclamation in the North
Branch Potomac River Basin (concluded).
Series
Melvin
Murrill
Opegum
Purdy
Rushtown
Schaffenaker
Weikert
Wharton
Type
Silt loam
Channery silt loam, very
stony loam
Very silty clay loam
Silt loam
Shaly silt loam
Loamy sand, sandstone
Silt loam
Silt loam
Potential Limitation
for Reclamation
Wetness
Stoniness
Thinness, too clayey
Wetness
Droughtiness
Droughtiness
Droughtiness
Steepness, acidity
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erosion (70% of coverage on reference area with 90% confidence). On permit
areas smaller than 40 acres, alternative performance standards to the refer-
ence area may be approved by the regulatory authority: 70% or greater
coverage for five consecutive years with 400 woody plants per acre in mixed
plantings (600 woody plants per acre in mixed plantings on slopes steeper
than 20°).
5.7.1.6. Drainage and Sediment Pond Design
Erosion is to be controlled sufficiently so that water quality
limitations are met by discharges from the mined area (30 CFR 817.41;
817.41). Changes in flow to minimize pollution are preferred to treatment
methods, but treatment is required if necessary to meet standards or insure
achievement of the approved postmining land use for the area
All surface drainage from the disturbed area, including regraded and
replanted areas, must be passed through one or more sedimentation ponds
before release from the permit area (Section 42). The sedimentation ponds
must be constructed prior to beginning any surface mining activities and
maintained until all revegetation requirements have been met and the quality
of the untreated drainage satisfies applicable water quality standards.
Exemptions from sediment pond requirements may be granted by the regulatory
authority upon a demonstration that ponds are not necessary for drainage to
meet NPDES effluent limitations or quality requirements applicable to
downstream receiving waters. Road drainage and the flow from diversion
ditches (unless mixed with active mine drainage) are not required to be
routed through the sediment pond.
The NPDES existing source effluent limitation for total suspended
solids is 70.0 mg/1 maximum allowable and 35.0 mg/1 maximum average for 30
consecutive days. Discharges are exempt from this and other effluent
limitations when they result from any precipitation event at facilities
designed, constructed, and maintained to contain or treat the volume of
discharge which would result from a 10-year 24-hour precipitation event.
New Source NPDES limitations have not yet been incorporated into the USOSM
performance standards.
Overland flow must be diverted from disturbed areas if required by the
regulatory authority to minimize erosion (30 CFR 816.43; 817.43). Temporary
diversions must be constructed to pass safely the peak runoff from at least
a 2-year precipitation event, and the SMCRA regulatory authority may require
that a more stringent design storm be used. Permanent diversions must be
able to accommodate at least a 10-year storm event and are to have gently
sloping banks stabilized by vegetation. Asphalt, concrete, or other linings
are to be used only when approved by the regulatory authority. The diver-
sion channels are to employ the best technology currently available to
prevent erosion of additional suspended solids from the channels themselves.
This may involve rock lining and a series of small, sediment-trapping dikes
within the ditches.
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No diversion is to be located so as to increase the potential for
landslides, and none is to be constructed on an existing landslide unless
approved by the regulatory authority. Temporary diversions must be removed,
regraded, topsoiled, and revegetated when no longer needed. Any diversion
of water into underground mines must first be approved by the regulatory
authority. Stream channel diversions also must be designed and constructed
to minimize erosion (temporary diversion to accommodate 10-year, 24-hour
storm; permanent diversion to accommodate 100-year, 24-hour storm,
Subsection 44).
Sedimentation ponds are the primary means of insuring that soil
materials eroded from a mine in so far as possible are captured within the
permit area, rather than discharged downslope or into waterways. In steep
terrain areas of the North Branch Potomac River Basin none of the measures
to minimize erosion that were discussed previously can be expected to be
altogether successful, either alone or in combination; hence sedimentation
ponds are essential. The same steepness of terrain creates severe practical
difficulties in finding suitable, accessible locations for ponds on mine
sites where runoff can be contained and maintenance can be performed.
Sedimentation ponds must be constructed as near as possible to the
disturbed area and outside perennial stream channels, unless otherwise
approved by the SMCRA regulatory authority (30 CFR 816.46; 817.46). The
minimum sediment storage volume either must accommodate the accumulated
sediment volume from the drainage area for a 3-year period using calculation
methods approved by the regulatory authority or must provide 0.1 acre-foot
of storage per acre of disturbed land in the drainage area. The regulatory
authority is authorized to approve a minimum sediment storage volume no less
than 0.035 acre-foot per acre of disturbed area if the operator demonstrates
in the permit application that sediment removed by other control measures is
equal to the reduction in sediment pond storage volume. Sediment is to be
removed from ponds when its volume reaches 60% of the design storage volume
(or total storage volume, if larger than the required design volume and
provided that the required theoretical detention time is maintained).
The minimum theoretical detention time for runoff from a 10-year,
24-hour storm is to be 24 hours, not including drainage area runoff diverted
from the disturbed area and pond. The regulatory authority may approve a
minimum theoretical detention time of not less than 10 hours when the opera-
tor demonstrates (1) that pond design provides a 24-hour equivalent sediment
removal efficiency (as a result of pond configuration, inflow and outflow
locations, baffles to reduce velocity and short-circuiting etc.) and the
pond effluent is shown to achieve and maintain effluent limitations, or (2)
that the particle size distribution or specific gravity of the suspended
matter is such that applicable effluent limitations are achieved and main-
tained. Any minimum theoretical detention time can be approved by the regu-
latory authority, if the operator demonstrates that the chemical treatment
process to be used (1) will achieve and maintain effluent limitations and
(2) is harmless to fish, wildlife, and related environmental values.
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Ponds must be designed by, constructed under the supervision of, and
certified by a registered professional engineer. The ponds must meet USOSM
and USMSHA criteria for design safety and must be inspected four times per
year. Following mining, when drainage water quality is approved, the ponds
must be removed and their sites regraded and revegetated, unless they meet
the applicable requirements for permanent ponds and have been approved as
part of the post-mining land use.
5.7.1.7. Roadway Construction
Roadways also must be constructed so as to minimize erosion. Roadways
of any class are not to cause contributions of suspended solids to
streamflow or to runoff outside the permit area in excess of applicable
limitations to the extent possible using the best technology currently
available (30 CFR 816.150, 160, and 170 and the corresponding subsections of
subchapter 817). Roads are to be located on ridges and on the most stable
available slopes in so far as possible. Roads must not be located in the
channel of a permanent or intermittent stream, and stream fords are
prohibited, unless specifically approved by the regulatory authority
(Subsections 151, 161, and 171). During the construction of Class I and
Class II roads topsoil must be handled in essentially the same manner as
topsoil from the rest of the mine site (Subsections 152 and 162).
Temporary and permanent erosion control measures such as construction
of berms and sediment traps must be implemented during and after road
construction. No more vegetation is to be cleared than the minimum
necessary for any roadway with its ditch and utilities, and ditch drainage
structures must be designed to minimize erosion on Class I roads (those used
for coal haulage) and Class II roads (non-coal roads used more than six
months; Subsections 153, 163, and 173). Unless approved as part of the
permanent post-mining land use, all roads are to be reclaimed and
revegetated following mining.
Maximum road grades are specified. For Class I roads, embankment
outslopes are to be no steeper than 50% (74% where embankment material is at
least 85% rock). Ditches and drains must be built to handle a 10-year
24-hour storm event, and roads must be surfaced with rock, gravel, asphalt,
or other approved materials. For Class II roads steeper grades are allowed.
Embankment rules do not apply on slopes of less than 36% for Class II roads,
but culverts must be spaced closer together than for Class 1 roads. Class
III roads (non-coal roads used less than six months) do not require drainage
ditches along the road; their culverts must be sized for a 1-year, 6-hour
storm. Topsoil must be removed from Class III roads and stockpiled only
where excavation requires replacement of material and redistribution of
topsoil for proper revegetation. Other transportation facilities, such as
railroad spurs, conveyors, or aerial tramways, also are to be constructed so
as to minimize erosion (30 CFR 816.180).
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5.7.1.8. Steep Slope Mining Standards
Special performance standards are applicable to minimize erosion on
lands with slopes in excess of 20°. Steep slope standards are discussed in
Section 5.7.2.
5.7.1.9. Coal Processing Plant Requirements
Coal processing plants must meet the erosion and sediment control
standards applicable to surface mines as described in the preceding
paragraphs (30 CFR 827). Roads serving processing plants are subject to the
same standards as roads serving mines. Reclamation of processing plant
sites is to be accomplished according to the standards applicable to surface
mines. Support facilities incidental to mining operations also must be
located and constructed so as to control erosion, and they must not
contribute suspended solids to streams in excess of applicable standards
(30 CFR 816.181).
Taken together, the USOSM performance standards represent the current
state of technology available to control erosion and minimize the resultant
sedimentation. The State of West Virginia must develop a detailed compari-
son of its regulations to demonstrate conformance with the USOSM permanent
program requirements as part of the basis for approval of the State admini-
stration of SMCRA permits. So long as applicants for New Source NPDES
permits adhere to the USOSM permanent program performance standards, erosion
can be expected to be minimized, and no special NPDES permit conditions for
erosion control are necessary. Should USOSM performance standards not be
enforceable by the regulatory authority, EPA will impose equivalent measures
pursuant to CWA and NEPA.
5.7.2. Steep Slopes
Where the prevailing pre-mining slopes are steeper than 20° (36%),
surface mine operators are required to meet special performance standards
for operations on steep slopes, and permit applications must contain
sufficient information to establish that the operations will meet the
applicable performance standards. Six special standards are mandated by
USOSM (30 CFR 826.12):
Placement of spoil, waste materials, debris (including
clearing and grubbing debris from road construction), and
abandoned or disabled equipment on the downslope is pro-
hibited (except for the controlled placement of road
embankments)
Highwalls are to be completely covered, and approximate
original contours are to be reestablished, with a minimum
static safety design factor of 1.3
Land above the highwall is not to be disturbed without the
approval of the regulatory authority upon a finding that
the disturbance is necessary to blend the solid highwall
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with the backfill, to control runoff, or to provide access
to the area above the highwall
Excess spoil must be placed in approved fills
Woody material is not to be placed in backfills unless the
regulatory authority determines that slope stability will
not deteriorate; chipped woody material may be used as
mulch, if the regulatory authority approves
Unlined or unprotected drainage channels are not to be
constructed on backfills unless approved by the regulatory
authority as stable and not subject to erosion.
Variances from the requirement to return the site to approximate
original contour can be authorized in order to:
Improve the control of water on the watershed.
Make level land available for various uses following
reclamation.
The regulatory authority must determine, on the basis of a completed
application, that the following requirements for the variance are met (30
CFR 785.15):
The purpose of the variance is to make the affected lands
suitable for an industrial, commercial, residential, or
public post-mining land use.
The proposed variance use represents an equal or better
economic or public use than the premining use.
The proposed use meets Subsection 133 criteria for
approvable alternative land uses (viz., compatible with
applicable land use plans and policies; economically and
technically feasible; necessary public facilities to be
provided; financing available; applicable stability,
drainage, revegetation, and aesthetic design standards
met; no threats posed to public health, water flow, or
water pollution; no unreasonable delays in reclamation;
fish and wildlife measures acceptable to State and Federal
agencies; commitment to provide maintenance if intensive
agriculture is proposed and soil and water will support
crops)
The watershed can be deemed by the regulatory authority to
be improved if (1) concentrations of total suspended
solids or other pollutants will be less following mining
than before mining, with improvement to water supply or
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habitat value; or flood hazards from peak discharges will
be reduced; (2) the total volume of flow from the permit
area will not vary so as to affect waterway habitat value
or water use values adversely; and (3) the State
environmental agency approves the plan
The surface owner consents in writing to the variance, and
is aware that the variance cannot be granted without his
consent.
In areas with multiple-seam mining, the spoil not required to reclaim a
permit area may be placed on a pre-existing spoil bench if approved by the
regulatory authority. The spoil must be graded to the most moderate slope
consonant with elimination of the hlghwall (30 CFR 826.16).
Permits that incorporate variances are to be reviewed by the regulatory
authority at established intervals to evaluate progress and make certain
that the operator is complying with the terms of the variance. The regula-
tory authority must be able to impose more stringent requirements by
modifying such a permit at any time if necessary to insure compliance with
SMCRA and USOSM regulations (30 CFR 785.16).
EPA will check to see that standards equivalent to these USOSM perma-
nent program requirements are applicable to New Source mining on slopes
steeper than 20° (36%). In the event that these measures are not
enforceable by the regulatory authority under SMCRA, EPA will impose
equivalent measures under CWA and NEPA.
EPA will consider additional measures to insure long-term post-mining
slope stability on a case-by-case basis where there is any question of
stability as a result of slope steepness. First, EPA will consider applica-
tion of the USOSM steep-slope performance standards on slopes steeper than
14° (25%), rather than the less stringent USOSM threshold of 20° (36%) to
insure long-term slope stability (see discussion in 5.7.4.). As indicated
in Section 2.7. of this assessment, much of the North Branch Potomac River
Basin has slopes of at least 14°. Such slopes have been identified on the
l:24,000-scale map Overlay 2 and must be detailed in State surface mining
application drawings. Second, EPA will consider application of a more
conservative static design safety factor of 1.5, rather than the USOSM
minimum factor of 1.3, in order to preclude slope failure that could
exacerbate additional erosion, alter stream flow, pose a hazard to public
safety, or adversely affect the appearance of the area. Third, where
steep-slope mines are to be reclaimed to approximate original contour, EPA
will check to be sure, if haul or access roads are proposed to be retained
permanently on the solid bench, that steepening of the final slopes beyond
the original grade on account of the roads does not occur; that downslope
haul road embankments below the bench are proposed to be removed following
mining; and that any roads preserved near the top of the highwall have
ditches and other drainage structures adequate to prevent infiltration into
the backfill.
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5.7.3. Prime and Other Farmlands
It is not possible to mine the coal beneath agricultural land by
surface methods without severe short-term impacts on the soil resource and
agricultural production. Long-term impacts, however, can be minimized by
reconstructing the soil resource and treating it in such a manner as to
reestablish pre-mining productivity and by restoring the land to farming use
following the conclusion of mining activities. Detailed OSM standards
apply to land classed as prime farmland. EPA also is concerned with the
protection of other significant agricultural lands when reviewing New Source
NPDES permits.
5.7.3.1. Prime Farmlands
There is relatively little prime farmland in the North Branch Potomac
River Basin because of the prevalence of steep slopes. Soils considered to
be prime in West Virginia are reported in Section 2.7. of this assessment
and were depicted on the l:24,000-scale Overlay 2. Because surface mining
in West Virginia generally occurs along hills and ridges where coal crops
out, prime farmland is not expected to be disturbed by future mining
activity to a significant extent.
New mining operations on prime farmlands that have been used as crop-
land for at least five of the ten years preceding the permit application or
that are otherwise recognized by the regulatory authority as clearly
farmland are considered to be in a special mining category under the USOSM
permanent regulations (30 CFR 785.17). Special performance standards apply
to the removal of topsoil from, and the post-mining restoration of, prime
farmlands.
Each SMCRA permit application must include a soil survey of the permit
area developed in accordance with USDA procedures. Each soil must be
mapped, and a representative soil profile for each must be described.
Original moist bulk density data in accordance with USDA laboratory
procedures must be reported for each major horizon of each soil.
(Appropriate Soil Conservation Service maps, profile descriptions, and bulk
density data may be used where available, if their use is approved by the
regulatory authority.) Methods and equipment to be used for soil removal,
storage, and replacement must be specified. Plans for soil stabilization
before its redistribution and drawings that show the sites of the separate
stockpiles for each horizon must be submitted. Plans for seeding and
cropping during the five years following regrading until performance bond
release must be detailed. (Final graded land is not to be allowed to
erode during seasons when vegetation cannot be established due to weather
conditions.) Data indicating that the proposed reclamation will achieve
post-mining crop yields equivalent to or greater than those extant before
mining are to be provided, along with USDA-estimated yields for each mapped
soil unit under a high level of management. The regulatory authority must
consult USDA-SCS through the State Soil Conservationist concerning the
adequacy of each proposed reclamation plan and must incorporate any USDA
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recommendations as specific permit conditions to provide for more adequate
soil reconstruction. l
Permits may be granted for mining prime farmland if the regulatory
authority finds, upon the basis of a complete application, that:
The approved proposed post-mining use is to be prime
farmland
Any USDA recommendations appear as permit conditions
The applicant has the technological capability to restore
the prime farmland within a reasonable time to yields
equivalent to those on local unmined prime farmland under
equivalent levels of management
The operations will comply with the prime farmland
reclamation performance standards in 30 CFR 823, which are
summarized below.
The soil horizons are to be removed separately, unless the operator has
demonstrated that combined material will create a more favorable plant
growth medium than the original prime farmland soil. Soil not utilized
immediately must be stockpiled in segregated piles and protected against
erosion by quick-growing vegetation or other means. The minimum depth of
reconstructed material is to be 48 in or the depth of root penetration in
the natural soil, whichever is less. A soil depth greater than 48 in may be
specified by the regulatory authority wherever necessary to restore
productive capacity. The backfill material is to be final graded and
scarified before soil placement, unless site-specific evidence demonstrates
that scarification will not enhance the yield of the reconstructed soil.
Moist bulk densities following compaction shall not exceed the original
values by more than 0.1 g/cc over more than 10% of any layer. The
reconstructed surface material is to be protected from erosion using mulch
or other means before it is replanted, and nutrients are to be applied as
needed to establish quick plant growth. The vegetation must be capable of
stabilizing the soil surface against damage by erosion and must contribute
to the recovery of productive capacity. The land must be returned to crop
production within ten years of regrading.
The minimum criteria for determining the success of revegetation on
prime farmland provide that crop production data:
Must be based on a minimum of three years data including
the three-year period immediately preceding bond release
May be adjusted for weather-induced variability in annual
mean crop production, if adjustment is authorized by the
regulatory authority
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Must be equivalent to or higher than the predetermined
target level of crop production specified in the permit,
based on unmined local prime farmland under equivalent
levels of management.
These standards require the restoration of prime farmland to its pre-
mining productive capacity and to agricultural use following mining as a
precondition for release of the operator's performance bond. They provide
for the site-specific input of expertise from USDA in each permit. There-
fore EPA anticipates that no additional New Source NPDES permit conditions
will be necessary to protect the prime farmland resources regulated by
30 CFR 823, so long as the USOSM requirements are enforceable by the regula-
tory agency. If the USOSM standards are not enforceable, EPA will impose
equivalent measures pursuant to CWA and NEPA for restoration of prime
farmland during the period of the NPDES permit.
5.7.3.2. Other Significant Farmlands
Farmlands of concern to EPA, may include lands not classified as prime
farmlands by the SMCRA regulatory authority or USDA-SCS. In order to
minimize the conversion of significant agricultural lands to non-farming
uses as a result of mining, EPA will impose, on a case-by-case basis,
special requirements for New Source NPDES permits when the following types
of sensitive farmlands are proposed for mining:
Unique farmland, and other farmlands of National,
Statewide, or local significance, as defined by USDA-SCS
Farmlands within or contiguous to other environmentally
sensitive areas that protect and buffer those sensitive
areas
Farmlands that may be used for the land treatment of
organic (sewage) wastes
Farmlands with significant capital investments that help
control soil erosion and nonpoint pollution.
For unique or other farmlands of special significance as identified by
USDA-SCS, the productivity of the land following reclamation must be
restored to yields equivalent to unmined local farmland of the same type
under equivalent levels of management. The proposed post-mining land use
will be expected to be farmland.
For farmlands that buffer sensitive areas, no mining will be allowed
prior to a thorough evaluation of the potential effects of the proposed
mining on the adjacent sensitive areas. If the effects are judged by EPA to
be significant and not avoidable or subject to mitigation, then EPA will not
issue a permit prior to formal decisionmaking in compliance with NEPA
through issuance of draft and final EIS's.
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For farmlands that nay be used for the land treatment of organic
(sewage) wastes, the post-mining land use is to allow for the land treatment
of organic wastes. The applicant will be expected to demonstrate that the
postmining soil material is appropriate for such waste treatment.
Farmlands with significant capital investments that help control soil
erosion and non-point pollution must be restored to farmland use and must
have measures to control erosion and non-point pollution equivalent to or
better than those which existed prior to mining. Following reclamation such
lands are to be restored to yields equivalent to or better than unmined
local farmland of the same type under equivalent levels of management and
capital investment.
EPA also will make certain that appropriate measures are proposed by
operators to avoid adverse impacts on off-site sensitive farmlands from
upslope surface mining operations in the vicinity of the sensitive farmlands
and from underground operations that might cause subsidence that may disrupt
sensitive farmlands.
5.7.4. Unstable Slopes
Landslides and related slope failures in West Virginia, as discussed in
Section 2.7. of this assessment, are most likely where the slopes are
between 15% (9°) and 35% (19°). On slopes of less than 15%, there is
relatively little mass movement; on slopes steeper than 35%, relatively
little unconsolidated material can accumulate and become unstable as a
result of mining. Specific topographic situations where landslides are most
likely to develop are indicated in Figure 5-3 . Maps pinpointing unstable
slopes in the North Branch Potomac River Basin at the 1:24,000 scale are not
yet available, but they are being developed under an ongoing program at
WVGES.
Human activity can induce or increase the severity and extent of slope
failure. Drilling and blasting vibration may open existing joints, liquify
fine material along faults, or trigger rockfalls. An excavation may remove
the support from the toe or increase the loading on the crest of a potential
slide. Slope failure associated with coal mining poses a serious problem in
the Basin because of the large areas in the Basin with slopes ranging from
15% to 35%. Qualitative analyses of slope failure associated with mining
activity in the Basin show that such failures generally occur away from
populated areas; thus the damage to local property may be slight.
A few rock strata and soil series have been found to be associated
frequently with mass movement. These include the red shales of the
Monongahela and Conemaugh Groups and the following soil series:
Brookside
Clarksburg
Ernest
Wharton
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coo
1100
BOX AMPHITHEATER
1100
DEBRIS DELTA
DEBRIS WEDGE WITH DEBRIS
DELTA
1100
1060
1040
1020
(000
CRESCENT AMPHITHEATER
-960
980
BOWL
Figure 5-3 SCHEMATIC TOPOGRAPHIC DIAGRAMS OF FIVE WEST
VIRGINIA LANDFORMS THAT ARE HIGHLY SUSCEPTIBLE
TO LANDSLIDES (Lessing etal. 1976)
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Detailed cross-sections and topographic maps must be developed as a part of
each mining application now submitted to WVDNR and also are mandated by
USOSM (30 CFR 779.25; 783.25). Data on geology and soils are required to be
submitted to WVDNR-Reclamation as a part of current mining applications and
also are mandated by USOSM (30 CFR 779.14, 779.21, 783.14, 783.22).
The USOSM performance standards place great emphasis on slope stability
as a primary objective of the engineering for mining and reclamation activi-
ties. The performance standards relating to backfilling and grading and to
fills, water diversions, dams, and roads all bear on slope stability. An
undisturbed natural barrier is to be retained in place, beginning at the
elevation of the lowest coal seam to be mined, to prevent slides at surface
mines (30 CFR 816.99; 817.99). No surface water diversions are to be
located on existing landslides without the approval of the regulatory auth-
ority, and no diversion is to be located so as to increase the potential for
landslides (30 CFR 816.43; 817.43). Diversions are to be able to pass at
least a 10-year storm in order to protect fills, and impermeable linings may
be used to prevent seepage from diversions into fills.
Backfills must meet a professionally engineered design safety factor of
1.3 (30 CFR 816.102; 817.102). Regraded slopes are to be the most moderate
possible, and must cover the highwall. Spoil is to be retained on the solid
part of the bench, and cut and fill terraces may be allowed by the
regulatory authority. Terrace outslopes are not to exceed 50% unless they
are approved as having a static design safety factor of more than 1.3.
Spoil in excess of the quantity needed to eliminate the highwall is to
be placed in designated surface disposal areas on the most gently sloping
and naturally stable sites available. Placement is to be in a controlled
manner to insure stability (30 CFR 816.71; 817.71). Spoil disposal areas
must be constructed with a static design safety factor of 1.5 and must be
inspected and certified by a registered engineer. Where the slope of the
disposal area exceeds 36% or such lesser slope as may be designated by the
regulatory authority, keyway excavations to stable bedrock or rock toe
buttresses to insure stability must be constructed following engineering
analysis of data from on-site borings (30 CFR 780.35). Valley fills and
head-of-hollow fills must meet the general requirements for spoil disposal,
plus special requirements for dimensions, compaction, and drainage
(30 CFR 816.72, 73, and 74 and the corresponding sections of Subchapter
817).
Embankments for sedimentation ponds must meet a design safety factor of
1.5 (30 CFR 816.46; 817.46). Embankments constructed of coal processing
wastes or intended to impound processing wastes also must meet the design
safety factor criterion of 1.5 (Section 85). Embankments for Class I and
Class II roads must meet a design factor of at least 1.25 (Subsections 150
and 160).
Taken together, the USOSM performance standards should provide a
generally acceptable set of controls to regulate mining on unstable slopes.
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If the standards should be unenforceable by the regulatory authority, EPA
will impose equivalent requirements on New Source mines pursuant to CWA and
NEPA. During the review of New Source NPDES permits, EPA will check to
insure that no temporary or permanent spoil placement is proposed downslope
from the solid bench on outcrops of red shales of the Dunkard, Monongahela,
or Conemaugh Groups, or on the thirteen soil series frequently associated
with mass movement that were previously identified.
5.7.5. Subsidence
Subsidence is a surface impact of underground mining. It results when
the material overlying a mined area caves in. This material fills the void
created by the removal of the coal and results in the vertical and
horizontal displacement of the surface. In consequence there can be severe
impacts on surface land uses and the potential influx of water into the
mine. The amount of surface movement is dependent on the geometry of the
coal deposit and topography, the method of mining, and the characteristics
of the coal seam and overlying strata.
For essentially flat-lying deposits such as most West Virginia coals,
the underground excavation width in relation to its height and the depth
from the surface to the coal seam, are important in calculating the amount
of subsidence. In general, the shallower the overburden and the wider the
mine excavation relative to its height, the greater the surface subsidence
will be. Current research that bears on subsidence prediction is discussed
in the following paragraphs.
A critical width to depth ratio must be achieved before the maximum
possible subsidence (S max) will occur in a coal seam of a given thickness
(Figure 5-4 , Case a). At greater widths of excavation (where the ratio is
higher in value), the horizontal distance (and surface area) over which the
maximum subsidence will occur is greater (Figure 5-4 f Case b). On the
other hand, if the mine width is less than the critical width relative to
depth, the maximum possible subsidence will not occur (Figure 5-4 f Case c).
For convenience in planning and analysis, a subsidence factor can be
calculated as the subsidence (S) divided by the seam thickness or height
(H). This factor, if multiplied by 100, Is the percentage of the seam
thickness that will be manifested at the surface as vertical movement.
Many empirical studies have been conducted in Europe to predict and
minimize subsidence effects. They show that, for flat-lying deposits at a
given seam thickness, some critical minimum width of an excavation relative
to its depth must be achieved before any surface effects will be
encountered. For very deep deposits the amount of surface subsidence in
proportion to seam thickness is less, because the underground subsidence is
dampened as it spreads toward the surface through intervening rock layers.
A mean subsidence curve developed from measurements at 157 coal mines
in Britain by the National Coal Board is illustrated in Figure 5-5. For an
excavation width to depth-from-surface ratio of less than 0.25, subsidence
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Horizontal displacement
Subsidence
Seam
w
Minimum critical width for maximum surface subsidence
Horizontal i
Subsidence
Seam
Greater than critical width of excavation
Horizontal displacement
Subsidence
S Smax
Surface
(0
Less than critical width of excavation
Figure 5-4 MEAN SUBSIDENCE CURVES (adapted from
Kohli et al. I960) Not to scale.
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X
*x
CO
o
Id
X
O
z
UJ
o
V)
CO
UJ
o
£
a:
Narrow Excavations
and/or
Deep Seam*
Wider Excavations
and/or
Shallow Seams
1.0
0.86
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.095
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
.2
1.4
EXCAVATION WIDTH -r DEPTH FROM SURFACE (W/D)
Figure 5-5 EMPIRICAL RELATIONSHIP OF SURFACE SUBSIDENCE SEAM
THICKNESS RATIO TO PANEL WIDTH / DEPTH FROM SURFACE
IN GREAT BRITAIN (Notional Coal Board 1966)
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damage is very small; for a W/D ratio of 1.3, a surface subsidence of 90% of
the seam height will result. Two examples can illustrate how this model is
used to predict the effect of excavation width on the amount of subsidence,
based on the empirical ratios presented in Figure 5-5 .
Example 1: If a coal seam 5 ft thick (H - 5 ft) is mined at a depth of 100
feet (D - 100 ft) and the excavation width is 20 ft (W = 20 ft), how much
subsidence (S) would be expected at the surface? For this example,
W 20 £
D - 100 = 0.2, so H = 0.095 (Figure 5-5 )
£
Then 5 = 0.095, and S = 0.48 ft or 5.8 in.
Example 2; If a coal seam 5 ft thick at a depth of 100 ft is mined at an
excavation width of 100 ft, then the surface subsidence is:
100 £
100 = 1, H = 0.86 (Figure 5-5 )
S = 5 x 0.86 = 4.8 ft or 52 in.
These hypothetical examples indicate how increasing an excavation width by a
factor of five could increase the expected subsidence by a factor of nine
(4.3 t- 0.48 = 8.96). The same analysis shows how increasing seam depth
decreases surface subsidence effects. If the excavation width is 100 ft and
the seam depth is 500 ft for the same 5 ft thick coal seam, the expected
subsidence is the same as in Example 1: 0.48 ft. If the 5 ft thick seam
were mined using 20 ft wide excavations at a depth of 500 ft, the subsidence
would be only 0.08 ft (or 1 in).
British National Coal Board (1966) data have been used to predict
subsidence in the United States because of the absence of sufficient
domestic information, but Breeds (in Bise 1980) found the geological
characteristics of the strata in the UK and US to be totally dissimilar. If
the British model is used for subsidence prediction, it will usually result
in a higher value of subsidence than what actually occurs in West Virginia.
Preliminary data show that the predicted subsidence was larger than the
actual subsidence in West Virginia by 30% to 70% (Von Schonfeldt et al.
1980). This is due to the greater proportion of limestones and sandstones
in West Virginia in comparison to the British strata, which are primarily
shales.
A few subsidence areas have been mapped by the WVGES. These are mainly
urban areas. Subsidence potential is classified as severe where mines are
at a depth of 150 ft or less, moderate where the mines are between 150 ft
and 300 ft deep, and slight where the mines are deeper than 300 ft
(Verbally, Dr. Peter Lessing, WVGES, to Mr. Carl Peretti, WAPORA, Inc.,
1980.).
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Longwall, shortwall, and room and pillar mining methods are selected
for specific geological conditions. Room and pillar methods (see Section
3.2.) generally are used at shallow depths because they are the most
economical. Room and pillar methods generally require leaving some amount
of coal in place, even in mined-out panels and gob areas. Deep seams
require that a larger pillar be left to bear the increased pressure
resulting from thicker overburden. Where it is necessary to leave very
large amounts of coal in place, and room and pillar mining may not be
economical. Room and pillar mining with or without secondary recovery of
pillars may result in delayed and unequal subsidence across the land surface
above the mine.
Shortwall mining requires the use of larger supports or props than
longwall mining. Because of these larger supports, shortwall methods
frequently are employed at shallower depths than longwall methods. At
shallow depths stress distributions are such that they are concentrated at
the shortwall supports. Only large supports can tolerate the increased
stress without becoming immobilized. Shortwall mining may be employed to
minimize overall subsidence damage by allowing an immediate and uniform
subsidence to occur over a large area.
Preliminary studies of longwall panels in West Virginia indicate that
the caved or fractured area extends from 35 to 50 times the seam height or
to the surface, whichever comes first (Von Schonfeldt et al. 1980).
Generally this caved area does not reach the surface, because the longwall
mining is conducted at great depths.
An ongoing study by K. K. Kohli and S. S. Peng of the Department of
Mining Engineering of West Virginia University concerning subsidence induced
by longwall mining in the Northern Appalachian Coal Field is one of the
first in-depth studies of subsidence in the US. Preliminary data indicate
that the following findings may be applicable to most subsidence in Northern
Appalachia related to deep underground coal mines:
The angle of draw ranges from 21° to 30° (9 in Figure 5-4).
The angle of draw, extended to the surface, defines the
surface area affected by subsidence.
The subsidence factor ranges from 0.22 to 0.7 and
increases with seam depth. This is a narrower range of
values than those presented in Figure 5-5. This is unlike
the results from shallow seam mining techniques and occurs
because the caved area extends 35 to 50 times the seam
height above the mined area- Above this height the rock
generally settles in continuous, unbroken pieces. The
thicker the overlying rock, the more weight exerted on the
gob and the greater the compaction.
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The subsidence profile can be approximated and predicted
by a simple profile function in most cases. The equation
S = 1/2 S max [1 - tan h (2X ^ B)]
was found to approximate most subsidence profiles where
S = the subsidence at a horizontal distance X from the
point of half-maximum subsidence,
B = a constant that is one-half the critical width,
S max = the maximum subsidence, and
tan h = the hyperbolic tangent.
Time-dependent subsidence, that is, the residual
subsidence after the main subsidence has occurred due to
gradual compaction of the subsided ground, is less than
13% of the total subsidence.
Where mining panels occur horizontally adjacent to each
other, the interpanel effect adds 15% to 33% to the
maximum possible subsidence.
USOSM permanent program regulations implementing SMCRA require that
surface subsidence control be incorporated into underground coal mine design
(30 CFR 817.116). Underground mining activities are to be planned and
conducted so as to prevent subsidence from causing material damage to the
surface, to the extent technologically and economically feasible, and so to
maintain the value and reasonably foreseeable use of surface lands. This
may be accomplished on the one hand by leaving adequate coal in place, by
backfilling, or by other measures to support the surface, or alternatively
by conducting underground mining in a manner that provides for planned and
controlled subsidence. The underground mine operator must prepare and
implement a detailed subsidence control plan approved by the regulatory
authority where the information in the permit application indicates the
presence of sensitive surface resources.
Subsidence control begins during mine planning with the identification
of potentially affected surface structures, water resources, and land uses
(30 CFR 817.122 through .126). Specific surface areas beneath which mining
will occur must be identified, together with the dates of the proposed
mining activity. Measures to control surface damage must be described in
detail. This information must be provided to each resident and owner of
surface property beneath which the mining is to occur at least six months
prior to the start of mining.
The surface owner is to be protected by:
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Approval by the regulatory authority of a mining plan
(including provisions for monitoring) that will prevent
subsidence from causing damage or diminution of the value
or reasonably foreseeable use of the surface area
Establishment of a means to fulfill the legal
responsibility of the mine owner to restore or purchase
any damaged structure and restore damaged land to its
original condition or its reasonably foreseeable use
through purchase of insurance or any other method required
by the regulatory authority.
Mining under urbanized areas can be suspended at any time, if it is found to
cause imminent danger to the surface inhabitants.
Buffer zones must be established in certain areas to prevent
subsidence damage, unless the regulatory authority finds that the buffer
zone is not necessary to protect the surface resource from subsidence (30
CFR 817.126). These zones will have no mining activity, if the regulatory
agency determines that reduced extraction ratios or other mining methods are
insufficient to eliminate damage to the surface features. The areas that
must be considered for buffering include:
Perennial streams
Water impoundments with a storage volume of 20 acre-feet
or more
Aquifers that serve as significant sources of water to
public water systems
Public buildings.
If it is determined by the regulatory authority that sensitive surface
uses exist in the mining area, the permit application must include a
subsidence control plan (30 CFR 784.20). The plan must include a detailed
description of:
Mining methods and the extent to which planned subsidence
is anticipated
Measures employed to prevent subsidence damage, such as
backfilling, leaving support pillars, leaving unmined coal
below ground, together with surface measures such as
structural reinforcement, relocation, and monitoring
Measures to determine the extent of future subsidence
damage, including presubsidence surveys of structures and
other surface features which might be damaged and plans
for monitoring these features during mining.
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West Virginia has no current subsidence control program. The State
must draft regulations to conform to USOSM requirements before it can
administer the SMCRA program. New regulations also are required to
implement the subsidence provisions of the recent WVSCMRA [West Virginia
Code 20-6-l4(b)(l)]. So long as applicants for New Source NPDES permits
adhere to USOSM permanent program performance standards, subsidence can be
expected to be minimized, and no special New Source NPDES permit conditions
for subsidence control are necessary. Should the USOSM performance
standards not be enforceable by the regulatory authority, EPA will impose
equivalent measures under the CWA and NEPA.
5.7.6. Toxic or Acid Forming Earth Materials and Acid Mine Drainage
Toxic or acid-forming materials can be present in the unconsolidated
and consolidated material above a coal deposit, within the coal seam itself,
in the underclay, and in coal preparation waste material. These materials
have the potential to produce acid water and biologically harmful substances
when exposed to air, water, and microorganisms (see Sections 2.7., 3.2., and
5.2.).
Water quality problems as a result of AMD are widespread wherever coal
is mined the North Branch Potomac River Basin (see Section 2.7). The
potential for toxic or acid-forming constituents, exists throughout the
Basin (Arkle et al. 1979, Caruccio 1970, Home et al. 1978, Ferm 1974).
5.7.6.1. Coal Overburden Information Requirements
Both surface coal mining and underground coal mining must meet special
performance standards for operations in toxic or acid-forming strata
(30 CFR 816.48, 816.103, 817.48, and 817.103). In order to determine
whether these special performance standards must be applied, the operator
must document the presence or absence of excessively toxic, acidic, or
alkaline strata as part of his permit application to the SMCRA regulatory
authority.
The USOSM performance standards (30 CFR 779.14) require test borings or
core samples that extend from the surface to the stratum immediately below
the lowest coal seam to be mined (30 CFR 779.14, 783.14). The operator also
is required to provide the following data:
Location of subsurface water table and aquifers
Drill logs which include the rock type and thickness of
each stratum and coal seam
Physical properties (i.e. structure, texture, and
composition) of each stratum including analyses of
compaction and erodibility
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Chemical analyses of each stratum including the underclay
of the lowest coal seam to be mined. The analyses must
include pH, reaction to dilute hydrochloric acid, total
sulfur, and neutralization potential (acid-base accounting
by layer)
Strata or horizons within a stratum which contain
potential acid-forming, toxic, or alkaline materials
Analyses of coal seams including sulfur, pyrite, and
marcasite content.
Original analyses of core samples may be waived by the regulatory authority,
if the authority provides a written statement that equivalent information is
accessible and in the proper form from other sources.
EPA is aware of the significant local fluctuation in toxic/acid and
alkaline overburden, as well as the diversity of the acid potential of coal
seams and underclays in West Virginia. EPA concludes that a minimum of one
original, on-site core analysis of the overburden, coal seams, and
underclays on each mine site, supported by local correlating data, is
necessary to identify toxic spoil and meet the needs of the New Source NPDES
permit program, unless equivalent information is submitted by the applicant.
This analysis is to be made in accordance with the USOSM Draft Experimental
Form (Chapter 4) and the EPA Manual for the Analysis of Overburden (Smith et
al. 1976, Sobek 1978). EPA expects that this information will be developed
for State and Federal mining permit applications, and that no additional
information will be required specifically for the New Source NPDES permit
program.
EPA will require that data on overburden characteristics be retrieved
either by core sampling or from highwall samples, because air drill chips
may easily be contaminated. Fresh exposures along a highwall are to be
sampled for each stratum. Each sample is to be at least 500 ml (roughly
1 pint) in volume for adequate laboratory preparation and evaluation (SMDTF
1979). Core samples are to be protected from moisture (i.e., wrapped in
plastic) and placed in a wooden or other suitable container for transport
and storage prior to analysis. EPA expects that the necessary data will be
included in the mining permit application and will not have to be compiled
specially for the NPDES permit application.
EPA will require data to be submitted from core samples or highwall
samples separated horizontally by no greater than 3,300 ft in previously
unmined areas and in coal seams where potential toxic materials are
suspected. Seams identified by WVDNR-Reclamation as potentially toxic have
been mapped on the l:24,000-scale Map Overlay 3 for the North Branch Potomac
River Basin. The maximum distance between samples may be waived where
applicable local data are submitted that indicate (1) that no toxic or acid-
forming materials are present, or (2) that historically the area has been
free of acid mine drainage.
Depending on the observable rate of lateral change in the local strata,
EPA may require closer spacing of core holes or highwall samples locally
within the permit area to assure adequate data to predict impacts and enable
5-153
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compliance with applicable performance standards for soil and water quality
(Smith et al. 1976). EPA recommends that applicants utilize a maximum
horizontal spacing of 2,000 ft or less in areas of known toxic or uncertain
potential within the permit area, to preclude the need for additional
drilling after permit review is underway. Obvious changes in rock
properties, i.e. weathered vs. unweathered zones within one stratum, are to
be sampled, and the two or more zones should be logged separately (West
Virginia Surface Mining Drainage Task Force 1979).
Pre-mining laboratory analyses of overburden that identify toxic or
potentially toxic materials and allow mine planning to prevent or control
acid mine drainage will be required by EPA. It is expected that this
information will have been prepared by the operator as a part of the SMCRA
application. Acid-base accounts are the principal part of overburden
analysis. They involve two basic measurements: (1) total pyritic sulfur
concentration; and (2) neutralization potential, that is, the calcium
carbonate equivalent of bases present in the various rock layers. The
thresholds for defining overburden materials as toxic or acid-forming are
that either (1) the pH is less than 4 standard units, or (2) there is a net
potential deficiency of 5 tons calcium carbonate equivalent or more per
1,000 tons of materials (Smith et al. 1974).
EPA recognizes that alternative methods to prevent formation of acid
mine drainage include both the thorough blending of toxic or acid-forming
materials with alkaline materials and the selective placement and isolation
of the problem materials in the backfilled areas. EPA also recognizes that
improper blending of these materials can result in toxic or acid leachate.
EPA may approve the blending of overburden materials, provided that the
operator demonstrates that blending, or a combination of blending and
segregation, will produce desirable results. The operator must demonstrate
one or more of the following: 1) that there is sufficient alkaline material
present in the overburden as a whole to produce a net acid-base account, 2)
that other local mine sites with similar overburden and mining methods are
known to have no uncontrollable acid water discharges, or 3) that the toxic
or acid-producing material is not a pyritic sandstone and that it possesses
sufficient neutralizers. Pyritic sandstone ordinarily will be expected to
be segregated.
Figures 5-6 and 5-7 provide examples of acid-base data from two
overburden columns in Preston County, West Virginia. The original topsoil
material in Figure 5-6 is low in total sulfur, but it lacks neutralizers
and shows a net deficiency in calcium carbonate equivalent. The top soil is
not base-deficient enough, however, to be considered a toxic zone. From a
depth of 4 ft to 23 ft the base-rich shale and other mudstones show a net
excess of approximately 10% calcium carbonate equivalent together with a
high total sulfur content. Except for 2 ft of overburden below the
base-rich zone, the remaining overburden material above the Bakerstown Coal
also is high in total sulfur. The net deficiency of calcium carbonate
equivalent places this material in the potentially toxic or toxic category
(Smith et al. 1976).
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ACID-BASE ACCOUNT
SANDSTONE
m
SHALE
MUDSTONE
V T7
LIMESTONE p-I-I
COAL
DERCIENCY
% SULFUR W
1.0 0.1
EXCESS
20-
1 II
100 40 20 10 6 4 2 I I Z 4 6 10 20 60 KX>
CaC03 EQUIVALENT
(TONS/THOUSAND TONS OF MATERIAL)
Rgure 5-6
ACID-BASE ACCOUNT AND ROCK TYPE OF OVER-
BURDEN ABOVE A BAKERSTOWN COAL SEAM.
(EPA 1976)
5-155
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SANDSTONE
SHALE
MUOSTONE
LIMESTONE
COAL
DEFICIENCY
"/.SULFUR (4)
1.0 0.1
ACID-BASE ACCOUNT
EXCESS
100 40 20 10 6 4 2
2 4 6 10 2O 40 KX>
468
pH
CaC03 EQUIVALENT
(TONS/THOUSAND TONS OF MATERIAL)
Figure 5-7 ACID-BASE ACCOUNT AND ROCK TYPE OF THE OVER-
BURDEN ABOVE AN UPPER FREEPORT COAL SEAM
(EPA 1976)
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In Figure 5-7 the net deficiencies of calcium carbonate equivalent
occur at several levels in the material overlying the Upper Freeport Coal.
Three of these zones are considered toxic or potentially toxic: (1) 20 to
24 ft from the surface; (2) at a depth of 51 to 52 ft; (3) the Upper
Freeport Coal zone itself, 58 to 68 ft from the surface. Only the natural
soil (the uppermost 2 in) in the surface 10 ft of material does not have a
net base deficiency. From 10 to 20 ft the column shows a low sulfur content
and slightly alkaline material. Hence the weathered zone as a whole has an
insignificant net deficiency in calcium carbonate that is too small to be
recorded. A potentially toxic layer 1 ft thick at a depth of 52 ft occurs
in the otherwise alkaline zone from 24 to 58 ft in depth.
These two examples of overburden analysis suggest various effective
methods for toxic material placement during mining. Rock from the 5 to
23 ft zone overlying the Bakerstown Coal (Figure 5-6 ) could be segregated
from the remaining overburden during mining. This alkaline material could
be used to cover the potentially toxic material and to form a substitute
topsoil. Wherever in West Virginia the Bakerstown Coal is shallow enough to
be minable by current surface methods, it is accompanied by alkaline
overburden that can be used to form a mine soil with revegetation potential
greater than that of undisturbed topsoil (Smith et al. 1974).
Alternative reclamation operations would be feasible where the Upper
Freeport Coal, as described in Figure 5-7 , is mined. The weathered zone
(upper 20 ft) is usually removed and placed at the surface to form the
minesoil and cover the toxic material below. Fertilization and liming could
produce successful pasture (Smith et al. 1976).
A second option is to remove 5 ft of the potentially toxic material
immediately below the weathered zone and bury it in the backfill away from
the highwall and the top and bottom of the pit. The 25 ft to 58 ft alkaline
section of the overburden then can be blended with the uppermost 20 ft and
used to create minesoil. This option is available only when the overburden
consists primarily of shales and mudstones instead of sandstone.
Blending should be thorough enough to eliminate pockets of potentially
acid-forming materials. Neutralizing agents such as lime can be added or
mixed with overburden materials. Controlled drilling and blasting can keep
the potentially toxic material in relatively large chunks, thus minimizing
the reactive surface, while at the same time fragmenting the alkaline
material to increase its reactive surfaces. If the coal seam and closely
associated materials are acid-forming, the pit should be cleaned prior to
backfilling. Positive drainage can be provided adjacent to the highwall
face and across the pit floor through non-toxic, preferably alkaline
material. If the coal pavement or underclay are potentially toxic, sealants
can be applied to create a non-reactive surface. Possible sealants include
clayey soil, weatherable shale, manufactured compounds, and lime (which can
react with iron in water to form a non-reactive surface (WVSMDTF 1979).
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Total analyses for the trace elements aluminum, arsenic, beryllium
cadmium, chromium, chlorine, copper, iron, lead, manganese, mercury, nickel,
selenium, silver, and zinc are suggested in the USOSM Draft Experimental
Form to show the expected trace element content of future soils that develop
from these rocks and the potential availability of these elements to plants.
Heavy metals are less readily leached from soils or weathered rock than
calcium, magnesium, and potassium. Nevertheless, they may be toxic to
plants and hamper revegetation, especially where pH is less than 4.0. The
natural weathering process is accelerated by mining activity, and low pH
mine waters have the potential to release levels of these heavy metals that
generate significant adverse effects.
EPA may require original laboratory analyses for these metals in areas
where metals are suspected of posing an environmental problem, unless
equivalent data are available from comparable local situations and the
comparable data are submitted with the New Source NPDES permit application.
EPA expects that the data prepared for the regulatory authority pursuant to
SMCRA and WVSCMRA will be adequate to meet the needs of New Source NPDES
permit review, so long as the information requirements outlined in this
section are satisfied.
5.7.6.2. Surface Disposal of Acid-Forming Materials
After toxic, acid-forming, potentially toxic, or potentially acid-
forming materials have been identified, the mine operator who plans surface
disposal of such materials is required to meet special performance standards
and procedures during mining and reclamation operations (30 CFR 816.48,
817.48). The operator already is required by current WVDNR permit
applications to describe in the mine plan the proposed disposal or treatment
method for all toxic or acid-forming materials. USOSM performance standards
for disposal of toxic or acid-forming materials require that the operator:
Minimize water pollution and treat the discharge if
necessary to control pollution (816.41)
Haul or convey and place spoil in compacted horizontal
lifts, graded to allow surface and subsurface drainage to
be compatible with local conditions
Divert runoff around spoil disposal site [816.74(c)J
Unless waived by the SMCRA regulatory authority, reclaim
the mine site contemporaneously with mining activities
(816.100)
During backfill and grading operations, haul and compact
spoil in order to prevent leaching of toxic or acid-
forming materials, minimize adverse effects on receiving
waters and groundwater, and support postmining land use
(816.101).
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Requirements for covering coal and toxic or acid-forming materials
during backfilling and grading operations include the following measures
(30 CFR 816.103 and 817.103 and WVDNR-Reclamation Regulations 1978:
Chapter 20-6 Section 9.03):
A minimum of 4 ft of cover over 1) all coal seams, 2)
toxic or acid-forming materials, 3) combustible materials,
4) materials deemed unsuitable by WVDNR-Reclamation for
thinner cover
The 4 ft or more of cover material must be non-toxic,
non-acid forming, and non-combustible
Toxic or acid-forming materials must be tested and treated
or blended with suitable materials to neutralize toxicity
if necessary
WVDNR-Reclamation may require 1) greater than 4 ft of
non-toxic and non-acidic cover, 2) special compaction of
toxic or acidic materials, and 3) isolation of these
materials from groundwater in order to minimize the
potential effects of upward migration of salts, exposure
due to erosion, and formation of toxic or acid seeps, to
insure adequate depth for plant growth, and to meet any
special local conditions
Placement or storage of toxic or acid materials is to be
sufficiently distant from drainage courses to prevent or
minimize any threat of water pollution
Methods and design specifications for compacting
materials, prior to covering any toxic or acid-forming
materials, must be approved by the SMCRA regulatory
authority.
Figures 5-8 and 5-9 illustrate water and overburden handling measures
currently recomended in West Virginia.
Overburden thickness is variable across the Basin and locally within
individual mines. Fluctuations in overburden thickness may be due to
changes in the depositional environment, post-depositional erosion and
tectonics, topography, and elevation of coal seam. All toxic materials must
be covered, whether the overburden is thin or thick (816.104, 105).
"Red dog" is the West Virginia coal miner's term for a solid,
non-volatile combustion product of the oxidation of coal or coal refuse.
The term is commonly applied to coal or refuse that has been burned in place
prior to mining. The material is red in color and traditionally has been
used for road surfacing in the Basin (WVDNR 1979). USOSM permanent program
regulations require that no toxic or acid-forming materials be used for road
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5-160
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ICM A.-A
Is To BB
Og OTVCR Sbi-OkBuc M*>-re.R>*4_.
FIPST CUT
Figure 5-9 CROSS-SECTION VIEWS OF CONTOUR
SURFACE MINE SHOWN IN FIGURE 5-8
(Smith 1979).
5-161
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Toiuc
CUT
Secnow C-C
-------
surfacing (816.154, .164, and .174). Because red dog commonly is an acid-
forming material, the red dog now generally must be handled as any other
toxic overburden. EPA will require standard overburden analysis of any red
dog material proposed for use on any road surface to determine its toxic or
acid-forming potential. Unless the material is demonstrated not to be
acid-forming, its use as a road material will be denied.
USOSM performance standards mandate that the waters of the permit area
and adjacent areas be protected from the potential acid or toxic drainage
from acid or toxic forming overburden (30 CFR 816.48 and 817.48). Drainage
from these toxic or acid forming materials is to be avoided by identifying,
isolating, burying, or treating where necessary, all overburden material
that the regulatory authority considers a potential threat to water quality
or vegetation. In particular:
Toxic or acid materials are to be isolated (816.103 and
817.103)
Spoil is to be buried or treated within 30 days after
exposure, and the regulatory authority may require a
period of less than 30 days
Temporary storage of the toxic materials may be approved
by the regulatory authority if the operator can
demonstrate 1) that burial or treatment of the toxic
material is not feasible and 2) the material does not pose
a potential water pollution problem or other adverse
environmental effect
The temporarily stored toxic or acid material must be
handled as soon as it becomes feasible to do so
All temporarily stored, potentially toxic or acid-forming
material, is to be placed on top of impermeable material,
sealed, or otherwise protected from erosion and contact
with surface water.
Subsurface water usually is encountered at the highwall, in or near the
coal seam. The mine operator, by determining the dip of the strata, can
identify likely areas for subsurface water discharge. With this knowledge,
a mine operator can avoid placing toxic materials in such areas.
Alternatively, up-dip areas can be used for toxic spoil placement, thus
preventing or minimizing contact with subsurface waters. Special care in
blasting procedures on the last highwall cut also can be used to reduce
highwall fracturing and thus reduce the potential infiltration of
groundwater. Where pavement materials are found to be alkaline, shallow
fragmenting of the coal pavement can help to minimize the potential for acid
mine drainage formation. By fragmenting the pavement, subsurface water
flowing into the backfilled site can be directed into and across the
alkaline pavement.
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Where large volumes of subsurface water are encountered, the coal
pavement can be trenched and/or treated to provide routes for the water to
exit the fill in a planned and controlled manner. Non-toxic stone, as well
as durable pipes or culverts, can be used in the trench to provide a quick
conveyance system. Construction of collection and conveyance drainage
systems for springs and underground seeps is also a useful subsurface water
control measure to prevent entry of groundwater into potentially toxic
materials stored in fill areas.
The potential for surface water to enter underground mines is greatest
where subsidence has taken place. Thus special attention should be given to
areas where subsidence is most likely to occur, as for example, where there
are numerous, thin strata above the coal seam (as opposed to few, massive
beds). Surface topography also may affect the potential for subsidence,
with greater probability of mine roof problems beneath ridges than beneath
hollows. The measures taken to prevent unwanted subsidence during mining
(timbering, roof bolting, trusses, etc) may be effective in protecting
workers during the relatively short-term period of active mining (seldom
more than 25 years). In the long term, however, they are not likely to
prevent surface subsidence in many situations, and consequently the quantity
of potentially acid drainage may increase long after a mine has been
abandoned.
5.7.6.3. Underground Disposal of Spoil and Coal Processing Wastes
Spoil from surface and underground mines and coal processing plant
wastes can be returned to underground mine workings, provided that such
disposal has been planned and approved by the SMCRA regulatory authority and
by USMSHA. The USOSM-mandated reclamation plan must protect the hydrologic
balance. Surface water and samples groundwater quantity and quality are to
be collected, analyzed, and reported (30 CFR 817.52). The determination of
the probable hydrologic consequences during all seasons due to the proposed
underground disposal is to document existing and predict future levels of
the following parameters:
Dissolved and total suspended solids
Total iron and manganese
pH
any other parameters designated by the SMCRA regulatory
authority.
Pursuant to CWA and NEPA, EPA will exercise its responsibility to preserve
water quality by requiring that the operator furnish the results of analyses
of total acidity and alkalinity (as CaC03) and of heavy metals
concentrations in groundwater and surface water within the permit area and
adjacent streams as discussed in the previous sections. Ordinarily, the
5-164
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information developed for the regulatory authority pursuant to SMCRA will be
adequate for EPA review.
As part of plans for the proposed disposal of spoil underground, the
operator is to provide locations and dimensions of existing spoil areas,
coal and other waste piles, dams, embankments, other impoundments, and water
and air pollution control facilities within the permit area (783.25 and
784.11). Each disposal plan is to include the disposal methods and sites
for placing the underground development waste or excess spoil generated by
surface mines (816.71-.73 and 817.71-.73). Each disposal plan is to
describe the operator's geotechnical investigations, engineering design, and
proposed the construction, operation, maintenance, and removal of structures
(784.19).
No surface water is to be diverted or discharged into underground mine
workings unless the operator can demonstrate to the SMCRA regulatory
authority that the procedure will abate water pollution and will be a
controlled flow discharge meeting applicable effluent limitations (816.42).
The existing source NPDES effluent limits may be exceeded if approved by the
SMCRA regulatory authority, but such approvals are restricted to: 1) coal
processing waste, 2) fly ash from coal-fired facilities, 3) sludge from acid
drainage treatment facilities, 4) flue gas desulfurization sludges, 5) inert
materials used for stabilizing underground mines, and 6) underground
development wastes.
In order to return coal processing waste to abandoned underground
workings, the operator is to describe to the regulatory authority the
design, operation, and maintenance of the proposed processing waste disposal
facility (785.25). The coal processing waste may be returned to underground
workings according to a waste disposal program approved by the regulatory
authority and USMSHA under the requirements for the disposal of excess spoil
(30 CFR 780.35.). A description of the disposal site and design of spoil
disposal structures (816.71-.73), including a report on the geotechnical
investigation of the disposal site and adjacent areas, is required by the
various subparts of 780.35 and 816.71-.73. The requirements are detailed in
Chapter 6 of the USOSM Draft Experimental Form.
5.7.6.4. Coal Preparation Plant and Other Refuse Piles
All coal preparation plants generate waste materials with the potential
to pollute nearby receiving streams (Torrey 1978, EPA 1979; see Section
3.2.). The solid wastes generated at coal preparation plants include both
coal dust and fine and coarse rock material. Preparation plants that
utilize water produce wastewater and process sludges. Various undesirable
elements are separated from the coal during the cleaning process; therefore,
greater concentrations of acid-forming or toxic elements such as sulfur
compounds are present in the coal refuse piles than in the original coal.
The exposure of coal mine or preparation plant refuse to air, runoff water,
and microbiological activity is likely to produce undesirable or toxic
water quality in nearby surface waters and groundwater. Coal storage areas
5-165
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also have a high potential to produce undesirable drainage. Excess
suspended material and acidity are a potentially severe drainage problem
from coal storage areas in the Basin (Torrey 1978).
Toxic or acid-forming materials exist in surface gob piles (that is,
disposal sites for underground mine workings, coal preparation plant wastes,
and wastes generated by coal processing). Coal waste piles have the
potential to produce various types of toxic conditions ranging from low pH
leachate to effluent with complex organic and inorganic chemicals in
concentrations damaging to the survival of organisms and to other
established water uses (Torrey 1978). Leachate may be produced continuously
or intermittently, and it frequently has resulted in long-term degradation
of the surrounding surface water and groundwater system.
Coal refuse piles, coal preparation wastes, and coal processing wastes
potentially are more toxic or acid-producing than the original overburden or
coal seam. Because preparation plant waste piles may generate water
pollution, EPA will review the pre-mining overburden, underclay, and coal
seam analyses including trace element content for each coal seam and
overburden that is to be processed at a proposed plant and an in-depth,
physical and chemical analysis of the untreated surface runoff and seepage
from each waste or refuse pile at the plant (if any). So long as data
are developed by the applicant as described in Chapter 4 of the USOSM Draft
Experimental Form, no additional information is likely to be needed by EPA.
Both suspended solids and acid mine drainage water pollution problems
associated with preparation plant facilities can be classified into two
general types: 1) process-generated waste waters and 2) area wastewater in
the vicinity of plant facilities, coal storage areas, and refuse disposal
areas. Process water control can entail various clarification techniques to
reduce the typically high concentrations of solids. Measures include froth
flotation, thickeners, flocculation, settling, vacuum filtration, and/or
pressure filtration. If coal fines are separated from other particulates,
such as clay, these fines can be either blended with clean coal or
transported to a refuse disposal site. Process water can be recycled.
Excess process water sometimes requires treatment to meet effluent
limitations prior to discharge (pH, iron, etc). The most common practice
is to add lime to make-up water after clarification in settling ponds, but
it can also be added prior to recycling through these ponds. More
sophisticated treatment processes, as described in Section 5.7.6.7., are
employed only when the process water is of extremely poor quality.
Water pollution control related to preparation plant ancillary areas
includes preventive and treatment practices related to refuse piles, slurry
ponds, and coal storage sites. Various measures are utilized by preparation
plant operators to control drainage from these areas. Site selection of
refuse piles, slurry ponds, and coal storage areas is an important factor
in minimizing drainage problems. These sites can be isolated from surface
and ground waters. Refuse piles and coal storage sites are usually located
upslope from slurry ponds or other settling ponds and treatment facilities.
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In this way, any drainage can be directed into the ponds for settling and/or
treatment prior to reuse or discharge. Water diversion systems can be
incorporated into site development, and, if springs or large surface runoff
quantities are expected, subdrains also can be employed.
The following techniques can be used during temporary refuse pile
construction:
Proper compaction of refuse to reduce infiltration
Minimizing exposed surface area during construction
Utilizing relatively uniform-sized refuse to insure good
compaction with fines to reduce air and water permeability
Construction of a clay liner over the pile followed by
topsoil placement and revegetation after desired depth of
refuse is reached.
Additional slurry pond control measures include:
Avoiding toxic refuse in slurry pond retention
embankments
Minimizing the velocity of slurry influent into the pond
and maximizing the slurry travel distances through the
pond to optimize solids settling
Designing embankments for proper impermeability and
stability to minimize seepage
Construction of diversion and conveyance systems below the
downstream toe of pond retention dam to collect, treat (if
necessary), and release or pump seepage back to the
retention pond
Removing clarified water from points near top of pond
water surface
Returning clarified water to preparation plant for
re-use.
An excellent coal storage pollution preventive measure is the use of
bins, silos, or hoppers as storage facilities instead of open piles. More
detailed descriptions of the pollution control techniques associated with
preparation plants are available in EPA (1976) and W.A. Wahler and
Associates (1978).
Permit area groundwater must be analyzed along with the surface water.
The trace element analysis generally must include those elements listed in
Section 4.17 of the USOSM Draft Experimental Permit Application Form, as
5-167
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previously discussed in Section 5.7.6.1. EPA may require additional trace
element analyses if appropriate, or may reduce the number of trace element
analyses listed in Section 4.17 of the Form if the operator demonstrates in
writing that certain trace elements are not present or do not pose an
ecological hazard to surrounding biota or pose a threat to human health
(Torrey 1978, EPA 1976a).
Coal processing wastes are not to be placed in valley fills (30 CFR
816.71) or head of hollow fills (816.72). They may be placed, however, in
other excess spoil fills, if the processing wastes are demonstrated not to
form acid or toxic components in leachate. Alternative coal processing
waste disposal methods include placement in coal processing waste banks
(816.81, .85; 817.81, .85), return to underground workings (816.88 and
817.88), and use for the construction of dams and embankments (816.92, .93;
817.92, .93). Non-coal waste disposal sites which have the potential to
produce toxic or acid leachate are to be operated in compliance with all
local, State, and Federal requirements. No solid waste may be left at
refuse embankments or impoundment sites, or within 8 ft of any outcrop of
coal or coal storage area (30 CFR 816.89 and 817.89).
Coal processing waste can be used to construct dams and embankments to
impound other coal processing wastes only if the physical and chemical
analyses of the coal waste demonstrate to the regulatory authority that
1) structural stability will be satisfactory (30 CFR 816.71, .93; 817.71,
.93) and 2) such use of the waste material will not degrade the downstream
water quality (816.91, 817.91).
Coal processing waste banks, dams, and embankments must be constructed
with a minimum long-term safety factor of 1.5 [816.85(b), 817.85(b)]. A
sub-drainage system must be constructed to intercept groundwater (817.83,
816.83). The waste material must be compacted in layers 24 in thick or
less, with 90% of maximum dry density as determined by standard highway
(AASHTO) specifications [816.85(c)]. The waste must be covered by a minimum
of 4 ft of cover that is not toxic or acid-forming [816.85(d)] in a manner
that does not impede flow from sub-drainage systems. All leachate and
surface runoff must satisfy effluent standards (816.42, 817.42). USOSM
performance standards for erosion, sediment, and water pollution control are
to be met (816.41-2, .45-6, .52, .55; and corresponding Subsections of
Subchapter 817). All banks, dams, and embankments are to be revegetated in
the manner of other surface mined lands (816.111-.117). If 4 feet of
non-toxic material are not readily available or would require extensive
disturbance of pristine areas, then the regulatory authority may approve a
thinner cover, provided that all water quality standards are maintained.
The regulatory authority also has the option to approve 1) disposal of
wastes from outside the permit area on a mine site, and 2) modification of
disposal requirements to allow the use of dewatered fine coal waste (that
is, wastes that pass a Standard No. 28 sieve) in construction (816.85,
817.85).
5-168
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Dams or embankments for impounding waste materials are to be designed
so that 90% of the water stored during the design precipitation event is
removed within a 10-day period. In addition to meeting the criteria in the
surface mining regulations, coal processing waste banks and dams or
embankments must comply with existing design safety rules promulgated by the
Mine Safety and Health Administration (30 CFR 77.216).
All road embankments are required to be constructed using materials
which have minimal amounts of organic material, coal or coal blossom, frozen
material, wet or peat material, natural soils with organic matter, or any
other material regarded as unsuitable by the SMCRA regulatory authority.
Toxic or acid-forming materials may be used to construct road embankments
for Class 1 roads located on coal processing waste banks, provided that the
operator can demonstrate that no acid will be discharged from the coal
processing bank. Without exception, no acid-bearing refuse material may be
used beyond the coal processing bank. Other acid or toxic materials from
road excavations are to be disposed according to the methods previously
described (30 CFR 816.48, .81, and .103), and no acid or toxic forming
material is to be used for road surfacing for any class of roads (816.154,
.164, and .174).
EPA will require the identification of all potentially toxic or acid-
forming coal processing wastes and excess spoil materials as outlined in
this section. EPA expects that in the majority of permit applications, the
data prepared for the regulatory authority pursuant to SMCRA and WVSCMRA
will be adequate to meet the needs of the New Source NPDES permit review, so
long as the special information requirements outlined in this section are
satisfied.
Each mining operation that plans to construct a coal processing plant
or support facility outside the permit area for a specific mine must obtain
a surface mining permit for that facility (30 CFR 785.21). Approval of the
permit for such an operation presupposes that the permit applicant has
demonstrated to the regulatory authority in writing that all applicable
USOSM requirements will be met during the construction, operation,
maintenance, modification, reclamation, and decommissioning of the coal
processing plant (30 CRF 827.12). Specifically, the following measures are
mandated:
Signs to be placed in the field to point out coal
processing plant, coal processing waste disposal area, and
water treatment facility (30 CFR 816.1)
All roads and other transport or associated features to be
built, maintained, and reclaimed in accordance with
Class I, II, and III road requirements (Sections
816.150-.181)
Any drainage modification, disturbance, or realignment to
be made according to 30 CFR 816.44 specifications
5-169
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Sediment to be controlled by structures, if required by
regulatory authority (30 CFR 816.45-46); discharge
limitations to be met (816.41-.42), together with other
applicable State or Federal law in any disturbed area
related to the coal processing plant or support facility
All permanent impoundments to protect the hydologic
balance during and after plant operation (816.49 and .56)
Water wells (816.53) and water supply rights (816.54) to
be protected
Coal processing waste (816.81-.88), solid waste (816.89),
and excavated materials (816.71-73) to be disposed
according to the appropriate regulations
Sediment and discharge control structures to be in
accordance with 816.47
Fugitive dust emission control to be provided (816.95)
Areas sensitive to fish and wildlife to be protected from
adverse impacts (816.97)
All other surface areas, including slide areas, to comply
with 816.97
Adverse impacts anticipated by the regulatory authority on
underground mines or as a result of underground operations
to be minimized by proper techniques which include but are
not limited to those in 816.55 and 816.79
Reclamation, revegetation, water storage, and any other
storage facility to comply with 816.56, 816.100-.106,
816.111-.117, and 816.131-.133
All structures related to the coal processing plant to be
in accordance with Section 816
All structures located on prime farmland to meet the
requirements outlined in Section 823.
5.7.6.5. In-Situ Coal Processing
Special permanent program performance standards are required for the
in-situ processing of coal (30 CFR 828). All operators who plan to operate
in-situ coal processing must comply with 30 CFR 828.11 and 817. Unless
approved by the regulatory authority, fluid discharges into holes or wells
are to be avoided. Operators must minimize annular injection between drill
5-170
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hole wall and casing and must prevent process fluids from entering surface
waters.
All toxic, acid-forming, or radioactive gases, solids, or liquids which
may pose a fire, health, safety, or other environmental hazard as a result
of coal mining and recovery must be treated, confined, or disposed in such a
way as to protect the hydrologic balance, biota, and other related
environmental values. Process recovery fluids are to be controlled to
prevent horizontal flow beyond the affected area identified in the permit
and to prevent vertical leakage into overlying or underlying aquifers. All
groundwater quality within the permit area and adjacent areas, including
groundwater above and below the production zone, is to be returned to
approximate pre-mining levels. EPA expects that all New Source NPDES permit
applicants will meet the current USOSM performance standards for 1) in-situ
or offsite coal processing, 2) preservation of hydrologic balance, and
3) all other pertinent regulations including 4) any special requirements or
waivers approved in writing by the SWCRA regulatory authority.
5.7.6.6. Exploration Practices
Another potential source of groundwater and surface water contamination
is exploration bore holes, other drill or boreholes, wells, and other
exposed openings associated with coal mines. Holes that have been
identified to be used for coal processing waste or water disposal into
underground workings or to monitor groundwater conditions are to be cased,
sealed, or otherwise managed under approval of the regulatory authority to
prevent acid or toxic drainage and to minimize adverse environmental
effects. The SMCRA regulatory authority may require temporary or permanent
sealing of these holes unless they are to be used as monitoring wells
(30 CFR 816.14-.15). All holes are to be temporarily sealed before use and
protected by other measures approved by the regulatory authority
(30 CFR 816.14 and WVDNR-Reclamation Regulations 1978: Chapter 20,
Section 9.0). After use, each hole is to be capped, sealed, backfilled, or
otherwise managed under Section 816.13. After the regulatory authority has
approved the closing of the hole or the transfer of waterwell rights
(Section 816.53), the hole must be closed permanently to prevent water
access to the underground workings and keep acid or other toxic drainage
from entering ground or surface waters (816.15). Reclamation requirements
applicable to openings associated with mining or with coal processing plants
are listed under 30 CFR 780.18. The reclamation plan is to include the
description, including cross-sections and maps, of the appropriate measures
to be used to seal or manage mine openings, and to plug, case, or manage
exploration holes, other bore holes, wells, and other openings within the
permit area (816.13-.15).
Exploration holes can be drilled, vegetation can be cleared and
grubbed, and roads can be constructed without regulation, if these
operations are solely for the purpose of timbering, because timbering is not
regulated pursuant to CWA. The 1980 surface water quality regulations
5-171
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proposed by WVDNR-Water Resources and SWRB extend turbidity limitations to
silvicultural operations.
EPA will require that all New Source coal mines and coal processing
plants be responsible for reclaiming or transfering water rights for all
openings within each NPDES New Source permit area in order to assure
negligible degradation of water quality and quantity by uncased,
unreclaimed, or improperly managed holes or wells in the permit area, unless
equivalent measures are mandated by the SMCRA regulatory authority. EPA
recognizes that permit data requirements and design plans for the proposed
disposal of coal processing wastes to underground mine workings are to be
met prior to issuance of each SMCRA permit. EPA will require an analysis of
drainage water from the disposal sites prior to approval of underground
waste disposal. The chemical analysis of the water at minimum should
include, unless otherwise demonstrated, an analysis of the trace elements
listed in Section 4.17 of the USOSM Draft Experimental Form and discussed in
Section 5.7.6.1. of this assessment. Potentially toxic concentrations of
trace contaminants may require additional trace contaminant analysis of
1) waste piles and/or 2) alternative disposal methods.
5.7.6.7. Other AMD Control Measures
The primary reaction during AMD formation is the oxidation of reduced
pyritic material; therefore, the less time pyritic material is exposed to
air and water, the less acid will be formed. The geochemistry of acid mine
drainage formation is complex, and ongoing research is beginning to shed
light on the numerous and as yet poorly identified environmental conditions
which may affect or control the amount and rate of acid production in the
soil overburden, coal refuse piles, underground mines, surface water, and
groundwater (verbally, Dr. Renton, WVGES, July 11, 1980; Torrey 1979).
Even after potentially acid-forming material has been covered in
accordance with the regulations previously described, oxygen may be
transported to the pyrite by winds and by molecular diffusion from air and
water in the soil. On slopes subject to prevailing winds, the wind pressure
on the spoil surface increases as the slope increases in steepness,
resulting in a greater depth of oxygen movement into steeply sloped spoil
areas (Doyle 1976).
Molecular diffusion occurs where there is a difference in oxygen
concentration between two points, such as the spoil surface and some point
within the spoil. The rate of oxygen transfer is strongly dependent on the
phase of the fluid and is generally higher in the gaseous state. For
example, oxygen diffusion through air is approximately four orders of
magnitude (10,000 times) as rapid as through water (Doyle 1976). A thin
layer (several millimeters) of water, then, may act as an effective barrier
against exposure of pyrite to oxygen. Dry, cracked soil may be ineffective
as an oxygen barrier.
5-172
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Artificial barriers can be successful, at least during the first few
years, but their installation and maintenance costs may be prohibitive or
may restrict them to special conditions. Relatively high-cost surface
sealants such as lime, gypsum, sodium silicate, and latex have been tried,
but these usually require repeated applications and to date have shown only
marginal effectiveness.
Permanent water barriers also can be effective oxygen barriers for
underground pyritic material. Water barriers should account for water
losses due to evaporation of fluctuations in the seasonal water table (Doyle
1976). Experimental methods also have been suggested to prevent AMD:
Fly ash disposal in underground workings on spoil (Adams
1971)
Silicate treatment (EPA 1971)
Various inert gas atmospheres to rainiiiize oxidation of
pyrites (EPA 1971).
Treatment measures for AMD in some situations must be employed because
the absolute prevention of acid formation is not yet demonstrably attainable
under all field conditions. Alternative treatment measures may be employed
separately or in conjunction with one another and with the prevention
techniques previously described. Treatment measures vary from simple and
inexpensive to complex and costly systems, depending on site conditions and
the quality and quantity of AMD to be treated. The most complex treatment
usually is developed at underground mines, where AMD quality can pose
severe, long-term problems at fixed discharge points. Erosion and sediment
control measures including water diversion structures that prevent water
from coming into contact with acid-forming materials or transport the water
quickly through the area can reduce the total volume of water that requires
treatment. Diversions and treatment measures can be used both during and
after mining and reclamation operations.
Simple batch handling methods, such as spraying ponds with hydrated
lime slurries and hand or drip feeding of neutralizing agents into ponds ot
channels are sometimes used. Prefabricated neutralizing units capable of
continuous operation require no electrical power and generally use soda ash
or sodium hydroxide. Whereas these first two methods are usually applied
for simple, low pH problems, more complex and expensive neutralization
systems are adopted for high acidity or excessive levels of iron or other
soluble metals. Generally included in these systems are facilities for flow
equalization (holding ponds), acidity neutralization, iron oxidation
(aeration), and solids removal (mechanical clarifiers or earthen settling
basins, with coagulant addition if necessary). Many variations to this
basic system exist, and various alkali reagents are used, although lime is
the predominant reagent. Where neutralization is not required, excessive
concentrations of iron and suspended solids can be reduced by aeration and
sedimentation.
5-173
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Neutralization is the most widely used method of acid mine drainage
treatment. Potential advantages of a properly maintained neutralization
system are:
Removal of acidity and addition of alkalinity
Acceptable pH of discharge water
Reduction or removal of heavy metals, which are
precipitated at neutral or alkaline pH C>7.0; Figure 5-10)
At high pH (>9), iron precipitates as ferric hydroxide
Sulfate can be removed from highly acidic mine drainage
when enough calcium ion is added to exceed the solubility
of calcium sulfate (Doyle 1976).
Disadvantages of neutralization treatment of acid mine drainage are:
Hardness may be increased
Sulfate reduction may be inadequate (sulfate
concentrations usually exceed 2,000 mg/1)
Final iron concentration rarely is less than 3 to 7 mg/1
A waste sludge of potentially toxic and acid-forming
material must be removed and disposed
Total dissolved solids usually increase to levels
unacceptable under New Source NPDES limitations.
The standard neutralization process involves adding an alkaline
reagent, mixing and aerating the liquid (coal preparation plants), and
removing precipitates. In order of decreasing popularity, the standard
reagents employed by mine operators are: lime, limestone, anhydrous
ammonia, soda ash, and sodium hydroxide. The water pumped from a pit or
from underground workings can be treated by connecting a lime slurry tank to
the suction end of the pump so that the pump not only draws the acid mine
drainage to the lime-filled tank, but acts as the mixing agent for the lime
and water. The discharge should pass through and be retained in a settling
pond to reduce suspended precipitates. Chemical flocculants can be added to
the pond in order to reduce water retention time within the pond yet
effectively settle fine particles. Commercial equipment is available with
automatic pH control, but these systems require additional maintenance by
operators.
Limestone is cheaper and produces a lesser volume of denser sludge than
lime. It is difficult to raise pH above 6 with limestone. Limestone is
ineffective in removing iron from water when the iron is present primarily
5-174
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M.n
in.o
9.n
u
8-0
7-0
6-0
5-0
4-0
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OF METAL IONS AS HYDROXIDES (EPA 1973)
5-175
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as ferrous compounds. The dissolution of acid-forming materials takes place
on particles of pyrite, but the neutralization reaction takes place on the
particles of limestone. The resultant precipitate in time coats the
limestone and effectively seals it from further reaction with the acid
solution.
Anhydrous ammonia can be economically attractive because it allows
simplified operation and maintenance. One drawback is higher reagent cost
than lime or limestone. Ammonia-neutralized acid mine drainage may contain
levels of ammonia toxic to fish and other aquatic biota. It also may
increase nitrate levels in receiving waters and accelerate the
eutrophication process. Ideally, anhydrous ammonia treatment is utilized
under specilized conditions involving small volumes of AMD where the treated
water can be applied to spoil banks as irrigation water with little or no
direct discharge to waterways.
Soda ash can be an adequate temporary treatment for small flows. Its
major disadvantage is lack of pH control. At very high flows the system may
undertreat the AMD. Soda ash cost also exceeds the cost of lime or
limestone.
Sodium hydroxide can be used in remote locations and is best suited for
small flows in conjunction with a settling pond. Sodium hydroxide is
appreciably more expensive than lime or limestone.
Lesser known and usually more expensive mitigative measures in addition
to those previously described are:
o Ion exchange (EPA 1972)
o Combination of limestone-lime neutralization of ferrous
iron acid mine drainage (EPA 1978)
o Flocculation and clarification (EPA 1971)
o Microbiological treatment (EPA 1971)
o Reverse osmosis demineralization (EPA 1972)
o Rotating disc biological treatment (EPA 1980).
Treatment costs and iron removal efficiencies vary among the several
alternative AMD treatment processes and are affected by the oxidation state
of the iron to be treated. Limestone alone is considered infeasible for
neutralization of AMD when the concentration of ferrous iron (Fe+2) is
in excess of 100 mg/1. The first example in Table 5-22 illustrates the
effectiveness of limestone treatment with and without oxidation of ferrous
iron. Limestone alone was capable of reducing the total iron concentration
only from 270 to 150 mg/1 at a cost of $0.12 per 1,000 gallons. Following
injection of hydrogen peroxide (H202) to oxidize the ferrous iron, the
5-176
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total iron concentration of 270 mg/1 was reduced to 6.2 mg/1 at a total
reagent cost of only $0.05 per 1,000 gallons.
The use of coagulants can improve effluent quality at about $0.10
additional cost per thousand gallons above the cost of limestone
neutralization alone. Example 2 (Table 5-23) shows that a total iron
concentration can be reduced from 230 to 0.9 mg/1 at a cost of about $0.22
per 1,000 gallons by limestone neutralization combined with extended
aeration, sludge recycling, and coagulant addition.
Lime (calcium hydroxide, also known as hydrated lime) neutralization at
present is the most common treatment process for AMD. This process is
effective regardless of the oxidation state of the iron. Lime is most
commonly used for treating ferrous iron, because it is 30% more expensive
than limestone where the iron is already in the ferric state. Example 3
illustrates the effectiveness of lime treatment with coagulant addition for
iron removal. Iron is removed more efficiently at higher pH. An initial
concentration of 280 mg/1 total iron was reduced to 2.1 mg/1 and 10.0 mg/1
total iron by lime neutralization to pH 8 and pH 7, respectively. Lime
treatment produces a sludge easier to handle than limestone neutralization.
A combination limestone-lime treatment that treats total iron concentrations
of 290 mg/1 to produce 1.4 mg/1 in the effluent can reduce reagent cost by
30% as compared with lime neutralization alone ($0.09 versus $0.12 per 1,000
gallon; Examples 4A and 4B, Table 5-23).
The data in Example 5 (lime-soda treatment) are from a full-scale plant
in Altoona, Pennsylvania. The AMD treated at this plant is dilute, with
total iron concentration of only 17 mg/1. The total treatment cost
(including amortization and operation) was approximately $0.40 per 1,000
gallons, not including sludge disposal. Alumina-lime-soda treatment
(Example 6) can reduce total iron from 100 mg/1 to 0.3 mg/1, but the reagent
costs are almost $0.90 per 1,000 gallon.
Reverse osmosis (Example 7) and ion exchange (Example 8) also can
produce consistent total iron concentrations less 1 mg/1. The total costs
for ion exchange are similar to those for reverse osmosis and range from
$0.75 to $2.00 per 1,000 gallon (Wilmoth and Scott 1975). Sludge and brine
disposal is a significant additional cost for all of the treatment processes
discussed here.
The treatment processes illustrated in Table 5-23 that produce an
effluent meeting NPDES New Source standards are lime neutralization plus
coagulant (#3A and #4B), combination lime-limestone neutralization (#4A),
aluminalime-soda neutralization (#6), and ion exchange (#8). The limestone
treatments, even with H202 oxidation, did not meet NPDES New Source
standards for iron or manganese (#1A and #1B). Limestone with extended
aeration, sludge recycling, and coagulant did not meet the manganese
limitation (#2), nor did lime neutralization only to pH 7 with coagulant
(#3B). The lime-soda treatment resulted in a pH slightly in excess of the
5-178
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New Source limitation, and might be authorized for use (#5). Reverse
osmosis alone did not raise the pH sufficiently to meet the NPDES New Source
minimum (#7).
One controlled mining procedure, which is growing in popularity due to
its pollution control value, is down-dip mining (Figure 5-11). Drift mines
developed to the up-dip enter a coal seam which rises from the horizontal,
whereas down-dip mines enter coal seams which descend. Up-dip mines drain
mine discharge water by gravity toward entryways, and down-dip mines drain
inward away from entrances. The up-dip mine accrues low drainage-related
operating costs during mining but potentially high environmental costs
following abandonment. Little or no pumping is necessary to clear the mine
of water, and minimum energy is needed to transport the coal out of the
mine. When such a mine is abandoned, however, the drift mouth must be
sealed to control the continuing drainage, and all unavoidable drainage from
the abandoned mine must be controlled and may have to be treated
indefinitely in order to meet standards and protect receiving water quality.
Although down-dip mines have higher operating costs (pumping water and coal
haulage), they allow pre-planned flooding of the mine after closure with
accompanying lower hydraulic heads, if mine seals are used. Low hydraulic
heads on mine seals are a great advantage in obtaining effective seals and
subsequent total mine flooding. In areas with no past underground mines,
this technique can be successful. Caution must be used in areas where, due
to incomplete mapping and past mining practices, inadequate barriers may be
left which cannot withstand mine pool hydraulic pressures. In many
instances, deep minable seams are steeply pitching and below drainage in
this Basin, so even up-dip mines may require water to be pumped out of mine
workings, and little, if any hydraulic head may develop on mine seals.
Mines developed on the up-dip but reached through shafts or sloped
entryways present different opportunities for mine drainage control. As the
lowest section of the mine is worked out, the mined-out area with its
unconsolidated gob is allowed to become inundated with water that previously
was pumped from the mine and treated at the surface. As development and
extraction continue on the up-dip, the mine pool is allowed to advance
upward to cover additional gob, until the level of the mine pool stabilizes
and an equilibrium is reached between the mine pool and the local hydrologic
regime.
This condition potentially inundates the acid-producing materials in
the gob and thus prevents the formation of acid mine drainage by isolating
the pyrites or other deleterious gob material from oxygen. The water level
in the mine pool may fluctuate seasonally, however, and thereby provide
opportunities for oxidation of pollutants into a water-soluble form. Mine
pools typically drain continuously through fractures or other voids and thus
potentially may contaminate surface receiving waters and aquifers located
stratigraphically below the mine.
Mine inundation or flooding is the primary purpose of installing
hydraulic mine seals. Seals to form an impermeable plug in mine openings
which discharge, or are expected to discharge, mine water. In this manner
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PRECIPITATION
A. PRE-MINING CONDITION
PRECIPITATION
B. UP-DIP MINING
PRECIPITATION
STREAM
C. DOWN-DIP MINING
Figure 5-11 HYDROGEOLOGIC CYCLE AND MINE DRAINAGE
(after Resource Extraction and Handling Division
1977)
5-180
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the mine is flooded, and acid mine drainage formation is retarded by
excluding air contact with pyritic material. Various hydraulic mine seals
can be employed by underground mine operators, including single and double
bulkhead, gunite, and clay seals. Detailed descriptions of specific mine
seal types, as well as other water pollution prevention and control
procedures for underground mines are reviewed by Skelly and Loy (1973) and
Michael Baker (1975).
Mine seal effectiveness varies from site to site. Problems arise from
inadequate coal barriers between adjacent mines and the coal outcrop,
disjunctive roof and floor integrity (fractures, faults, etc.), and mine
seal leakage, particularly where the seal is anchored into the roof, ribs,
and floor of the mine. There are also numerous other local geologic,
hydrologic, and mining conditions which can preclude the successful
impounding of water.
In addition to hydraulic seals, dry and air seals can be utilized. Dry
seals are designed to prevent entrance of air and water into a mine by
plugging openings with impermeable materials where litle or no hydrostatic
head is expected. Air seals involve closing all openings that permit air
entry into a mine using impermeable materials. One entry is provided with
an air trap that allows water to discharge, but in theory prevents air
entry. Problems arisevwhen air enters a mine through fractures, joints,
faults, and fissures in response to atmospheric changes and with
infiltrating water. Mine conditions may change if there is subsidence.
Discharges are expected to meet the New Source effluent limitations
described in Section 4.2.1. Attainment of the Nationwide standards in many
instances will be sufficient to protect water quality and uses from the
potential adverse impacts of AMD. In lightly buffered watersheds with
significant biota and where inadequate flow is available to dilute mine
effluent, operators may have to employ the more complex available treatment
technologies in order to meet State in-stream iron limitations and to
protect sensitive biota (see Section 5.1).
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6.0. EPA NEW^ SOURCE NPDES PROGRAM NEPA REVIEW SUMMARY
EPA intends to implement the New Source NPDES permit program in the
most efficient manner possible by minimizing duplication of effort with
other agencies so long as NEPA and CWA responsibilities are fully met. To
this end EPA will maximize reliance on in-place institutional mechanisms to
achieve coordination.
In particular, EPA is arranging with WVNDR to receive a copy of each
mining permit application at the earliest possible point in the State review
process. In this way EPA will be able to initiate NPDES and NEPA review
prior to formal receipt of a New Source NPDES permit application. EPA hopes
to be able to identify and resolve environmental issues early, so that
applications can be moved to public notice promptly following the receipt of
a formal application.
This section of the SID presents summary sheets that outline the
central NEPA concerns and EPA responses, by individual resource. Additional
data that will facilitate interagency coordination also are set forth in
this section. The summaries highlight important aspects of the mechanism
developed in the SID and should be used in conjunction with the more
detailed information presented in other sections of this document.
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Resource: Water Resources
Data Sources:
General Data
EPA, USGS, WVDNR-Water Resources, and WVGS have water quality data.
High quality and lightly buffered streams as designated by WVDNR-
Water Resources were mapped on Overlay 1 of the 1:24,000 scale
environmental inventory map sets. Private organizations are listed in
Table 6-1.
Permit-Specific Data
WVDNR-Reclamation permit applications include results of the chemical
analysis of two water samples taken for each receiving stream, one
upstream and one downstream from the proposed mine discharge point.
Data on water quality and quantity are required by USOSM
(30 CRF:779.15, .16; 816.51, .52, .54; and 783.16).
Where mine discharges are proposed to streams used for public water
supplies or to lightly buffered streams, EPA will require that base-
line water quality survey data be submitted from once-per-week
sampling over a four week period. This monitoring must include a
low-flow period in July, August, or September and must measure the
following parameters: streamflow, temperature, specific conductance,
pH, total dissolved solids, total suspended solids, total iron, dis-
solved iron, total manganese, sulfate, hardness, acidity, alkalinity,
and heavy metals that exist in the toxic overburden at levels that
potentially could be toxic.
The EPA-required monitoring program for discharges into waterbodies used
for water supply (optional for mines within 1.5 miles of any active
water supply well) requires that a few parameters be tested in
addition to those required by the USOSM and State programs, although
at a reduced frequency. Therefore the applicant readily can prepare a
sampling program which satisfies the requirements of all three
agencies.
Significance:
Water is an essential resource for humans and aquatic and terrestrial
wildlife. Removal or pollution of water supplies seriously affects
both human residents and aquatic biota.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
EPA will review the surface water and groundwater protection and
monitoring plans as proposed by the applicant to comply with
30 CRF:816.51, .52, and 817.51, .52 and WVDNR-Reclamation Regulations
20-6, 7A.02, .03, and .04. EPA will determine whether these programs
are sufficient to protect the water quality of surface and underground
water resources.
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A continuing monthly groundwater quality monitoring program as described
in Section 5.1 may be required by EPA from all operators of mines
within a 1.5-mile radius of any active water supply well, if ground-
water impacts are identified as potentially problematic.
Similarly, surface mining may be kept at least 200 feet away from any
water supply well or spring, especially those located downhill from
the mine.
AMD prevention and control measures (SID Section 5.7.7.) also may be
mandated, if not already required by the SMCRA regulatory authority.
Resource-Specific Interagency Coordination:
If a high quality stream is to be affected by drainage from the mine
site, EPA will notify WVDNR-Wildlife Resources.
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Table 6-1. Aquatic Resources Data Sources.
CONTACT LIST
Person/Agency
State of West Virginia
Robert Miles
WVDNR - Wildlife Resources, Chief
Charleston, WV (304) 348-2771
Bernie Dowler
WVDNR - Wildlife Resources, Fish Management
Charleston, WV 25305 (304) 348-2771
Frank Jernejcic
WVDNR - Wildlife Resources, Fishery Biologist
Fairmont, WV 26554 (304) 366-5880
Gerald E. Lewis
WVDNR - Wildlife Resources, Fishery Biologist
Romney, WV 26757 (304) 822-3551
Dan Ramsey, Don Gasper
WVDNR - Wildlife Resources, Fishery Biologists
French Creek, WV 26218 (304) 924-6211
James E. Reed, Jr.
WVDNR - Wildlife Resources, Fishery Biologist
MacArthur, WV 25873 (304) 255-5106
Michael Hoeft
WVDNR - Wildlife Resources, Fishery Biologist
Point Pleasant, WV 25550 (304) 675-4380
WVDNR - Wildlife Resources, Fishery Biologist
Parkersburg, WV 26101 (304) 485-5521
David Robinson
WVDNR - Water Resources, Chief
Charleston, WV (304) 348-2107
Lyle Benett
WVDNR - Water Resources
Charleston, WV (304) 348-5904
William Santonas
Department of Natural Resources, Supervisor
Game and Fish Planning & Biometrics
311-B Percival Hall
West Virginia University
Morgantown, WV 26506 (304) 599-8777
Basin Applicability
All Basins
All Basins
Ohio/Little Kanawha
North Branch Potomac
Elk, Ohio/Little Kanawha
Coal/Kanawha, Guyandotte
Coal/Kanawha, Guyandotte
Coal/Kanawha, Ohio/Little
Kanawha
All Basins
All Basins
All Basins
6-4
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Table 6-1. Aquatic Resources Data Sources (continued).
Person/Agency
State of West Virginia
Howard Scidmore
WVDNR - Division of Reclamation
Charleston, WV (304) 348-3267
Dr. Ronald Fortney
WVDNR - HTP, Director
Charleston, WV (304) 348-2761
H. G. "Woodie" Woddrum
WVDNR - Wildlife Resources, Chief of Research
Charleston, WV (304) 348-2761
Basin Applicability
All Basins
All Basins
All Basins
Universities
Dr. Donald Tarter
Marshall University
Department of Biology
Huntington, WV 25701 (304) 696-2409
Drs. Jay Stauffer, Charles Hocutt
Appalachian Environmental Laboratory
University of Maryland
Frostburg State College Campus
Frostburg, MD 21532 (301) 689-3115
All Basins
All Basins
Federal Agencies
Huntington USAGE
Federal Building, P.O. Box 2127
Huntington, WV 25721 (304) 529-5536
Pittsburgh USAGE
1000 Liberty Avenue
Pittsburgh, PA 15222 (412) 644-6800
Baltimore USAGE
P.O. Box 1715
Baltimore, MD 21203
Bill Mason
USFWS - Eastern Energy and Land Use Team
Box 44
Kearneysville, WV 25430 (304) 725-2061
Coal/Kanawha, Gauley,
Elk, Ohio/Little
Kanawha
Ohio/Litte Kanawha
North Branch Potomac
All Basins
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U. S. Forest Service
180 Canfield Street
Morgantown, WV 25606 (304) 599-7481
Appalachian Regional Commission
1666 Connecticut Drive
Washington, DC 20235 (202) 673-7849
USDA - SCS
Federal Building
75 High Street
Morgantown, WV (304) 599-7151
USFWS
P. 0. Box 1278
Elkins, WV (304) 636-6586
Basin Applicability
Table 6-1. Aquatic Resources Data Sources (concluded).
Person/Agency
Federal Agencies
Interstate Commission on the Potomac Basin North Branch Potomac
1055 1st Street
Rockville, MD 20850 (304) 340-2661
All Basins
All Basins
All Basins
All Basins
Private
West Virginia Coal Association
1340 One Valley Square
Charleston, WV 25301
Friends of the Little Kanawha
P. 0. Box 14
Rock Cave, WV 26234
Rick Webb
West Virginia Mountain Streams Monitors
202 Second Street
Sutton, WV (304) 765-2781
Trout Unlimited West Virginia Council
Ernest Mester, Chairman
Box 235
Alloy, WV (304( 337-2357
All Basins
Ohio/Little Kanawha
All Basins
All Basins
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Resource: Aquatic Biota in Biologically Important Areas
Data Sources:
N
General Data
Fish species of concern and their locations are available from
WVDNR-HTP.
Fish surveys and recreation RUN WILD fishery data are recorded by
WVDNR-Wildlife Resources on the computer program. Fish surveys and
trout streams locations not on the WVDNR-Wildlife Resources computer
can be obtained directly from either the WVDNR-Wildlife Operations
Center in Elkins, or the appropriate district Fishery Biologist.
Additional fish survey data are available from the USAGE, American
Electric Power Company, and Dr. Donald Tarter (Marshall University) in
Huntington, West Virginia. Drs. Stauffer and Hocutt of the
Appalachian Environmental Laboratory (University of Maryland) have
extensive, current Statewide stream sampling information for West
Virginia. Virginia Polytechnic Institute (Blacksburg) staff
(Drs. Cherry, Garling, Hendricks, Ross, and Ney) have a variety of
published and unpublished reports on the fish resources of West
Virginia.
Aquatic macroinvertebrate data for some of the water of West Virginia
are available from Dr. Tarter (Marshall University), the
WVDNR-Wildlife Resources computer file, and district Fishery Biolo-
gists. Trout streams, fish sampling stations, fish sampling stations
with high diversity, aquatic macroinvertebrate sampling stations, mac-
roinvertebrate sampling stations with pollution intolerant species,
and Biologically Important Areas (BIA's) are shown on Overlay 1 of the
1:24,000 scale environmental inventory map sets. Sources are in
Table 6-1.
Permit-Specific Data
EPA will inform all applicants for mines to be located within Category I
BIA's (Section 2.2.2.) immediately upon receipt of their application
that a minimum of 20 week pre-operational baseline fish and macroin-
vertebrate sampling data is required for the stream(s) to which they
plan to discharge, unless a report prepared by WVDNR-Wildlife
Resources that contains equivalent data is available for the streams.
Original data collection should include at a minimum one upstream
control station and one downstream station for each potentially
affected stream, with periodic sampling for fish and macroinverte-
brates during the 20 week period using equipment and techniques
suitable for the water body, under the supervision of an experienced
aquatic biologist (see SID Section 5.2.).
In Category II BIA's, EPA will require environmental surveys to define
the specific aquatic resources of streams to receive effluents from
mining operations. Each survey is to be designed to define species
composition, assess susceptibility to mining of the species found, and
determine appropriate mitigative measures to protect what is found.
6-7
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Each original survey in a Category II BIA is to include a review of
current literature, discussion of probable impacts, and methods to
avoid those impacts. Sampling similar to or more rigorous than that
required for Category I BIA's is appropriate.
Data on water quality in all BIA's also will be required by EPA from the
applicant prior to permit issuance. These data are to include one
four-week period that includes low-flow conditions as found in July,
August, or September. Chemical sampling is to be coordinated with the
aquatic biota sampling program, utilizing the same control station
upstream from and one station downstream from the mine discharge and
at least one station on all other water bodies proposed to receive
runoff from the mine. Prior to mining, samples are to be collected
weekly during the low-flow period and at least monthly at other times
as required by the SMCRA regulatory authority to identify seasonal
variation. Parameters to be monitored are temperature, specific
conductance, pH, total dissolved solids, total suspended solids, total
iron, dissolved iron, total manganese, sulfate, hardness, acidity,
alkalinity, and heavy metals that exist in the toxic overburden and
could be potentially toxic. Water quality data collected to accompany
any other State or Federal permit application may be submitted to EPA,
provided they include the requisite information.
Significance:
Aquatic biota are an important recreational and natural resource. They
also are valuable as indicators of stream health and water flow. The
loss of these biota could result in the long-term degradation of the
aquatic environment.
The original data collected in some instances may indicate that the
aquatic biota of an area are not diverse or sensitive, and that water
quality already is degraded. In these instances the area may be
declassified from BIA status. In other instances data may indicate
extremely sensitive, unique, or rare and endangered species which may
require stringent protection from mining impacts.
Potential Mitigative Measures and Permit Conditions:
In Category I BIA's a 1 mg/1 total iron concentration in-stream standard
will be imposed by EPA, along with a continuing program of quarterly
bio-monitoring to be conducted concurrently with mining. The
bio-monitoring program will be similar to the survey required prior to
mining and will be a condition of permit issuance. This sampling is
to be continued until active mining is completed or until it can be
determined that no detrimental effects are occurring.
A report is to be forwarded by the mine operator to EPA comparing quan-
titatively the results obtained at the control stations prior to
mining with what was found during the monitoring program.
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Prompt followup action is necessary to ensure that possible irreversible
environmental damage will not occur. As soon as an apparent downward
trend is identified in any of the appropriate indicators (e.g., bio-
mass, species diversity, species numbers, etc.), intensive sampling is
to be initiated immediately by the operator to determine whether
environmental damage actually has occurred or whether the observed
downturn was a result of a sampling anomaly or statistical error. If
significant environmental damage is verified, mining activities must
be either modified or halted if further harm is to be prevented.
Restocking may be required if significant environmental damage
occurs.
Mitigations for Category II BIA's (see SID Section 5.2.4.) will be
dependent upon the findings of the environmental survey required prior
to permit issuance. It is anticipated that, if a permit to mine is
issued, at a minimum the 20 week aquatic biota sampling program will
be required.
Water quality sampling programs will be required in all BIA's on a bi-
monthly basis measuring specified parameters in conjunction with the
biological sampling.
Resource-Specific Interagency Coordination:
The Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1958 (PL 89-72) requires EPA
to consult and coordinate with the USFWS when streams and other water
bodies are altered. Input from WVDNR-Wildlife Resources also will be
sought in sensitive areas.
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Resource: Aquatic Biota in Unclassifiable Areas
Data Sources:
General Data
None available for use in the SID (Section 5.2.3).
Consult sources listed in Table 6-1.
Permit-Specific Data
One-time, intensive fish and macroinvertebrate sampling by professional
biologist of streams potentially affected by mining is required for
NPDES New Source permit, unless equivalent data become available (SID
Section 5.2.3.).
Significance:
The required sampling will enable EPA to determine whether the streams
are to be treated as BIA's or as non-sensitive. Significant resources
then can be protected appropriately.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
Nationwide NPDES standards will apply to non-sensitive areas. BIA's
will receive additional protection, as detailed in SID Section 5.2.3.
Resource-Specific Coordination:
Applicant may contact WVDNR-Wildlife Resources and other sources of
data.
EPA will send copy of applicant's report to WVDNR-Wildlife Resources.
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Resource: Special Terrestrial Vegetation Feature, Outstanding Tree, or
Virgin Forest Stand
Data Sources:
General Data
WVDNR Heritage Trust Program Data Bank (ongoing survey).
Labeled "SP", "OT", or "PC" on 7.5-minute quadrangle Overlay 1.
Data gaps are substantial, and agencies should be consulted for updated
information.
Permit-Specific Data
Chapter 3 data from Draft Experimental USOSM Permit Application will
provide adequate information for WVDNR-HTP for determination of
significance and will serve as an excellent vehicle for agency
comment.
At minimum, the biological data outlined in the USOSM Draft
Experimental Permit Application (Chapter 3) should be secured from
applicants for New Source NPDES permits to increase the probability
that currently unknown resources are identified prior to mining.
Significance:
Species proposed for Federal classification as endangered or threatened
with extinction are included in the HTP data along with species that
are at the limit of their range or poorly known in West Virginia.
Some of the data are very old. Additions and deletions are expected
over time (see SID Section 2.3.5). The significance of each known
feature shown on the inventory in the vicinity of a proposed
discharge can be commented upon by WVDNR-HTP. Populations of
significant plants also exist in unknown locations, so applicants'
data should be reviewed by the agencies identified below.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
Seek early WVDNR-HTP review of data for permits to mine scarce
ecosystems (caves, wetlands, shale barrens, sandstone or limestone
cliffs; SID Section 5.3.4.2).
Avoid disturbance of special vegetation, outstanding trees, and virgin
forest stands and their hydrologic setting where possible.
Provide buffer strip at least 100 feet wide surrounding special feature
to be preserved.
Provide controlled post-mining public access to these remnants of West
Virginia's natural heritage.
Transplant special vegetation temporarily or permanently to protected
suitable habitats.
Reestablish special vegetation following mining and reclamation.
Resource-Specific Coordination:
Primary reliance on WVDNR-Wildlife Resources, WVDNR-Heritage Trust
Program, and USFWS for identification of depth of study required and
specific mitigative measures on individual mine sites.
Coordination should be accomplished adequately if USOSM Draft
Experimental Permit Application is implemented; if not, EPA may
require equivalent information from applicants as part of New Source
NPDES information.
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Resource: Wetland
Data Sources:
General Data
WVDNR Heritage Trust Program Data Bank (survey in progress)
USGS Topographic Maps (wetland symbol on 7.5-minute quadrangles)
WVDNR Wildlife Resources Division Streambank Surveys
Wetland areas are mapped on 7.5-minute quadrangle Overlay 1.
(In future: USFWS National Wetland Inventory maps)
Permit-Specific Data
SMCRA Application (30 CFR 779.16, 783.13: streams, lakes, ponds,
springs; 779.19, 783.20: plant communities; 779.20, 783.21: fish
and wildlife habitats; 779.21, 783.22: soils)
USOSM Draft Experimental Form Questions 3.28, 3.29 (also 3.18, 3.19,
and fish/wildlife questionnaire)
Significance:
Few, scattered wetlands, very scarce in West Virginia (see SID
Section 2.3.3.3).
EPA policy requires maximum protection of wetlands (44 FR 4:
1455-1457, January 5, 1979).
CWA Section 404 requires Corps of Engineers permit to place fill in
wetlands.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
Delete all proposed mining operations from wetland.
Insure continuation of hydrologic regime of wetland.
Provide undisturbed buffer strip (100 feet wide) around wetland (cf.
30 CFR 816.57; 817.57).
Reestablish wetland hydrology following mining.
Replant wetland vegetation following mining (cf. 30 CFR 816.44, 817.44;
816.97, 817.97).
Resource-Specific Interagency Coordination:
Potential major overlap with SMCRA permanent regulatory program.
Consolidated application authorized for NPDES and Section 404 CWA
permits (40 CFR 124.4; 45 FR 98: 33487, May 19, 1980).
If an EIS or EA is prepared and circulated, no separate wetland
assessment is required, if wetlands are discussed therein.
If no EIS or EA is prepared, a Floodplain/Wetlands Assessment must be
distributed for public and interagency review, with public notice to
appropriate A-95 Clearinghouses (44 FR 4: 1455-1457, January 5,
1979). Clearinghouses are listed in SID Table 4-8, Section 4.4.2.
This Assessment can be attached to the New Source NPDES permit public
notice.
Agency input expected from: USFWS, USDA-SCS, Army Corps of Engineers,
WVDNR-Water Resources, WVDNR-Wildlife Resources, USOSM.
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Resource: Special Terrestrial Wildlife Feature
Data Sources:
General Data
WVDNR Heritage Trust Program Data Bank (ongoing survey).
Labeled "SA" on 7.5-minute quadrangle Overlay 1.
RUN WILD EAST-WV computerized inventory (WVDNR-Wildlife Resources).
Data gaps are substantial, and agencies should be consulted for updated
information (see SID Section 2.3.6.)-
Permit-Specific Data
SMCRA applications must contain wildlife information as required by the
regulatory authority (30 CFR 779.20; 783.21) and a plan to enhance or
minimize damage to wildlife (30 CFR 816.97; 817.97).
USOSM Draft Experimental Form (Section 3.30-3.40) requires that
wildlife advisory review be completed prior to regulatory authority
permit review. A reclamation and wildlife enhancement plan
(Questions 8.11-8.25) is to detail the applicant's proposed
measures.
Significance:
More than 50 species are considered to be of special interest by
WVDNR-HTP because they are uncommon, declining, or poorly known (see
SID Section 2.3.5.2.2.). These species may be encountered in
locations other than those reported by WVDNR, so applicants' data
should be reviewed by the agencies identified below.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
Applicant to inform WVDNR-HTP early of planned habitat disturbance
Capture and relocate animals to suitable protected habitat or to zoo.
Restore animals to mined site after suitable habitat is restored.
Report promptly the presence of any Federally classified endangered
species.*
Locate roads so as to minimize adverse effects.*
Fence roads and guide wildlife to underpasses *
Exclude wildlife from ponds having toxic materials.*
Maintain, restore, enhance riparian vegetation.*
Avoid or restore stream channels.*
Avoid persistent pesticides.*
Suppress fires.*
Select and distribute post-mining vegetation because of wildlife value.*
Diversify post-mining cropland with contrasting habitat.*
Provide greenbelts in developed post-mining uses.*
(For further elaboration and examples, see SID Section 5.5.)
Resource-Specific Interagency Coordination:
Coordination should be accomplished adequately if USOSM Draft
Experimental Permit Application is implemented; if not, EPA should
require equivalent information from applicants as part of New Source
NPDES permit application.
Primary reliance on WVDNR-Wildlife Resources WVDNR-Heritage Trust
Program, and USFWS for identification of depth of study required and
specific mitigative measures on individual mine sites.
*Mandated, to the extent possible using the best technology currently
available, by the USOSM permanent program performance standards
(30 CFR 816.97 and 817.97).
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Resource: Air Quality
Data Sources:
General Data
WVAPCC annual reports summarize Statewide monitoring at
established stations (see SID Section 2.4.).
Permit-Specific Data
SMCRA regulatory authority may require on-site measurement of
precipitation and wind.
WVAPCC requires permit for preparation plants (SID Section
4.1.4.13.).
Coal preparation plants with thermal dryers that would exceed
EPA thresholds for PSD review (Section 4.2.3.) must perform
on-site meteorological data collection and modeling analyses.
WVDNR-Water Resources discharge permit applications for pre-
paration plants include air pollution control information
(SID Section 4.1.4.12.).
Significance:
Air quality impacts from preparation plants must be reviewed by
WVAPCC in accordance with the SIP. Major stationary sources of
regulated pollutants must undergo PSD review by EPA. Fugitive
dust control measures to minimize local dust impacts are man-
dated by USOSM permanent program regulations (SID Section 5.4.1.)
Hence air impacts should be of minimal significance for NPDES
permit NEPA review.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
So long as USOSM requirements for dust control are implemented,
no special NPDES permit conditions are necessary. Otherwise,
EPA will mandate measures as outlined in SID Section 5.4.1.
Specific Resource-Related Coordination:
None necessary.
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Resource: Noise Levels
Data Sources:
General Data
None available (SID Section 5.4.2.).
Permit-Specific Data
EPA will require operational noise projections where there are
sensitive receptors (campgrounds, residences, schools) within
1 mile.
Blasting noise and vibration plan data must be developed for
SMCRA permit application and for WVDNR-Reclamation.
Significance:
Blasting noise is controlled by WVDNR-Reclamation, and permanent
program standards have been issued by USOSM.
Haul truck noise on public highways is controlled by EPA through
interstate vehicle noise limits.
Construction, surface mining, and mine facility operation noise
levels may affect sensitive receptors adversely within 1 mile.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
No EPA controls on blasting or vibration are necessary so long as
current State and Federal controls are in effect.
No controls on public highway truck noise are necessary under the
NPDES permit program.
Limitations on hours and seasons of facility operation or on
facility design or siting may be necessary following NPDES
NEPA review to protect sensitve receptors closer than 1 mile
to permit areas. Applicants will be asked to forecast noise
levels at nearby sensitive receptors as part of NPDES New
Source permit information.
Specific Resource-Related Coordination:
Based on public notice review comments, EPA may impose operational
limitations to protect nearby sensitive receptors.
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Resource: National Register Historic or Archaeologic Site or District
Data Sources:
General Data
National Register of Historic Places (listed sites and eligible sites)
is published in Federal Register during February with updates usually
on the second Tuesday of the month.
State Historic Preservation Officer and State Archaeologist (WV
Department of Culture and History, Charleston) maintain data files.
Shown on Overlay 1 to 7.5-minute topographic quadrangles (solid
triangles).
Data gaps are significant (see SID Sections 2.5.2. and 2.5.4.).
Permit-Specific Data
The USOSM permanent program regulations implementing SMCRA require that
known eligible or listed sites be identified in permit applications
(30 CFR 779.12; 783.12) and protected during mining (30 CFR 780.31;
784.17).
EPA will require applicants to survey mine sites not previously
disturbed by mining permit areas to identify currently unknown sites
[pursuant to 36 CFR 800.4(a)], if requested by the SHPO. The site
inspection report by a qualified archaeologist will be forwarded to
the SHPO for the determination of National Register eligibility for
any significant resource.
Significance:
The approval of any Federal, State, or local agency that administers a
site eligible for or listed on the National Register must be gi/ven
before a SMCRA permit can be issued to any operation that would
affect the site directly or indirectly [30 CFR 761.12(f)]. General
agency obligations are outlined in the regulations of the Advisory
Council on Historic Preservation (36 CFR 800; 44 FR 21: 6068-6081,
January 30, 1979).
Potential Mitigative Measures and Permit Conditions.
Mitigative measures to preclude or offset adverse impacts on National
Register sites will be suggested most appropriately by the agencies
that administer the individual sites, the SHPO, and the Advisory
Council on Historic Preservation.
Specific Resource-Related Coordination:
Potential overlap with action of regulatory authority pursuant to
SMCRA.
State Historic Preservation Officer and State Archaeologist will be
given the opportunity to review and comment on each New Source permit
application.
If an EIS or EA is prepared and circulated, no separate request for
Advisory Council comments is necessary, provided that impacts and
mitigations concerning the eligible or listed National Register site
are fully documented.
If no EIS or EA is prepared, formal consultation, including opportunity
for public participation, must be made with any administering agency,
the SHPO, and the Advisory Council concerning any anticipated direct
or indirect impacts on an eligible or listed National Register Site
prior to permit issuance (36 CFR 800.4). This consultation may be a
part of the New Source NPDES permit public notice.
6-16
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Resource: Non-National Register Historic or Archaeologic Site or District
Data Sources:
General Data
Files of State Archaeologist (locations not provided or mapped on
Overlay 1 to topographic quadrangles).
Published literature (open triangles on Overlay 1).
Files of State Historic Preservation Officer (locations not provided or
mapped). '
Data gaps are substantial (see SID Sections 2.5.2. and 2.5.A.).
Permit-Specific Data
The USOSM permanent program regulations implementing SMCRA require that
all sites on and near the permit area that are known to State or
local archaeological and Uistorical agencies be described in the
permit application (30 CFR 779.12; 783.12). Such sites are to be
protected when mine plans are developed and implemented (30 CFR
780.31; 784.17).
EPA will provide the SHPO with opportunity to comment on each New
Source NPDES permit application. If a site inspection report by a
qualified archaeologist on a mine site not previously disturbed by
mining is requested by the SHPO, the applicant's report will be
forwarded to the SHPO for determination of National Register
eligibility for any significant resource (see SID Sections 2.5.2.,
4.2.4.11., and 5.7.2.).
Significance:
The significance of most recorded sites in State files is not known,
and such sites generally are not mapped in the EPA inventory. Hence
the SHPO's comments on each application will be considered carefully
by EPA.
Potential Mitigative Measures and Permit Conditions:
Delete resource site from permit application to avoid direct
disturbance.
Preserve undisturbed buffer area to minimize indirect impacts.
Salvage resource by site excavation and/or other appropriate
recording.
Donate artifacts to appropriate institutions.
Financially support analyses and exhibitions.
Specific measures should be suggested by the SHPO and State
Archaeologist for individual permits.
Specific Resource-Related Coordination:
Potential overlap with action of regulatory authority pursuant to
SMCRA for known sites.
Findings from site inspection by qualified archaeologist should be
forwarded to the SHPO and State Archaeologist for review and
comment, and then, if appropriate, forwarded to the Secretary of the
Interior for determination of eligibility for the National Register
Agencies that administer any identified resource should be notified and
given the opportunity to comment on the New Source NPDES public
notice.
6-17
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Resource: Primary and Secondary Visual Resources
Data Sources:
General Data
WNDNR-HTP and WVDNR-Parks and Recreation have lists of primary visual
resources (see Figure 2-20 and Table 2-33 in SID Section 2.5.5.2.).
Primary visual resources are mapped on Overlay 1.
Substantial data gaps exist for primary and secondary visual
resources.
Permit-Specific Data
Known National Register cultural and historic resources on and adjacent
to each permit area must be described and identified in SMCRA permit
applications (30 CFR 779.22; 783.12), together with all present and
proposed land uses on adjacent areas (30 CFR 779.22; 782.23). Maps
must show the locations of public parks, cultural resources, and
historic resources on and adjacent to the permit area (30 CFR 779.24;
783.24).
Significance:
Primary visual resources (waterfalls, unusual geological features,
scenic overlooks in State Parks and along roadways, recreational
lakes, forests, State Parks, and Public Hunting areas; see SID
Section 2.5.5.1.) are subject to short-term degradation during mining
that is visible by users of the resource. Long-term degradation may
result from unsuccessful reclamation.
EPA will assess visibility of proposed facilities near known resources
in order to curtail adverse mining impacts on primary visual
resources (SID Section 5.7.3.2.).
Mining applicant must demonstrate to EPA that adverse impacts will not
accrue to visual resources within view of proposed facilities.
Secondary visual resources (attractive landscapes) may be considered by
EPA for protection following public notice review.
t
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
USOSM requirements pursuant to SMCRA may be adequate to protect primary
visual resources and to demonstrate protective measures satis-
factorily to EPA.
6-18
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Additional buffer strips in strategic locations may screen unattrac-
tive facilities from view by scenic resource visitors.
In highly sensitive locations, EPA may require mining by underground
rather than surface methods to protect primary visual resources.
Resource-Specific Coordination:
EPA expects comments from appropriate State and Federal land manage-
ment agencies during the public notice review period.
6-19
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Resource: Macroscale Socioeconomic and Transportation Conditions
Data Sources:
General Data
Mining and non-mining unemployment data by county are compiled
by WVDES.
National consumer price indices are compiled by USBLS.
Permit-Specific Data
Total number of mine employees from NPDES Application
(Short Form C).
Significance:
Major increases in mining employment may affect the ability of local
governmental units to provide socioeconomic services. If population,
employment, dwelling units, or the need for developed land for a
single mine application exceeds the cutoff values in SID Section
5.6.2.1., or if the cumulative effects exceed these cutoff values,
EPA will request comments from the appropriate RPDC (Figure 6-1;
Table 6-2). When significant transportation issues are identified
during the public comment period, additional transportation-related
data listed in SID Section 5.6.2.2. will be requested from the
applicants and forwarded to the RPDC and other relevant trans-
portation agencies as listed in SID Section 5.6.2.2.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
State, Federal and local governmental programs to assist in providing
housing are listed in Section 5.6.5.3. Measures to counteract
highway impacts by WVDH are discussed in Section 5.6.6.1.
Applicants may be required to develop socioeconomic mitigations
through NPDES permit conditions, including the measures listed in
Sections 5.6.5.1. and 5.6.5.2.
Specific Resource-Related Coordination:
When employment index exceeds values in SID Section 5.6.2.1., EPA
will request comments from appropriate RPDC.
RPDC, WVDH, and local agencies may comment on public notice.
6-20
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6-21
-------
Table 6-2. Directory of Regional Planning and Development Councils
of West Virginia (WVGOECD 1979a).
ii
in
IV
VI
VII
VIII
IX
XI
Council
Region One Planning
and Development Council
Region Two Planning
and Development Council
B.C.K.P. Regional
Intergovernmental Council
Region Four Planning
and Development Council
Mid-Ohio Valley
Regional Council
Region Six Planning
and Development Council
Region Seven Planning
and Development Council
Region Eight Planning
and Development Council
Eastern Panhandle
Regional Planning and
Development Council
Bel-0-Mar Regional
Council and Interstate
Planning Commission
B-H-J Regional Council
and Metropolitan Planning
Commission
Executive Director
Michael B. Jacobs
East River Office Building
P. 0. 1442
Princeton, WV 24740
304/425-9508
Michael Shields
1221 Sixth Avenue
Huntingdon, WV 25701
304/529-3375 or 3358
Michael J. Russell
1426 Kanawha Boulevard East
Charleston, WV 25301
304/344-2541
Larry D. Bradford
500 B Main Street
Summersville, WV 26651
304/872-4970
Terry Tamburini
925 Market Street
Parkersburg, WV 26101
304/485-3801
Dennis Poluga (Acting)
201 Deveny Building
Fairmont, WV 26554
304/366-5693
James P. Gladkosky
Upshur County Courthouse
Buckhannon, WV 26201
304/472-6564
Lawrence E. Spears
5 Main Street
Petersburg, WV 26847
304/257-1221
J.R. Hawvermale
121 West King Street
Martinsburg, WV 25401
304/263-1743
William Phipps
2177 National Road
P. 0. 2086
Wheeling, WV 26003
304/242-1800
John R. Beck
814 Adams Street
Steubenville, Ohio
614/282-3685
43952
6-22
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Resource: Adjacent Land Uses
Data Sources:
General Data
USGS high-altitude photography-based 1970's land use and land cover map
at 1:250,000 scale.
USGS topographic maps at 1:24,000 scale (7.5 minute quadrangles),
various dates.
Permit-Specific Data
Map of all structures within 0.5 mile and identity of surface owners
within 500 feet are in current WVDNR-Recla*nation mining permit.
Identity of landowners and structures within 1,000 feet, if blast is
proposed, is in WVDNR surface mining permit applications.
NPDES applicants will be asked to identify surface owners, managers, or
individuals responsible for each sensitive land use (see
Section 5.6.2.3.) located within 2,000 feet of the boundary of the
proposed operation.
SMCRA permanent program regulations require the identification of the
following land uses next to new mines:
cemeteries within 100 feet;
public buildings (schools, churches, and community
or institutional buildings) within 300 feet;
occupied residences within 300 feet;
public roads within 300 feet.
Significance:
Many types of land use impacts are possible from mining operations.
SMCRA prohibits mining within a given distance to certain land uses as
listed in Section 5.6.2.3. The SMCRA regulatory authority may ban
mining when it is incompatible with existing land use plans, damaging
to important or fragile historic, cultural, scientific, or aesthetic
values, would result in substantial loss of water supply or food or
fiber productivity, or would affect natural hazards that could
endanger human life.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
Specific mitigative measures designed for significant impacts identi-
fied during EPA permit review may be imposed on the applicant as
NPDES permit conditions if appropriate.
Resource-Specific Interagency Coordination:
To assure that proposed New Source mining activity does not generate
significant adverse land use impacts, EPA will send a copy of the
NPDES public notice to each manager of a sensitive use within
2,000 feet of the permit area, unless proof of notification by the
applicant is provided to EPA that these persons already have been
notified pursuant to SMCRA and WVSCMRA.
6-23
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Resource: Floodplains
Data Sources:
General Data
US-HUD, FEMA, USGS.
Areas mapped on 7.5-minute quadrangle Overlay 2.
See SID Section 2.7.3. for list of available mapped quadrangles.
Permit-Specific Data
SMCRA application must contain data on streams (30 CFR 779.16; 779.25;
783.17, 783.25) and on affected hydrologic area (30 CFR 779.24,
283.24).
Significance:
As almost the only flat sites in many areas, floodplains in West
Virginia are the prime locus for settlements, industrial activity,
and transportation networks.
Floodplains in West Virginia are subject to frequent flooding as a
resuIt of thunders torms.
Coal facilities and spoil or waste piles are subject to damage if
situated in floodplains, and can cause significant water pollution,
especially the "blackwater" from coal fines in waste piles.
Public safety in floodplains downstream can be endangered if mining
accidentally causes temporary damming of water, as by landslides,
with subsequent bursting of dams.
Executive Order 11988 requires EPA to minimize floodplain disturbance.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
Require proposed facilities to be relocated to alternative
non-floodplain area, if available.
Require relocation of coal waste piles outside floodplain (OSM requires
that diversions around coal waste piles be designed to accommodate
the 24-hour, 100-year flood [30 CFR 816.92; 817.92]).
Require that structures in floodplain be designed to withstand
flooding.
Resource-Specific Interagency Coordination:
Potential overlap with USOSM-administered SMCRA regulatory program
(USDI procedures to comply with Water Resource Council Guidelines are
in Part 520, Chapter 1 of the Department of the Interior Manual; 44
FR 120: 36119-36122, June 20, 1979).
If an EIS or EA is prepared and circulated, no separate floodplain
assessment is required, if floodplains are discussed therein.
If no EIS or EA is prepared, a Floodplain/Wetlands Assessment must be
distributed for public and interagency review, with public notice to
appropriate A-95 clearinghouses (44 FR 4: 1455-1457, January 5
1979). Clearinghouses are listed in SID Table 4-8, Section 4.4.2.
This assessment can be attached to the New Source NPDES permit public
notice.
Agency input expected from: Army Corps of Engineers, FEMA, USGS,
US-FWS, USDA-SCS, and WVDNR-Water Resources.
6-24
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Resource: State Lands
Data Sources:
General Data
WVDNR-Forestry and WVDNR-Parks and Recreation administer State Forests
and State Parks, respectively.
WVDNR-Wildlife Resources administers Public Hunting and Fishing Areas,
Public Fishing Areas, and Public Hunting Areas.
WVDNR Public Lands Corporation must approve mining on State-owned
Public Hunting and Fishing Areas and in State Forests (See
Section 2.6.1.5.5.).
Permit-Specific Data
SMCRA permit applications require identification and mapping of public
parks on and adjacent to permit areas (30 CFR 779.24; 783.24) and
plans to minimize adverse effects must be developed (30 CFR 780.31;
784.17).
Significance:
WVDNR controls the exploitation of coal resources on State-owned lands.
Mining is prohibited in State Parks and limited to underground
extraction in State Forests. State land management agencies can
suggest ways to avoid or minimize adverse effects from mining adjac-
ent to the State lands, and special conditions may be inserted into
permits by the SMCRA regulatory authority or by EPA.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
EPA will consider mandating permit conditions suggested by State land
management agencies, if adverse impacts have not been avoided or min-
imized as a result of other permit reviews.
Specific Resource-Related Coordination:
State land management agencies will have opportunity to comment on each
NPDES public notice.
6-25
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Resource: Federal Lands
Data Sources:
General Data
Federal land is indicated on the 7.5-minute USGS topographic
quadrangles and highlighted on Overlay 1.
Permit-Specific Data
The same data must be developed for SMCRA surface mining permit
applications to USOSM for coal mining on Federally-owned lands as for
non-Federal lands, including mine plans in accordance with USOSM
performance standards (30 CFR 741.13).
Significance:
SMCRA permits cannot be issued by USOSM until consultation with USGS
regarding minerals recovery and with the surface managing agency
regarding special requirements that may be necessary to protect
non-mineral resources in the area. Both the USGS and the surface
managing agency must consent before the SMCRA permit can be issued by
USOSM. Hence special New Source NPDES conditions other than those
related to water resources and aquatic biota seldom will be
necessary.
Potential Mitigative Measures and Permit Conditions:
EPA and USOSM expect to conclude Memoranda of Understanding that spell
out the details of interagency coordination (SID Section 4.3.1). EPA
expects to recommend water-related conditions to USOSM for New
Sources on Federal lands. USOSM is expected to perform the lead-
agency role for NEPA compliance.
Specific Resource-Related Coordination:
To be accomplished according to the forthcoming Memoranda of
Understanding.
6-26
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Resource: Soil Subject to Erosion
Data Sources:
General Data
Soil series most prone to erosion are listed in Section 2.7.4.
Published soil survey for Mineral County; Petersburg office of
SCS for Grant County.
Permit-Specific Data
USOSM permanent program requires soil survey, erosion control
measures, and plans to restore and revegetate soil, supported
by test results for proposed mine soils.
Significance:
Soil erosion is a major potential adverse impact of uncontrolled
mining. New Source mines that meet USOSM performance standards
are expected to minimize soil erosion.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
Erosion control measures are discussed at length in the SID (Section
5.7.1.) and in USOSM performance standards (30 CFR 816 and 817).
So long as specific measures in compliance with USOSM standards
are proposed, no special NPDES permit conditions are necessary.
In the absence of USOSM controls or as a result of permit review,
EPA may impose requisite measures under CWA and NEPA.
*
Specific Resource-Related Coordination:
Obtain SMCRA/WVSCMRA permit application.
6-27
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Resource: Steep Slopes
Data Sources:
General Data
Shown on Overlay 2.
Permit-Specific Data
Topography tied into on-ground surveys must be detailed on drawings and
cross-sections in response to the USOSM permanent program regula-
tions.
Significance:
Runoff control, erosion prevention, and surface stability are most
difficult to achieve on steep slopes.
Potential Mitigative Measures and Permit Conditions:
Special performance standards for slopes steeper than 20° (36%) are
mandated by USOSM regulations as discussed at length in SID
Section 5.7.2. Additional measures may be imposed following
case-by-case review:
Imposition of USOSM steep-slope standards on slopes
14° (25%) and greater.
Imposition of static design safety factor of 1.5 on
backfill to preclude slope failure that could
exacerbate erosion, alter streamflow, pose a
hazard to public safety, or adversely affect the
appearance of an area.
Where reclamation is to approximate original
contour:
Mandate that permanently retained roa3s do not
cause steepening of final slopes beyond
original grade
Mandate that downslope haul road embankments
below the bench be removed following mining
Mandate that roads to be preserved near the top
of the highwall have ditches and other drainage
structures adequate to prevent infiltration
into the backfill.
Specific Resource-Related Coordination:
Obtain SMCRA permit application.
6-28
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Resource: Prime Farmlands
Data Sources:
General Data
Soil series classified by USDA-SCS as candidate prime farmlands are
listed in SID Table (Section 2.7.5.).
There is a published soil survey for Grant County, and soils
classed as prime farmland in that County are delineated on
Overlay 2 to 7.5-minute topographic quadrangles.
Permit-Specific Data
USOSM permanent program requires map with labeling of all soils on
permit area including prime farmlands (Section 5.7.3.1.).
Significance:
Prime farmlands are the most productive soils available for agricul-
tural use. When they have been in agricultural use prior to
mining, they must be restored and returned to agricultural use
following mining pursuant to SMCRA.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
USOSM regulations require special handling and restoration of prime
farmland on the sites of mines and mining facilities. No further
mitigations are necessary for prime farmlands treated as required
by USOSM.
Specific Resource-Related Coordination:
No specific coordination required. SMCRA regulatory authority must
consult with USDA-SCS, through State Conservationist concerning
adequacy of operator's proposed farmland restoration. Applicant
must consult SCS district office (Petersburg) for unpublished
soils mapping of Mineral County.
6-29
-------
Resource: Significant Non-Prime Farmland
Data Sources:
General Data
Not mapped, except for those candidate prime farmlands in Grant
County that do not receive prime farmland classification
because they were not used as farmland (Section 2.7.5.). All
candidate prime farmlands in Grant County are shown on
Overlay 2 to 7.5-minute topographic maps.
Permit-Specific Data
USOSM requires that all soils be mapped and labeled in each
permit application. Comments on public notice may address
significance of local soil.
Significance:
EPA policy requires special consideration for more types of farmland
than the USOSM regulations address.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
Apply USOSM prime farmland requirements for restoration of additional
farmlands where appropriate.
Require that operator avoid impacts or restore off-site prime farm-
lands downslope from surface mine site or within subsidence area
of underground mine.
Require reconstruction of facilities that qualify for EPA concern
and farming or other applicable post-mining land use (see SID
Section 5.7.3.2.).
Specific Resource-Related Coordination:
None required.
6-30
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Resource: Unstable Slopes
Data Sources:
General Data
Mapped information not available. Potential problem landforms
are illustrated in Figure (Section 5.7.5.)-
Problem strata: Monongahela and Conemaugh red shales
Problem soil series: Brookside, Clarksburg, Ernest, and Wharton
Permit-Specific Data
USOSM requires detailed plans with maps and cross-sections to
assure post-mining 'slope stability.
Significance:
Unstable slopes historically have produced significant adverse
impacts. USOSM permanent regulations are expected to eliminate
most problems.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
In general, USOSM permanent regulations are adequate. EPA must
impose equivalent measures if USOSM requirements are not
enforceable.
Disallow permanent spoil placement below bench on outcrops of
problem strata or on problem soils (as defined above).
Specific Resource-Related Coordination:
Obtain SMCRA permit application.
6-31
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Resource: Lands Subject to Subsidence
Data Sources:
General Data
Subsidence potential is severe where underground mines are less than
150 feet deep; moderate, 150-300 feet; and slight >300 feet (SID
Section 5.7.5.)*
Permit-Specific Data
Extent of subsidence, control measures, notification of surface owners,
and buffer areas without mining are to be addressed in SMCRA permit
application (SID Section 5.7.5.).
Significance:
Subsidence is a potentially significant impact of underground mining.
USOSM requirements are expected to eliminate most subsidence problems
from future mining operations, at least in the short-term. Subsi-
dence may exacerbate long-term water quality problems (AMD) following
mine abandonment.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions
None necessary, provided USOSM permanent program regulations are in
effect. EPA must impose equivalent measures if USOSM requirements
are not enforceable.
Specific Resource-Related Coordination
Obtain SMCRA permit application.
6-32
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Resource: Lands Capable of Producing Acid Mine Drainage
Data Sources:
General Data
Potentially toxic overburden is widespread in the Basin and is
mapped generally on Overlay 3 to the 7.5-minute topographic
maps.
Permit-Specific Data
USOSM permanent program requires detailed overburden, surface
water, and groundwater information (SID Section 5.7.6 ).
EPA will review these data prepared for SMCRA applications.
EPA will review original, on-site geologic data based on core
or highwall samples separated horizontally by no more than
3,300 ft where potentially toxic seams are present, unless
appropriate available substitute data are supplied by the
applicant. Analyses are to be made according to EPA-approved
methods (see SID Section 5.7.6.). Samples spaced no more
than 2,000 ft apart are recommended and may be required.
Where permit review indicates possible significant metals
contamination, metals analyses of surface water, groundwater,
overburden, or processing wastes may be required (SID
Section 5.7.6.).
EPA will require overburden analyses of any red dog proposed
for use as road surface material.
USOSM Draft Experimental Form Chapter 4 outlines detailed data
required for coal preparation plants and potentially toxic
processing wastes. EPA will review these data as prepared
for SMCRA applications.
Significance:
AMD is one of the major potential, long-term, adverse impacts of
mining on water resources. The detailed analyses and miti-
gative measures proposed by mine operators in response to USOSM
permanent regulations will be reviewed in detail by EPA.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
Should USOSM performance standards for surface reclamation and
underground spoil disposal (see SID Section 5.7.6.2.) not be
enforceable, equivalent measures will be imposed by EPA as
NPDES permit conditions.
Should USOSM performance standards for coal processing waste
disposal (SID Section 5.7.6.4.) and in-situ coal processing
(SID Section 5.7.6.5.) not be enforceable, equivalent measures
will be imposed by EPA.
6-33
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NPDES New Source effluent limitations may be sufficient as
minimum discharge water quality requirements for streams
without significant biota. Biologically Important Areas
identified by EPA (SID Section 2.2 and 5.2) may require
maximum in-stream iron limitations of 1 mg/1 as special
permit conditions that necessitate effluent treatment
beyond the Nationwide limitations or other special mitiga-
tions to protect sensitive biota. Likewise, discharges to
trout streams may require a high degree of treatment to
meet a 0.5 mg/1 State stream limitation for total iron.
Specific Resource-Related Coordination:
Obtain SMCRA permit application.
6-34
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Appendix A
Aquatic Biota
-------
Table A-l. Fish collected at sampling stations in the North Branch Potomac River Basin,
(WVDNR-Wildlife Resources unpublished data).
STATION
Genus Species
TROUT
Salmo gairdneri
Salvelinus fontinalis
MINNOWS
Campostoma anomalum
Notemigonus crysoleucas
Notropis cornutus
Rhinichthys atratulus
Rhinichthys cataractae
Semotilus atromaculatus
SUCKERS
Catostomus conunersoni
Erimyzon oblongus
Hypentelium nigricans
SUNFISH and BASS
Lepomis cyanellus
Lepomis macrochirus
Micropterus dolomieui
Micropterus salmoides
SCULPIN
Cottus bairdi
DARTER
Etheostoma flabellare
Reported # of Individuals
Number of Species
d
e
123456789
1
2 5 12 7
12 9
11 50 1
13 130 43 72 47
58
16 4
22 41 17
41 47
1 18 5
1 1
9 2
1 1
2 2
5 18 31 40 29
2 1 23 6
22 36 136 245 95 128 153 3 5
558844623
a a 2.26 1.93 1.7 1.36 2.24 a a
a a 0.81 0.62 1.04 0.79 1.06 a a
10 11
17
5 19
136
3 42
16 37
1
1
5
25 257
4 7
a 1.99
a 0.75
Number of individuals is below 50.
A-l
-------
Table A-2. Fish collected at sampling stations in the North Branch Potomac River
Basin (Stauffer and Hocutt 1980).
Station
Genus Species
TROUT
Salmo gairdneri
Salvelinus fontinalis
MINNOWS
Campos toma anomalum
Cyprinus carpio
Nocomis micropogon
Notemigonus crysoleucas
Pimephales notatus
Pimephales promelas
Rhinichthys atratulus
Jlhinichthvs cataractae
Semotilus atromaculatus
SUCKERS
Catostomus commersoni
Hvpentelium nigr'icans
CATFISH
Ictalurus hatalis
Ictaluru.s nebulosus
SUNFISH and BASS
Lepomis cyanellus
Lepomis gibbosus
Lepomis macrochirus
Micropcerus salmoides
DARTER
Etheostoma flabellare
Etheostoma olmstedi
SCULPIN
Cottus bairdi
Cottus girardi
Reported // of Individuals
Number of Species
d
e
12 13 14 15 17 22 23 24
1 1
38
2
12 1 3 2 7 9
6
28 6 1 83 19 102
17 1 1 29 10 32
1
16 1 3 2 9 33
15
4
1
3
1
40 43 5 3 4 141 38 226
2 6 3 2 2 7 3 10
a a a a a 1.76 a 2.27
a a a a a 0 . 61 a 0 . 65
25
25
6
22
12
15
5
16
2
1
4
1
109
11
2.94
0.88
26 27
4 9
1
4 3
8 17
1
16 36
12 21
1 6
1
1
1
45 97
6 11
a 2.51
a 0.71
28
3
4
5
14
25
1
1
1
1
55
9
2.26
0.72
Number of individuals is below 50.
b = at stations 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 31, 33, 35 and 36 no fish were captured.
A-2
-------
Table A-2. Fish collected at sampling stations in the North Branch Potomac River
Basin (Stauffer and Hocutt 1980) (concluded).
Station
Genus Species
TROUT
Salmo gairdneri
Salvelinus fontinalis
MINNOWS
Campostoma anomalum
Cyprinus carpio
Nocomis micropogon
Notemigonus crysoleucas
Pimephalas notatus
Pimephalas promelas
Rhinichthys atratulus
Rhinichthys cataractae
Semotilus atromaculatus
SUCKERS
Catostomus conunersoni
Hypentelium nigricans
CATFISH
t Ictalurus natalis
Flctaluru.s .nebulosus
SUNFISH and BASS
jl,epomis cyanellus
Lepomis sibbosus
Lepomis macrochirus
Micropterus salmoides
DARTER
Etheostoma flabellare
Etheostoma olmstedi
SCULPIN
Cottus bairdi
Cottus girardi
Reported // of Individuals
Number of Species
d
e
29 30 32 34 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44
2 4
7
21 13 2
15
9 39 46 17 44 66 34 94 4 14
1 2 43 42 40 1
9 12 1 3 4 29 10 3 8
3 1 11 2 1 8 49 4 2 155
1 3 7
2
2 25
1 11
12 1
8147 17
2 8 1 37 46 22 7
1212
15 21 34 63 50 61 157 240 125 119 8 183
4545469 11 10 625
a a a 1.63 0.52 1.52 2.31 2.71 2.68 1.06 a 0.87
a a a 0.78 0.41 0.60 0.74 0.82 O.S9 0.42 a 0.42
a = Number of individuals is below 50.
I
b = at stations 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 31, 33, 35 and 36 no fish were captured.
A-3
-------
Table A-3.Fishes of the Upper Potomac Drainage.
Scientific Name Common Name
Amidae
Amia calva
Anguillidae
Anguilla rostrata
Clupeidae
Alosa pseudoharengus
Dorosoma petenense
Salmonidae
Oncorhynchus nerka
Salmo gairdneri
Salmo trutta
Salvelinus fontinalis
Esocidae
Esox americanus
Esox lucius
Esox masquinongy
Esox niger
Cyprinidae
Campostoma anomalum
Carassius auratus
Clinostomus funduloides
Cyprinus carpio
Ericymba buccata
Exoglossum maxillingua
Hybognathus nuchalis
Nocomis leptocephalus
Nocomis micropogon
Notemigonus crysoleucas
Notropis amoenus
Notropis analostanus
Notropis ardens
Notropis chrysocephalus
Notropis cornutus
Notropis hudsonius
Notropis procne
Notropis rubellus
Notropis spilopterus
Notropis stramineus
Phoxinus oreas
Pimephales notatus
Pimephales promelas
Rhinichthys atratulus
Bowfin
American eel
Alewife
Threadfin shad
Sockeye salmon
Rainbow trout
Brown trout
Brook trout
Grass pickerel
Northern pike
Muskellunge
Chain pickerel
Stoneroller
Goldfish
Rosyside dace
Carp
Silverjaw minnow
Cutlips minnow
Silvery minnow
Bluehead chub
River chub
Golden shiner
Comely shiner
Satinfin shiner
Rosefin shiner
Striped shiner
Common shiner
Spottail shiner
Swallowtail shiner
Rosyface shiner
Spotfin shiner
Sand shiner
Mountain redbelly dace
Bluntnose minnow
Fathead minnow
Blacknose dace
A-4
-------
Table A-3.Fishes of the Upper Potomac Drainage (continued),
Scientific Name Common Name
Rhinichthys cataractae
Semotilus atromaculatus
Semotilus corporalis
Semotilus margarita
Catostomidae
Catostomus commersoni
Erimyzon oblongus
Hypentelium nigricans
Moxostoma erythrurum
Moxostoma macrolepidotum
Moxostoma rhothoecum
Ictaluridae
Ictalurus catus
Ictalurus melas
Ictalurus natalis
Ictalurus nebulosus
Ictalurus punctatus
Noturus insignis
Cyprinodontidae
Fundulus diaphanus
Atherinidae
Labidesthes sicculus
Centrarchidae
Ambloplites rupestris
Lepomis auritus
Lepomis cyanellus
Lepomis gibbosus
Lepomis macrochirus
Lepomis megalotis
Mlcropterus dolomieui
Micropterus salmoides
Pomoxis annularis
Pomoxis nigromaculatus
Percidae
Etheostoma blennioides
Etheostoma caeruleum
Longnose dace
Creek chub
Fallfish
Pearl dace
White sucker
Creek chubsucker
Northern hogsucker
Golden redhorse
Shorthead redhorse
Torrent sucker
White catfish
Black bullhead
Yellow bullhead
Brown bullhead
Channel catfish
Margined madtom
Banded killifish
Brook silverside
Rock bass
Redbreast sunfish
Green sunfish
Pumpkinseed
Bluegill
Longear sunfish
Smallmouth bass
Largemouth bass
White crappie
Black crappie
Greenside darter
Rainbow darter
A-5
-------
Table A-3. Fishes of the Upper Potomac Drainage (Stauffer et al. 1978b)
(concluded).
Scientific Name Common Name
Etheostoma flabellare Fantail darter
Etheostoma olmstedi Tessellated darter
Perca flavescens Yellow perch
Stizostedion vitreum Walleye
Cottidae
Cottus bairdi Mottled sculpin
Cottus cognatus Slimy sculpin
*Cottus girardi Potomac sculpin
*Species of special interest (WV Heritage Trust Program in consultation with
Drs. Stauffer and Hocutt, AEL).
A-6
-------
Table A-4 . Descriptions of stations sampled by the WVDNR-Wildlife
Resources.
1. Station 1 was located on Howell Run 0.3 miles from its mouth. The
stream section sampled was 100 ft long, 4 ft wide and had a maximum depth of
8 inches. The stream was clear, had a pH of 6.8, and had no notable
pollution problems. The substrate consisted of boulders, gravel, and
rubble. Four species of fish were collected (Table A-l ) including brook
trout, indicating the high quality of the stream.
2. Station 2 was located on New Creek 4.5 miles from its mouth. A 20 ft
pool was sampled where the maximum width was 40 feet and the maximum depth
was 4.5 ft. The stream channel had been altered but no pollution was noted.
Five species of fish were captured including a smallmouth bass
(Table A-l ).
3. Station 3 was located on New Creek 4.5 miles from its mouth. A 20 foot
pool was sampled where the width of the stream was 40 ft and the maximum
depth was 2.5 ft. The stream was clear and had no noticeable pollution.
136 fish were captured representing 8 species including 3 species of
gamefish: bluegill, smallmouth bass, and rainbow trout. The presence of
these species indicates the high quality of New Creek.
4. Station 4 was located on a riffle section of New Creek 5 mi from the
mouth. The sampled site was 200 ft long, averaged 25 ft wide, and was a
maximum of 15 in deep. The substrate consisted of rubble and gravel with
occasional boulders and sandy areas. No pollution was noted. Eight species
and a total of 245 individuals were captured (Table A-l). No gamefish were
captured.
5. Station 5 was located on a 230 ft long section of Difficult Creek 2 mi
from its mouth. This section of the Creek consisted of pools and riffles
with an average width of 12 ft and an average depth of 6 in. No pollution
was apparent, although the pH was only 5.5. The substrate consisted mainly
of ledge rock, rubble, and boulders. Only four species of fish were
captured possibly due to the low pH value (Table A-l ). Five brook trout
were among the 95 individuals captured.
6. Station 6 was located on a 300 ft section of Difficult Creek 0.3 miles
from the mouth. At this site the stream was a mixture of pools and riffles
with an average width of 20 ft, an average depth of 12 in, and a maximum
depth of 54 in. The pH was 8.0. No pollution was noted. The substrate
consisted mainly of boulders, rubble, and gravel. Only four species were
captured, including 12 brook trout (Table A-l).
7. Station 7 was located on Mill Run 0.8 mi from its mouth and included a
225 ft section of the stream having an average width of 5 ft and a maximum
depth of 20 in. The stream at this station was mostly riffles with a few
pools, and had clear water with a pH of 6.2. The substrate considted of
rubble and gravel with a few boulders. No pollution was noted. Table A-l
shows that six species and 153 individuals were captured. Seven brook trout
were the only gamefish caught.
A-7
-------
Table A-4. Descriptions of stations sampled by the WVDNR-Wildlife
Resources (concluded).
8. Station 8 was located on the Stony River 19 mi from the mouth and just
downstream from the dam for the Stony River Reservoir. The river at this
station consists mostly of riffles with some pools. It was sampled over a
400 ft long stretch, which had a maximum width of 50 ft, a maximum depth of
4 ft and an average depth of 16 in. No water quality or substrate data were
recorded. Only two species and three individuals were captured (Table A-l )
probably due to highly acidic conditions (pH <5) that are typically present
in this stream (see Section 2.4).
9. Station 9 was located on the Stony River 17 mi from the mouth and
immediately upstream from Mount Storm Lake. Sampling was conducted over a
500 ft stream segment averaging 35 ft wide and 12 in deep with a maximum
depth of 3 ft. No water quality or substrate data were recorded for this
station. Only five individuals of three species were captured. This low
species diversity was probably due to the highly acidic conditions.
10. Station 10 was located on the Stony River 9 mi from its mouth. A
section was sampled from 150 ft above the mouth of Mill Creek to 350 ft
below. The stream consisted of 75% pools and 25% riffles with a maximum
width of 40 ft, an average width of 30 ft, a maximum depth of 42 in and an
average depth of 16 in. No chemical data were recorded. The stream
substrate consisted mainly of coarse rubble and boulders together with small
areas of fine gravel and sand. Only four species were collected here
(Table A-l ). Ambionics (1974) reported that the Stony River had an average
pH of 3.2 from the power plant at Mount Storm Lake downstream. This low pH,
which was caused by acid mine drainage, is probably the reason for the
limited number of species found.
11. Station 11 was located 400 yards upstream from Stony River Reservoir.
The stream averaged 8 ft in width with a maximum of 12 ft, and an average
depth of 10 in with a maximum of 30 in. Riffles made up 85% of the 180 ft
section sampled. Water quality was good, although the water color was
brown. The alkalinity was only 8 mg/1, suggesting that the stream is poorly
buffered. The substrate consisted of rubble and gravel. Table A-l shows
that eight species and 257 individuals were captured, representing a
relatively high diversity for such a small stream. Blacknose dace was the
most numerous species collected. Green sunfish was the only game species
captured.
A-8
-------
Table A-5. Stations in the North Branch Potomac River Basin sampled by
Stuaffer and Hocutt during the late 1970's (Stauffer and Hocutt 1980).
12. North Branch Potomac River 0.2 miles west of West Virginia State Line
on Kempton Rd., Preston Co., WV.
13. North Branch Potomac River at mouth of Elk Run, Garrett Co., MD.
14. North Branch Potomac River, Dobbin, MD.
15. North Branch Potomac River at mouth of Red Oak Creek, Wilson, WV.
16. North Branch Potomac River, Althouse Rd. Bridge, Bayard, WV.
17. North Branch Potomac River at mouth of Nydegger Run, MD.
18. North Branch Potomac River at mouth of Steyer Run, MD.
19. North Branch Potomac River, 0.25 miles upstream from Wolfden Run, MD.
20. North Branch Potomac River, Barnum, WV.
21. North Branch Potomac River at Mineral Co. Rt. 46 Bridge, WV.
22. North Branch Potomac River at abandoned bridge downstream from
Westvaco, MD.
23. North Branch Potomac River, Tri-towns Plaza Shopping Center,
Cumberland MD.
24. North Branch Potomac River at US Rt. 220 Bridge, MD.
25. North Branch Potomac River, 0.5 miles downstream from Railroad Bridge
(21st Bridge) MD.
26. North Branch Potomac River at Railroad Bridge, Dawson, MD.
27. North Branch Potomac River at power line crossing, Black Oak Bottom,
MD.
28. North Branch Potomac River, Pinto, MD.
29. North Branch Potomac River, Cresaptown, MD.
30. North Branch Potomac River, Cumberland MD.
31. Buffalo Creek ca. 0.5 miles upstream from Bayard, WV.
32. Mill Run at Co. Rt. 50/3 Bridge, WV.
33. Stoney River on US Rt. 50 Bridge, WV.
34. Johnny Cake Run on Co. Rt. 50/11 Bridge, WV.
A-9
-------
Table A-5 . Stations in the North Branch Potomac River Basin sampled by
Stauffer and Hocutt during the late 1970's (concluded).
35. Abram Creek at US Rt. 50 Bridge, WV.
36. Abram Creek at first bridge east of Harrison on Co. Rt. 2/2, Mineral
Co., WV.
37. Deep Run Co. Rt. 46 Bridge, upstream from Shaw, WV.
38. New Creek along State Rt. 93, 1.8 miles south of Mineral County Line,
WV.
39. New Creek at confluence of Big Run, near Claysville, WV.
40. New Creek at junction of US Rts. 220 and 50, WV.
41. New Creek at junction of Rts. 270 and 220/5, WV.
42. Limestone Run 100 meters below junction of Co. Rts. 14 and 14/1, WV.
43. Difficult Creek at US Rt. 50 Bridge.
44. Stony River at County Bridge below Old Stony Road Dam.
A-10
-------
Table A-6. Stations sampled by Stauffer and Hocutt in the Potomac Drainage
of West Virginia outside the North Branch Potomac River Basin (Stauffer
and Hocutt 1980).
1. North Fork of South Branch of Potomac River, second bridge on Co. Rt.
19, upstream of junction with Co. Rt. 17.
2. North Fork of South Branch of Potomac River at mouth of Teeter Creek
Run.
3. North Fork of South Branch of Potomac River at bridge at junction of Co.
Rt. 28, Judy Gap, WV.
4. North Fork of South Branch of Potomac River, Co. Rt. 9 Bridge off US
33.
5. North Fork of South of Potomac River at Co. R. 9 Bridge, Riverton, WV.
6. North Fork of South Branch of Potomac River, 8.4 km downstream from
mouth of Seneca Creek, Seneca WV.
7. North Fork of South Branch of Potomac River 3.2 km north of mouth of
Seneca Creek.
8. North Fork of South Branch Potomac River, 0.4 km upstream from
Grant/Pendleton Co. marker.
9. North Fork of South Branch of Potomac River, Hopeville, WV.
10. North Fork of South Branch of Potomac River at Co. Rt. 74 bridge.
11. Big Run, 1.6 km southwest of Cherry Grove on Rt. 2*8.
12. Big Spring along Rt. 28, Grant Co.
13. Seneca Creek at confluence of lower Gulf Run.
14. Seneca Creek 1.6 km SW of Rt. 33 at park on White's Run Road.
15. Seneca Creek at Rt. 28 Bridge, mouth of Seneca.
16. Roaring Creek at mouth, US Rt. 33 Bridge, Onego, WV.
17. Jordan Run, Co. Rt. 4 Bridge, just above confluence of Poig Run, WV.
18. Thorn Creek, 1.0 km downstream at junction of Co. Rts. 20 and 25.
19. Thorn Creek first bridge above confluence with South Branch Potomac
River.
20. South Branch Potomac River at Co. Rt. 25 Bridge NE of Cave, WV.
21. South Branch Potomac River, US Rt. 33 Bridge, Franklin WV.
A-ll
-------
Table A-6. Stations sampled by Stauffer and Hocutt (concluded).
22. South Branch Potomac River at Rt. 220 Bridge, junction with Co. Rt. 2.
23. South Branch of Potomac River at Co. Rt. 2 Ford.
24. South Branch Potomac River, Big Bend Recreation Area at Ford.
25. South Branch Potomac River, 2.4 km downstream of Royal Glenn Dam.
26. South Branch of Potomac 1.6 km south of confluence at North Fork and
South Branch of Potomac River.
27. Reeds Creek at bridge at junction of Co. Rt. 8 and US Rt. 220, Upper
Tract, WV.
28. Lunice Creek at Co. Rt. 5 Bridge, Petersburg, WV.
29. North Mill Creek, upstream of Rt. 220 Bridge, Ransey, WV.
30. Lunice Creek at County Rd., off Rt. 42, WV.
31. South Fork, Lunice Creek, Kline Gap, WV.
32. South Fork, South Branch Potomac River, Co. Rd. of US Rt. 33, Oak Flat,
WV.
33. South Fork, South Branch Potomac River, Co. Rt. 21 Bridge NE Sugar
Grove, WV.
A-12
-------
Table A-7. Fish collected at sampling stations located in West Virginia
outside of the North Branch Potomac Basin (Stauffer and Hocutt
1980).
Genus Species 1 2
TROUT
Salmo gairdneri
Salvelinus fontinalis
MINNOWS
Campostoma anomalum 2
Clinostomus funduloides 80 86
Exoglossum maxilingua
Nocomis micropogon 16 15
Notropis cornutus 122 155
Notropis hudsonius
Notropis rubellus
Notropis spilopterus
Pimephales notatus
Rhinichthys atratulus 13 36
Rhinichthys cataractae 11 37
Semotilus atromaculatus 2
Semotilus corporalis 1
SUCKERS
Catostomus commersoni 1
Hypentelium nigricans 1
Moxostoma rhothoecum 5 10
CATFISH
Nofpr"s insigni.s
SUNFISH and BASS
Ambloplites rupestris
Lepomis auritus
Lepomis cvanellus
Lepomis macrochirus
Micropterus dolomieui
DARTERS
Etheostoma blennoides
Etheostoma cacrulcum
Ethaostoma flabcllare 3 31
Etheostoma olmstedi
SCULPIN
Cottus bairdi
Reported // of Individuals 253 374
Number of Species 9 10
d 2.31 2.38
e 0.74 0.71
3 4
11
9
1
4 34
208
203
49
45
1
56
2 3
1
1
1
10
1
3 36
10 669
4 16
a 2.71
a 0.57
Station
5 6
1
1 40
18
6
4
82 100
1 282
58 1
18 3
23 61
6 1
4
4
3
22 5
243 504
13 11
2.75 1.89
0.72 0.44
7 8 9 10
1 2 12
1 2
4 4
44 1 12 1
23 56 106 4
2 13 18
7
11 10 11 8
124
1
2 13
112 1
1 17 3
5 8
23 2
83 97 175 67
7 10 13 11
1.74 2.02 2.19 3.00
0.61 0.54 0.47 1.02
11
13
1
8
6
1
1
17
4
(
a = Number of individuals is below 50.
A-13
-------
Table A-7 . Fish collected at sampling stations located in West Virginia
outside of the North Branch Potomac Basin (Stauffer and Hocutt
1980) (continued).
Station
Genus Species
TROUT
Salmo gairdneri
Salvelinus fontinalis
MINNOWS
Campostoma anomalum
Clinostomus funduloides
Exoglossum maxilingua
Nocomis micropogon
Notropis cornutus
Notropis hudsonius
Notropis rubellus
Notropis spilopterus
Pimephales notatus
Rhinichthys atratulus
Rhinichthys cataractae
Semotilus atromaculatus
Semotilus corporal is
SUCKERS
Catostomus commersoni
Hypentelium nigricans
Moxostoma rhothoecum
CATFISH
Noterus insignis
SUNFISH AND BASS
Ambloplites rupes tris
Lepomis auritus
L'eporais cyanellus
Lepomis macrochirus
Micropteuus salmoides
DARTERS
Ethcostoma blennoides
Ethcostoma caeruleum
Euheostoma flabellare
Etheostoma olmstedi
SCULPIN
Cottus bairdi
Reported // of Individuals
Number of Species
d
e
12 13 14 15 16
5 1
64 1
10
3 1
2
23
62 1
4 28 27 37
4 5 24 84
11
1 3
1
1 4
2 3 33 26
10 3
6 29 40 199 157
1 6 5 12 8
a a a 2.82 1.79
a a a 0.82 0.56
17 18
1
3
8
34
33 169
50
6 12
1
8
2
1
20
39 309
2 12
a 2.15
a 0.49
19 20 21
1
6
114
17 2
6
7 354
36
150 79 63
92 31 72
28
2 1 16
114
14
3
11 6 15
52 18
315 144 635
8 9 14
1.83 1.92 2.34
0.58 0.55 0.49
22
7
9
14
126
89
1
6
5
74
1
4
12
10
36
19
406
15
2.77
0.63
a = "timber of individuals is below 50
A-14
-------
Table A- 7. Fish collected at sampling stations located in West Virginia
outside of the North Branch Potomac Basin (Stauffer and Hocutt
1980) (concluded).
Station
Genus Species
TROUT
Salmo gairdneri
Salvelinus fontinalis
MINNOWS
Campos toma anoinalum
Clinostomus funduloides
Exoglossum maxilingua
Nocomis micropogon
Notropis cornutus
Notropis hudsonius
Notropis rubellus
Notropis spilopterus
Pimephales notatus
Rhinichthys atratulus
Rhinichthys cataractae
Seraotilus atromaculatus
Semotilus corporalis
SUCKERS
Catostomus commersoni
Hypenteliura nigricans
Moxostoma rhothoecum
CATFISH
Noterus insignis
SUNFISH AND BASS
Ambloplites rupestris
Lepomis auritus
Lepomis cyanellus
Lepomis macrochirus
Micropterus salmoides
DARTERS
Ethcostoma bleniioides
Ethcostoma cacruleurn
Elheostoma flabcllare
Ethcostoma olmstcdi
SCULP IN
Cottus bairdi
Reported // of Individuals
Number of Species
d
e
23 24 25
16 304 2
1 75 5
2 36 9
22 182
932
5 5
5 18 3
6 16 11
1
1 2
f
1
73
1 11
25 34
10 6
17 13 11
122 738 83
15 12 9
3.24 2.45 2.60
0.89 0.62 0.93
26
4
11
10
52
9
21
23
2
4
1
1
8
2
8
47
204
16
3.15
0.78
27 28
27
2
12
132
22
7
27
127 27
6 8
11 48
6
3
2
1
13 47
2 2
162 370
6 15
1.19 2.99
0.46 0.74
29
62
6
64
35
2
4
8
23
11
18
233
10
2.72
0.91
30 31 32
62 12 81
3 1
3 2
29 18
4
14 15
3 3
7
3 81 1
3 2
20 1
22 11
1
4 3
1
3 2
3
2 2
4
11 2
15 8 1
186 134 144
18 9 12
3.19 1.95 2.20
0.72 0.56 0.51
33
9
3
20
2
2
2
2
1
2
5
2
45
10
a
a
a = N'uir.ber of individuals is below 50.
A-15
-------
Table A-8. Aquatic macroinvertebrates found in Grant and Mineral Counties of
the Potomac drainage (Applin and Tarter 1977, Faulkner and Tarter 1977,
Harwood 1973, Hill et al. n.d., Steel and Tarter 1977, Tarter 1976a,
Tarter 1976b, Tarter et al. 1975, Tarter and Watkins 1979).
COUNTY OF CAPTURE
Arthropoda
Crustacea
Amphipoda
Gammarus minus
Grant
Mineral
x
Decapoda
Cambarus carolinus
9i. robustus
Orconectes limosus
0. obscurus
x
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Insecta
Ephemeroptera
Heptagenia
H. julia
H^ marginalis
Stenonemia integrum
S. rubrum
Paraleptophlebia guttata
Ephemerella aestiva
IL. allegheniensis
_£._ deficient^
£_._ funeralis
E. serratoides
Neoephemera purpurea
callsa
Potamanthus distinctus
Hexagenia atrocandata
Litobrancha recurvata
Ephoron leukon
Plecoptera
Allonarcys biloba
A^ comstocki
Taeniopteryx maura
Amphinemura delqsa
Allocapnia granulata
A.^ nivicola
A. recta
Paracapnia op is
Leuctra sibleyi
Paragnetina immarginata
Neoperla clymene
Acroneuria abnormis
A^ internata
A. lycorias
x
x
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
A-16
-------
Table A-8.Aquatic raacroinvertebrates found in Grant and Mineral Counties of
the Potomac drainage (concluded).
COUNTY OF CAPTURE
Grant
Trichoptera
*Rhyacophila nigritta
aChimarra socia
aHydropsyche sp.
*Ptilostomis ocellifera
Pseudostenophylax sparsus
Odonata
Agrion amaturn
A. angustipenne
Lestes dryas
Enallagma germinatum
Gomphus lividus
*G. plagiatus
Hagenius brevistylus
Lanthus albistylus
Ophiogojnphus mainensis
Megaloptera
Nigronis fasciatus
N. serricornis
x
X
X
X
Mineral
x
x
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
TOTAL
36
35
GRAND TOTAL POTOMAC DRAINAGE
53
Species considered as intolerant of polluted conditions.
A-17
-------
Appendix B
Terrestrial Biota
-------
1.0. ECOLOGICAL REGION CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
The ecological setting of the North Branch Potomac River Basin has been
described in several ways. Two systems, Bailey (1976) and the ecological
regions system used by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources, are described in this
section.
1.1. ECOREG10NS SYSTEM OF BAILEY
The ecoregions system developed by Bailey is based on both physical and
biological components, including climate, vegetation type, physiography, and
soil. Ecological associations with related characteristics within a
geographic region can be grouped into an ecosystem region, or ecoregion.
The system was designed as a tool for planning and data organization and
analysis. It originally was developed by the USFS for use in the National
Wetland Inventory presently being conducted by USFWS. The USFS also uses it
for analysis under the Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act
of 1974 and in the preparation of assessments required by the 1980 Resources
Planning Act (Bailey 1978, USDI-BLM 1978). The system consists of a
hierarchical classification scheme with nine levels or categories:
Domain Landtype Association
Division Landtype
Province Landtype Phase
Section Site.
District
It has been applied to the Appalachian Region by Bailey and Cushwa
(1977) in the form of a preliminary map on which information has been shown
to the fifth level of classification (District). An adaptation of the West
Virginia section of that map for the North Branch Potomac River Basin and
several other major river basins is shown in Figure B-l . The general
vegetation of the entire North Branch Potomac River Basin is typed as
Appalachian Oak Forest. The key to the numerical designations indicated on
the map is given in Table B-l .
This preliminary map will be revised after the completion of review and
testing procedures. Such procedures currently are being performed to the
fifth level of the system for birds using data collected by the USFWS
Patuxent Wildlife Research Center in Maryland (USFWS, Eastern Energy and
Land Use Team 1979b). Similar testing will be done for amphibians,
reptiles, and mammals by the TVA in cooperation with the USFWS (Verbally,
Mr. Charles T. Cushwa, USFWS, Eastern Energy and Land Use Team, to Ms.
Kathleen M. Brennan, November 30, 1979).
The remaining four levels of the hierarchy (Landtype Association,
Landtype, Landtype Phase, and Site) will be applied to the Appalachian
Region in subsequent revisions so that the map will become useful for more
localized investigations. As can be seen in Figure B-l the present system
cuts across drainage basins at the fifth level (District), and thus must be
B-l
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modified, or a separate system developed, for handling information on
aquatic resources (Verbally, Mr. Charles T. Cushwa, USFWS, Eastern Energy
and Land Use Team, to Ms. Kathleen M. Brennan, November 30, 1979).
1.2. ECOLOGICAL REGIONS SYSTEM OF WVDNR
WVDNR-Wildlife Resources uses a classification system that consists of
six ecological regions as a framework for the preparation of descriptions of
wildlife habitats and occurrences (Figure B-2 ). For some species, such as
grouse, several ecological regions are combined for planning and research
purposes (WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1980b). The boundaries of these regions
roughly parallel the seven physiographic provinces (mountain and valley
systems) of West Virginia that were described by Wilson et al. (1951), but
differ in that the ecological region boundaries follow county boundaries.
The description of these regions prepared by Wilson primarily covers
topography, drainage patterns, geological strata, and mineral resources.
The report in which they were presented is the summary report of a wildlife
habitat mapping project, and the forest cover information and wildlife
habitat descriptions in the report are discussed in Sections 2.3.
B-4
-------
B-5
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2.0. VEGETATION CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
Braun (1950) and Kuchler (1964) produced classification systems for the
complex species composition in the eastern United States. The systems, such
as Core (1966; see Section 2.3.) provide an overview of the types of forests
located in the North Branch Potomac River Basin. A comparison of these
classification schemes with the ecoregions system of Bailey (see Section
2.3.) is given in Table B-2 . With the exception of Kuchler's system, all
of the systems are subdivided according to both physiographic and vegetation
characteristics, but only vegetation terms are given in the Table. Because
the species of trees that are predominant vary in different parts of the
Basin, the species are listed in alphabetical order in the description of
each classification system rather than in order of predominance. Scientific
names are given in this Appendix.
2.1. BRAUN (1950)
Braun included the majority of the vegetation of the Basin in the
Allegheny Mountain Section of her Mixed Mesophytic Forest Region (Figure
B-3 ), The eastern part of the Basin, east of the Allegheny Front, is
included in the Ridge and Valley Section of her Oak-Chestnut Forest Region.
The presettlement mixed mesophytic forests were notable for their
extraordinary variety of important tree species, and although the quality of
the forests in West Virginia have been reduced considerably by human
activities, the variety remains. No single species or group of species is
predominant throughout the region, and the transition between locally
predominant species or groups of species generally occurs gradually over an
extensive area. Species typically predominant in local areas include
basswood, beech, hemlock, sugar maple, and yellow birch. Associated species
include aspen, elm, red maple, and red spruce.
Hemlock is the most frequently present coniferous tree. The hemlock-
northern hardwood association is characterized by a distinctive alteration
of deciduous, coniferous, and mixed forests.
In the Oak-Chestnut Forest Region, the American Chestnut has not been
replaced by any single species. The species present include red oak, chest-
nut oak, tuliptree, and white oak. A stable climax forest (the maximum
successional stage possible under the existing topographic, climatic, and
soil conditions) of white oak is present in some areas.
2.2. KUCHLER (1964)
Kuchler developed a map of the potential natural vegetation of the
United States in 1964. The vegetation types delineated are those that would
exist sometime in the future if there were no further climatic changes or
human influences, and if plant succession develop to the maximum stage
possible in each area. Two of the vegetation types are present within the
North Branch Potomac River Basin: mixed mesophytic forest and northern
hardwood forest (Figure B-4). Kuchler's map was one of the major sources
B-6
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used by Bailey in the development of the ecoregions classification system
described in Section 2.3. All except the northeastern part of the Basin
of the Basin potentially could be covered with northern hardwood forest.
The major species of trees likely to be present include beech, hemlock,
sugar maple, and yellow birch. A large number of associated species also
could be present, including basswood, black cherry, elm, and maple. The
remaining 5-10% of the Basin was characterized by Kuchler as potentially
covered with oak-hickory-pine forests. The predominant species in these
forests include various species of hickory, loblolly pine, post oak,
shortleaf pine, and white oak. Associated species include black gum,
dogwood, sweet gum, and tuliptree.
B-10
-------
3.0. SCIENTIFIC AND COMMON NAMES OF PLANT SPECIES
Scientific and common names of species of plants mentioned in the text
are listed below in alphabetical order by common name. Species that have
been designated as of special interest in West Virginia are listed
separately in Table B-3 . Scientific and common names generally follow
Strausbaugh and Core (1978).
B-ll
-------
Table B-3. Scientific and common names of species of plants mentioned in the
text, listed alphabetically by common name. Species that have been
designated as of special interest in West Virginia are listed
separately in Table . Scientific and common names generally
follow Strausbaugh and Core (1978).
Common Name
Alder, brookside
Alder, speckled
Angelica
Arrowwood, maple-leaf
Arrowwood, smooth
Ash, black
Ash, green
Ash, white
Aspen
Aster
Azalea
Basswood, white
Beech, American
Birch, river
Birch, sweet (black)
Birch, yellow
Blackberry
Bladdernut
Blueberry
Bluegrass, Kentucky
Boxelder
Broomsedge
Buckeye, yellow
Buttonbush
Cattail, broad-leaved
Cherry, wild black
Cherry, pin
Chokeberry, purple
Chokeberry, red
Cinquefoil
Scientific Name
Alnus serrulata
Alnus rugosa
Angelica spp.
Viburnum acerifolium
Viburnum recognitum
Fraxinus nigra
Fraxinus pennsylvanica
Fraxinus americana
Populus spp.
Aster spp.
Rhododendron spp.
Tilia heterophylla
Fagus grandifolia
Betula nigra
Betula lenta
Betula alleghaniensis
Rubus spp.
Staphylea trifolia
Vaccinium spp.
Poa pratensis
Acer negundo
Andropogon virginicus
Agsculus octandra
Cephalanthus occidentalis
Typha latifolia
Prunus serotina
Prunus pensylvanica
Prunus floribunda
Prunus arbutifolia
Potentilla spp.
B-12
-------
Table B-3. Scientific and common names
Scientific Name
Clover, white
Cranberry
Cottonwood
Dewberry
Dogwood, flowering
Dogwood, silky
Elder
Elderberry, black
Elderberry, red
Elm, American
Elm, slippery
Fern, bracken
Fern, cinnamon
Fern, hay-scented
Fir, balsam
Goldenrod
Gooseberry
Gum, sour (black)
Hackberry
Hawthorn
Hazelnut
Hemlock
Hickory, bitternut
Hickory, mockernut
Hickory, shagbark
Hobblebush
Holly, deciduous (mountain)
Holly, wild
Honeysuckle, Japanese
Hop hornbeam
Huckleberry
Hydrangea, wild
Laurel, mountain
of plants (continued).
Common Name
Trifolium repens
Vaccinium spp.
Populus deltoides
Rubus spp.
Cornus florida
Cornus obliqua
Sambucus spp.
Sambucus canadensis
Sambucus pubens
Ulmus americana
Ulmus rubra
Pteridium aquilinum
Osmunda cinnamomea
Dennstaedtia punctilobula
Abies balsamea
Solidago spp.
Ribes spp.
Nyssa sylvatica
Ulmus occidentalis
Crataegus spp.
Corylus americana
Tsuga canadensis
Carya cordiformis
Carya tomentosa
Carya ovata
Viburnum alnifolium
Ilex montana
Nemopanthus mucronata
Lonicera japonica
Ostrya virginiana
Gaylussacia spp.
Hydrangea arborescens
Kalmia latifolia
B-13
-------
Table B-3. Scientific and common names
Scientific Name
Locust, black
Locust, honey
Magnolia
Maple, mountain
Maple, red
Maple, silver
Maple, striped
Maple, sugar
Mountain-ash
Ninebark
Oak, black
Oak, bur
Oak, chestnut
Oak, pin
Oak, post
Oak, red
Oak, scarlet
Oak, scrub
Oak, swamp white
Oak, white
Oat-grass, mountain
Orchid, purple fringeless
Persimmon
Pine, loblolly
Pine, pitch
Pine, shortleaf
Pine, Virginia
Pine, white
Poison ivy
Pussytoes, shale-barren
Redtop
Rhododendron
St. Johnswort, glade
of plants (continued).
Common Name
Robinia pseudoacacia
Gleditsia triacanthos
Magnolia spp.
Acer spicatum
Acer rubrum
Acer saccharinum
Acer pensylvanicum
Acer saccharum
Pyrus americana
Physocarpus opulifolius
Quercus velutina
Quercus macrocarpa
Quercus prinus
Quercus palustris
Quercus stellata
Quercus rubra
Quercus coccinea
Quercus ilicifolia
Quercus bicolor
Quercus alba
Danthonia compressa
Habenaria peramoena
Diospyros virginiana
Pinus taeda
Pinus rigida
Pinus echinata
Pinus virginiana
Pinus strobus
Rhus radicans
Antennaria virginica
Agrostis alba
Rhododendron spp.
Hypericum densiflorum
B-14
-------
Table B-3. Scientific and
Scientific Name
Sassafrass
Serviceberry
Skunk cabbage
Sloe, Allegheny
Sorrel, sheep
Sourwood
Sphagnum
Spicebush
Spruce, red
Steeplebush
Strawberry
Strawberry-bush
Sumac, dwarf
Sumac, staghorn
Sweetgum (redgum)
Sycamore, American
Timothy
Tuliptree (yellow poplar)
Violet
Wahoo
Walnut, black
Wild grape
Wild raisin
Wild rose
Willow, black
Witch hazel
Yarrow
common names of plants (concluded).
Common Name
Sassafras albidum
Amelanchier spp.
Symplocarpus foetidus
Prunus alleghaniensis
Rumex acetosella
Oxydendrum arboreum
Sphagnum spp.
Lindera benzoin
Picea rubens
Spiraea tomentosa
Fragaria spp.
Euonymus americanus
Rhus aromatica
Rhus typhina
Liquidambar styraciflua
Platanus occidentalis
Phleum pratense
Liriodendron tulipifera
Viola spp.
Euonymus atropurpureus
Juglans nigra
Vitis spp.
Viburnum cassinoides
Rosa spp.
Salix nigra
Hamamelis virginiana
Achillea millefolium
B-15
-------
4.0. SPECIES OF VERTEBRATES KNOWN OR LIKELY TO BE PRESENT IN THE BASIN
The distribution of amphibian, reptile, and mammal species within the
Basin is presented in Tables B-4 , B-5 , and B-6 . Species by vertebrates
considered to be endangered, threatened, or of special interest in West
Virginia are indicated with an asterisk (*). Species currently included in
the WVDNR-HTP data bank that are considered to be relatively common and have
been proposed for deletion from the list are indicated with a minus signs
(-). Additional species that are thought to be rare or unique within the
State and that have been proposed for addition to the list are indicated
with a plus sign (+). Information on the species of vertebrates proposed to
be added to the list is not available at present. A draft report on rare
and endangered animals in West Virginia has been prepared by WVDNR-HTP and
currently is being reviewed by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources. The list of
species approved by the State will not be available until the report has
been published by WVDNR-HTP.
B-16
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5.0. ORDERS AND FAMILIES OF BIRDS IN THE NORTH BRANCH POTOMAC RIVER
BASIN AND THE SCIENTIFIC AND COMMON NAMES OF BIRD SPECIES
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Table B-8. Scientific and common names of species of birds mentioned in the
text. Taxonomy follows that of the American Ornithologists' Union
(1957, 1973, 1976).
Scientific Name
Podilymbus podiceps
Ardea herodias
Butorides virescens
Botaurus lentiginosus
Anas platyrhynchos
Anas rubripes
Anas discolor
Aix sponsa
Haliaeetus leucocephalus
Circus cyaneus
Falco peregrinus
Bonasa umbellus
Meleagris gallopavo
Colinus virginianus
Phasianus colchicus
Philohela minor
Actitis macularia
Zenaida macroura
Asio otus
Aegolius acadicus
Megaceryle alcyon
Melanerpes carolinus
Dendrocopus pubescens
Empidonax virescens
Nuttallornis borealis
Eremophila alpestris
Petrochelidon pyrrhonota
Corvus brachyrhynchos
Parus carolinensis
Sitta canadensis
Common Name
Pied-billed grebe
Great blue heron
Green heron
American bittern
Mallard
Black duck
Blue-winged teal
Wood duck
Bald eagle
Marsh hawk
Peregrine falcon
Ruffed grouse
Turkey
Bobwhite
Ring-necked pheasant
American woodcock
Spotted sandpiper
Mourning dove
Long-eared owl
Saw-whet owl
Belted kingfisher
Red-bellied woodpecker
Downy woodpecker
Acadian flycatcher
Olive-sided flycatcher
Horned lark
Cliff swallow
Common crow
Carolina chickadee
Red-breasted nuthatch
B-23
-------
Table B-8. Scientific and common names of birds (continued).
Scientific Name
Troglodytes troglodytes
Cistothorus platensis
Dumetella carolinensis
Toxostoma rufum
Turdus migratorius
Hylocichla mustelina
Catharus guttatus
Catharus ustulatus
Slalia sialis
Polioptila caerulea
Regulus satrapa
Bombycilla cedorum
Vireo griseus
Vireo olivaceus
Vermivora ruficapilla
Dendroica petechia
Dendroica virens
Dendroica fusca
Dendroica pinus
Dendroica discolor
Seiurus aurocapillus
Seiurus noveboracensis
Seiurus motacilla
Oporornis Philadelphia
Icteria virens
Wilsonia canadensis
Dolichonyx oryzivorus
Sturnella magna
Agelaius phoeniceus
Piranga olivacea
Passerina cyanea
Spinus tristis
Common Name
Winter wren
Short-billed marsh wren
Gray catbird
Brown thrasher
American robin
Wood thrush
Hermit thrush
Swainson's thrush
Eastern bluebird
Blue-gray gnatcatcher
Golden-crowned kinglet
Cedar
White-eyed vireo
Red-eyed vireo
Nashville warbler
Yellow warbler
Black-throated green warbler
Blackburniaa warbler
Pine warbler
Prairie warbler
Ovenbird
Northern waterthrush
Louisiana waterthrush
Mourning warbler
Yellow-breasted chat
Canada warbler
Bobolink
Eastern meadowlark
Red-winged blackbird
Scarlet tanager
Indigo bunting
American goldfinch
B-24
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Table B-3. Scientific and common names of birds (concluded).
Scientific Name
Loxia curvirostra
Loxia leucoptera
Pipilo erythrophthalmus
Passerculus sandwichensis
Ammodramus savannarum
Pooecetes gramineus
Junco hyemalis
Melospiza melodia
Common Name
Red crossbill
White-winged crossbill
Rufous-sided towhee
Savannah sparrow
Grasshopper sparrow
Vesper sparrow
Dark-eyed junco
Song sparrow
B-25
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6.0. DESCRIPTION OF GAME SPECIES IN THE NORTH BRANCH POTOMAC RIVER BASIN
Black Bear
The primary range for black bear in West Virginia is located in remote
areas at high elevations. An area of at least 50 square miles of isolated
wilderness, with abundant food and water, is required to support a stable
breeding population. This type of habitat does not exist in the North
Branch Potomac River Basin, but WVDNR-Wildlife Resources determined in 1974
that marginal or potential habitat is present at higher elevations along the
Allegheny Front.
Although habitat required to support a stable breeding population does
not exist in the Basin, bear are present in both Grant County and Mineral
County. The highest population densities recorded are at higher elevations
in the western part of Grant County, south of US Route 50. WVDNR-Wildlife
Resources personnel recorded eight bear sightings in the Basin in 1979; ten
claims for damages done by bears were filed during the period 1974-1979; and
four non-seasonal mortalities were reported during the period 1966-1979.
All except one of the bear sightings, claims, and mortalities occurred in
Grant County.
Bear populations along the Grant County-Tucker County line are expected
to remain stable and populations in other sections of the Basin are not
expected to increase. Eight bears were harvested in Grant County during the
last ten years. There is no open season for black bear in Mineral County.
Human activities, including surface mining, apparently limit the bear
population in Mineral County (WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1980b).
Bobcat
The bobcat is found throughout the Basin. Harvest data for this
species were first collected during the 1978 hunting season, when a bag
limit was imposed on hunters and trappers. Harvest data for bobcat are
presented in Section 2.3.
White-tailed Deer
WVDNR-Wildlife Resources has delineated four regions in the State for
deer. The delineation was based on the physiography of the areas and the
physical condition of the deer herds in those areas. The northern part of
the Basin is included in the eastern deer region and the central and
southern parts are within the Allegheny deer region. Deer are present in
both Grant County and Mineral County and populations are relatively high,
although lower than in the parts of these counties outside the Basin. Less
suitable habitat is present in the Basin, and the winters are more severe.
Surface mining also is more extensive in the western part of Mineral County,
and deer poulations are affected adversely during and immediately after
mining activity. Deer populations in both counties have exceeded the
carrying capacity of the habitat for several years, and a special two-day
B-26
-------
antlerless season has been held since 1978 to stabilize the number of deer.
Revegetation of surface-mined areas with species of plants that provide food
for deer may result in increased populations in these areas some years
later.
Wild Turkey
The wild turkey is best suited to forested areas with good ground cover
that are undisturbed by man. Its primary range is in the eastern part of
the State, and the entire North Branch Potomac River Basin is included in
this area (Figure 2-10). There are both spring and autumn hunting seasons
for this species in Grant County and Mineral County. Populations in the
Basin are considered to be high and are expected to remain stable in the
future if there are no significant land use changes that would cause
increases in human populations, road construction, and development.
Mourning Dove
Mourning doves are present in the agricultural areas that are scattered
throughout the Basin. They feed primarily in cultivated fields on grains
and weed seeds that are present on the soil surface. Populations can remain
stable, even under heavy hunting pressure, because of the high reproductive
capability of this species.
Ruffed Grouse
Ruffed grouse are woodland game birds that are found in early
successional communities in both counties in the Basin. Based on 1975
flushing rates (number of grouse chased from cover per unit of time), the
Basin is considered to contain productive grouse habitat, but harvests are
lower than in other parts of the State because of the rugged terrain and the
scattered patches of habitat. Abandoned farmlands, revegetated surface
mines, logged or burned areas, and windfalls provide suitable habitat, and
populations are expected to increase with increased mining and even-aged
timber harvesting.
Snowshoe Hare
The principal range of the snowshoe hare is at elevations above 3,000
feet in the Allegheny Mountains, where red spruce is present and snowfall is
heavy. Rhododendron and mountain laurel thickets, especially those inter-
spersed with tangles of greenbrier, provide the dense cover required by this
species. A small section of primary snowshoe hare range extends into the
southwest corner of the Basin (Figure 2-10 ). The greatest population densi-
ties have been recorded in the area between the Virginia Electric Power Co.
(VEPCO) dam at Mount Storm Lake and the old Stony River dam (the Stony River
Reservoir).
Population levels in the Basin generally are considered to be low.
The range of the snowshoe hare can be expanded through increased planting of
B-27
-------
conifers at high elevations, but such planting is not practiced currently,
and hare populations are expected to remain limited.
Squirrel
Squirrels are the most hunted game animals in West Virginia. The North
Branch Potomac River Basin contains areas of high-quality habitat for both
gray squirrels and fox squirrels, particularly in the eastern part where the
elevation is lower and oak forests are present. Gray squirrels are more
abundant. Both species require mature woodland with nut-producing trees,
such as oaks and hickories, but gray squirrels inhabit extensive areas of
hardwood forest and fox squirrels inhabit woodlots in open land or
agricultural areas.
Squirrel presently are considered to be abundant in the Basin, and
populations are expected to remain stable for some years if surface mining
and short-rotation timber harvests remain at current levels. "Clean" timber
removal, without dead snags or den trees, surface mining, road construction,
and development decrease habitat for squirrels.
Woodcock
Woodcock are present most frequently in low, wet, brushy areas along
streams and rivers and along meadow-woodland edges with early successional
vegetation. Flooding, overgrazing, and channelization result in loss of
woodcock habitat, whereas burning, timber management, and mining may result
in successional vegetation that provides additional habitat. Woodcock also
are affected by the use of pesticides because they feed on earthworms, which
ingest the chemicals from the soil.
Crow
Little data have been collected for this species. Most individuals
have been taken in Grant County.
Cottontail Rabbit
Two species of cottontail rabbits occur in the Basin: the eastern
cottontail and the New England cottontail. Both species inhabit brushy
areas in early successional stages, but the New England cottontail is
present primarily at high elevations. Rabbit populations in the Basin are
limited by the lack of suitable habitat. The greatest densities are along
streams and in areas with reclaimed surface mines. Populations are near the
carrying capacity and are expected to remain at that level.
Raccoon
The raccoon is found in both counties in the Basin, primarily in
association with farmlands, marshes, or streams. Populations in these
counties are considered to be the highest in the State, but are lower in the
B-28
-------
Basin than in the eastern parts of the counties where more farmland is
present. Raccoon populations and harvests are higher in Grant County.
Bobwhites (quail) are present in both Grant County and Mineral County,
but populations are limited by the amount of habitat, which is marginal.
The only areas with suitable habitat are along streams or near abandoned
surface mines.
Bobwhites require relatively open herbaceous cover with approximately
30% bare ground, which they scratch to obtain the seeds and insects on which
they feed. Disturbed areas with early successional vegetation, such as
burned areas and reclaimed strip mines, provide good habitat. Abandoned
farmlands and abandoned surface mines also provide suitable habitat for
short periods of time.
Woodchuck
Little information is available on woodchuck populations in the Basin.
The species is restricted primarily to agricultural lands, and the largest
populations are in the parts of Mineral County outside the Basin.
Fox
Red fox and gray fox are present in both Basin counties. The red fox
may be present in a wide variety of habitats, especially farmlands, and the
gray fox more commonly is associated with bottom land forests and bluffs.
Both species are trapped as well as hunted, but no information is available
on the populations of either species other than harvest data.
Waterfowl
Waterfowl are most likely to be present in the North Branch Potomac
River Basin during the spring and autumn migration periods, particularly in
the wetlands and reservoirs in the southwestern part of the Basin. Because
wetland habitat is limited within the Basin, reservoirs and streams with
undeveloped shores and banks provide resting areas for these migrants and
breeding areas for the few species that nest in the Basin, such as the wood
duck, black duck, and mallard. Black ducks and mallards also overwinter
along the Potomac River and the Stony River Reservoir. Black duck
populations in the State have been declining for some time, and presently
are located only along small streams or at isolated beaver ponds at high
elevations. Mallards have expanded into the areas formerly occupied by
black ducks, but are distributed sparsely. Wood ducks, found primarily
along forested stream banks, are the most common breeding ducks in the
Basin.
B-29
-------
Other Species of Game
Beaver are present throughout both counties in the Basin. Harvest data
are available for beaver for each trapping season from 1974-75 through
1978-79 (WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1980b). Harvests in Grant County were two
to three times higher than those in Mineral County, and the total harvest in
both counties constituted approximately 7% of the harvest in the State.
Both the value of beaver pelts and the number of beaver in the State are
increasing, and harvest figures are expected to be higher for the 1979-80
season and in subsequent years.
Mink and muskrat, which have similar habitat requirements, often are
found in association with beaver because of the habitat provided by
impoundments formed by beaver. Both species are more common than beaver and
have a wider distribution within the Basin, but harvest data are not
available for either species.
The opossum, long-tailed weasel, and striped skunk also are trapped in
the Basin. The least weasel and eastern spotted skunk are scarce and have
been proposed as additions to the list of species of special interest within
the State (WVDNR-HTP 1980).
Rails, gallinules, and coots are legal game birds within the State, but
the reclusive nature of these species and their restriction to the few areas
with wetland habitat make them of minor importance as game species within
the Basin. They are valued highly by nature photographers and birders.
Ring-necked pheasant were stocked in 23 counties in VJest Virginia
during the period 1913-1944, but this species is not present in the Basin.
The only remaining populations of this non-native game bird are in the
northern panhandle and in Monongalia County.
B-30
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Appendix C
Reclamation Techniques
-------
1.0. DESCRIPTION OF MULTIPURPOSE PONDS AND CATTAIL SWAMPS
The mitigation of impacts from surface mining could include the
development of multipurpose ponds and cattail swamps during the reclamation
of a mountaintop removal mine sites. Both provide a habitat for a variety
of wildlife. These structural mitigations are illustrated in Figure C-l.
The design of a multipurpose pond should include cattails in which birds
such as redwing blackbirds and yellow-throats can nest; an "island" formed
of rocks to provide a resting area for ducks, gulls, terns, and other
migratory birds; a rope or cable suspended over the pond that serves as a
perching site; and terraced sides with shallow water that attract shorebirds
and wading birds. The pond should be one acre in extent. Although the
primary sources of food for the beforementioned birds are aquatic
invertebrates and plant material, fish can be stocked in the pond for both
recreational fishing and as a food source for terns, kingfishers, herons,
egrets, and other birds. The steep side option shown in Figure C-l
prevents the growth of emergent vegetation on that side, which allows
fishermen access to the edge of the pond and facilitates casting.
The cattail swamp shown in Figure c-1 can have an optional rock island
with a T-shaped perch to provide a resting area. Cattails would invade the
swamp by means of airborne seeds, but the process could be accelerated by
scattering several dozen plants around the water edge after construction.
The swamp would have a short life span of approximately 15 to 20 years, but
would provide valuable habitat for a number of species during that period
and a rich soil after it is filled as a consequence of natural succession.
Waterfowl nesting rafts can be constructed to provide some of the
habitat needs of wildlife. (Figure C-l ; Brenner and Mondak 1979). The
waterfowl nesting raft normally would be anchored to the bottom of a
sediment pond by two weights but would be able to rise and fall with changes
in the water level because of the difference in weight of the two anchors.
A mesh roof covered with straw also can provide shelter. Based on the
present cost of construction of such rafts ($10.00), it is estimated that
the annual cost of production per duckling could be less than $0.50 after a
five-year period, and approximately $0.05 in future years (Brenner and
Mordak 1979).
C-l
-------
A. Multipurpose pond
steep slope option
one side only
B. Swamp
x*^!^ | *>/ v v
-------
2.0. REVEGETATION TECHNIQUES
2.1. ESTABLISHMENT OF VEGETATION
2.1.1. Seedbed Preparation
Ideally, the mine site should be prepared for revegetation so that
adverse physical conditions are ameliorated. However, Krause (1971) has
suggested that it is less expensive to plant species that can tolerate
adverse conditions than to correct these conditions before planting.
Adverse physical conditions can be corrected by grading and by the use
of soil amendments. Grading should optimize the slope, moisture retention,
friability, and stability of the spoil, while simultaneously burying toxic
materials and replacing topsoil (Bogner and Perry 1977, Bown 1975, Curtis
1973, Glover et al. 1978, Miles et al. 1973, Riley 1973). Some investiga-
tors have suggested that topsoiling sometimes is unnecessary because the
spoil is adequately fertile (Mathtech 1976). Others have stated that the
underlying strata may be more fertile than the A horizon, and that therefore
these lower strata should be stockpiled and redistributed (Bogner and Perry
1977, Krause 1973, WVDNR-Reclamation 1978). Some researchers have suggested
that compaction of spoil through final grading is an adverse impact that
outweighs the benefits of grading. They advocate either no final grading or
some type of ripping activity to maintain or add relief to the spoil surface
(Chapman 1967, Glover et al. 1978, Potter et al. 1951, Riley 1963, 1973,
Vimmerstedt et al. 1974). Haigh (1976) noted that recent research on
regrading of spoil banks in northeastern Oklahoma has indicated that sedi-
ment yields in river systems may have been substantially increased because
of the removal of internal drainage obstructions provided by furrows between
the ridges of unreclaimed land.
2.1.2. Soil Amendments
Much research has been done on soil amendments, although documentation
of the practical use of many of these amendments in the mining industry is
limited. Mineral or organic treatments to enhance fertility, friability,
stability, reaction, and moisture retention include N-P-K fertilizers,
sewage sludge and effluent, lime, animal manure, earthworms, fly ash, and
recycled organic matter from the original vegetation (Babcock 1973, Bengsten
et al. 1973a and 1973b, Bennett et al. 1976, Berg and Vogel 1973, Capp et
al. 1975, Haufler et al. 1978, Hinesly et al. 1972, McCormick and Borden
1973, Master and Zellmer 1979, Rafaill and Vogel 1978, Sopper and Kardus
1972, Sutton 1970, Vimmerstedt and Finney 1973, Vogel and Berg 1973,
WVDNR-Reclamation 1978).
2.1.3. Species of Plants Utilized
The species combinations; planting rates; and placement of trees,
shrubs, grasses, and forbs depend on the restrictions imposed by physical
factors and land use plans. The first goal of revegetation is to stabilize
C-3
-------
the spoil rapidly and reduce erosion. The second goal of revegetation is to
provide a stand of vegetation that is compatible with the long-term land use
plans for the site and the surrounding area (Wahlquist 1976).
The species of plants selected to stabilize the spoil must be
compatible with physical conditions, must have the ability to germinate and
spread rapidly and to develop an adequate root system, and must be capable
of enriching the soil with huraus and micronutrients. Although the regula-
tions prescribe a mulch, they allow for seeding of a crop of annual grasses.
At the end of the growing season, this nurse crop would leave an accumu-
lation of organic litter that would support a subsequent seeding of peren-
nial species (Jones et al. 1975). Some of the species of grasses, forbs,
shrubs, and trees that have been used for revegetation are listed in Tables
5-11, 5-12, and 5-13. The varieties of these species that may be used are
indicated in Rafaill and Vogel (1978). More detailed information on some of
the species listed also is available in Chironis (1978).
The use of multiflora rose for revegetation is prohibited in West
Virginia by the WV Department of Agriculture, which has listed the species
as a noxious weed because of its prolific nature and the resulting
destruction of pastureland (Verbally, Mr. Dixie Shreve, USDA-SCS, to Ms.
Kathleen M. Brennan, May 14, 1980). The use of autumn olive also has been
prohibited in 22 counties in West Virginia under the West Virginia Noxious
Weed Act (WV Code, Article 19, Section 12D) because of its similar habit of
spreading and resistance to control measures.
WVDNR-Reclamation no longer allows monoculture (sole-species) plantings
of black locust, as an internal policy; nor are plantings composed only of
conifers allowed unless the surrounding area is covered entirely with
conifers or the post-mining use of the land will be the production of
Christmas trees.
Soil amendments, mulch, and seed can be applied by conventional farm
equipment on shallow slopes (less than 20%) or by airplane, helicopter,
hydrospray, or hand application on steep slopes. A common approach is to
hydrospray a slurry of mulch, seed, binder, and fertilizer (Grim and Hill
1974, Rafaill and Vogel 1978).
Nearly all present revegetation efforts involve seeding of a herbaceous
ground cover that typically is composed of a grass-legume mixture. A
limited number of woody species also can be seeded directly with the herba-
ceous species. These include black locust, Japanese bushclover (bicolor
lespedeza), Virginia pine, shortleaf pine, loblolly pine, false indigo
(indigo bush), and green ash (Rafaill and Vogel 1978, Zarger et al. 1973).
When seeding woody species, it is important to avoid a dense, competitive
herbaceous nurse crop that will grow taller than and retard the woody
seedlings (WVDNR-Reclamation 1978, Vogel and Berg 1973). Stratification,
soaking, scarification (making cuts in the seed), or innoculation with fungi
(mycorrhizae) also could aid the germination and growth of various woody
species (Bengsten et al. 1973, Zarger et al. 1973).
C-4
-------
The expense and labor intensity of hand-planting woody seedlings has
discouraged some revegetation with trees and shrubs (Smith 1973,
WVDNR-Reclamation 1978). Mechanical tree planters can be operated only on
slopes under 20% that are not overly stony (Rafaill and Vogel 1978). Krause
(1971) described a technique in which planting guns with hollow plastic
bullets are used. Each bullet contains a tree seedling.
2.2. USES OF RECLAIMED AREAS
Post-mining land uses include commercial reforestation, pasture,
cropland, development, and wildlife habitat. A reclamation plan can include
a combination of the above uses.
2.2.1. Reforestation
Reforestation should emphasize stocking of species that are
commercially valuable for pulpwood or sawtimber. These include oak, pine,
spruce, maple, birch, poplar, sycamore, and ash (Bennett et al. 1976).
Black locust has limited commercial value (for fence posts or high-energy
fuel-wood, Carpenter and Eigel 1979) and is susceptible to rot at an early
age. Black locust is used to stabilize highly erodible slopes, and also may
promote the growth of other species of trees as a nurse planting (Ashby and
Baker 1968, Medivick 1973).
2.2.2. Pasture
Pasture or forage crops can be established most efficiently with a
herbaceous cover of grasses and/or legumes that provide nutritious forage
and also fix nitrogen in the soil. Pasture and hayland uses should not be
considered for slopes steeper than 25% (Miles et al. 1973). Livestock
should be restricted from grazing on a revegetated area until the plantings
are well established (Rafaill and Vogel 1978).
2.2.3. Specialty Crops
Reclaimed coal mines may be used for conventional or specialty crops,
depending on soil conditions and relief (Jones and Bennett 1979). In
exceptional situations, cash grain crops may be row-planted or broadcast on
fertile soils that are level (Bogner and Perry 1977). Specialty crops such
as orchards, vegetables, blueberries, and blackberries also can be grown
successfully (Blizzard and Shaffer 1974, Jones et al. 1979). Honey
production also has been suggested as a use for revegetated mine spoil
(Angel and Christensen 1979).
2.2.4. Development
Reclaimed land to be used for development may be revegetated with any
herbaceous cover that stabilizes the soil and does not interfere with
subsequent development. Turf grasses and landscape plantings may be
appropriate.
C-5
-------
2.2.5. Wildlife Habitat
Wildlife was ranked as the primary objective of ownership of all
classes of private woodland owners in West Virginia in a survey conducted by
Christensen and Grafton (1966). Wildlife habitat can be a sole land use
objective or can be combined with other land uses. Reforestation, pasture,
cropland, and development all can be compatible with wildlife habitat
objectives (Allaire 1979, Rafaill and Vogel 1978, Riley 1963). One of the
major factors that should control the development of wildlife habitat is the
identification of the particular species of wildlife desired, as was
indicated by members of the Wildlife Committee of the Thirteenth Annual
Interagency Evaluation (WVDNR-Reclamation 1978).
2.3. HABITAT VALUES FOR WILDLIFE
Most non-game species benefit by maximization of habitat diversity and
edge (Samuel and Whitmore 1979). This especially would include the
provision of structural diversityvertical stratification and a varied
horizontal mosaic with open water, songpost.s, and snags (Allaire 1979).
Maximization of habitat diversity can be accomplished by the interspersion
of belts or clumps of shrubs and trees within open agricultural or developed
areas, or by leaving herbaceous and shrub openings in forested areas. Most
areas of the North Branch Potomac River Basin are heavily forested, with
relatively mature timber. The openings created by mining activities can be
important complements to the forest (Dudderar 1973). Several revegetation
designs that have the attributes described above are presented in Figures
C-2 , C-3 , and C-4- These suggested planting plans were developed
specifically to provide habitat for cottontail rabbits, bobwhite quail, and
ruffed grouse, respectively.
2.3.1. Natural Succession
Some investigators have suggested that natural succession provides some
of the best and most diverse wildlife habitat, and that cultivated plantings
cannot duplicate the benefits of this natural revegetation process (Haigh
1976, Smith 1973, Wildlife Committee, Thirteenth Annual Interagency Evalu-
ation, WVDNR-Reclamation 1978). It also has been suggested that abandoned
mines with appreciable successional vegetation not be regraded and revege-
tated. Because of the time required for appreciable natural revegetation,
and the requirements for spoil stabilization, it would not be feasible to
rely solely on natural succession for revegetation of newly-mined areas.
Because of the benefits associated with natural revegetation, however, it
would be advantageous to initially revegetate newly-mined areas so that
secondary reclamation could occur from the natural establishment of native
shrubs and trees. This can be done by planting the grass-legume cover less
densely than usual, so that woody plants can invade the area. Secondary
reclamation efforts include the planting of woody plants three or four years
after the herbaceous plantings (Brenner 1973, Wildlife Committee, Thirteenth
Annual Interagency Evaluation, WVDNR-Reclamation 1978).
C-6
-------
Highwall
or
upper
edge
'* of
mining
--.
*
Outslope
Undisturbed forest
4
Outslope
Hardwoods- birches, red maple etc.
i Conifers- pines or'spruce
^ Hawthorn, crabapple, dogwoods
V Sumac
£5 Autumn olive, bush honeysuckle,
bicolor lespedeza
Bristly locust, rugosa rose
//JJJ Japanese honeysuckle
...^Clovers, alfalfa, deertongue,
''*.~ orchardgrass, switchgrass
ri>r Crownvetch or S. lespedeza & fescue
Figure C-2 SAMPLE PLANTING PLAN FOR ESTABLISHMENT OF COTTONTAIL
RABBIT HABITAT ON SURFACE-MINED AREAS (Raf ail I and Vogal
1978) A = Contour strip mine; B = Mountaintop removal mine
C-7
-------
Bench
Highwall
or
upper
£jT & '
*?'$' *$m
:JP V<£> < (p^J^P^y
/ v/. /vi « ^ f^y&'&jr&cf
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^-fo;
« w
Iki'iSSs
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'?
^^00.^
\ J
Outs 1 ope iv.
v'l
.Undisturbed forest
Ou ts 1 ope
ro
T
'^'-
Hardwoods - ash, oaks, birch etc.
Conifers - pine or spruce
Lespedeza bi color, autumn olive
Bristly locust, rugosa rose,
privet, viburnum
Crabapple, hawthorn, dogwood
Korean or Kobe lespedeza & orchard
grass
Crownvetch or flatpea & grasses
Sericea lespedeza &. fescue _
Figure C-3 SAMPLE PLANTING PLAN FOR ESTABLISHMENT OF BOBWHITE
QUAIL HABITAT ON SURFACE-MINED AREAS (Rafaill and
Vogel 1978) A = Contour strip mine; B= Mountaintop removal mine
-------
Undisturbed forest
f - "-
"'
Hardwoods- oaks, birch, tulip poplar
Black locust
Pine
Crabapple, hawthorn, dogwoods
/f^Rugosa rose, Bristly locust
)3to/Sumac, bush honeysuckle, autumn olive
^:;;* Clovers , birdsfoot trefoil, grasses
Figure C-4SAMPLE PLANTING PLAN FOR ESTABLISHMENT OF RUFFED
GROUSE HABITAT ON MOUNTAINTOP REMOVAL SITE (Rafaill
and Vogal 1978)
C-9
-------
2.3.2. Requirements of Desirable Wildlife
Certain desirable species of wildlife, especially game animals, can be
emphasized in the revegetation plan by providing for their needs. Species
commonly recognized as worthy of special attention are listed in Table C-l
along with their habitat requirements and the feasibility for inclusion of
their needs in reclamation plans. The feasibility of managing the reclaimed
mine habitat for certain species becomes apparent when examining the
requirements of several species for food, water, cover, mating grounds,
brooding areas, home range, compatibility with other desired species, and
compatibility with adjacent land uses (Rafaill and Vogel 1978, Samuel and
Whitmore 1979, USFWS 1978). For example, the dependence of woodcock on
earthworms as food would prevent this species from using recently vegetated
mine spoil; the needs of wild turkey for expansive mature oak forest with
small openings, for permanent open water, and for invertebrate food sources
and escape cover for poults (young) would limit their use of some mine
sites; and the planting of conifers and grasses in narrow, alternating
strips would create a situation in which ruffed grouse would be susceptible
to predators (Anderson and Samuel 1980, Samuel and Whitmore 1979; Wildlife
Committee, Thirteenth Annual Interagency Evaluation, WVDNR-Reclamation
1978). Conversely, small mine sites that provide openings in extensive
forests can be managed to benefit wild turkeys; intermingled clumps of
shrubs and trees with open land can be used to attract ruffed grouse; and
the maintenance of early successional stages and wildlife food plantings can
be used to support cottontail rabbits, bobwhite quail, and mourning doves
(Rafaill and Vogel 1978, Samuel and Whitmore 1979).
2.3.3. Maintenance Prj.ctices
If a desired habitat type is achieved by reclamation, it may be
necessary to develope a maintenance program to preserve the desirable
attributes. Open-land birds, such as bobwhite quail and mourning doves,
avoid areas with heavy litter accumulations. Therefore, controlled burning
of grassland areas and discing along edges is necessary to maintain a
suitable habitat for these species. The small woodland openings used by
wild turkeys can be expected to be invaded rapidly by trees unless selective
herbicides, controlled burning, or cutting are used to remove this growth
(Rafaill and Vogel 1978, Samuel and Whitmore 1979).
C-10
-------
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Appendix D
Air Quality Impact Review
-------
Appendix D. Air Quality Impact Review of New Source Mining Operations
Emissions of air pollutants result from all phases of surface coal
mining and coal preparation operations. These emissions have the capability
of affecting the air quality downwind from the mine site. The principal
impacts on air quality generally occur from increases in (TSP) and fugitive
dust concentrations. Increases in the downwind concentrations of other
criteria pollutants can occur as well.
Not all new sources coal mining operations need in-depth review for air
quality impacts. Sources that necessitate a review because they are
considered major stationary sources are those that have coal-related
emissions of more than 100 tons per year after application of control
technology and enforceable permit restrictions. PSD regulations also apply
to any stationary source designated as a major emitting facility which has
the potential to emit 250 tons per year or more of any pollutant, regulated
under the Clean Air Act following application of control technology and to
sources that locate in specific geographic areas (Section 4.2.3.).
Generally, large mining operations with more than 30 mobile and stationary
sources, mining operations with an on-site power or steam boiler, and coal
preparation facilities with thermal dryers may fall into these categories
and can be analyzed to determine whether further study is warranted.
To assess the potential impacts of air emissions adequately, the
following information on each air pollution source must be obtained:
Source of emissions
Quantities of emissions
Physical and chemical composition of emissions
The following sections describe sources and methodologies that enable a
reviewer to assess in general terms the potential air pollution impact from
a major new facility.
Fugitive Dust and TSP Sources and Emissions
Fugitive dusts are emitted from open-area sources (non-point sources)
which do not include emissions from single stacks (point sources). These
emissions are called "fugitive" because their exact source is often
difficult to pinpoint.
Fugitive dust includes respirable particles and other particles less
than 30 microns (u) in diameter which may remain suspended indefinitely
Emission factor equations have been developed for particles of this size,
because they are most effectively captured by standard high-volume
filtration samplers [assuming a particle density of 2.0-2.5 g/cm3
(EPA 1976)].
D-l
-------
Particles larger than 30 u eventually settle out. Those larger than
100 u in diameter settle within 7-10 m of their emission source (EPA 1976).
The larger particles do not have so great an impact on air quality as the
smaller suspended particles, because they settle out near their source, and
they are not respirable.
In addition to size, the chemical composition of the dust particles
combined with prevailing wind speeds, determines how fugitive dust emissions
will affect air quality (Cowherd et al. 1979). Wind speeds must be great
enough to carry the dust emissions away from their source. Table 5-21
presents the pick-up velocities for different sized particles. Other
factors affecting fugitive dust emissions include source activity, moisture
and silt content of the disturbed surface material, wind direction,
humidity, temperature, and time of day.
Coal Mining and Processing Sources. Different coal mining processes
produce TSP and fugitive dust emissions of varying sizes. Processes which
emit particles in the respirable range differ from those producing larger
particles. Major sources contributing to TSP and fugitive dust emissions
are (PEDCO, Inc. 1976):
Overburden removal
Shovel/truck loading
Haul roads
Reclamation
Blasting
Truck dumping
Crushing
Transfer and conveying
Storage
Waste disposal.
Processes producing TSP and fugitive dust emissions that fall primarily
within the respirable dust range and the relative amounts they contribute
are:
Coal transport unloading 40%
Blasting 30%
Drilling 12%
Coal augering _10%^
97%
The remaining 3% is attributable to wind erosion.
Fugitive dust emission should be examined for each process individually
but can be expressed as a single emission factor for the entire mine when
performing in-depth analyses. There are no general statements regarding
fugitive dust emissions which can be applied to all mines, and emissions for
the different processes will vary from mine to mine (By telephone, Bob
McClure, Skelly & Loy, to Terri Ozaki, WAPORA, Inc., 30 January 1980).
D-2
-------
Determining Fugitive Dust Emissions
Emission factors have been developed for certain coal mining and prepa-
ration processes (Tables 5-14 to 5-16). Table D-l presents generalized
emission factors for controlled and uncontrolled TSP and fugitive dust
sources. Table D-2 presents a sample worK. sheet that can be used to deter-
mine the source emissions. To utilize the work sheet, the reviewer must
determine the quantity of coal, topsoil, vmt (vehicle miles traveled),
acres, or hours for one year's worth of operation for the specific cate-
gories. These quantities must be obtained from the applicant. Next the
reviewer can multiply those quantities by the emission factors. The result
of this analysis will be the total amount of TSP and fugitive dust generated
by the proposed facility. The results should be used when running the Box
Model and then to determine the status of the proposed facility.
Criteria Pollutant Sources and Emissions
There are several other sources associated with coal mining and coal
preparation which emit air pollutants other than TSP. These sources are
generally small, but sometimes numerous, and should be taken into
consideration in an assessment of potential air impacts associated with a
New Source. These sources include:
Power boilers
Incinerators and dryers
Space heaters
Highway vehicles
Off highway, mobile sources
Off highway, stationary sources
Open burning (if continuous)
Emission rates for all of these sources can be found in the EPA AP-42
Manual. Current supplements of this manual should be used to determine
emission rates for the most accurate results.
Determining Ground-Level Air Pollution Concentrations
Proposed New Source emissions can be related to the applicable
standards. For New Sources, the maximum predicted ground-level air
pollution concentration cannot exceed the NAAQS's at the plant boundary (or
within the boundary wherever the public has access). The plant location and
proposed thermal dryer and power or steam boiler emissions first can be
compared to the thresholds presented in Section 4.2.3. to determine whether
or not a Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) analysis is
warranted.
Before comparing the total proposed plant emissions to the NAAQS's,
these emissions must be converted into ground-level concentrations. This
can be done by the use of a "Box Model" for area sources (that is, sources
that do not have a large smoke stack). Ground-level concentrations are
D-3
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estimated separately from point sources (that is, stationary stacks), as
discussed following the calculations for area sources.
The "Box Model" is an area source, non-buoyant plume, steady state
model, used to calculate ground-level concentrations at the site boundary
The equation for the Box Model is:
X
(long-term)
UL(A)
0.5
where:
o X is the long term increase in concentration in iig/m3
o Q is the total emission rate in g/sec
o U is the average wind speed (m/sec)
o L is the average mixing height in meters
o A is the site area in square meters.
All of the information needed for the model inputs are furnished in this
report or are available in the standard EPA reference document AP-2. Inputs
for both U and L are given in Section 2.4.2. The value for A is obtainable
from the NPDES permit application. Q must be generated by the reviewer
utilizing source data presented by the applicant in the WVAPCC permit
application (Section 4.1.4.13.). Q values for fugitive dust can be
calculated using the equations presented in Section 5.6.1.1. Q values for
the criteria pollutants must be obtained from AP-42 in the following
manner:
1. Determine the number and type for all emitting sources
(trucks, cars, cranes, generators, etc.) that will be
associated with the proposed facility. This information
can be obtained from the applicant.
2. Ascertain emission rates for all identified sources from
AP-42. The end product of this task should be a table as
presented in Table 5-14
3. Determine the usage of each source during a one year
period. The reviewer must determine how many hours,
miles, etc. the source will be used. AP-42 gives
emission rates generally in g/hour (heavy equipment) and
g/mile (light-duty vehicles). Other courses, such as
, coal burning, are reported in pounds of pollutant per ton
of coal burned.
As an example, a piece of heavy-duty equipment may be
used 7 days per week, 8 hours per day for 52 weeks per
D-5
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year. The emission rate will be applied for
7 x 8 x 52 = 2,912 hours/year.
4. The total emissions in tons/year for each source must be
determined. This is done by multiplying the usage of the
sources (from Step 3), times the emission rate of the
source (from Step 2), times the number of sources for
each source category (from step 1), times the appropriate
conversion factor. The results of this step should be a
table as presented in Table 5.14.
5. Determine ground-level concentrations for air pollutants
using the "Box Model" equation. The equation as
presented previously gives results as a yearly average
(long-term) for each pollutant. Each pollutant must be
run separately.
The equation calculates annual averages. Because of the steady state
assumption in the equation, the Box Model results are conservative.
Therefore, short-term averages must be determined. To generate 24-, 8-, 3-,
and 1-hour averages, further calculations must be made. These equations are
presented below:
24-hour average
X
(24 hr)
X
(long-term)
8-hour average
X
( 8 hr)
X
(long-term)
3-hour average
L( 3 hr)
I 24
/8760
\ 8
876£\
(long-term) \ 3 /
exp[0.5]
exp[0.5]
1-hour average
X
( 1 hr)
X
(long-term)
/8760\
exp[0.5]
The results of this task will provide the reviewer with predicted
short-term pollutant concentraitons that can be compared directly to the
short-term NAAQS's. If the calculated ground-level concentrations when
added to monitored ambient concentrations (obtained from Section 2.4.3. or
from the applicant) exceed the appropriate NAAQS's, a more detailed analysis
should be undertaken by the Air Programs Branch.
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To determine approximate ground-level concentrations from point sources
(power and steam boilers and thermal dryers) the reviewer can use the
nomograph presented in Figure D-l . This nomograph is based upon the
Bosanquet and Pearson equation for determining the maximum concentration
that will occur directly downwind from a facility. This equation can be
stated as:
r - (4Q)(10)6(p)
"~ mmimm 9
IIlclX ,*. f yn i-^*.^^\^^ / \ ^~ .
3600Y2n (e) (u)(H)(q)
at a distance X
max 2p
where:
o Cmax = maximum ground level concentration,
o Q = emission rate of pollutant, kg/hr
u = mean wind speed, m/sec
n = Pi
e = 2.71
H = effective stack height, meters
p = diffusion coefficient, dimensionless
q = diffusion coefficient, dimensionless, and
Xmax = distance from stack to maximum ground level concentrations,
meters.
All the information needed to use this nomograph can be obtained from
either the applicant or from this report. A value for Q can be obtained
from the applicant. A value for u can be obtained from Section 2.4.2. The
height of the stack should be used for the H value (assuming that the Xmax
will occur no more than 500 meters from the plant under most conditions).
The stack height can be obtained from the WVAPCC permit application. Values
for both p and q are as follows:
Turbulence p q p/q
Low0702 0.04 0.50
Average 0.05 0.08 0.63
Generally, low turbulence values should be used in steep valleys; average
turbulence values are appropriate for most other conditions.
The following example represents a typical analysis.
If pollutant emission rate is 500 Kg/hr., effective
stack height 45 m, and mean wind speed 5 m/sec, what is the
maximum average ground level concentration for low air
turbulence and what is the maximum distance from stack to
point of maximum ground level concentration?
D-7
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10i
I
Ul
X
o
LJ
60-=
H U
1500-1 10 -1 E- 007
X max 0 C max
Figure D-1 NOMOGRAPH FOR DETERMINING GROUND-LEVEL CONCENTRATIONS
FROM POINT SOURCES (Bosanquet and Pearson 1979)
D-8
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Solution: By checking the diffusion coefficients given
above, note that the turbulence factor for low air turbulance
turbulence = p/q 0.5 and p * 0.02. (1) Line 5 m/sec on u
scale with 500 Kg/hr on Q scale, extend line to Pivot No. 1.
(Figure D-l ). (2) From this point connect with 0.5 on p/q
scale and mark where line crosses Pivot No. 2 (3) Connect
point found on Pivot No. 2 with 45 m on H scale and read
maximum average ground level concentrations as
1.48 mg/cu m3 where line crosses Cmax scale. Convert the
mg/cu m3 to ug/m3. To find distance from stack to
maximum ground level concentrations: (4) connect 0.02 on
p scale with 45 m on H scale and read 1,125 meters where line
crosses Xmax scale.
This process can be repeated for the five major criteria pollutants
(S02, NOX, TSP, HC, and CO). If the results of this analysis, when
added to the ambient concentrations found in Section 2.4.3.2. or supplied by
the applicant from original monitoring, come close to or exceed the NAAQS's,
a more detailed analysis by the Air Programs Branch is warranted.
>
Determination of Status
The results of these analysis should be used to determine the status of
the proposed facility (whether or not the source is a major source). To
determine the status of the proposed facility the total emissions (in tons
per year) determined previously (Step 4) should be added together and
compared to the appropriate standards. If the results exceed the standards,
an in depth analysis by the Air Programs Branch is warranted.
D-9
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Appendix E
Acknowledgments and Authorship
-------
E. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND AUTHORSHIP
This SID was prepared by EPA Region III with the assistance of WAPORA,
Inc. Numerous agencies, institutions, organizations, and individuals
contributed to the development of the SID, and the assistance of each is
gratefully acknowledged. Special thanks are due to the many employees of
the State of West Virginia, and particularly to the staff of WVDNR, for many
courtesies extended during the collection of data presented here.
Principal authorship responsibility for specific sections of the SID is
outlined below. EPA input was provided chiefly by Steven A. Torok, Joseph
Piotrowski, and Evelyn Schulz (Environmental Impact Branch) and by Paul
Montney and Richard Zambito (Permits Enforcement Branch).
Water Resources
Aquatic Biota
Terrestrial Biota
Climate, Air Quality, and Noise
Cultural and Visual Resources
Human Resources and Land Use
Earth Resources and Mining Activity
Coal Mining Methods and History of
State Mining Regulations
Regulatory Aspects
Project Coordination and Management
Winston Lung
Gregory Seegert
Gregory Seegert
Joseph Andrea
Kathleen Brennan
John Munro
Sherman S. Smith
Terry Ozaki
James A. Schmid
Elizabeth C. Righter
Peter Woods
Phillip Phillips
Wesley Horner
John Urban
Carl Peretti
John Robins
Patrick McLain
James A. Schmid
Wesley Horner
David Lechel
Richard Loughery
Evelyn Schulz
Joseph Piotrowski
E-l
-------
Overall Editorial Supervision James A. Schmid
Wesley Horner
Joseph Piotrowski
Evelyn Schulz
Graphics Steven Kullen
Elizabeth Kolb
Fred Seegmueller
Loraine Fischer
Report Production Susan Beal
Carol Mandell
E-2
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GLOSSARY
Abatement - The method of reducing the degree or intensity of pollution,
also the use of such a method.
Abrader or Abrading Stone - A sandstone artifact, either grooved or
ungrooved, used to sharpen or polish tools or ornaments in either their
manufacture or during their use.
Acidity - The capacity of water to donate protons. The symbol pH refers to
the degrees of acidity or alkalinity. pH of 1 is the strongest acid,
pH of 14 is the strongest alkali, pH of 7 is neutral.
Acid Forming Materials - Earth materials that contain sulfide mineral or
other materials which may create acid drainage.
Acid Mine Drainage - Water with a pH less than 6.0 discharged from active or
abandoned mines and areas affected by surface mining operations.
Acid Producing Overburden - Material that may cause spoil which upon
chemical analysis shows a pH of 4.0 or less. Seams commonly associated
with such material may include, but not be limited to Waynesburg,
Washington, Freeport, Sewickley, Redstone, Pittsburgh, Kittanning, Elk
Lick, Peerless, No. 2 GAS, Upper Eagle, No. 5 Block, and Stockton
Lewiston.
Active Surface Mining Operation - An operation where land is being disturbed
or mineral is being removed and where grade release has not been
approved.
Adena - An important culture existing from 1000 B.C to A.D. 1, known
mainly through burial mounds. It centered in Ohio and West Virginia.
Air Blast - The pressure level, as measured in air resulting from blasting
operations.
Adze (Adz) - A ground stone tool, usually made of igneous rock, plano-
convex in cross-section, and mounted like a hoe. It was used for wood
working.
Air Mass - A widespread body of air with properties that were established
while the air was situated over a particular region of the earth's
surface. The air mass undergoes specific modifications while in
transit away from the region.
Air Monitoring - Periodic or continuous determination of the amount of
pollutants or radioactive contamination present in the environment.
Air Pollution - The presence of contaminants in the air in concentrations
that prevent normal dispersion of the air and interfere directly or
indirectly with man's health, safety, or comfort or with the full use
and enjoyment of his property.
GL-1
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Air Pollution Episode - The occurrence of abnormally high concentrations of
air pollutants usually due to low winds and temperature inversion,
usually accompanied by an increase in illness and death.
Air Quality Control Region - An area designated by the Federal government
where two or more communities in the same or different states share a
common air pollution problem.
Air Quality Criteria - The levels of pollution and lengths of exposure to it
which adversely effect health and welfare.
Air Quality Standards - The prescribed level of pollutants in the air that
cannot be exceeded legally during a specified time in a specified
geographical area.
Alkaline - Having marked basic properties with a pH of more than 7.
Ambient Air - Any unconfined portion of the atmosphere.
Amorphous pyrite- A non-crystalline pyrite that is responsible for the bulk
of acid mine drainage produced.
Anthracite - A high grade metamorphic coal having a semimetallic luster
high content of fixed carbon, high density, and burning with a short
blue flame and little smoke or odor. Also known as hard coal; Kilkenny
coal; stone coal.
Anti-Degradation Clause - A provision in air quality and water quality laws
that prohibits deterioration of air or water quality in areas where
pollution levels are presently below those allowed.
Approximate Original Contour - A surface configuration achieved by
backfilling and grading of the mined area so that the reclaimed area
including any terracing or access roads, closely resembles the general
surface configuration of the land prior to mining and blends into and
complements the drainage pattern of the surrounding terrain.
Aquifer - A zone stratum or group of strata that can store and transmit
water in sufficient quantities for a s-pecific use.
Archaic - A time period in eastern United States prehistory covering
approximately 7000 B.C. to 1000 B.C., when most aborigines were
collectors and small-game hunters.
Archaeology - The study of man's past by means of excavation. Generally,
archaeologists deal with prehistoric cultures, i.e., before written
records. Archaeology also confirms historical records.
GL-2
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Area Mining - One of the two basic types of surface mining where coal is
mined over a broad area in gently rolling or level land.
Area Source - Any small individual fuel combustion source which contributes
to air pollution, including any transporataion sources. This is a
general definition; area source is legally and precisely defined in
Federal regulations.
A-Scale Sound Level - The measurement of sound approximating the auditory
sensitivity of the human ear. The A-scale sound level is used to
measure the relative noisiness of common sounds.
Artifact - Any object which has been made or modified by man into a tool or
ornament.
Ash - The non-combustible residue of burned coal which occurs in raw coal as
clay, pyrite, and other mineralic matter.
Atlatl - From the Aztec word for "spearthrower;" a device to increase
distance and force in throwing a spear. In eastern United States,
during the Archaic period, the atlatl consisted of a wooden shaft with
an antler hook for inserting the butt end of a spear on one end, a
weight or "bannerstone" in the middle of the shaft, and an antler or
wooden handle.
Auger Mining - Mining of coal from an exposed vertical coal face by means of
a power driven boring machine which employs an auger to cut and remove
the coal.
Awl - Any pointed tool, usually of bone or antler, used for punching holes
in hides and textiles for sewing purposes. Awls, rather than needles,
are far more common in West Virginia cultures.
Backfill - To place material back into an excavation and return the area to
a predetermined slope.
Background level - With respect to air pollution, amounts of pollutants
present in the ambient air due to natural sources.
Bannerstone - See Atlatl.
Base Load - The minimum load of a utility, electric or gas, over a given
period of time.
Bastion - A projection outward from a stockade line or wall, to enable
defenders of a fort to cross-fire on attacking forces.
Beamer (Draw Knife) - A bone tool usually made from the deer metapodal bone,
with one side of the bone shaft having a concave worn surface. This
was a hide working tool used to remove hair and make hides more
pliable. It is characteristic of Late Prehistoric cultures.
GL-3
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Beds - Layers of sedimentary rock.
"Beehive" Ovens - Old-style, dome-shaped coke ovens shaped like beehives.
Benches - Discrete beds of coal within a coal seam separated by rock or
bone.
Best Available Control Technology - A technology or technique that
represents the most effective pollution control that has been
demonstrated, used to establish emission or effluent control
requirements for a polluting industry.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) - A measure of the amount of oxy^n consumed
in five days by the biological processes breaking down organic matter
in water. Large amounts of organic waste use up large amounts of
dissolved oxygen; thus, the greater the degree of pollution, the
greater the BOD.
Biota - The flora and fauna of a region.
Birdstone - A problematical artifact type in the stylized form of a bird,
usually made of banded slate. These are very rare in West Virginia,
and appear to be Adena in this area. They also could have been atlatl
weights.
Bituminous Coal - The coal ranked below anthracite. It generally has a high
heat content and is soft enough to be ground for easy combustion. It
accounts for nearly all coal mined in this country.
Blocky - The structure of coal having the normal cleat development which, in
combination with the horizontal bedding, causes the coal to break
naturally into large or small rectangular blocks.
Bone Coal - Very dirty coal in which the mineralic content is too high to be
commercially valuable. It is dull rather than bright and heavier and
harder than good coal. It is not related to skeletal bone.
Box Cut - A technique of contour mining where an initial cut is made and
then successive adjacent cuts are made, placing the spoil of each in
the preceding cut, which replaces the soil and makes reclamation
easier.
Buffer Zone - An undisturbed border along or around an intermittent or
perennial stream.
GL-4
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By-Products (Residuals) - Secondary products which are commercial value and
are obtained from the processing of a raw material. They may be the
residues of the gas production process, such as coke, tar, and ammonia,
or they may be the result of further processing of such residues, such
as ammonium sulfate.
Cache - A deposit of artifacts or materials for future use. Most commonly a
group of large blades of flint, probably blanks for future working into
final form.
Cairn - A pile of rock or boulders usually erected over a burial, although
some are piled up only as a memorial. In West Virginia these appear to
be Middle to Late Woodland in time.
Calamites - Small to very large rushes or trees of the first Coal Age.
Calcareous - Resembling calate or calcium carbonate; associated with lime.
Calcium Carbonate (CaC(>3) - A compound, often derived from calate used to
make lime.
Cannel Coal - Coal composed predominantly of millions of spores along with
plant cuticles, resins, waxes and other chemically resistent
substances. It is an aberration of "candle coal." It is dull rather
than bright, burns cleanly with a hot flame and is a good house fuel.
Carbon Dioxide (C02) - A colorless, odorless, non-poisonous gas that is a
normal part of the ambient air. C02 is a product of fossil fuel
combustion, and some researchers have theorized that excess C02
raises atmospheric temperatures.
Carbon Monoxide (CO) - A colorless, odorless, highly toxic gas that is a
normal by-product of incomplete fossil fuel combustion. CO, one of the
major air pollutants, can be harmful in small amounts if breathed over
a certain period of time.
Carboniferous - Coal-bearing.
Carboniferous Period - European period of geological time corresponding to
the American Pennsylvanian and Mississippian Periods combined. This
period is named for its numerous coal seams.
Carbonization - The coke-making process whereby coal is burned in the
absence of oxygen so that incomplete combustion results. The volatile
matter is burned up and driven off as gases tars, and oils, leaving
the fixed carbon compounds and ash as coke.
Celt - Another chopping tool, usually of igneous rock, biconvex in cross-
section. This chopping tool replaces the axe in Adena times and
thereafter is the only chopping tool.
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Chert - A general term covering hydrated siliceous oxides with conchoidal
fracture. Flint is a fine-grained subtype, as are chalcedony (waxy
feel); jasper (high iron content gives it a red to yellow color);
agate, and others. Chert is the material usually chipped by the
prehistoric occupants of West Virginia into projectile points and other
tools.
Chipped Stone - Stone artifacts found are of two general types, chipped or
ground. Stone is chipped by three principal methods: (1) percussion,
where a haimnerstone is used to rough out the artifact form; (2)
indirect percussion, where a hammerstone is used in conjunction with an
antler "drift", placed to remove a flake from the opposite side, used
to further shape the artifact; (3) pressure flaking, used to remove
f Lne flakes from the artifacts by applying a bone or antler "flaker" by
hand pressure to a point opposite where a flake is to be removed. This
allows fine secondary chipping.
Cleat - A set of fractures or joints that cut across a coal seam, generally
vertically or nearly so, in two directions nearly at right angles.
Coal Ages - Episodes in the geologic past that lasted for millions of years,
during which the commercial coal deposits of the world accumulated
under very special conditions. The two great coal ages occurred during
the Pennsylvanian Period beginning about 325 million years ago and
during the Cretaceous and Tertiary Periods beginning about 135 million
years ago.
Coal Balls - Rounded stony parcels of a few inches to several feet across
Which occur in coal seams. They are composed primarily of the
carbonate minerals calcite and magnesite.
Coal Conversion - The developing technology of processing coal on a large
scale to produce clean synthetic gaseous, liquid, and solid fuels and
by-products.
Coal Measures - A group of coal seams.
Coal Refuse - Any waste coal, rock shale, slurry, culm, gob, boney, slate,
clay, and related materials associated with or near a coal seam which
are either brought above ground or removed from a mine in the mining
process, or which are separated from coal during the cleaning or
preparation operations.
Coal Series - The sequence of stages in the coal forming process through
which coal proceeds as rank increases due to increasing changes. The
series is peat, lignite, bituminous coal, anthracite, and graphite.
Coke - A high carbon material consisting of the fused ash and fixed carbon
compounds produced by the incomplete combustion of bituminous coal in
the absence of oxygen. Coke is primarily used in the steelmaking
process as a reducing agent.
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Coke Oven - Combustion chambers in which coal is burned in the absence of
air to make coke.
Completion of Mining - An operation where no mineral has been removed or
overburden removed for a period of two consecutive months, unless the
operator, within 30 days of receipt of the Director's notification
declaring completion, submits sufficient evidence that the operation is
in fact, not completed.
Compressions - Plant fossils in the form of thin carbon films compressed in
the rocks, often preserving intricate details.
Conchoidal Fracture - Surface fractures in minerals or rocks which are cured
and smoothed, exhibiting more or less concentric ridges. Large pieces
of glass or flint exhibit this type of fracture.
Conductance (Conductivity) - A common way to express general mineral content
of water. It is literally the specific electrical conductance (or
electrical conductivity); a measure of the capacity of water to conduct
an electrical current under standard test conditions. Conductivity
increases as concentrations of dissolved and ionized constituents
increase. It is actually measured as resistance (in millionths of an
ohm) but reported as micromhos (the reciprocal of millionths of an
ohm).
Continuous Miners - Modern coal mining machines which use a wide variety of
cutting-head configurations to mine coal rapidly and continuously
without using explosives.
Contour Mining - One of two basic types of surface mining in which coal is
mined around a hillslope following the outcrop or crop line. The name
is taken from contour plowing which is a technique for farming sloping
lands.
Controlled Placement - The method of surface mining by which the site is
prepared and the overburden removed, manipulated and replaced by
mechanical means in such a manner as to achieve and maintain
stabilization in accordance with the approved pre-plan.
Cord-Marked - A surface treatment of pottery of eastern United States (and
much of the Northern Hemisphere). The result of impressing the damp
pottery vessel with a cord-wrapped paddle before firing.
Cretaceous Period - The last period of the Mesozoic Era which began 135
million years ago. It marked the beginning of the second Coal Age
which persisted on into the ensuing Tertiary Period.
GL-7
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Criteria Pollutants - Six pollutants identified prior to the passage of the
Clean Air Act Amendments which now have established Ambient Air Quality
Standards.
Crop Coal - The coal at the outcrop or along the crop line.
Crop Line - An imaginary line that marks the intersection of a coal seam
with the surface.
Crosscuts - Short entries that connect the large parallel entries, thus
isolating small blocks of coal.
Cross-Section - A graphic representation of a hypothetical vertical "cut"
through some portion of the Earth's crust which shows the relationships
of the rocks.
Culture - As this term is used by archaeologists and anthropologists it
refers to a specific way of life, socially handed down, of a particular
society of people, or to the entire social inheritance of mankind as a
whole (human culture). For the archaeologist, a culture is a recurrent
assemblage of artifacts and other traits which is seen on several
different archaeological sites, e.g., Fort Ancient Culture. Usually no
ethnic or tribal association can be made with a culture since most are
prehistoric; and then, there may not be a one-to-one association with
tribes. For instance it is definitely known that to some extent the
Delaware and Five Nation Iroquois shared a common culture and physical
type, but they are different tribes, speaking different languages.
"Cut" - In surface mining, a "cut" is: (1) a linear excavation removing the
overburden along the length of the property to be mined; (2) a
restricted, generally rectangular excavation as used in the box-cut
method.
Cut Fill - Overburden or other material removed from an elevated portion of
a road or bench deposited in a depression in order to maintain a
desired grade.
Decibel - The unit of measurement of the intensity of sound.
Declining - Any species of animal which, although still occurring in
numbers adequate for survival, has been greatly depleted and continues
to decline. A management program, including protection or habitat
manipulation, is needed to stop or reverse decline.
GL-8
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"Damps" - A collective term for the various noxious, poisonous, flammable,
explosive, and asphyxiant gases which occur naturally or as the result
of fires and explosions in underground mines.
Deep Mining - Underground mining; the mining of coal rock, or minerals from
underground, as opposed to surface mining.
Depletion - The withdrawal of water from surface or ground water reservoirs
at a rate greater than the rate of replenishment.
Design Storm - Predicted rainfall of given intensity, frequency, and
duration.
Developed - Development of a coal mine involves the establishment of a
network of entries which eventually isolates panels of coal. Once
panels have been established development is complete.
Devonian Period - The fourth period of the Paleozoic Era which began about
400 million years ago. It marked the flourishing of the fishes and the
appearance of the first forests.
Director and/or His Authorized Agent - The Director of the Department of
Natural Resources, Deputy Directors, the Chief of the Division of
Reclamation, the Assistant Chiefs of the Division of Reclamation, and
all duly authorized surface mining reclamation supervisors or
inspectors and inspectors-in-training.
Discharge - The rate of flow of a spring, stream, canal, sewer, or conduit.
Discoidal - A puck-like stone artifact found on Late Prehistoric sites,
usually with concave sides, and sometimes having a central perforation.
It was probably used in the game of Chunky, played with sticks, where
the object was to hit the discoidal (or chunky stone) into the opposite
team's goal.
Disturbed Areas - Those lands which have been affected by surface mining
operations.
Diversion Ditch - A designed channel constructed for the purpose of
collecting and transmitting surface runoff.
Downslope - The land surface between the projected outcrop of the lowest
coal seam being mined and the valley floor.
Drag Lines - Large earth-moving machines with a single movable boom in the
front. They differ from power shovels in that the "bucket" is
supported and controlled by large chains rather than a rigid boom.
GL-9
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Drainage Basin - The land area from which water drains into a river, stream,
or other watercourse or waterbody.
Drift Mine - One of the three types of underground mines. Entries are
driven horizontally directly into the coal seam from the outcrop.
Drill - Usually a chipped flint tool for making perforations. These were
probably mounted for use. Bases are varied with straight based drills
(no expansion), expanded base drills and T-shaped bases. A perforator
is usually a much smaller tool, and may have been used without further
mounting.
Drill Bench - A bench constructed for the purpose of settling up and
operating drilling equipment. Also consists of roads and other
disturbed areas incidental to construction.
Driving - The process of tunneling through or mining coal to produce
entries, rooms, and crosscuts.
Dry Seals - One of two types of mine seals in which drainage is completely
blocked off, as opposed to wet seals.
Dustfall Jar - An open mouthed container used to collect large particles
that fall out of the air. The particles are measured and analyzed.
Earthwork - A wall of earth erected in geometrical forms especially by
Woodland Indians. The Adena Culture built circular earthworks, usually
with an interior "moat" or depression. Hopewellian earthworks were
more elaborate, with circles, squares, and octagons. Earthworks
usually are found in conjunction with mounds. The purpose of these was
usually ceremonial, although a few examples may be defensive.
Ecosystem - The interaction of living things with each other and their
habitat, forming an integrated unit or system in nature, sufficient
unto itself with a balanced assortment of life forms.
Effluent - Any water flowing out of an enclosure or source to a surface
water or groundwater flow network.
Electrostatic Precipitator - Apparatus affixed to the giant smoke stacks of
coal-fired power plants which takes advantage of the natural static
electric charge on fly ash particles to remove the fly ash from the
stack gas and to collect it.
Emission Factor - The average amount of a pollutant emitted from each type
of polluting source in relation to a specific amount of material
processed.
Emission Inventory - A list of air pollutants emitted into a community's
atmosphere, in amounts (usually tons) per day, by type of source. The
emission inventory is basic to the establishment of emission
standards.
GL-10
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Emission Standard - The maximum amount of a pollutant legally permitted to
be discharged from a single source, either mobile or stationary.
Endangered - Any species, subspecies or sub-population of animal which is
threatened with extinction resulting from very low or declining
numbers, alteration and/or reduction of habitat, detrimental
environmental changes, or any combination of the above. Continued
survival in this state is unlikely without implementation of special
measures.
Enhanced Oil Recovery - A variety of techniques for extracting additional
quantities of oil from a well.
Entries - Tunnels in an underground coal mine, generally laid out in some
regular pattern, which are constructed (driven) during the course of
mining. They serve as haulageways, manways, and air courses for
ventilation.
Ephemeral Stream - A stream which flows less than one month per year in
direct response to precipitation.
Erodability Factor - The "k" factor in soil loss equations. The amount of
soil which erodes from a standard experimental plot of bare soil under
standard conditions of slope, rainfall, etc. It varies with the
physical characteristics of the soil.
Estuaries - Areas where the fresh water meets salt water. For example,
bays, mouths of rivers, salt marshes, and lagoons. Estuaries are
delicate ecosystems; they serve as nurseries, spawning, and feeding
grounds for a large group of marine life and provide shelter and food
for birds and wildlife.
Eutrophication - Overfertilization of a water body due to increases in
mineral and organic nutrients, producing an abundance of plant life
which uses up oxygen, sometimes creating an environment hostile to
higher forms of marine animal life.
Extirpated - The condition existing when any species of animal has
disappeared, as a part or full time resident, from the State. (This is
different from the word "extinct," which means the total loss of the
species in the world).
Face - The wall across an entry, crosscut, room, or an entire panel (in the
case of longwall mining), which is the scene of active mining.
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Fecal Coliform Bacteria - A group of organisms common to the intestinal
tracts of man and other mammals. The presence of fecal colifonn
bacteria in water is an indicator of pollution and of potentially
dangerous bacterial contamination.
Final Working - Mining on the retreat; recovery of the last coal in a deep
mine or panel by pulling pillars.
Fireclay - See Underclay.
Fixed Carbon - The stable carbon compounds in a given coal which remain,
with ash, upon combustion in the absence of oxygen and after volatile
matter has been driven off (see Carbonization).
Flake Knife - A knife consisting of a primary flake either unmodified or
with secondary chipping. Well-made, parallel-sided prismatic flake
knives are characteristic of Hopewellian Culture in the Ohio Valley.
Flaking Tools - Usually made of bone or antler, and used for removing fine
chips from artifacts by hand, by applying pressure opposite the point
a flake should be removed.
Flint - A fine-grained siliceous rock, used by archaeologists as a
subcategory of "chert." However, it should be pointed out that
geologists sometimes use the term to designate only the dark-colored
s il i ceous rocks .
Floodplain - The land area bordering a river which is subject to flooding,
typically once every 100 years.
Floodway - The riverbed and immediately adjacent lands needed to convey high
velocity flood discharges.
Floodway Fringe - Lands immediately adjacent to floodways which are subject
to flooding, but which are not needed for high velocity flood discharge
and are flooded less frequently and for shorter durations than
floodways.
Floor - The rock (usually underclay) immediately beneath a coal seam which
is revealed in the course of deep or surface mining. It is also called
"bottom. "
Flora - A collective term for the plant life of a given environment in a
given interval of time.
Flue-Gas Desulfurization - The use of a stack scrubber to reduce emissions
of sulfur oxides.
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Fluidized Bed - This results when gas is blown upward through finely crushed
particles. The gas separates the particles so that the mixture behaves
like a turbulent liquid. This process is being developed for coal
burning for greater efficiency and environmental control.
Fluted Projectile Point - A spear point type characteristic of the
Paleo-Indian period. It is distinguished by the presence of long
channel flakes or grooves (flutes) removed from each face of the point.
These are usually very well chipped, with the base and lower sides
ground off to minimize cutting of the attaching cords.
Fly Ash - Small fused particles of coal ash produced during combustion in
coal-fired plants. Fly ash would be expelled with the stack gas out
the smoke stacks if it were not gathered by electrostatic
precipitators. It has become a valuable raw material for fired brick,
light-weight aggregate, and other uses.
Folsum Point - A specialized subtype of fluted point, named after a site in
New Mexico. These are shorter, broader, and have "flutes" extending
almost the entire length of the point.
"Fool's Gold" - See Pyrite.
Formation - The basic rock unit. Groups are composed of formations which,
in turn, may contain members.
Fort Ancient - A Culture in the Middle Ohio Valley, taken from the name of a
large site in Ohio. The Culture existed from A.D. 1000 to 1675;
however, by an error in its naming, the type site is more
representative of earlier Hopewell Culture.
Fossil Fuels - Coal, oil, and natural gas; so-called because they are
derived from the remains of ancient plant and animal life.
Geothermal - Pertaining to heat within the earth.
Genus - A taxonomic category that includes groups of closely related
species; the principle subdivision of a family.
"Gob" - The collective name generally applied to waste material, such as
"slate," parting material, rock, and some coal, which is produced in
the course of coal mining and preparation: (1) the material in a
coal-mine refuse pile; (2) the same materials underground in a mine;
(3) the collapsed overburden behind a longwall operation or where
pillars have been pulled in an underground mine.
"Gob Piles" - See Coal Refuse.
Gorget (gor'-jet) - An ornament having two or more perforations. These are
most frequently made of stone (commonly banded slate), but some are
bone and shell. Concave-sided and expended-center types are typical in
Adena; rectangular and pentagonal types are more frequent in Hopewell.
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Graphite - A very soft gray to black mineral composed of pure carbon. It is
combined with clay to make the "lead" in pencils due to its softness
and "slipperiness." It is also used as a dry lubricant and is the
completely metamorphosed end-member of the coal series.
Graver - A small flint tool having an extremely sharp point formed by
chipping and used for engraving. They were characteristic of
Paleo-Indian cultures.
Greenhouse Effect - The potential rise in global atmospheric temperatures
due to an increasing concentration of CC>2 in the atmosphere. CX>2
absorbs some of the heat radiation.
Gross Energy Demand - The total amount of energy consumed by direct burning
and indirect burning utilities to generate electricity. Net energy
demand includes direct burning of fuels and the energy content of
consumed electricity.
Ground Stone Tools - The other method of working stones besides chipping is
by pecking, grinding, and polishing. A rough form is pecked out with a
haimnerstone, then, by use of sandstone abraders or sand and water, the
artifact is brought to final form by a slow-grinding and polishing
process.
Groundwater - The supply of fresh water under the earth's surface in an
aquifer.
Hammerstone - A relatively unmodified pebble showing pecking marks from use
as a hammer or percussion tool. Pitted hammers tones have one or more
shallow pits on one or more sides, probably to ease holding the stone
while using it.
Heading - An entry (see Entries).
Headwaters - The place where a river originates.
Hematite - A form of iron ore often found in sandstones of West Virginia.
An amorphous form of this was much used by Indians for artifacts and as
a source of red pigment (ocher), since .it is generally a blood-red
color. Adena people made celts, cones, and hemispheres of hematite.
Highwall - The man-made cliff produced in the course of surface mining which
remains after mining in some instances.
Hinge Line - An imaginary line separating the Northern and Southern
Coalfields which marks a relatively coal-poor strip between the two.
Southeast of this line the coal measures thicken relatively rapidly;
toward the northwest they thin very gradually.
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Hoes - Tools made of shell or chipped stone for either cultivating crops or
root-grubbing purposes. Shell hoes are made by making a large
perforation through a freshwater clam shell; chipped stone hoes are
notched, and usually thin in cross-section, and will show signs of
earth polish on the bit end. Such hoes, made of flint, are found in
central and southern West Virginia.
Hopewell - An important culture in eastern United States which centered in
Illinois and Ohio, but influenced almost all of the Indian cultures of
the East. It is known best by the elaborate richly endowed burial
mounds and earthworks. The culture began by 500 B.C. in Illinois, but
did not reach its peak until about A.D. 1 in Ohio. Its influences were
still being felt by A.D. 900.
Horsetails - See Scouring Rushes.
Hydrologic Balance - The relationship between the quality and quantity of
inflow storage and outflow in a hydrologic unit such as a drainage
basin, aquifer, soil-zone, lake, or reservoir. It encompasses the
quality and quantity relationships between precipitation, runoff,
evaporation, and the change in ground and surface water storage.
Ice Ages - Those intervals of the geologic past during which continental ice
sheets covered large areas of the Earth's surface.
In-Migration - The movement of people into a city or region.
In-Situ Processing - In-place processing of fuel by combustion without
mining. Applies to oil, shale, and coal.
Incising - The forming of a linear impression on pottery (while clay is
still damp; if done after firing it is referred to as "engraving"),
shell, bone, and stone. Incised pottery is most characteristic of Late
Prehistoric Cultures, though some is found earlier.
Inspection - A visual review of prospecting, surface, or other mining
operations to ensure compliance with any applicable law, rules, and
regulations under jurisdiction of the Director.
Intermittent Stream - A stream or portion of a stream that flows
continuously for at least one month of the calendar year as a result of
groundwater discharge or surface runoff.
Interstream Use - Use of water which does not require withdrawal or
diversion from its natural watercourse. For example, the use of water
for navigation, waste disposal, recreation, and support of fish and
wildlife.
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Lanceolate Projectile Point - "Lance-formed" point type, having no stem or
notch, with the maximum width about the middle of the point. These are
an early Archaic Point type, and may be descended from the fluted
point.
Leachate - A liquid that has percolated through soil, rock, or waste and has
extracted, dissolved, or suspended materials.
Lepidodendron - The largest trees, with Sigillaria, of the first Coal Age;
giant cone-bearing plants of a primitive group, the lycopods (not true
conifers); these trees reached as much as 100 feet in height and
several feet through their bases; they bore spirally-arranged, grass-
like leaves on diamond-shaped leaf cushions which have led to the name
"scale tree"; related to modern-day crows foot and club moss.
Lightly Buffered Stream - Any stream or its tributaries that contains less
than 15 ppm methyl orange alkalinity (to pH 4.5) and has a conductivity
of less than 50 micro M40.
Lignite - Brown coal which is the lowest-rank coal in the coal series. Only
peat, which is not coal, is lower in rank.
Limited - Any species of animal occurring in limited numbers due to a
restricted or specialized habitat or at the perimeter of its historic
range.
Lithified - Sediment which is consolidated into rock by compaction and
cementation.
Loading - The progressive burial of sediment or rock, naturally, by
sediment, which results in compaction. The pressures, and attendant
heat thus produced, under very deep burial become so great that the
effects fall into the realm of metamorphism.
Log Tomb - A log crypt found in some burial mounds. A burial was surrounded
by logs, sometimes a single tier, sometimes several, and roofed over
with either logs or bark. This is most characteristic of the Adena
Culture in West Virginia. In excavations, these usually appear as
outline casts of the logs, because usually the logs themselves have
rotted away, and only an imprint of the bottom of the log remains.
Longwall - A type of underground coal mining in which the equipment is set
up along the end of a panel so that the mining machinery "shears" coal
continuously from the very long face with each pass as it is drawn back
and forth.
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Low-Sulfur Field - See Southern Coalfield.
Luster - The appearance of a mineral or rock in reflected light. Luster
ranges from dull, to vitreous (glassy), to brilliant. Some minerals
such as pyrite have a metallic luster.
Main Entries, "Mains" - The primary set of multiple entries in a coal mine
which are driven first. Subordinate entries are driven also from
these.
Marcasite - See Pyrite.
Metallurgical-Grade - Bituminous coal of high purity (especially low sulfur
and low phosphorus) which readily produces a strong coke upon
carbonization.
Metamorphism - The process whereby rocks are progressively and variously
altered, both chemically and physically, due to natural heat,
pressure, and chemical solutions in the Earth's crust.
Methane - Natural gas or "swamp gas" having the formula Qty.
Mica - A naturally occurring mineral which is found as books of transparent
leaves or plates; often called isinglass. Used for ornamental purposes
by the Indians who cut various designs in mica. Most was probably
secured from North Carolina.
Minable Reserve - The total tonnage of minable coal estimated from the best
data available. Minable includes coal down to a thickness of 28 inches
with sufficient purity to be considered commercially valuable now or
when the more valuable beds have been depleted.
Mine Props - Wooden posts that are used to support the roof in underground
mines.
Mine-Refuse Piles - See Coal Refuse.
Mine Seals - Concrete barriers constructed at the mouth of abandoned drift
mines which prevent the formation of acid mine drainage by preventing
access of air to the pyritic materials.
Mineral. Face - The exposed vertical cross-section of the natural coal seam
or mineral deposit.
Mining on the Retreat - See Final Working.
Mississippian - The fifth period (system) of the Paleozoic Era which began
355 million years ago. It essentially corresponds to the Early
Carboniferous Period of Europe.
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Mississippian Pattern - This is opposed to the "Woodland Pattern," and is
characterized by intensive farming, settled village life, and a number
of specific artifact traits, temple mounds, and priest cults. It was
born about A.D. 900 in the middle of the Mississippi Valley, hence the
name, and spread over much of eastern United States by historic time.
Mixing Height - The vertical distance through which air pollutant emissions
can be mixed and diluted.
Modified Box Cut - See Box Cut.
Monongahela Culture - One of many mixtures of the Mississippian and Woodland
Patterns. Found in western Pennsylvania and northern West Virginia
between A.D. 1000 and A.D. 1675.
Mountaintop Removal - Surface mining operations that remove entire coal
seams running through the upper fraction of a mountain, ridge, or hill
be removing all of the overburden and creating a level plateau or
gently rolling contour with no highwalls remaining and where equal or
more intensive land use is proposed.
Multiple Entries - Several (4 to 8) parallel entries, which are driven
during development to serve as the main haulageways, access routes, and
air courses for the mine.
National Ambient Air Quality Standards - According to the Clean Air Act of
1970, the air quality level which must be met to protect the public
health (primary standards) and welfare (secondary standards).
Natural Drainway - Any water course or channel which may carry water to the
tributaries and rivers of the watershed.
New Source Performance Standards - Standards set for new facilities to
ensure that ambient standards are met and to limit the amount of a
pollutant a stationary source may emit over a given time. Clean Water
Act NSPS also are referred to as New Source Effluent Limitation.
Nitric Oxide (NO) - A gas formed mostly from atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen
when combustion takes place under high temperature, as in internal
combustion engines. NO is not itself a pollutant; however, in the
ambient air it converts to nitrogen dioxide, a major contributor to
photochemical smog.
Nitrogen Dioxide (N0£) - A compound produced by the oxidation of nitric
oxide in the atmosphere which is a major contributor to photochemical
smog.
Niche - A specific habitat delimited by a restricted range of ecological
conditions.
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NOX - Nitrogen oxide, either nitrogen dioxide or nitrogen oxide, also
referred to as nitric oxides.
No Discharge Policy - The policy which prohibits discharge of any harmful
substance into a water body. Strictly applied, the policy would forbid
discharges which are within the capacity of a water body to assimilate
and render harmless.
Noncrystalline Pyrite - See Amorphous Pyrite.
Nonpoint Source - The diffuse discharge of waste into a water body which
cannot be located as to specific source, as with sediment, certain
agricultural chemicals, and mine drainage.
Northern Coalfield - The coalfield of northern West Virginia which lies
northwest of the hinge line. It contains 19 minable coal seams the
most important of which is the great Pittsburgh coal. These northern
coals are higher in sulfur and ash and lower in heating value than
their southern counterparts.
Oil Shale - A finely grained sedimentary rock that contains an organic
material, kerogen, which can be extracted and converted to the
equivalent of petroleum.
Operation - The permit area indicated on the approved map submitted by the
operator, or an area where land is being disturbed or mineral is being
removed.
Organic Sulfur - Sulfur that occurs in complex organic compounds in coal.
It is, with pyritic sulfur, the prime source of sulfur in coal.
"Orphaned" - Abandoned, unreclaimed strip-mined land.
Outer Spoil or Outer Slope - The disturbed area extending from the outer
point of the bench to the extreme lower limit of the disturbed land.
Overburden - The rock and soil (collective) overlying a coal seam.
Overburden Wheels - Huge earth-moving machines used for area mining where
the overburden is unconsolidated. At the end of one boom is a large
revolving wheel with several "buckets" which continually scoop up the
overburden, placing it on a continuous conveyor belt which carries it
to a second boom for distribution it to the spoil bank.
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Paddle and Anvil Method - A pottery making technique used over much of the
New World. A stone or "anvil" is held inside the pot being built up, a
coil of clay added to the vessel wall, and then a paddle applied on the
outside to flatten and fuse the coil to the preceding coil. Invariably
the paddle is roughened in some manner, by either wrapping it (with
cords, fabric, roots, thongs) or carving it (grooves, cross grooves, or
complicated designs). The result is that most pottery of eastern
United States has a surface texture of some nature, save when they go
over the finished pot and smooth the outside surface. The only other
method of pottery making of any import in West Virginia is modeling,
which is rare. The potter's wheel was never used any place in the New
World.
Paleo-Indian - The first major culture in the New World, known mainly
through "fluted points." It dates back at least 10,000 years.
Palisade - See Stockade.
Panel Entries - Multiple entries driven between the "sub-mains," isolating
huge panels of coal.
Panels - Huge blocks of coal isolated by the "sub-mains" and panel entries
i s a coal mine is developed. It is from these 2,000 x 600-foot panels
that the most coal is recovered.
Particulates - Fine solid or liquid particles in the air or in an emission.
This can include dust, smoke, fumes, mist, spray, and fog.
Partings - Beds of rock or bone, sometimes called "binders," within a coal
seam that separate the various benches of coal.
Peak Runoff - The maximum flow at a specified location resulting from a
design storm.
Peat - A deposit of incompletely decomposed plant remains which accumulated
under cover of stagnant water.
Peat Moss - Peat in a dried form used for mulch by gardeners.
Pendant - An ornament with one perforation, probably suspended from the
neck. Usually made of stone, but some shell and bone examples are
known. These are most common in the Late Prehistoric, but occur in
other earlier cultues.
Pennsylvanian - The sixth period (system) of the Paleozoic Era which began
325 million years ago. It is also the first Coal Age and corresponds
to the Late Carboniferous Period of Europe.
Perennial Stream - A stream or portion of a stream that flows continuously;
also known as a permanent stream.
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Period - A fundamental unit of geologic time, generally having a duration of
tens of millions of years, and characterized by certain major events in
Earth history. Eras are composed of periods of geologic time which, in
turn, are composed of epochs.
Permian Period - The last period of the Paleozoic Era which began 270
million years ago. It marked the end of the first Coal Age and the
demise of many ancient plant and animal groups.
Pestle - A stone grinding tool for pulverizing corn, seeds, nuts, or roots.
Most in West Virginia are cylindrical in shape, although rare bell-
shaped ones having a flared base may occur.
Petrified - Literally "made into rock;" plant or animal parts naturally
preserved (fossilized) in shape, volume, and minute cellular detail by
mineralization (chemical implacement of or replacement by mineral
matter).
Petrochemical Feedstocks - Petroleum used as an industrial raw material to
manufacture goods such as chemicals, rather than as an energy source.
pH - A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a material, liquid, or solid.
pH is represented on a scale of 0 to 14 with 7 representing a leutral
^tate, 0 representing the most acid, and 14 the most alkaline.
Pick and Shovel - Primitive (unmechanized) mining practices which utilized
muscle power and animals.
Pillaring - The process of pulling pillars during the final working.
Pillars - Large rectangular columns of coal Which are left between rooms
during mining to support the roof and are pulled or removed during the
f inal working.
Plant Fossils - The remains or traces of Coal Age plants preserved in the
lock. These are most commonly thin carbon films (compressions) of
Iossil leaves found in the "slate" roof rock. Some are exquisitely
preserved; trunks, twigs, and seeds are also preserved, often in
sandstone.
Platfc rm Pipe - A pipe form having a bowl sitting upon a flat or curved
1 road base which extends beyond the bowl in both directions. This form
j i characteristic of the Hopewellian Cultures of the Ohio Valley, and
i ^frequently is found with well-wrought animal effigies carved around
t ie bowl.
Pleistocene - That epoch of the Quarternary Period which corresponds to the
Ice Age, excluding the Recent Epoch of geologic time, or that time
ibsequent to the Ice Age.
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Point Source - In air pollution, a stationary source of a large individual
emission, generally of an industrial nature. Also, a specific site
from which wastewater is discharged into a water body and which can be
located as to source, as with effluent, treated or otherwise, from a
municipal sewage system, outflow from an industrial plant, or runoff
from an animal feedlot.
Portals - Surface facilities for access to the main shafts of large,
well-established underground mines.
Post-Mold (hole) - The spot left in the ground where a post has once been
set, and then rotted away. The organic content discolors the soil in
the post-mold area, and this can be discerned by careful examination,
thus providing house outlines, stockade lines, etc.
Pott ry Sherd (Potsherd) - Any fragment of a pottery vessel; shard is more
commonly used in European archaeology. Through the analysis of pottery
sherds, archaeologists can learn much about prehistoric ceramic
cultures by means of the different styles of temper, form, and
decoration.
Power Shovels - Small to enormous earth-moving machines with two movable
booms, one with a "bucket" at its end. They may weigh thousands of
tons and be capable of moving hundreds of tons of overburden at a
single giant "bite."
Pre-Inspection - A preliminary survey and a field review by the Director or
his authorized agent of a pre-plan, and the proposed area to be
disturbed.
Pre-?lan - The total application submitted to the Director including the
application form, mining and reclamation plan, drainage plan, blasting
plan, planting plan, maps, drawings, data, cross sections, bonds and
other information as required.
Preparation Plants - Plants that crush, size, clean, and blend raw coal to
produce a product of desired purity, depending upon the market
specification. These plants also dispose of the "gob" and load the
coal for transportation.
Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) - Pollution standards that
have been set to protect air quality in regions that are already
cleaner than the National Ambient Air Quality Standards.
Prime Farmlands - Land defined by USDA-SCS based on soil quality, growing
season, and moisture supply needed to produce sustained high crop
yields using modern farm methods.
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Primitive Areas - Scenic and Wild areas in the National Forests that were
set aside and preserved from timber cutting, mineral operations, etc.
from 1930-39 by Act of Congress. These areas can be added to the
National Wilderness Preservation System established in 1964.
Producer Gas Water Gas (Blue Gas) - Low Btu gases produced by the reaction
of steam with coal or coke which are used as supplemental fuels by
industry and in the coal by-product industry.
Projectile Point - Any tip end of a missile which is buried. Most
frequently these are made of a rock such as flint, but some bone and
antler points are known, and even bamboo slivers have been used.
Archaeologists frequently refrain from calling a point either an arrow
or spear point, since it is difficult to determine type. Larger forms
are probably spear heads and smaller ones arrowheads, but this is not
always a reliable criterion. The bow and arrow probably was introduced
into West Virginia in Middle or Early Woodland times; prior to that
time, the spear and spear thrower were the principal weapons.
Prospecting - The use of excavating equipment in an area not covered by a
surface mining permit for the purpose of removing the overburden to
determine the location, quantity, or quality of a natural coal deposit
or to make feasibility studies, or for any other purpose.
Pulling - Gradual and systematic mining of the pillars during final working
which recovers the last minable coal and allows the roof to collapse
into the mined-out area.
Punching Machines - Now outdated mining machinery which used a mechanically
operated pick to undercut coal so it could be "shot down."
Pyrite - Strictly, a brassy-appearing, iron-sulfide mineral, sometimes
called "fool's gold." In coal terminology it also includes the
iron-sulfide mineral, marcasite, which is greenish-gray in color. Both
minerals have the composition FeS2-
Pyritic Sulfur - Sulfur that occurs in the iron-sulfide minerals, pyrite and
marcasite, in coal. It occurs with organic sulfur, the prime source of
sulfur in coal.
Quaternary - The last and current period of geologic time which began about
a million years ago. It is essentially a synonym for the Ice Age,
which marked the appearance of man.
Rank - An expression of the degree of metamorphism of coal. For West
Virginia coal, rank is essentially an expression of relative proportion
of fixed carbon. Rank increases during metamorphism as volatile matter
naturally is driven off in the coal-forming process. Hence, higher
rank reflects greater metamorphism.
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Recharge Capacity - The ability of the soils and the underlying materials to
allow precipitation to infiltrate and reach saturation zone.
Reclamation - The procedure of restoring surface-mined land more or less to
the original contour and establishing some sort of vegetative cover on
the recontoured land.
Recoverable Reserve - The best estimate of the total tonnage of the minable
reserve that will ultimately be recovered, generally in the range of
60% of the minable reserve. The remaining approximately 40% goes
unrecovered because of limitations in mining technology, geologic
conditions, subsidence, drilling of oil and gas wells, and other
factors.
"Red Dog" - The red to pinkish material (clinker) that results from the
burning of coal-mine refuse piles.
Reducing Agent - The reverse of an oxidizing agent. Coke serves to
chemically reduce iron ore (various oxides of iron), liberating the
metallic iron from oxygen in the ironmaking process.
Reference Area - Land units of varying size for the purpose of measuring
groundcover, productivity, and species diversity.
Reserves - Resources of known location, quantity, and quality which are
economically recoverable using available technology.
Resin Bolt - A relatively recent improvement of the conventional roof bolt.
Instead of relying upon physical anchoring of the bolt, synthetic resin
is injected into the bolt hole, and upon hardening it anchors the bolt
securely and bonds the roof rock, thus strengthening it.
Rib - The wall of i room, entry, or crosscut.
Rock Dusting - The practice of "dusting" finely ground limestone powder onto
the exposed coal (primarily the rib) in underground coal mines to allay
the danger of explosion. The rock dust adheres to the coal, and in the
case of some "shock" stirring up coal dust in the mine, a like amount
of rock dust also is stirred up, thus rendering the dust-air mixture
nonexplosive.
Rock Unit - Geologic units which, because of their unique rock type,
mineralogy, or fossil content are traceable or mappable over some
distance, and are readily distinguishable from units above or below.
Roof - Also called "top." It is the rock immediately above a coal seam
which is revealed in the course of deep mining and, hence, forms the
ceiling of rooms, entries, or crosscuts.
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Roof Bolting - The technique of supporting the roof in an underground mine
by drilling holes into the roof and then inserting long steel bolts up
to several feet in length.
Room and Pillar - The traditional method of deep mining for coal in the US
in which rooms are mined from the coal, leaving pillars to support the
roof. The pillars are removed in the final working.
Rooms - In the room and pillar method of mining, these are the large,
parallel, rectangular areas, separated by pillars, from which coal in
t.he panels has been mined.
Runoff - Streamflow unaffected by artificial diversions, storage, or other
works of man in or on the stream channels, or in the drainage basin or
watershed.
Scraptr - Any tool used for scraping purposes. These were usually made of
hipped flint. All cultures have use for scraping tools, but some
specialized types are restricted to certain cultures, with the end
scraper characteristic of Paleo-Indian, Armstrong, and Fort Ancient
Cultures.
Seam - A bed of coal or other valuable mineral of any thickness.
Secondary Burial - Burial of human remains after the flesh has decayed.
This may be a bundle burial, where most of the bones are gathered up
and deposited in a pit or mound; scattered bone fragments in mound
fill; or an urn burial, where the bones are placed in a pottery
vessel. Historically, on the Plains and among the Huron, this was
practiced by first exposing the body in a tree, then gathering up the
clean bones and depositing them in an ossuary. Among the Choctaw, a
special bone picking caste existed who cleaned the bones of the dead.
Sediment - Unconsolidated natural earth materials deposited chemically or
physically by water, wind, ice, or organisms.
Sediment Control Structure - A barrier, dam, ditch, excavation, or other
structure placed in a suitable location to form a silt or sediment
basin.
Sedimentary Rock - A rock formed by the gradual accumulation of sediment,
usually in successive layers or beds, over a long period of time.
Seed Ferns - Small to very large fernlike plants, some of which were trees
of the first Coal Age that bore naked seeds. Also called gymnosperms.
Scouring Rushes (Horsetails) - Small modern rushes of the genus Equisetum,
which are descendants of the once mighty sphernopsid group of the first
Coal Age.
GL-25
-------
Shaft Mine - One of the three types of underground mines constructed
vertically down to the coal seam, where the coal is deeply buried.
Shaman - A religious-medical practitioner found in many cultures and best
seen in and named from Siberian tribal groups. In the eastern United
States the shaman was one of the leading figures of any society until
the rise of the Mississippian Pattern. Their power usually was derived
from visions which bestowed upon them special gifts, but sometimes they
could inherit their power. Probably most burial mounds were erected
originally as monuments to a shaman.
"Shoot Down" - The use of explosives to fragment and dislodge coal from a
face that has been undercut.
Shot Holes - Holes drilled in rock or coal, in either deep or surface
mines, for the purpose of "loading" and "blasting" with explosives.
Sigillaria - The largest trees, with Lepidodendron, of the first Coal Age.
These differed from Lepidodendron basically in the configuration and
arrangement of the leaf cushions in more or less vertical rows.
Silta'.ion - The deposit of sediment to surface waters due to erosion, as a
esult of the activities of man.
Siltatzion Ponds - Ponds that are constructed to intercept silt-laden runoff
to prevent siltation of natural surface waters.
Site-Specific - Phenomena which occur under certain conditions at a
particular site but which would not necessarily occur at another site.
Sizable Quantity of Water - Accumulation of storm or any other water in
excess of 5,000 cubic feet not provided for in the pre-plan.
"Slate" - A misnomer for the gray to black siltstone or shale (sedimentary
rock) of the Coal Measures. The term mostly applies to the roof rock
of a coal seam, also called "draw slate" or "draw rock." It only
resembles the true slate used for roofing, which is a metamorphic
rock.
"Slate Dumps" - See Coal Refuse.
Slope Mine - One of the three types of underground mines. An inclined shaft
is constructed down to the coal seam, when the coal is of moderate
depth.
Slurry Pipeline - A pipeline that conveys a mixture of liquids and solids.
The primary application proposed is to move coal long distances (over
300 miles) in a water mixture.
GL-26
-------
Soapstone - A soft and carvable rock composed largely of talc plus
impurities. It was used by Late Archaic peoples to make stone vessels,
and by others for pipes and ornaments. It is found in various spots in
the Piedmont of eastern United States. Steatite is a special variety
of soapstone.
Solution Mining - The extraction of soluble minerals from subsurface strata
by injection of fluids, and the controlled removal of mineral-laden
solutions.
Southern Coalfield - The coalfield of southern West Virginia which lies
southeast of the hinge line. It is also called the Low-Sulfur
Coalfield. It contains 43 minable coal seams. Southern coals are
metallurgical-grade coals, low in sulfur and ash and high in heating
value.
Spoil Pile Spoil Bank - The accumulations of excavated overburden in an
active or "orphaned" strip mine.
Spr res - Tiny, single-celled reproductive bodies, similar to pollen grains,
by means of which most coal swamp plants of the first Coal Age
reproduced.
St ible Air - An air mass that remains in the same position rather than
moving in its normal horizontal and vertical directions. Stable air
does not dispense pollutants and can lead to air pollution.
Stack - A smokestack.
Sta ik Gas - The mixture of gases expelled by the giant smokestacks of our
power plants.
Sta -k Scrubber - An air pollution control device that usually uses a liquid
spray to remove pollutants such as sulfur dioxide or particulates from
a gas stream by absorption or chemical reaction. They are also used to
reduce the temperatures of emissions.
Stationary Source - A pollution emitter that is fixed rather than moving.
Steam Coal - Coal suitable for combustion in boilers. It is generally soft
enough for easy grounding and less expensive than metallurgical coal jr
anthracite.
Steatite - See Soapstone.
GL-27
-------
Stockade - A high fence or palisade surrounding a fort or village.
Stockades were constructed by placing vertical poles in the ground
either side by side or some distance apart, and then filling the spaces
with brush, wickerwork, or "wattle and daub." Most Late Prehistoric
sites are stockaded villages, indicating much warfare.
Stormwater - Any water flowing over or through the surface of the ground
caused by precipitation; generally surface runoff.
Strip Bench or "Bench" - The floor of an active contour mine; also the
naan-made terrace left after reclamation of some contour-mining jobs.
Strip Mining - Almost exclusively refers to the surface mining of coal. Two
basic methods are area mining and contour mining.
Strip Pit - The excavation between the high-wall and spoil bank of an active
or "orphaned" strip mine.
Stripping Ratio - The amount of overburden removed for every ton of ore
obtained.
Subbituminous - The lowest rank category of bituminous coal which is just
above lignite in rank.
"Sub-tlains" - Multiple entries driven, generally at right angles, from the
"mains."
Subsidence - The gradual or abrupt collapse of the overburden over a coal
mine (active or abandoned) which affects the surface.
Sulfate Sulfur - Sulfur that occurs as calcium sulfate (CaSC>4) in coal and
is a minor source of sulfur.
Sulfur - Sulfur occurs in coal in three forms: pyritic and organic sulfur
which are by far the dominant sulfur forms, and sulfate sulfur, which
is relatively unimportant.
"Sulfur Balls" - Small to sometimes very large spheroidal, elliptical, or
irregular masses, or beds, of pyrite in coal.
Sulfur Dioxide - A poisonous gas having the composition S02« It is
produced as an air pollutant when coal containing sulfur is burned.
Surface Effect of Underground Mining Operation - Surface mining operations
where lands are disturbed including but not limited to roads, drainage
systems, mine entry excavation, above ground work areas such as
tipples, coal processing facilities, and other operating facilities;
also, waste work and spoil disposal areas and mine waste impoundments
or embankments which are incident to mine openings or reopenings.
GL-28
-------
Surface Mining - The mining of coal, rock, or minerals from surface
excavations.
Sustained Yield - In the case of groundwater aquifers, the quantity of water
which can be withdrawn annually without, over a period of years,
depleting the available supply.
Swamr Forests - The vast swamps of the Coal Ages that were flooded forests
rather than marshes or boggy areas.
"Swamp Gas" - See Methane.
Swi'i.; Fuel - A fuel that plays a key role during the transition from
exhaustible to inexhaustible fuels. Coal is viewed by many as the
swing fuel during the transition.
System - The rocks (collective) laid down and preserved during a period of
geologic time.
Tempering - A grog or binder used in pottery clay to minimize cracking as
the result of expansion when the pot is fired. Various crushed
materials are used for temper. In West Virginia, crushed granitic
rock, limestone, flint, other rock, clay particles, and shell are
found. Elsewhere, hair, bone, and grass also have been used.
Temple Mound - A mound of earth in the eastern United States erected to
serve as the base for a temple of the house of an important person in
the society. These were frequently added to, and were built up by
layers, with a new building erected with each new addition. The idea
probably stems from the stone pyramids of Middle America, as these also
were used as the bases for temples.
Tertiary Period - The first of two Cenozoic Periods that began 66 million
years ago. It included the latter part of the second Coal Age and saw
the establishment of essentially all modern plant and animal groups.
Threatened Species - Any species or subspecies of wildlife which is not in
immediate jeopardy of extinction, but is vulnerable because it exists
in such small numbers or is so extremely restricted throughout all or >
significant portion of its range that it may become endangered.
Timbrring - Setting of mine props to support the roof over entries and
elsewhere in the mine. Now they are largely replaced by roof bolting.
Ton Mile - Movement of 1 ton of material for a distance of 1 mile.
Toxic Forming Materials - Earth materials or wastes. When acted upon by
air, water weathering; or microbiological processes, they are likely to
produce chemical or physical conditions in soils, air, or water that
are detrimental to the environment.
GL-29
-------
Toxic Mine Drainage - Water that is discharged from active, abandoned, and
other areas affected by surface mining operations which contains a
substance which, through chemical action or physical effects, is likely
to kill, injure, or impair biota commonly present in the area that
night be exposed to it.
Transportation Sector - Includes five subsectors: 1) automobiles;
2) service trucks; 3) truck/bus/rail freight; 4) air transport; and
5) ship/barge/pipeline.
Tree "ems - Huge ferns common in the first Coal Age with trunks perhaps 10
co 20 feet high bearing huge fronds (leaves) as long or longer than the
trunks.
Tubul ir Pipe - An artifact type characteristic of Adena, usually made of
Ohio pipestone (fire clay) and consisting of a straight tube, bored out
except for a "blocked end" which has only a small perforation. These
may or may not be tobacco pipes, because they also might be tools in
the Shaman's kit.
Underclay Fireclay - The bed of clay that underlies most coal seams which
served as the soil for the earliest plants of each coal swamp. It is
called fireclay because the material is sometimes pure enough to be
"fired" to make brick, tile, or other ceramic products.
Unde :ut - The technique of undercutting a coal seam at its base so that it
can be "cut" down by hand or "shot down" using explosives.
Unit Train - A system for delivering coal in which a string of cars with
distinctive markings and loaded to capacity is operated without service
frills or stops along the way for cars to be cut in and out.
Vail y or Head-of-Hollow Fills - A controlled earth and rock fill across or
through the head of a valley or hollow to form a stable, permanent
storage space for excess surface mine overburden.
Vent lated - A mine is continually flushed with fresh air to carry away
.oisonous, flammable, or explosive gases and coal dust, and to supply
fresh air for breathing. This is accomplished by means of powerful
fins which draw mine air out of the mines and draw fresh air into and
through the entire mine.
Volatile Matter - The compounds in a given coal that can be driven off by
ombustion in the absence of oxygen (see Carbonization). These come
j£f as tars, oils, and gases.
VolatLles - Gases such as methane, hydrogen, and ammonia given off in the
coal-forming process as the mass is progressively altered chemically
ind physically. It is also a collective term for the gases, tars, and
oils given off in the coke-making or carbonization process.
GL-30
-------
WAPORA - WAPORA, Inc., the environmental consulting firm hired by EPA Region
III to assist in the preparation of the SID and EA/FONSI.
Wate Has - See Producer Gas.
Watershed - A geographic area which drains into a particular water body (see
Drainage Basin).
Water Table - The upper level of an underground water body.
Wattle and Daub - A type of house construction found over much of the world
in wanner climates. Vertical poles were inserted into the ground, mats
hung over these poles, and then mud daubbed over the mats and allowed
to dry in the sun. Usually a thatched roof is used with this house
type. In eastern United States, wattle and daub houses became popular
in the southeastern States in Late Prehistoric times; they made an
appearance in West Virginia in the Fort Ancient Culture. Archaeologic-
al evidence for such houses usually is in the form of post-mold
patterns, fire-hardened mud daub, with mat impressions, and rare finds
of burnt thatch.
Western Coal - Can refer to all coal reserves west of the Mississippi. By
US Bureau of Mines definition it includes only those coalfields west of
a straight line dissecting Minnesota and running to the western tip of
Texas. Wyoming, Montana, and North Dakota have the largest reserves.
Wet Seals - One of two types of mine seals in which a drainpipe permits
restricted flow of water from a sealed mine.
Wood and Pattern - A generalized cultural pattern applied to those cultures
occupying the Woodlands of eastern United States and being semi-
sedentary, and semi- or non-agricultural. This is opposed to the
Mississippian Pattern which is agricultural and sedentary. All of the
Cultures in West Virginia, save Fort Ancient, Monongahela, and Paleo-
Indian can be considered Woodland Cultues.
"Yellow Boy" - The red, yellow, or orange coating on stream beds where acid
mine drainage flows or has flowed. It consists primarily of iron
oxides and hydroxides.
GL-31
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METRIC CONVERSIONS
Sym
m
in
yd
mi
g
kg
t
oz
Ib
sh tn
ml
1
oz
qt
N
Ib
kPa
psi
METRIC CONVERSION TABLE
When you know: You can find:
millimeters
meters
kilometers
inches
yards
miles3
grams
kilograms
tons"
ounces
pounds
short tons0
milliliters
liters (1 dm3;
ounces"
quarts'*
newton
pound
kilopascal
pound/in
Length
inches
yards
miles3
millimeters
meters
kilometers
Mass
ounces
pounds
short tonsc
grams
kilograms
tons6
Liquid Measure
ounces
quarts
milliliters
liters
Force
pound
newton
Pressure or Stress
2
pound/ in
kilopascal
If you
Syra multiply by:
in
yd
mi
UUli
m
km
oz
Ib
sh tn
g
kg
t
oz
qt
ml
1
Ib
N
psi
kPa
0.039 370
1.093 6
0.621 39
25.400
0.914 40
1.609 3
0.035 273
2.204 6
1.102 3
28.350
0.453 59
0.907 18
0.033 813
1.056 7
29.574
0.946 35
0.224 81
4.448 2
0.145 04
6.894 8
a'JS Statute b!000 kg C2000 Ib dUS
METRIC PREFIXES
Fac-
tor
1012
IO9
106
io3
102
io-1
io-2
io-3
io-6
10-9
10~15
10-18
Prefix
tera
gi'ga
mega
kilo
hecto
deka
deci
centi
milli
micro
nano
pico
femto
atto
Sym
T
G
M
k
h
da
d
c
in
n
P
f
a
Examples :
1 km - IO3 m
= 1000 m
1 mm =10 m
- 0.001 m
Temperature
Celsius - °C °C - 5/9 (°F-32)
kelvin - K K = °C + 273.15
Fahrenheit - °F °F = 9/5 (°C) + 32
Water Body Water
freezes temp boils
"C -40 -20 0 20 37 60 80 100
1 1 '1
1 | III |
°F -40 0 32 80 98.6 180 212
GL-32
-------
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.6 September 1980
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BB-1
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Ahnell, G. 1977. The effect of Pittsburgh coal mining on ground-water
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BB-2
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BB-3
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Ammons, Nellie P. 1937. A manual of the liverworts of West Virginia.
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analog and digital techniques applied to strip mining in Maryland and
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BB-4
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Anonymous. Undated(c). Pleasants Power Station, Units 1 and 2:
Environmental report. Variously paged.
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Anonymous. 1966. Subsidence Engineer's Handbook, National Coal Board,
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Anonymous. 1968? West Virginia D-J Project F-ll-R-7, Job No. 6: Tailwater
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Anonymous. 1971b. Agency accuses Koppers of polluting Ohio River from West
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history. Ohio State Law Journal 32(1):58-107.
Anonymous. 1971d. Along the Ohio: A test of will. Chemical Week
108(6):47-78.
Anonymous. 1974a. Consolidated Coal growing grass on high acid refuse.
Canadian Mining Journal 95(9):14.
Anonymous. 1974b. Reclamation factors to keep in mine when planning a
surface mine operation. Coal Age 79:87.
Anonymous. 1974c. Native hardwoods part of experimental seeding. Green
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Harpers Ferry. WV Geol. Survey Newsletter 19:55.
Anonymous. 1975b. Long-term coal investigation defines aims and
objectives. WV Geol. Survey Newsletter 19:12.
Anonymous. 1975c. New plaster hydrosprayed onto coal refuse smothers fires
or aids revegetation. oal Age, Vol. 80.
Anonymous. 1975d. Technological innovations abound in coal mountains of
Appalachia. Coal Age, Vol. 80.
Anonymous. 1976a. Coal resources and pollution-potential study supplies
information on coal and coal mining. WV Geol. Survey Newsletter
20:14-15.
Anonymous. 1976b. Debris avalanches in part of the Valley and Ridge
Province of West Virginia. WV Geol Survey Newsletter 20:55.
BB-5
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Anonymous. 1976c. Study measures surface mining. Green Lands 6(2):46-48.
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Anonymous. 1980. Agency expands WV coal mining studies. EPA Alert:
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West Virginia Department of Natural Resources, Div. of Water Resources.
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Annual interagency evaluation of surface mine reclamation in West
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Reclamation. 1977.
Annual interagency evaluation of surface mine reclamation in West
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Thirteenth annual interagency evaluation of surface mine reclamation in
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Reclamation. 1979. 14th
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Reclamation. 1980.
Fourteenth annual interagency evaluation tour of surface mine
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West Virginia trout fishing guide. Charleston, 24p.
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Directory of regional planning and development councils. Charleston,
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West Virginia Governor's Office of Economic & Community Development. 1979b.
The status of planning in West Virginia counties and municipalities.
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West Virginia Governor's Office of Economic & Community Development. 1979c.
West Virginia State development plan. Charleston, 269p.
West Virginia Governor's Office of Economic & Community Development. 1979d.
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West Virginia Region 1 Planning & Development Council. 1978. Regional
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West Virginia Region 3 Intergovernmental Council. 1977b. Regional 3 clean
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West Virginia Research League, Inc. 1978. A comparison of state tax
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West Virginia University, Bureau of Business Research. 1978. West Virginia
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